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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on education in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on education in Costa Rica

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON EDUCATION IN COSTA RICA
by
Megan Burton
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my brother Peter. He has taught me through many
life lessons that nothing is earned or deserved without hard work and perseverance. I
have always looked up to him in good times and in bad and admired his strength, cour-
age, and loyalty. Not a day goes by that I do not think of him, and I know that he is
looking down with pride as I complete this doctorate. In his own silent ways, I know
that he was and always will be my biggest fan, and I know that he will forever watch
over my family and me and protect us in any way he can. I raise a toast to him and in his
honor say these words:
Never lose my wallet, it would put me in a spot.
Never lose my sense, at least the sense I’ve got.
Never lose my family, never lose my friends.
Never lose my youth, I hope it never ends.
Never lose my courage, never lose my hope.
Hope I never lose my wallet. (“Hope I,” 2014, para. 1)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
The past 3 years have been life changing, to say the least. I feel truly blessed to
be where I am today and could not have done this without the help of others.
First, I would like to thank my husband for supporting me throughout this
journey. Completing a doctorate is stressful enough, but we also welcomed two of our
three wonderful children into the world during the program and experienced the loss of
my brother. With each pregnancy and new addition to our family, with each hardship
and tragedy faced, there was never a time when his support wavered. Taking a break
from this program was not an option, and I love him for that.
I would also like to acknowledge my three amazing children: Talisin, Greyson,
and McKinley. They have provided me with such inspiration and hope that they will not
understand until they are much older. In moments of despair and doubt, I was able to
persevere knowing that they were there to encourage and believe in me in their own
special ways.
I would like to thank my parents, who have always encouraged me in whatever
endeavor I chose. They let me spread my wings when I was younger and somehow
always knew that I would land on my feet. Their ability to let me be independent has
shaped me into who I am today, and for that I am grateful.
I would also like to acknowledge my grandmother who is probably by far my
biggest fan. Her support throughout this program is sometimes just what I needed on
my 2-hour drive up to Los Angeles. I know just how proud she is of me earning my
doctorate, and that makes it all the more meaningful to me.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
To all my friends, those close and far: Without them my sanity would not be
intact. They are my family and have all helped me through this program in one way or
another. As someone once said, “I believe that friends are quiet angels who sit on our
shoulders and lift our wings when we forget how to fly” (A Walk, 2014, para. 1). I thank
them for their unconditional love and support; I feel truly blessed to have them in my
life.
What an amazing journey this has been with my cohort. Our bond, strengthened
through travel—whether journeying on Interstate 5 or flying to Costa Rica, whether
reflecting at McKay’s or Waite Phillips Hall—has played a large part in my success. I
thank them for all their support and encouragement. It will never be forgotten.
I thank Dr. Escalante for his understanding throughout this program and guid-
ance through the dissertation process. My entire journey through this program was far
from textbook, and I am truly grateful for his unwavering support and kindness. His
reminders to put family first mean more than he probably realizes, and I will make
certain to pay it forward.
I would also like to thank Dr. Garcia for his understanding throughout this
program. He never questioned my determination to succeed and allowed me to keep my
priorities in focus while fulfilling my requirements. Thanks also to my other committee
members, Dr. Britz and Dr. Cash, for their feedback and insight.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
Background of the Study 12
Globalization 12
Costa Rican Education System 12
MNCs 13
Twenty-First-Century Skills 14
Leadership 15
Statement of the Problem 16
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 17
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations 18
Delimitations 19
Assumptions 19
Definitions of Related Terms 19
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Globalization 23
History of Costa Rica 29
Government 29
Economy 32
Education 36
MNCs in Costa Rica 41
Twenty-First-Century Skills 50
Leadership 56
Marzano 57
Bolman and Deal 60
Summary of Literature Review 63
Chapter 3: Methodology 65
Frameworks 66
Research Design 68
Research Team 69
Exploratory Trip 70
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Sample and Population 71
Instruments 72
Interviews 73
Surveys 73
Observations 74
Data Collection 74
Data Analysis 76
Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability 77
Ethical Considerations 78
Summary 78
Chapter 4: Results 80
Participants 81
Interviewed Participants 83
Findings for Research Question1 85
Knowledge-Ready Worker 85
Positive Partnership With Intel 90
Results Summary for Research Question 1 95
Findings for Research Question 2 96
Accessing and Analyzing Information 96
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving 100
Effective Oral and Written Communication 104
Results Summary for Research Question 2 107
Findings for Research Question 3 108
Focus on Social Responsibility 109
Focus on Instructional Leadership and School Autonomy 113
Results Summary for Research Question 3 118
Summary 118
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 121
Summary of Findings 123
Research Question 1 124
Research Question 2 125
Research Question 3 126
Implications for Practice 128
Recommendations for Future Research 129
Conclusion 131
References 132
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 144
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 146
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Appendix C: School Leader Interview Protocol 147
Appendix D: MNC Leader Interview Protocol 150
Appendix E: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 153
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Teachers 156
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Tool 159
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Invited Study Participants and Those Who Actually
Participated 82
Table 2: Survey Data Regarding Knowledge-Ready Workers 88
Table 3: Survey Data Regarding Impact of Intel at School Sites 92
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
List of Figures
Figure 1: Educational attainment in tertiary education in Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries as a
percentage of adults 18%22 48
Figure 2: Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model 60
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Abstract
Globalization and the development and expansion of multinational corporations
(MNCs) have impacted several entities of livelihood in Costa Rica. Education, specifi-
cally, has been impacted in terms of leadership, curriculum, 21st-century skill imple-
mentation, and job training. The purpose of this study was to understand what impact
globalization and MNCs, specifically Intel, have had on educational leadership and the
development of 21st-century skills in schools in Costa Rica. This study also identified
what role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of policy
changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, this study determined
whether these initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in
Costa Rica.
The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys
revealed that Costa Rica is focused on producing knowledge-ready workers. By part-
nering with Intel, the country has been better prepared to provide that opportunity for
many Costa Rican students. Schools in Costa Rica that are partnered with Intel are
integrating 21st-century skills into their curricula and focusing on technology in order to
best prepare their students for the global work force. School site leaders are utilizing
methods of instructional leadership to encourage their teachers and students to embrace
this change in the focus of education.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
Chapter 1
Introduction
Globalization and multinational corporations (MNCs) have changed the way
business and education are conducted around the world (Stromquist & Monkman,
2000). As the world becomes more interconnected with the ease of accessibility to
information and advancements in technology, the workforce must be adequately pre-
pared to respond to the demands of the ever-changing global market. As the phenome-
non of globalization expands around the globe, so does its capitalist counterpart: MNCs.
With foreign direct investment (FDI) playing a role in developing nations, it is clear that
the alignment of preparedness of human capital as well as advances in technology
provide the structure from which a nation’s economic potential can derive (Mughal &
Vechiu, 2009).
In order to be prepared, nations must supply their human capital with the re-
sources and skills necessary to generate success in the marketplace, which currently
centers on a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Two of the main skills neces-
sary are proficiencies in technology and English (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). Since the
1980s, Costa Rica has worked with MNCs and political and education leaders to address
the necessary changes that have to be made to better prepare students for the global
market that is focused on a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008; State of Nation
Program, 2011).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
Background of the Study
Globalization
Globalization, a term first coined by Theodore Levitt, describes the changes in
global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment (Stromquist,
2002). This term has been attributed not only to the fiscal aspects of a nation but also to
the political, cultural, and educational phenomena that impact a nation (Spring, 2008).
Globalization has changed the way that nations prepare their human capital as well as
creates increased competition among viable players in the global market (Hitts, Keats, &
DeMarie, 1998). Nations have become much more interdependent on one another in
terms of exports as well as imports. The sense of competition has greatly impacted the
need to develop strong education systems that properly prepare students to become suc-
cessful participants in the global market. The demands of globalization have led the
global market to create common educational practices and policies based on global dis-
cussions regarding technology, human capital, lifelong learning, and the global migra-
tion of workers, thereby resulting in a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Ac-
cording to Tsui and Tollefson (2007), in order to attain success in the global market, one
must attain global literacy skills, defined as proficiencies in technology and English.
Costa Rica Education System
As a result of the Constitution of 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first
countries to make education compulsory and free. Currently, Costa Rica allocates at
least 6% of the country’s GDP from its annual budget to educational programs (CINDE,
2011). According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Organization Institute for Statistics (UNESCO; 2009), the literacy rate in 2009 was
96.06%.
Costa Rica’s school system is broken into five cycles. Cycle I encompasses
Grades 1–4. Cycle II includes Grade 5 and 6; Cycle III includes Grades 7–9; and Cycle
IV, Grades 10–12. Higher education is divided into two opportunities, academic or
technical schools. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 90% of
age-eligible students. In that same year, secondary school enrollment was about 53% of
age-eligible students (Encyclopedia.com, 2007). Often postelementary students do not
continue to pursue higher education because they need to obtain employment to help
support their families. Females often leave school to stay home and take care of youn-
ger siblings while parents work outside of the home (Castro, 2010).
The Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública [MEP],
2007) has recognized the need to help students fulfill their secondary education needs
and continue on to higher education in order to become prepared workers who are ready
for the global market. As outlined in the Action Plan for the Education of All, the MEP
(2007) is focusing on making valid the right to education for all inhabitants of Costa
Rica. This program specifically seeks to improve the integration of technology in the
classroom and to improve access to information for all students. There is also a focus
placed on lifelong learning and critical thinking skills.
MNCs
Costa Rica has become an active participant in the global market and has experi-
enced interplay with many MNCs as a result (Jensen, 2003). The need for developed
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
human capital, ready to respond to the demands of the global market, has been well
established as Costa Rica has partnered with more than 200 MNCs, all of which draw
workers in some capacity from Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013). In order for Costa Rica to
prepare its human capital for the developing global market they must focus their educa-
tion system on developing proficiencies in technology and English as well as the 21st
Century Skills (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Costa Rica has established
policy to guide its curriculum standards toward embracing and teaching the 21st-century
skills (MEP, 2007). With the abundance of FDIs allocated to the Costa Rican education
system, it is of utmost importance that these funds be utilized effectively to produce a
knowledge-ready worker who is able to succeed as they enter the global market.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Proficiencies in technology and English alone will not guarantee the prepared-
ness of a worker. Students, who comprise the future human capital, must be able to
utilize 21st-century skills to be successful in the global market. These survival skills,
according to Wagner (2008) are as follows: (a) “critical thinking and problem solving”
(p. 14), (b) “collaborations across networks and leading by influence” (p. 22), (c)
“agility and adaptability” (p. 30), (d) “initiative and entrepreneurialism” (p. 32), (e) “ef-
fective oral and written communication” p. 36), (f) “accessing and analyzing informa-
tion” (p. 38). and (g) “curiosity and imagination” (p. 38). These necessary skills have
developed in response to three transformations that have occurred over a relatively short
period of time: (a) “the rapid evolution of the new global ‘knowledge economy’”; (b)
“the sudden and dramatic shift from a world characterized by a limited amount and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
availability of information to a world of all access and abundance”; and (c) “the pro-
found impact the media and technology has had on how young people learn, relate to the
world, and to each other” (Wagner, 2008, p. xxvi).
Currently, Costa Rica’s Aims and Objective of the 21st Century (MEP, 2007)
focuses on many of these 21st-century skills.
Leadership
Research has shown that leadership is an important tool in creating an effective
learning environment for student success, especially during times of change and devel-
opment (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). Bolman and Deal (2008) outlined a
framework to identify four perspectives of leaders: structural, human resources, politi-
cal, and symbolic. Research has found that often a multiframed perspective, encom-
passing several if not all of the aforementioned perspectives, is most effective in attack-
ing problems and creating solutions (Bensimon, 1989; Dunford & Palmer, 1995; Fidler,
1997). In order for the 21st-century skills to be implemented into the current education
system in Costa Rica, thereby creating a stronger potential workforce for the global
market, leaders must be effectively communicating and implementing these goals to
teachers and students.
Currently, there is little evidence to measure the implementation and effective-
ness of the funds received from schools by MNCs. Evidence of how these funds have
impacted educational leadership and the implementation of 21st-century learning is
absent from the literature.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (Gindling & Berry, 1992). Due to a developed education
system and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented
to attract high-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market (Rodríquez-Clare,
2001). The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction
and opportunity to this small Central American country (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). As
more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility to
help students develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become in-
creasingly more challenging. Despite having five national universities, 51 private uni-
versities, and a 96.06% literacy rate for its population, there remains a low secondary
graduation rate and a high dropout rate for secondary education and higher education
(UNESCO, 2009). As a result, there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are
prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study identified what role school leaders
have played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major
national education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initia-
tives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system
than builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated in this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Significance of the Study
Currently, there is an abundance of research regarding globalization and MNCs’
impact on socioeconomic status, fiscal implications, and communication; however,
there is a lack of evidence pertaining to the aforementioned phenomena on education.
There is little to no evidence regarding how globalization and MNCs have impacted the
education system in Costa Rica, specifically through changes in education leadership
and/or implementation of 21st-century skills.
This study found evidence to support specific strategies that proved effective in
the implementation of resources to promote 21st-century skill learning and educational -
leadership. Utilizing frameworks that identify specific skills while triangulating the
data, the researchers discovered the most effective methods of implementation of 21st-
century skills in Costa Rican schools. From this research, MNCs, school leaders, and
policymakers should be better able to align funding with effective methods to create a
system more capable of producing students who are globally literate and ready for the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
knowledge-based global economy. This type of guidance should help leaders utilize the
FDI allocated to education in Costa Rica to its maximum potential.
In addition to providing an outline of how to generate effective 21st-century
skills, the study’s findings provide guidance as to how leaders can most effectively lead
schools to develop 21st-century learning among its students. These leadership skills
could encompass leadership strategies and perspectives as well as guidance with respect
to how to allocate resources most effectively. These two major findings are beneficial
for all stakeholders, including policymakers, MNCs, education leaders, and—most
importantly—the students of Costa Rica.
Limitations
The time allocated to conduct research in Costa Rica is beyond the control of
this study’s researchers. The 5-day allotment of time toward conducting research with
the participants is a clear limitation to the study. The 4-day exploratory trip helped to
create and develop contacts with the participants; however, this, too, was limited by
time. Working only with schools partnered with Intel limited the amount of data that
were collected as well as the diversity of the sample population. Also, the validity of
the interviews and surveys was limited to the responding participants and the reliability
of the instruments. In addition, the researchers had to be aware of any bias that may
have occurred during the study, as implications from the findings impact various finan-
cial and dependent relationships.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
Delimitations
A collaborative decision was made regarding the boundaries of the study that
limited the MNCs researched to include only Intel. This boundary eliminated research-
ing perspectives and impacts of other MNCs in Costa Rica. In addition the study
focused solely on schools and school site leaders who have received technological
resources from Intel, thereby not including the perspective of schools that have not
received resources and funding from MNCs—Intel specifically.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made about the study:
1. That the Intel schools would provide accurate information;
2. That truthful responses would be provided by responding participants as they
complete the surveys and interview questions;
3. That during the observations, the classroom would not be orchestrated to
present a fictitious image of 21st-century skill implementation; and
4. That 21st-century skills help prepare students for the global marketplace.
Definitions of Related Terms
FDI: This term refers to investment by a company in a country other than the
place where the company is based.
Globalization: This term refers to changes in economics that affect production,
consumption, and investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s
population. It has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, including
education (Spring 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
Knowledge age: The 21st-century Knowledge Age is seen as a tipping point,
equivalent in effect to the Age of Discovery, the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution,
and the internal combustion engine (Snape, 2012).
Knowledge-based economy: This term refers to the use of knowledge technolo-
gies such as knowledge engineering and knowledge management to produce economic
benefits as well as job creation (Machlup, 1973).
MNC: A MNC or multinational enterprise is “a corporation that is registered in
more than one country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large
corporation which both produces and sells goods or services in various countries”
(Wikipedia, 2013, para. 1).
21st-century skills: These skills are “a blend of content knowledge, specific
skills, expertise, and literacies” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, 21st Century
Student Outcomes section, para. 1).
Organization of the Study
The full study consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the
study: an introduction; a background to the problem; the problem statement; the purpose
of the study; research questions; significance of the study; limitations, delimitations, and
assumptions for the study; and a definition of terms.
Chapter 2 details a review of the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs,
21st-century skills, and leadership. This chapter also details a historical review of Costa
Rica encompassing its development as a nation, including economic, political, and
educational growth over time. In addition, the education system in Costa Rica is de-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
scribed at depth to give breadth to the details of the current system, its policies, infra-
structure, and the makeup of the student body.
Chapter 3 presents the research methodology used in this study and deals with
why a multimethod qualitative approach is appropriate for this study. Also included are
an explanation of the sample and population as well as the instrumentation used in the
study. Chapter 3 also describes how the research will be collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 offers insight into the findings of the study, including a detailed
description organized by the research questions. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the
study to include a conclusion and the possible implications for practice. Also included
are suggestions for future research opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
In response to the ever-growing international market and the effects that global-
ization has on many countries involved in international business, it is important for
involved countries to focus energy on examining how these changes have affected and
continue to affect the livelihood of their people (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). Costa
Rica has become an active participant in the global market and has experienced inter-
play with many MNCs (Jensen, 2003). As a result of the emergence of MNCs in Costa
Rica, the requirements of the labor force have changed, thus impacting the demand on
the education system to produce knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to partici-
pate in the new labor market. The scope of this review was to explore globalization and
the effects on Costa Rica’s society, with strong focus on the resulting changes to educa-
tion, specifically the school leaders and the concept of 21st-century skills.
This literature review explores six key areas pertaining to the history of Costa
Rica and its evolution over the course of the globalization process. The first section,
Globalization, will define globalization, provide discussion on the four major theoretical
perspectives of globalization (Spring, 2008), examine the impact that globalization has
had on education, and highlight the relevance of the language of commerce (Spring,
2008). The second section highlights the development of Costa Rica and government,
with an early emphasis on education and changing economy. The third section provides
insight on the education system in Costa Rica, including a close look at the MEP, the
decision-making process within the education system, the allocation of resources, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
reform efforts and conflicts that have arises within the system. The fourth section
establishes which companies have invested in Costa Rica and the impact that these
companies have had on Costa Rica’s economy as well as the education system. The
fifth section is an overview of 21st-century skills and provides definition as well as
details regarding the framework titled Framework for 21st Century Learning (Partner-
ship for 21st Century Skills, 2012). The final section, Leadership, explores the opera-
tional framework of Bolman and Deal (2008) and applies their four-frame model to the
current leadership practices within the Costa Rican education system. The framework
of Marzano et al. (2005) regarding 21 Responsibilities of Leaders is also examined to
provide for a multidimensional analysis of school leadership.
Globalization
This section provides the definition of globalization that is used throughout this
research study. The four major perspectives identified by Spring (2008) will also be
presented. Once these two aspects are developed, the literature review details how
globalization has impacted education and encouraged a language of commerce among
participating nations.
Theodore Levitt was credited with coining the term globalization in 1985 to
explain changes in global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment
(Stromquist, 2002). An abundance of technological advancements have occurred since
1985 that have caused these global interrelationships to grow exponentially, ever more
impacting the definition of globalization (Bradley, Hausman, & Nolan, 1993;
Hrynyshyn, 2002). Globalization no longer pertains to just businesses, but now
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
branches out to include an impact on education and the educating of students as they
embrace the changing workforce (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). The Asia Society’s
(2008) handbook, Going Global: Preparing Our Students for an Interconnected World,
defines globalization as requiring individuals “to have sensitivity to foreign cultures, be
fluent in a foreign language, understand international trade, be technologically savvy,
have the ability to manage complex work in international teams and most importantly,
possess a strong ethical core” (p. 5). For the purposes of this study, this definition
provided by the Asia Society was used because it addresses the aspects that the dis-
sertation research cohort is seeking to explore, including a focus on technology and
developing a language of commerce while being mindful of the role that culture holds
within the process of globalization.
In response to globalization, the global market has been impacted, thereby
leading to a change in the way that human capital is produced. National economies
have changed from isolated systems to intertwined, complex organisms, dependent on
the workings of other equally multifaceted nations (Nathan Associates, 2003; Spring,
2008; Stromquist, 2002). Due to this influx of interdependency, globalization has led to
increased competition among viable players in the global market (Hitts et al., 1998).
Such competition has required nations to look at their academic institutions to ensure
that they are preparing their students in a fashion that will produce a workforce ready for
success in the global market. As societies prepare their students to take on the chal-
lenges of becoming knowledge-ready workers, they cannot help but respond to the
demands that globalization has created. These demands have led the global market to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
create common educational practices and policies based on global discussions regarding
technology, human capital, lifelong learning, and the global migration of workers, thus
resulting in a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Technology has become a
central theme for the knowledge-based economy because not only is it the mode of
communication and creation but it also transfers knowledge and enables individuals to
achieve success, as defined by financial rewards (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010;
Spring, 2008). According to The World Bank (2003), “a knowledge based economy
relies primarily on the use of ideas rather than physical abilities and on the application
of technology. . . . Equipping people to deal with these demands requires a new model
of education and training” (p. xvii). In order for nations to be successful in the global
market, they must adapt to these changing demands for a technology-savvy workforce.
To prepare the workforce to embrace the advancements in technology, it is
important to understand not only what the advancements are but also how they have
impacted the global market. The advances in technology over the past 3 centuries have
been occurring at a rapid rate, with a major impact on the way work is organized and
conducted (Hitts et al., 1998). The result of these advances is a transition to a
knowledge-based economy. Consequently, information technology (IT), including
technologies associated with communications, computer hardware and related peripher-
als, and computer software, have all experienced major change (Karoly & Panis, 2004).
These changes have altered the way in which the global market does business, including
how items and services are produced as well as how participants in global market com-
municate with one another in business. Understanding these technological advances
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
and having experience with them are imperative to becoming a viable global market
workforce contender. The language that accompanies the international technology
expansion not only embodies a lexicon depicting a vast array of technological jargon but
also has furthered the expansion of English as the international language of business.
According to Tsui and Tollefson (2007), “globalization is affected by two inseparable
meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these tools have been
referred to as global literacy skills” (p. 1). The attainment of these global literacy skills
allows a workforce to have the necessary skills to compete globally.
Due to the need for a knowledge-ready workforce, globalization has also im-
pacted education. There are four major interpretations of the process of educational
globalization: the world culture view, the world systems approach, a postcolonial anal-
ysis, and a culturalist approach (Spring, 2008). According to Spring (2008), the world
culture view is based on the premise that contains Western ideals of mass schooling,
centered on the idea that schooling is based on a belief that all children have the right to
an education and that education is of utmost importance in maintaining economic and
democratic rights. The world systems approach sees the world as integrated but as
having two major unequal parts, (a) the United States and (b) the European Union and
Japan comprising the powerful half. A postcolonial analysis views globalization as an
effort to impose particular economic and political agendas on the global society that
benefit wealthy and rich nations at the expense of the world’s poor. Finally, the cultur-
alists felt that local decision makers borrow and lend from multiple models of education
systems, thus melding together what applies to their specific situation and leaving
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
behind what does not. Whichever view one might possess, it is undeniably obvious that
globalization has played and continues to play a major role in the shaping of nations’
education systems. It is important to acknowledge these four perspectives as back-
ground knowledge because this study focuses on the Costa Rican culture that may have
a different perspective from the United States on education.
It is apparent that access and equity play a role in funding education. As defined
by the world culture view, one of the main goals of education is to prepare youth to
become participating citizens in society—individuals who contribute to economic and
democratic ideals. In order for citizens to be prepared to do so, the education system
must adapt to the transformation to a knowledge-based economy. According to Hitt et
al. (1998), those who have successfully adapted to the change of technology have been
able to develop new strategies and new ways of organizing to deal with the complicated
demands of globalization. This flexibility can rely heavily on the financial and informa-
tion resources available. Others, more financially strained and technologically unaware,
have not been able to do so, thereby leaving again a divide between the wealthy, tech-
nologically literate countries and the less fortunate, technologically developing countries
(Funkhouser, 1998). It is therefore important that nations not only recognize the need to
develop a technology-savvy educational environment but also learn how to acquire
funding for such globally demanding skills.
In addition to schools having to prepare their students for a technology-saturated
marketplace, they must also teach skills that impart strategies for lifelong learning as the
ever-changing knowledge based economy demands. In order to prepare students to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
become lifelong learners, an emphases in primary and secondary schools must placed on
learning basic skills, in particular communication and math skills, interpersonal skills,
and skills needed to learn other subjects (Spring, 2008). Specifically, the shift from
memorization of material to conceptual understanding and application often associated
with 21st-century skills is of utmost importance to future applications of these learning
strategies as students become lifelong learners (Silva, 2009). Rotherham and Willing-
ham (2010) noted that skills and knowledge are intertwined and must not be a one-time
assessment but rather an ongoing process by which students develop the ability to think
critically and apply knowledge to appropriate situations.
Globalization has had an impact on higher education as well. Globalization has
created new tasks and social, political, and economic demands to which higher educa-
tion institutions must respond (Vaira, 2004). While seemingly simple in design, it must
not be forgotten that higher education institutions have long-standing cultural, struc-
tural, and historical features that have been embedded in their creation and evident in
their daily practices (Scott, 2000). Globalization challenges these steadfast pillars by
asking higher education to respond to new imperatives entailing the reshaping of its
role, relationships, policy making, priorities, and structure of governance related to the
higher education sector (Vaira, 2004). For many future workforce applicants, higher
education is the last chance to experience education and develop an understanding of
what the market demands. Therefore, if the goal of higher education is to prepare a
nation’s students to succeed in the workforce and the workforce is becoming more and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
more globalized, the aim of higher education must be to educate accordingly, focusing
on skills necessary for global market success.
Globalization surely has played a role in shaping education over the past several
decades. The advancement in technology and its resulting attributes to the field of com-
munication have contributed to the development of a knowledge-based economy with
English as the language of commerce. In the development and acceptance of 21st-
century skills, many schools around the world have adopted new curricula to indicate a
focus on lifelong learning to include interpersonal and communication skills, as well as
basic math and language arts skills necessary to succeed in the global market.
History of Costa Rica
To better understand the current education system in Costa Rica, it is important
to understand the political, economic, as well as academic history of this dynamic
nation. This background information provided a platform from which the study could
build perspective and a better understanding of the education system’s origination.
Government
Costa Rica was once a Spanish colony until gaining its independence as part of
the Kingdom of Guatemala in 1821. Mexico declared independence in 1822 and soon
after sought to bring Central America into its empire (Everyculture.com, 2012). In
1848, following a series of dictators, José Maria Castro Madriz was selected by the
Costa Rican congress to be Costa Rica’s first president. During this year, Costa Rica
declared itself a republic, adopted a new constitution that established basic rights, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
abolished the army so as to allow more funding to be allocated toward education and
public services.
According to Gudmunson (1986), coffee growers soon became powerful as they
learned how to successfully market and sell their product. These coffee barons forced
President Madriz to resign, putting into power Juan Rafael Mora Porras, a family mem-
ber of one of the largest coffee-growing families in Costa Rica. In 1855, William
Walker seized control of Nicaragua and sought to do the same to Costa Rica. President
Madriz put together an army of 9,000 and went to battle with Walker. Costa Rica was
victorious, but the cost of the war was great—not only in soldiers’ deaths but also in
having vast financial implications. As a result, the weakened regime of Parras was dis-
mantled by an army coup d’état that replaced him with José Maria Montealegre. The
Montealegres then dominated Costa Rican politics for about 2 decades.
In 1870, a general, Toma Guardia Gutierrez, came into power through a coup not
sanctioned by the Montealegre family. General Guardia was determined to end the
political power of the coffee baron families. In 1871, General Guardia signed a consti-
tution that, although modified frequently, remained Costa Rica’s basic law until 1949.
Article 78 of Costa Rica’s Constitution of 1871 made schooling both free and manda-
tory. General Guardia also hired Minor Cooper Keith to build a railroad to link the
Meseta Cental to the Caribbean coast at Puerto Limon (Gudmonson, 1986). Banana
cultivation was also started in 1871, and the United Fruit Co. (now United Brands)
made Costa Rica a major producer of bananas. The success of the banana industry
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
demonstrated Costa Rica’s ability to adapt to available opportunities in the marketplace
(Jones & Morrison, 1952).
After President Guardia died in 1882, there was a period of political instability
that led to the Costa Rican Civil War of 1948. José Figueres Ferrer won the civil war,
installed his own junta for 18 months, and restored democratic government—turning
over the presidency to Ulate in 1949. In 1949, a new constitution was created based on
the Constitution of 1871, reinstating free elections and banning the army and replacing it
with a Civil Guard. A series of presidents were to follow, each serving only a few years
(Lehoucq, 1991).
During the 1980s, Costa Rica experienced economic hardship as a result of the
recession in the United States as well as the increasing political violence in the region.
The political violence settled down in large part due to the election of Oscar Arias
Sanchez, who focused on leading a peace movement to bring stability to the region. In
1987 a peace plan was signed by Guatemala, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras. The
peace plan called for free elections in all countries, a guarantee of basic democratic
freedoms in Nicaragua, a cease fire by both the Sandinistas and the Contras, an end to
outside aid to the Contras, amnesty for the Contras, repatriation or resettlement of
refugees from all countries, and an eventual reduction in the armed forces for all coun-
tries (Encyclopedia.com, 2007). Arias was awarded the Nobel Prize for peace that year
for his efforts in healing the matter (Hey & Kuzma, 1993).
In 1996, under the presidency of José Maria Figueres Olsen, Costa Rica offi-
cially entered a recession. This led to massive reform efforts in the form of raised taxes,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
privatization of parts of the state-owned banking and telecommunications systems, and
an end to the state insurance monopoly. A need to recover from the recession opened
Costa Rica’s eye to the benefits that FDI might have on the nation (Gindling & Berry,
1992).
Miguel Angel Rodriguez was elected president in 1998 by a slim margin. An-
gel’s government had some important achievements in terms of increased tourism and
foreign investment. Rodriquez’s presidency was followed by the election of Abel
Pacheco de la Espriella. In 2004, both aforementioned presidents found themselves in
the midst of a great scandal that also involved José Maria Figueres. All political heads
were forced to resign (Lehoucq, 2005).
Currently, Laura Chinchilla is the president of Costa Rica. After serving as vice
president from 2006 to 2008, she was elected in 2010 to be the first female Costa Rican
president. Her platform pledges to increase spending for law enforcement and educa-
tion, to combat illicit drug trafficking, and to create jobs notably in environment friendly
and technological enterprises (Bellsola, Bellsola, & Oberin, 2011).
Economy
The Costa Rican economy has experienced changes not only as a result of
political changes but also as a result of globalization and the effects of FDI. These eco-
nomic changes have affected the role of education as Costa Rica becomes a player in the
global market. Once a nation solely relaying on farming and trade, Costa Rica now
interacts with several MNCs and is working to create an education system to prepare its
students for the new requirements of the workforce.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
The historical political turmoil in Costa Rica had its effects on the economy as it
advanced from a simplistic subsistence farming mentality to an active participant in
world trade. Costa Rica, separated from other nations by mountains and difficult low-
land terrain, was initially a place for farmers to solely provide for their families. The
lack of roads to the coast further impeded their ability to trade. The little export that
Costa Rica did achieve was in cacao, beans, tobacco and mules; however, because Costa
Rica was a Spanish colony, Spain imposed a mercantilist policy that required the trade
of its colonies could be only with Spain (Watkins, n.d.).
As a result of Costa Rica’s independence from Spain and the creation of the new
constitution, the military was abolished, thereby leaving an extra cash flow that would
be invested in developmental sectors of the economy such as education and health care
in addition to agriculture (Costa Rica Information, n.d.). In the 1840s, Costa Rican
farmers experienced much success in growing, harvesting, and selling their new cash
product: coffee. The farmers who were extremely successful became known as coffee
barons and were distinguished not only my their economic power but by their political
power as well, as noted in the earlier history of government section. Over time this
system of coffee baron control led to a decrease in the number of landowners and an
increase of landless peasants who worked for the few landowners (Gudmunson, 1986).
In the 1870s, President Tomas Guardia tried to promote export trade by hiring
Minor Cooper Keith to build a railroad to link the Meseta Cental to the Caribbean coast
at Puerto Limon. The railroad became operational in 1891. Keith not only
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
accomplished this task but also shaped the banana industry of Costa Rica and created
the United Fruit Company (Mosheim, 2002).
The early 1900s was a rough time for Costa Rica’s economy due to the problems
of social welfare, free education, and free healthcare and the implication of the tax obli-
gations that these amenities posed. In addition, World War I further burdened Costa
Rica’s export industry because European markets were taken away and Germany had
been the best market for Costa Rican coffee. Coffee prices had been declining interna-
tionally, and World War I furthered this trend (Jones & Morrison, 1952).
In 1951, President Don Pepe carried out his mission to turn Costa Rica into a
welfare state. Many public programs were aided such as education, urban development,
and state agricultural programs. However, in order to pay for such programs, income
taxes were again increased on the wealthy, notably the coffee barons and the United
Fruit Company (Mosheim, 2002).
The completion of the Pan-American Highway in the 1950s provided a system
of infrastructure from which the country greatly benefitted. In addition, export prices
were favorable during the first 2 decades of the post-World War II period, and local
manufacturing grew rapidly during the 1960s after Costa Rica joined its four neighbors
to establish the Central American Common Market (CACM; Nathan Associates, 2003).
Due to the seemingly strong export conditions, the Costa Rican government turned its
focus on internal problems. However, this strategy failed to keep abreast of the multi-
plying international debt that Costa Rica was accruing. The full crisis began in 1971
when the United States decided to stop inflation using tight monetary policy, and Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
Rica found itself bankrupt. It was not until the 1980s, with a change in governmental
power, that Costa Rica agreed with the Internal Monetary Fund (IMF) and began to pull
itself out of the economic crisis (Rosenberg, 1979).
It was decided that Costa Rica needed new export products to aid in its eco-
nomic revival. In order to do so, foreign investment would be needed to bring world
market technology to the country (Nathan Associates, 2003). In response to this goal,
the law regarding Export Processing Zones was loosened, and other necessities to
encourage foreign investment and exports were legislated. In 1984, the Coalition to
Promote National Development and Exports (CINDE) was created. CINDE, largely
funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), promoted
foreign investment, encouraged domestic Costa Rican firms to export, and provided
training to businesses interested in exporting (Nathan Associates, 2003). CINDE was
successful in its mission to increase foreign investment in Costa Rica, as further dis-
cussed in the next section.
Costa Rica prides itself on differing from its Central American neighbors be-
cause of the high level of education, its efforts in democracy, and its economic abilities
(Everyculture.com, 2012). However, as previously indicated, it is important to keep
abreast of the cultural, political, and economic challenges that constitute Costa Rica’s
history as a nation (Gindling & Berry, 1992).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
Education
Before understanding the impact that globalization and MNCs have had on the
academic realm of Costa Rica, it is important to understand how the education system
evolved since its creation in 1869.
As a result of the Constitution of 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first
countries to make education compulsory and free. The public school system was origi-
nally supported with funds diverted from the abolished military as well as funds from
the state’s share of the country’s earnings from the sale of coffee. Currently, Costa Rica
is constitutionally required to allocate at least 6% of the country’s gross domestic
product (GDP) from its annual budget to educational programs (CINDE, 2011). Costa
Rica spends a higher share of GDP on education than the vast majority of Latin Ameri-
can countries, yet often has worse outcomes in terms of enrollment rates, dropouts, and
retentions, especially at the secondary level. Over the last decade, the MEP has taken
the greatest share of the central government’s budget, just over 28%, increasing from
24% in 1997 to 31% in 2006 (The World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank,
2008). Correspondingly, the MEP has the largest number of employees, 28,000, of any
department in the country, with almost 80% of educational expenditures allocated to
salaries and wages. At the general education level, meaning preprimary, primary
school, and secondary school, 90% of expenditures are spent on salaries and wages (The
World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008).
When compulsory education was first introduced, only about a tenth of Costa
Rica’s population could read. Forty years later, that number had reached a half; and by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
the 1970s, almost 90% of the population was literate (Rimolo, 2012). In 2009,
according to the UNESCO’s (2009) Institute for Statistics, the literacy rate for Costa
Rica—as defined by people age 15 and above who can, with understanding, read and
write short, simple statements about their everyday life—was 96.06%. Costa Rica’s
education system is ranked 22nd worldwide, the highest in Latin America (CINDE,
2011).
Article 2 of the Fundamental Law of Education states the objectives of Costa
Rican education as the following:
a) the formation of civic lovers of their Homeland, aware of their rights and of
their fundamental freedoms, with deep sense of responsibility and respect to the
human dignity; b) to contribute to the complete development of the human
personality; c) to form citizens for a democracy in which reconcile the individ-
ual’s interests with those of the community; d) to stimulate the development of
the solidarity and the human understanding, and to conserve and to enlarge the
cultural inheritance, imparting knowledge on the man’s history, the masterpieces
of the literature and the fundamental philosophical concepts. (MEP, n.d., p. 3)
In order to ensure that these educational goals were adhered to and accessible to
all Costa Rican youth, the MEP was created. “As the governing body of the entire edu-
cation system, the MEP is responsible to promote the development and consolidation of
an excellent educational system that allows access of all people to quality education,
focused on the development of people in promoting a society composed of Costa Rican
opportunities and social equity” (MEP, 2007, Institutional Mission section, para. 1).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
The MEP is directed by the National Education Council presided over by the Minister of
Education. Under the Minister of Education, there are three directors whose various
committees are committed to overseeing the financial, instructional, and accountability
implications of the education system and its decisions. These directors and their com-
mittees work with Costa Rica’s seven provinces, each of which has its own local admin-
istrator and school board.
Costa Rica does have national standards that are created and enforced by the
MEP. These standards are generic to the country, but their implementation does not
need to be identical. According to CINDE (2011), schools are allowed to change the
curriculum to satisfy the needs of a changing society but are also monitored to ensure
excellence and quality.
Education in Costa Rica is broken into five cycles. Cycle I encompasses Grades
1-4; Cycle II is Grades 5 and 6; Cycle III, Grades 7–9; and Cycle IV, Grades 10–12. In
order to achieve their secondary education diploma, students must complete Cycles III
and IV. In the first and second cycles, the following subjects are taught: Spanish, social
studies, science, mathematics, agricultural education, foreign language, laboratory of
computer science, religion education, physical education, home education or industrial
arts, music education and plastic arts (MEP, n.d.).
Secondary education is divided into two opportunities, academic or technical
schools. Academic schools require 5 years of study encompassing Grades 7–11. Tech-
nical high schools require 6 years of study, including Grades 7–12. High school edu-
cation is focused on achieving new competitive skills to include the teaching of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
English language and computer science, which were declared mandatory in all of the
nation’s public schools in 1994 (CINDE, 2011).
The Costa Rican MEP requires testing of all students at the sixth- and ninth-
grade levels as well as upon completion of high school. The sixth-grade examination
tests students in math, social studies, Spanish, and science. The ninth-grade exam tests
students in math, social studies, science, Spanish, English, and civics. To receive a high
school diploma, students must pass six exams with a 65% in the following subject areas:
math, foreign language (English), science (biology, physics or chemistry), social studies,
Spanish and civic education. Assessment instruments are content based, not compe-
tency based, which, according to Castro (2010), leads teachers and students to tend to
spend their class time rehearsing sample questions and answers to multiple-choice items
instead of learning and internalizing important skills such as reading, writing, speaking,
critical thinking, or quantitative reasoning. To attend a university, students must receive
their high school diploma in addition to passing the entrance exam of their chosen
university (InfoCostaRica, 2012).
Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 90% of age-eligible
students. That same year, secondary school enrollment was about 53% of age-eligible
students (Encyclopedia.com, 2007). Many postelementary students seek employment
opportunities instead of pursuing secondary education. Others, especially females, have
to leave school to stay home to take care of younger siblings while parents work to
support the family (Castro, 2010).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
According to the last Estado de la Educacion Costarricense, 35.1% of Costa
Rica’s population had at least a high school diploma (Consejo Nacional de Rectores,
2013). However, according to a report published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadis-
tica y Censos (INEC) in 2013, only 25.71% of the population had at least a high school
diploma. Regardless of which number is referenced, when compared to other Organiza-
tion for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, only Mexico,
Portugal and Turkey were ranked as seemingly low (OECD, 2009).
Although the MEP’s intentions are respectable, as demonstrated by comprehen-
sion missions and values, the implementation of such idealistic goals crosses roads with
a complex bureaucratic structure that exhibits continuous power struggles among the
multi-interest groups (State of Nation Program, 2011). Resulting reform efforts have
been pursued to repair the inflexible decision-making system, including targeting the
school systems need to adequately address new social, economic, and environmental
changes. In addition, the MEP looked upon high school education as an area of concern
and is seeking to universalize high school education and eradicate the belief that a ninth-
grade education is enough (State of Nation Program, 2011). The MEP is also looking to
enhance the quality of academic programs offered at the high school level and to stan-
dardize teaching methods to account for any discrepancies of education received. In
addition, the MEP decreed Plan de Accion de la Educacion para Todos (Action Plan for
the Education of All), 2003–2015 (MEP, 2007). The objective of this program is to
validate the right to education for all inhabitants of Costa Rica. Specifically, the pro-
gram seeks to improve the coverage of education services at all levels, emphasizing the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
populations that had been excluded in the past. Also, the plan expands coverage of
technology and access to information in order to make it a powerful tool in the construc-
tion of knowledge. There is a focus on the ability to continuously learn and utilize
critical thinking skills as they apply to everyday life situations. It is the intended goal of
this plan and current reform efforts to capitalize on the high literacy rate and expand
student enrollment in secondary education to increase the student population in higher
education (MEP, 2007).
To achieve such reform efforts, Costa Rica has not only allocated a large portion
of the country’s GDP but has also looked to indirect funding opportunities from multi-
international companies as well. According to Rodríguez-Clare (2001), much of the
successful changes in education can be linked to the influx of the technology industry,
thus attributing some of the increased preparedness of the Costa Rican workforce to the
investment of the MNCs.
MNCs in Costa Rica
MNCs have played a large role in the development of Costa Rica’s economy
over the past several decades (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
The development in the economy has led to a need for a different type of workforce than
what was once needed when Costa Rica was solely an agrarian society. The school
system of Costa Rica had to adapt its policies and curricula to effectively prepare stu-
dents for the change in human capital necessitated by participation in the global market.
The impact of globalization is felt worldwide as trade increases and technology
further demands that countries communicate and do business with one another.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
According to Rodríguez-Clare (2001), one of the ways that globalization has helped
developing countries is through FDI. FDIs, in the form of capital, technology, technical
and managerial skills bundled together, have begun to play an increasing role in devel-
oping countries such as Costa Rica (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). FDI is the catalyst for
economic growth, providing both physical capital and employment possibilities that
might not otherwise be available in the host country. Furthermore, FDI is a method of
technology transfer between countries, especially to the less-developed nations (Jensen,
2003). Due to the vast array of benefits that FDI seems to create, attracting FDI has
become a necessary part of many countries’ economic development strategies.
Costa Rica, with the help of CINDE, has increased the nation’s attractiveness to
MNCs through incentive programs that would prove effective in attracting corporations
to invest in Costa Rica. In 1983, to attract FDI, and pull itself out of financial crisis,
Costa Rica unified exchange rates, officially acknowledging the de facto devaluation of
the colon and closed the gap between the black market and banking rates (Clark, 1995).
In addition, CINDE created and pushed through the Legislative Assembly a series of
export incentives that would serve to entice high-tech MNCs, including the export
contract (a package of fiscal benefits and tax exemptions), special import arrangements
for industries engaged in light assembly work and Free Trade Zone (FTZ) legislation
(Clark, 1995). The FTZ regime provided many incentives for export manufacturing
companies, export trade companies (not producers), export service companies, com-
panies or organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing firms that could
export or not (minimum export level not required; CINDE, 2010). One of the main
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
incentives that these companies received was that manufacturing projects that export
more than 75% of the production in Costa Rican operation would receive a 100%
exemption on corporate income tax for the first 8 years and a 50% exemption during the
following 4 years. Second, manufacturers of large-scale projects, as defined by $10
million in spending and 100 employees, would also receive a 100% exemption on
corporate income tax, a 10% income tax credit to be used toward domestic and foreign
training, as well as up to 10 years of income tax deferral. In addition to the aforemen-
tioned tax benefits, all companies operating under the FTZ regime receive, with no time
limit, 100% exemption on import duties, export and excise taxes, and a repatriation tax
on remittances, among others (CINDE, 2010). These tax incentives, coupled with a
well-educated workforce and a good infrastructure, have made Costa Rica one of the
most inviting host nations for FDI (Clark, 1995).
It is important to keep in mind that there are two theories of thought when
entertaining the notion of FDIs. The aforementioned incentives seem to highlight only
benefits; however there are critics who stand strong with the conviction that FDIs are
not beneficial to the host country. The critics state that those who seek FDI assume that
FDI will have positive spillover effects that will advance the host country’s knowledge-
based asset; however, these expectations contrast sharply with what is being found in
case studies, particularly those researched in developing countries (Paus & Gallagher,
2008).
Regardless of whether FDI is viewed as an asset or detriment to the host country,
it is important to note that empirical research has suggested that FDI is sensitive to both
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
host country tax policies and economic conditions, including the education level of the
labor force, overall market size, and the size of the local industrial base (Hanson, 2001).
Focusing specifically on Costa Rica, Giuliani (2008) found that attracting high-tech FDI
is believed to have great potential for spillover effects compared to other types of invest-
ments, such as low-tech or natural resource-based materials. Moreover, these high-tech
industries have a higher value added than either of the previously successful apparel or
natural resource sectors and are less subject to fluctuations in international price and
product commodification (Giuliani, 2008). The 2001 United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development’s World Investment Report suggests that domestic suppliers can
benefit from linkages to multinational subsidiaries because these linkages can serve as
channels for spreading knowledge and skills between firms. Blalock and Gertler (2005)
stated that this direct transfer of knowledge occurs because MNCs have incentives to
improve the productivity of their suppliers by providing training, quality control, and
upgrading suppliers’ production capabilities.
As a result of CINDE and the Figueres administration’s dedication to drawing
FDIs to Costa Rica, Intel decided to locate its $300 million semiconductor assembly and
test plant in Costa Rica in 1996. In that same year, Cisco started operations in Costa
Rica and maintained an office that served as the headquarters for Central America.
Although less recognized, Microsoft Inc., too, started operations in Costa Rica the year
prior to Intel’s much publicized decision. Although the mid to late 1990s attracted high-
stakes, high-tech companies to Costa Rica, it is important to note that other electronics
companies were previously there. Firms such as Siemens, Bticino, Eaton, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
Panasonic began investing in the 1950s to early 1970s essentially for market-seeking
purposes (Giuliani, 2008).
Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica in 1996 created what is known as the
“signaling effect,” indicating that Intel had conducted an in-depth analysis before choos-
ing its new location, therefore paving the way for other investors to follow the corpora-
tions lead (World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency [MIGA],
2006). By 2005, Costa Rica had attracted more than 50 foreign companies in the elec-
tronics industry; these companies employed over 11,000 people and reached an export
value of $2.12 million (Giuliani, 2008). In addition, initiated in 1987 by an investment
from Baxter, there has been investment from 18 companies manufacturing medical
devices, including world leaders such as Hospira, Boston Scientific, Arthrocare,
Inamed, and Coloplast (CINDE, 2011). A successful relationship was developed among
foreign investors, CINDE, and the government of Costa Rica that was visible within the
country and also promoted and recognized abroad (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006).
There is no doubt that FDI has played a major role in the economic development
of Costa Rica. Intel alone accounted for nearly 25% of the country’s exports between
1999 and 2006 (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). In 1999, Costa Rica’s GDP grew 8.4%;
however, excluding Intel’s contribution, it would have grown only 3%, thus indicating
that more than 60% of Costa Rica’s GDP growth could be directly attributed to Intel
(World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006).
Not only has the influx of MNCs aided the economic development of Costa
Rica, but it has also challenged the education system. As discussed earlier, Costa Rica
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
experiences a high rate of elementary enrollment as education is compulsory and free;
however, the country continues to struggle to increase enrollment at the secondary and
tertiary levels. As shown in Figure 1, only 61% of the Costa Rican workforce have
completed elementary education, 16% have completed secondary education, and 15%
have a university degree (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). However,
with the onset of the 1980s the structure of demand for an educated labor in Costa Rica
changed as a result of the shift to an export-led growth strategy (Funkhouser, 1998).
In general, Costa Rica responded to the demand for a skilled workforce by re-
structuring strategic parts of its overall education system. Recognizing the significance
of an educated workforce, Costa Rica has made an important effort over the last 30
years to increase the amount of resources assigned to tertiary education and to the
scholarship system for university students with scarce resources (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Universities were not the only level of education impacted
by the influx of MNCs in Costa Rica. The National English Plan was created in re-
sponse to the nation’s need to comply with the productive sector’s increasing demand
for human capital with English language proficiency; its goal is to create competent
English language users who are able to communicate effectively in a work environment
(CINDE, 2011). In addition to an overall push toward an English-speaking workforce,
there has been an increased recognition for technology skills to be taught at the elemen-
tary level in order to be fully fluent in the language of the globalized business world.
As part of the initial conditional agreement between Costa Rica and Intel, Intel
required improvements in technical education. The agreement was not solely the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
responsibility of Costa Rica, as Intel’s annual investment reaches $700,000, not count-
ing donations of laboratories to technical professional high schools and universities. In
2001, these contributions reached $2,500,000 in electronics and English language
laboratories (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). These improvements
have been seen at the tertiary level with the implementation of several programs and
enhanced curricula at Costa Rica’s three major educational institutions (World Bank
Group, MIGA, 2006). One example occurred with the Instituto Tecnologico de Costa
Rica (ITCR), which under its “Intel Associate” status, has introduced new degree
programs, has strengthened and updated its teachers’ knowledge in several technical
fields, and has improved its financial position (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel Costa
Rica has had an important impact on the enrollment of students in careers such as com-
puter science and electronics (Monge-González, & González-Alvarado, 2006).
Intel has also supported the elementary and secondary schools with the imple-
mentation of various programs and donations of technological equipment. Some of
these programs include:
1) “Intel-Innovation in Education”—which donated much needed microproces-
sors valued at over $1.1 million to update school computer laboratories; 2) “Intel
–Educate for the Future” program with a goal to educate 9,000 primary and
middle school teachers in the technological area; and 3) “Students as Scientists”
program that promotes scientific research in schools (World Bank, MIGA, 2006,
p. 23)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
Figure 1. Educational attainment in tertiary education in
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) countries as a percentage of adults 18%22. Taken
from Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, by OECD,
2009, retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-
beyond-school/43636332.pdf
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
With an emphasis on educating teachers on how to best teach technological skills, Intel
invests around $300,000 per year in Costa Rica to support and improve teacher prepara-
tion in the areas of science, mathematics, technical education, and computing to help
students receive the skills required for the 21st century (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2006).
Microsoft has also aided in the reformation of the Costa Rican education system
mostly notably through its Partners in Learning initiative that includes three programs:
Partners in Learning Grants Program, Fresh Start for Donated Computers, and the
School Agreement Subscription Licensing Program. The Partners in Learning Grants
Program assigns resources, such as teacher and student training and support from tech-
nicians, to help teachers to improve the student learning processes. Through Fresh Start
for Donated Computers, Microsoft donates licenses for the Windows® operating system
and compact discs (CDs) for installation. Finally, the School Agreement to the Sub-
scription Licensing Program is an annual subscription in which Microsoft offers prefer-
ential prices to elementary public schools (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2006). These programs have allowed some Costa Rican schools the opportunity to
interact with technology that would otherwise not be available to them due to financial
constraints and/or technological access.
Cisco established the Cisco Networking Academy in Costa Rica in 1999 to train
students in skills to design, create, and maintain computer networks so that they can
acquire the necessary skills needed for IT-related jobs and pursue recognized certifica-
tions in the communications technologies industry, thus giving them a distinguished
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
advantage in response to the market’s technology requirements (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2006). This training has helped to improve students’ preparedness
for the change in human capital necessary for the global marketplace.
These for-profit companies have all partnered with a very important private non-
profit organization called the Omar Dengo Foundation (Fundación Omar Dengo; ODF).
The ODF (2009) of Costa Rica was founded in 1987 and manages national and regional
projects in the fields of human development, educational innovation and new technolo-
gies. This foundation has partnered with several national and international companies
including not only Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco but also Dell, HP, Motorola, LG, and
many more to ensure great relationships for the renovation of the national educational
processes.
It is evident that MNCs have played a role in advancing the technological
aspects of education in some Costa Rican schools and universities. This effort, coupled
with the determination of nonprofit organizations such as ODF to improve education in
Costa Rica, has helped to lay a foundation from which Costa Rican schools can build.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Education has been proven to be profitable as a form of human capital, and it is
therefore important that the goals of education align with the needs of the workforce in
the global market (Psacharopoulos, 1985). The main focus of the changes in the work-
force requires school systems to focus on technology skills and fluency of the English
language (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). These two skills are critical pieces in the necessary
21st-century skills, as identified by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012). In
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
order to best prepare Costa Rican students for the global market, ever changing as a
result of globalization and MNCs, it is imperative that the Costa Rican schools adopt the
teaching and learning practices indicated by 21st-century skills.
The profitability of investment in human capital has been a much-researched
topic since the onset of its existence in the 1960s (Psacharopoulos, 1985). As part of
human capital, one looks to education as providing the building blocks of human knowl-
edge and productivity. Not only is education producing a high rate of returns, but also
the returns of education are found to be often higher than the returns from other forms of
public investment in developing countries (Funkhouser, 1998). Psacharopoulos (1985)
found that primary schooling remains the number one priority for investment, as evi-
denced by the fact that the social rate of return of primary education surpasses, by
several percentage points, the returns of secondary and higher education. This knowl-
edge, aided by the FDI involvement in Costa Rica, has helped to guide the MEP in
Costa Rica to create a plan that would capitalize on this knowledge.
Due to the fact that education is proven to be profitable as a form of human
capital (Psacharopoulos, 1985), it is imperative that the education provided be appropri-
ately and accurately focused on preparing students to succeed as part of the workforce.
As mentioned earlier, the workforce is changing due to several implications of global-
ization and world market development. Globalization has called upon education
systems to focus on the knowledge economy, lifelong learning, and human capital edu-
cation (Spring, 2008). Tsui and Tollefson (2007) noted that “globalization is affected
by two inseparable meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
tools have been referred to as global literacy skills” (p. 1). According to the Partnership
for 21st Century Skills (2012), employers, educators, and the public strongly feel that
students need to be proficient in 21st-century skills in order to succeed in a world that is
constantly changing.
The skills that research shows correlate with globalization are those seemingly
defined by the idea of 21st-century skills. As defined by the Partnership for 21st Cen-
tury Skills (2012), these are the skills that students need to succeed in work, school, and
life and include the following:
1. The core subjects (as defined by No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
2. 21st-century content (global awareness; financial, economic, business, and
entrepreneurial literacy; civic literacy; and health and wellness awareness.
3. Learning and thinking skills (critical thinking and problem-solving skills,
communications skills, creativity and innovation skills, collaboration skills, contextual
learning skills, and information and media literacy skills.
4. Information and communications technology literacy.
5. Life skills (leadership, ethics, accountability, adaptability, personal produc-
tivity and responsibility, people skills, self-direction, and social responsibility.
As evidenced in the list, 21st-century skills are focused on deeper understanding
of knowledge and communication abilities, including technology rather than rote
memorization and assembly line functioning. Wagner (2010) noted that these necessary
skills are in response to the following three transformations that have taken place over a
relatively short period of time: (a) the rapid evolution of the new global “knowledge
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
economy,” (b) the sudden and dramatic shift from a world characterized by a limited
amount and availability of information to a world of all access and abundance; and (c)
the profound impact that media and technology have on how young people learn and
relate to the world and to one another.
One cannot look at 21st-century skills without referencing the strong ties to
technology and its influence on creating the 21st-century students. Educational technol-
ogy focus today is no on if technology should be implemented but rather how (Keengwe,
Kidd & Kyei-Blankson, 2009). Technology is not only what students needs to learn
about but also how students are learning, whether it be in the form of course manage-
ment systems or podcasts; technology is not just the curriculum but the “textbook” as
well (Miltenoff, Keengwe & Schnellert, 2011). Therefore, it is of utmost importance
that students are able to manipulate technology as well as know how to utilize technol-
ogy to access learning. Without the skills necessary to do both, students may be less
prepared to enter the technologically savvy global market as an effective part of the
workforce.
As Costa Rica seeks to create a stronger workforce through educational reform
efforts, it cannot avoid focusing on the 21st-century skills that will give students the
global literacy skills (Tusi & Tollefson, 2007) they need to be successful in the global-
ized market. Costa Rica experiences no significant opposition to a development
strategy based on technology and human capital with high-tech MNCs playing a large
role, perhaps because the momentum behind the movement is perpetuated by the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
national agency in charge of attracting foreign investments to the public universities, the
MEP, as well as the national government (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Additional evidence of Costa Rica’s commitment to creating an education
system focused on the development of 21st-century skills is seen in the National Inform
created by the MEP (n.d.), purporting to “achieve an integral development of the com-
petitive human resources, preparing them to attack with success the challenges that
imposes the new world order of the globalization in the new millennium” (p. 18). In an
attempt to accomplish this goal, the MEP through the National Inform depicts Costa
Rica’s aims and objectives of 21st-century education as including the following:
1. Close the existing school quality gap between urban and rural areas,
2. Train human resources to raise competitiveness for international markets,
3. Strengthen fundamental values,
4. Strengthen technical and scientific education,
5. Focus on comprehensive development to include sports and culture, and
6. Raise awareness of individuals about their commitment to future genera-
tions, ensuring a sustainable economic and social development in harmony with nature
and the environment.
As discussed earlier in the MNCs section, several MNCs including Intel, Micro-
soft and Cisco have donated in abundance hardware, software, and professional devel-
opment training for teachers in attempts to help Costa Rica fill the technological gap of
its students. In addition, the MEP partnered with the ODF in 1988 to create the Costa
Rican Computers in Elementary Education Program to help students develop creativity,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
thinking skills, and problem-solving skills (Fonseca, 2013). Certainly programs have
been created, money donated, time given, and a mission has been established—but the
question remains as to whether or not Costa Rican students have experienced success as
a result. The study gathered data to support an answer to this question.
To provide a method of measurement, this study utilized Wagner’s (2008)
framework outlining seven survival skills for the 21st century. The first survival skill is
critical thinking and problem solving. According to Wagner, the ability to ask good
questions is at the heart of critical thinking and problem solving and is a necessary skill
in the new global economy because it is an integral part of product improvement,
processes, and services. The second survival skill is collaboration across networks and
leading by influence. “The skillfulness of individuals working with networks of people
across boundaries and from different cultures has become an essential prerequisite for a
growing number of multinational corporations” (p. 24). The third survival skill is
agility and adaptability, which is a necessary skill in order to be able to respond to the
intensifying rate of change, the overwhelming amount of data, and the ease of accessi-
bility of information. The fourth survival skill is initiative and entrepreneurialism.
Wagner found that leaders today want to see workers take more initiative and be entre-
preneurial in terms of the way in which they seek out new opportunities, ideas, and
strategies for improvement. The fifth survival skill is effective oral and written commu-
nication. This skill pertains not only to the ability to effectively and appropriately com-
municate verbally in writing and in presentation but also to the ability to effectively
consider the multitude of cultures involved in 21st-century communication and to alter
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
one’s communication method accordingly. The sixth skill, accessing and analyzing
information, is defined by the need for individuals to be able to sort through, organize,
and manage the astronomical amount of information presented to them on a daily basis.
The final skill, curiosity and imagination, complements many of the aforementioned
skills by balancing rigor and organization with the ability to think outside the box and
develop new ideas and solutions.
Twenty-first-century skills compile a necessary skill set for students who are
entering the workforce in the global market. Costa Rica is seeking to create a stronger
workforce by incorporating these skills as well as global literacy skills into the educa-
tion system (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). Costa Rica, through its National Inform (MEP,
n.d.), has identified its need to improve the current education system to become more
equipped to teach students how to succeed in the global market. These efforts, coupled
with the funding from the nation as well as MNCs, have built the foundation from
which Costa Rica can embrace their reform efforts.
Leadership
The role of leadership is of utmost importance when embracing reform in educa-
tion. In order to provide guidance, the study utilized the outline of 21 Responsibilities
of the School Leader developed by Marzano et al. (2005). This framework identifies
characteristics of successful leaders in education who have contributed to student
achievement. Due to the nature of the reform efforts in Costa Rica, it is imperative that
the leaders in education exhibit characteristics that elicit student achievement. In addi-
tion, Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework provided structure in identifying
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
how leaders’ perspectives and multiframed viewpoints better enable them to tackle the
current challenges of the education system.
Marzano
It is clear that the onset of the 21st century, with its accompanying and clearly
defined skills, may demand a different type of education leader to develop an effective
plan for the youth of the world. Research has shown that leadership is an important tool
in creating an effective learning environment for student success (Marzano et al., 2005).
Dess and Picken (2000) stated that the strategic emphasis has shifted from a leader
being a good manager of mass markets and tangible goods to innovation and the effec-
tive use of knowledge and human capital resources. Leaders must be prepared to re-
spond to this transformation. This type of change applies not only to the world of
business but also, due to trickle-down effects, to the world of education. As discussed
earlier, in order to create a high rate of return, the future workforce must be educated
effectively.
Marzano et al. (2005) created a leadership framework for education leaders to
identify 21 leadership responsibilities that are significantly associated with student
achievement. This leadership framework is predicated on the notion that leaders pos-
sess not only the ability to perform the responsibilities but also know when and why to
utilize their leadership resources. An important aspect of this framework that coincides
with the changes in education in Costa Rica resulting from the policy regarding im-
provement toward 21st-century skills is the belief that effective leaders have a sense of
balance when it comes to pushing for change, yet respect aspects of culture, values, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
norms worth preserving (Marzano et al., 2005). This concept is extremely important
because one of the key objectives of Costa Rican education is to create civic lovers of
the homeland who are aware of their rights and of their fundamental freedoms, with a
deep sense of responsibility and respect for human dignity (MEP, n.d.). Making sure to
utilize frameworks that coincide with cultural norms and yet hold leaders accountable
provided a more realistic form of measurement.
The 21 responsibilities of leaders, according to Marzano et al. (2005), are the
following: affirmation; change agent; contingent rewards; communication; culture;
discipline; flexibility; focus; ideals/beliefs; input; intellectual stimulation; involvement
in curriculum, instruction, and assessment; knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and
assessment; monitoring/evaluating; optimizer; order; outreach; relationships; resources;
situational awareness; and visibility. While all 21 are extremely important in the
makeup of an effective leader, this study focused on a few key responsibilities that the
research cohort found to be particularly associated with the situation in Costa Rica:
change agent, culture, focus, monitoring/evaluating, and resources.
Change agent is defined as a leader who is willing to challenge and actively
challenges the status quo (Marzano et al., 2005). The Costa Rican education system, as
evidenced by the National Inform produced by the MEP (n.d.) has to make changes in
order to be an effective system of education that is teaching 21st-century skills. The
responsibility of culture is defined by a leader who fosters shared beliefs and a sense of
community and cooperation (Marzano et al., 2005). Again referencing the objectives of
Costa Rican education, the culture is a very central feature to its education system and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
must be referenced in any policy change in education in order for it to be more effective.
As a leader, focus is a critical responsibility that demands that the leader establish clear
goals and keep those goals in the forefront of the school’s attention (Marzano et al.,
2005). Change was never deemed an easy undertaking, and there are often opportunities
to lose focus. The researchers looked to see how Costa Rican education leaders have
maintained focus throughout their push to interject 21st-century skills into their schools.
As with any cyclical process, monitoring and evaluating become a crucial re-
sponsibility of the leader to determine the effectiveness of the practices implemented
and the impact —in this case, on student learning (Marzano et al., 2005). This policy
has indicated the direction that Costa Rican education is to take and has informed its
public of the ways in which these plans are to come to fruition. It is of utmost impor-
tance that the leaders consistently monitor and evaluate the implementation so as to gain
an understanding of the effectiveness of policy and practices on student achievement.
Finally, this study examined the leaders’ responsibility, defined as resources that
are their responsibility to provide teachers with materials and professional development
necessary for the successful execution of their jobs (Marzano et al., 2005). MNCs have
donated ample resources to the education system in Costa Rica. These resources,
coupled with the MEP’s (2013) Aims and Objectives, require effective allocation and
consistent maintenance. This study looked to evaluate whether or not the education
leaders were addressing this responsibility.
Marzano et al. (2005) continued their framework by identifying two underlying
factors of the 21 responsibilities, first- and second-order change. First-order change is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
incremental, while second-order change involves dramatic departures from the ex-
pected, both in problem definition and in solution. The study examined both orders of
change and how they pertained to the leadership in education in Costa Rica. Based on
the order of change identified, the study further examined the responsibilities strongly
associated with effective leadership necessary at that level.
Bolman and Deal
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework was utilized to evaluate the
educational leadership and their ability to effectively incorporate 21st-century skills in
to their schools. This framework identifies four distinctive frames from which people
view their world: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. Figure 2 repre-
sents an overview of the four frames.
Frame Leader in: Leadership Process
Structural Social architect Analysis, design
Human Resource Catalyst, servant Support, empowerment
Political Advocate Advocacy, coalition
building
Symbolic Prophet, poet Inspiration, framing ex-
perience
Figure 2. Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model. Adapted
from “Leadership and Management Effectiveness: A Multi-Frame, Multi-
Sector Analysis,” by L. G. Bolman, 1991, Human Resources Management,
30, 509–534.
The first perspective is the structural frame. The focus of the structural frame is
on goals and efficiency. Structural leaders value analysis and data, set clear directions,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
hold people accountable for results, and try to solve organizational problems with new
policies and rules or through restructuring (Bolman, 1991).
The human resource frame centers on what organizations and people do to and
for one another (Bolman & Deal, 2008). This frame evolved from the theory that
workers had rights to more than just a paycheck (Follet, 1918; Mayo, 1933, 1945). The
human resource frame focuses on the interaction between individual and organizational
needs. These leaders value relationships and feelings, seeking to lead through facilita-
tion and empowerment (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The political frame is rooted in political science and views organizations as
arenas of continuing conflict and competition among different interests for scarce
resources (Bolman, 1991). From a political perspective, goals, structure, and policies
emerge from an ongoing process of negotiation among major interest groups (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Political leaders spend a great deal of their time lobbying, networking, and
creating coalitions to establish a basis of power and influence.
The symbolic frame is much more subjective than the political frame. The sym-
bolic perspective sees facts as interpretative rather than objective and finds that organi-
zations develop cultural symbols that shape human behavior while providing a shared
mission and identity (Bolman, 1991). Symbolic leaders feel that team building is at the
heart of an organization’s success; they pay attention to myth, ritual, ceremony, and
other symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Reformation of education is by no means an easy feat. The leaders will likely
have to utilize several skills, strategies, and multiple perspectives in order to obtain
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
results. Bolman and Deal (2008) defined this type of thinking. Leadership is consid-
ered multiframe thinking that requires moving beyond narrow, mechanical approaches
to include multiple perspectives and viewpoints from which to gauge and attack the
situation. Bensimon (1989) suggested that the ability to use multiple frames is associ-
ated with greater effectiveness for managers and leaders. In a study conducted by
Dunford and Palmer (1995), leaders found that a multiperspective approach provided a
way of broadening cognitive perceptions of organizational issues and problems and the
resulting actions taken to address them. In order to best address reform efforts and
make change as a leader, a multiframe model of thinking is necessary to ensure a well-
rounded diagnosis and solution.
Fidler (1997) suggested that a multiframed perspective approach is necessary for
successful leadership in education. Not only must school leaders logistically manage an
institution, including staff, children, and development, but they must also create support
within the community and develop a mutually understood passion for an overall
mission. This multifaceted approach requires educational leaders to draw from different
perspectives to properly address each requirement. Simkins (2005) suggested that in
order for educational leaders to function effectively, they must utilize a sense-making
agenda comprised of a multidimensional approach including attention to the organiza-
tion’s purpose, a focus on power and authority, and development of the mission—all
centering on ethical, practical and personal values. A multiframed perspective approach
does not guarantee the success of an educational leader, but it does help to provide a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
better foundation from which one can run one’s organization in an attempt to achieve
the highest success.
This study gathered data regarding the frames utilized by education leaders in
Costa Rica. Furthermore, the study assessed whether a multiframe thinking approach
proved advantageous as leaders utilize resources gained from MNCs in advancing edu-
cation to include 21st-century skills.
Summary of Literature Review
Globalization has changed the face of education in several ways, but most
notably by increasing the needs for education to incorporate 21st-century skills as well
as the English language into its underpinnings. The history of Costa Rica is dynamic
and has created a military-free nation that has made education compulsory and free
since 1849. Current leaders of the nation as well as the MEP have made a top priority
the incorporation of 21st-century skills into education a top priority. Several MNCs
have invested in Costa Rica, setting up factories and contributing significantly to the
nation’s GDP, but they have also made financial commitments to the education system.
Currently there is a lack of research pertaining to how globalization and MNCs have
impacted the education system in Costa Rica. This study examined how national,
district, and school leadership has been impacted both directly and indirectly by policy
changes due to globalization and the resulting push for 21st-century skills. Finally, this
study utilized two leadership frameworks, the 21 Responsibilities of Leaders (Marzano
et al., 2005) and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework, to assess the effec-
tiveness of the implementation of leaders to utilize resources, both donated and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
allocated from state funding, to incorporate 21st-century skills in their schools. To
gauge these 21st-century skills, the researchers utilized Wagner’s (2008) list of seven
survival skills as well as the Framework for 21st Century Learning (Partnership for 21st
Century Skills, 2012) to provide an outline of student outcomes and necessary support
systems.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
Chapter 3
Methodology
Globalization and MNCs have had several impacts on the world market that
have influenced changes in education. These changes are derived from the need to
create human capital capable of succeeding in a knowledge-based economy (Spring,
2008). Tsui and Tollefson (2007) stated that “globalization is affected by two insepara-
ble meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these tools have been
referred to as global literacy skills” (p.1). The need for acquisition of these aforemen-
tioned skill sets has led to changes in education all around the world.
In addition to globalization, MNCs have also had significant impact on the
structure of education. Costa Rica specifically has witnessed changes in its education
system as a result of the impact of FDIs (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). Costa Rica, with the
help of CINDE (2013), has attracted several MNCs to invest in its infrastructure and
economy. Of these MNCs, several technology-focused companies such as Intel, Micro-
soft, and Cisco have partnered with the MEP to provide resources to Costa Rican
schools and universities (Monge-González & Gonzáles-Alvarado, 2007).
Currently, there is a notable lack of information regarding how these resources
from the MNCs have been implemented within schools to achieve a higher level of edu-
cation focusing on 21st-century skills necessary for the knowledge-based economy. The
current literature does not reference how leadership in education has been impacted by
the change in education as an outcome of policy changes resulting from globalization
and the influence of MNCs. The purpose of this study was to understand what impacts
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
globalization and MNCs have had on school leadership and the development and imple-
mentation of 21st-century skills in Costa Rica. The purpose of the study was addressed
through the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Chapter 2 examined the literature pertaining to the role that globalization and
MNCs have had on restructuring the education of human capital to produce workers
ready for a knowledge-based economy. This chapter focuses on the components of the
study: research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data
analysis, and ethical considerations.
Frameworks
In approaching the study’s purpose, the dissertation group utilized the following
frameworks: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model, (b) defining globalization
(Spring, 2008), and (c) Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills.
Spring (2008) presented four major interpretations of the process of educational
globalization: the world culture view, the world systems approach, a postcolonial anal-
ysis, and a culturalist approach. According to Spring, the world culture view is based on
the premise that Western ideals of mass schooling are centered on the idea that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
schooling is based on a belief that all children have the right to an education and that
education is of utmost importance in maintaining economic and democratic rights. The
world systems approach sees the world as integrated but with two significantly unequal
parts: (a) the United States and (b) the European Union and Japan comprising the
powerful half. A postcolonial analysis views globalization as an effort to impose on the
global society particular economic and political agendas that benefit wealthy and rich
nations at the expense of the world’s poor. Finally, the culturalists feel that local deci-
sion makers borrow and lend from multiple models of education systems, melding
together what applies to their specific situation and leaving behind what does not.
In Reframing Organizations, Bolman and Deal (2008) identified four distinctive
frames from which people view their world: structural, human resources, political, and
symbolic. The structural frame focuses on goals and efficiency whereby leaders value
analysis and data, set clear directions, hold people accountable for results, and try to
solve organizational problems with new policies and rules of thorough restructuring
(Bolman, 1991). In the human resources frame there is a focus on the interaction be-
tween the individual and organizational needs whereby leaders value relationships and
feelings, seeking to lead through facilitation and empowerment (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The political frame is rooted in political science and views organizations as arenas of
continuing conflict and competition among different interests for scarce resources
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). Politically framed leaders spend a great deal of their time
lobbying, networking, and creating coalitions to establish a basis of power and influ-
ence. The fourth frame, the symbolic frame, is much more subjective than the political
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
frame because this frame sees facts as interpretive rather than objective. Symbolic
leaders feel that team building is at the heart of an organization’s success; they pay
attention to myth, ritual, ceremony, and other symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Wagner’s (2008) approach to 21st-century skills included several characteristics
outlined by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012) and expands upon them. His
outline provides what he titled Seven Survival Skills for the 21st century: (a) “critical
thinking,” (b) “collaboration and leadership,” (c) “agility and adaptability,” (d) “initia-
tive and entrepreneurialism,” (e) “effective oral and written communication,” (f) “ac-
cessing and analyzing information,” and (g) “curiosity and imagination” (pp. 14–41).
Wagner stated that these necessary skills originated in response to the following three
transformations: (a) the rapid evolution of the new global “knowledge economy,” (b)
the access and abundance of information, and (c) the profound impact that the media
and technology have had on how young people learn and relate to the world and to one
another.
These three frameworks provided structure to the study’s protocols as well as
outline standards for comparing the findings so as to provide conclusions to the find-
ings.
Research Design
A qualitative case study approach was used in the collection and analysis of the
research data. As Patton (1985) stated,
qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness. . . .
This understanding is an end in itself, so that it is not attempting to predict what
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
may happen in the future necessarily, but to understand the nature of that setting.
The analysis strives for depth of understanding. (p. 1)
This study was designed to observe and analyze the impact of globalization and MNCs
on school leadership and 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools. The qualitative
approach allowed the necessary means for exploring and understanding the meaning of
individuals and groups (Creswell, 2009).
Another strength of utilizing the qualitative case study approach is that it offered
insights and illuminated meanings that could be extrapolated in order to create tentative
hypotheses that will help structure future research, thus playing an important role in
advancing a field’s knowledge base (Merriam, 2009). This study was meant to assess
the impact of globalization and MNCs on educational leadership and development of
21st-century skills; therefore, conducting a case study allowed for data to be analyzed
with the goal of future application in mind.
To gather the necessary information, interviews were conducted with the Minis-
ter of Public Education of Costa Rica, school leaders, Costa Rican politicians, the
Director of Education and Academic Relations of Intel, and the Director of CINDE.
Teachers who are employed by schools receiving resources from Intel completed sur-
veys, and classroom observations were conducted at school sites where technological
resources have been allocated by Intel.
Research Team
The research team is led by Dr. Michael Escalante of the University of Southern
California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education. This dissertation group is comprised
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
of 12 USC doctoral students. The group began meeting in the fall of 2012. Initial
research was conducted via literature review and presented among group members in
the winter of 2012. The group met approximately two to three times per month to
collaborate, synthesize goals, and plan the study design. As a result of the many group
aspects of the thematic process, there may be similarities in the dissertations.
Exploratory Trip
The dissertation chair, Dr. Escalante, joined by four fellow dissertation group
members, participated in a 4-day exploratory trip to Costa Rica in March 2013. While
on this trip, they met with several political entities, corporate leaders, and educational
representatives including the following: (a) a former president of Costa Rica; (b) the
MEP; (c) the Dean of the College of Education and the Director of Educational Re-
search at the University of Costa Rica (UCR); (d) the director of the think tank that
informs the government on policymaking decisions; (e) the director of CINDE; (f) the
Intel Director of Education Programs in Costa Rica; (g) the director of the FTZ business
association; (h) the director of Costa Rica-United States of America (CRUSA), an
organization that supports educational growth and research in Costa Rica; and (I) the
lead research and author of the Estado de la Nacion, an annual report on the status of the
education system in Costa Rica.
These initial meetings were set up with the support of the 12 group members’
initial correspondence through email with the aforementioned people (see Appendix A).
The contacts that this exploratory trip generated were utilized in identifying specific
schools that have received resources from Intel and therefore also identified which
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
school leaders were interviewed. The exploratory trip laid the groundwork for the
meetings to be set up with the political entities and multinational corporate leaders that
were interviewed during the research trip of the full team in June 2013.
Sample and Population
In this study, purposeful sampling stemming from a snowball effect was utilized.
The initial contacts, via email (Appendix A) and the exploratory trip, led to the creation
of a list of 12 schools at which the research team interviewed leaders and surveyed
teachers. Purposeful sampling was used because the study was focused on the impact of
a specific phenomenon on a specific identity, identified as globalization and the impact
of MNCs on education in Costa Rica. According to Honigmann (1982),
nonprobability sampling methods are logical as long as the fieldworker expects
mainly to use his data not to answer questions like “how much” and “how often”
but to solve qualitative problems, such as discovering what occurs, the implica-
tions of what occurs, and the relationships linking occurrences. (p. 82)
This is precisely what the study attempted to do by discovering themes and patterns
among the interviewees, school sites, and resource allocations.
The sample population consisted of four groups: a Costa Rican political leader,
directors of MNCs and affiliated organizations, school site leaders, and teachers. The
Costa Rican political leader involved in this study was the Minister of Public Education,
Dr. Leonardo Garnier. In addition, the Director of CINDE, Gabriella Llobet, and the
Director of the ODF, Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda, were interviewed for the study.
Natalie Valencia from the National Program of Science and Technology was also col-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
laboratively interviewed. Intel was the MNC on which the study was focused; therefore,
the research team interviewed the Director of Education and Academic Relations at
Intel, Mary-Helen Bialas, as well as Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel’s Teach
the Future Program.
The school sites focused on were K–12 schools in the surrounding area of San
José, Costa Rica, which had been identified as having received resources from Intel.
This study specifically focused on the leaders and teachers of Colegio Tecnico Pro-
fesional (CTP) de Carrizal. The director, Raul Cabezas Alvarez, was interviewed by
this researcher and a translator. CTP de Carrizal is a secondary school located in the
province of Alajuela, Costa Rica. It is a public technical high school, rurally located,
with a population of 733 students.
The research group collaboratively identified these four entities (i.e., political
leaders, directors of MNCs, and school site leaders and teachers) as necessary pieces in
the triangulation of data, providing for an opportunity to cross-reference information
with a substantial depth of understanding.
Instruments
The instruments for this study were interviews, surveys, and classroom observa-
tions. The interview protocols were initially created in January 2013 and refined
through the early spring of 2013. The observation and survey protocol were created in
the spring of 2013. Three piloted samples of the leadership interview and the
observation protocol were conducted in early spring. The group then had time to col-
laboratively respond to feedback gathered during the piloting process. As a result, the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
protocols became more aligned with the research questions and more succinct in their
delivery. The recruitment and consent letter (Appendix B) was created in the spring of
2013 to ensure adherence to the standards of research, as outlined by USC’s Institutional
Review Board.
Interviews
In order to create the oral interview questions, the research group utilized Mer-
riam’s (2009) guidelines to give structure to and elicit substance from the questions. A
semistructured interview format was used to provide structured questions necessary for
addressing the research questions, as well as to allow for some flexibility in the form of
follow-up or probing questions. Three sets of interview questions were created to
address the three groups of individuals being interviewed: education leaders (see Ap-
pendix C), MNCs (see Appendix D), and political leaders (see Appendix E). The ques-
tions stemmed from the same basic root question but were worded differently to make
each applicable to its audience; however, the root of the question remained to provide
for clear triangulation from the responses. When establishing interview questions, the
cohort worked collaboratively to include the following six types of questions that Patton
(2002) identified as necessary to stimulate responses from the interviewee: experience
and behavior questions, opinion and values questions, feeling questions, knowledge
questions, sensory questions, and background/demographic questions.
Surveys
The sample for this survey consisted of teachers who taught at K–12 schools that
have received Intel resources. The survey was distributed just once to gather feedback
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
and information in regard to the implementation of leadership and 21st-century skills as
a result of globalization and the impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica (Appendix
F). Fink (2013) noted that conducting surveys is a good form of data collection when
researchers want to evaluate the effectiveness of a program and to change people’s
knowledge, attitudes, health, or welfare. In the case of this study, the survey utilized
forced-choice questions to elicit specific information regarding the impact of globaliza-
tion and MNCs on school leadership and 21st-century skills in Costa Rica. A 5-point
Likert scale identified a level of agreement with the statements detailing a specific piece
of Wagner’s (2008) framework and its alignment with Costa Rican education.
Observations
An observation protocol was created to assess the implementation of 21st cen-
tury skills in the classroom (Appendix G). The protocol was created using Merriam’s
(2009) checklist of observable elements, including the following: physical setting, par-
ticipants, activities and interactions, conversation, subtle factors, and the observer’s own
behavior. In utilizing this observation protocol, each researcher assumed the role of
observer as participant, whereby the group knows the researcher’s observer activities
but participation of the observer in the group is definitely secondary to the role of
information gatherer (Merriam, 2009).
Data Collection
The researchers traveled to Costa Rica to gather data through interviews, sur-
veys, and observations. Four separate populations were addressed. Interviews were
conducted with education leaders, political leaders, and leaders of MNCs. Surveys were
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
designed and implemented with secondary Intel school teachers. Finally, an observation
protocol was created and implemented within classrooms of secondary Intel schools.
Different methods were utilized to provide a depth of data that allowed for
triangulation of data. Triangulation is the act of collecting data from a diverse range of
individuals and settings by utilizing a variety of methods. By using different methods
with varying strengths, the researchers reduced the risk that the conclusions would
reflect only the biases of a specific method and a more secure understanding of the
issues being investigated was therefore allowed (Maxwell, 2013).
The interviews with the political leaders, education leaders, and directors of
MNCs were necessary to gain understanding of each individual’s perspective regarding
how globalization and MNCs have impacted education in Costa Rica. In addition, ob-
servations of classrooms were utilized to gain firsthand knowledge of the implementa-
tion of 21st-century skills and either validate or negate the survey responses from the
classroom teachers. According to Merriam (2009), “observations can be used as a
firsthand encounter with the phenomena of interest rather than a secondhand account of
the world obtained in an interview” (p.117). Due to the limited time available to spend
in Costa Rica, the research team employed surveys to assess teachers’ perspectives on
how globalization and MNCs have impacted education in Costa Rica. Fink (2013)
concluded that surveys are best used when one needs information directly from people
about what they believe, know, and think in relation to the effectiveness of a particular
program. Utilizing these various methods is valuable in providing divergent perspec-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
tives, thereby creating a more complex understanding of the phenomena studied
(Greene, 2007).
Data Analysis
The process of data analysis involves finding patterns and themes from the data
collected. According to Creswell (2009), data analysis involves preparing the data for
analysis, conducting different analyses, gaining a deeper understanding of the data, rep-
resenting the data, and making an interpretation of the larger meaning of the data. The
data analysis for this study was done both collaboratively and individually. Both meth-
ods of analysis utilized Creswell’s (2009) six steps for data analysis in qualitative
research, identified as follows:
• Step 1: Organize and prepare data for analysis. This step will involve tran-
scribing interviews, typing up field notes from observations, and organizing
data into different types depending on the sources of information.
• Step 2: Read through all the data. In order to gain a general sense of what
the data have to offer, all researchers will read through the data to gain a
general understanding of and comfort level with the material collected.
• Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. “Coding is the pro-
cess of organizing the material into chunks or segments of text before bring-
ing meaning to information” (Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 171).
• Step 4: Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or
people as well as categories or themes for analysis.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
• Step 5: Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the
qualitative narrative.
• Step 6: Make an interpretation of the data by answering the question, “What
were the lessons learned?” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). (pp. 185–190)
Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability
This study implemented several steps and checkpoints to assure that the findings
were accurate and credible. In order to do so, three characteristics were addressed:
validity, reliability and generalizability. Qualitative validity means that the researcher
checks for the accuracy of the findings by employing certain procedures; qualitative
reliability indicates that the researcher’s approach is consistent across different research-
ers and different projects (Gibbs, 2008). Generalizability refers to the external validity
of applying results to new settings, people, or samples (Creswell, 2009).
To ensure for reliability, the dissertation research group utilized Gibbs’s (2008)
reliability procedures including checking the transcripts to make sure that they did not
contain any obvious mistakes, checking to make sure there was not a drift in the defini-
tion codes, holding regular meetings to ensure constant communication regarding the
codes, and cross-checking codes developed by the individual researchers.
Several validity strategies were utilized as well to check the accuracy of the
findings. Of the eight strategies recommended by Creswell (2009, pp. 191–192), this
dissertation research group utilized the following seven: (a) “triangulate the data”; (b)
“use member checking to determine the accuracy of the qualitative findings”; (c) “use
rich, thick description to convey the findings”; (d) “clarify the bias that the researchers
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
bring to the study”; (e) “present negative or discrepant information that runs counter to
the themes”; (f) “use peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the account”; and (g)
“use an external auditor to review the entire project.”
Ethical Considerations
All 12 members of this study, including the research leader, Dr. Escalante, had
to complete the IRB application process that included the completion of the Collabora-
tive Institutional Review Board Training Initiative (CITI). This is an online training
program that explains ethical conduct toward human subjects in all research projects.
After viewing four modules, each researcher takes quizzes individually where an aver-
age score of 80% must be received for a passing mark to be granted.
In addition, all instruments including interview protocols, the observation pro-
tocol, and the survey protocol were cleared through USC’s IRB. The IRB process
ensures that all aspects of the research project are copacetic with necessary ethical con-
siderations and that the project does not cause harm (mental, physical or otherwise) to
any participants.
Summary
In summary, Chapter 3 has depicted the research methodologies implemented to
ascertain the impact of globalization and MNCs on leadership and 21st-century skills in
education in Costa Rica. This chapter described in detail the study’s research design
model, the sample and population, the instruments utilized, how the data collection
process was enacted, and finally how the data were analyzed through both individual
and collaborative efforts. Through data collection involving interviews with political
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
leaders, education leaders, and directors of MNCs; surveys of teachers at secondary Intel
schools; and classroom observation at secondary Intel schools, the researchers were able
to gather ample data from which they triangulated their findings during the data analysis
process.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
Chapter 4
Results
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings from the analysis of the
information gathered through interviews, surveys, observations, and the literature
review. The findings will be analyzed through the viewpoint of the frameworks of
defining globalization (Spring, 2008), Reframing Organizations (Bolman & Deal,
2008), and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008).
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. This study identified what changes educational
leaders had experienced as a result of the development and implementation of policy
changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the study determined
how these initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an
education system than builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. The
study utilized the following questions to determine its purpose:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
Chapter 4 will first recall the individuals, schools, and corporation that partici-
pated in this study. Following the recollections of participants, each research question
will be addressed by stating the themes found as a result of data analysis. In order to
support each theme, data pertaining to surveys, interviews, and observations will be
referenced.
Participants
The study focused on a sample population of government officials, school site
administrators, teachers, and executives from MNCs in Costa Rica. Interviews were
conducted with executives from MNCs, government officials, and school site leaders.
The school sites involved in this study were preselected by the exploratory research
team. Only school sites that had developed partnerships with MNCs, specifically Intel,
were used in this study. This study was conducted to investigate the resulting impact of
these partnerships on the school sites. Specifically, this study was an analysis of data
focused on CTP de Carrizal.
CTP de Carrizal is a technical, public high school in the province of Alajuela. It
has approximately 730 students and 55 staff members on site. Under the tutelage of
Director Raul Cabezas Alvarez and Sub-Director Carlos Leon, CTP de Carrizal became
a technical school in 2006 and in 2007 began to teach to three specialties: executive
service centers, general ledger, and customs operations. Currently, CTP de Carrizal
offers courses in computers and conversational English as well as repair and mainte-
nance of computer equipment. These areas of study will allow students to diversify
their options in higher education avenues such as personnel and financial management,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
trade, international relations, public enterprise management, nongovernmental organiza-
tions, computer programming, and systems analysis.
CTP de Carrizal has worked with Intel for the past 3 years. It has served as a
distribution center partnering Intel goods with schools more rural than CTP de Carrizal.
Intel has donated vast resources as well as training to CTP de Carrizal.
Twenty-eight teachers from CTP de Carrizal completed surveys for the purpose
of this study, and 11 classrooms were observed. In addition, three other public high
schools in Costa Rica that are also partnered with Intel were used as reference: Don
Bosco, Dolce Nombre, and Liceo Bilingue de Belen. Totaling the participation from all
four high schools, 81 teachers completed surveys and 38 classroom observations were
conducted. Specifically at CTP de Carrizal, 40 surveys were distributed; 28 teacher
surveys were completed and collected, and 11 classroom observations were conducted
(see Table 1).
Table 1
Summary of Invited Study Participants and Those Who Actually Participated
Factor Total
Number of teachers surveyed 81
Number of surveys distributed at CTP de Carrizal 40
Number of responses from CTP de Carrizal 28
Number of observations 38
Number of observations at CTP de Carrizal 11
Note. CTP = Colegio Tecnico Profesional.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
Interviewed Participants
Individuals who were interviewed for this study were preselected by members of
the team who participated in the exploratory trip. All interviews were conducted as a
team with the exception of the specific school sites. Only this researcher and a transla-
tor from the team interviewed Raul Cabezas Alvarez, Director of CTP de Carrizal. As a
team, the following individuals were interviewed:
1. Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Costa Rica Minister of Public Education;
2. Natalie Valencia, Coordinator, National Program of Science and Technol-
ogy;
3. Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda, Research Coordinator of the ODF:
4. Mary-Helen Bialas, Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at
Intel;
5. Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel’s Teach the Future Program in
Costa Rica; and
6. Raul Cabezas Alvarez, Director of CTP de Carrizal.
A government official interviewed for this study was Dr. Leonardo Garnier, who
has been Minister of Public Education in Costa Rica since 2006 and is currently in his
second term. The Minister of Education is in charge of all levels of public education
including preschool, primary, and high school education.
Natalie Valencia is the Coordinator of the National Program of Science and
Technology Affairs. She is in charge of many aspects of the National Science Fair as
well as other projects that promote science and technology in education in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
Several people were interviewed who hold positions within the multidimen-
sional world of MNCs: Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda, Mary-Helen Bialas, and Patricia
Escalante. Dr. Bujanda is a Research Coordinator at the ODF. The ODF (2009) was
created in 1987 and is a private, nonprofit organization that executes national and
regional projects in the field of human development, educational innovation, and new
technologies.
Mary-Helen Bialas is the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager
for Intel. She is the liaison between Costa Rica and the programs that Intel corporate
provides. Bialas has been with Intel for the past 16 years. Intel is an American multi-
national semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in Santa Clara, Califor-
nia. The corporation is the world’s largest and highest valued semiconductor chip
maker, based on revenue. Intel partnered with Costa Rica in 1996 (World Bank Group,
MIGA, 2006).
Patricia Escalante is the former Director of Intel’s Teach the Future Program.
Currently Escalante is a professor at UCR and is in charge of several curriculum-
enhancing programs at Intel. Escalante serves as a liaison between the programs that
Intel offers and the Costa Rican community.
The educational leader interviewed specifically for this study was Raul Cabezas
Alvarez, the Director of CTP de Carrizal for the past 5 years. CTP de Carrizal is a tech-
nical high school that has partnered with Intel for over 3 years. Alvarez, along with his
Sub-Director, Carlos Leon, has been in charge of Intel’s distribution of goods to more
remote schools located in Alajuela and beyond.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
Findings for Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
Globalization has had a great impact on education around the world and has
increased the need to produce a knowledge-ready worker (Spring, 2008). There are four
major interpretations of educational globalization. The one most applicable to this
study is the world culture view, as it is based on the premise that contains Western
ideals of mass schooling, which is centered on the idea that schooling is based on a
belief that all children have the right to an education and that education is of utmost
importance in maintaining economic and democratic rights (Spring, 2008). MNCs,
specifically Intel, have also played a large role in perpetuating the flow of knowledge in
Costa Rica by funding several initiatives and programs through foreign direct invest-
ment (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The data analysis revealed two common themes: (a) a focus on producing a
knowledge-ready worker in Costa Rica and (b) Intel’s positive relations with the Costa
Rican education system.
Knowledge-Ready Worker
As a result of the impact of partnering with Intel and globalization, Costa Rican
high schools have increased their focus on producing a knowledge-ready worker. This
focus was evident through teacher surveys; classroom observations; and interviews of
government leaders, Intel representatives, and the school site leader of CTP de Carrizal.
The data will be presented followed by a summary of results for this research question.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
Survey data gathered from teachers at the four aforementioned high schools that
were partnered with Intel showed that 66 out of 81 teachers agreed that teacher training
had changed to promote 21st-century skills. Specifically looking at CTP de Carrizal,
the data showed that 21 out of 28 teachers felt that teacher training had changed to
promote 21st-century skills. These skills incorporate abilities such as collaboration,
critical thinking, and communication that are all necessary tools that a student must
acquire in order to be an effective, knowledge-ready worker. The findings revealed an
increase in the focus on 21st-century skills necessitated by the impact of globalization
and MNCs.
A follow-up survey question was asked to assess whether or not the focus of
education had changed at the school sites to incorporate 21st-century learning. The
response from the four high schools indicated that 63 out of 81 teachers agreed with this
statement. Similarly, at CTP de Carrizal, 18 out of 28 teachers indicated a positive
response, acknowledging that the focus of education had changed to incorporate 21st-
century learning. The change of focus identified through these surveys further validated
the focus on producing a knowledge-ready worker by emphasizing the incorporation of
21st-century skills into the curriculum. By so doing, the curriculum is becoming better
aligned with the needs of the workforce.
Survey data gathered also reflected a majority agreement among teachers at CTP
de Carrizal and the other three high schools that students are college and/or career ready
with 21st-century skills. Finally, building upon that readiness, the teachers at all high
schools surveyed by a vast majority that science, technology, engineering, and math
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
(STEM) education is important to the economic future of Costa Rica. This belief is
indicative of a professional atmosphere that is now focused on incorporating the 21st-
century skills that are necessary to create a knowledge-ready worker who is prepared for
the workforce (see Table 2).
The finding that Costa Rica is placing a higher emphasis on producing a
knowledge-ready worker was further solidified by interviews with key persons in gov-
ernment, Intel, and at the school site. When the Minister of Public Education, Dr.
Garnier, was asked about the impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica, it was
clearly evident that he had taken into account these forces when implementing educa-
tional policy and decision-making strategies. Dr. Garnier (personal interview, June 24,
2013) stated that “you cannot make decisions without taking into account what is going
on in the global economy.” He went on to say that
our education systems starts moving in one direction and then your idea of the
world changes and your labor market changes, liberal professions which were
very common in the past such as doctors and lawyers . . . now more kids want to
be engineers and biologists, science-oriented jobs and service-oriented jobs. . . .
And that means a lot for preparation because you have to prepare kids for a
variety of different things. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
To gain insight into a corporate perspective on Costa Rica’s focus on producing
a knowledge-ready worker, Mary-Helen Bialas, Director of Academic Relations at Intel,
was interviewed. The need was clearly evident as she stated that “there was a huge
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
Table 2
Survey Data Regarding Knowledge-Ready Workers
Four high schools
CTP de partnered with
Survey question Carrizal
a
Intel
b
3. Teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, and com-
munication.
Strongly agree 12 36
Agree 9 30
Disagree 5 11
Strongly disagree 1 1
Don’t know 1 2
9. Students are college and/or career ready with 21st-
century skills.
Strongly agree 4 15
Agree 14 46
Disagree 10 20
Strongly disagree 0 0
Don’t know 0 0
11. The focus on education has changed at your school
site to incorporate 21st-century learning.
Strongly agree 4 24
Agree 16 39
Disagree 7 17
Strongly disagree 0 0
Don’t know 1 1
15. Do you believe that STEM education is important to
the economic future of Costa Rica?
Yes 27 75
No 1 5
Note. CTP = Colegio Tecnico Profesional; STEM = science, technology, engineering,
and math.
a
n = 28.
b
n = 81.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
interest in the part of the government to bring in higher level workforce opportunities to
develop the economy (personal interview, June 25, 2013). In addition, Bialas noted that
“there are many initiatives from the Ministry of Education to try to create a new process
and bring in some core base learning and to bring in project-based learning and to def-
initely bring in technology” (personal communication, June 25, 2013). Bialas’s senti-
ments further supported Costa Rica’s efforts in producing a knowledge-ready worker.
As described earlier, CTP de Carrizal is a technical high school focused on
preparing students to enter the workforce or attend college upon graduation. The direc-
tor of CTP de Carrizal was interviewed to gain a school leader’s perspective on global-
ization and MNCs’ impact on education in Costa Rica. Raul Cabezas Alvarez discussed
how his students needed more preparation than someone from his generation. Accord-
ing to Alvarez,
earlier in Costa Rica it was very popular to only have on single title, but today
people have the need to continue with their education and to diversify their areas
of study. Formerly, one would only follow one area of study. Now people have
to broaden their fields since markets are wider. (personal communication,
June 26, 2013)
In order to validate what was reported in the surveys and interviews, observa-
tions were analyzed. Observation data gathered while at CTP de Carrizal and the three
other high schools partnered with Intel further supported Costa Rica’s focus on cultivat-
ing a knowledge-ready worker. Eleven classrooms at CTP de Carizzal were observed.
In all of them there was evidence of lessons that promoted higher level thinking through
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
a curriculum that reflected 21st-century skills. In addition, all classrooms observed
showed evidence of students collaborating on classwork, with the exception of two
classes where the students were taking final examinations. These observed skills were
indicative of education focused on producing a knowledge-ready worker. Similar
results were found in the other four high schools partnered with Intel.
The triangulation of surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that Costa
Rica is focusing on producing a knowledge-ready worker through curriculum changes
and teacher training, all of which includes 21st-century skills learning.
Positive Partnership With Intel
Intel’s relationship with Costa Rica largely began in the mid 1990s when the
corporation built a large infrastructure in Costa Rica that would supply the company
with a large portion of staple microchips. It was Intel’s vision to work with the Costa
Ricans in a capacity more in depth than just factory hand-finishing labor. Intel chose
Costa Rica as the site for this project because it felt that the education system was strong
and had the potential to produce workers who could be involved with higher level
thinking, such as the research and design elements of the company (World Bank,
MIGA, 2006). Intel went on to develop several projects and initiatives to help cultivate
Costa Rican students’ skills and opportunities at school as well as in the job market.
Intel invests approximately $300,000 per year in Costa Rica to support and improve
teachers’ preparation in the areas of science, mathematics, technical education, and
computing, thus providing students with the skills they will need to confront the de-
mands of modern times (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
It is evident through this study that Costa Rica has been positively impacted by
globalization and Intel’s involvement. This impact has resulted in both economic
growth as well as advancement in educational expectations and preparedness, which are
seen in the classroom and identified by the teachers.
Looking first at CTP de Carrizal, 17 out of 28 teachers surveyed felt that Intel
had positively impacted their school site. Nineteen of the 28 teachers surveyed felt that
Intel had improved resources at their school site, and 22 stated that they used technology
in their classroom. All of the technology available at CTP de Carrizal was provided by
Intel. Similar numbers could be seen when looking at all four area high schools part-
nered with Intel, as 55 out of 81 teachers surveyed felt that Intel had positively impacted
their school site, and 60 felt that Intel had improved resources at their school site. When
looking at the four schools 65 out of 81 teachers surveyed used technology in their
classrooms with the great majority of this technology and training coming from Intel
(see Table 3).
The positive relationship between Intel and Costa Rica was further identified
through interviews encompassing several different positions of relevancy—from politi-
cal leaders to school site leaders to leaders of MNCs. The positive relationship was
captured in the comments by the Minster of Public Education, key representatives from
Intel, and CTP de Carrizal’s head director. When asked about MNCs’ contribution to
changes in Costa Rica, the Minister of Public Education, Dr. Garnier, reported that
Costa Rica has changed strategies in terms of their economic outlook. He continued:
“We have to transform our external. We have to export different things, not just coffee
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
Table 3
Survey Data Regarding Impact of Intel at School Sites
Four high schools
CTP de partnered with
Survey question Carrizal Intel
7. Intel has positively impacted your school site.
Strongly agree 10 26
Agree 7 29
Disagree 4 12
Strongly disagree 2 6
Don’t know 5 8
8. Intel has improved resources at your school site.
Strongly agree 10 28
Agree 9 29
Disagree 5 12
Strongly disagree 2 4
Don’t know 2 5
12. Technology is used in your classroom.
Strongly agree 11 31
Agree 9 34
Disagree 7 14
Strongly disagree 1 1
Don’t know 0 1
Note. CTP = Colegio Tecnico Profesional.
a
n = 28.
b
n = 81.
and sugar. It is not just about protecting the internal market; we have to be actually
competitive, and international investment can be very useful for this” (L. Garnier,
personal interview, June 24, 2013). This type of FDI has not only led to a difference in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
the products that Costa Rica produces but has also led to a difference in the quality of
job opportunities.
In order to gain insight into the corporate perspective, key persons at Intel were
interviewed regarding their perspective on the relationship between Intel and the Costa
Rican education system. Mary-Helen Bialas, Director of Academic Relations and the
Education Program Manager for Intel, noted:
We’ve [Intel] definitely brought in higher paid workforce opportunities, and it’s
at the technician level and the operation level as well as the engineering level.
There’s also a transfer of knowledge that happens because we have a really low
turnover rate. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
In addition, Bialas discussed Intel’s impact on attracting other companies, alluding to
the “signaling” effect discussed in Chapter 2 (World Bank, MIGA, 2006). She reported
that “Intel was one of the companies that attracts other companies. With Intel here
[Costa Rica] we became the example to others” (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
Intel’s impact not only is economically evident but is also seen in the educa-
tional realm. Natalie Valencia, Coordinator of the National Program of Science and
Technology Affairs, stated:
Intel has trained teachers on how to integrate technology. Intel provided the
funding for the Students as Scientists Program and developed pilot programs for
rural teachers with many grades in one room. They have provided resources so
the kids have greater access to technology and information” (personal communi-
cation, June 24, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
Patricia Escalante further reflected on the usefulness of the Intel Teach the
Future Program in reaching educators from urban as well as rural schools, “This pro-
gram trained master teachers to train teachers at their school sites on the use of technol-
ogy as a learning tool, to teach students 21st-century skills” (personal interview,
June 28, 2013). This type of teacher training allows information to get to the far-
reaching far-reaching districts that are away from center-city life and provides their
students with exposure to technology otherwise not available.
Director Alvarez experienced the positive nature of Intel’s partnership with
Costa Rican schools first hand. As mentioned earlier, his school, CTP de Carrizal,
serves as the distribution center for Intel’s donated products. CTP de Carrizal keeps an
inventory of the donated products and fulfills wish lists from rural schools, thereby
allowing them also to gain from Intel’s donated goods. As Alvarez explained this
process, he looked around the room and stated that almost everything except the build-
ing itself was a gift from Intel. When asked what changes he had seen in school re-
sources due to Intel’s involvement, Alvarez said, “There has been a big influence, and
you will see it everywhere” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). As Alvarez brought the
research team on a tour of the school, there was not a room that did not have Intel
products in it. From the gym equipment to the food trays, from the computers to the
trash cans almost all of it was from Intel. Alvarez went on to say:
It [Intel] has completely changed the institution. For instance, in electronics one
of the machine sensors that usually costs $400 we are now able to have. Before,
it was only used as a display, but nowadays the students can have access to it all
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
the time. We now have doubled the amount of computers, including the ones
that Intel donates; visits to Intel changes the students’ and teachers’ vision. In
Intel, for example, there is a norm to walk on the right side; and as you know,
this is very different in Costa Rica, so now when the student goes into a new
company, he has a different mindset” (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
From subtle nuances to an extreme number of material donations, Intel has made a
significant difference for the students at CTP de Carrizal.
In order to triangulate the data gathered from surveys and interviews, observa-
tions were also utilized. The research team’s classroom observations showed similar
trends of Intel’s positive impact on Costa Rica. In all four high schools partnered with
Intel, 25 out of 38 teachers used technology in the classroom, and 33 had access to
technology. Looking specifically at CTP de Carrizal, 7 out of 11 classrooms used
technology and all 11 had access to technology. It is important to keep in mind that at
the time the research was conducted, some final examinations were being taken, and
that situation may have altered the classroom’s use of technology at that time.
Results Summary for Research Question 1
The positive relationship that CTP de Carrizal has with Intel has helped CTP de
Carrizal to produce a more knowledge-ready worker. It is clear that the need for a
knowledge-ready worker has grown as a result of globalization and the impact of
MNCs. Intel specifically has been able to help CTP de Carrizal to fulfill the need to
produce a knowledge-ready worker by supplying resources and technology that would
otherwise be unavailable to this school site. In conclusion, it was found in this study
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
that Intel has positively impacted Costa Rica both economically as well as academically
to help produce a student who is well prepared for the workforce.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research question 2 asked: What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
Wagner (2008) presented seven survival skills in relation to 21st-century learn-
ing. Three of these seven are themes present in the data that were compiled and ana-
lyzed in this study: (a) a focus on accessing and analyzing information, (b) a focus on
critical thinking and problem solving, and (c) a focus on effective oral and written com-
munication. Evidence of these three themes was found in the surveys, observations and
interviews conducted.
Accessing and Analyzing Information
As a result of globalization and MNCs’ impact on Costa Rica, the Costa Rican
education system has had an increased focus on teaching students how to access and
analyze information. Because technology is a major avenue to accessing and analyzing
information, this has become a focus for the Costa Rican education system.
Costa Rica has always been a country focused on education, possibly due to the
fact that many of its leaders were previous educators. This focus has now evolved to
include an emphasis on the technological aspect of education. Clearly, with
participation in the National Science Fair becoming law in 2004, the Minister of Public
Education finds technology and science to be critical aspects of a Costa Rican educa-
tion.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
Results from the surveys distributed at CTP de Carrizal indicated the focus on
technology to be present at this high school. At least three quarters of the teachers
surveyed at CTP de Carrizal felt that they have access to technology, and just over 75%
were utilizing this technology in their curriculum. As CTP de Carrizal is a rural school,
the staff rely heavily on the goods and services donated by Intel in order to achieve the
aforementioned numbers regarding access to and use of technology. When surveyed,
the majority of teachers felt that Intel had a positive impact on their school and that Intel
had indeed improved resources at their school site. Coupling Intel’s resources with the
will and ability of the teachers to use the technology, it is therefore possible for the
school to teach skills that are necessary for the 21st century. Teachers at CTP de Car-
rizal further supported this notion, as over 95% of those surveyed felt that STEM educa-
tion is important to the economic future of Costa Rica.
This finding at CTP de Carrizal was further supported by survey data collected
from the four other high schools partnered with Intel. With 81 teachers surveyed, over
60 had access to technology and were using it in their classroom. In addition, over 50
thought that Intel had positively impacted their school site and had improved their
resources. Like the teachers of CTP de Carrizal, over 93% of the teachers at other high
schools felt that STEM education is important to the economic future of Costa Rica.
In addition to survey data reflecting a consistent focus on technology, interviews
with corporate leaders, political entities, and school leaders further supported this focus.
The Minister of Public Education, Dr. Garnier, felt that it is not just about having access
to the technology but about the education that coincides with the technology:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
Yes, we are buying kids computers more than we had before, . . . but we’re
taking different approaches. In some schools you have a lab; some have a mo-
bile lab; some have computers in their classrooms; some have a laptop per kid.
Basically our objective is that every kid should be in contact with the technol-
ogy. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
As previously detailed in the Chapter 2, Intel has started several programs
focused on helping Costa Rican schools to be better equipped with technological materi-
als and knowledge through donations of goods and services (World Bank, MIGA,
2006). When asked about MNCs’ impact on changes in Costa Rica, Patricia Escalante,
the former director of Intel’s Teach the Future Program, spoke of an increase in job
opportunities and an increased value in STEM subjects, educational programs, and
policies. In addition, Escalante stated that “the schools of education [teacher training]
are more open now to the integration of technology than 5, 6 years ago. I think the main
reason is the participation of international corporations in our country, and Intel was the
first big one” (personal interview, June 28, 2013).
Gabriella Llobet, research coordinator for CINDE, provided further evidence
that Intel has indeed had a positive impact on increasing the focus of education toward
technology. Llobet discussed Intel’s Teach the Future Program and the National
Science Fair as supporting evidence of Costa Rica’s focus on technology due to Intel’s
involvement and globalization (personal interview, June 24, 2013).
The proof is found in the schools. Director Alvarez of CTP de Carrizal oversees
his technical high school as it serve as an Intel distribution center. As a school, it
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
decides what it needs in terms of resources allocated from Intel and then fulfills the
needs of the more rural area schools by getting the goods to them and noting where
services are needed. Alvarez felt that globalization and the presences of MNCs have
forced people to be up to date with technology. When asked what changes he has seen
in school resources due to Intel’s involvement, Alvarez replied:
There has been a big influence, and you will see it everywhere. The machines
right here [pointing to a computer] is from Intel. The one the teacher has is Intel,
too, as well as other things [technology] that we buy with the resources gener-
ated from Intel. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Data gathered through observation was a true testament of the significant access
and use of technology at CTP de Carrizal. Of the 11 classrooms observed, all had
access to technology. All classrooms had computers, and several had smart boards. In
addition, two classrooms featured extensive robotics and engineering machinery from
which the students were learning how to build different types of robots that would
provide a service to fulfill a specific need within the community. This application of
knowledge was reflective of how access to technology can lead to self-discovery of
learning, thus indicating that all classrooms observed had evidence of a curriculum
reflecting 21st-century skills. The 21st-century skills observed most frequently were
critical thinking, collaboration, communications, and accessing and analyzing informa-
tion.
The observations conducted in the area high schools partnered with Intel indi-
cated very similar results. Over 85% of classrooms observed had access to technology,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
and over 65% were using the technology when observed. Over 90% showed evidence
of the curriculum reflecting 21st-century skills. It was clearly apparent that technology
had become a major focus of education at the high school in this study
The focus of Costa Rica’s education system on technology as a result of global-
ization and MNCs was evident across all data and individuals surveyed, observed, and
interviewed. The skills in technology will allow the student population to become much
more prepared to access and analyze information, which Wagner (2008) deemed is a
necessary skill for successful survival in business.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
As research shows that asking good questions, critical thinking, and problem
solving go hand in hand in the minds of most employers and business consultants and
that taken together, they represent the first survival skill of the of the new global
“knowledge economy” (Wagner, 2008). One of the major findings from a recent report
on mathematics education, funded by the U.S. Department of Education (National
Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008), showed that best learning happens when skills and
content are learned together. Therefore, learning basic rules and procedures at the same
time that students learn how to think and solve problems is most effective. Encouraging
critical thought and problem solving was a theme found in the teacher surveys, class-
room observations, and the interviews with key people.
The teacher surveys at the four high schools partnered with Intel reflected a
focus on critical thinking and problem solving. Over 80% of the teachers surveyed felt
that their lessons promoted higher level thinking. Over 75% felt that the focus of edu-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
cation had changed at their school site to incorporate 21st-century learning. Over 70%
also feel that teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in the
classroom. A key element in 21st-century learning is critical thinking and problem
solving.
Looking specifically at CTP de Carrizal, 19 out of 28 teachers surveyed felt that
their lessons promoted higher level thinking. Over 70% felt that the focus of education
had changed at their school site to incorporate 21st-century learning. This finding was a
good indication that critical thinking and problem solving had become a focus at CTP
de Carrizal in the classroom as well as throughout the school. Interviews with the
Minister of Public Education, the former director of Intel’s Teach the Future Program,
and the Director of CTP de Carrizal also reflected the focus on critical thinking and
problem solving in the Costa Rican schools as a result of globalization and MNCs.
During the research team’s interview with Dr. Garnier, Minster of Public Educa-
tion, he discussed how his ministry has made efforts to change the more traditional rote
memory style of teaching and learning to encompassing a much more student-centered
approach to developing students’ ability to think critically. When referring to embed-
ding critical thought into the curriculum, Garnier noted:
We have smuggled a logics course into the Spanish curriculum. From 7 to 11
grade, you have to go from understanding language, natural cultural arguments,
valid, invalid, fallacies all the way to p then q. The Spanish teachers were very
scared when they heard what seemed like equations. The point is that if you
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
don’t understand logic, you cannot have critical thought. (personal interview,
June 24, 2013)
Critical thought is also evident in the training of teachers by programs such as
the Intel Teach the Future Program. This program trains a set of master teachers who, in
turn, train other teachers to implement 21st-century skills into their teaching and assess-
ment. Patricia Escalante, the former director of the Intel Teach the Future program,
reported that “every year from 2008 to 2012, the focus [of the Intel Teach program] was
more centered on developing cognitive skills and the 21st-century skills” (personal in-
terview, June 28, 2013). This design of instruction of master teachers is imperative to
spreading teacher training in Costa Rica regarding technical skills and 21st-century
skills, including critical thinking and problem solving, because there are so many remote
districts and schools that would otherwise be left out of the knowledge sharing. Intel
has done a good job assessing the Costa Rican education system and applying the neces-
sary strategies to share information regarding 21st-century skills across the country, as
evident through Intel’s Teach the Future Program.
At the school site level, the spread of teaching critical thought and problem
solving is also evident, as noted in my interview with the Director Alvarez of CTP de
Carrizal. As Alvarez reflected on the mission of his technical high school, he stated that
one of the objectives is to best prepare students to enter the workforce. In order to do
so, he found that he must ensure that the students are using the type of critical thought
and problem-solving strategies that are necessary in the job market. Alvarez noted that
“there could be years of gap between what we are doing in the classroom and what they
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
want in a company, but we are trying to identify those gaps to try to get closer to it”
(personal interview, June 26, 2013). This type of real-world critical thinking and
problem-solving education was demonstrated at CTP de Carrizal, as reflected in the
teacher surveys.
The observations showed evidence of critical thinking and problem solving as
well. The cumulative observation data collected from the four high schools partnered
with Intel reflected that 34 out of 38 classrooms were exhibiting lessons that promoted
higher level thinking. Also, in 30 of these classrooms, the students were engaged in the
classroom, and in 31 classrooms the desks were set up in a collaborative manner. In
over 75% of the classrooms observed, there was evidence of student-centered instruc-
tion taking place. Student-centered instruction, higher level thinking, and collaboration
are all elements indicative of critical thought and problem solving taking place.
CTP de Carrizal exhibited significant evidence of a school that values critical
thought and problem-solving abilities in its students. In all 11 of the observations con-
ducted, there was evidence of lessons that promoted higher level thinking taking place
in the classroom. In all 11 classrooms observed, there was evidence of students engaged
in their classwork. In 9 of these classrooms, the desks were set up in a collaborative
manner to foster critical thinking and problem solving among peers. Student-centered
instruction was also evident in 9 out of 11 classrooms. It is important to note that
because 2 of the classrooms had students taking exams, the objective did not allow for
student-centered instruction or collaborative seating to take place. Overall, CTP de
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
Carrizal was a school focused on developing critical thought and problem-solving
abilities in its classes.
Effective Oral and Written Communication
Communication skills are a major factor highlighted in dozens of studies over
the years that focus on students’ lack of preparation for both college and the workplace,
and these skills are only going to become more important as teams are increasingly
composed of individuals from diverse cultures. The ability to express one’s views
clearly in a democracy and to communicate effectively across cultures is an important
citizenship skill as well (Wagner, 2008).
Effective oral and written communication is a critical 21st-century skill, as
identified by Wagner (2008) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012). The
focus on effective and oral communication in Costa Rica was positively impacted by
globalization and the impact of MNCs. There was clear evidence supporting this theme
found in the literature review, teacher surveys, classroom observations, and interviews
conducted with Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Mary-Helen Bialas, and Raul Cabezas Alvarez.
Teacher surveys conducted at the four local high schools partnered with Intel
indicated that there was definitely a focus on communication. When asked whether
student collaboration took place daily, 61 out of 81 teachers agreed, indicating that over
75% of those teachers were finding ways to get students talking and working with one
another. When looking specifically at CTP de Carrizal, 17 out of 28 teachers indicated
that collaboration takes place daily in the classroom. This focus on collaboration was
indicative of an emphasis on communication and a need to work together.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
An important element in 21st-century communication is being able to access
technology and utilize it for communication. When surveyed, 61 out of 81 high school
teachers agreed that they had access to technology in their classrooms, compared to 21
out of 28 at CTP de Carrizal. In order to fully utilize such technology and communica-
tion avenues, it is important that teachers received proper teacher training. When
surveyed, 66 out of 81 teachers and 21 out of 28 at CTP de Carrizal felt that teacher
training had changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication. Also, 63 out of 81 high school teachers, with 20 out of 28
teachers at CTP de Carrizal, felt that the focus of education at their school site had addi-
tionally changed to incorporate 21st-century learning. Teacher preparation and vision of
a school site are a necessary piece in ensuring that the 21st-century skills, such as
effective communication, are incorporated in the classroom.
Interviews with key persons also showed evidence of effective communication
taking place as an impact of globalization and MNCs’ involvement in Costa Rica.
When asked about 21st-century learning, Dr. Garnier emphasized the need for effective
communication by making it an avenue of learning. For example, Dr. Garnier states that
“kids have to solve problems, kids have to ask questions, kids have to debate, they have
to think” (personal interview, June 24, 2013). Dr. Garnier went on to provide an exam-
ple regarding the science curriculum: “In science we’ve been following the pathway of
learning science through the questions, not through answers” (personal interview,
June 24, 2013). It is the same information, but the approach has been changed to create
better communication methods and promote critical thinking through these methods.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
Debating and questioning are two important aspects of communication that can lead to
deeper critical thought (Wagner, 2008).
Mary-Helen Bialas reiterated this focus on communication. During the personal
interview with her on June 25, 2013, the research team inquired about successful strate-
gies in communication with area schools and Intel’s involvement. Bialas replied, “ It’s
more of a partnership, where you can work on things together and it’s not always the
resources [donated] . . . but the transfer of knowledge.” Understanding and expressing
the relationship between Intel and the area schools as a partnership reflects the impor-
tance of communication not only at the school site level but also at the corporate level.
At CTP de Carrizal specifically, the evidence of globalization and the impact of
MNCs on schools’ ability to integrate 21st-century skills—in particular, communica-
tion—was also clear in interviewing the school site leader, Raul Cabezas Alvarez.
When asked about the incorporation of 21st-century skills in the curriculum at CTP de
Carrizal, Alvarez provided an example of how the curriculum, specifically in English
and focused on customer service, has to be kept up to date in order to produce students
who are ready for the workforce. To do this, Alvarez stated that he, too, as an adminis-
trator had to stay focused on new technology and make sure he knows what is needed in
the community and business sector.
The data collected from interviews and teacher surveys were further supported
by observations conducted at the school sites. According to the data collected from the
four area high schools partnered with Intel, 26 out of 38 classrooms reflected an
emphasis on bilingual education, specifically with respect to English. At CTP de
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
Carrizal, 5 out of 11 classrooms reflected an emphasis on bilingual education, specifi-
cally English.
As noted earlier, collaboration is a significant focus of the communication piece.
As the data showed, 29 out of 38 of the high school classrooms observed showed evi-
dence of collaboration among students taking place in the classrooms. In addition, 31 of
38 high school classrooms showed evidence that the students’ desks were set up in a
collaborative manner. Observation data collected at CTP de Carrizal indicated similar
findings, where in 9 out of 11 classrooms there was evidence of student collaboration
and students’ desks were set up in a collaborative manner. It is important to note that at
CTP de Carrizal during the time of observation, students in 2 classrooms were taking
final exams and therefore needed to work independently to assess their knowledge base.
Another important piece taken into consideration was the involvement of the
students in the lessons. In order for communication to occur, there must be engaged
students. At CTP de Carrizal, in 9 out of 11 classrooms student-centered instruction
was evident, and students in all 11 classrooms were engaged in the classroom activity.
This type of student involvement and student-centered planning is a necessary compo-
nent in effective communication.
Results Summary for Research Question 2
Analysis of the four aspects of research conducted—namely, the literature
review, teacher surveys, classroom observations, and interviews—have led to the devel-
opment of three themes. As a result of globalization and the impact of MNCs on Costa
Rica, CTP de Carrizal has increased its focus on the following: (a) accessing and analyz-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
ing information, (b) critical thinking and problem solving, and (c) effective oral and
written communication. These three themes encompass the drive to incorporate 21st-
century learning in classrooms. It was evident that across all levels, including teachers,
school site leaders, as well as the Minister of Public Education, 21st-century learning is
at the forefront of their mission. All three groups felt that the increase in focus on these
21st-century learning skills had increased as a result of globalization and the impact of
MNCs. This is not to say that these skills were not being taught before the impact of
globalization and MNCs but rather the impact helped further push this mission and
make it available to more students.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research question 3 asks: How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions as a result of the impact of globalization and MNCs?
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), there are four frames of leadership:
political, symbolic, human resources, and structural. In order to be a more effective
leader, research has shown that one must operate from a multiframe perspective by
incorporating all frames or perspectives into decision-making and implementation.
(Bolman & Deal, 1991). Through surveys, observations, and interviews conducted, it
was evident that educational leadership in Costa Rica has been impacted by policy
decisions resulting from the influence of globalization and MNCs. This impact has
resulted in the educational leadership utilizing more of a multiframe approach when it
comes to educational decisions, mission, and vision. Two themes in particular were
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 109
identified through the research: (a) a focus on social responsibility and (b) a focus on
instructional leadership.
Focus on Social Responsibility
Social responsibility is “the obligation of an organization’s management toward
the welfare and interests of the society in which it operates” (BusinessDictionary.com,
2013, para. 1). By definition, social responsibility elicits characteristics found in all
four frames of leadership identified by Bolman and Deal (2008). The structural aspect
is targeted by a connection between the responsibly and the fulfillment of a logistical
need. The political aspect is fulfilled by the notion that social responsibility can create
certain partnerships, alliances, and/or networks. Social responsibility aligns with the
human resources frame because it is focused on an investment in people through train-
ing, support, and/or education. Finally, a leader who is socially responsible shows
elements of the structural frame because he or she has goals and objectives that are to be
met through organized alliances. It is therefore evident that in order for a leader, be it in
education or business, to be socially responsible, he or she must operate from a
multiframe perspective.
Survey data collected from the four area high schools partnered with Intel, as
well as CTP de Carrizal, indicated that the majority of teachers surveyed felt that Intel
has not only improved their resources at the school site but also Intel has had a positive
impact on their school. As the literature review indicated, it has been part of Intel’s
mission since its start in 1996 in Costa Rica to help the area schools to produce more
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
knowledge-ready workers (World Bank, MIGA, 2006). This positive impact has
resonated throughout the education world, impacting teachers and leaders alike.
Data collected from the teachers at the four area high schools partnered with
Intel, including CTP de Carrizal, demonstrated that the majority of teachers felt that they
were being held accountable for implementing these 21st-century skills that have re-
sulted from globalization and MNCs involvement, as mentioned earlier. In addition the
majority of teachers from the four area high schools, including CTP de Carrizal, agreed
with the statement, “Educational decisions made in Costa Rica are influenced by multi-
national corporations.” The majority of these teachers agreed that their school site
leader communicated the goals and vision of the school to the teachers and students.
This evidence helps to complete the whole picture of policy implementation from the
boardroom to the classroom. According to the data, the majority of teachers agreed that
educational policy decisions are influenced by MNCs and that these policies are com-
municated from their school sites leaders to the teachers and students. The enactment of
these policies involving 21st-century skills are then clearly found in the classroom, as
survey data showed that over 75% of teachers in high schools partnered with Intel and
over 70% of CTP de Carrizal teachers agreed that the focus of education had changed at
their school site to incorporate 21st-century learning.
Interviews conducted during this study also reflected a focus on social responsi-
bility on behalf of the educational leadership as a result of policy decisions. When
asked how curriculum in schools has changed to incorporate 21st-century skills, Dr.
Garnier, the Minister of Public Education of Costa Rica, discussed the need to address
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
the idea of risk and how to get his students thinking in terms of logic (personal inter-
view, June 24, 2013). He incorporated the idea of risk at a community level: “It’s really
important to get kids thinking, ‘What risks does my neighborhood have? Maybe the
flood from the river or the mountain can fall.’ Let them think about those risks and then
propose something.” Dr. Garnier was trying to stimulate students’ thinking and collabo-
ration—for example, when he commented: “Costa Rica is one of those countries that
has a lot of difficulties thinking in terms of a risk society. It’s more like, oh, you have
an earthquake and then you think about what to do.” Dr. Garnier felt that through policy
implementation and the partnership of MNCs such as Intel, he could provide the stu-
dents with the resources necessary to study risk and try to collaborate to solve problems.
In addition to Intel being social responsible by donating goods and services to
Costa Rican schools, the corporation also has a skills-based volunteer program in which
over 60% of the Intel Costa Rican staff participate. Patricia Escalante used to run this
volunteer program and saw it evolve from nothing to over 2,800 staff members. When
asked about the program’s focus, Escalante (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
responded, “We’re targeting skills-based volunteering. So every kid can paint a wall
and sometimes we do, but our target is to go and mentor a child, to do judging in a
science fair, or give even a career day.” According to Escalante, these efforts are meant
to help show the students what the options are in the career world and to make a per-
sonal connection.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112
Intel, partnering with the UCR, had a major role in the National Science Fair that
is now a mandatory participation event in Costa Rican schools. According to Dr. Maria
Eugenia Bujanda of ODF,
I think they [Intel] have done a an incredible job supporting the scientific fair.
That’s another example of how they came to support schools. . . . They saw that
was something worth doing so they have done a very good job improving the
program and adding resources. (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
These efforts reflect Intel’s attitude toward maintaining its reputation as a socially re-
sponsible company looking to partner with socially responsible leaders.
Observations conducted at CTP de Carrizal and the four area high schools part-
nered with Intel also supported the fact that there has been focus on social responsibility
on behalf of the educational leadership in Costa Rica. The data reported earlier clearly
identified school sites that have implemented 21st-century skills, including elements of
collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. This evidence supports the idea
that the school site leaders are following through on their efforts to produce a more
prepared, knowledge-ready student. Social responsibility is at the core of this mission
as these leaders utilize all four frames identified by Bolman and Deal (2008) to imple-
ment such programs and incorporate 21st-century skills into the curriculum so that their
students are best prepared to enter society as workers.
Specifically at CTP de Carrizal, one observation took place during a robotics
course in which not only did the students have to utilize recycled material to create a
robot, but also the robot had to solve a problem that society was currently facing. For
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113
example, one group of students created a robot out of used Intel parts that would sort
through recycled material, thus cutting down on the amount of time a human would
need to do the exact same procedure. Another group of students designed a robot to
help physical therapists aid their patients regain mobility and build their muscle mass
back to functioning levels. The core of the lesson was to make sure these products that
the students were creating were helping society at large and were more than just engi-
neering a mechanical device.
The other critical observation to note at CTP de Carrizal is that it serves as the
distribution center for schools that are farther away from the city that would otherwise
not have access to resources donated by Intel. CTP de Carrizal keeps a large inventory
of all items donated by Intel and then distributes these resources with schools that are
more rural. The process is done with great detail and tact in determining where each
item should go. In addition, the inventory is utilized in several ways. For example, if
the teacher needed a trash can, one could be welded together from parts that were stored
in the inventory supplied by Intel. The inventory was kept with the principles of reduce,
reuse, and/or recycle, which were conducted flawlessly.
Focus on Instructional Leadership and School Autonomy
Instructional leaders are goal oriented, focusing on the improvement of student
academic outcomes. Given the dire straits in which they find their schools, these leaders
focus on a narrower mission than many of their peers (Hallinger, 2003). Likewise,
research also indicates that instructional leaders are viewed as culture builders who seek
to create an “academic press” that fosters high expectations and standards for students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
as well as teachers (Mortimore, 1993; Purkey & Smith, 1984). This sense of cultural
shift of academia in Costa Rica is reflected in policy change resulting from globalization
and the impact of MNCs.
With respect to instructional leadership, there are characteristics that exemplifies
aspects of a multiframe leader. Instructional leaders lead from a combination of exper-
tise and charisma that reflect a human resources perspective (Cuban, 1984; Hallinger &
Murphy, 1986). Instructional leaders also focus on coordinating, controlling, supervis-
ing, and developing curriculum and instruction in the school that aligns with the struc-
tural perspective (Bamburg & Andrews, 1990; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). Research
has shown that instructional leaders are conceived to be “strong, directive leaders”
(Hallinger, 2003, p. 331) with qualities similar to a leader operating from not only a
symbolic frame but also a political one. As evidenced through this study, instructional
leaders exhibit multiframe characteristics, and this style has been a focus of educational
leadership in Costa Rica.
Teacher surveys collected at the four area high schools partnered with Intel
showed evidence of instructional leadership taking place at the school site level. This
type of leadership has been impacted by globalization and MNCs, as these leaders are
dealing with topics such as 21st-century skills and technology that were not at the
forefront prior to the aforementioned influences.
More than half of the teachers asked at the four high schools partnered with Intel
agreed that school site leaders are active participants in implementation of 21st-century
skills. This participation was evident specifically at CTP de Carrizal, as more than half
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
of the teachers felt that they were held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
the classroom. In addition, 75% of CTP de Carrizal teachers surveyed agreed that
teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication. As noted earlier, an instructional leader is responsi-
ble for making necessary changes to a school site in order to ensure the best learning for
their students. To make changes, one must communicate ideas, and over half of the
CTP de Carrizal teachers surveyed agreed that the site leader communicates the goals
and vision of the school to teachers and students.
Analyses of interviews also reflected evidence of instructional leadership with
respect to the educational leaders of Costa Rica. Dr. Garnier has been very involved
with the construction and adaptation of the curriculum of the Costa Rican education
system. As referenced earlier, he has placed a logics course into the Spanish curriculum
to encourage more critical thought and collaboration among students. When asked how
teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills, he replied that several
things have been done, but one of the most important is teachers are learning different
ways to teach. For example,
in science we’ve been following the pathway of learning science through the
questions and not through the answers. It’s been funny, because it is the same
curriculum but we are only changing the way the teachers teach science. Start
with the question, never the answer. And so we’ve been teaching the teachers
this process, and it has been very nice. (L. Garnier, personal interview, June 24,
2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
It is this hands-on approach that is reflective of instructional leadership and this way of
thinking that is evidence of 21st-century skills.
As discussed earlier in the findings for research question 1, Patricia Escalante
referenced Intel’s Teach the Future Program, which empowers teachers with technology
skills necessary in teaching 21st-century skills. When asked about the Teach the Future
Program, Escalante replied, “ This program has trained master teachers to train teachers
at their school site on the use of technology as a learning tool and to teach students 21st-
century skills” (personal interview, June 28, 2013). This program takes great collabora-
tion on behalf of the schools and Intel in order to make effective changes to the curricu-
lum and mode of teaching. It also requires school site leaders who are willing to em-
brace new ideas to bring the best education to their students.
CTP de Carrizal, under Director Alvarez’s leadership, evolved from a vocational
school to a technical school because there was a need in the community to fill technical
jobs as a result of globalization and the impact of MNCs. Alvarez continued to make
sure that efforts to educate his students were best met by creating a partnership with
Intel. This partnership has brought great access to resources and goods that these
students would otherwise not have access to. Moreover, the resources and partnerships
that Alvarez has brought to his school site are all efforts to prepare his students for the
workforce. When asked specifically about what evidence of STEM education was in his
school, Alvarez replied:
We use a program called “Innovaciones,” and with this program, the teachers are
guided by other teachers regarding the use of technology and project develop-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
ment. The teachers go to the computer rooms and work on developing new
projects according to each individual subject. We have implemented the use of
the smart boards so students get a closer approach to technology. Also, we have
the “Expo Ingeneria,” “Expo Joven,” and the Scientific Fair. These three are
focused on the development of technology. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
The integration and exposure to these STEM opportunities were evidence of
Alvarez’s efforts to bring 21st-century learning onto his campus, and such advocacy and
attention to detail in terms of curriculum alignment were reflective of instructional
leadership.
Observations conducted during this study also showed evidence of instructional
leadership taking place. As research has shown, instructional leaders must implement
change in terms of developing curriculum and instruction and be goal oriented and
focused on the improvement of student academic outcomes (Hallinger, 2003). At CTP
de Carrizal, the site leader had to make some changes to the program to bring in access
to curriculum centered on 21st-century skills, including massive technology advance-
ments as a result of the relationship with Intel. With these changes made by the instruc-
tional leader, teachers’ efforts in the classroom can improve student academic outcomes.
In the 11 classrooms observed at CTP de Carrizal, all had access to technology and all
indicated a curriculum that reflected 21st-century skills. In all classrooms with the
exceptions of two where testing was occurring, the students were working together in a
collaborative manner. These observations serve as evidence of 21st-century learning
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
taking place that was set in the curriculum by an instructional leader who was focused
on curriculum and execution made possible by a relationship with Intel.
Results Summary for Research Question 3
An analysis of data was conducted to include data gathered from the literature
review, teacher surveys, classroom observations and interviews, all of which resulted in
the development of two clear themes. As a consequence of policy decisions made due
to the impact of globalization and MNCs, educational leadership has become focused on
social responsibility and the implementation of instructional leadership.
The data showed that educational leaders have had a hands-on approach to cur-
riculum implementation and teacher accountability all while effecting change of curricu-
lum to incorporate 21st-century skills and technology. The mission of social responsi-
bility has been at the core of the relationship between Intel and CTP de Carrizal. Serv-
ing as a distribution center of Intel goods, CTP de Carrizal proactively seeks to meet the
needs of the far-reaching areas of the community. CTP de Carrizal directors work with
their own school site to ensure not only that 21st-century skills are being taught in the
classroom but also that their students are receiving a well rounded education by incorpo-
rating social responsibility into their everyday lives and mission.
Summary
Data analysis included a review of literature, surveys, interviews, and observa-
tions. The data were aligned and analyzed using the following three frameworks:
defining globalization (Spring, 2008), Reframing Organizations (Bolman & Deal,
2008), and Wagner’s 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
Data analysis for research question 1 dealt with two themes. One theme was that
the Costa Rican education system, as a result of the impact of globalization and MNCs,
specifically Intel, has become more focused on creating knowledge-ready workers. The
second theme identified was that Intel and the Costa Rican education system had devel-
oped a positive relationship due to globalization and the impact of MNCs. The positive
relationship identified between Intel and the Costa Rican education system, specifically
CTP de Carrizal, has led to the increased efforts at the high school level to produce
knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica.
Analysis of the data resulted in three major themes for research question 2. The
first theme was that the schools in the study focused on accessing and analyzing infor-
mation to include application in technology. The second theme was that the high school
curriculum in Costa Rica is focused on critical thinking and problem solving. The final
theme identified was that the high school curriculum in Costa Rica is focused on effec-
tive oral and written communication. These three themes yielded from the data analysis
all pertain to what Wagner (2008) identified as three of the seven survival skills for
21st-century learning. This focus on 21st-century skills in Costa Rica was found to have
increased as a result of the impact of globalization and MNCs.
Two major themes were found in the data analysis for research question 3.
Policy decisions that were made as a result of the impact of globalization and MNCs led
to educational leadership that has become more focused on social responsibility and the
implementation of instructional leadership. Social responsibility was evident among all
educational leaders interviewed, including Intel representatives and the CTP de Carrizal
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
director. The traits of instructional leadership were also evident in the hands-on ap-
proach of the school site leaders as well as the Minister of Public Education and the
Intel educational representatives. All findings were the result of the positive impact of
globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Globalization and MNCs have changed the way that business and education are
conducted around the world (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). In order to be prepared to
succeed in business and education, nations must supply their human capital with the
resources and skills necessary to generate success in the marketplace, which currently
centers on a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Two of the main skills neces-
sary are proficiencies in technology and English (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). Since the
1980s, Costa Rica has worked with MNCs and political and education leaders to address
the necessary changes that have to be made to better prepare students for the global
market that is focused on a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008; State of the
Nation Program, 2011).
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the study, including the purpose and signifi-
cance in addition to the organization of the study. The chapter also included back-
ground information and key terminology pertaining to Costa Rica, MNCs, 21st-century
skills, and leadership.
Chapter 2 detailed a review of the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs
21st-century skills, and leadership. This chapter also detailed a historical review of
Costa Rica encompassing its development as a nation, including economic, political,
and educational growth over time. The education system in Costa Rica was described in
depth to give breadth to the details of the current system, its policies, infrastructure, and
makeup of the student body.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
Chapter 3 presented the research methodology used in this study, discussing why
a multimethod, qualitative approach was appropriate. Also included was an explanation
of the sample and population as well as the instrumentation used in the study. The
chapter described how the data were collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 offered insight into the findings of the study, including a detailed
description of the evident themes as they pertained to each research question. In addi-
tion, a data analysis was presented for each research question.
Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study and includes a conclusion and possi-
ble implications for practice. Also in this chapter are suggestions for future research
opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
schools in Costa Rica. This study also identified what role school leaders have played
in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national educa-
tion initiatives. The study determined whether these initiatives are producing greater
numbers of knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica.
The research team examined the problem through three theoretical frameworks:
(a) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model, (b) defining globalization (Spring,
2008), and (c) Wagner's (2008) 21st-century skills. These frameworks were utilized to
help provide guidance in creating and answering the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
In order to answer these questions, the team utilized a qualitative case study
approach. To gather necessary information, interviews were conducted with the Minis-
ter of Public Education of Costa Rica, school leaders, Costa Rican politicians, the Direc-
tor of Education and Academic Relations of Intel, and the Director of CINDE. Teachers
who were employed by schools receiving resources from Intel completed surveys, and
classroom observations were conducted at these school sites as well.
Through this study, research has been provided to increase the chances that
MNC resources will be utilized most effectively in the Costa Rican education system.
Summary of Findings
Through the analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and
surveys, seven main themes emerged:
1. Costa Rica is focused on producing a knowledge-ready worker.
2. Intel has a positive partnership with the Costa Rican education system.
3. The Intel-partnered high schools are focused on teaching students how to
access and analyze information.
4. The Intel-partnered high schools are focused on teaching students to think
critically and problem solve.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124
5. The Intel-partnered high schools are focused on teaching students how to
effectively use oral and written communication.
6. Both Intel and the high schools with which they partner are focused on social
responsibility.
7. Both Intel and the high schools with which they partner are focused on
utilizing strategies of instructional leadership.
Research Question 1
What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
Through data analysis of interviews, surveys, and observations conducted, it was
clear that as a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica, the Costa
Rican education system is focused on producing a knowledge-ready worker. This
finding supports the assertion of Stromquist and Monkman (2000) that globalization no
longer pertains to just businesses but now includes an impact on the education of stu-
dents as they embrace the changing workforce. The Minister of Education, Leonardo
Garnier, further supported this notion: “You cannot make decisions [about education]
without taking into account what is going on in the global economy” (personal inter-
view, June 24, 2013).
Another resulting theme was that there was a positive partnership established
between the Costa Rican education system and Intel as a result of globalization and the
presence of MNCs in the country. The data analysis revealed several signs of this
positive relationship, including an increase in technology use in the classroom, overall
improved resources, and teacher training all taking place in schools partnered with Intel.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125
The majority of teachers at the schools partnered with Intel felt that Intel has positively
impacted their school site. This finding supports the literature indicating that with since
the 1980s, the structure of demand for educated labor in Costa Rica changed as a result
of the shift to an export-led growth strategy (Funkhouser, 1998). The demand for an
educated labor force is where Intel is able to help satisfy a true need in Costa Rica. Ob-
serving the local schools and interviewing local school leaders and politicians helped
the researchers to see firsthand the amount of resources that Intel has been able to
provide. The observations coincided with the literature from CINDE (2011), indicating
that in 2001 alone, Intel’s contributions to the Costa Rican education system totaled
$2,500,000. This funding has created opportunities in which a positive relationship was
created between Intel and the Costa Rican education system.
Research Question 2
What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
One major result of globalization and Intel’s involvement in Costa Rica that is
evident in the schools and universities is the presence of 21st-century learning and
instruction. Wagner (2008) spoke of seven survival skills in relation to 21st-century
learning. Three of the seven were themes present in the data that were compiled and
analyzed in this study: (a) a focus on accessing and analyzing information, (b) a focus
on critical thinking and problem solving, and (c) a focus on effective oral and written
communication. Promotion of these 21st-century skills will help Costa Rican students
to become better prepared for the knowledge economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
As found in the research. the large majority of teachers surveyed felt that the
focus of education had changed at their school site to incorporate 21st-century learning.
This finding correlated with the literature indicating that globalization has called upon
education systems to focus on the knowledge economy, lifelong learning, and human
capital education (Spring, 2008). Furthermore, Tsui and Tollefson (2007) noted that
“globalization is affected by two inseparable meditational tools, technology and Eng-
lish; proficiencies in these tools have been referred to as global literacy skills” (p. 1).
These skills are woven into 21st-century skill instruction in Costa Rica and will benefit
its recipients for years to come.
Research Question 3
How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This question was designed to elicit data that reveal how leadership, specifically
educational leadership, has been impacted by globalization and MNCs. It was evident
that financial allocations and instruction were impacted, but this study sought to define
how educational leadership was impacted as well. The findings demonstrated that
educational leadership was impacted in two ways: (a) there was an increased focus on
social responsibility, and (c) there was an increased focus on instructional leadership.
An increase in social responsibility was evident in responses to teacher and
school accountability questions in the teacher surveys. In addition, the survey data
showed that the majority of teachers felt that the goals and vision of the school were
communicated directly by their school leaders. It was also noted that the majority of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 127
teachers felt that educational policy decisions are influenced by MNCs, thus directly
impacting the application of 21st-century learning. Observations of programs such as
the distribution of resources set up through CTP de Carrizal, the skills-based volunteer-
ing at Intel, the National Science Fair, and the Intel Teach program indicated some of
the examples of ways that social responsibility was evident on the part of educational
leaders as a result of policy decisions. As indicated in the literature, social responsibil-
ity is the “obligation of an organization’s management towards the welfare and interests
of the society in which it operates” (BusinessDictionary.com, 2013, para. 1). This
definition correlates with the level and type of responsibility witnessed regarding school
site leaders as well as education leaders within Intel. Both types of leaders are putting
the best interests of the students first in order to prepare them to be successful partici-
pants in the workforce.
The second theme identified was a focus on instructional leadership by educa-
tional leaders. It was found that the school site leaders were active participants in the
implementation of 21st-century skills in their schools. Teachers felt that they were
being held accountable for the teaching of these skills and were prepared to do this task
due to the increase in teacher training in 21st-century learning.
The changes in curriculum and teacher training were carried out by leaders who
are goal oriented and focused on the improvement of student academic outcomes. In
this case, leaders knew that they had to realign the studies to pertain to preparation of
the students for the 21st-century labor force. As the literature indicated, instructional
leaders are often viewed as culture builders who seek to create an “academic press” that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128
fosters high expectations and standards for students as well as for teachers (Mortimore,
1993; Purkey & Smith, 1983). A focus on instructional leadership was clearly evident
through data analysis and has helped these schools better prepare their student body for
the workforce.
Implications for Practice
Analysis and findings of this study validated the positive impact that globaliza-
tion and MNCs have had on Costa Rica and the Costa Rican education system. Specifi-
cally in regard to 21st-century skills and educational leadership, much is to be gained
from this study. This study provided evidence that 21st-century learning is a critical
skill set necessary for students to be successfully prepared to enter the current global
workforce. Skills such as how to access and analyze information, how to be an effective
oral and written communicator, and how to think critically and problem solve are neces-
sities for students who wish to succeed in today’s marketplace. These skills have been
proven before to be valuable; however, what was made more evident through this study
is the need for these skills to be embedded within the curriculum to create a cohesive
model from which to teach and learn.
This study also found that effective allocation of private funds via FDI can have
a very positive impact on schooling and student outcomes. The Costa Rican education
system was able to appropriately allocate Intel funding and resources in directions that
have made a true difference in preparing students for the 21st-century workforce. It did
this by placing the funding in the direction of curriculum and technology support so that
it would benefit several generations to come. It was also important that Intel allocated a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129
budget for educating teachers in order to impact a larger population of students via
teacher instruction.
Changing curriculum and teaching styles is not easily done, but with leaders who
are willing to take an instructional approach, the necessary changes can be made. It is
necessary for these leaders to maintain consistent accountability measures for their
teachers when initiating change, as was found to be true in this study with respect to
21st-century implementation in the classroom. Through this study, it was also evident
that a multiframed leader, according to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) definition, will be
more likely to succeed in an educational environment where change is needed. This fact
is important for the field of education to keep in mind as administrators look to hire
leaders to bring about change at various levels.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted by a 12-member team of researchers. The researchers
shared the data they collected from schools in Costa Rica that had established partner-
ships with Intel. Several Costa Rican political figures were interviewed, as well as Intel
leaders and school site leaders. Several teachers were interviewed and several class-
rooms observed pertaining to the partnership with Intel.
One suggestion for future research would be to conduct the same study but
utilize a different MNC, perhaps Microsoft. Microsoft has also aided in the reformation
of the Costa Rican education system, mostly notably through its Partners in Learning
initiative that includes three programs: the Partners in Learning Grants Program, Fresh
Start for Donated Computers, and the School Agreement Subscription Licensing
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
Program. This research would provide a measure of comparison when examining the
impact of MNCs within the same country.
Another important suggestion would be to research Costa Rican schools that are
not partnered with a MNC to see how much they have been impacted by globalization
and MNCs. A new set of survey and observations questions would have to be gener-
ated, but the observation rubric could be the same. Again, this would provide a measure
of comparison that would serve as a baseline for schools in Costa Rica that have not
partnered with a specific MNC.
Another suggestion for future research would be to conduct the same study in
another developing nation. The parameters could be set to examine the country’s
education system that has approximately the same population and socioeconomic status.
The results of such a study could be compared with the current study to elicit best prac-
tices and strategies for use of FDI. This, too, would serve as a significant comparison of
leadership, noting how different strategies may be more or less effective in certain
aspects of development.
The present study could also be expanded on by including a longitudinal investi-
gation in which specific students are followed throughout their education through Intel-
partnered schools. This process would allow data to be collected that pertained to their
workforce entry or tertiary school enrollment and status. A longitudinal study could
also focus on the schools that are partnered with Intel to determine what level of sus-
tainability there is in terms of 21st-century skill implementation and instruction.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
As identified by Wagner (2008), there are seven survival skills for the 21st
century. The present study’s surveys and observation rubrics focused on three of the
seven skills. This study could be replicated in the same way with the adjustment of
changing the questions to pertain to the four other 21st-century skills identified by
Wagner. It would be interesting to see whether or not the other four skills are as influ-
enced by the impact of globalization and MNCs as the three skills focused on in the
present study.
Conclusion
The impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica and its education system
was clearly evident through this study. The findings indicated positive impacts includ-
ing emphasis on 21st-century learning and instructional leadership qualities among
school site leaders. As noted through the data analysis of surveys; observations; and
interviews with teachers, school site leaders, politicians, and MNC leaders, there was a
positive relationship between Intel and the Costa Rican education system that led to
effective allocation of funds and resources. These resources allowed schools that part-
nered with Intel the opportunities that they otherwise would not have had.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
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Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,
A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and
multinational corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our
study is asking the following questions:
1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and
multinational corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?
As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey
and interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.
After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspon-
dence possible to go over the purpose of our study.
Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!
Sincerely,
Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 145
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 146
Appendix B
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date ________________
Dear__________________________,
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that
may shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools
in Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educa-
tional leadership and 21st-century skills.
My name is Megan Burton, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction
and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to with-
draw at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anon-
ymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be pre-
sented in a manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identi-
fied.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
Megan Burton and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu
I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate
in a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.
_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 147
Appendix C
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 148
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 149
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 150
Appendix D
MNC Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system in
Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 151
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st cen-
tury?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 152
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in the curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports that schools receive to help prepare
teachers in the implementation of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 153
Appendix E
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 154
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 155
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your teachers
to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
V. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 156
Appendix F
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: ____________________ Location of Survey: ______________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration among students
takes place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. You have been trained to integrate
technology into your instruction.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Technology is used by students in
your classroom at least weekly.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Lessons promote higher level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
6. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collab-
oration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
7. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Intel has improved resources at
your school site.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Students are provided the oppor-
tunity to be college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 157
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. Teachers are encouraged to im-
plement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
12. The focus of education has
changed at your school site to incor-
porate 21st-century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
13. Educational decisions are influ-
enced by multinational corporations.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders are active par-
ticipants in implementation of 21st-
century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
15. School site leaders communicate
the goals and the vision of the school
to teachers and students.
4 3 2 1 0
16. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to site
leaders.
4 3 2 1 0
17. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to teach-
ers.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 158
Appendix G
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ____________________
Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically to-
ward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 159
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 160
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the class-
room.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 161
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a collab-
orative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Science
Technol-
ogy
Engineer-
ing
Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM be-
ing taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No No No
Field Notes and Examples:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 162
Other Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Globalization and the development and expansion of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) have impacted several entities of livelihood in Costa Rica. Education, specifically, has been impacted in terms of leadership, curriculum, 21st - century skill implementation and job training. The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and MNCs, specifically Intel, have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in schools in Costa Rica. This study also identified what role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, this study determined whether these initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica. ❧ The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observation and surveys revealed that Costa Rica is focused on producing knowledge-ready workers. By partnering with Intel, the country has been better prepared to provide that opportunity for many Costa Rican students. Schools in Costa Rica that are partnered with Intel are integrating 21st - century skills into their curricula and focusing on technology in order to best prepare their students for the global work force. School site leaders are utilizing methods of instructional leadership to encourage their teachers and students to embrace this change in the focus of education.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Burton, Megan R. (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on education in Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/14/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,Education,Educational Leadership,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,Technology,twenty-first century skills

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Britz, Jan (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email mburton@cchsdons.com,meganrburton@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-376716

Unique identifier UC11297134

Identifier etd-BurtonMega-2320.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-376716 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BurtonMega-2320.pdf

Dmrecord 376716

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Burton, Megan R.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA