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Factors influencing general education teachers to implement effective strategies for students with emotional and behavioral problems

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Factors influencing general education teachers to implement effective strategies for students with emotional and behavioral problems

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Content Running head: FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 1

FACTORS INFLUENCING GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHERS TO IMPLEMENT
EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
PROBLEMS

by

Alison K. Muraszewski

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May, 2015

Copyright 2015 Alison K. Muraszewski
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 2

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude for those who made this dissertation
possible. First, I would like to thank Dr. Patricia Tobey for her countless hours of positive
support, limitless words of encouragement, and masterful qualitative research mind. I would
also like to thank Dr. Patrick Crispen for his continuous positive cheerleading, reassuring words,
and brilliance in writing. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Julie Slayton for supportively
challenging me to think through every aspect of my dissertation, pushing me to produce the best
document possible, and providing me with words of encouragement and affirmation along the
way. May all of our efforts contribute in some way to bettering the educational journey of
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
I would also like to express my heartfelt gratitude for my writing partner, colleague, and
dear friend, Rebecca Lundeen. Our journey began at our program’s initial informational session
and has blossomed into a friendship I will cherish forever. There are no words that can begin to
adequately express my level of gratitude for the endless hours you have spent reading all my
papers, listening to my personal life’s struggles and celebrations, and providing me with genuine
words of support and encouragement. I will be eternally grateful for you.
I would also like to sincerely thank my family, my solid foundation. First, I would like to
thank my parents, Dick and Becky Keller. Your unconditional love and selfless dedication has
allowed me to dream big throughout my life. You both have unselfishly given so much of your
lives to better the lives of my sisters and me. Dad, thank you for your wisdom and for showing
me the positive value of commitment and hard work. Mom, your devotion and love for all
children are extraordinary. You have touched the lives of so many, and I hope I can continue
your legacy. Thank you for inspiring me to dedicate my life to improving the educational
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 3

journey of those who may be struggling due to emotional, behavioral, or cognitive problems. I
would also like to thank my three best friends who are also my sisters. Kristin, thank you for
your loyal support and endless words of advice. I consider myself incredibly fortunate to have
you as an eldest sister who models true dignity and grace in all you do. Jen, thank you for your
continuous words of encouragement and patient listening ear. Your enthusiasm and support for
my life endeavors have meant and continue to mean the world to me. Kari, thank you for your
unconditional love and unwavering support for all I have done and dream to do. Your strength
and determination is awe-inspiring. It is an absolute privilege and honor to be able to call you
friend and sister. I am incredibly grateful you all are in my life.
Finally, I would like to sincerely thank my incredible husband, Eric, who if it were not
for his love, support, patience, and understanding this dissertation would not have been possible.
There are no words that can adequately express how grateful I am for you. Thank you for giving
me strength when I felt I could not continue, words of encouragement to charge forward, and
energy to sustain me. Thank you for cheering me on through every stage of the process and
celebrating with me at each milestone. You sacrificed a great deal to ensure that my dream came
true, and it is my greatest wish to do the same for you many times over in our future together.
You are my rock, my steadfast cheerleader, and my unwavering encourager. I am excited to
share in the adventures that await us as we continue on our lifelong journey together.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 4

Table of Contents

List of Tables 7

List of Figures 8

Abstract 9

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 11
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 22

Chapter Two: Literature Review 23
Fundamental Components Required for Effective Practice 23
Effective Instructional Strategies for Students with EBD 26
Increased Opportunities to Respond 27
Positive Teacher Praise 29
Individualized Curricular Modifications 31
Preference 31
Task Variation 33
Choice 34
Positive Behavior Supports 37
Three Major Sources of PBS 37
Core Features of PBS 39
School-Wide Positive Behavior Support 41
Four Critical Elements of SWPBS 42
Outcomes 42
Data 42
Practices 43
Systems 43
Five Key Program Components of SWPBS 44
Leadership Team 44
Clearly Defined Expectations 45
Direct Instruction of Expectations 45
System of Acknowledging Appropriate Behaviors 45
Consistent Monitoring and Evaluation 46
Impact of SWPBS 46
Conceptual Framework 55
Teacher Beliefs 56
School Norm 60
Modified Conceptual Framework for This Study 62
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 5

Pre-service Training 63
Professional Development 65
Conclusion 67

Chapter Three: Methodology 69
Research Design 70
Sample and Population 71
Site Selecting Criteria 1 72
Site Selecting Criteria 2 72
Site Selecting Criteria 3 73
Site Selection Criteria 4 73
Participant Criteria 1 74
Participant Criteria 2 74
Instrumentation 74
Observations 74
Interviews 76
Data Collection 78
Observations 79
Interviews 80
Data Analysis 82
Reliability and Validity 83
Conclusion 84

Chapter Four: Findings 86
Description of Teacher Participant 88
Research Question 1: Common Effective Strategies in Classrooms 91
Increased Opportunities to Respond 93
Positive Teacher Praise 114
Individualized Curricular Modifications 122
Preference 122
Task Variation 127
Choice 128
Universal Behavioral Management System 132
Verbal Explanation for Redirections 142
Posted Weekly Academic and/or Social Goals 144
Description of Strategies Working in Unison 145
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 157
Research Question 2: Teachers’ Perceptions of Factors that Influence
Teaching Behaviors 158
School Norm 158
School-Wide Positive Behavioral Support (SWPBS)
System 159
Routine Discussion of Effective Instructional Strategies
Among Teachers and Administrators 163
Administrative Support for Professional Development 166
Teacher Beliefs 167
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 6

Teacher Expectation of Self 169
Teacher Expectation of Student 172
Communication with Parent or Primary Caregiver 176
Pre-Service Training Experience 178
Professional Development Experience 183
Prior Personal Experience 184
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 188
Research Question 3: Where Teachers Learn Effective
Instructional Strategies 189
Teachers Identify Human Resources on Campus and
Actively Seeking Their Advice 190
Process of Trial and Error 193
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 194
Summary 194

Chapter 5: Discussions, Implications, and Recommendations 196
Purpose of the Study 197
Summary of the Findings 199
Summary of the Findings for Research Question 1 199
Summary of the Findings for Research Question 2 200
Summary of the Findings for Research Question 3 204
Implications for Practice 205
Recommendations for Future Study 210
Conclusion 213

References 217

Appendices 230
Appendix A: Informed Consent to Participate in Study 230
Appendix B: Interview Protocol: Factors that Influence the
Implementation of Effective Instructional Strategies 231
Appendix C: Observation Protocol: Factors that Influence the
Implementation of Effective Instructional Strategies 235

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 7

List of Tables
Table 1: Matrix of Research Question to Instrument and Element of Conceptual
Framework 78

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 8

List of Figures
Figure 1: Defining Elements of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Supports 44
Figure 2: A Framework for Understanding Successful Inclusion of Students
with Disabilities in a General Education Classroom 56

Figure 3: Factors that Influence General Education Teachers’ Behaviors 63

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 9

Abstract
Approximately 20% of our country’s children and youth suffer from some level of
emotional and/or behavioral problem, yet only 25-35% of these particular students have been
identified to receive the support necessary to meet their unique learning needs (Herman, Reinke,
Parkin, Traylor & Agarwal, 2009; New Freedom Commission on Mental Heath, 2003).
Research indicates that symptoms of emotional and/or behavioral problems greatly impact
academic functioning (Herman et al., 2009; Maag & Reid, 2006; Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, &
Norgate, 2012; Ward, Sylva, & Gresham, 2010). Fortunately, the implementation of effective
supports for these particular students can lead to greater success in school (Levitt, Saka,
Romanelli, & Hoagwood, 2007). As our nation’s population of children and youth with
emotional and/or behavioral problem persists, it is crucial that general education teachers are
well equipped with the skills and knowledge necessary to implement effective strategies to
support these particular students’ learning needs.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that general education teachers, in
a school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) environment, perceived to have influenced
their use of effective instructional strategies to support the learning needs of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. Furthermore, this study attempted to
reveal strategies successful general education teachers were implementing within their
classrooms to support the learning needs of these particular students. Finally, this study sought
to discover where these teachers learned such strategies.
A conceptual framework was presented to better understand the factors that appear to
influence teachers’ successful implementation of effective strategies for students with varying
levels of emotional and behavioral problems. Five general education teachers from an urban
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 10

public elementary school located in the Western part of the United States participated in this
qualitative case study. Data was triangulated through interviews and observations of each
participating teacher. Findings from this study suggest that teachers perceived school norm and
teacher beliefs to be primary factors influencing their successful implementation of effective
instructional strategies. Common strategies found in all five participating teachers’ classrooms
included increased opportunities to respond (OTR), positive teacher praise from teacher,
curricular modifications, school-wide behavioral management plan, and verbal explanations for
redirections. Data revealed that teachers learned such strategies during routine on-site
discussions with teachers and administrators, as well as in their personal classrooms through the
process of trial and error.
The implications from this study can help teachers gain knowledge of effective
instructional strategies that support the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. This study’s findings can also help administrators and
developers of teacher pre-service and professional development programs to better understand
what factors influence educators to implement effective instructional strategies that support the
learning needs of these particular students.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 11

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Background of the Problem
Childhood emotional and behavioral disorders are one of the most overlooked and
undertreated health conditions in the United States (Herman et al., 2009; New Freedom
Commission on Mental Heath, 2003). Approximately 20% of our nation’s children and
adolescents suffer from some level of emotional and/or behavioral problem, yet only 25-35% of
these particular students have been identified and receive the appropriate supports to best meet
their social, emotional, and learning needs (Herman et al., 2009; Nemeroff et al., 2008). In other
words, in a class of 40 students, a teacher may have approximately eight students who suffer
from an emotional and/or behavioral problem, and as many as six of those students could be
without diagnoses, and thus not receiving specialized services. Even though this is a national
average, evidence suggests that the prevalence rate of students with emotional and behavioral
problems is higher in urban school settings (Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, 2006; McCurdy, Mannella,
& Eldridge, 2003). This fact is due to an aggravated influence of poverty and increased exposure
to within-family and community-based risk factors often found in urban settings (McCurdy et al.,
2003; Qi & Kaiser, 2003).
Research indicates that symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders significantly
impact academic functioning (Herman et al., 2009; Maag & Reid, 2006; Owens et al., 2012;
Ward et al., 2010). In particular, students suffering from these particular symptoms who do not
receive appropriate interventions experience lower grades, higher absentee rates, higher dropout
rates, lowered rates of future employment, and increased involvement in criminal activity
(Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2003; Pfeiffer & Reddy, 1998). In fact, studies
have shown that nearly 50% of middle- and high-school aged students who have dropped out of
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 12

school are diagnosed with an emotional and/or behavioral problem (New Freedom Commission
on Mental Health, 2003). Also, studies have found that symptoms of emotional and behavioral
disorders can lead to impairments on cognitive tasks, which results in lower achievement on
assessments and lower academic self-concept (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Owens et al., 2012; Ward
et al., 2010). Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, and Norgate (2012) found that a cause of such
cognitive impairments was due to these particular students’ struggle to concentrate, coupled with
consistent intrusive ruminative thoughts, both of which take up available cognitive resources
resulting in deficits in working memory. Finally, research indicates that students with emotional
and behavioral problems suffer from loss of interest and self-motivation to take initiative on
various academic tasks (Da Fonseca et al., 2008). Such cognitive impairments often act as
barriers making learning more difficult and teaching less effective for these particular students
(Herman et al., 2009).
Studies have also found that symptoms of emotional and behavioral problems directly
impact students’ behavior in the school environment (Valdez, Lambert, & Ialongo, 2011).
Researchers have found that these symptoms are closely linked to these particular students’ level
of aggression and/or sense of loneliness and perceived isolation resulting in barriers to successful
academic achievement (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Valdez et al., 2011). These students are less
likely to actively participate in classroom discussions and activities designed to enhance their
learning, thus resulting in their lower achievement rates (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Valdez et al.,
2011).
Within our nation there is a great population of students who are currently suffering from
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. In fact, evidence suggests that one in five
students currently experiences symptoms of emotional and behavioral problems (Herman et al.,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 13

2009), many of them significant enough to receive a psychiatric diagnosis (Gresham, 2005).
However, several of these students are not receiving specialized services because they either
have not been identified, or the intensity of their symptoms is not great enough for them to be
formally diagnosed. Yet, evidence indicates that students who display various levels of
emotional and behavioral symptoms still suffer academically (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Owens et
al., 2012; Ward et al., 2010). Given the impact emotional and behavioral problems can have on a
student’s academic functioning, it is imperative that general education teachers are well equipped
with the knowledge and skills necessary to implement effective, evidence-based strategies that
support the learning needs of these particular students.
Statement of the Problem
General education teachers are being called upon to provide academically rigorous
instruction to a very diverse student population, including students who display varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. Research indicates that implementation of necessary
supports for students with symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders can lead to greater
success in school and improved opportunities in the job market (Levitt et al., 2007). Researchers
have identified fundamental program components required for effective practice for students
with Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance (EBD; Lewis, Hudson, Richter, and Johnson 2004;
Peacock Hill Working Group, 1991; Simpson, Peterson, & Smith, 2011). Additionally, several
studies have uncovered the most predominate, evidence-based instructional strategies that have
proven valuable for these particular students. Lately, researchers have investigated the impact of
school-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) systems on the learning needs of students
with emotional and behavioral problems (Horner & Sugai, 2002). Legislation, including the
Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA; 1997), and more recently the reauthorization
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 14

of IDEA (2004) has begun mandating that schools adopt such a school-wide systems approach to
make certain that appropriate interventions are being implemented for every student across all
settings within the school environment.
Most of the research that has been conducted to determine effective instructional
strategies for students with emotional and behavioral problems has focused primarily on students
who have been classified with EBD and are receiving special education services as mandated by
their Individual Education Plan (IEP). Some research has investigated factors that predict
successful inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms (Stanovich &
Jordan, 2002). However, little has been done to investigate what influences general education
teachers, who are immersed in a SWPBS system to implement effective strategies to meet the
learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems who have
either not been identified and/or their symptoms are not significant enough to meet the criteria
required for special education services. While the population of students with emotional and
behavioral problems persists, it remains imperative that educators and policy makers gain an
understanding of what influences teachers to implement successful strategies to support the
learning needs of students who suffer from these challenges. Such information may help our
nation become better able to prepare current and future teachers for the emotionally and
behaviorally heterogeneous classroom.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that general education teachers, in
a SWPBS environment, perceived to have influenced their use of effective instructional
strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems. Furthermore, this study attempted to reveal what strategies successful
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 15

general education teachers were implementing as part of their daily teaching repertoire. Finally,
this study sought to discover where successful teachers were learning such strategies.
Data was triangulated through observations and interviews used in this qualitative case
study. In order to ascertain what factors influenced teachers’ behaviors to implement effective
instructional strategies and where they learned such strategies, it was necessary to observe and
interview teachers whom their administrators had nominated as successful in working with
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. Observations provided an
illustration as to what the nominees’ classrooms looked like and which types of strategies they
used in their daily practice. Interviews helped determine where general education teachers
learned such instructional strategies, and what these teachers perceived to have influenced them
to utilize these techniques within their everyday teaching repertoire. Results provided evidence
as to the necessary resources needed to support general education teachers in implementing best
practices for students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
The following research questions guided this investigation:
1. What does it look like when primary general education teachers are implementing
effective strategies that support the learning needs of students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems?
2. What factors do primary general education teachers perceive to have influenced
them to implement effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
varying emotional and behavioral problems?
3. If primary general education teachers are implementing effective strategies to
support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems, where did these teachers learn such strategies?
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 16

This study was guided by a modified version of a framework that was originally created
by a group of researchers in the Supporting Effective Teaching (SET) project (Stanovich &
Jordan, 2002). The main purpose of the SET research project was to create a framework that
describes the relationships among teachers, classrooms, and the school environment that are
essential for the creation of a successful inclusion program. As the population of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems being taught in general education
classrooms persists, it is beneficial for educators to understand the factors involved in successful
inclusion programs, including those with students with EBD. The hope is that administrators and
general education teachers who have students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems can use successful inclusion models as a guide in discovering factors that influence
effective teaching practices.
The SET project framework highlights three major teacher variables and one school
variable that provide the solution to successful inclusion, as measured by student outcomes.
These variables include: (a) teacher beliefs, (b) teachers’ sense of teaching efficacy, (c)
classroom teachers’ collection of teaching behaviors, and (d) the school norm, or environment.
For the purpose of this study, the variables presented in the framework that were investigated
were teacher beliefs and school environment. I modified the model to include additional
possible factors that were considered to influence general education teachers’ behaviors as to
whether or not they implement effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems. These factors included in-service experience and ongoing
professional development.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 17

Significance of the Study
This research study presented evidence of the factors that general education teachers in a
SWPBS environment perceived to have influenced their use of effective instructional strategies
known to support students’ with emotional and/or behavioral problems. Data also revealed
where these teachers learned such strategies. As the population of students with emotional and
behavioral problems persists, it is important for all teachers to provide effective instruction that
is appropriate for a wide-range of students with varying emotional and behavioral problems
(Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Few studies have investigated what influences general education
teachers to implement effective instructional strategies for students with emotional and
behavioral problems. It is readily known that teachers are the primary implementers of social
and emotional learning programs within their classrooms (Brackett, Reyes, Rivers, Elberston, &
Salovey, 2012; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Their beliefs about including students with varying
levels of emotional and behavioral problems in their classroom, as well as the importance of
implementing effective learning strategies for this particular population influence program
delivery and outcomes (Brackett et al., 2012; Jordan, Glenn, & McGhie-Richmond, 2010;
Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). This is an important area of research because studies have shown
that students with emotional and behavioral problems who do not receive appropriate supports
are more likely to suffer academically, drop out of school, struggle with employment
opportunities, and become involved in criminal activity (Lewinsohn et al., 2003; Pfeiffer &
Reddy, 1998). Research also indicates that the implementation of necessary supports for
students with symptoms of emotional and behavioral problems can lead to greater success in
school and improved opportunities in the job market (Levitt et al., 2007). As the population of
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 18

students with emotional and behavioral problems persists, it is imperative that general education
teachers are well equipped to work with these particular students.
Additionally, this study provided evidence as to where successful teachers were learning
effective instructional strategies targeted at supporting the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems. This information will be useful for future general education
teachers to ensure they also receive the training necessary to support the learning needs of these
particular students.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were some limitations and delimitations of this study. One limitation of this study
was its reliance on teachers’ honesty during their interviews and consistency during their
observations. I assumed that the data acquired through interviews and observations were honest
representations of the teachers’ beliefs and behaviors. Triangulation of the data also allowed me
to check for consistency between verbal responses and observations. A second limitation of this
study was that I assumed that the participant pool, which was nominated by their administrator,
represented teachers who were successful in implementing effective instructional strategies to
meet the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
Observations of teachers allowed me to take note of whether these teachers were implementing
strategies that resulted in positive changes in students’ behaviors. This study was a case study;
therefore a third limitation was that the findings could not be generalized beyond the case itself.
A final limitation of this study was that I assumed that the observed classrooms used in the study
represented a typical general education classroom found in an urban public elementary school.
Many of the study’s delimitations were a result of the time of year, as well as the limited
amount of time in which the study needed to be completed. As a result, the first delimitation of
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 19

the study was that it was conducted in only one elementary school located in an urban city in the
Western part of the United States. Evidence suggests that schools located in low
socioeconomically defined urban neighborhoods often have a higher prevalence rate of students
with emotional and behavioral problems (McCurdy et al., 2003: Qi & Kaiser, 2003). In order to
increase the likelihood that I would be able to observe teachers interacting with students with
emotional and behavioral problems, I sought an urban school that had a large population of
students classified as socioeconomically disadvantaged. A second delimitation was the study’s
small sample size. Due to the small sample size, I made great attempts to construct a detailed
qualitative narrative that would allow the reader to glean as much information from the small
sample size as possible so as to be able to make informed decisions based on the results. A third
delimitation is that interviews and observations were conducted in the first half of the school
year. Teachers needed to be reflective of the academic and behavioral achievement levels of past
students who displayed emotional and behavioral problems. A fourth delimitation was that I
designed the interview protocol and thus may not have written some questions that would have
helped me better understand what I saw during my observations. Triangulation of the data
helped compensate for any weakness of data collection. A final delimitation to this study was its
inability to connect teachers’ beliefs and behaviors to students’ long-term academic outcome.
Given the short duration of data collection, as well as the qualitative design of the study, I was
unable to draw conclusions pertaining to whether or not teachers’ instructional strategies
improved students’ academic achievement. An additional study that incorporates both
quantitative and qualitative methods for gathering data regarding student academic outcomes
would be better suited to make connections between teachers’ beliefs and behaviors and the
effects they may have on students’ academic attainment.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 20

Definition of Terms
Many terms and acronyms were relevant to and referenced throughout this study. For the
purpose of this project, these terms are defined as follows:
Effective Instructional Strategy: a strategy that increases academically oriented behavior
and decreases disruptive or off-task behavior of students when implemented appropriately.
Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance (EBD): EBD is a condition characterized by one
or more of the following behavioral features persisting over a long period of time and to a
marked degree which negatively impacts educational performance: (a) an inability to learn that
cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (b) an inability to build or
maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teacher; (c) inappropriate types
of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; (d) a general pervasive mood of
unhappiness or depression; and (e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated
with personal or school problems (IDEA 300.8(c)(4)). Additionally, the definition of EBD
includes schizophrenia; however, the term does not apply to children who are socially
maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance based on the
definition given in paragraph (c)(4)(i) in accordance with IDEA (2004).
Entity beliefs: a belief system where one perceives ability to be a fixed and static trait
(Dweck, 2000).
Evidence-based instructional strategies for students with EBD: instructional strategies
that have been proven effective through scientifically based research methods to improve the
academic and behavior outcomes of students with EBD. Such methods have met rigorous peer
review and other traditional research standards including random samples and control and
experimental group designs (Simpson et al., 2011).
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 21

General education teacher: a teacher who has earned a standard certificate through the
State Board of Educators after completing certification program requirements for specific or
general studies.
Inclusion: an educational practice where students with special needs are educated
alongside their nondisabled peers in general education classrooms (Stanovich & Jordan 2002).
Incremental beliefs: a belief system where one perceives ability as malleable and
influenced by learning (Jordan et al., 2010).
Interventionist beliefs: a belief system where one perceives disability as created in part by
a society that is designed for able bodies, and thus creates barriers for these particular people
(Jordan et al., 2010).
Pathognomonic beliefs: a belief system where one perceives a person’s disability as
internal, fixed, and not amenable to instruction (Jordan et al., 2010)
Positive Behavior Support (PBS): an applied science that uses educational methods to
broaden a person’s behavior repertoire and system-wide change methods to restructure a
person’s living environment to enhance his or her quality of life and minimize his or her problem
behaviors (Carr et al., 2002).
Pre-service training: formal training program designed to teach future teachers the
content knowledge and skills necessary to support the learning and social needs of students.
Professional development: formal classes and training related to the enhancement and
development of a teacher’s professional skills (Elmore, 2002).
School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS): a universal prevention strategy that
attempts to change the school environment by creating improved systems, procedures, and
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 22

intense behavior supports that promote positive change in staff members’ and students’
behaviors (Bradshaw, Mitchell, & Leaf, 2010).
School norm: the culture of a particular school as influenced by leadership and collegial
perspectives of students with disabilities and their responsibilities in regards to teaching these
particular students (Jordan et al., 2010).
Teacher behaviors: regular practices in the classroom that encompasses actions and
reactions through verbal and nonverbal cues that communicate various intended and unintended
messages (Marzano, 2007; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002)
Organization of the Study
The first two chapters of this study provide the foundation for the remainder of this study.
Chapter 1 introduces the problem, outlines the purpose of the study, and addresses the
significance of the study. It also provides an explanation as to the limitations and delimitations
of the study and presents definitions of important terms. Chapter 2 highlights existing research
on predominate effective instructional strategies that support the learning needs of students with
EBD and on school-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) systems. It also presents the
framework that will guide the research project. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the
methodology used for the study. Chapter 4 includes the results of the study. Finally, Chapter 5
offers a summary of the findings. Also included in Chapter 5 are implications for practice,
limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 23

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review consists of five major sections. The first section discusses
literature pertaining to the fundamental program components required for effective practice for
students with Emotional and Behavioral Disturbances (EBD). The second section highlights the
most predominate and effective evidence-based instructional strategies for students with EBD.
The third section describes the Positive Behavioral Supports (PBS) system, including the three
major sources from which the framework was originally constructed, and the program’s core
features. The fourth section explains the School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports (SWPBS)
system, including the program’s critical features, key program components, and the impact such
a program has had in various educational settings. The final section discusses the conceptual
framework that will guide this study, including possible factors that influence teachers’
behaviors and whether they implement effective instructional strategies to meet the learning
needs of students with varying emotional and behavioral problems.
Fundamental Components Required for Effective Practice
In spite of the dearth of evidence-based instructional interventions that consider the
mental health and academic needs of students with EBD, certain specific program components
have proven to be successful in supporting the needs of these particular students. The Peacock
Hill Working Group (1991) identified fundamental components needed for effective EBD
programs. These included: (a) systematic and evidence-based interventions, (b) continuous
assessment and monitoring of student progress, (c) time allotment for teachers to practice new
skills, (d) a methodical intervention selection process where by the treatment method matched
the issues at hand, (e) use of a multicomponent treatment plan, (f) opportunities for transfer and
maintenance of the program, and (g) commitment by professionals for sustained intervention
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 24

efforts. Though this framework provided a seemingly well-drafted outline of key program
elements, its initial distinction was soon sodden with criticism. One of the primary critiques of
the Peacock Hill Working Group’s framework was that it did not identify key curricular and
other vital program features such as instructional domains and intervention targets (Simpson et
al., 2011).
In the following years, legislation including No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2002) and the
reauthorization of the Individual Disability Education Act (IDEA, 2004) were enacted requiring
stricter guidelines on intervention implementation for students with EBD. Such legislation
challenged educators to reevaluate current practices to ensure utilization of research-based
methods. In 2004, Lewis, Hudson, Richter, and Johnson called for the universal adoption of a
consistent set of standards for determining research-based practices essential to meet the needs of
students with EBD. These research based practices included: (a) teacher praise, (b) instructional
opportunities to respond, (c) direct instruction and other effective instructional methods, and (d)
positive behavior supports. Critics argued that Lewis and colleagues’ (2004) model failed to
pinpoint salient domains for interventions (Simpson et al., 2011).
Driven by new legislative requirements, Simpson, Peterson, and Smith (2011) expanded
on Peacock Hill Working Group’s (1991) and Lewis and colleagues’ (2004) work to create a
model that included research-based elements. Simpson and colleagues’ key program elements
included: (a) qualified and committed professionals; (b) necessary environmental supports; (c)
effective behavioral management plans; (d) authenticated social skills and social interpretation
training, and social interaction programs; (e) evidence-based academic support systems; (f)
strong parent- and family-involvement programs; (g) coordinated community support
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 25

mechanisms; and (h) ongoing evaluation of program elements and student progress and
outcomes.
Simpson and colleagues (2011) argue that the central building block for an effective
intervention program is well trained, highly qualified, and committed professionals. There is an
undisputable connection between the quality of a teacher and the educational outcomes of their
students (Buckingham, 2003; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005). Additionally, well-planned,
organized, and orderly classrooms are essential for students with EBD (Simpson et al., 2011).
This includes clearly articulated and enforced rules, unambiguous and suitable expectations,
carefully monitored and appropriately supported behaviors, timely feedback and positive
corrective actions for violations, and consistent and predictable schedules (Simpson et al., 2011).
It is also essential that teachers establish effective behavioral management supports. This
can be accomplished when quality teachers create a positive, encouraging, and supportive
classroom and school environment (Simpson et al., 2011). Along with impactful behavioral
management systems, professionals must also implement social skill interventions supported by
direct instruction and time for students to practice the newly learned skills in a natural
environment (Simpson et al., 2011). The instruction must be consistent and ongoing with
opportunities for problem-solving and peer development (Simpson et al., 2011).
While implementing behavioral management systems, it is also imperative that programs
for EBD students focus on these particular students’ academic needs. High quality teachers need
to individualize instruction and curricula and create precise academic goals for each student to
attain (Simpson et al., 2011). Also, they need to carefully orchestrate their instructional time to
meet the needs of these particular students, conduct regular assessments, and establish a positive
learning environment founded on appropriate academic expectations (Simpson et al., 2011).
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 26

School personnel can also support the learning needs of students with EBD by partnering
with their families and surrounding communities (Simpson et al., 2011). School resources can
assist parents and siblings by providing emotional support resources, home-based tutoring
programs, and positive behavioral support training (Simpson et al., 2011). Additionally,
communities can support students with EBD by providing affordable counseling services,
advocacy programs that defend their unique needs, recreation programs staffed with well-trained
individuals, and childcare services equipped to work with these particular children (Simpson et
al., 2011).
Using Simpson and colleagues’ (2011) model of foundational components necessary to
support the learning needs of students with EBD, researchers have worked diligently to discover
specific evidence-based instructional strategies that support the emotional, social, and academic
needs of students with EBD. While it is imperative to have high quality teachers with orderly
classrooms and exceptional behavioral management plans that address all students’ learning
needs, evidence suggests such environments can also benefit from direct teacher implementation
of specific instructional strategies (Simpson et al., 2011; Vannest, Harrison, Temple-Harvey,
Ramsey, & Parker, 2011).
Effective Instructional Strategies for Students with EBD
As a result of recent legislation including NCLB (2002) and IDEA (2004), educators
have been mandated to use scientifically based research practices for students at risk or identified
with an emotional and/or behavioral problem (Vannest et al, 2011; Simpson et al., 2011). Such
scientifically based research methods must meet rigorous peer review and other traditional
research standards including random samples and control and experimental group designs
(Simpson et al., 2011). Experts in the field of EBD are in agreement that positive behavioral and
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 27

educational outcomes are a result of well-trained teachers who utilize research-based
instructional strategies (Simpson et al., 2011).
Despite this concurrence, evidence suggests that there continues to be a limited amount of
reliable evidence on the effectiveness of coordinated interventions that address the mental health
and academic needs of students who have emotional and behavioral problems, or have been
identified with EBD (Hoagwood et al., 2007; Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap, & Childs, 2001a;
Vannest et al., 2011; Walker et al., 2009). Much of the current research has primarily focused on
promoting positive behaviors within the classroom setting, while neglecting to address these
particular students’ academic needs as well (Hoagwood et al., 2007). For example, Hoagwood
and colleagues (2007) conducted a comprehensive review that highlighted the scarcity of proven
and promising interventions for students with EBD that are currently available to educators. Of
more than 2,000 articles published between 1990 and 2006 that met the methodologically
rigorous criteria for inclusion in the review, only 24 articles discussed interventions considered
effective for both mental health and educational outcomes for students displaying emotional and
behavioral difficulties. After a thorough literature search, a few select interventions have
produced evidence-based data indicating an increase in academic achievement and a decrease in
disruptive classroom behaviors following implementation. These specific interventions include
increased opportunities to respond (OTR), positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular
modifications including preference, task variation, and choice.
Increased Opportunities to Respond (OTR)
Opportunities to respond (OTR) is a teaching strategy in which during instruction of new
material, the teacher elicits four to six responses per minute from students, who in turn should
respond with 80% accuracy (Sutherland, Alder, & Gunter, 2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001).
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 28

During independent practice, students should attempt to make eight to twelve correct responses
with 90% accuracy (Sutherland et al., 2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). OTRs can vary in type
and characteristics including choral responses, individual responses, and visual or auditory
cueing (Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder, & Marsh, 2008). Though such instructional methods may
differ in type of responses and cueing, OTRs generally include similar components. These
components are: (a) increasing rates of instructional talk that includes repeated verbal, visual, or
verbal and visual prompts eliciting student responses; (b) framing information output in a
manner that increases correct student response; (c) modifying questioning practices to meet the
students’ level of functioning; (d) frequently checking for students’ understanding; (e) using
repeated instructional prompting that incorporates appropriate wait time for students to respond;
and (f) providing corrective feedback and error correction (Conroy et al., 2008).
OTR has been found to be an effective instructional method that supports the learning
needs of students with EBD (Sutherland et al, 2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Sutherland
and Wehby (2001) conducted an extensive search of literature investigating the effects of
increased OTR on the academic and behavioral outcomes of students with EBD. Their search
uncovered several studies that provided data revealing positive academic growth and diminishing
rates of disruptive classroom behaviors of these particular students. Academic progress was
detected in students ranging from 7 to 18 years of age (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Increased
rates of OTR positively impacted students’ reading outcomes as indicated by an increase in
responses related to reading, an increase in mastery of words read correctly, an increase in rate of
words read, and a decrease in words read incorrectly (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). In math, an
increase in OTR resulted in students’ ability to complete problems more quickly and more
successfully (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Additionally, the studies revealed that an increase in
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 29

OTR resulted in higher task engagement. Finally, it was apparent through various observations
conducted throughout the studies that an increase rate of OTR resulted in a decrease of
inappropriate and disruptive classroom behaviors.
Sutherland, Alder, and Gunter (2003) studied the effects of increased rates of OTR on the
classroom behaviors of students with EBD. The results of their study suggested that students
with EBD had fewer behavioral disruptions, more correct responses, and an increase in task
engagement during the intervention phase as compared to the baseline and withdrawal-of-
treatment phase. These results confirmed what Sutherland and Wehby (2001) had previously
discovered. Furthermore, during the intervention portion of the study, not only did teachers’ rate
of OTR increase, but also so did their verbal praise (Sutherland et al., 2003). Sutherland and
colleagues pointed out that although increased rates of OTR did contribute to increased rates of
students’ correct responses, such responses may have caused an increase in teacher praise.
Therefore, it is likely that a combination of increased rates of OTR, teacher praise, and correct
student responses may have contributed to students behaving more appropriately in class as
indicated by decreased rates in disruptive behaviors and increased rates of on-task behaviors.
Regardless, Sutherland and colleague’s research highlights how increased rates of OTR results in
higher rates of correct responses, and some combination of all factors positively impacts the
academic achievement and classroom behaviors of students with EBD.
Positive Teacher Praise
Positive teacher praise is a nonintrusive, naturalistic strategy that all teachers can utilize
in any educational setting (Sutherland, Wehby, & Copeland, 2000). Historically, teacher praise
has been shown to be an effective strategy to support classroom management programs
(Sutherland et al., 2000). Praise has been shown to increase both rates of appropriate behavior
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 30

and levels of task engagement of students in general education (Hall, Lund, & Jackson, 1968).
More recently, researchers have focused their attention on the use of positive teacher praise and
its effect on the academic and behavioral outcomes of students with EBD specifically.
Sutherland, Wehby, and Copeland (2000) investigated the effects of teacher praise on the
on-task behaviors of students with EBD. They were particularly interested on the impact of
behavior-specific praise statements on EBD students’ behavior and task engagement. Results
indicated that the percentage of on-task behaviors of students with EBD increased when teachers
utilized behavior-specific praise statements and decreased when the rate of behavioral-specific
praise statements decreased. Additionally, the researchers noted a decrease in students’
disruptive behaviors following intervals of time during which the teachers were utilizing
behavior specific praise statements. Increasing the on-task behavior of students is a focus of
many teachers, as task engagement is vital for academic success (Sutherland et al., 2000).
Levels of task engagement considered typical in general education classrooms recorded through
direct observations ranged from 75% to 85% (Sutherland et al., 2000). Sutherland and
colleagues found that task engagement increased when teachers utilized behavior-specific praise
statements as compared to non-behavior-specific praise statements. During the baseline phase,
the mean percentage of on-task intervals was 48.7 percent; this percentage increased to 85.6
percent during the intervention phase. The mean percentage decreased to 62.2 percent during the
withdrawal phase and increased to 83.3 percent during the reintroduction phase.
Evidence also suggests that positive teacher praise has an effect on the rate of correct
academic responses for students with EBD. Through observations, Sutherland and Wehby
(2001) discovered that when teachers utilized praise statements, students were more likely to
engage in the discussion and produce correct responses. These particular students experienced
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 31

an increase in positive academic outcomes as measured on reading and mathematical
assessments (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001).
Individualized Curricular Modifications
Educators recognize that students with EBD often lack the skills and behavioral make-up
that are necessary to manage the academic and social stressors present in school settings (Kern et
al., 2001a). Evidence suggests that careful examination of a student’s curriculum expectations
may uncover possible antecedents to inappropriate academic and social behaviors (Dunlap &
Kern, 1996; Dunlap, White, Vera, Wilson, & Panacek, 1996; Kern et al., 2001a). Certain
curricular and instructional variables can be modified to promote positive academic and
behavioral results.
Preference. One curriculum variable that has been closely examined and found to
influence the behavior of some students with EBD is preference. It has been demonstrated
through various research studies that a functional assessment can be used to identify a student’s
preference for specific types of academic activities or tasks (Blair, Umbreit, & Bos, 1999; Clarke
et al., 1995; Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, & Falk, 1994; Kern et al., 2001a). Data suggest that
when students engage in a preferred activity, they are more likely to participate in the activity
and display desirable classroom behaviors (Kern et al., 1994; Kern et al., 2001a).
Clarke and colleagues (1995) conducted a functional assessment to determine curricular
activities that induced high levels of disruptive behaviors in four young boys. The information
gathered was then used to modify the assignments by incorporating students’ individual
preferences and interests while maintaining the lessons’ objectives. Results concluded that such
modifications reduced levels of problem behaviors and increased rates of desired behavior for
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 32

each target student (Clark et al, 1995). In addition, data indicated an increase in target students’
response rates and work completion rates on modified activities.
Blair, Umbreit, and Bos (1999) utilized similar procedures resulting in comparable
outcomes. They found that disruptive behaviors of very young children could be dramatically
reduced when individualized preferred activities, determined by a functional assessment, were
incorporated into previous lesson plans. Once preferred activities were determined and
curriculum was modified to spark the target students’ interests, problem behaviors were virtually
eliminated. In addition, Blair and colleagues found that when teachers utilized preference
strategies, the teachers experienced substantial improvements in the rates of positive student-
teacher interactions. Also, Blair and colleagues found that teachers soon preferred such
intervention to their previous behavior management strategies.
Using functional assessment to determine individual preferences has also proven to
decrease rates of incomplete assignments and discover alternative strategies to support task
completion (Kern et al., 1994). For example, Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, and Falk (1994)
conducted a functional assessment with a 13-year-old boy with EBD. It was determined that
high rates of off-task behavior occurred when he was required to engage in extensive writing
assignments. When the curriculum was modified to allow him usage of a computer or voice
recorder, the student was able to stay on task and complete assignments in a timely fashion.
Research conducted by Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap, and Childs (2001a) highlighted
how the use of functional assessment procedures can provide relatively straightforward
curriculum adaptations for students with EBD that positively impact their classroom behaviors
and academic achievement. Classroom teachers conducted all the analyses within the naturally
occurring classroom environment to identify preferences and interests for each identified student.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 33

Results indicate that activities completed by the target student’s preferred medium were
consistently associated with higher rates of task engagement. Furthermore, utilizing preferred
medium methods resulted in a decrease in disruptive behaviors and an increase in academic
productivity (Kern et al., 2001a). Kern and colleagues’ research illustrated how relatively simple
individualized curricular modifications implemented by classroom teachers can be very
influential in increasing task engagement, decreasing disruptive behaviors, and increasing
academic output, while maintaining students’ educational goals. The authors argue that while
evaluating the potential value of curricular modifications, it is important to consider the
contextual fit between the teacher and their current classroom structure. Not all modifications
will be consistent with the teacher’s values and may be too arduous to implement within that
specific environment. Therefore, the researchers recommend identifying multiple interventions
that may be fitting for a variety of settings and teacher preferences.
Task variation. Tasks that are too difficult for a student with EBD often result in
aversive stimulation. Students often respond to this aversive stimulation by engaging in
disruptive classroom behaviors. Umbreit, Lane, and Dejund (2004) found consistent
relationships between behavioral performances, such as task completion and on-task behaviors,
and level of task difficulty. They designed a function-based intervention program where the
difficulty level of assigned tasks was closely aligned with the student’s current level of
performance. Once the researchers determined that the target student was capable of performing
the desired on-task behavior and that the assigned tasks were too easy, the student was allowed
to progress at a quicker rate than other students and given more difficult tasks to complete.
Results indicate that providing the target student with more challenging tasks that were still
within his or her instructional range resulted in substantial increases of on-task behaviors across
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 34

various domains (Umbreit, Lane, & Dejund, 2004). In addition to the intervention being
effective for the student, is was also viewed as acceptable by both the student and teacher, thus
presenting the argument that other educators may be willing to implement the relatively simple
instructional modification.
Choice. Choice-making opportunities are verbal statements or gestures made by the
teacher that identifies two or more response options a student may make under a specific
learning condition (Jolivette, Wehby, & Canale, 2001). Allowing individuals choice-making
opportunities has been found to enhance a person’s quality of life (Shogren, Faggella-Luby, Bae,
& Wehmeyer, 2004), reduce problem behaviors, increase appropriate behaviors (Kern,
Manyegna, Vorndran, Bailin, & Hilt, 2001b; Shogren et al., 2004) and increase task engagement
(Kern et al., 2001b). Additionally, such opportunities have been found to positively impact the
academic and social behaviors of students with EBD (Jolivette et al., 2001). Researchers argue
that choice-making opportunities may positively affect all types of learners’ behaviors for
various reasons. For example, by allowing students an opportunity to choose, the teacher is
taking into account students’ preferences. Such consideration may be reinforcing for each
student, thus motivating him or her to engage in more appropriate behaviors (Kern et al., 2001b;
Jolivette et al., 2001). Additionally, when a student is provided the opportunity to choose which
activity he or she wishes to engage in or the order in which to complete various tasks, this
increases the predictability level of the student’s environment (Jolivette et al., 2001). When a
student is better able to predict the events within his or her environment, he or she is more likely
to display appropriate behaviors.
Studies have shown that choice-making opportunities is an effective instructional strategy
for students with EBD. Cosden, Gannon, and Haring (1995) examined the effects of teacher-
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 35

controlled choice versus student-controlled choice over academic tasks and reinforcement
selections for youths, ages 11 to 13 years with behavioral problems. Under the student-
controlled condition, youths were able to select tasks and rewards from a generated list created
by the teacher. Under the teacher-controlled condition, the teacher selected the task and reward
based on similar selections made previously by the student. Despite teachers’ efforts to make
similar selections as those made by the student, task performance and appropriate behaviors
increased when the student selected the task and/or the reinforcement themselves. Such positive
effect continued even when the students and teachers selected the same tasks and the same
reinforcements.
In a similar study, Dunlap, White, Vera, Wilson, and Panacek (1994) studied the effects
of Choice versus No Choice during reading activities with youth aged 11 years. The
participating student was either able to choose the book to be read or the teacher selected the
book to be read. Again, results indicated that despite the teachers’ efforts to select books the
student had selected earlier, problem behaviors decreased when the student had the choice in
reading materials.
Jolivette, Wehby, and Canale, (2001) replicated and extended the literature base
supporting choice-making opportunities for students with EBD by investigating the effects of
such instructional strategy for students as young as six years of age. All study sessions were
conducted during the ongoing classroom and curriculum routines within the regular classroom
setting. During the Choice condition, students were given the option of which math worksheet
they wished to complete first. Results revealed that students’ task engagement was highest when
given the choice of which order they wished to complete each worksheet. Additionally, students
displayed more appropriate behaviors during the Choice conditions. Jolivette and colleagues
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 36

also found that choice-making opportunities positively impacted students’ academic
achievement. Students made more attempts at solving math problems and produced more correct
problems during the Choice conditions. Jolivette and colleagues’ study also highlights how
offering students choice-making opportunities in the context of the regular classroom routine is
feasible for teachers to implement. The teachers in the study indicated that they found the
instructional strategy to be effective and were willing to continue implementing such strategy.
More recently, Shogren, Faggella-Luby, Bae, and Wehmeyer (2004) conducted a meta-
analysis of single-subject research studies investigating the efficacy of using choice-making as
an intervention for reducing problem behaviors. They found 13 studies published prior to 2003
that met their rigorous selection criteria. The analysis of the published studies provided support
for the benefit of offering choice-making opportunities as an intervention for problem behavior.
Their findings indicate that choice-making opportunities significantly decreased problem
behaviors in the classroom. The authors argue that providing choice for students with behavioral
problems allows them to exert positive control in their lives and to express desired preferences,
which ultimately is more likely to promote positive outcomes for these particular students and
enhance their quality of life.
While OTR, positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular modifications including
preference, task variation, and choice have proven to be effective teacher-directed instructional
strategies to meet the learning needs of students with EBD, positive behavior support (PBS)
methodology has recently been found to be an effective system-wide approach that supports the
needs of these particular students (Carr et al., 2002; Warren et al., 2006). Legislation, including
IDEA (1997) and more recently the reauthorization of IDEA (2004) has mandated that schools
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 37

adopt PBS systems to ensure that appropriate interventions are being implemented across all
settings within the school environment.
Positive Behavior Supports
Positive behavior supports (PBS) is an applied science that uses educational methods to
help an individual develop more socially appropriate behaviors, while at the same time creating
systems change methods to redesign his or her environment to enhance quality of life and
minimize problem behaviors (Carr et al., 2002; Warren et al., 2006). Initially, PBS was
developed as an alternative to aversive punishment-oriented interventions targeted for
individuals who displayed extreme forms of aggressive and self-injurious behaviors (Warren et
al., 2006). The primary focus is on creating a supportive environment that allows for an increase
of positive behaviors including those skills that improve the chances of success and personal
satisfaction in normative academic, social, and professional settings (Carr et al., 2002). A
secondary goal of PBS is to render inappropriate behaviors unproductive and irrelevant by
helping individuals achieve his or her goal in a socially appropriate manner, thus reducing or
eliminating problem behaviors (Carr et al., 2002).
Three Major Sources of PBS
PBS emerged from three major sources: (a) applied behavioral analysis, (b) person-
centered values, and (c) the normalization/inclusion movement (Carr, 2006; Carr et al., 2002;
Warren et al., 2006). Applied behavioral analysis is based on the notion of the three-term
contingency of stimulus-response-reinforcing and the ensuing consequences as a result of all
three interactions (Carr, 2006). Functional analysis is an assessment strategy that originated in
applied behavioral analysis. It is an experimental method used for determining the motivation or
purpose of certain social behaviors, thus allowing for intervention planning focused on changing
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 38

such behavior to a more desirable outcome (Carr et al., 2002). PBS models have taken
functional analysis one-step further to allow for research and intervention construction in a
natural community setting (Carr et al., 2002). Such an approach allows for interventions to be
unique and effective for the targeted population (Carr et al., 2002).
Additionally, PBS emphasizes person-centered planning when identifying goals and
interventions that best meet the needs of the identified person (Carr, 2007; Carr et al., 2002;
Warren et al., 2006). In person-centered planning, the focus person, family members,
community members, and professionals gather together to discuss the individual’s needs, values,
and current frustrations. During the process, the specific needs and goals of the individual drive
the construction of needed support services that meet the unique characteristics of the focus
person (Carr et al., 2002). This approach to planning attempts to empower the individual to
create life decisions and goals that will create opportunities for personal satisfaction and quality
of life. As a result, person-centered planning invariably leads to enhanced self-determination, a
multidimensional construct that allows for personal goal setting, self-management, and self-
advocacy (Carr et al., 2002; Warren et al., 2006). Enhancing the process of self-determination
requires changing systems and redesigning environments that currently use external and often
coercive methods of decision making, to one that makes the focus person the primary causal
agent in his or her life (Carr et al., 2002).
Finally, PBS also integrates features from the normalization/inclusion movement. Such
method encompasses the principle and ideology of normalization in that people with disabilities
should be afforded the opportunity to live in the same settings as others and have access to the
same opportunities as others (Carr et al., 2002). This notion leads naturally to the principle of
inclusion. It supports the idea of placing students with emotional and behavioral problems in
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 39

general education classrooms as opposed to segregating them in special education facilities.
Most significant to this methodology becomes the necessity to change systems so that
specialized school support becomes fully integrated and maintained within general education
programs (Carr et al., 2002).
Core Features of PBS
The core features of PBS are the integration of (a) behavioral science, (b) practical
interventions, (c) social values, and (d) a systems perspective (Sugai & Horner, 2006; Sugai et
al., 2000). PBS is founded on the idea that human behavior is affected by behavioral,
biobehavioral, social, and physical/environmental factors and such behaviors are learned and can
be changed (Sugai & Horner, 2006; Sugai et al., 2000). According to behavioral science
principles, humans have come to better understand problem behaviors, and with this increased
understanding, we have acquired a greater ability to teach more socially appropriate and
functional behavior (Sugai et al., 2000).
Better understanding of the science of human behavior has led to the development of
practical strategies for preventing and reducing problem behaviors (Sugai & Horner, 2006; Sugai
et al., 2000). Practical strategies are those that emphasize the contextual fit between the problem
behaviors, the environment where the problem behaviors are occurring, and the interventions that
are designed to reduce such problem behaviors. Within the PBS model, priority is given to those
strategies that involve the focus person in the design of the behavior support plan. This includes
recognizing the value of the focus person, taking into account the skills of those who are
assisting in supporting the focus person in ensuring their plan is implemented with fidelity,
considering the resources available for proper implementation, and providing the supports
necessary to sustain the use of effective strategies over a long period of time (Carr et al., 2002;
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 40

Sugai et al., 2000). PBS procedures require proper assessment prior to intervention,
manipulation of the identified antecedent condition that is contributing to the problem behaviors,
creation of new social and communication skills that make problem behavior ineffective or
irrelevant, and careful construction of consequences that encourage the more appropriate
behavior (Sugai et al., 2000). The PBS approach emphasizes the use of practical strategies that
have been validated through rigorous research methodologies (Sugai & Horner, 2006; Sugai et
al., 2000). Finally, the PBS approach requires the use of data collection and analysis to inform
decision-making processes (Sugai et al., 2000). The data is used to determine the focus person’s
current level of functioning, the impact of the intervention on problem behaviors, and
improvements in other life settings such as work, family, and community (Sugai et al., 2000).
Social value consideration is another important feature of PBS (Carr et al., 2002; Sugai et
al, 2000). A central tenet of PBS is that behavior change must be socially significant. The
interventions must be considered comprehensive in that it includes all parts of the focus person’s
social environment, durable in that the change lasts for a long period of time, and relevant in that
the focus person considers the intervention to be desirable and enhance their quality of life (Carr
et al., 2002; Sugai et al., 2000). Careful consideration must be made to ensure that the
intervention strategy not only reduces problem behaviors, but also enhances the individual’s
future quality of life in all circumstances (Carr et al., 2007; Carr et al., 2002; Sugai et al., 2000).
Lastly, an important feature of PBS is the utilization of a systems perspective that
recognizes that the quality and sustainability of supports are directly related to the level of
support provided by the surrounding environment (Sugai et al., 2000). PBS employs a team-
based approach to problem solving where multiple systems, including the target person’s family
members, community members, and professional colleagues are involved in program
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 41

assessment, development, and problem solving (Sugai et al., 2000). Decisions are driven by data
and designed to include the sustained use of effective interventions (Carr et al., 2002; Sugai et al.
2000).
Though PBS was initially used to improve the behaviors of individuals with severe
behavioral and emotional disabilities, researchers and practitioners began to realize its
practicality for use with students who had milder disabilities, such as those exhibiting emotional
and behavioral problems not yet diagnosed or too mild to be considered for a formal diagnosis,
as well as those without any disabilities at all (Sugai & Horner, 2002). According to both the
IDEA (1997) and the more recent IDEA (2004) legislation, PBS is a mandated form of
intervention for addressing the problem behaviors of identified students. PBS strategies were
quickly adapted to fit the broader needs of the whole school, as well as the individual classroom,
thus resulting in school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) models (Sugai & Horner,
2002).
School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
The school-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) approach was developed as a
result of schools becoming mandated to utilize PBS strategies to support students with emotional
and behavioral problems (Medley, Little, & Akin-Little, 2008; Sugai & Horner, 2002; Sugai et
a., 2000). SWPBS is a school-wide proactive support model that employs preventive strategies
at three different intervention levels to decrease behavior problems (Sugai & Horner, 2002). The
program emphasizes an integration of clearly defined objectives, data-driven team decision-
making, evidence-based practices, and measureable outcomes (Sugai & Horner, 2006; Sugai et
al., 2000). Experts have agreed upon four critical elements that help ensure integration of a
successful SWPBS system.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 42

Four Critical Elements of SWPBS
Schools are coming to the realization that behavioral management programs are not
effective when the focus is on reacting to one situation at a time. Rather, more success is
experienced when schools work as a whole system to proactively prevent behavioral problems
(Sugai & Horner, 2002, 2006; Warren et al., 2006). Utilizing the systems perspective of PBS,
SWPBS is driven by the belief that the collective actions of all individuals within the school
contribute to how the school progresses towards a common goal (Sugai & Horner, 2006). Four
critical elements of SWPBS are considered when attempting to integrate effective school-wide
practices: (a) valued outcomes, (b) data used to drive decision making, (c) researched-based
practices that staff use to positively influence student behavior, and (d) systems needed to
support staff to successfully implement the program.
Outcomes. SWPBS is guided by the careful recognition and consideration of outcomes
that are valued by pertinent stakeholders. These outcomes include, but are not limited to,
academic achievement, social competence, and career opportunities (Sugai & Horner, 2002). It
is necessary for schools to be able to create measurable outcomes in order to be successful in
selecting those resources that best meet the needs of their particular school (Sugai & Horner,
2002).
Data. Outcomes are closely related to the second critical element of SWPBS, data.
School-wide data is used to guide decision-making across several levels (i.e., individual,
classroom, school), with various individuals (i.e., student, teacher, administrator), across
different contexts (e.g., general education classes vs. special education classes), and using
multiple avenues (e.g., domain specific courses, attendance records, discipline referrals; Sugai &
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 43

Horner, 2002). Data should be used to guide the selection of new interventions, as well as
evaluate the effectiveness of current practices (Sugai & Horner, 2002).
Practices. SWPBS is based on the use of data to support adoption and prolonged use of
evidence-based practices and curricula that supports maximum potential of achievement for all
students, both academically and behaviorally (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Teachers are encouraged
to critically analyze the effectiveness of new initiatives, curriculum, or strategies through
evidence-based research prior to adopting the program.
Systems. Finally, SWPBS considers all the systems that are required to ensure
acknowledgement of valued outcomes, data-based decision making, and implementation of
evidence-based practices. These systems include, but are not limited to, organizational working
structures such as committees, policies and guiding principals such as the schools mission
statement, resources supports such as families and special education programs, professional
development structures, and administrative leadership (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Although broken
down into separate elements for descriptive and illustrative purposes, each element interacts in a
dynamic process as part of the SWPBS model (see Figure 1).

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 44

Figure 1
Defining elements of school-wide positive behavioral supports

Figure 1 from Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A promising approach for expanding and
sustaining school-wide positive behavior support. School Psychology Review, 35(2), 249.

Five Key Program Components of SWPBS
Considering the dynamic interactions of the four critical elements described above,
researchers have identified five essential steps to ensure effective integration of SWPBS (Sugai
& Horner, 2006; Sugai et al., 2000; Warren et al., 2006). These include: (a) establishing a
leadership team that will guide the planning and implementation process, (b) clearly defining
school-wide behavioral expectation and rules, (c) providing direct instruction of appropriate
behavioral expectations, (d) developing an effective system of acknowledging appropriate
behaviors and discouraging inappropriate behaviors, and (e) consistently monitoring and
evaluating program efficacy.
Leadership team. A team of highly qualified, well-respected individuals is needed to
guide the successful implementation of SWPBS (Warren et al., 2006). This team should be
composed of school staff, administrators, and key stakeholders who can meet regularly and have
the capacity to identify the school’s needs, coordinate interventions that meet these particular
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 45

needs, and evaluate program effectiveness (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai & Horner, 2006; Warren
et al., 2006). Additionally, the leadership team must have the aptitude to develop an action plan
that guides the systematic implementation of SWPBS practices (Sugai & Horner, 2006). A
team-based approach is imperative to help increase the visibility of SWPBS and ensure sustained
implementation of effective practices (Sugai & Horner, 2006).
Clearly defined expectations. Under the direction of the leadership team, along with
input from other staff members, parents, and students, the school must devise a positively stated
list of clear behavioral expectations constructed in observable terms (Warren et al., 2006). This
list should not exceed three to five brief positive statements that replace what students are so
often told not to do. Such statements can include, “Be Respectful, Be Cooperative, Be Safe, Be
Kind, and Be Peaceful” or “Respect Ourselves, Respect Others, and Respect Property” (Netzel &
Eber, 2003; Warren et al., 2006).
Direct instruction of expectations. Once behavioral expectations have been clearly
defined, they must be directly taught to students (Warren et al., 2006). Such direct instruction
requires: (a) specific instruction on the expectations and what they should look like throughout
the campus, (b) modeling of both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors so students can
distinguish between the two, and (c) ample time for students to practice newly learned behavior
and social skills (Warren et al., 2006). Teachers must provide appropriate feedback to students
and highlight positive examples of expected behavior (Warren et al., 2006).
System of acknowledging appropriate behaviors. Reinforcement of expected
behaviors is essential for any school-wide discipline program (Warren et al., 2006). Not only
can such reinforcement come from positive verbal praise, but schools may also utilize various
token systems or prize coupons to provide increased incentive to behave as expected (Lewis &
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 46

Sugai, 1999; Warren et al., 2006). For example, schools can use coupons to distribute to
students displaying appropriate behaviors. In turn, the students can turn in the coupon for prizes
or special privileges. Although tangible rewards can motivate students to behave well, the most
critical component of SWPBS includes social acknowledgement (Warren et al., 2006). Thus, it
is vital that staff members include specific praise statements when dispensing coupons.
Consistent monitoring and evaluation. An integral element of SWPBS is the
consistent use of data to drive decisions and intervention practices (Sugai & Horner, 2006;
Warren et al., 2006). The leadership team needs to identify discipline procedures that will be
regularly monitored, including the reasons for the referrals and the time and place of referrals
(Warren et al., 2006). An example of such referrals would be office discipline referrals (ODR).
ODR data can provide information as to whether the school is progressing towards its established
goal and whether and what kind of adjustments are needed to ensure success.
It is important to note that the procedures discussed above provide the structure for most
SWPBS programs. Each school brings a unique set of challenges and goals to their school-wide
discipline system. It is necessary for each school to consider their population and devise a
leadership team and various strategies that best meet the needs of their particular population.
Impact of SWPBS
It is estimated that SWPBS programs are currently implemented in approximately 9,000
schools in at least 44 states across the United Sates and in many other countries around the world
(e.g., Norway, Canada, and Australia; Bradshaw et al., 2010). Since SWPBS’ creation, several
schools have experienced positive gains in both students’ social conduct and academic
achievement. For example, Netzel and Eber (2003) analyzed the impact of SWPBS programs in
the state of Illinois. Specifically, they looked at an elementary school located in the northern part
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 47

of the state that was receiving assistance from the Illinois Positive Behavioral Interventions and
Supports Network to ensure fidelity of implementation of SWPBS programs. Netzel and Eber
found that after one year of implementation, the targeted school was exhibiting a 22% reduction
in overall suspensions. Additionally, they found that office discipline referrals (ODR) in general
were beginning to decrease, though not at the same rate as suspension referrals.
Warren and colleagues (2006) investigated the effects of a SWPBS system implemented
in an urban middle school with 737 students. The researchers used several disciplinary
outcomes, including ODRs, in-school conferences, time-outs, in-school suspensions, short-term
suspensions, and out-of-school placements. Results indicated significant decreases in most
major categories. The number of ODRs decreased by 20%, in-school conferences decreased by
17%, time-outs decreased by 23%, in-school suspensions decreased by 5%, short-term
suspensions decreased by 57%, and out-of-school placements remained the same. Subjective
reports uncovered that many teachers and administrators have learned how to better approach
students’ problem behaviors. Warren and colleagues argue that SWPBS systems not only
decrease problem behaviors, but also helped school staff learn more effective strategies for
dealing with challenging behaviors both inside and outside the classroom. This study
corroborated with Netzel and Eber’s (2003) findings and extended the literature into the middle
school sector.
In a similar study, Bohanon and colleagues (2006) used a case study approach to
investigate the effects of implementation of a SWPBS program at a large urban high school. The
impact of implementation was measured over a three-year period using a mixed-methods
approach. Evaluation tools included interviews, observations, the School-wide Evaluation Tool
(SET), Effective Behavior Support Survey (EBS), Student Climate Survey, and office disciplinary
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 48

referrals. School staff focused their attention on establishing the goal of reducing office referrals
by 15%. Results indicate that the school actually experienced a 20% decrease in office referrals
from Year Two to Year Three (Bohanon et al., 2006). Limitations to the study were that the
school had not reached full implementation status. Additional support from the district level and
time for teachers to provide direct instruction on appropriate classroom and social behaviors is
needed. However, this study does illustrate that implementation of a SWPBS system can result
in positive outcomes at the high school level.
Lewis, Powers, Kelk, and Newcomer (2002) conducted a study to determine the effects
of a SWPBS program on reducing problematic behaviors on an elementary school playground.
Lewis and colleagues studied a suburban elementary school with 450 students. The researchers
used a multiple baseline measure. After three baseline sessions, school staff, with the help of the
researchers, provided direct social skills instruction both in the classroom and on the playground
consisting of descriptions of appropriate recess behavior. Following instruction, the school used
a group contingency reward system to promote positive behavior. Students were able to earn
elastic loops, which then would be placed in a canister in the classroom. Once the canister was
full, the class could vote on a group contingency reward. Frequency counts of problem
behaviors were collected during recess at 10-minute intervals. Data collectors observed
playground behavior prior to and after the intervention was implemented. Results indicate a
decreasing trend in problem behaviors exhibited during recess. School staff was able to
successfully implement a SWPBS program that was effective in reducing the frequency of
disruptive behaviors on the playground (Lewis et al., 2002).
Caldarella, Shatzer, Gray, Young, and Young (2011) conducted a study that investigated
the effects of a SWPBS plan on school climate and student outcome in two middle schools
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 49

located in the Western part of the United States. Guided by the key program components of
SWPBS discussed previously, the researchers assisted the treatment school in the comprehensive
implementation of a SWPBS system. The implementation and data collection occurred over the
course of a four-year period. The results of this study suggest a strong correlation between
SWPBS implementation and improvement in school climate, including reductions in disruptive
student behavior (Caldarella et al., 2011). Researchers found that the treatment school
experienced significant decreases in student tardiness, unexcused absences, and ODRs compared
to the control school. Additionally, Caldarella and colleagues found that teachers at the
treatment school reported considerable changes in their perception of leadership over the
implementation of SWPBS. The authors suggest that the implementation of the intervention
allowed teachers to participate in more leadership positions, including creating goals, making
data-based decisions, and helping other staff members develop skills and competencies.
Although SWPBS systems were originally developed to influence behavior management
plans on school campuses, results from some studies have indicated that successful
implementation of SWPBS can also positively influence students’ academic achievement. For
example, Lassen, Steele, and Sailor (2006) conducted a study to examine the relationship
between a reduction in ODRs as a result of implementation of SWPBS and its effects on
academic achievement. They hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between
achievement tests scores and reduction in problem behavior. The target middle school had 623
students on site and was located in an urban neighborhood in the Midwestern United States.
Lassen and colleagues analyzed data from ODRs, suspensions, standardized test scores, and the
SET evaluation tool over a three-year period. The results indicated a significant decrease in the
average number of ODRs per student from baseline to Year Three. A reduction in ODRs
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 50

demonstrated implications in two other areas of school functioning. First, a decrease in ODRs
resulted in an increase in instructional hours per year. The average amount of lost instructional
time for a student for each ODR acquired has been estimated to be about 45 minutes (Lassen et
al., 2006). The researchers used an even more conservative estimate of 20 minutes per ODR to
estimate that this particular middle school recovered about 659 instructional hours since
implementing a SWPBS system. Secondly, administrators were pulled less from their schedules
to deal with each ODR. Thirdly, results from this study revealed a steady increase in
standardized test scores in mathematics throughout the course of the study. Finally, researchers
found an increase in students’ reading scores. Although reading scores decreased from baseline
to Year One, there was an overall increase in reading scores from Year One to Year Three.
Though there are many factors that impact students’ academic success, including instructional
strategies, student motivation, and study skills, Lassen and colleagues argue that one such factor
could likely be the available learning time a student spends each day by physically being in the
classroom. When instructional time is lost due to ODRs or suspensions, it is plausible to assume
that academic progress is compromised.
Luiselli, Putnam, Handler, and Feinberg (2005) conducted a similar study investigating
the effect of SWPBS and academic achievement in an urban elementary school. Researchers
used ODRs, suspension referrals, and the Metropolitan Achievement Test-Seventh Education
(MAT-7) to examine the implementation outcome of SWPBS at the focus school. The study
spanned three consecutive years, with a pre-intervention phase, intervention development and
implementation phase, and a post-intervention follow-up phase. Results indicated that discipline
problems decreased and academic performance improved following implementation of a SWPBS
system (Luiselli, et al., 2005). The school experienced a steady decrease in office referrals
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 51

throughout the three-year period. School suspensions did not change as significantly as office
referrals; however, by the third year, suspensions remained low for the majority of the year. The
school experienced very positive, steady academic gains as a result of the implementation of a
SWPBS system. Both reading comprehension and mathematics percentile ranks on the MAT-7
improved from the first to the third year. The teachers indicated that the intervention was
practicable, effective, and contributed to better learning environments in the classroom.
Horner and colleagues (2009) used a randomized, wait-list controlled, effectiveness
analysis to determine whether select elementary schools in Hawaii and Illinois were
implementing SWPBS systems with fidelity. Their study spanned a three-year period. The
authors asserted that focusing on social behavior is not expected to enhance academic
achievement alone; however, improving the social behavior of students combined with effective
instructional practices is expected to result in enhanced academic outcomes (Horner et al., 2009).
They hypothesized that by improving the overall school environment through SWPBS systems,
the school would experience a decrease in ODRs and suspensions, and thus an increase in (a) the
time students are in class, (b) the proportion of minutes that classrooms are engaged in
instructional practices, and (c) the level of student engagement during instruction, all of which
can impact academic gains. Results from Horner and colleagues’ study indicated that after
successful implementation of SWPBS there was a steady increase in the proportion of third grade
students who met or exceeded state reading assessment standards over the course of a three-year
period. The researchers recommend further elaboration and replication to ensure generalizability
of such results. However, their findings do support the hypothesis that implementation of
SWPBS, along with effective instructional practices can improve academic outcomes.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 52

Bradshaw, Mitchell, and Leaf (2010) substantiate Luiselli and colleagues’ (2005) and
Horner and colleagues’ (2009) findings by investigating the impact of SWPBS systems on
students’ behavior and academic attainment, while extending the literature base to include
elementary schools in both rural and urban settings. They utilized a longitudinal group
randomized effectiveness study of which 21 schools were included in the intervention group
(referred to as the SWPBS schools) and 16 schools were assigned to the comparison condition
(referred to as the comparison schools). Each of the 21 SWPBS schools received specific
training in alignment with the SWPBS model. Similar to Bohanon and colleagues’ (2006) study,
Bradshaw and colleagues used SET and EBS measurement tools to determine fidelity of program
implementation. Once successful implementation was determined, Bradshaw and colleagues
used ODRs and school-level suspension rates to determine the impact of implementation on
students’ behavior. Results indicated that the percentage of students receiving suspensions
significantly declined over time for SWPBS schools, but not for comparison schools. Finally,
Bradshaw and colleagues obtained data using standardized test scores from Maryland School
Assessment (MSA). The researchers focused primarily on third and fifth grade reading and math
scores. Although none of the four tests reached statistical significance, data did indicate steady
improvements in the SWPBS schools as compared to the comparison schools. The authors assert
that although SWPBS systems were not initially designed to directly impact students’ academic
achievement, evidence suggests that success of such behavioral management systems in
combination with effective instructional strategies can indirectly influence students’ academic
performance.
Research indicates that professionals at schools with SWPBS systems have a clearer
understanding of the dynamic interaction between student behaviors and the environmental
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 53

factors that impact such behaviors (Medley et al., 2008). This knowledge becomes particularly
important when creating effective instructional practices and working with EBD students.
Medley, Little, and Akin-Little (2008) hypothesized that individuals trained in SWPBS
methodology should develop improved behavioral support plans (BSP) due to better
understanding of the necessary components of behavior change. They conducted a study to
determine whether individual BSP developed at schools utilizing SWPBS programs were more
technically sound than support plans created in schools without SWPBS systems. They collected
data from nine middle schools located in an urban setting. Each school had between 1,300 and
2,200 students. At the time of the study, two of the nine schools had implemented a SWPBS
system; one school had a SWPBS system in place for 22 months, and the other school had a
SWPBS system in place for 10 months. BSPs from SWPBS schools and non-SWPBS schools
were obtained from the district. Each plan was evaluated using the Behavior Support Plan-
Quality Evaluation (BSP-QE) scoring rubric, a validated scoring rubric designed to determined
whether the BSP aligns with the child’s desired behavioral change found during the applied
behavior analysis. To control for response bias, the researchers removed any information
indicating whether the BSP was from a SWPBS or non-SWPBS school. Results revealed
significantly higher total scores on the BSP-QE for SWPBS schools versus non-SWPBS schools.
Thus, researchers determined that BSPs from SWPBS schools were more technically sound and
aligned with students’ behavior goals. Results from Medley and colleagues’ study support the
assertion that SWPBS schools often have a better understanding of behavior and the
environmental factors that impact behaviors, and thus can better support the reduction of
problem behaviors. Such knowledge has the potential to support teachers in constructing not
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 54

only a positive learning environment, but also creating effective instructional strategies to meet
the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Thus far, the literature review has focused on effective evidence-based instructional
strategies that support the learning needs of students with EBD. Additionally, the literature
review has presented evidence regarding the positive benefits of adopting a system-wide
approach incorporating a SWPBS structure to support all students’ behavior. Yet it is also well
known that individual teachers are the primary implementers of effective social and emotional
learning programs (Brackett, et al., 2012). However, very little research has been conducted to
determine what influences general education teachers’ behaviors when it comes to implementing
effective instructional strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems within their classroom. Some research has focused on the
factors that influence general education teachers’ instructional practices for students with
disabilities included in their general education classrooms. As the population of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems continues, it would be helpful for educators
to understand what is working in successful inclusion programs, especially those with students
with EBD. The hope is that administrators and general education teachers who have students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems can use the successful inclusion model
as a guide to determining factors that influence effective teaching practices. Therefore, a
conceptual framework that was designed to better understand the factors involved in the
successful inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms helped guide
this study. The proposed framework, as well as the adaptations that were made based on current
literature will be discussed next.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 55

Conceptual Framework
Inclusion of students with varying disabilities, including emotional and behavioral
difficulties such as experiencing some level of anxiety or dealing with grief, has been
encouraged through legislation for over 20 years (MacFarland & Woolfson, 2013). However,
the inclusion of children with emotional and behavioral problems has routinely been documented
as particularly challenging for general education teachers and is often accompanied by negative
beliefs about whether these particular students should be included in their classrooms (Cook,
2001; Shapiro, Miller, Sawka, Gardill, & Handler, 1999). Studies have found that in-service
teachers often hold more negative feelings about including students with emotional and
behavioral problems than their pre-service colleagues (Burke & Sutherland, 2004; MacFarlane &
Woolfson, 2013). Research also indicates that teachers have higher levels of stress and more
concern when considering including students with emotional and behavioral problems than any
other disability (Avramidis, Bayliss, & Burden, 2000).
Despite the many reports of general education teachers’ hesitancy to include students
with emotional and behavioral problems in their classrooms, there are examples of successful
schools who have practiced high levels of inclusion resulting in high rates of academic success
(Jordan et al., 2010). While considering how to help other schools become more similar to these
exemplary schools, it is essential to consider the factors that predict the effectiveness of general
education teachers’ practices with all students included in their classrooms.
The Supporting Effective Teaching (SET) project is a series of qualitative and
quantitative research studies whose purpose was to develop a framework that describes teacher
characteristics and school-related factors that predict the effectiveness of general education
teachers’ practices with students with varying levels of disabilities included in their classrooms
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 56

(Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Figure 2 presents the framework and illustrates the relationship
between the key variables involved in the successful inclusion of students with disabilities. For
the purpose of this study, the key factors that will be examined in this framework are teacher
beliefs and school norm and how they impact teaching behaviors.
Figure 2
A framework for understanding successful inclusion of students with disabilities in a general
education classroom

Figure 2 from Stanovich, P. J., & Jordan, A. (2002). Preparing general educators to teach in
inclusive classrooms: Some food for thought. The Teacher Educator, 37(3), 175.

Teacher Beliefs
Evidence suggests that teachers’ epistemological beliefs about disabilities and abilities,
and about their responsibilities for students with disabilities impacts their overall teaching
practices (Brackett et al., 2012; Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Several studies
within the SET project examined the relationship between general education teachers’ beliefs
about students’ disabilities, abilities, and their roles in inclusive classrooms, and how these
factors are related to teaching practices.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 57

Initially, the SET project researchers were interested in whether teachers differed in their
beliefs regarding the nature of disabilities and how this impacted their view about their roles with
and responsibilities for students with disabilities (Jordan et al., 2010). Through narrative
interviews conducted during the SET project, researchers were able to detect two different types
of beliefs that teachers held about the nature of disabilities. On average, approximately one-
quarter of the teachers interviewed throughout the multitude of studies held pathognomonic
beliefs (Jordan et al., 2010). These particular teachers believed that disabilities are internal,
fixed, and not amenable to instruction. The researchers found that teachers who held
pathognomonic beliefs placed all blame on the student and/or family for their inability to
progress. As a result, these particular teachers preferred that the student be placed in an
alternative classroom setting and consequently spent little time and effort working with their
included student(s). Through extensive classroom observations, it was determined that these
teachers’ behaviors included minimal or nonexistent interventions, little interaction with the
resource teacher, little connections made between assessment and curriculum, and minimal
contact with students’ parents (Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002).
At the other end of the continuum were teachers who possessed interventionist beliefs
(Jordan et al., 2010). These teachers represented about 20% of their samples and viewed
disabilities as created in part by a society that is designed for able bodies, and thus puts up
barriers for those who do have disabilities. These particular teachers believed that their
responsibility was to create access to learning by breaking down the barriers through
accommodations and working longer and harder with their students with disabilities. These
teachers were very accepting of the increasing classroom diversity due to changes in
sociocultural conditions and educational policy (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Several qualitative
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 58

studies within the SET project found that interventionist teachers tried many different
interventions with at-risk students before making referrals to special education. Also, these
particular teachers connected their curriculum and instructional approach based on assessment
results, actively engaged more with their students with disabilities, exhibited more effective
teaching behaviors as demonstrated through observations, and had regular communication with
students’ parents (Jordan et al., 2010; Jordan, Lindsey, & Stanovich, 1997; Jordan & Stanovich,
2001; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002).
Researchers also found differences in teacher beliefs as it related to their one-on-one
engagement patterns with individual students with disabilities (Jordan et al., 1997; Jordan &
Stanovich, 2001). Jordan, Lindsay, and Stanovich (1997) asked nine third-grade teachers to
wear a lapel microphone and a radio-frequency transmitter so that the researchers could record
their verbal interactions with individual students during independent seatwork as part of their
language arts and math lessons. The students with whom the teacher was interacting with were
identified as typically-achieving, at-risk, or exceptional. The type of dialogue (i.e., academic vs.
non-academic), the frequency and length of interaction, and the level of engagement of each
teacher-student interaction was scored based on the recordings. The nine teachers were also
interviewed to determine whether they possessed either pathognomonic or interventionist beliefs.
The three teachers who held the pathognomonic beliefs interacted the least with students
identified as having a disability. Their predominate instructional style with these particular
students was largely on non-academic topics such as behavior control issues. On the other hand,
teachers who scored high at the interventionist end of the continuum engaged in teacher talk that
was almost always related to the academic content of the lesson. These teachers tended to
remain longer with the individual students identified with disabilities, while cognitively engaging
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 59

them in question-and-answer sessions, actively seeking out possible misunderstandings and
correcting them immediately, and asking for responses that required higher-order thinking skills.
Jordan and Stanovich (2001) extended Jordan and colleagues’ (1997) work to determine
how teachers’ beliefs about disabilities and their resulting behaviors may impact a student’s self-
concept. Jordan and Stanovich recorded nine third-grade and third-fourth grade split classroom
teachers in six different schools. Additionally, they asked each student to complete the Piers
Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001). When they analyzed the
recordings, they found very similar results as Jordan and colleagues (1997) in that teachers who
held pathognomonic beliefs infrequently interacted with students identified with disabilities,
while teachers with interventionist beliefs engaged in considerably more individual and small
group interaction at higher cognitive levels with these particular students. In addition, Jordan
and Stanovich compared the teachers’ interview results with the students’ Piers-Harris Self-
Concept scores. They found that students in classrooms of the teachers with pathognomonic
beliefs scored significantly lower on the self-concept scale than those students in the classrooms
of teachers with interventionist beliefs. One limitation to this study is the validity of the Piers
Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, in particular the Intellectual and School Status subscale as
this subscale has resulted in mixed results in other previously published research studies (Jordan
& Stanovich, 2001).
Researchers in the SET project were also interested in investigating whether there was a
relationship between teachers’ beliefs about disabilities, either pathognomonic or
interventionists, and teachers’ beliefs about ability, including knowledge, knowing, and how
knowledge is acquired (Jordan et al., 2010; Glenn, 2007). Using the Beliefs about Learning and
Teaching Questionnaire (BLQT), researchers were able to identify whether each teacher in the
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 60

SET project demonstrated an entity or incremental belief about ability (Jordan et al., 2010). One
who holds an entity belief understands ability to be a fixed and static trait, and thus believes that
individuals who have disabilities have little responsiveness to learning (Dweck, 2000). This
notion mirrors the pathognomonic belief about disabilities. On the contrary, a person who holds
an incremental belief views ability as malleable and influenced by learning (Jordan et al., 2010).
Individuals with incremental beliefs consider learning to be amenable to improvement and
development if given the right conditions (Jordan et al., 2010). This idea is very similar to
interventionist beliefs about disabilities. Researchers in the SET project found a positive
correlation between teachers’ belief about the nature of one’s ability and their responsibilities in
working with students with disabilities (Jordan et al, 2010). Teachers who held an entity belief
tended to use the students’ disability as a justification for not being responsible for the
instruction of that student. A significant correlation was also found between teachers’ beliefs
about the nature of students’ disabilities and the nature of the students’ abilities. Teachers who
held pathognomonic beliefs and attributed students’ learning difficulties to internal
characteristics also held entity beliefs indicating that these particular students were less
responsive to learning possibilities. This research suggests that there is a relationship between
teachers’ beliefs about the fixed or malleable nature of students’ disability and ability, which in
turn impacts their teaching behaviors when working with students with disabilities, including
emotional and behavior problems.
School Norm
School norm is a second key variable in the SET project framework that was found to
influence teachers’ practices. Researchers in the SET project measure school norm as a
composite measure of the beliefs of students’ abilities and disabilities held by the principal and
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 61

the other teachers in the school (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). In a study conducted by Stanovich
and Jordan (1998), 12 principals completed a questionnaire that was adapted from the same
interviews used to measure teachers’ pathognomonic/interventionist beliefs. Results indicated a
strong correlation between the composite principal variable and effective teaching behaviors.
Teachers located at schools where the principal held an interventionist belief were much more
likely to hold interventionists beliefs themselves and implement effective teaching practices than
those schools where the principal held a pathognomonic belief. One limitation to this study was
the small sample size. The researchers admitted to viewing the study as a preliminary attempt to
develop a framework to explain teacher and school characteristics that are related to effective
teaching in heterogeneous classrooms.
However, the results from Stanovich and Jordan’s (1998) study have important
implications. Literature suggests that the principal is often viewed as a key determinant in
establishing a school’s culture (Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008; Leithwood, Seashore
Louis, Anderson & Wahlstrom, 2004). Principals’ have the capacity to shape the school’s
learning culture through modeling, communication, and providing access to resources such as
professional development and additional classroom assistance (Leithwood, et al. 2004; Stanovich
& Jordan, 1998). This was evident in the results of Stanovich and Jordan’s study where more
often than not teachers shared the same beliefs as the principal. Therefore, the correlation
revealed in the study indicates that school norm established by the principal and other teachers
may affect the teaching behaviors of general education teachers.
Literature suggests that additional factors may influence teachers’ behaviors and whether
they implement effective instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of all students,
including those with emotional and behavioral problems. Therefore, for the purpose of this
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 62

study, the above framework for understanding factors involved in the successful inclusion of
students with disabilities in general education was modified.
Modified Conceptual Framework for This Study
It is indisputable that teachers must possess the knowledge of what constitutes effective
teaching practices in order to implement such strategies into their teaching practices. Therefore,
it is necessary to include pre-service training and ongoing professional development as factors
that also influence teachers’ behaviors of whether they implement effective instructional
strategies for students with disabilities. Thus, a modified framework has been developed to
illustrate factors that influence teachers’ behaviors in implementing effective instructional
strategies to support the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems (see
Figure 3). Teachers enter into their pre-service training and/or professional development
programs with their own set of beliefs that have been constructed as a result of their personal life
experiences. They then exit their pre-service training and/or professional development
experiences with either the same set of beliefs or beliefs that have been modified as a result of
their experiences within their pre-service and/or professional development programs. As the Set
Project researchers proposed, teacher beliefs about a students’ abilities and disabilities impacts
their teaching behaviors (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Teachers’ individual beliefs, as well as
those beliefs held by the principal at a school site comprise the school norm. In turn, school
norm then influences future teaching behavior (Stanovich & Jordan, 1998; Stanovich & Jordan,
2002).

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 63

Figure 3
Factors that Influence General Education Teachers’ Behaviors

Pre-service Training
Literature supports the notion that a well-trained and qualified teacher is the principal
ingredient in successful program implementation (Cooper, 2011; Simpson et al., 2011). Several
research studies have revealed that pre-service training programs can influence teachers’
behaviors as to whether they implement best practice methodology to support the emotional and
behavioral needs of all students. For example, Rathel, Draswgow, and Christle (2008) found that
explicit instruction on appropriate teacher communication patterns when working with students
with behavioral problems, followed by opportunities to practice such strategies and supervisor
feedback influenced pre-service teachers’ engagement with these particular students. Bromfield
(2006) discovered that the use of case studies or vignettes in pre-service programs supported
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 64

trainee teachers in identifying root causes of a student’s behavior and recognizing the appropriate
instructional strategy to support the student’s learning needs. Woodcock and Reupert (2012)
found that as pre-service teachers progressed through their training programs, their frequency of
use, confidence, and success in implementing effective classroom behavior management
strategies were greatly improved. Research conducted by O’Neill and Stephenson (2012)
revealed that teachers who completed a mandatory, or combination of mandatory and elective
classroom behavior management courses during their pre-service training programs had higher
feelings of preparedness to implement effective strategies to address problematic behaviors in
their classroom as compared to their peers who did not complete such coursework. Alvarez
(2007) found that teachers’ prior training impacted their responses to problematic behavior in the
classroom. She found that teachers who received specialized coursework in topics pertaining to
emotional problems were more likely to engage in positive intervention strategies within the
classrooms, while their peers who did not receive such training were more prone to refer the
child to outside personnel for services (Alvarez, 2007). Data collected from these studies
demonstrate that pre-service training can make a difference in how teachers approach, deal with,
and manage emotional and behavior problems in the classroom.
Despite evidence that suggests that pre-service training can influence teachers’ practices
in supporting students with emotional and behavioral problems, many beginning teachers report
feeling inadequately trained to work with these particular students (Atici, 2007; Giallo & Little,
2003). After their pre-service training programs, teachers often feel compelled to enhance their
teaching practices through reading professional books, talking with and observing colleagues,
and seeking professional development programs focused on effective strategies to support
students with emotional and behavioral problems (Atici, 2007). However, studies indicate that
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 65

effective pre-service training programs can positively influence teachers’ practices (Alvarez,
2007; Rathel et al., 2008; Woodcock & Reupert, 2012). Evidence suggests that pre-service
programs are effective when teachers are explicitly taught the relevant information, modeled the
appropriate interventions, given time to practice their newly learned skills, and provided with
effective feedback from a more trained professional (Alvarez, 2007; Atici, 2007; Rathel et al.,
2008).
Professional Development
Evidence has shown that valuable, on-going professional development programs are
necessary in maintaining high quality teachers who implement effective instructional practice
techniques on a daily basis (Adams, 2010; Koppich & Rigby, 2009). Low quality teachers
employing outdated pedagogy can have detrimental effects on students’ learning (Erchul &
Martens, 2010). In fact, Erchul and Martens (2010) argue that the difference between being
taught by an effective teacher utilizing best practice methodologies and a less effective teacher
using outdated pedagogy can result in a full grade level of achievement in one school year.
In 2002, Guskey constructed a framework that explained the relationship between
professional development, teacher behaviors, and student outcomes. Guskey (2002) titled the
new framework, Model of Teacher Change. According to this model, significant change in
teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about the effectiveness of specific teaching strategies occurs after
they have gained evidence of improved student outcomes. Guskey argues that these
improvements usually transpire after teachers have changed their teaching behaviors to include a
new instructional approach, new strategy, or simply a modification in teaching procedure or
classroom configuration. Teachers learn about new instructional approaches and strategies by
attending effective professional development programs (Guskey, 2002). The Model of Teacher
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 66

Change framework illustrates how professional development has the power to change teachers’
behaviors. When teachers change their instructional practice and experience student gains, their
teaching efficacy increases and thus they are more likely to continue to implement effective
teaching practices (Guskey, 2002). The correlational relationship between changes in teacher
behaviors, student outcomes, and teachers’ efficacy is very similar to what researchers proposed
in the SET project’s framework for understanding successful inclusion of students with
disabilities in general education classrooms (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Guskey argues that
teachers change their behaviors when they are exposed to new instructional practices through
effective professional development. Therefore, according to Guskey’s Model of Teacher
Change, when constructing a framework that illustrates possible factors that impact teaching
behaviors, it is important to consider effective professional development as a potential
contributing element.
Although a thorough investigation into what characterizes effective professional
development is beyond the scope of this project, it is necessary to address the reality that several
factors must be considered in order for such programs to be deemed successful. First and
foremost, it is important to get teacher buy-in on the program (Elmore, 2002; Guskey, 2002).
Programs must incorporate elements that educators deem necessary for the improvement of their
school system and students’ educational needs (Elmore, 2002; Oliver & Reschly, 2007).
Additionally, teachers must have appropriate modeling of the new technique (Elmore, 2002) and
time to practice the new strategy (Cook, Landrum, Tankersley, & Kauffman, 2003; Elmore,
2002; Guskey 2002). Finally, if the new practice is to be sustained, teachers must receive timely
feedback on student outcomes as a result of the new implementation (Elmore, 2002; Guskey,
2002). It is well known that successful actions are reinforcing and more likely to be repeated,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 67

while unsuccessful actions are more likely to be eliminated. Researchers have found that
effective professional development programs are essential in promoting high quality teaching
practices in today’s classrooms (Adams, 2010; Koppich & Rigby, 2009). When such programs
are identified and utilized by teachers, they have the power to change teaching behaviors so they
support the learning needs of all students.
Conclusion
In conclusion, due to the heterogeneity of students with emotional and behavioral
problems in general education classrooms, it is necessary to consider multiple interventions
when determining best practices. Research has found that specific teacher-directed interventions
including increased OTR, positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular modifications
have proven beneficial for students with EBD. More recently, SWPBS, a system-wide approach
has been found to support the learning needs of all types of students in various school settings,
including those with emotional and behavioral problems. Current legislation mandates that local
education agencies incorporate SWPBS programs system-wide, and teachers use evidence-based,
effective instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of all students. It is commonly
accepted that teachers are the primary implementers of effective learning programs within their
classroom (Brackett et al., 2012; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Unfortunately there is little
research investigating what influences general education teachers who are immersed in a
SWPBS system to implement best practices. Based on a modified framework first created by
researchers from the SET project, it was hypothesized that factors including teachers’ beliefs,
school norm, pre-service experience, and engagement in ongoing professional development
would influence whether teachers implemented effective instructional strategies to meet the
learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. Using the modified
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 68

conceptual framework, this study aimed to provide further information regarding the factors that
general education teachers in a SWPBS environment perceived to influence their use of effective
instructional strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional
and behavioral problems and where they learned such strategies. Chapter 3 presents the
methodology for this study.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 69

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data
collection, and data analysis process that was used in this study. The purpose of this study was
to investigate the factors that general education teachers, in a school-wide positive behavioral
support (SWPBS) system, perceived to have influenced their use of effective instructional
strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems. The study also investigated where the teachers learned such strategies.
Based on the common knowledge that teachers are primary implementers of effective learning
programs within their classroom, the data from this study could help current and future teacher-
training program developers, administrators, and teachers determine what knowledge and
resources are needed to ensure that such strategies are being implemented (Brackett et al., 2012;
Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). The study was guided by the conceptual framework presented in
Chapter 2 and answered the following research questions:
1. What does it look like when primary general education teachers are implementing
effective strategies that support the learning needs of students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems?
2. What factors do primary general education teachers perceive to have influenced
them to implement effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
varying emotional and behavioral problems?
3. If primary general education teachers are implementing effective strategies to
support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems, where did these teachers learn such strategies?

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 70

Research Design
A qualitative case study methodology was employed for this study (Creswell, 2007).
This was the most appropriate methodology because it allowed for a comprehensive description
and analysis of a bounded system (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) defines a bounded system
as a “single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries” (p. 40). In the context of this
study, I narrowed the focus around a single unit of analysis – the individual general education
teacher who served as a case example of someone who is successfully working with students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems at a school that is utilizing a SWPBS
system. This methodology was selected to help the researcher gain a better understanding of
general education teachers’ beliefs about students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems and the experiences they had prior to and are currently encountering within
their professional careers (Merriam, 2009).
A multi-case study methodology served the purpose of this research project for three
important reasons. First, case study research is particularistic meaning that it focuses on a
specific situation, event, program, or phenomenon (Merriam, 2009). As a result, participant
cases that were chosen for the study were important because they uncovered essential
information that led towards a deeper understanding of a certain phenomena and how it is
represented on a larger scale (Merriam, 2009). In the case of this research project, the specific
phenomena was general education teachers who were identified by their administrator as
successful in supporting the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems.
Second, case study research is descriptive meaning that the data presented at the
conclusion of the study was a comprehensive description of the phenomena under investigation
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 71

(Merriam, 2009). Therefore, the end product of this research project was a complete, rich
description of what general education teachers perceived to be the factors that influenced them to
implement effective strategies to support students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Third, case study research is heuristic meaning that it will enlighten the reader’s understanding
of the phenomena under study (Merriam, 2009). As a result, this research study brought about
the discovery of new meaning and extended the reader’s understanding of what influences
general education teachers’ behaviors when supporting the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems.
A qualitative case study methodology served the purpose of deepening readers’
understanding of the phenomena surrounding the various factors involved in influencing general
education teachers’ behaviors when it comes to supporting the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems. The descriptive nature of this study allowed for a rich
analysis of the factors described in the conceptual framework presented in Chapter 2.
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling is based on the supposition that the researcher wants to discern,
understand, and gain insight into his or her topic of interest and thus must select a specific
location and sample of participants from which the most information can be gathered (Merriam,
2009). The strength in purposeful sampling is finding cases abundant in information relevant for
the study (Patton, 2002). The first step in purposeful sampling is to determine what selection
criteria are essential in choosing the people and/or sites that will provide such rich data
(Merriam, 2009). Based on this notion, a criteria selection was created for both the site and
participants. The following criteria were used for determining the most appropriate site.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 72

Site selecting criteria 1. This study was conducted in a diverse urban elementary school
with a large socioeconomically disadvantaged student population. Evidence suggests that urban
schools located in low socioeconomically defined neighborhoods often have a larger population
of students with emotional and behavioral problems (McCurdy et al., 2003; Qi & Kaiser, 2003).
This site was selected with the expectation that it would allow for an examination of students
with emotional and behavioral problems. The pseudonym Sunny Basin Elementary School was
used in this study in order to protect the school’s identity. At the time of the study, 72% of the
student population at Sunny Basin Elementary School were considered socioeconomically
disadvantaged, meaning that neither one of the student’s parents had received a high school
diploma and/or the student was eligible for the free or reduced-price lunch program (SARC,
2013). This school was ethnically diverse where 72.7% of the student population was Hispanic
or Latino, 13.7% of the student population was White, and 7.4% of the student population was
Black or African American (SARC; 2013). Sunny Basin Elementary School also had a sizable
population of students with disabilities that was representative of the overall national percentage
of students with disabilities (SARC, 2013). Within the target school, nearly 11.7% of the student
population had been identified as having a disability (SARC, 2013), while in the same year
12.9% of students nationwide had been identified as having a disability (National Center for
Educational Statistics, 2012).
Site selecting criteria 2. The school must be actively implementing a SWPBS program.
This supported the study’s aim to investigate what factors influence primary general education
teachers’ behaviors to implement effective instructional strategies for students with varying
levels of emotional and behavioral problems at a school that has adopted a SWPBS program. As
legislation continues to mandate schools to incorporate SWPBS policies into their programs, it
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 73

will become increasingly important to investigate how this structured environment impacts
teachers’ behaviors, while also supporting the learning needs of all students. At the time of this
study, Sunny Basin Elementary School was in its third year of implementing a SWPBS program.
Since the program’s conception, the school has experienced 31% fewer suspensions school wide
(SARC, 2013).
Site selection criteria 3. The classroom must be identified as a general education
classroom. The study’s purpose was to investigate factors that influence general education
teachers’ behaviors, thus the classroom cannot be designated for special education students only.
Site selection criteria 4. The classroom must have students who display varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems. In order to gain a better understanding of what best
practice looks like in a general education classroom where a teacher is successfully
implementing strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems, it was necessary to have such students present for the
observation. The principal assisted the researcher in determining which classrooms currently
had students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, and the participating
teacher confirmed the principal’s selection.
In a similar fashion, selection criteria were established for the participants. These criteria
were upheld with the assistance of the administration at the school site. Five teachers were
voluntarily recruited by the principal to participate in the study. The principal selected one
kindergarten teacher, one first grade teacher, one third grade teacher, one fourth grade teacher,
and one fifth grade teacher. The following criteria were used to determine the most appropriate
teacher sample.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 74

Participant criteria 1. The participating teacher must be considered the lead teacher in a
primary general education classroom. The study’s purpose was to investigate factors that
influence primary general education teachers’ behaviors, thus the sample must be the primary
teacher in a general education classroom and not an assistant teacher, instructional coach, or
parent volunteer. For the purposes of this study, a general education teacher was defined as
someone who has earned a standard certificate through the State Board of Educators after
completing certification program requirements for specific or general studies. The participating
teachers must not have attended a special education certification program.
Participant criteria 2. The participating teacher must be nominated by the school’s
administration as a general education teacher who is successful in implementing effective
instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral
problems in his or her classroom. In order to determine what influences teachers’ behaviors to
utilize effective strategies, the teacher must have shown such abilities in the past. Therefore, the
administration assisted the researcher in selecting the participating teachers.
Instrumentation
Interviews and observations were the primary form of instrumentation used in this study.
Both data gathering methodologies allowed the researcher to gain insight into what classrooms
looked like when teachers were implementing effective strategies to meet the learning needs of
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, what influenced teachers to
utilize these strategies, and where they learned such strategies.
Observations. According to Merriam (2009), observation is the best technique to use
when an actual event, situation, or phenomena can be observed firsthand. Observations make it
possible to record behavior as it is actually happening and provide some knowledge of the
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 75

context or specific behavior that can be used as reference points in subsequent interviews
(Merriam, 2009). In this study, observations of all five participating teachers provided firsthand
encounters as to what strategies teachers were utilizing to support students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems (Merriam, 2009). Additionally, observations provided
opportunities for the researcher to draw inferences about teachers’ perceptions of what strategies
they deemed necessary to best support these particular students (Maxwell, 2013). Finally,
observations allowed for a rich description of the classroom setting and the actual behaviors of
the teachers who have been identified as successful in working with students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems (Maxwell, 2013). Thus, the five observations helped
answer the first research question: What does it look like when primary general education
teachers are implementing effective strategies that support the learning needs of student with
varying emotional and behavioral problems?
The research questions guided the construction of the observation protocol (Merriam,
2009; see Appendix C). During the creation of the protocol, Bogdan and Biklen’s (2007) and
Merriam’s (2009) advice regarding the inclusion of six important descriptive aspects of the
setting was considered to ensure thorough data collection. These six factors included:
description of the physical setting, portrayals of the participants, accounts of activities and
interactions, reconstruction of conversations, depiction of subtle factors, and interpretation of
observer’s behaviors. Each element was incorporated into the framing and/or guiding questions
of the study’s observation protocol. Guiding questions were used to ensure relevant and
sufficient data collection. Such questions were designed to guide the observation towards key
elements that provided data to help answer the research questions. Adequate space was given for
descriptive and reflective note taking (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Included in the design of the
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 76

protocol was a section for documentation of pertinent activities, conversations, and subtle factors
pertaining to the learning experience of students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Finally, a section was designated for record keeping of my behaviors. To ensure more valid data
analysis, it was necessary to address how my presence may have affected the classroom setting
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam, 2009).
Interviews. According to Patton (2002), the purpose of interviewing is to allow the
researcher and readers to enter into another person’s perspective. It is necessary to interview
people to discover things we cannot directly observe including thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and
intentions (Patton, 2002). Furthermore, interviewing can provide the researcher with a
description of past events (Maxwell, 2013) and paint a picture of the participant’s internal
experiences (Weiss, 1994). In this study, interviews from all five participating teachers were
used to gain a greater understanding of the factors that influenced teachers’ behaviors, including
their beliefs, the school norm, and past events such as pre-service experiences and on-going
professional development encounters. Examples of interview questions included, “What is your
opinion of the quality of training you received during your pre-service program on how to
support students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems?”, “Have you
attended any professional development classes focused on the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems?” and “Why do you implement effective instructional
strategies that support the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems
into your instructional practice?” (see Appendix B). Interviews helped answer research question
2: What factors do primary general education teachers perceive to have influenced them to
implement effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with varying emotional and
behavioral problems? Interviews also helped answer research question 3: If primary general
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 77

education teachers are implementing effective strategies to support the learning needs of students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, where did these teachers learn such
strategies?
An interview protocol was constructed to inform the five participating teachers of the
purpose of the study, ask permission to proceed, guide the interview to ensure sufficient data
collection, and thank the participant for his or her time (see Appendix B). Patton’s (2002) six
types of interview questions were used as a guide during the construction of the protocol. Each
interview question was created with precision to assist in gaining data that would provide insight
into teachers’ perceptions of the factors influencing their use of effective instructional strategies
to meet the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems
and where they learned such strategies.
As presented at the conclusion of Chapter 2, the conceptual framework that guided this
research study was based on the works of a group of researchers involved in the Supporting
Effective Teaching (SET) project (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). The goal of the project was to
create a framework that described the relationship among teachers, classrooms, and school
environment that are important for developing a successful inclusion program. The researchers
found that teacher beliefs and school norm were two major factors that influenced teaching
behaviors (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Based on further review of the literature, the framework
for this study was modified to include two additional factors that influence teachers’ behaviors:
pre-service training and on-going professional development experiences (Alvarez, 2007;
Bromfield, 2006; O’Neil & Stephenson, 2012; Rathel et al., 2008; Woodcock & Reupert, 2012).
Therefore, the conceptual framework that guided this research project proposed four primary
factors that influence teachers’ behaviors: teacher beliefs, school norm, pre-service training, and
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 78

on-going professional development experiences. The conceptual framework and research
questions drove the selection of the instrumentation for this particular research project. Table 1
presents each research question, the instrument that was used to answer the question, and the
element(s) of the conceptual framework the instrument sought to discover.
Table 1
Matrix of Research Question to Instrument and Element of Conceptual Framework

Data Collection
As is characteristic of qualitative research, I was the primary instrument of data collection
(Merriam, 2009). The main goals of this research study were to gain understanding of what it
Research Questions Instrument Element of Conceptual
Framework
What does it look like when primary
general education teachers are
implementing strategies that support
the learning needs of students with
varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems?

Observations Teacher Behaviors
What factors do primary general
education teachers perceive to
influence implementation of
effective strategies to meet the
learning needs of students with
varying emotional and behavioral
problems?

Interviews Pre-Service, Professional
Development, School
Norm, Teacher Beliefs
If primary general education
teachers are implementing effective
strategies to support the learning
needs of students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral
problems, where did these teachers
learn such strategies?

Interviews Pre-Service and
Professional Development
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 79

looked like when effective instructional strategies were being implemented in general education
classrooms amid students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, what
factors influenced teachers to implement those strategies, and where they learned them. Since
understanding was the goal of this study, the human instrument, which is able to process
information quickly and adapt accordingly, was the ideal means of collecting data (Merriam,
2009). Additional advantages to having me as the primary instrument of data collection was to
clarify and summarize material, check with participants for accuracy of interpretation, and
further investigate unusual or unanticipated responses (Merriam, 2009). I collected data from
both observations and interviews with general education teachers.
The school’s principal was contacted through e-mail and provided a detailed description
of the purpose of the study and asked to provide names of teachers that met the participant
criteria. In response, the principal provided names of all participating teachers. The principal, as
well as all participating teachers were assured that personal identification would be held strictly
confidential and not included in the dissertation. The school site, principal, and participating
teachers were given pseudonyms to protect their privacy. Participants signed consent forms prior
to interviews and observations (see Appendix A). This study followed all appropriate
Institutional Research Board (IRB) guidelines and procedures and was approved by the
University’s research board prior to beginning the study.
Observations. Observations were conducted first. This allowed me to not only gain
greater understanding of what a successful classroom looked like, but also to acquire some
knowledge of the context or specific behavior of the teacher that can be used as a reference point
in subsequent interviews (Merriam, 2009). During the observations, I assumed an observer as
participant role by making my presence known to the teacher and engaging little in the activity,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 80

while placing precedent on gathering relevant information to answer the research questions
(Merriam, 2009). The observations took place in the teachers’ classrooms during regular class
time with students present. Each observation was approximately 75-90 minutes in duration. One
observation lasted 130 minutes. I made certain that the time of observation worked well with the
participating teacher. An observation protocol was used to guide the observation and allowed
recording space for both descriptive and reflective notes (Creswell, 2009; see Appendix B).
Descriptive fieldnotes were created to provide a detailed, accurate, and objective record of events
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Guided by Bogdan and Biklen’s (2007) framework for descriptive
fieldnotes, the fieldnotes included detailed portraits of the subjects, reconstruction of their
dialogue, descriptions of the physical classroom, and accounts of events and activities. Effort
was made to form comprehensive renderings of what people were doing and saying (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007). Teacher quotes were documented to enhance accuracy of descriptions and
reflective fieldnotes were constructed to provide a more personal, subjective account of events
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). This portion of fieldnotes allowed for speculations of learning and
proposals of future actions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Furthermore, it provided a safe
opportunity for reflection of feelings, errors, and impressions important for me to process and
document (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Supported by Bogdan and Biklen’s framework for
reflective fieldnotes, the fieldnotes were also comprised of considerations for reoccurring themes
and connections present in data; the method of research design and data collection; any ethical
conflicts; my frame of mind during data collection, including all opinions, beliefs, and attitudes;
and any issues needing clarification or correction.
Interviews. Data collected from the interviews consisted of remarks from the participants
regarding their pre-service training experiences, occurrences working with students with varying
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 81

levels of emotional and behavioral problems, their current school environment, and their on-
going professional development encounters. It also consisted of comments regarding their
beliefs about working with behaviorally and emotionally challenged students and their
knowledge of effective instructional strategies to support the learning needs of these particular
students. Each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes and was conducted when it was most
convenient for the teacher.
Each interview was audio recorded with the written permission of the participant. Notes
taken during and after the interview provided a backup record for reference. Teachers were
questioned about their beliefs concerning their role and responsibility in working with students
with emotional and behavioral problems and about their school culture and the impact it had on
their teaching behaviors. Also, teachers were asked about their experiences working with
students with emotional and behavioral problems, including what strategies worked best and how
they determined the effectiveness of each strategy. Furthermore, teachers were questioned about
their pre-service training and any on-going professional development programs that may or may
not have supported them in becoming successful at implementing effective instructional
strategies. Finally, teachers were questioned as to any other factors they believe may have
impacted their successful teaching practice.
The use of an interview protocol ensured that every topic was addressed by each
participating teacher (see Appendix B). The semi-structured interview contained mostly open-
ended questions that allowed for some flexibility and availability to draw out more detailed
descriptions from a small sample of participants (Merriam, 2000). This helped deepen my
understanding of teachers’ beliefs, experiences, and opinions (Patton, 2002). Each interview was
transcribed and hand-written notes were typed and stored appropriately. At the completion of
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 82

each interview, I wrote summaries and reflective notes that included ideas, interpretations, and
thoughts of the conversation.
Data Analysis
Initial data analysis occurred simultaneously with data collection. Each of the theoretical
frames discussed in the study’s conceptual framework, including teacher beliefs, school norm,
pre-service training, and ongoing professional development experiences were considered when
engaging in the data analysis. The first step was to begin to identify segments in the data set that
helped answer the research questions (Merriam, 2009). Once all the data from observations and
interviews were collected, final analysis ensued with reference to Creswell’s (2009) six-step
process of data analysis for qualitative data. First, all data was organized and prepared for final
analysis. All field notes were typed and interviews transcribed. Second, I read through the data
and obtained a general sense of what participating teachers were saying and an overall
impression of the depth and credibility of the information gathered. Third, I engaged in a
detailed coding process. Coding, a typical categorization strategy in qualitative research, helped
“fracture” the data and rearrange the pertinent information into categories that helped facilitate
the development of theoretical concepts (Maxwell, 2009). Fourth, I created a detailed rendering
of the teacher, her behaviors, and the surrounding school environment. Fifth, I constructed a
qualitative narrative to convey the findings of the analysis as it related to the research questions
and proposed conceptual framework. Finally, I created an interpretation or meaning from the
data collected.
Limitations and delimitations were considered during data analysis. One limitation of the
interview process that was considered was the notion that a person’s affect may be altered during
questioning out of bias, vulnerability, or pure nervousness (Patton, 2002). Affect could have
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 83

skewed participants’ responses to questions posed, or the questions asked might not yield results
that perfectly match what was being studied (Creswell, 2009). Thus, I observed participants’
behaviors and took reflective notes when needed. Additionally, because the study was
conducted in the beginning of the school year, participating teachers needed to reflect on past
events and interactions with previous students. The teacher’s memory may have not accurately
reflected the events as they actually occurred. A limitation to the observation process was that
my presence may have affected the situation or person being observed in unknown ways (Patton,
2002). It was imperative that I identified and accounted for these effects when interpreting the
data (Merriam, 2009). I made great effort to consider how my presence was impacting the
environment and people being observed, and recorded such effects for later analysis (Patton,
2002).
A delimitation to the study was that the researcher engaged in purposeful sampling and
only interviewed general education teachers who were nominated by their administration as
being successful in working with students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems. Therefore, I assumed that these selected teachers were representative of successful
teachers. Observations allowed me to see whether these particular teachers were in fact
implementing some or all of the effective instructional strategies discussed in Chapter 2.
Reliability and Validity
In order for the findings of this study to be considered useful to others, the results must be
considered trustworthy. A study is deemed trustworthy to the extent that it was rigorously
conducted through careful consideration of the study’s conceptualization and the manner in
which the data were collected, analyzed, interpreted, and presented (Merriam, 2009). Therefore,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 84

this study was designed and conducted in such a way as to ensure, as much as possible, the
validity and reliability of the findings.
Several steps were taken to enhance the internal validity, or credibility of the data. It was
important that the findings were believable to the reader and congruent with reality (Merriam,
2009). One strategy that was utilized to ensure internal validity was the use of member checks
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). After each interview was transcribed, I asked the participant to review
the transcript of her interview, check for accuracy, and provide any needed clarification. At the
same time, I asked the participant any clarifying questions regarding missed content of the
transcript. Additionally, I worked diligently to ensure external validity, or transferability of
findings to similar contexts. At the conclusion of data analysis, I created a rich description that
included a solid foundation of data so that other professionals can make informed decisions
based on the study’s findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Steps were also taken to ensure reliability, or dependability and consistency of the study’s
findings. One strategy that was utilized to enhance the reliability of the study’s findings was the
use of pilot interviews. These interviews provided me practice with interview skills and allowed
opportunities for me to refine the accuracy, focus, and clarity of the questions. Also, only one
interviewer was used for all interviews, which further contributed to the consistency of
interpretation of findings. To ensure external validity, I utilized a maintenance log or audit trail,
which documented the data collection and analysis process, including how any decisions were
formulated throughout the process (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Conclusion
This chapter presented the research design methodology that was used for this study.
Additionally, the chapter provided a description of the sample and population that participated in
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 85

this study, as well as an explanation of the instrumentations that were utilized to ensure
appropriate data collection. The chapter concluded with a description of the data collection and
data analysis process that ensued, including strategies that were utilized to ensure reliability and
validity of the findings.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 86

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that general education teachers in a
school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) environment perceived to have influenced their
use of effective instructional strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying
levels of emotional and behavioral problems. The participating teachers were identified by their
administrators as successful in working with these particular students. For the purpose of this
study, teacher success was defined by the researcher and confirmed by the school administrators
as one who implements proactive strategies to reduce in-class behavior problems, rarely sends
students outside the classroom due to disciplinary problems, and effectively supports students’
learning needs in helping them meet grade-level academic expectations. It is commonly known
that teachers are the primary implementers of strategies that promote students’ social and
emotional competence within the classroom (Brackett et al., 2012; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002).
Teachers’ beliefs about their role in supporting students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems, as well as their conviction regarding the necessity of implementing
effective learning strategies for this particular population influence program delivery and
outcomes (Brackett et al., 2012; Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002).
It should be noted, although all five participating teachers were considered general
education teachers based on their pre-service training experience, the state teaching credentials
they maintained, and their current placement within a general education classroom, it was
revealed that at the time of the data collection, two teachers had previous professional experience
working with children with emotional and behavioral problems, and a third teacher was a
member of the of the schools’ SWPBS committee. Although the three teachers met the
participant criteria of general education teachers defined by the researcher, the two teachers’ past
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 87

experience and the one teacher’s current committee responsibility may have influenced their
beliefs and behaviors observed in their classrooms and revealed in their interview responses.
The first three chapters of this dissertation outlined the purpose of this study, discussed
the significance of the problem, presented existing literature on effective learning strategies for
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, and established the
methodology utilized for this study. To discern what classrooms looked like when teachers were
successfully supporting students with emotional and behavioral problems and to discover
teachers’ perception of factors that influenced their effective behaviors, three research questions
were used to guide the study. A related interview protocol and classroom observation protocol
were generated from the following questions:
1. What does it look like when primary general education teachers are implementing
effective strategies that support the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems?
2. What factors do primary general education teachers perceive to influence
implementation of effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems?
3. If primary general education teachers are implementing effective strategies to support
the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems, where did these teachers learn such strategies?
These questions were explored through a qualitative research methodology where data
were collected through observations and interviews. Triangulation of these data sources
increased the validity of the study’s findings. The information was analyzed and the findings
were constructed to offer a rich description of the phenomenon in question. Pseudonyms for the
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 88

school site, principal, and teachers were created to ensure that all participants’ identities were
kept private. This chapter begins with a brief description of the participants and then presents
the study’s findings in alignment with the corresponding research question.
Description of Teacher Participants
Five primary general education teachers agreed to participate in this study. At the time of
data collection, Lynn was in her 17
th
year as a kindergarten teacher at Sunny Basin Elementary
School. She completed her student teaching experience in a different kindergarten classroom
located at a neighboring school. She earned a Bachelor’s of Arts in Liberal Studies and went on
to earn a Master’s of Curriculum and Instruction. When asked what brought her into the
teaching profession, she replied:
My parents were teachers, so I helped a lot in the classroom. It was all I ever knew and I
really liked doing it. So when they asked me what I wanted to do I said I guess I’ll be a
teacher. That’s what I started off doing and clearly what I’m still doing today.
Lynn has participated on several committees throughout her tenure at Sunny Basin
Elementary. At the time of the study, she was a member of the SWPBS committee, which
consisted of a group of school leaders whose job it was to guide and support the school’s staff
and faculty members while they implemented a behavioral program throughout the school.
Joyce was a first grade teacher at Sunny Basin Elementary School and in her 19
th
year of
teaching when this study was conducted. She taught in several different grade levels including
second, third, and fourth grade; however, most of her time was spent in a first grade classroom.
Two years ago she was hired as an intervention specialist at Sunny Basin Elementary School, but
due to budget cuts she returned to a first grade classroom the following year. She earned her
Bachelor’s of Arts in Liberal Studies and initially went into the banking industry following her
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 89

college graduation. She spent three years in the industry and discovered that she thoroughly
enjoyed interacting with people, but did not like having to sell banking-related ideas and
products to people. When asked what brought her into the teaching profession she replied, “I
think I’ve always wanted to be a teacher.” She applied for a teaching position during the time
California Department of Education was enacting policies focused on class size reduction. She
was soon hired with an emergency teaching credential. After 10 years of teaching in various
grade levels, Joyce returned to school and earned an administrative credential. She worked very
closely with the principal at the school site and was often called into Student Study Team (SST)
meetings and asked her opinion about best practice for a particular student.
At the time of data collection, Anne was a third grade teacher at Sunny Basin Elementary
School. She was in her fourth year of teaching. Before Anne began working in the education
field, she was a behavioral interventionist who worked with children who suffered from
behavioral and emotional problems. She designed and implemented behavioral programs
appropriate for these particular children’s home and community settings. During her interview,
Anne noted that while in college, a teacher at Sunny Basin Elementary School was diagnosed
with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, and thus needed an assistant to support her throughout the day.
Anne applied for the position and was hired as the third grade teacher’s instructional aide. Anne
continued to work with the teacher throughout her college years. Upon graduation, Anne was
hired as a full-time teacher at Sunny Basin. During her first year of full-time teaching, she was
the lead teacher in an intervention classroom working with students in first, second, and fifth
grade. The following year she taught in a second grade classroom. This was her second year in
a third grade classroom. She credited her mom for drawing her into the teaching profession.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 90

At the time of this study, Elizabeth was in her 23
rd
year of teaching, 12 of which had been
at Sunny Basin Elementary School. She earned her Bachelor’s of Arts in Business and initially
began a career in business. After working for three years with a small company, Elizabeth
decided to fulfill her childhood dream of becoming a teacher and earned a teaching credential.
She has taught in several different grade levels, including one year in a combination class with
students in both second and third grade. After teaching for 11 years, Elizabeth returned to school
and earned a Master’s in Pupil Services. Elizabeth has taught in fourth grade throughout her
tenure at Sunny Basin Elementary School. At the conclusion of the interview, Elizabeth shared
through tears that her own biological children inspired her to become more patient with children
who suffered from emotional and behavioral problems. She stated:
Having kids of my own really opened my eyes. My own kids had special, close friends
with special needs. I watched them for years treating their friends with love and
kindness. It made me proud of my kids for loving them the way they did despite their
challenges. They were so patient. It made me realize I needed to be more patient too.
Peg was a fifth grade teacher at Sunny Basin Elementary School during data collection.
She earned a Bachelor’s of Arts in Criminal Justice and Juvenile Delinquency. She admitted to
always wanting to be a teacher, but choose not to initially enter the education field because her
parents said they would not support her if she did. Peg noted that at the time, her parent’s
feelings about teaching were influenced by a large sexual harassment case involving two
preschool teachers in the local community. Peg stated that they made it clear to her that teaching
was “too dangerous.” Upon earning her Criminal Justice and Juvenile Delinquency degree, Peg
worked at a large juvenile detention center. During the interview, Peg disclosed that she
thoroughly enjoyed working at the detention center; however, she admitted that she continued to
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 91

fuel her passion for teaching by working part-time in a preschool setting and accepting substitute
teaching positions on her days off from the detention center. She stated that ultimately it was her
Godmother who encouraged her to return to education and consider attaining a full-time position
teaching young children. After working for six years at the detention center, she returned to
school and earned her teaching credential. She recalled that her first year of teaching was in a
self-contained classroom and credited this initial experience as one that has shaped her current
practice. Peg stated, “Through this experience, I learned that all students learn different so you
need to constantly make modifications to support every student.”
Research Question 1: Common Effective Strategies in Classrooms
The main purpose of the first research question was to discover what primary general
education classrooms looked like when teachers were implementing effective strategies that
supported the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems. This research question connects with the conceptual framework presented in this
study in that helped guide data collection towards identifying types of behaviors that were
enacted in classrooms of teachers who were nominated by their administration as successful in
working with students with emotional and behavioral problems. It also allowed me to connect
the teachers’ beliefs that were revealed in the interview with the behaviors I observed in the
classroom. Past research has found three prominent interventions that have produced empirical
data indicating an increase in these particular students’ academic achievement and a decrease in
these particular students’ disruptive classroom behaviors following implementation. These
interventions include increased opportunities to respond (OTR; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001),
positive teacher praise (Sutherland et al., 2000), and individualized curricular modifications
including preference, task variation, and choice (Kern et al., 2001a; Umbreit et al., 2004). It
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 92

became evident through data analysis that all five participating teachers were implementing these
interventions on a routine basis. The data from this study also revealed additional strategies
commonly observed in all participants’ classrooms and regularly identified by the participating
teachers during interviews as beneficial for supporting the learning needs of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. These strategies included universal
behavior management systems, verbal explanations for redirections, and posting of weekly
academic and social goals. The teachers used these strategies to increase academically oriented
behavior and decrease disruptive or off-task behavior. Given that the intention was to increase
some behaviors and decrease other behaviors, I determined that a teacher had effectively used a
given strategy when the individual student at whom the strategy was targeted discontinued his or
her disruptive behavior and engaged in a more academically oriented behavior. In order for me
to gain greater insight into whether the various instructional strategies had an effect on a student
with emotional and behavioral problems, each participating teacher identified the students in
their classrooms who struggled with these particular problems prior to the observation. This
information allowed me to closely observe students’ reaction(s) following implementation and
analyze whether the strategy was effective.
Observations revealed that each strategy was not used in isolation; rather, every
classroom was a fluid environment where teachers were constantly implementing the various
strategies in unison with one another. Each strategy will first be discussed individually to
provide clarity of what the actual strategy looked like when implemented in a general education
classroom. Following the individual description will be an illustration of the strategies working
in conjunction with each other.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 93

Increased Opportunities to Respond
Opportunities to respond (OTR) is a teaching strategy in which during instruction of new
material, the teacher attempts to elicit four to six student responses per minute (Sutherland et al.,
2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Evidence suggests that eliciting such frequent responses
results in an increase in student engagement (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001), more correct
responses, and a decrease in behavioral disruptions (Sutherland et al., 2003) for students with
emotional and behavioral problems. Examples of different types of OTRs include choral
responses, individual responses, and visual or auditory cueing (Conroy et al., 2008). Although
each method may vary in type of response and cueing, OTRs have similar elements including:
(a) instructional talk that consists of repeated verbal, visual, or verbal and visual prompts
evoking student responses; (b) delivering instructional information in a manner that increases
correct student response; (c) adjusting questioning practice to meet the students’ level of
functioning; (d) constantly checking for students’ understanding; (e) using repeated prompting
with appropriate wait time for students’ response; and (f) offering corrective feedback and
explicit error correction (Conroy et al., 2008).
There were numerous instances of OTR observed in all five participating teachers’
classrooms. For example, during a 30 minute reading comprehension activity, Anne, the third
grade teacher, alternated students’ response techniques to include choral responses, individual
responses, and visual responses. During the class period, an individual student, or Anne would
read a section of a narrative text. Anne would ask questions pertaining to the characters and/or
action in the story while varying the method in which she evoked students’ responses. Prior to
the commencement of the reading activity, students were transitioning from a small group
activity where students were moving from their allotted carpet area back to their individual
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 94

desks. Samantha and Gia, two students whom Anne had identified previously as often struggling
behaviorally in class, were both observed talking with peers whose desks were not near their
own. Gia was observed picking up one of her peer’s pencil pouches and attempting to unzip the
pouch. Anne had to ask Gia to put down her peer’s pencil pouch and “walk quickly and quietly”
to her desk. Anne needed to cue Gia to disengage from disruptive behavior (e.g., talking with a
peer and touching her personal property) to more appropriate behaviors (e.g., walking quickly
and quietly to her desk). Gia complied with the directions by walking to her desk without further
disruption. Anne began giving directions for the reading activity, at which point Gia began
talking to her neighboring peer. Once again, Anne had to cue Gia as to the more appropriate
behaviors when she asked Gia to stop talking and listen to the directions. Following the cue, Gia
stopped talking and resumed eye contact with the teacher. It became evident that Gia needed
additional cueing from the teacher to redirect her off-task behaviors to more academically or
behaviorally appropriate behaviors leading up to the reading activity. Once the directions were
given and all students had the first page of the reading packet faced up on their desk, Anne called
on a student to begin reading the text aloud.
The first method in which she requested students’ responses was through either a thumb
up or thumb down hand gesture. The beginning part of the narrative text was about a boy who
was riding his bike home from school when he stopped to help a stranger find his missing dog.
At first, the boy was afraid to stop and help the stranger because his mother required him to be
home by a certain time after school ended. However, the stranger told the boy he would reward
him if he helped find his dog. The author of the narrative text indicated that the boy desired the
reward, and thus chose to help the stranger. Anne asked students whether they thought the main
character should have stopped to help the stranger and requested that the students respond with
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 95

either a thumb up for “yes” or thumb down for “no.” Anne modeled the hand gesture by first
putting her thumb up for yes and then putting her thumb down for no. Every student, including
Samantha and Gia, immediately raised their hands with either their thumb up or down. Both
Samantha and Gia raised their hands with a thumb down gesture indicating a “no” response.
Anne paused for approximately 15 seconds, glanced around the room and said, “okay.” Students
put their hands down. In this instance, Anne provided a visual prompt by modeling the thumb
up/down gesture, immediately followed by a verbal question requiring a response from all
students. Anne then allowed a wait time of 15 seconds to provide students time to respond.
Providing a visual prompt followed by wait time for student response are characteristics of OTR.
Anne then asked students to share their responses. Several students raised their hands, including
Samantha and Gia. After calling on two students, Anne asked Samantha to explain her response.
Samantha stated that she felt that the boy was not behaving appropriately because “first he
should not talk to strangers because it’s not safe, and also he should get home when his mom
says to get home.” Anne responded by stating, “Great point, Samantha. I agree, he should not
talk to strangers.” Samantha smiled in response. Anne called on two other students who had
volunteered to share their answers. The two students answered with very similar responses as
Samantha. Anne elicited a verbal response from five students within approximately 1 minute.
The above example illustrated Anne’s use of OTR. She began her line of questioning by
providing students with a visual cue when she demonstrated the thumb up/down gesture. Then,
she verbally prompted students by asking them a question related to the text and requested
students to provide a visual cue (e.g., thumb up or down) to indicate their response. She
provided approximately 15 seconds of wait time to allow students to respond. Next, Anne
elicited five student responses within 1 minute. This is consistent with the strategy because it
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 96

calls for the teacher to elicit four to six student responses per minute. Anne used two different
versions of cueing: visual cueing through a thumb up/down gesture and verbal cueing through
spoken word. In this instance, both Gia and Samantha responded to the teacher by giving a
thumb down, while Samantha verbally responded to Anne’s question. These academically
oriented behaviors are consistent with the goals of OTR. Gia’s and Samantha’s behavior
demonstrated that they were attending to the teacher and the discussion at hand because
throughout the questioning, they maintained eye contact with the person speaking, did not speak
to their neighboring peer, and provided a response to the question. Both students responded with
a thumb down gesture. Samantha provided a verbal response that demonstrated that she heard
the question and answered it appropriately. Her answer demonstrated that she was academically
engaged in the lesson.
Next, Anne engaged students in a choral reading response. Choral response is a cueing
strategy consistent with OTR. Throughout the reading, Samantha and Gia read the text aloud
along with their peers. Anne stopped all students and asked them to pick up their individual
whiteboard located at the top, upper edge of their desks and take out their dry erase marker
located in their pencil boxes in their desks. This demonstrated Anne’s use of OTR in that she
provided students with a verbal cue (e.g., take out their whiteboards and markers) eliciting a
physical response from the students. During the directions, all students reached into their desks,
took out their markers, picked up their whiteboards, and moved them to a location on their desk
allowing them to be able to write on their boards. Within 15 seconds of asking students to take
out their whiteboards, Anne asked students to respond with either a “yes” or “no” as to whether
the main character should have received the reward he did as a result of his behaviors. This
action demonstrated an additional use of OTR as Anne provided students with a verbal cue and
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 97

elicited their written response on a whiteboard. Additionally, she obtained many student
responses in under 1 minute, a characteristic of OTR. Both Gia and Samantha immediately
grabbed their whiteboards and wrote down their responses, turned their boards towards Anne,
and held their board above their heads along with their fellow peers. Their behavior
demonstrated that they were attending to the teacher because they wrote “yes” in response to the
question and held their whiteboards over their heads and towards Anne along with their peers.
Anne shared her opinion by stating that the man promised the boy a reward if he helped him find
his dog, which he did, and thus she felt it was appropriate for the man to reward the boy’s
behavior. She continued by stating, “Even though the boy should not have stopped to help a
stranger, the man should have stuck to his promise and reward the boy.” Anne then asked
students to share their reasoning for their responses. She randomly called on four students within
1 minute. Again, this is consistent with OTR in that Anne elicited four student responses in 1
minute. Throughout the questioning period, both Samantha and Gia maintained eye contact with
the speaker, did not talk to their peers and/or draw on the whiteboard, and demonstrated
academically oriented behaviors when they wrote an answer on their whiteboard. After the
fourth student responded, Anne asked all students to turn to their desk partners and make
predictions as to whether they thought the main character would maintain his positive behaviors
or make alternative choices. She provided students approximately 1 minute to discuss with their
partners. This demonstrated an additional use of OTR in that Anne used a verbal cue and
requested that students provide a verbal response. She also allowed wait time for student
response. The use of this strategy allowed several students to respond within 1 minute. Both
Gia and Samantha demonstrated academically oriented behaviors when they turned to their
partners and were observed discussing their predictions. Gia stated that she thought the boy
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 98

would “not stop and talk to strangers again” and that “he learned his lesson.” Samantha was
overheard stating that she thinks “he’ll ride his bike straight home from school.” Again, Gia and
Samantha demonstrated that they were attending to the teacher and the academic task at hand
because they were making predictions as to what the boy would or would not do in the future.
Anne allowed approximately 1 minute for students to discuss their responses with their
partner. She then asked students to share what they discussed. This demonstrated a use of OTR
in that Anne used a verbal cue to elicit students’ verbal response. Gia and Samantha raised their
hands to volunteer their answers. Anne called on three students before calling on Gia. Gia
shared that she believed that the boy “realizes that talking to strangers is a scary thing to do” and
that in the future “he won’t talk to strangers.” She continued to say that he “probably learned his
lesson because he made his mom mad and he had to go to his room and think about it.” Gia’s
actions demonstrated that she understood the question and provided an academic response. Anne
stated, “All right, Gia- good point.” Anne elicited a response from four students within a 1
minute time period. This is in alignment with the characteristics in which a teacher attempts to
elicit a response from four to six students within 1 minute. Anne continued her use of OTR
when she used another verbal cue to elicit student response. She asked students if they would
have stopped and helped the stranger and instructed students to look at their partners and whisper
“yes” or “no”. Samantha looked at their partners and whispered “no.” Gia looked at her partner
and said in a conversational tone, “no.” Anne reminded Gia to use a “whisper.” Gia apologized
and looked down at the carpet. Anne needed to provide a verbal cue of what behaviors were
expected of Gia. Anne continued her use of OTR when she asked students to share their
responses discussed with their partners to the whole class by displaying either a thumb up or
thumb down. Anne provided a verbal prompt and requested a visual cue from students in
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 99

response. Both Gia and Samantha held their thumbs down and made eye contact with Anne.
She utilized the strategy of OTR again when she asked students to provide an explanation for
their response. She called on five students within approximately 1 minute. This demonstrates
the use of OTR in that Anne provided a verbal prompt in which five students provided a verbal
response within 1 minute. Providing many opportunities for students to respond to questions
pertaining to what they read in a text was an effective instructional method that kept Gia and
Samantha engaged throughout the duration of the lesson. This was evident by the fact that when
Anne began providing students opportunities to respond to her questioning, both girls did not
display disruptive behaviors, rather they were engaged in more academically oriented behavior.
These behaviors were consistent with the goals of OTR. Each time Anne visually or verbally
prompted students to give a thumb up or down, Samantha and Gia would respond in less than 1
minute. Additionally, they were able to provide a written response on a whiteboard and a verbal
response with their partners within the 1-minute parameter. Both girls volunteered to share their
answers as demonstrated by their raised hands, while Gia provided a verbal response that
illustrated her understanding of the question and the academic content. Once Anne began
implementing OTR, she needed to redirect Gia’s behaviors once. Gia used a conversational tone
when students were instructed to whisper. Anne provided a cue as to more appropriate actions.
It is difficult to know whether Gia would have complied with such request, as Anne did not ask
another question requiring students to whisper. However, data revealed that Gia did not need
any additional behavioral cueing from Anne for the remainder of the lesson. Despite Gia not
following directions to whisper, her behaviors were academically oriented as she provided a
response to Anne’s question, which is a goal of OTR. Throughout the lesson, the girls
demonstrated academically oriented behaviors in that they volunteered to share their answers
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 100

each time Anne asked a question pertaining to the text, responded to each line of questioning,
and shifted their eye gaze from the text to the person whose was speaking and back to the text
when instructed to do so. Additionally, both Samantha and Gia did not talk to or touch their
peers or their peers’ property throughout the duration of the lesson. They remained seated at
their desks and spoke only when directed to and/or called upon.
Similar to Anne, Elizabeth provided varied opportunities for students to respond to her
questioning and would often alternate the method in which students would be required to answer.
Prior to the observation, Elizabeth informed the researcher that Isaiah, Chase, and Joy often
struggled with emotional and behavioral problems throughout the day. This became evident
during the observation. Chase was observed blurting out answers and talking with his peers.
Isaiah was observed getting out of his chair and confronting a peer during an independent
activity. Joy, on the other hand, appeared very withdrawn, made little eye contact, and was very
slow to collect the materials she needed at the beginning of class. When she first entered the
classroom, it took her a great deal of time to walk to her desk, sit down, and follow the first set of
directions given by the teacher, which was to take out last night’s homework. Although the
behaviors of Chase, Isaiah, and Joy were quite different, it became evident that OTR was an
effective instructional strategy particularly for Joy and Chase in that it caused both to redirect
their behaviors to a more academic orientation, which lead to less disruptive behaviors observed
from Chase and more output of correct responses from both Chase and Joy.
One example of Elizabeth using OTR occurred while the whole class was reviewing
double and triple digit multiplication problems from the previous night’s math homework. Using
an overhead projector, Elizabeth displayed on a large pull-down screen in the front of the room a
correctly completed homework worksheet. Each step and the final answer for every problem
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 101

was completed in red pen. She pointed to the first problem, which had a 32 written on top of
another 32 and a line drawn below the lower 32 the width of the numbers. There was an X
written on the left-hand side of the lower 32. She asked students to recite the six steps for
double-digit multiplication they learned in a previous lesson. This is in alignment with OTR in
that Elizabeth provided a verbal prompt and requested students to produce a choral response. In
unison, students said, “multiple right-hand column and put the answer below the line.” Elizabeth
provided a visual cue when she pointed the right-hand column and moved her pen down the
column as students recited the step. In return, students provided a choral response to her visual
cue. Elizabeth pointed to the four and said, “correct. ” It took students approximately 3 seconds
to recite the step. Elizabeth’s action of providing a visual cue to elicit a choral response is in
alignment with characteristics of OTR. In addition, this strategy elicited a response from several
students in seconds. When the choral response ended, she provided a verbal cue of affirmation.
She then asked students to recite the second step aloud. Again, she provided a visual cue by
pointing to the next number, which in turn resulted in a choral response from students. All
students said, “multiply the top left number with the bottom right number and put your answer to
the left.” Again, Elizabeth moved her pen in the stated direction providing additional visual cues
eliciting choral responses from students. She pointed to the six and said, “Correct.” She
provided a verbal cue of affirmation. Students continued this choral response until the problem
was completed. Each time, Elizabeth offered students a visual cue when she pointed to the
number, moved her pen to the next number, and then pointed towards the answer. Students, in
return, would provide a choral response to her visual cue. Each step was completed in 3-4
seconds resulting in many student responses in a very short time span. Providing visual cues that
resulted in several students’ verbal response within 1 minute is in alignment with the purpose of
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 102

OTR. At first, Chase did not verbalize the steps out loud; rather, he was looking for a pen in his
pencil pouch. When he retrieved his red pen, his classmates were on the first step of the second
problem. Chase was observed looking up at the screen and back at his homework sheet three
times as his classmates recited the remaining steps for the second problem. He slid his bottom
forward in the chair, crossed his leg at his ankles and began rocking back and forth on his heel
that was touching the floor. He was observed looking at his peer’s desk, then at the screen, and
then at his paper as students recited the remaining steps for the second problem. At this point,
Chase sat up, looked at his paper, looked back up at the screen, and joined the choral response
when the whole class began reciting the first step for problem three. Again, Elizabeth used a
visual cue (e.g., pointing to the two numbers to be multiplied and the resulting answer), while
students provided a choral response of the steps required for multiple digit multiplication. All
students provided a response within a 3-4 second interval and were able to complete all six-steps
within an 18-24 second interval. This is in alignment with the characteristics of OTR in that the
Elizabeth elicited several student responses within a 1-minute interval using a visual cue. Once
Chase began reciting the steps, he demonstrated academically oriented behaviors by chorally
responding along with his classmates. Joy and Isaiah were observed reciting from beginning to
end. Providing Chase, Joy, and Isaiah the opportunity to verbally recite the newly learned
multiplications steps directed their behaviors to an academic orientation where they were able to
complete the task at hand.
Similar to Anne, Elizabeth used the thumb up/thumb down response technique. She
displayed a triple digit multiplication problem on the overhead projector for all students to see.
The problem was 173 times 243. Next, she modeled the first step in solving the problem by
pointing to the three moving her pen down towards the other three while saying, “first multiple
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the three by the three.” She continued by saying, “The answer is nine so I put the nine down
here” as she wrote the nine underneath the line and below the three. She then asked the class to
indicate with either their thumb up or down as to whether she solved the question correctly.
Most students were observed raising their hand with their thumb up. Elizabeth provided students
with a visual and verbal cue and in return elicited students’ visual cue in response to her
questioning. It took her approximately 4-5 seconds to complete the problem. She would wait
about 8-10 seconds for students to respond. This is in accordance with the purpose of OTR in
that Elizabeth provided visual and verbal cues (e.g., completing the problem on the overhead
projector and verbally stating each step) that elicited a visual cue (e.g., thumb up or down) from
students in a 1-minute interval, while providing wait time for students’ response. Elizabeth
followed the same sequential steps when multiplying the three by the seven and the three by the
one. Each time, Elizabeth offered a visual cue by demonstrating how to multiply the numbers
using the overhead projector and a verbal cue by describing each step and the resulting answer.
In return, students responded using either a thumb up or down. Elizabeth completed each step
within 4-5 seconds, thus eliciting a student response every 5-6 seconds. After correctly
multiplying the three and one, Elizabeth immediately began multiplying the four and three
without including a placeholder. Again, she offered students a visual cue by demonstrating how
she was solving the problem by using the overhead projector, while also providing students a
verbal cue by speaking out her actions. She then asked students to respond with either a thumb
up or thumb down. The majority of students were observed raising their hand with their thumb
down. She utilized a different form of OTR when she told students they were correct and
reached for a tongue depressor that was in a large cup located on a nearby table. She pulled one
depressor from the cup and said the student’s name out loud. She asked the student what she did
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 104

incorrectly. The student stated that she did not include a placeholder before multiply the two
numbers. Elizabeth used a verbal cue (e.g., asking the student what she did wrong), while
eliciting a verbal response from a student (e.g., the explanation as to what Elizabeth did
incorrectly). Elizabeth told the students they were correct and erased the number she had written
and wrote a zero with a horizontal line through it. Elizabeth continued to multiply the remaining
part of the problem. Each step she used the strategy of OTR as she provided a visual (e.g.,
writing the steps to the problem on the overhead projector) and a verbal (e.g., speaking out each
step and asking students if she was correct) cue, while eliciting a visual cue (e.g., raising a thumb
up or down) in response to her question. Each step continued to take Elizabeth 4-5 seconds to
complete and she continued to provide students approximately 10 seconds to respond, resulting
in many student responses with a 1-minute interval. This is in accordance with the purpose of
OTR in that Elizabeth provided a visual and verbal cue that elicited a visual cue in response from
students in a 1-minute interval. All students, including Chase, Joy, and Isaiah displayed
academically oriented behaviors as Elizabeth was solving the first problem. Chase, Joy, and
Isaiah maintained eye contact with Elizabeth and would raise their hand with their thumbs either
up or down when required to do so.
Elizabeth continued to use the OTR strategy for the second three digit multiplication
problem. She wrote 346 times 571 on the overhead projector. Next, she demonstrated how to
solve the first step in the problem by multiplying six times one and writing six underneath the
line and below the one. She then asked students to raise their hands with either a thumb up or
thumb down indicating whether she correctly solved the problem. Again, the majority of
students were observed raising their hand with their thumb up. Similar to the first problem, it
took Elizabeth approximately 4-5 seconds to solve the problem and she waited about 10 seconds
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for students’ response before moving on to the next step. This is in accordance to OTR in that
Elizabeth offered students a visual (e.g., demonstrating how to solve the problem using an
overhead projector) and a verbal (e.g., speaking out each step in the process and asking for
students’ response), while eliciting many students’ responses within a 1-minute interval. She
repeated the process six additional times, each time solving the multiplication operation
correctly. On the fifth step, she erroneously multiplied two numbers together. As she had done
each step before, she asked students to indicate with either a thumb up or down if she had
completed the step correctly. The majority of students raised their hand with their thumb down.
She affirmed their choice, reached for a tongue depressor in the plastic cup, and randomly pulled
out Joy’s name. Elizabeth provided a verbal cue (e.g., asked Joy what she did wrong) and Joy
provided a verbal response (e.g., that she did not multiply the numbers correctly). Elizabeth
asked Joy to come to the board and demonstrate how to correctly multiply the numbers. Joy
walked to the board and correctly multiplied the numbers. Elizabeth said, “Correct.” Joy smiled
and said, “Thank you.” While Joy was walking to the board, Chase looked over his left shoulder
and began talking to his neighboring peer. Elizabeth redirected his behaviors and offered an
explanation of why she redirected his behavior when she said, “Chase, please turn around and
watch as Joy works on this problem. Your eyes need to be forward so you can see the step she
performs.” Chase complied, turned his eye gaze back to the front of the class, and watched as
Joy completed the multiplication problem. Elizabeth continued to utilize the instructional
strategy of OTR as she solved the remaining portion of the problem. At each step, she would
provide students with a visual (e.g., demonstrating how to solve the problem using the projector)
and a verbal (e.g., stating what she was doing and then asking students whether her actions were
correct or not) cue, while eliciting a response from students (e.g., thumb up or down). Elizabeth
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would solve the problem in 4-5 seconds and wait approximately 10 seconds for students’
response. Once she returned to such interval, Chase did not have any further behavioral
disruptions. Elizabeth’s implementation was in accordance with OTR in that she provided verbal
and visual cues eliciting several student responses within a 1-minute time interval. Throughout
the activity, Joy, Isaiah, and Chase demonstrated behavior oriented towards the academic task as
indicated by them correctly displaying either a thumb up or thumb down during each
multiplication step modeled by Elizabeth within the time interval.
Chase was observed engaging with his peers periodically throughout the 50-minute class
period. However, when Elizabeth began asking students to respond to her questioning and when
she altered the method in which students were to respond to her questions, Chase appeared
excited to use the different response methods to show his answers. For example, Elizabeth
provided 10 minutes of direct instruction on how to solve a long division problem with a
remainder. She offered several examples and modeled the various steps required to arrive at the
correct answer. She wrote each problem on the overhead projector, modeled each step, and left
the correctly completed problem on the projector for students to view throughout the duration of
the lesson. Three minutes into the instruction, Chase was observed looking around the room for
approximately 10 seconds. He resumed his attention towards Elizabeth and maintained forward
eye contact for 2-3 minutes at which point he directed his attention towards the side of the room
and moved his legs to the side of his chair. He attempted to get his left leg over the back of the
chair, but was unable to do so. He whispered something to his peer who was sitting to his left.
Elizabeth observed such behavior and said, “Chase, face forward so you can see the board and
don’t talk to Sarah so you both can hear my lesson.” He then moved both legs forward and
placed his elbows on his desk, raised his hands to his face, and placed his face in his hand. He
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 107

resumed eye contact with Elizabeth. He sat in this position for approximately 1 minute at which
time he looked over to his left and whispered something to Sarah. Again, Elizabeth asked him to
look forward and not talk to Sarah. Chase bent forward at the waist, placed his forearms on the
edge of his desk, crossed his hands, and rested his chest on top of his hands. He resumed eye
contact with Elizabeth and was able to maintain eye contact for the duration of the lesson. At
the conclusion of the lesson, Elizabeth displayed five division questions on the overhead and
asked students to solve the first question on a small note card and display their cards over their
head once they were finished so she could see their answer. She provided students a verbal cue
(e.g., use a note card to answer the division problem), while eliciting a response from students.
Chase immediately pulled out a white card from his pencil pouch located on top of his desk,
wrote his answer, and held it above his head for her to see. He appeared eager to show his work
to Elizabeth as indicated by him sitting at the edge of his chair and waving his card in the
direction of her eyesight. He was able to complete his answer before half of his classmates.
Chase solved the division problem correctly. One minute later, Elizabeth asked students to share
how they would answer the second problem with their desk partner. Again, she provided a
verbal cue (e.g., told students to share their answer with a partner) and elicited students’ response
approximately 1 minute after asking students to solve the previous problem on a note card.
Chase immediately engaged in the discussion with his partner. Elizabeth waited about 45
seconds and then asked for volunteers to share what was discussed. Again, Elizabeth provided a
verbal cue (e.g., asked students to volunteer how they solved the problem) and asked a student to
come to the board and demonstrate how to solve the problem. Chase raised his hand and shouted
“Oh, oh!” She did not call on Chase, rather asked another volunteer to come to the front of the
class and solve the third problem. Chase appeared disappointed as indicated by him saying,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 108

“bummer” and putting his elbows on his desk and his hands in his face as he did previously. It
took the student approximately 30 seconds to solve the problem. When the student completed
the problem, she asked students to give a thumb up or thumb down indicating whether he
completed the problem correctly. Again, Elizabeth utilized the OTR strategy when she provided
a verbal cue (e.g., asking students to indicate with a thumbs up/down) while eliciting a visual cue
(e.g., their thumb up or down) from students approximately 30 seconds after asking for a
previous response. Chase raised his hand and pointed his thumb up correctly indicating that his
peer had solved the problem accurately. About 10 seconds later, Elizabeth asked students to
complete the final problems on a note card and raise their hands when they were finished.
Again, she used the OTR strategy when she offered a verbal cue (e.g., asking students to use a
note card to solve a problem) and elicited student response about 10 seconds after she had asked
them to respond to a previous question with a thumb up or down. Chase took out a second note
card from his pencil pouch and completed the problems within the allotted time. He silently
raised his hand when he was finished. Elizabeth walked over to his desk, checked his work, and
said, “They’re both correct. Great job.” During the math activity, Elizabeth used the strategy of
OTR and varied the manner in which students were to respond. She used several verbal cues
(e.g., directions to use a note card, discuss with a peer, and demonstrate with their thumb) to
elicit several student responses (e.g., written answers on a note card, verbal discussion with a
peer, and visual cue with thumb up/down). Each line of question that elicited student response
occurred within 1 minute or less of the previous student reply. Engaging Chase with
opportunities to respond, while also varying the method in which he needed to display his
answers was an effective instructional strategy that reduced his disruptive behaviors and redirect
his behaviors towards a more academic orientation. Chase displayed more disruptive behaviors
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during the direct instruction portion of the lesson when he was not required to respond to some
visual and/or verbal cue from the teacher. Perhaps this could have been because he may have
felt that the material was too easy for him, and thus he felt bored. However, it was quite clear
during the observation that once he was asked to engage in various opportunities to respond, he
reoriented his behaviors towards the academic task at hand. He participated in every discussion
and provided a correct response to each inquiry, whether in written form on a note card, verbally
with his peer, or by displaying a thumb up or down when asked whether a procedure was
completed correctly or not.
Joyce, a first grade teacher, provided increased opportunities for students to respond after
reviewing newly learned material. She had a variety of centers set up in her room. Students
were working independently at two of the three centers. She was conducting a phonics lesson
covering letter blends that included the letters l and h at the third station. Johnny, a young boy
who had been identified by Joyce has having behavioral problems such as often talking when the
teacher spoke, arguing with peers, and wondering around the room frequently, was in her first
group. Prior to the center time, students were all seated on a large carpet listening to Joyce read
a picture book aloud. At the conclusion of the story, Joyce informed students that they would be
working at three different centers. She proceeded to explain that at one center they would be
listening to an assistant teacher read a book aloud, at a second center they would be working on
their letter sounds with her, and at a fourth center they could chose to either play with blocks or
puzzles. Joyce reminded them of the groups they were in and informed them of the order of the
rotation. She instructed students to proceed to their first station. Johnny was observed going
directly to the center with blocks and puzzles. Joyce asked Johnny to put the blocks down and
come to her center with the rest of his group. She needed to cue Johnny as to the more
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appropriate behaviors. When Johnny arrived at her center, he sat down, reached for a stack of
cards that were placed neatly in a pile in front of Joyce who was sitting across the table, and
grabbed the top of the pile. He began flipping through the cards. Joyce stated, “Johnny, please
put the cards back. I’m going to use them for the lesson.” Johnny said, “oh” and gently tossed
the cards back in her direction. The cards scattered across the table. Joyce asked Johnny to help
her neatly stack the cards. Johnny reached for two cards and gently placed them on top of the
pile. Joyce picked up the remaining cards and placed them in the pile. Again, Joyce had to cue
Johnny as to the more appropriate behaviors to display. After the second cue, Johnny sat quietly
at the table and made eye contact with Joyce.
Joyce began the center time by instructing students that they were going to work on letter
blends that included the letters l and h. She went on to explain that by the end of their time
together, they would be able to speak different words that have blends that include either l or h.
Johnny maintained eye contact with Joyce during the directions for approximately 5 seconds at
which point he began looking at his peers who were playing with blocks and puzzles on a large
carpet located to Johnny’s right and about 20 feet away from his chair. Joyce observed this and
immediately said, “Johnny, look at me and listen to my directions.” Johnny resumed eye contact
with Joyce. Again, Joyce had to cue Johnny as to the more appropriate behavior. She asked
students to provide an example of a word that begins with the letter blends of s, h and t, h. The
students did not respond. After waiting approximately 15 seconds, Joyce repeated the question.
Joyce offered a verbal cue and elicited student response when she asked students to provide
examples of words that begin with the letter blends of s, h and t, h. She provided about 15
seconds of wait time, at which point she verbally cued the students again by asking them to
provide examples of the letter blends of s, h, and t, h. Again, the students remained silent and
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began looking at each other and at the other children in the room. Joyce asked students to raise
their hand if they could remember what sounds s, h and t, h make. Again, she provided students
with a verbal cue (e.g., asking what sounds s, h and t, h make), while eliciting student response in
return. Again, she waited approximately 15 seconds. No student raised his or her hand. Joyce
immediately pronounced both letter sounds saying, “Sh, sh, sh as in ship, shut, and sheet. And th,
th, th as in this, that, and them.” She then removed a card with a picture of a ship from the stack
of cards. Under the picture were the letters “sh”. She showed the card to students and said, “Sh
as in ship. Repeat after me. Sh as in ship” and pointed to the picture of the ship. Joyce provided
students a visual cue (e.g., the picture of a ship) and a verbal cue (e.g., pronouncing the letter
blends and the word), while eliciting student response requiring pronunciation of the letter blend
and the word. The students, including Johnny, said, “Sh as in ship.” Approximately 15 seconds
later, she removed a card with a picture of a thumb and under the picture were the letters “th.”
She showed the cards to the students and said, “Th as in thumb. Repeat after me. Th as in
thumb.” Again, she provided a visual cue (e.g., the picture of the thumb) and a verbal cue (e.g.,
pronouncing the letter blends and the word), while eliciting student response requiring the
pronunciation of the letter blend and word. All the students, including Johnny, said, “Th as in
thumb.” Joyce’s actions were in accordance with the instructional strategy of OTR for several
reasons. First, she provided students with a verbal cue (e.g., asking them to pronounce the letter
blends sh- and th- and say the words of images on a card) and a visual cue (e.g., cards with
pictures and spelling of the letter blend she desired them to say) to elicit a verbal response from
students. She also adjusted her instructional practice to meet the needs of the student. When she
observed that children were not answering her question, she provided additional instruction on
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the two letter blends, as well as a visual cue. She also elicited many student responses within a
1-minute interval.
She continued her use of the OTR strategy when she asked students to provide additional
examples of words that begin with the two letter blends and cued them by pronouncing each
letter sound. She provided students with a verbal cue (e.g., asking them to give examples and
offering the pronunciation of the blends) to elicit students’ verbal response. One student raised
her hand and said, “shoe.” Joyce said, “Good. Who else can give me an example?” Another
student raised his hand and said, “shirt” and pointed to his shirt. Joyce said, “Yes. What else?”
A third student raised his hand and said, “Shark, like shark attack.” Joyce responded by saying,
“Yes, shark starts with the letters sh. Anyone else?” Johnny was the fourth child to raise his
hand. When Joyce called his name, he said, “sheep.” Joyce said, “Yes, sheep.” Four students
responded to Joyce within about 45 seconds. This is in alignment with important characteristics
of OTR that require four to six student responses in a 1-minute interval. Joyce then asked if
students could think of a word that began with “th.” Johnny was the second student to raise his
raised. The first student answered, “top.” Joyce said, “Top starts with the ‘t’ sound. Can you
think of a word that starts with the ‘th’ sound?” Joyce called on Johnny who correctly answered,
“there” and pointed towards the right far corner of the room. Joyce said, “Yes. Who else?”
Johnny was observed looking around the room while another student answered, “Thanks.”
Johnny then returned his gaze towards Joyce and raised his hand. Joyce called on him and he
said, “three,” while pointing to a number line that was displayed horizontally above the
whiteboard in the front of the room. Joyce said, “Good job.” A fourth student raised his hand
and said, “thumbnail.” Again, Joyce offered students a verbal cue (e.g., asking for examples that
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 113

begin with th-) to elicit students’ response. Four students responded to her question in
approximately 1 minute.
Joyce then asked students if they could think of any words that begin with the letters b
and l or s and l. Again, students did not respond. She waited approximately 15 seconds and
asked the question again. Once again, students did not respond. She said, “Raise your hand if
you can remember what sound s, l and b, l make.” Again, no students volunteered. Johnny was
observed first looking at his peers in his group and then looking at the children seated on the
carpet. Joyce provided additional instruction as to the blends’ pronunciation. She said, “Bl, bl,
bl as in black, blink, and blood.” When she began sounding out the letters, Johnny resumed eye
contact with her and was observed silently mimicking Joyce’s lip and jaw movements by closing
his jaw and curling his lips together. She showed them a card with a picture of a blanket on it
with the letters “bl” written underneath the blanket and said, “Bl as in blanket. Repeat after me.
Bl and in blanket.” All the students repeated the phrase “Bl as in blanket,” including Johnny.
She then said, “Sl, sl, sl as in sleep, slip, and slurp.” She showed them a card with a picture of a
slide and said, “Sl as in slide. Repeat after me. Sl as in slide.” Again, all the children repeated
after her. Joyce offered students verbal (e.g., asking them to repeat after her and correctly
pronounce each blend and word) and visual (e.g., showing them cards with a picture of the words
and blend she wished them to say) cues, while eliciting student response. She then asked the
students if they could think of any other examples that started with “bl” or “sl”. She used a
verbal cue (e.g., asking for other examples and pronouncing the blend) to elicit student response.
Johnny began looking at his peers in his group and again at the group of students who were
playing with blocks. He fixed his gaze on them for approximately 15 seconds and then returned
his gaze to his peers in his group. Approximately 30 seconds after she asked the question, a
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student raised her hand. She said, “slippery.” Joyce said, “Yes. Can anyone else think of a
word that begins with sl?” Johnny raised his hand. Joyce called on Johnny. He said, “slow.”
Joyce said, “Yes, anyone else? Or what about a word that begins with bl?” Johnny immediately
raised his hand. Joyce called on him. Johnny said, “blocks” and pointed to the children who
were sitting on the carpet playing blocks. Joyce said, “Yes, something you like to play with,
blocks. Good job.” Joyce asked if anyone else had examples. Johnny raised his hand again and
said, “blast off”, and proceeded to throw both fists above his head and make a sound similar to
that of a spaceship blasting off. Joyce said, “Yes blast starts with bl.” Again, Joyce offered
students verbal cues (e.g., asking for examples) to elicit student response. She also provided
wait time for student response, a characteristic associated with OTR. Finally, she elicited four
student responses in approximately 1 minute, an important element of OTR. Joyce continued to
provide students opportunities to think of examples that started in all the different letter blends
they had discussed during the center time. Providing Johnny and his classmates additional
instruction on and examples of the various letter blends, followed by increased opportunities to
respond to questions after reviewing the topic was an effective instructional strategy for Johnny.
Although Johnny needed additional cueing as to what behaviors were appropriate, once Joyce
began implementing OTR, Johnny redirected his behaviors to the academic task at hand. He
provided five examples of words that began with the letter blends that were being discussed.
Johnny remained in his seat and did not talk to his peers while Joyce was eliciting student
responses.
Positive Teacher Praise
Positive teacher praise is a naturalistic instructional strategy comprised of a verbal or
visual sign of teacher approval followed by a description of the notable academic or behavioral
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action performed by the student (Burnett, 2001; Sutherland et al., 2000). This instructional
strategy was observed in each participating teachers’ classroom. For example, as students
transitioned between language arts centers, Lynn, a kindergarten teacher, provided verbal praise
to students who could move from one center to the next quietly and quickly. Students were
given 2 minutes to clean up their center and transition to the next center. Lynn would set a timer
and tell students when they had 1 minute and 30 seconds left in the class transition time. During
the first transition of the morning centers, Lynn observed Henry having a difficult time walking
to the correct center. Instead of going with his group to the math center, he went to the carpet
and began playing with nearby Legos. Lynn walked over to Henry, squatted down to his eye
level, and reminded him that he needed to be at the math center. Lynn had to cue him as to what
was the more appropriate behavior. She helped him pick up the Legos and walked with him to
the center, modeling how to transition to a center. During the second transition, Lynn reminded
Henry to go directly to his next center, which was a language arts center where students were
required to complete several workbook pages. After being cued by the teacher to go directly to
his next center, Henry walked immediately to the table where his workbook was, sat down, and
opened to the correct page. Lynn walked over and said, “Awesome job, Henry! You found your
page number quickly and it looks like you are ready to begin.” Lynn provided positive teacher
praise by offering a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Awesome job”) and provided a description of
the noteworthy behavior (e.g., “found your page number quickly”). Henry smiled and began
working on the first question. He completed all three workbook pages in the allotted 15 minute
time period. During the third transition, Henry, without a cue from the teacher, went directly to
his next center, picked out a book from a small bookshelf located in the corner of the room, and
sat down in a designated reading chair located near the bookshelf all within the 2 minute
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 116

transition time. Henry opened the book and began looking at the pages. Again, Lynn praised his
behaviors stating, “Great job transitioning and getting your reading book so quickly.” Once
again, Lynn provided positive praise by offering a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Great job”) and
describing the notable behavioral action (e.g., “transitioning and getting your reading book so
quickly”). It was unclear as to whether Henry was actually reading the printed words and
retaining information from the book; however, he demonstrated appropriate classroom behaviors
by looking at and appropriately turning the book’s pages throughout the center time. He sat at
his reading chair and did not speak to, nor touch his neighboring peers for the duration of the
center time. During the fourth transition, Henry, not being cued again, was able to return the
book to the bookshelf and go to Lynn’s writing center in approximately 1 minute. During the
writing center, Henry constructed three sentences about his Jack O’ Lantern. Once again, he
remained in his seat and did not engage, nor touch his neighboring peers. At the conclusion of
the writing center, Henry returned his pencil to the correct basket, placed his writing assignment
neatly on the stack where other students’ writing was, and found his seat on the carpet in less
than 1 minute. Positive teacher praise targeted at notable transition behaviors was an effective
instructional strategy that supported Henry throughout the centers time. The positive, time-
efficient behaviors were repeated without additional prompting on three separate occasions
following the praise statements. Henry was able to decrease his off task behaviors (e.g., playing
with Legos between transition times) and focus his behaviors towards the academic task at hand
(e.g., beginning workbook pages).
Lynn, also provided positive teacher praise for notable academic behaviors while Henry
was at her writing center. After transitioning quickly and quietly as described in the above
section, he sat down at the writing center and made eye contact with Lynn. Once Lynn began
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describing what students were to do during her center time, Henry immediately began grabbing
at a basket of crayons located on the table in front of the teacher. He also reached for a pile of
student work located next to the basket of crayons and began spreading the papers out across the
table. Lynn redirected his behaviors by stating, “Henry, please sit down, put the crayons back,
and wait for directions.” Henry followed her directions by returning the crayons to the basket
and sitting down at the table. Lynn then proceeded to inform the students in the small group that
they were to write a sentence or two describing a Jack O’ Lantern they had individually created
with construction paper and crayon on a previous day. She passed out the individual papers and
pushed the basket of pencils towards the center of the table. It took Henry approximately 30
seconds to find a pencil and begin working on his writing assignment. Once Henry had his
pencil in hand, he proceeded to write, “My pumpkin looks scary.” Lynn read his sentence out
loud and replied, “Great job remembering to put a period at the end of your sentence.” Lynn
gave Henry positive teacher praise by offering a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Great job”) and
describing the notable behavioral action (e.g., “put a period at the end of your sentence”). Henry
smiled and began verbally describing why his pumpkin looked scary. Lynn asked Henry to “use
his thoughts” to write another descriptive sentence about his pumpkin. Henry wrote, “My
pumpkin gralls loud.” Again, Lynn complemented Henry’s use of a period and his use of a
descriptive word by pointing to the end of his sentence. Henry smiled and asked if he could
write one more sentence about his pumpkin and proceeded to write a sentence describing the
color of his pumpkin’s eyes. His sentence included a descriptive word (e.g., “black”) and a
period at the end. Once again, Lynn provided Henry with positive verbal praise highlighting his
use of the word black and including a period. It was evident that positive teacher praise was
beneficial for Henry in that he repeated the behavior of including a period at the end of his
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 118

sentence and using a descriptive word (e.g., “loud” and “black”) in each sentence. He decreased
his disruptive behaviors and oriented his actions to the academic task at hand (e.g., writing
sentences). Henry also appeared eager to write another sentence about his Jack O’ Lantern as
demonstrated by his request to write a third sentence. Henry did not have any behavior
disruptions for the remainder of the activity.
Elizabeth offered similar positive teacher praise while her fourth grade class was
independently working on a math assignment. She walked around the room and made comments
such as, “Good effort at working independently” and “Great job working so quietly” while
students completed an independent assignment at their desks without talking to their peers. She
provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Good effort” and “Great job”) and a description of the
notable behavior (e.g., “working independently” and “working so quietly”) while she wanted
students to complete their work on their own at their desks. Chase needed additional prompting
from Elizabeth to begin the independent activity, as he was initially immersed in conversation
with his peer. Approximately 30 seconds after he began working on the multiplication problems
on the worksheet, Elizabeth said, “Good job working quietly on your math problems.” She
provided a positive verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Good job”) and description of the noteworthy
behaviors (e.g., “quietly working on your math problems”). He worked on the multiplication
problems for approximately 3 minutes, completing several problems without talking with his
peers. At this time, Elizabeth walked over to his desk, quickly looked over the problems he had
completed and said, “Good work, Chase. It looks like you are putting forth good effort to
complete the problems on your own. Keep it up.” Elizabeth provided positive praise by offering
a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Good work”) and describing the noteworthy behavioral action
(e.g., “putting good effort to complete the problems on your own”). Chase looked up at
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Elizabeth, smiled, and said, “Thanks.” He immediately resumed working independently on the
math problems without talking to his peers. Approximately 10 minutes later, Elizabeth returned
to Chase’s desk, quickly reviewed his work, and stated, “Good job, Chase. You’re continuing to
get your work done without talking to others.” Once again, Elizabeth provided Chase positive
praise by offering a sign of verbal approval (e.g., “Good job”) and describing the notable
behavioral action (e.g., “You’re continuing to get your work done without talking to others”).
Chase completed the independent math assignment without talking to his peers and within the
allotted time period. Positive teacher praise was an effective instructional strategy for Chase
during the observed math class where upon implementation, he disengaged in off-task behaviors
(e.g., talking with a peer) and engaged in academically oriented behaviors (e.g., completing math
problems) throughout the allotted time designated for the activity.
In a similar fashion, Anne praised students’ academic efforts during a reading fluency
lesson. In small groups, she timed students for 1 minute as they read a short passage to a partner.
The partner in turn would record how many words the student read by looking at a number
printed at the end of line where their partner stopped reading and subtracting that number by how
many words were left on the line that their partner did not read. She allowed students to read the
passage two more times and then timed them for a fourth and final time. Prior to the
observation, Anne had identified Gia as a student who often struggles with behavioral problems
in class such as blurting out words while the teacher was talking, talking to peers, getting in
peers’ personal space, and touching peers’ property without permission. Such behaviors were
observed at the start of the fluency lesson when Gia was seen lying on her back, rolling from side
to side, and trying to talk to her partner while Anne was reading aloud a short passage and
providing directions for the activity. Anne asked her to sit up a total of four times in a 7-minute
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period. The first time Anne redirected Gia’s behavior she said, “Sit up please.” Gia rolled to her
side, bent her left elbow to a 90-degree angle, and propped up herself up so she was resting on
her left hip and left forearm. The second time she redirected Gia’s behavior she said, “Gia, sit up
please.” Gia brought her knees to her chest, put her arms around her legs, and rolled on her back
2-3 times. On the final roll, she propelled herself to a seating position where she remained for
about 1 minute with her arms around her legs. The third time she redirected Gia’s behavior she
said, “Gia, sit up please. Your rolling around is distracting your friends.” Gia looked around at
her neighboring peers, rolled to her side, bent her knees and tucked her feet towards the back of
her legs, bent her left elbow to 90 degrees, and propped herself up so she was resting on her left
hip and left forearm. The final time she had to redirect Gia’s behavior she said, “Gia, you need
to sit up now please. Your body is bumping others and it’s hard for everyone to pay attention to
my directions.” Upon hearing the fourth redirection, Gia sat up, crossed her legs, and did not
make physical contact with another peer for the duration of the lesson. The third and fourth time
Anne redirected Gia’s behavior, she offered Gia an explanation as to why she needed to change
her behavior (e.g., “rolling around is distracting your friends” and “body is bumping others and
it’s hard for everyone to pay attention to my directions”). The explanation provided a reason as
to why the behaviors were not appropriate as they were resulting in actions that were distracting
her peers. When Anne told students they may begin reading with their partner, Gia volunteered
to read first. She read aloud to her partner, while pausing for more than 2 seconds at 10-15
words. After about 1 minute, Gia’s partner counted the words she read and recorded a number
on a half-sheet of paper. Next, Gia informed her partner that it was his turn to read aloud. Gia
and her partner waited until Anne told them to begin. While Gia’s partner was reading, she was
observed briefly looking at other students in the small group a total of two times. When Anne
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said, “Stop”, Gia pointed to the last word her partner read, calculated the number of words he
read, and recorded a number on a half sheet of paper. Gia and her partner then took turns
reading the passage out loud a total of two times each. The second time Gia read the passage,
she did not pause as often as she did the first time and pronounced all the words correctly. Anne
was observed listening to Gia read aloud. She provided specific verbal praise when Gia read the
passage a second time stating, “Good job, Gia. You are reading with good flow and pronouncing
the words correctly.” Anne offered Gia praise by providing a verbal sign of approval (e.g.,
“Good job”) and describing the notable behavioral action (e.g., “reading with good flow and
pronouncing the words correctly”). Gia smiled and was much more attuned to her reading
partner while he read aloud his second and third round, as she did not lift her eyes from the
passage while he read. After the specific praise statement, Gia was observed reading with more
expression and fluid speed during her final round. When Anne timed students the fourth time,
each student was able to increase the words read per minute, including Gia. Anne noted Gia’s
improvement in words read per minute and offered her positive praise stating, “Great job. You
increased your fluency rate.” Again, Anne offered positive praise by providing a verbal sign of
approval (e.g., “Great job”), followed by a description of the noteworthy behavior (e.g., “You
increased your fluency rate”). It is difficult to determine whether it was the increased teacher
attention, positive praise statements, or a combination of both that best supported Gia resulting in
a decrease in disruptive behaviors and an increase in academically oriented behaviors. By
providing verbal explanation for redirections and positive praise for noteworthy behavior, Anne
was also providing Gia with increased teacher attention. It became evident that when Anne used
various strategies together as a system (i.e., verbal explanation for redirection and positive
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teacher praise) and not in isolation of one another, Gia decreased her disruptive behaviors and
increased academically oriented behaviors.
Individualized Curricular Modifications
Students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems often lack the skills
necessary to cope with the academic and social stressors present in school settings (Kern et al.,
2001a). Evidence suggests that close examination of a student’s curriculum expectation may
uncover possible precursors to inappropriate academic and social behaviors (Dunlap & Kern,
1996; Dunlap et al., 1994; Kern et al., 2001a). Preference, task variation, and choice are three
individualized curricular modifications that have proven to decrease disruptive behaviors and
increase academic achievement in students with emotional and behavioral problems (Kern et al.,
2001a; Kern et al., 2001b; Shogren et al., 2004; Umbreit et al., 2004).
It should be noted that not all three curricular modifications were observed in all five
participating teachers’ classrooms. I do not claim that all three types of individualized curricular
modifications must be used at the same time. These strategies are individualized and thus should
be implemented based on current student needs. Additionally, these strategies were often seen in
combination with other identified strategies such as positive teacher praise and increased
opportunities to respond. How individualized curricular modifications were used with other
strategies will be discussed later in this chapter. The following descriptions were created to
demonstrate what it looked like when general education teachers were implementing the
particular strategy in their classroom and the student’s response to its use.
Preference. Evidence suggests that when students engage in a preferred activity they are
more likely to participate in the activity and demonstrate desirable classroom behavior (Kern et
al., 1994; Kern et al., 2001a). Modifying assignments by incorporating students’ individualized
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preferences and interests can be done while still maintaining the lesson’s objectives (Clark et al.,
1995). Such modifications were observed in a few of Sunny Basin Elementary teachers’
classrooms. For example, Anne modified the medium with which one of her students
demonstrated her comprehension of a short reading passage. Anne asked students to
independently read a short story and use a paper and pencil to complete a multiple choice
comprehension activity found at the end of the story. However, Anne allowed Gia to use a
whiteboard and dry erase marker to record her multiple-choice answers. At the start of the
lesson, Gia was talking to one of her peers seated next to her. While Anne was passing out the
reading packets, she blurted out, “I can’t wait to go home.” When she received her packet, she
said, “This is a long story.” Gia did not initially engage in the reading activity, rather she turned
the pages until she arrived at the final page with the list of comprehension questions. She was
observed rolling her eyes and forcefully exhaling air out her nose three times. Anne walked over
to Gia and informed her that she may take out a dry erase marker from her pencil pouch and use
her whiteboard to answer the questions from the worksheet if she wishes. Gia sat up in her chair
and took out a dry erase marker from her pencil pouch. She immediately began reading the short
passage and was able to complete the story without lifting her eyes from the text. She finished
the multiple choice comprehension activity by writing the question number and corresponding
letter answer choice on her whiteboard. When she finished answering all of the questions, she
walked over to Anne and handed her the whiteboard. At the conclusion of the observation, Anne
informed the researcher that Gia prefers writing on a whiteboard as opposed to using a pencil and
paper. Anne shared that she often finds opportunities where she can provide Gia the option of
using a whiteboard to complete an activity. Providing Gia the option of using a preferred
activity (e.g., using a whiteboard to complete a multiple choice assignment) reduced her
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disruptive behaviors (e.g., forcefully exhaling out her nose three times) and increased
academically oriented behavior (e.g., reading and answering questions related to the text).
Lynn, a kindergarten teacher, also modified a curriculum activity for one of her students,
while still maintaining the lesson’s objectives. During a math center, students were given a
small whiteboard and a dry erase marker. The whiteboard had three columns outlined on it with
thin blue masking tape. The assistant teacher verbally instructed the students to write a specific
number in numerical form at the top of the first column. She then instructed them to pictorially
represent the first number given by drawing either smiley faces or stars within the first column’s
boundaries. For example, when she said five, students were instructed to write the number five
in numerical form at the top of the first column and then draw either five smiley faces or five
stars beneath the numerically written number, while staying within the vertical lines representing
the boundaries of the first column. Next, the assistant teacher asked students to write a different
number at the top of the second column and then to pictorially represent the number given by
drawing either smiley faces or stars in the second column to represent the number given. For
example, if she said six, students were instructed to write the number six in numerical form at the
top of the second column and then draw either six smiley faces or six stars beneath the
numerically written number, while staying within the vertical lines representing the boundaries
of the second column. Finally, she asked students to count the total amount of smiley faces or
stars they had drawn in the first two columns and write the total number in numerical form in the
third column. The assistant teacher repeated these steps using different numbers each time for a
total of 15 minutes. Prior to beginning the center, Lynn instructed the assistant teacher to give
Sam, a student whom the teacher had previously identified as often having behavioral problems
in class, the option of using small rubber teddy bear manipulatives to represent each number
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given by the assistant teacher if he wishes. Throughout the morning centers time, Sam was
observed having difficulties physically transitioning from center to center on three separate
occasions as demonstrated by him engaging in conversations with peers and walking to the “free
play” station and playing with the available Legos. He also struggled to begin each center
activity on his own and would often need the teacher and/or the assistant teacher to verbally
prompt him with phrases such as “Please begin, Sam” and “It’s time to start working.” Once
prompted, Sam would complete the assigned task within the allotted 15-minute time frame.
When Sam arrived at the math center, the assistant teacher offered him the option of
using the teddy bear manipulatives or the dry erase marker to pictorially represent the spoken
number. He chose to use the teddy bears. He was given a small whiteboard with three columns,
several rubber bear manipultaives, and a dry erase marker. He was still required to write the
numerical form of the number given at the top of each column using a dry erase marker and write
the total number in numerical form in the third column using the same marker. However, instead
of drawing out either smiley faces or stars to pictorially represent the number given by the
assistance teacher, he was able to use the rubber teddy bear manipulatives to represent the
numbers given for the first two columns. Sam was not required to draw stars or smiley faces in
any of the columns. For example, when the assistant teacher told student to write the number
seven in their first column, Sam wrote the numerical number seven at the top of his first column
and then placed seven rubber teddy bears within the boundaries of that same column.
Throughout the center time, Sam was engaged in the activity as demonstrated by him
numerically writing each number given, representing the number given with the correct amount
of rubber teddy bears, and adding the amount of bears in each column to arrive at a total number.
Sam was able to complete the activity at the same rate as his peers and displayed very little
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disruptive behaviors during the time allotted for the center. Lynn later explained to the
researcher that Sam often “acts out” when he is required to draw, and thus has found that
allowing him to use manipulatives has reduced the incident rates of his disruptive behaviors and
“increases his engagement and productivity.” This is in accordance with the purpose of
preference as a strategy in that when students engage in a preferred activity (e.g., Sam’s
preference of using manipulatives instead of drawing), they are more likely to engage in the
activity and demonstrate appropriate classroom behavior (Kern et al., 1994; Kern et al., 2001a).
During my observation in Elizabeth’s fourth grade classroom, I noticed approximately 30
standard-sized papers displayed on a wall in the classroom. About half the papers had cursive
words written in pencil, while the remaining papers were typed. I inquired as to why half the
papers were written in pencil and the other half were typed. Elizabeth informed me that she
often provides her class the option of completing a writing assignment using either a pencil and
paper or a computer. She went on to note that the writing prompt and assignment requirements
did not change; however, students were afforded the opportunity to choose which medium they
wished to use to demonstrate their writing skills. During the interview, Elizabeth referred back
to this conversation and stated that she has witnessed increased behavioral compliance from all
her students when she allows students to choose which medium to use for all large writing
assignments. She noted,
A couple of my students went from hating writing to actually tolerating and even
enjoying writing when I let them choose whether to use either a pencil or a computer.
It’s such a simple modification that really helped a lot of them.
Elizabeth identified this form of instructional strategy to be “beneficial for all students”,
including those who display emotional and behavioral problems. She said that Isaiah, a student
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whom she identified as often displaying behavioral problems in class such as getting out of his
seat, arguing with peers and teachers, and making distracting sounds, will sit silently at the
classroom computer and work on a paper independently.
Task variation. Evidence suggests that closely aligning the level of task difficulty with
the student’s level of functioning promotes on-task behaviors and task completion rates of
students with emotional and behavioral problems (Umbreit et al., 2004). Examples of task
variation were noted in Anne’s third grade class. Students were given a reading passage
reflective of their current reading level based on the results of an electronic reading
comprehension assessment each student completed a week prior. Some students received an
upper third grade level reading passage, while others received either an average third grade
reading passage or an upper level second grade reading passage. Gia, a student whom Anne
identified as having behavioral problems in class, received an average third grade passage. As
discussed previously, when Gia was given the passage, she blurted out, “This is a long story.”
She was then observed quickly turning the pages of the reading packet until she arrived at the
final page, at which point she rolled her eyes and forcefully blew air out her nose. Anne
provided Gia the option of using a dry erase marker and whiteboard to complete the questions at
the end of the story. Upon hearing this alternative, Gia removed a dry erase marker from her
pencil pouch and began reading the story. She completed the story without lifting her eyes from
the text. It was unclear as to whether it was the preferred activity of using the whiteboard, the
task variation strategy, or the combination of both that resulted in a decrease of Gia’s disruptive
behaviors and an increase in academically oriented behaviors. This example provided evidence
to the notion that instructional strategies are often used as a cohesive system supporting the
learning needs of students. It is also difficult for me to know what Gia’s behaviors would have
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been like had she received a passage that did not match her current reading comprehension level
as such event did not occur during the observation. However, the observation did provide
evidence indicating that Gia did not display disruptive behaviors during this particular activity
when the reading passage and corresponding questions were within her current reading
comprehension level. During the interview, Anne stated that varying the level of task difficulty
is “really important when working with students with behavioral problems.” She stated, “I’ve
noticed that my students are less likely to act out and distract their friends when they are engaged
in an activity that is not too hard or too easy for them.” This statement is accordance with what
researchers have found regarding task variation. When the level of task difficulty aligns with
students’ level of functioning, on-task behaviors and task completion rates of students with
emotional and behavioral problems is more likely to increase (Umbreit et al., 2004).
Choice. Choice-making opportunities are verbal or nonverbal actions made by the
teacher that offer students two or more response options under a specific learning opportunity
(Jolivette et al., 2001). This particular strategy was detected frequently while observing all five
teachers. For example, Anne provided a student with a choice-making opportunity during a
reading comprehension activity. Sophia, a student whom Anne had identified as having
emotional and behavioral problems, was often observed looking around the room, engaging her
nearby peers in conversation, rocking in her chair, and forcefully blowing air out her nose.
Approximately 7 minutes into the activity, Anne offered Sophia the choice of either completing a
cursive assignment the entire class was about to work on next, working on an on-going writing
assignment, or completing the reading comprehension activity. This is in accordance with the
primary characteristics of choice in which Anne offered Sophia three different options (e.g.,
cursive assignment, writing assignment, or reading assignment). Sophia told Anne that she
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wished to work on her writing assignment and return to the reading comprehension activity
before the end of the language arts block of time. Anne verbally affirmed her choice by stating,
“Sounds good.” Sophia removed a yellow two-pocket folder from her desk and took out a piece
of lined paper complete with her handwriting and a second piece of lined paper with
approximately three sentences written on it. She immediately began working on her writing
assignment. Sophia did not display a single disruption while working on this particular
assignment and was able to adjust her behaviors to a more academic orientation. She wrote for
approximately 5 minutes, at which point without saying a word, she put her paper back into her
yellow folder, put the yellow folder back into her desk, and returned to her reading
comprehension assignment. She completed the reading comprehension activity within the
designated language arts block of time. She did not display any disruptive behaviors such as
rocking in her chair and talking with peers while working on the writing assignment and reading
comprehension activity. When Sophia was given a choice (e.g., continue working on the reading
comprehension activity, work on a on-going writing assignment, or work on a cursive
assignment) her disruptive behaviors ceased (e.g., rocking in her chair and talking to peers) and
she redirected her behaviors towards completing an academic task (e.g., reading comprehension
activity).
Peg was also observed providing individual students personalized choice-making
opportunities. For example, she offered two students, a male student and a female student, both
of whom were identified as having behavioral problems in class, the choice of completing the
math assessment in her class during the allotted math time, or with another fifth grade teacher in
a different classroom during their Power Hour class after lunch. In accordance with the
principles of the strategy, Peg offered the students two choices: complete the assignment in her
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class at that moment or complete it in a different environment later in the day. The students
stated that they would try and complete the assessment in class, but wanted the option of
finishing the remaining problems during the class’s Power Hour. She affirmed their choice by
stating, “okay” and proceeded to hand them the assessment. The male student was able to
complete the entire assessment within the allotted time period, while the female student
completed 11 of the 15 problems. She allowed another student the option of completing the
math assessment while sitting at his desk that was located in a group formation with three other
students, or completing the assessment at a desk located along the sidewall in the back of the
room where there were no students nearby. Again, in accordance with the primary elements of
the strategy, Peg offered the student two choices: complete the assignment at his desk or
complete it at a more private desk. The student asked to complete the assessment at the more
private desk. He picked up his math binder, walked to the desk, and completed the assessment
without any behavioral disruptions.
Peg also commented on the effectiveness of choice-making opportunities during the
interview. When asked how she supported or accommodated students with emotional and
behavioral problems in the classroom, she discussed how she often created behavioral contracts
with the student where they work together to create a plan of rewards and/or consequences based
on the student’s preference. Peg commented on how throughout her years of teaching, she had
noticed that students were more likely to follow the behavioral plans when they helped create
them. She stated:
It’s important that they take ownership for their own behaviors. Plus, if they don’t follow
the contract, I can show them it and say, “Look, you helped create it. You know what I
expect.”
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She also commented on the importance of giving students choice on rewards. She said,
“Kids work harder for rewards they want, so I reward with whatever the child says they’ll work
for.” She stated that she had noticed greater success in students abiding by the contract when
given a choice of rewards. Although I was not able to observe Peg and a student constructing a
behavioral plan together, I did witness Peg reward a student who had earned his weekly goal of
behavioral points as outlined on his contract. Peg informed me that at the beginning of the
school year, the student’s mother, the student, and Peg sat down and created a behavioral plan
together. It was designed so the child could earn points for appropriate behavior. She stated that
all three participants decided on behaviors that either would or would not result in points earned.
They agreed that one point would be awarded prior to lunch if the student had not displayed
disruptive behaviors such as walking out of the classroom without permission, arguing with
peers and adults, and talking when a teacher was talking. They also agreed that one point would
be awarded in the afternoon if the student did not display any of the disruptive behaviors listed
above. They all agreed that when the student earned 10 points, he could choose one of three
prizes: Starburst candy, 5 minutes of iPad time where he could play one of three games selected
by the teacher, or 5 minutes of basketball time with his favorite P.E. teacher at the school.
During one observation day, the child had earned his tenth point just prior to lunch. Peg asked
which prize he desired. He requested some Starburst candy. Peg walked over to her desk, pulled
out her lower desk drawer, reached into a large size bag of Starburst candy, and gave him about
8-10 pieces. Although it cannot be determined whether the choice in reward was solely
responsible for the student displaying positive behaviors, Peg did provide a description of how
the behavioral plan was jointly created, and I witnessed the student being offered a choice of
reward when the goal was reached.
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Increased opportunities to respond, positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular
modifications are empirically based instructional strategies that have been found to reduce
disruptive behaviors and increase academic achievement for students with emotional and
behavioral problems (Kern et al., 2001a; Kern et al., 2001b; Shogren et al., 2004; Umbreit et al.,
2004). It became evident through observations that the use of these strategies provided structure
within the classroom. There was a visible decrease in disruptive behaviors and an increase in
academically oriented behaviors when these strategies were implemented. They were frequently
used in concert with one another, which will be discussed in greater detail later in the chapter.
The fact that these strategies were often seen being used together provided evidence to the notion
that classrooms are fluid environments created and managed by a complex system of various
instructional strategies blending together to promote on-task behaviors of students. A universal
behavioral management plan, verbal explanation for redirections, and posting of weekly
academic and/or social goals were also seen in each of the participating teachers’ classrooms.
Implementation of these three strategies was often in concordance with each other, was well as
the strategies previously discussed. In the following three sections, universal behavioral
management system, verbal explanation for redirection, and posting of weekly academic and/or
social goals are discussed as a separate unit for descriptive purposes. Following the individual
descriptions will be an illustration of how many of the presented strategies were used in unison
in one fourth grade classroom.
Universal Behavior Management System
Every teacher observed and interviewed in this study utilized an universal classroom
behavior management system supported by principles associated with a SWPBS system. All
teachers at each grade level employed the same classroom management system that included five
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different levels, each identified with a specific color. In every classroom, an identical sized
poster board hung in either the front or side of the room. Each poster board was divided into five
horizontal rows: the top row was colored in with purple ink, the second row was colored in with
blue ink, the third row was colored in with green ink, the fourth row was colored in with yellow
ink, and the fifth and lowest row was colored in with red ink. All students had their own
clothespin identified with their names written on the pin in black ink. At the beginning of the
day, each student’s clothespin was clipped somewhere on the green line. If a student was
observed by the teacher to be following the classroom rules, including being respectful to others,
helping around the classroom, and following directions the first time asked, the teacher would
ask the student to move his or her clothespin up to the blue level. If the same child was observed
again following the classroom rules and the teacher perceived his or her behaviors to be
exemplary, the child was asked to move his or her clothespin up to the purple level, which was
the highest level. Alternatively, if a student who started on the green level struggled to follow
the classroom rules or displayed disruptive behaviors, that child was asked to drop his or her
clothespin a level to yellow. If a child was asked to drop his or her level two consecutive times,
the consequent color was red. The levels were fluid in that students could move either up or
down from one level to the next several times throughout the day. Commonly observed
behaviors that required a student to drop a level were: (a) blurting out answers; (b) talking while
the teacher was talking; (c) getting out of his or her seat without permission; (d) being
disrespectful to peers; and (e) being disrespectful to property, including not picking up after
himself or herself, purposefully breaking pencils and/or crayons, and maintaining a disorganized
seating area. Commonly observed behaviors that resulted in a child moving up a level were: (a)
consistently rotating from one academic center or station to another without talking, (b) helping
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another student with his or her classroom duty, (c) completing transitions between classes
without talking, (d) consistently working on an independent classroom activity without engaging
in discussion with neighboring peers, and (e) respectfully encouraging a peer(s) to follow
directions.
Consequences for the subsequent colors were universal across grade levels. If a child
ended the school day with his or her clothespin on purple, the teacher would write the student’s
name on a card and place the card in a large crate located in the front office. Every Friday, the
principal would blindly draw five names from the crate. Those students whose names were
drawn could choose a prize from a large chest. The rewards included items such as pencils,
sticker books, erasers, boxes of crayons, and notepads. This course of action is in alignment with
one of the five critical program components of successful integration of a SWPBS system (Sugai
& Horner, 2006; Sugai et al., 2000; Warren et al., 2006). If a child ended the school day with his
or her clothespin on red, the teacher would send home a letter that described the behaviors
observed by the teacher resulting in their child being asked to move his or her clothespin to red.
During interviews, several teachers stated that they would also either email or call the parent to
follow up and ensure that the parent received the letter.
During the interviews, Lynn, Anne, Elizabeth and Peg spoke about the perceived benefits
of a universal behavior management system. According to Lynn and Anne, three years ago the
school’s administration requested that all teachers pilot the behavior management program and
provide feedback at the end of the year. Lynn and Anne stated that the majority of teachers
enjoyed the new program, and thus the school adopted it as a universal system for all teachers to
implement in their individual classrooms. Elizabeth commented on how the universal plan
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allows for continuity throughout the grade levels promoting a more predictable learning
environment for students. She stated:
Students know what to expect because they have been on the same color system since
kindergarten. I think they think it is a more fair system because they know every teacher
is doing the same thing in every classroom.
Peg also spoke about how the universal behavior management system allowed for more
continuity between grade levels. She asserted:
Kids come into fifth grade knowing what to expect. If they end the day in red, their
parents hear about it. If they end the day in purple, they get to drop their name in an all-
school raffle. They know the deal because it’s the same one they’ve been doing for
years.
Lynn discussed the positive results she has seen in her students’ level of motivation since
the school enacted the universal behavior management system. She mentioned that up until three
years ago she was using a system with three colors: green, yellow, and red. She stated that the
previous system was less adequate and more restrictive because those students who were
perceived as displaying exemplary behaviors were not able to move their clothespin up a level,
while those students whose clothespins were dropped to the red zone were not allowed to move
their clothespin out of the red zone by the end of the day. Lynn stated that with the new system,
students “seem to be more motivated because now they can move their clips up to blue or even
purple.” She also commented on how she has seen more effort from students to change their
behavior when they were asked to move their clothespin into the red zone. She stated that in
past, students would “continue to act out once they were in the red zone because they knew they
couldn’t get out.” However, with the new system, she asserted, “now a lot of students who are in
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the red zone will work hard to get out of it before the end of the day.” According to Lynn, since
the implementation of a universal behavior management system, she has witnessed an overall
increase in positive behaviors in all students
Anne stated that she has seen an overall improvement in students’ efforts to display
appropriate behaviors since the school enacted the universal behavior management system. She
claimed that the general improvement was due to the fact that students were familiar with the
system from previous years, as well as the fact that students are now able to move beyond the
green level. She stated, “Students try hard to move up to the blue or purple level.” She
commented on how she has noticed that the level system has made “transitions run more
smoothly and quickly” and has helped keep her classroom and students’ desks “neater and more
organized.” Anne also commented on how having a universal behavior management system was
helpful for her when she was a new teacher. She stated that the first couple of years of her
teaching career she was “experimenting” with various classroom management programs. She
said that she was “slightly relieved” when the administration asked all teachers to implement a
universal plan. She asserted that it was “nice to know that all the teachers were using the same
program and that the administration supported the program.”
Since the school implemented the universal behavioral management system, teachers
have seen a general improvement in students’ motivation to display positive, appropriate
behaviors throughout the campus. According to the teachers’ perception, implementation of the
universal system has created a more predictable learning environment where students know the
consequences for both inappropriate and appropriate behaviors. Students strive to earn a school-
wide prize rewarding their positive behaviors. Research has found that fostering a more
predictable learning environment can contribute to better student outcomes (Lassen et al., 2006;
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Luiselli, et al., 2005). Teachers at Sunny Basin report that they have witnessed overall
improvements in students’ behaviors, including those who suffer from varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems.
The universal behavioral management plan was observed being used in all five
participating teachers’ classrooms. For example, during the last 5 minutes of the school day,
Anne asked her third grade students to help “clean-up the room” in preparation for leaving.
Following this announcement, many of the students were observed either sitting at their desks,
standing near their desks talking with peers, or walking outside to put their homework folders in
their backpacks. Bethany, however, was observed picking up trash around the classroom and
straightening the pillows located on a rug in the back corner of the classroom. Anne positively
praised Bethany’s behaviors by stating, “Nice job keeping our classroom clean.” She offered
Bethany a positive praise statement when she provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Nice
job”) and described her noteworthy behaviors (e.g., “keeping our classroom clean”). She then
instructed Bethany to move her clothespin from blue to purple. This instance provided evidence
of two instructional strategies (e.g., universal behavioral management program and positive
teacher praise) being used in conjunction with one another to promote positive student behavior.
Bethany smiled and walked over to the poster board and moved the clothespin with her name on
it from blue up to purple. She then resumed picking up trash and pencils around the classroom.
Ben was observed picking up pencils during this same time. Again, Anne positively praised his
behaviors stating, “Nice job to you too, Ben. Thank you for picking up pencils.” Anne offered
Ben a positive praise statement by providing a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Nice job”) for a
notable behavior (e.g., “picking up pencils”). Anne then told Ben to move his clothespin from
green to blue. Again, this occurrence illustrated how instructional strategies (e.g., universal
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behavioral management plan and positive teacher praise) could be implemented in unison. Ben
said, “okay” and continued to collect a few other pencils that were on the floor. He then walked
over to the poster board and moved his clothespin from green to blue. During this time, Gia was
observed sitting at her desk, looking through her pencil pouch and talking to a nearby peer.
Anne was standing approximately five feet from Gia when she praised both Bethany’s and Ben’s
behaviors. After Anne told Ben to move his clip up, Gia stood up from her desk and started
looking for items on the floor around her desk. She picked up two small pieces of paper, walked
over to the trashcan, and dropped them in the trash. She was then observed picking up other
scraps of paper and tissue around the trashcan. Anne thanked Gia for helping and instructed her
to move her clip up from yellow to green. Gia whispered, “yes,” walked over to the poster, and
moved her clip from yellow to green. She picked up a small piece of paper under the poster
board and walked to a second trashcan located near the poster. She threw the small piece of
paper in the trashcan and proceeded to pick up a few more pieces of paper and a pencil that were
on the floor near the trashcan. She put the pencil in the large cup with the other unsharpened
pencils and returned to her desk. She then took out her homework folder and quietly walked out
the door and towards the hooks holding all the backpacks. Anthony was observed walking
around the classroom collecting unsharpened pencils from his fellow peers. Anne observed this
behavior, thanked him for his help in collecting the pencils, and told him to move his clip from
green to blue. He silently walked over to the poster board and moved his clip from green to blue
and placed the pencils in the large plastic cup by the pencil sharpener. At the end of the day,
Anne walked over to the poster board and silently read the names printed on the clips that were
in the purple zone. She went back to her desk and removed a plastic card catalogue container
from the bottom drawer. She reached in the box and withdrew two white index cards with the
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words “Star Card” written on the top of it and a large black star printed in the middle. She wrote
Bethany’s name on one card and Steven’s name on the other card. As students were leaving the
classroom, she told Bethany and Steven that she would place their Star Card in the crate located
in the front office. Both children said “thank you” at approximately the same time.
When Gia heard Anne complimenting Bethany’s and Ben’s behavior and instructing
them to move their clips up a level for helping keep the classroom clean, she immediately began
picking up trash herself. Based on the observation alone, it is difficult to determine whether Gia
began picking up trash because she desired a positive praise statement, hoped to move her clip
up a level, or it was a combination of both. This example reflects how various instructional
strategies (e.g., positive teacher praise and universal behavioral management programs) are often
used in unison to create a dynamic classroom environment maintained by the blending of such
techniques.
Lynn was also observed using the universal behavioral management plan in her
kindergarten classroom. She started the school day by greeting all the students at the front door.
She then asked them to turn in any homework they did last night and find their designated seat
on the carpet so she could “begin the morning routine.” Henry was observed bumping his body
into his peers’ as they walked through the front door and to their individual cubbies. At one
point he used his hands to push a boy who was walking in front of him. Lynn observed such
behavior and instructed Henry to “stop walking into his friends.” Henry looked down at the
floor and said, “Sorry.” He then proceeded to walk to his cubby located straight across the width
of the classroom. When he was standing in front of his cubby, he swung his lunch bag over his
shoulder and pushed it into his cubby. This action caused the lunch bag to hit a nearby peer.
Lynn told Henry he needed to be “more careful” and not “hit people’s bodies.” She then pointed
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to a large poster on the side of the classroom that had printed on it the following statement:
“Weekly Goal- Respect others’ bodies by keeping your hands and feet to yourself.” She said,
“Remember Henry, we are respecting others’ bodies by keeping our hands and feet to our self.
Please respect other people’s bodies. I’m going to have to ask you to move your clip if you
can’t.” This instance provided evidence of a teacher using more than one instructional strategy
(e.g., posting of weekly social goals and universal management plan) to cue Henry to more
appropriate classroom behaviors. Henry turned around, faced his cubby, and pushed his lunch
bag farther into the cubby. He then proceeded to place a single sheet of paper in a basket labeled
“Homework.” Next he ran to a large, colorful carpet located in the center front portion of the
room. The carpet had approximately 30 squares arranged in five rows with six squares in each
row. Each row of squares was a different color. Each square measured about two feet by two
feet. His square was in the second row closest to the teacher who was seated in the front of the
room in a rocking chair. When Henry arrived at the edge of the carpet closest to the back of the
room, he knelt down on both knees and proceeded to crawl towards the front of the carpet in the
direction of his square. In doing so, he bumped into two students and his knee made contact with
a third student’s hand. The third student said, “Ouch!” Lynn reminded Henry what she said
about respecting other people’s bodies and asked him to move his clip from green to yellow.
After she asked him to move his clip, she provided verbal feedback stating, “We need to keep
our body to our self so everyone stays safe at school.” This instance provided evidence of a
teacher using more than one instructional strategy (e.g., universal behavioral management
program and verbal explanation for redirection) to encourage Henry to display more appropriate
classroom behaviors. Henry stood up and walked to the poster board located in the back right
corner of the room and moved his clothespin from green to yellow. He returned to the carpet,
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did not touch another person’s body, and sat down within the boundaries of his designated
square. When he returned, Lynn made eye contact with Henry and said in a loud whisper, “I bet
you can move your clip up soon if I see you working hard to not bump into your friends.” She
used encouraging words and reminded Henry that he was able to move his clip up a level if he
did not make contact with another person’s body. Henry sat up straight and smiled. He did not
move out of his square for the duration of the morning routine activity. Henry did not make
physical contact with another student for the remaining portion of the observation. As students
were leaving for recess later that morning, Lynn walked up to Henry, positively praised his
behaviors saying, “Good job. I could tell you were working hard to not bump into your friends.
Go move your clip from yellow to green.” Henry smiled and jogged over to the poster board
where he moved his clothespin from yellow to green.
In this example, Lynn used four instructional strategies to support Henry in
demonstrating more appropriate behaviors: posting of weekly social goals, positive teacher
praise, verbal explanation for redirection, and universal behavior management system. When
Henry was observed bumping into his peers, Lynn directed his attention to the poster displaying
the class’s weekly social goals. She cued him to more appropriate behaviors. After Henry
repeated the disruptive behavior an additional time following the prompt, Lynn instructed him to
move his clothespin down a level from green to yellow. This was an example of Lynn utilizing a
universal behavioral management system. When she instructed him to move his clothespin, she
offered him verbal explanation for her redirection (e.g., “We need to keep our body to our self so
everyone stays safe at school”). After Henry demonstrated more appropriate behaviors of not
touching his peers, Lynn utilized the behavioral management system again when she instructed
him to move his clothespin from yellow to green. At the same time, she used positive teacher
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praise when she offered a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Good job”) and described the
noteworthy behavior (e.g., “working hard to not bump into your friends”). Lynn’s use of cueing
more appropriate behaviors by directing Henry’s attention to the class’s weekly social goals,
coupled with her use of a universal behavioral management system followed by verbal
explanation for redirection was effective for Henry as evidenced by his ability to decrease his
disruptive behaviors. After he moved his clip from green to yellow, Henry did not make
physical contact with any peer for the remainder of the observation.
Verbal Explanations for Redirections
An additional practice that was commonly observed in all five classrooms was teachers’
consistent verbal explanations for the reason(s) they redirected any student behavior. More often
than not, when teachers redirected a student’s behavior, the teacher would provide a verbal
explanation as to why the redirected behavior was inappropriate. An example of such teacher
behavior was observed during an independent math activity in Elizabeth’s fourth grade
classroom. About 7 minutes into the activity, Isaiah, who was identified by the teacher as
struggling with behavioral issues in class, stood up from his chair, walked over to another
student, bent down, and said, “What?” Elizabeth walked over to Isaiah, redirected his behaviors,
and explained how talking during an independent activity was distracting to his peers and could
possible interfere with their learning. She stated,
Isaiah, please do not get out of your seat and confront a peer like that during class. Using
a loud tone and crouching down towards someone when they are sitting can be viewed as
disrespectful and even threatening. Please raise your hand when you have a question or
concern.
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Isaiah said, “Okay,” and quickly resumed his math work. About three minutes later, Isaiah was
observed glaring at the same peer he just approached. Elizabeth walked over to Isaiah and
instructed him to stop looking at his peer and focus on his work. She explained that he needed to
look at his own work so that he would know what he needed to do to complete the activity.
Isaiah said, “Okay, okay,” and returned his eye gaze towards his paper and began working on the
next problem. Isaiah did not have any further behavioral disruptions following Elizabeth’s
second verbal redirection. Isaiah needed to be redirected twice to change his behaviors.
Although he did not get out of his seat the second time, he still needed to be redirected to not
look at his peer. After the second cue, Isaiah did not have any further behavioral disruptions for
the remainder of the class period. The second time Isaiah was redirected, he decreased his
disruptive behaviors and oriented his behaviors to the academic task at hand.
Anne, a third grade teacher, also provided specific explanations when she redirected
students’ behaviors. For example, while the whole class was sitting on the carpet, Gia was
observed lying on her back, rolling from side to side. Anne asks her to stop rolling from side to
side because it was causing her to bump into her peers and explained that her actions may make
it difficult for her peers to hold their passage still and focus on reading. A few minutes later,
Anne instructed students to follow along with their eyes as she read a passage out loud. Gia
replied, “No thanks.” Anne repeated the directions and explained that by reading along with
their eyes, they would see the spelling of the word, while hearing how it was pronounced. Gia
responded by saying, “My mommy.” Anne explained that her mother was not at school and that
she needed to follow along with her eyes so she “could see the spelling of the word and listen to
how it was pronounced.” Gia complied and redirected her eye gaze towards the passage. Gia
displayed very limited behavioral disruptions following the sequence of verbal redirections and
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explanations. She was able to read the passage with a partner several more times and was
observed increasing her fluency as she progressed through the activity. Though Anne needed to
redirect Gia’s behavior at least four times during the first 7 minutes of a 20 minute reading
activity, Gia did not repeat the same behavior more than twice, decreased the frequency of the
disruptive behavior, and displayed academically oriented behaviors for the remaining 13 minutes
of the activity.
Posted Weekly Academic and/or Social Goals
All five teachers had the grade level’s weekly academic goals posted, while a few also
had the grade level’s social goals posted in a visually accessible location within the classroom.
Each classroom had either a poster or a bulletin board with the heading Academic Goals, while
many had a poster or bulletin board with the heading Academic and Social Goals. The social
goals were designed to be age appropriate for the respective grade level. For example, the
weekly goal in the kindergarten class was to “Respect other’s bodies by keeping your hands and
feet to yourself,” while in the fifth grade classroom, the weekly goal was to “Make positive
choices that will help move everyone towards success.” In the lower elementary grade levels,
the academic goals were divided into two categories: language arts and mathematics. One goal
was listed under each category. In the upper elementary grades, the academic goals were divided
into four categories: language arts, mathematics, social studies, and science. One to two state
standards were listed under each category and coincided with the lessons being taught
throughout the week for that particular subject. Additionally, in the fourth and fifth grade
classrooms, a new vocabulary word was listed for every category.
Peg, a fifth grade teacher, was observed explicitly referencing the week’s social goal
posted on the wall. Following students’ transition from one classroom into Peg’s classroom, she
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asked all students to get the materials they needed for mathematics class, sit down quietly, and
take out the previous night’s homework so they could correct it together. Several students were
observed engaging in conversation with peers, while standing in the back of the classroom. Peg
waited approximately 2 minutes at which time she pointed towards the poster and said,
“Remember our weekly goal, we are making positive choices to help move everyone towards
success,” and asked students again to get the materials they needed, sit down quickly and quietly,
and take out the previous night’s homework. Many of the students redirected their eye gaze
towards Peg while she was speaking and redirected their eye gaze towards the weekly goals
when she pointed to the poster. In less than 2 minutes, all students were seated with all
necessary materials. Peg cued students and directed their attention to the weekly social goal.
Immediately following Peg’s cue, students redirected their behaviors towards a more academic
orientation as they collected their necessary items in preparation for review of the previous
night’s homework.
Description of Strategies Working in Unison
Through observations, it became quite evident that the six strategies did not stand in
isolation of one another; rather, all five participating teachers would implement the various
strategies concurrently creating a dynamic learning environment. This was visibly apparent in
Elizabeth’s fourth grade classroom. When I first entered the classroom, there were no children
present as it was still their outdoor recess time. Elizabeth was in the classroom, preparing an
overhead projector for the upcoming lesson. She greeted me as I entered the classroom and
invited me to “take a look around before the students return.” She informed me that she would
be teaching a mathematics lesson. She went on to explain that in “fourth grade, students rotate
between three teachers” and stated that she was the only mathematics teacher in fourth grade,
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and thus taught all fourth graders mathematics at some point in the day. She stated a second
fourth grade teacher taught all the students science, while a third teacher taught all the students
social science. She mentioned that all three teachers had a homeroom where they taught
language arts. I entered through the front door, which was located along a sidewall. Directly to
the right of the front door was a bulletin board displaying four posters. Three posters were at eye
level, while a fourth poster was slightly above eye level. The poster at the top of the bulletin
board was white with black print. It was titled Social Goals. Underneath the title was the
following statement: “Give your friends encouraging words, such as ‘You can do it!’ to help
them succeed.” The three posters below hung in a row and each had a different title. The first
one was titled, Mrs. H., the second one was titled, Miss L., and the third one was titled, Mrs. S.
All three looked similar and had five horizontal rows the length of the poster with the following
color pattern: purple, blue, green, yellow, and red. There were about 30 clothespins attached to
each poster. Each clothespin had a student’s name written on it in black ink. On the poster titled
Mrs. H., there was one student’s clothespin clipped in the purple region, two students clipped in
the blue region, and two students clipped in the yellow region. The remaining clips were in the
green region. On the poster titled Miss L., all names were clipped on the green section. Finally,
on the poster titled Mrs. S., one name was clipped in the purple region, two names clipped in the
blue region, and two names clipped in the yellow region. I asked Elizabeth why there were three
different posters and she explained that because she teaches all three classes in the fourth grade,
she needed to have a poster with each homeroom teacher and their corresponding students. She
said that all three fourth grade teachers have a poster for each class. She stated that if a child
moves his or her clip in one class, they are to adjust it when they enter their next class. Elizabeth
said that teachers at the end of class will remind the student(s) who had to move a clip to adjust
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accordingly in their next class. She admitted that the system depended on students keeping track
of what color their clips were on as they transitioned between classes and stated, “Using this
system is a good way to teach about honesty and personal integrity. We want to teach kids that
it’s better to take responsibility for your actions then spend a life hiding from your mistakes.”
She said that “some students need more reminders, but for the most part they’re all pretty good
about adjusting their clips.” When asked if there is a pattern in who and how often a teacher has
to remind the individual she said, “No, not really. Honestly, for the most part, I think it is
because they simply forgot. That’s why I try and remind them as they are leaving my class.”
Elizabeth said that at the end of the day, each teacher checks in with the other to discover any
behavioral issues and find out on which color, or level each student ended the day.
Past the posters was a long rectangular-shaped whiteboard. Just inches in front of the
whiteboard hung a large, white screen. Approximately 20 feet in front of the door was a large
rectangular-shaped table. On the table were three stacks of paper, a metal basket, and three large
plastic cups with tongue depressors. Just in front of the table, towards the students’ desk, was a
small cart with wheels. On the cart was a projector. Students’ desks were arranged in four rows
spanning the width of the classroom. There were about 10 desks in each row. There was no
space between desks in the same row; however, there was about three feet of space between each
row. One sidewall had large windows the length of the wall that faced out towards the field.
Below the windows hung posters with various sayings such as “Today is a great day to learn
something new”, “Be the change you want to see in the world”, and “Challenge yourself to: ask
questions, set goals, be a leader, listen to directions, follow through with assignments, and think
for yourself.” The back of the classroom was comprised of large wooden cabinets with an
equally sized bookshelf on both sides of the cabinet. Approximately five feet in front of the
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cabinets were five desks. On each desk was a desktop computer. The second sidewall opposite
the windows displayed students’ work. This was the same wall that had the front door.
Approximately 30 pieces of white paper hung on the students’ work wall. Nearly half of the
papers were typed, while the remaining half displayed students’ cursive writing. As was
discussed in a previous section of this chapter regarding the instructional strategy of choice, upon
my inquiry as to why half the papers were typed and the other half were handwritten, Elizabeth
explained that she often gives her students the choice in which medium, computer or paper and
pencil, they wish to use when completing a writing assignment.
I was in the classroom for 5 minutes when a buzzer was heard over the loudspeaker.
Elizabeth informed me that recess was over and walked towards the front door. Before she left
the classroom, she told me to pay particularly close attention to Chase, Joy, and Isaiah, as those
were students who “struggle with behavior problems.” She continued by describing Chase’s and
Isaiah’s behavior as being disruptive in that they often blurted out in class, argued with peers, got
out of their seats, and talked to peers when the teacher was talking and/or during independent
activities. She described Joy as a student who rarely participated and “seems a little withdrawn
and quiet most days.”
Once all students were lined up, she invited them to enter the classroom and take a seat at
their desks. Each student was holding a large zipper binder, a smaller paperback mathematic
book, and a pencil pouch. As students entered, Elizabeth immediately began providing specific
praise statements of noteworthy student behavior, while at the same time provided verbal
explanation when she redirected two students’ behaviors. For example, she said, “Dean, great
job entering quietly”, “Jill, good job finding your desk quietly”, “Chase, excellent job walking
quickly and quietly”, and “Isaiah, nice job getting to your desk quickly”. She provided positive
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praise by offering verbal signs of approval (e.g., “Great job”, “Excellent job” and “Nice job”)
and describing the notable behavioral action (e.g., “walking quickly and quietly” and “finding
your desk quietly”). Chase and Isaiah went directly to their desks and took out their completed
homework papers without speaking a word to a peer. Two students were observed moving their
clips when they first entered. Shane moved his clip from green to blue, while Adam moved his
clip from green to yellow. Elizabeth provided a positive teacher statement when she stated,
“Thank you for being responsible and moving your clips, boys.” Again, she offered the boys a
verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Thank you”) and described the noteworthy behaviors (e.g., “being
responsible and moving your clips”). She did not draw further attention as to the direction both
boys moved their clips, rather smiled at the boys as they walked to their desks.
During this time, she also offered verbal explanation for redirection when two students
walked together to another student’s desk and began talking with the student. She said, “Chelsea
and Colleen, please stop talking with Lauren. You need to go to your desks quickly so you’re
ready to listen as we review the homework.” Chelsea and Colleen walked quietly to their desks
and sat down without further disruption. She offered an explanation (e.g., “so you’re ready to
listen as we review the homework”) for her redirection (e.g., “please stop talking” and “go to
your desks quickly”). It took approximately 4 minutes for all students to walk to their desk, open
their zipper binders, take out a their single homework worksheet, put their zipper binders on the
floor, and find a pen in their pencil pouches.
Elizabeth was observed simultaneously using positive teacher praise and increased
opportunities to respond during the first 10 minutes of class. She also provided a verbal
explanation when she redirected Chase’s off-task behavior (e.g., talking to a peer). Elizabeth
began the lesson by displaying a correctly completed homework worksheet on the overhead
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projector for all students to see. She informed students to quickly compare their answers with
what was posted. She waited approximately 3 minutes for students to compare their work with
the correct homework worksheet. During this time, Joy and Isaiah were observed looking at
their papers, looking at the screen, and then back at their papers. They repeated this pattern
several times. Chase was observed looking over his left shoulder and talking with his
neighboring peer. Elizabeth observed this behavior and said, “Chase, please stop talking to Luke
and correct your work so you can move on to the next activity.” Elizabeth redirected Chase’s
disruptive behaviors (e.g., talking to a peer) towards a more academically oriented task (e.g.,
correcting his homework) and offered a verbal explanation for the redirection (e.g., so he could
correct his homework and be ready to move on to the next activity). Chase immediately stopped
talking, faced the front of the classroom, looked at the overhead projector, and then looked at his
paper. This was an effective instructional strategy in that once Elizabeth redirected Chase’s
behavior and provided a verbal explanation for the redirection, he ceased his disruptive behavior
(e.g., taking to a peer) and reoriented his behaviors towards the academic task at hand (e.g.,
correcting homework).
Next, Elizabeth utilized the instructional strategy of OTR when she asked students to
chorally recite the six steps for double-digit multiplication they learned in a previous lesson for
each posted problem. Joy and Isaiah were observed immediately reciting the steps along with
their classmates. This is in accordance with the purpose of OTR in that Elizabeth offered a
verbal cue (e.g., instructed students to recite the six-steps for double-digit multiplication) and
elicited a verbal response from all students (e.g., chorally reciting the necessary steps). While
students were reciting the steps to the first problem, Chase was observed searching for a pen in
his pencil pouch. After the whole class finished reciting the steps to the first problem, Elizabeth
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offered positive teacher praise when she said, “Great job reciting the six-steps, class.” She
provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Great job”) and a description of the noteworthy
behaviors (e.g., “reciting the six-steps”). Upon hearing the praise, Chase looked up from his
pencil pouch for approximately 1 second, then he looked down at his paper for approximately 1
second, and then resumed looking in his pencil pouch. The students proceeded to the first step
for the second problem at which point Chase removed a red pen from his pencil pouch. When he
retrieved the red pen from his pencil pouch, he looked up at the projector, down at his paper,
then slid forward to the edge of the seat, crossed his ankles, and began rocking back and forth on
his ankle that was touching the floor. Next, he was observed looking up at the projector, down at
his neighbor Luke’s paper, and back at his paper a total of three times. The other students
continued to recite the steps until they finished the problem. When the students were finished
reciting the steps, Elizabeth offered positive teacher praise again when she said, “Nice work! It
sounds like you all really know the steps.” She provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Nice
work”) and a description of the positive behavior (e.g., “know the steps”). When he heard the
praise statement, Chase sat up, placed a finger on the third problem on his paper, and looked
back up at the overhead projector. Students began reciting the steps to the third problem at
which point Chase joined them and was able to recite the steps for the remaining math problems.
It took Chase approximately 3 minutes to begin reciting with the whole class. When there was a
clear entry point (e.g., students began reciting the first step of a new problem), Chase was able to
join the class in their choral response. Increased OTR supported Chase in maintaining
academically oriented behaviors for the duration of the activity. Once he was in rhythm with the
class, Chase was able to provide a verbal response for each step of the remaining problems.
When Elizabeth offered positive teacher praise to the class (e.g., “Nice work! It sounds like you
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all really know the steps”), Chase’s off-task behaviors (e.g., looking through his pencil pouch)
momentarily ceased and he redirected his behaviors towards the academic task at hand (e.g.,
looking forward at the overhead projector). Although these statements were not aimed directly
towards him, nor was he performing the behaviors that were being described, it did appear as
though this strategy did redirect his behaviors momentarily. Once there was a clear entry point
where he could begin reciting the first step with the rest of the class, Chase was able to join the
class in the choral response activity. Elizabeth continued to offer positive teacher praise after the
class successfully recited the six-steps for each problem. These praise statements described
noteworthy behaviors that were in alignment with what Chase was executing, thus reinforcing
his behaviors. For example, after Chase and his classmates recited the six-steps for double-digit
multiplication for the third problem, Elizabeth said, “Awesome job reciting the steps.” She
offered a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Awesome”) and described the noteworthy behaviors
(e.g., “reciting the steps”). Positive teacher praise, coupled with the increased opportunity to
respond was effective for Chase in that it redirected his off-task behaviors (e.g., looking through
his pencil pouch) and increased his academically oriented behaviors (e.g., reciting the six-steps
for double-digit multiplication).
Elizabeth continued to use increased opportunities to respond, positive teacher praise, and
verbal explanation for redirection during a second math activity. She displayed a three-digit
multiplication problem on the overhead projector. She informed the class that she was going to
solve the problem and that everyone needed to indicate with either a thumb up or thumb down as
to whether she performed each step correctly. She asked that students not raise their hands until
she lifted her eyes from the projector, looked at the students and nodded her head once.
Elizabeth completed the first step, looked up at the students, and nodded her head once. All
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students were observed raising their hands with their thumbs up. This is an example of OTR in
that Elizabeth used a visual cue (e.g., looking at students and nodding) to elicit students’ visual
response (e.g., thumb up). Isaiah, Joy, and Chase were observed correctly raising their thumbs
up indicating that Elizabeth completed the step accurately. Elizabeth offered positive teacher
praise when she said, “Great job, class. You saw that I solved the problem correctly.” She
offered a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Great job”) and described the noteworthy behaviors
(e.g., “saw that I solved the problem correctly”). It took Elizabeth approximately 3-5 seconds to
complete the step and students 2-3 seconds to respond. She repeated this same procedure for the
second step and asked students again to respond with either a thumb up or thumb down. Again,
it took Elizabeth approximately 3-5 seconds to complete the step and students 2-3 seconds to
respond. This is in accordance with OTR in that Elizabeth used a visual cue (e.g., looking up
and nodding her head) to elicit students’ visual response (e.g., thumb up). Additionally, she
obtained students’ response within a 1-minute interval, which is an essential element of OTR.
The class raised their hands with their thumbs up indicating that she solved the problem
correctly. Once more, she offered positive teacher praise when she said, “Great job again! You
are correct in noticing that I multiplied the numbers correctly.” She offered a verbal sign of
approval (e.g., “Great job”) and described the noteworthy behaviors (e.g., “noticing that I
multiplied the numbers correctly”). She began to solve the third step, and again asked students
to indicate whether she was correct or not with either their thumbs up or thumb down. Once
more, students raised their hands with their thumbs up indicating she was correct. Elizabeth said,
“Perfect!” On the fourth step, she erroneously did not include a placeholder and immediately
multiplied the next two numbers together. She asked students if she completed the step
correctly. The majority of students raised their hands and correctly indicated with thumbs down
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that she did not. Elizabeth said, “Most of you are right, I didn’t solve this correctly.” She then
randomly drew a tongue depressor out of a large cup located on the table in the front of the class
and called on the student to explain what she did incorrectly. The student provided the correct
response stating that Elizabeth forgot to add the placeholder after multiplying the first set of
numbers. Elizabeth said, “Yes! You are correct.” She erased the number she had just written
and wrote a zero with a diagonal line through it. She then multiplied the next two numbers
together and again asked students to indicate with either a thumb up or thumb down as to
whether she solved it correctly. Again, students raised their hands with their thumbs up
indicating that she had completed it correctly. She offered positive praise when she said,
“Perfect. You all really know your math facts!” She provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g.,
“Perfect”) and described the notable behavior (e.g., “know your math facts”). She continued this
pattern until she completed the first problem, providing affirmation between each step with
words such as “perfect”, “great”, and “excellent” and phrases such as, “good job” and “nice
work.” She erased the problem from the overhead and wrote a second multiplication problem.
She began the same procedure again. She multiplied the first two numbers together and asked
students if she did it correctly. Students raised their hands with their thumb up indicating she
had. She said, “Excellent.” She repeated the same procedure until the fifth step at which point
she incorrectly multiplied the two numbers together. She asked students to indicate with a thumb
up or down as to whether she solved the problem. Students raised their hands with their thumbs
down. She affirmed their choice, reached for a tongue depressor in the plastic cup, and randomly
pulled out Joy’s name. She asked Joy to tell her what she did wrong. Joy told her that she
multiplied the numbers incorrectly. Elizabeth said, “correct” and asked her to come to the
overhead projector and show her how to solve it. While Joy was walking to the board, Chase
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turned to his left and was observed asking Luke, his neighboring peer, a question. Elizabeth
witnessed this behavior and offered a verbal explanation for her redirection when she stated,
“Chase, please turn around and watch as Joy works on this problem. Your eyes need to be
forward so you can see the step she performs.” Elizabeth redirected Chase’s off-task behaviors
(e.g., facing away from the board and talking to a peer), cued him as to more appropriate
behaviors (e.g., turn around and face forward), and provided an explanation for the redirection
(e.g., “eyes need to be forward so you can see the step she performs”). Chase stopped talking to
his peer and faced forward. When Joy was finished, Elizabeth asked the class to respond with
either a thumb up or down indicating whether Joy accurately answered the question. All students
appropriately raised their thumbs up. She stated, “Excellent class, you all are correct!” She then
turned to Joy and offered her a positive teacher praise statement when she said, “Great job, Joy.
You multiplied it correctly.” Elizabeth provided a verbal sign of approval (e.g., “Great job”) and
offered a description of the noteworthy behavior (e.g., “multiplied it correctly”). Joy smiled and
returned to her seat. Elizabeth continued to provide students with OTR as she completed the
problem on the overhead projector. Each time she performed a step, she looked at the students,
nodded, and elicited a visual response of either a thumb up or down as to whether she correctly
solved the problem. Each time, all students raised their hands with either a thumb up or down.
Elizabeth took approximately 3-5 seconds to solve each step. Therefore, Elizabeth was
eliciting more than six student responses every minute, a characteristic of OTR. Additionally,
she varied the manner in which she asked students to respond. Not only did she require that
every student participate by raising their hand with either their thumb up or down, when she
made a mistake, she randomly drew a child’s name from a plastic cup and asked him or her to
provide a verbal response and/or demonstrate his or her knowledge by completing the step in
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question on the overhead projector. Requiring all students to provide a response every 3-5
seconds, coupled with randomly drawing names from the plastic cup forced students to pay close
attention as each step was being completed so they would be able to routinely provide an answer.
While increasing students’ opportunities to respond, Elizabeth also provided several
positive teacher praise statements. At the start of the lesson, every time students correctly
indicated that Elizabeth’s response was accurate, she would offer the entire class positive teacher
praise. She offered verbal signs of approval (e.g., “Great job, class”; “great job, again”;
“Perfect”) and described the noteworthy behavioral action (e.g., “you saw that I solved the
problem correctly” and “you all really know your math facts”). As she progressed through the
activity and every student was participating in the thumb up/thumb down technique, she adjusted
her verbal response to words or phrases of affirmation such as “perfect”, “great”, and “nice
work.” Once students were in the rhythm of responding with either their thumbs up or down
every 3-5 second intervals, Elizabeth adjusted her praise to single words and/or two word
phrases. However, each time an individual student was called on, she would offer that student
explicit positive teacher praise. When a student provided a verbal response and/or walked to the
overhead projector to demonstrate his or her work, the 3-5 second response pattern was
disrupted. Each time, Elizabeth would return to the lengthier verbal expression of positive
teacher praise providing a description of the noteworthy behavior. This description would alert
the students as to what behaviors Elizabeth desired to see repeated. With the exception of Chase
talking with his peer, there were no behavioral disruptions during this activity. Once Elizabeth
offered an explanation for the redirection given to Chase (e.g., “your eyes need to be forward so
you can see the steps she performs”), he did not speak to a peer and kept his eyes forward and
directed to the individual who was solving the problem.
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The most frequent strategies Elizabeth used in unison were increased opportunities to
respond, positive teacher praise, and verbal explanation for redirection. Increased opportunities
to respond promoted an environment in which students were routinely providing answers.
Student responses, in turn, created additional opportunities for Elizabeth to offer positive teacher
praise. All three strategies were seamlessly implemented concurrently resulting in a learning
environment in which there were few behavioral disruptions and students’ maintained
academically oriented behaviors throughout the duration of each lesson. Chase was redirected
once during the lesson. Elizabeth offered him a verbal explanation for her redirection and Chase
discontinued his disruptive behaviors and reoriented his behaviors towards the academic task at
hand.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
The goal of the first research question was to discover what primary general education
classrooms looked like when teachers, who have been identified as successful in working with
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems were implementing effective
strategies. Common interventions that were observed in all five classrooms were OTR, positive
teacher praise, and individualized curricular modifications. These findings are in accordance
with past empirical research that has also found these three interventions to be effective in
supporting the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. Furthermore,
the results from this study revealed additional strategies frequently used by the identified
teachers. These included use of a universal behavior management program, explanations for
reasons why teachers redirected students’ behaviors, and posting of weekly academic and/or
social goals.

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Research Question 2: Teachers’ Perceptions of Factors that Influence Teaching Behaviors
The main purpose of the second research question was to help the researcher ascertain
what factors primary general education teachers perceived to have influenced their use of
effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems. In accordance with the conceptual framework that guided this study, it
became evident through teacher interviews that school norms and teacher beliefs were primary
factors teachers perceived to have influenced their behaviors. Each participating teacher also
mentioned their pre-service training and professional development experience; however, the
results indicated that teachers believed both factors were less influential than school norms and
teachers’ personal beliefs. The reason stated by most teachers was that their pre-service program
did not offer much guidance on how to successfully support these particular students and many
teachers candidly admitted that they had not attended many professional development programs
focused on this unique population of students and their specific needs. In addition to these four
factors, results also indicated that teachers’ prior personal experience with someone who has or
had an emotional and/or behavioral problem also influenced their teaching behaviors.
School Norms
School norm is the culture of a particular school as influenced by administrators’ and
teachers’ perspectives of students with disabilities and their responsibilities in regards to teaching
these particular students (Jordan et al., 2010). In accordance to the conceptual framework, data
revealed that school norm was a prominent factor influencing the behaviors of all five general
education teachers who had been identified as successful in working with students with
emotional and behavioral problems. Closer analysis of the data revealed three key elements
associated with school norm that the teachers identified as chiefly influential in sustaining their
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efforts in implementing effective strategies for these particular children. These components of
the school norm included: implementation of a school-wide positive behavioral support
(SWPBS) system, routine discussion regarding effective instructional strategies among teachers
and administrators, and administrative support for professional development.
School-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) system. SWPBS is a universal
strategy that attempts to transform the school environment by creating improved systems,
procedures, and behavior supports that promote positive change in staff members’ and students’
behaviors (Bradshaw et al., 2010). At the time of this study, Sunny Basin Elementary School
was in its third year of implementing a SWPBS system. The implementation of a SWPBS
program prompted teachers to incorporate the universal behavioral management program
described earlier into their daily teaching repertoire. All five teachers indicated that since
implementation of SWPBS, they noticed changes in their personal teaching practice. In
particular, four teachers stated that due to their use of the program, they had changed the manner
in which they redirected students’ behaviors, adopting a more positive approach. For example,
Peg stated:
It [implementation of SWPBS] has helped me think of ways to respond to students more
positively. Instead of saying don’t, don’t, don’t, or no, no, no, I now think of ways of
putting a more positive spin to my redirection.
The implementation of the program caused Peg to become more reflective in her teaching
practice. She altered her teaching behaviors from initially reacting to students’ behaviors with a
negative response to responding in a more positive manner.
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Anne also mentioned that since implementation, she has tried to think of ways to redirect
inappropriate behaviors so that students learned what the more positive behavior was in the
specific situation. She stated:
I mean the biggest thing that I have learned are that behaviors are one way to
communicate and one way to express something, but there is always an appropriate way
to respond. Children with behavioral problems or emotional problems don’t always
know what the appropriate response to a situation is and they sometimes have to be
directly instructed on how to do it…. If somebody hits you, you don’t have to hit them
back. There’s an appropriate way to express your anger or your feelings and so,
sometimes they just need that directly taught to them.
Implementation of SWPBS system had given Anne a new way of thinking about students’
behaviors and their reaction to certain stimuli. She adopted the mindset that students with
emotional and behavioral problems are capable of changing their behaviors with appropriate
guidance and instruction from a teacher.
Elizabeth experienced similar changes in her way of thinking about students with
emotional and behavioral problems and their abilities to change their behaviors. She commented
that since implementation of SWPBS she has focused “more on the importance of setting them
[students] up for success” by helping them to “better understand the classroom setting through
positive redirection.” Utilization of the program allowed Elizabeth to be more reflective and
think of additional positive ways to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems.
All five teachers mentioned that implementation of the program challenged them to use
more positive reinforcement techniques in their classroom setting. Anne admitted that since
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implementation, she has become more acutely aware of how she supports students’ behaviors.
She stated that she tries to “avoid negative consequences and use more positive reinforcement.”
Lynn mentioned that when the school adopted a SWPBS, the principal “wanted more positive
reinforcements.” She revealed that within the last three years she adopted a personal incentive
program in her classroom where students can “earn stickers, extra recess time, or whatever
motivates them the most.” Anne and Lynn discussed how the new universal behavioral
management program described in the previous section was implemented as part of the SWPBS
system. They both asserted that the new system sustained their efforts in supporting the learning
needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. They credited the improvements of
the new color system to the fact that students were now able to move beyond the green level and
strive towards blue or purple, as well as have more opportunities to move out of the red or
yellow zone. Anne stated that she had seen an “increase in students’ efforts” to strive towards a
higher level in the color system. Lynn commented:
A couple years ago I only had the green, yellow, and red level and they [students] could
only go down, they couldn’t go up. But now they’re doing it this way. [Lynn pointed to
the poster] They added the blue and purple so kids can work their way up.
Four teachers endorsed a school-wide incentive program that was implemented as part of
the SWPBS system. All four teachers described the new program as one in which teachers
distributed “Star Cards” to students who were caught following the school-wide rules. Students
would collect the cards all week. When they received seven cards, they could turn the pack into
the front office and choose a prize out of a large chest. Additionally, the student’s name would
be included in an all-school drawing held at the end of each month. On the last Friday of every
month, during an all-school assembly, the principal blindly drew five names from the collection.
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Those five students were invited to have a free lunch with the principal at a local restaurant in
town. Joyce discussed how she noticed that the incentive program has “motivated students to
follow the school-wide rules, which is great.” Peg commented on how the new incentive system
“made students more accountable for their own behaviors because they see their friends getting
cards and they want the cards too.” Since implementation of the school-wide incentive program
as part of the SWPBS system, teachers have seen an overall decrease in students’ disruptive
behaviors and an increase in students’ motivation to display appropriate behaviors.
Teachers also discussed how the implementation of a SWPBS system promoted a sense
of continuity and predictability within the school environment that supported all students,
including those with emotional and behavioral issues. Joyce mentioned that as part of the
SWPBS program implementation, the school created a system where each part of the campus
was considered a different zone and identified by one of three colors: red, yellow, and green.
Red zones were identified as areas where students were not allowed to talk unless spoken to by
an adult, yellow zones were identified as areas where students could only whisper, and green
zones where identified as areas where students could use a regular tone of voice. There were
color-coded posters throughout the campus that alerted students as to which level of voice tone
they were allowed to use in the designated area. For example, the front office and internal
hallways were considered red zones where students could not talk unless given permission to
speak, the library was consider a yellow zone where students could only whisper, and the
outdoor play area was considered a green zone where students were allowed to use a regular tone
of voice. Joyce praised the new system declaring that it promoted a sense of fairness and
predictability. She purported:
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I think all those color zones kind of get them [students] to see like, okay, everyone has to
act like this. So when a kid says, “Well, how come I’m the only one who has to do it?”, I
can say, “Well, no you’re not the only one who has to do this. Everyone has to do it.” I
think all those zone areas kind of get kids to see how everyone has to follow the same
rules and understand that there are rules outside of just Sunny Basin.
Peg also spoke about the positive aspects of a SWPBS system. She stated, “Having a
concrete program in place has been very helpful because it makes expectations very clear.” She
also endorsed the new color-coded zoning system and commented on how the posters are “in
view everywhere and make the expectations clear.” Implementation of the program created a
more predictable learning environment where students were more accountable to both peers and
adults for their behaviors. Since implementation of the new program, the school had experienced
a 31% decrease in office disciplinary referrals (SARC, 2013).
Routine discussion of effective instructional strategies among teachers and
administrators. Another key element associated with school norm that was identified by the
teachers as valuable in sustaining their efforts to implement instructional strategies for students
with emotional and behavioral problems was routine discussion of effective instructional
strategies among teachers and administrators. All five teachers spoke about the importance of
regular discussions among colleagues and how helpful the process was in discovering various
strategies to help maintain their current efforts. Many teachers stated that though they have
monthly grade-level meetings, they often find themselves talking with each other at recess and
lunch. Joyce stated:
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We [same grade level teachers] have the same lunch, same recess, and it really helps to
talk to each other…. We just talk causally at lunch, ‘What did you do or what works for
you?’ Even though it might not work for everyone, but it’s nice to just be able to talk.
Peg asserted that she “talks with others on a daily basis” including “at lunch, recess,
snack, even over text.” She talked about how the fifth grade had a rotating schedule where
students go to the three different grade-level teachers everyday. She said that all three teachers
talk about different strategies they are using with the same student and which strategy seemed to
be the most effective with that particular student. She gave the following example,
We had a student that used to tantrum everyday, on the hour. The three of us [fifth grade
teachers] met and discussed strategies to get this student’s buy-in to follow our directions.
We all decided to give the student two choices: work could get done either in class or
recess, or at school or home. After a couple days of the student doing work at recess and
home, he didn’t tantrum again.
This form of discussion provided an opportunity for teachers to brainstorm effective strategies
and work together to create a successful plan to support the learning needs of this particular
child.
Anne commented on how she felt that she had a very strong same grade-level team and
that they “definitely brainstorm all the time.” She stated, “I feel like if I was having a problem, I
could definitely ask them [same grade-level team] and they would have great ideas for me.”
Lynn stated that she is constantly sharing ideas with and seeking out suggestions from her
colleagues. She remarked, “If I want an update with a kid or find out what’s working or what’s
not working, I’ll ask them [other teachers], ‘Do you have any ideas? What can I do better or
different with this kid’. We collaborate constantly.” Such open dialogue afforded teacher
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opportunities to devise an individualized plan for each child and provided students with the
supports necessary to meet their learning needs.
Peg, Joyce, and Lynn emphasized the benefits of having administrators who were readily
available to consult with teachers who have students with varying emotional and behavioral
problems. Lynn provided the following example:
Last year I had a boy who used to punch me in the stomach and bite other kids at recess.
I can’t have a kid punching me in the stomach. It was a lot of figuring it out, but I needed
help. I thought a little support would be nice…. So I went to the principal everyday for a
few days and we talked about him and what to do to help him. There was an incident
everyday I went. She [the principal] finally decided that he needed one-on-one help and
got it for him.
The principal not only provided suggestions as to possible strategies Lynn could use in the
classroom, she also offered Lynn an additional resource (e.g., one-on-one assistant) to be used in
her classroom to support this particular child.
Joyce also shared that she frequently goes to the principal to discuss students of concern.
She said if the concern was great enough, she consulted with the school psychologist and/or the
Resource Specialist Program (RSP) teacher. Joyce stated that “I often ask the school
psychologist or RSP, ‘What can I do with this child? How can I help them?’” Peg also stressed
the benefits of having a readily accessible administrator who was willing to discuss students of
concern. She stated:
I constantly go to Grace [the principal], particularly for those students who have not been
identified yet. She always tries to make herself available and if she can’t meet me at that
moment, she always looks for me later. She’s easy to talk to.
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Administrators who are readily available to consult with teachers create an environment where
teachers feel supported. It also promotes opportunities where administrators can suggest
possible strategies and teachers can learn new approaches that may prove beneficial for their
students. Past research has revealed that teachers feel better supported and are more likely to
enact program change when administrators make themselves readily available to listen to
teachers’ concerns regarding implementation (Fuchs & Deshier, 2007).
Administrative support for professional development. Administrative support for
professional development was identified as another key element of school norm that was
influential in aiding teachers’ sustained efforts in supporting students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. Although many of the teachers interviewed were not
currently attending, nor had attended any professional development focused on supporting the
learning needs of these particular students within the past year, all five teachers indicated that the
administration was supportive of such endeavors. Anne stated that the administration was “very
supportive of professional development in general.”
Joyce commented on how she attended several professional development programs on
topics such as English Language Learners, Common Core curriculum, and technology, but has
not had as many available opportunities for issues related to students with emotional and
behavioral problems. She stated that she is always looking for professional development
programs related to these particular students, “but I don’t see that many trainings on how to work
with behavioral students.” When asked, she indicated that the administration would be
supportive of her attending these courses if they did arise, just as they have been supportive with
her attendance in past professional development classes. Lynn stated that the previous
administration was not supportive of professional development, but the current administration
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was “now focusing more on that [professional development].” She mentioned that with the new
administration, she has been attending more and more professional development courses herself.
She shared that she was currently attending a series of classes focused on a new writing program
and that she was certain that the administration would allow her to attend classes focused on
topics surrounding students with emotional and behavioral problems. Although the participating
teachers were not currently attending nor recently attended professional development focused on
the needs of students with emotional and/or behavioral problems, they all believed that their
administration would support such endeavors. Teachers felt more supported by the new
administration with regards to professional development, and thus were attending more courses.
It became evident through interviews that teachers believed there is a dearth in available
professional development courses targeted at issues related to students with emotional and
behavioral problems.
Teacher Beliefs
Evidence suggests that teachers’ epistemologist beliefs about students’ disabilities and
abilities, as well as their beliefs about their responsibilities in regards to teaching students with
disabilities impacts their overall teaching practices (Brackett et al., 2012; Jordan et al., 2010;
Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Researchers have found that teachers’ beliefs lie somewhere on a
continuum between pathognomonic and interventionist beliefs (Jordan et al., 2010). Teachers
who hold pathognomonic beliefs consider a student’s disability to be internal, fixed, and not
amenable to instruction. Research has found that these particular teachers’ behaviors include
minimal or nonexistent interventions, little interaction with the resource teacher or other
potentially helpful administrator(s), and minimal contact with students’ parents (Jordan et al.,
2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Teachers with pathognomonic beliefs about disabilities also
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tend to hold an entity belief about abilities and argue that ability is a fixed trait, and thus believe
individuals with disabilities have little responsiveness to learning (Jordan et al., 2010).
On the other hand, a teacher who possesses interventionist beliefs views disabilities as
created partly by a society that is primarily designed for able bodies (Jordan et al., 2010).
Research has found that these particular teachers engage more with their students, implement
more effective teaching strategies as demonstrated through observations, and had regular contact
with students’ parents (Jordan, Glenn et al., 2010; Jordan, Lindsay et al., 1997; Jordan &
Stanovich, 2001; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). These particular teachers also tend to believe that a
student’s ability is incremental, or malleable and influenced by learning (Jordan et al., 2010).
Data from interviews revealed that all five teachers held more interventionist beliefs
about students’ disabilities and incremental beliefs about students’ abilities. This was evident in
all participating teachers’ discussion about their expectations of themselves, their expectation of
their students, and their beliefs about the importance of communication with parents. It should
be noted that prior to when this study was conducted, two of the five participating teachers had
previous professional experience other than teaching where they worked with children and youth
with emotional and behavioral problems. Peg had worked in a large juvenile detention center.
She stated that the majority of the youth admitted to the detention center had emotional and
behavioral problems. Similar to Peg, Anne also had experience working with children and youth
with emotional and behavioral problems. Prior to teaching, Anne was a behavioral
interventionist who designed and implemented behavioral programs for children in their home
and community setting. Additionally, two participating teachers, Lynn and Joyce, had served
unique positions at Sunny Basin outside of the general education classroom. At the time of the
study, Lynn was a member of the school’s SWPBS Committee. Joyce had served as the school’s
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intervention specialist two years prior to when this study was conducted. These four teachers are
unique in that they all had different experiences working with children and youth with emotional
and behavioral problems and/or responsibilities in ensure these particular students’ needs were
being met. It is difficult to generalize their beliefs about students with emotional and behavioral
problems to all general education teachers as these four teachers each have had unique
experiences working with these students and/or held distinctive positions ensuring their needs
were met that influenced their beliefs about these students’ abilities to learn.
Teacher expectation of self. The participating teachers spoke about the importance of
exerting time and effort towards their teaching practice to meet the individual needs of students
with emotional and behavioral problems. Elizabeth asserted:
You have to do your best as a teacher. You have to remember that it will eventually
click. It may not click today or this year, but it will eventually click…. Who knows,
maybe I am putting things in place for future years.
Elizabeth held high expectations of herself and her professional duties. She was committed to
exerting her best effort in order to provide students with necessary supports for their current and
future learning. She believed that students had the ability to learn and grow and it was important
to continue to implement best practice as such strategies could be laying the foundation for
learning yet to come.
Anne shared similar expectations as Elizabeth, emphasizing the necessity of constantly
reflecting on current practice and modifying instruction based on individual students’ needs. She
purported:
My role is to modify and accommodate and encourage and brainstorm the best that I can
to come up with ways to give them [students with emotional and behavioral problems]
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access to instruction. I mean that’s doing whatever is in my power and if it’s not in my
power, then going outside of myself and seeking the resources they need by
advocating…. It’s a little bit harder work. Yeah, it is. It takes more problem solving, but
I mean that’s the profession I chose. I mean it’s part of my job. It’s not just about
teaching them as they come, like the students that don’t have any issues. It’s about
accommodating for everyone, reaching all the students.
Anne’s personal expectations were that she was responsible for adjusting her teaching practice to
best fit the needs of students with emotional problems. She believed that it was her job to break
down barriers and provide access to learning for all her students, and if she felt that she needed
additional support, she would take it upon herself to seek resources outside her classroom and
advocate for the child. She felt that a child’s learning is malleable and with appropriate supports
and resources, students could learn.
Peg also talked about the importance of creating individualized programs for students
with emotional and behavioral problems and seeking resources outside the classroom for
additional support. She stated:
I create reward/consequence contracts for each student. It’s important to do each one
separately and reward with iPad time, Jolly Ranchers, or whatever the child says they will
work for. It’s also important to reach out to the resource specialist to set up a plan for
each kid.
Peg believed that with appropriate supports, students could be successful in her classroom. She
valued others’ opinions and would often seek their assistance to ensure that her students with
emotional and behavioral problems were receiving the supports necessary to help them be
successful in her classroom.
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Lynn also discussed the importance of creating flexible, individualized programs for each
student. She asserted:
I pretty much do more one-on-one stuff, like they’ll [students with behavioral problems]
sometimes sit right next to me, or they’ll sit away from kids if they’re really disturbing
the class. They really kind of need their own little space, so it kind of depends on what’s
the best place for them to be…. Some of them have their own behavioral management
plans. They’re earning stickers or more recess time. It just depends on what they’re
motivated by on that given day.
Lynn took the time and effort to individualize a plan for students with emotional and behavioral
problems. She put forth effort to discover strategies that best supported her students with these
particular problems and would individualize their plan accordingly.
Several teachers spoke about the importance of being patient when working with students
with emotional and behavioral problems. Peg stated, “My goal is to remain calm and stay
patient.” Elizabeth also spoke about how her personal goal is to “try to be patient”, while
candidly admitting that such task can be challenging at times. She disclosed, “It’s harder this
year because I have a lot of kids with behavior problems this year. But it is still important to stay
patient.” Lynn also spoke about how maintaining her patience was an important focus in her
practice. She stated:
My goal is to keep my patience. Keeping my patience and remembering that it’s not
always their [students with emotional and behavioral problems] fault why they have these
challenges and disabilities. Sometimes it’s just the way they were raised, what their
parents did to them. It’s not fair to some of those kids and you feel bad. You’re like, this
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kid is not getting it or they’re acting out and it’s not really their fault. It’s hard and can
get overwhelming, but I just keep reminding myself to stay patient.
Lynn demonstrated patience and empathy towards students with emotional and behavioral
problems. She believed that many of the challenges these particular children face are a result of
society, rather than brought on merely by themselves. By remaining patient, Lynn was able to
continue to support the learning needs of these students, believing that they had the ability to
learn and grow.
Joyce openly admitted that she believes one of her personal strengths is her patience in
working with students with emotional and behavioral problems. She commented,
I think I have a lot of patience because I would get a lot of kids with a red dot meaning
they were a discipline child. But there were always those kids that I would get who had
the red dot, and I would be like, huh, not so much for me. I think I have a lot of patience
and tolerance for those kids.
The participating teachers’ expectation of themselves was to remain patient and continue to
support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
In alignment with an interventionist belief system, these teachers did not give up; rather, they
maintained their beliefs that these particular children have the ability to learn (Jordan &
Stanovich, 2001; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). They felt impelled to continue to work with these
students and provide them with the supports necessary.
Teacher expectation of student. All participating teachers commented on how they
believed that students with emotional and behavioral problems can learn, especially when given
the appropriate support. This notion is in alignment with the belief that students’ abilities are
incremental or malleable, and learning is possible with appropriate interventions (Jordan et al.,
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2010). Peg made this clear when she stated, “There isn’t a child that can’t learn. The real
question is how we get them to learn. They all can make growth.” The other participating
teachers echoed Peg’s statement that all children can learn, including those with emotional and
behavioral problems. Lynn stated:
I think they [students with emotional and behavioral problems] can learn. Yeah, I
absolutely think they have the ability to learn. I would say they have the ability to learn
like any other child, it’s just figuring out which way they learn best.
She continued by stating that “often they need extra support,” but she felt that it was her job as
their teacher to provide such support. Lynn believed that with appropriate supports, students
with emotional and behavioral problems could learn and that it was her job as their teacher to
implement such supports.
Anne also shared her thoughts about students with emotional and behavioral problems
and their ability to learn. She stated:
I think it definitely impacts their learning and that you have to make some
accommodations and modifications and remember that fair doesn’t necessarily mean
equal. There may be times when you have to do something with one child that the other
kids don’t have access to. That’s what’s fair because they need, you know, they need that
extra accommodation to get to the level of the other students. I’ll make that
accommodation to get them to the level of the other students.
Anne believed that emotional and behavioral problems can impact learning; however, she
affirmed that with appropriate support, students who struggle with such problems can learn. She
argued that it is important to individualize support plans to better assist with academic growth.
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Joyce also spoke about how she believed that emotional and/or behavioral problems can
impact learning, but with additional support, students with such struggles can succeed. She
stated, “I feel that sometimes they just need the help to get motivated to do something and that’s
our [teachers] job to figure it out.” Similar to the other participating teachers, this viewpoint
represented an incremental belief system where one understands students’ abilities to be
malleable and able to change with appropriate supports (Jordan et al., 2010).
Many of the participating teachers expected that with appropriate supports, students with
emotional and behavioral problems could succeed and meet the standards set before them. Anne
spoke about how she feels it is important that she has similar, if not the same academic
expectations for students with emotional and behavioral problems as she does with all other
students. She commented:
I think my expectation is that they [students with emotional and behavioral problems]
would succeed and that they would meet the standards that the other kids are expected to
meet. I mean, I have to have the same expectations for them in order for them to reach
them, so I think it’s fair to expect that. But I also know it takes more work on my part to
get them there and I’m willing to put in the work.
Anne believed that students with varying emotional and behavioral problems have the ability to
succeed along side their peers. This affirmation was in accordance with an interventionist belief
system firm in the understanding that it is necessary to breakdown society’s barriers often
constructed for those with disabilities and implement effective instructional strategies that
support these particular students’ learning needs (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001; Stanovich &
Jordan, 2002). It also represented an incremental belief system purporting students’ ability is
malleable and influenced by learning (Jordan et al., 2010).
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Peg stressed the importance of supporting students with emotional and behavioral
problems so that they would meet grade-level standards and be able to move on to the next
grade-level: “My goal is to move them beyond grade-level, get them going on to the next grade
by the end of the year.” She too held an incremental belief system with the understanding that
students’ ability was malleable and influenced by learning (Jordan et al., 2010). She believed
that with additional support, these particular students could progress academically alongside their
peers.
While many participating teachers spoke about their academic expectations for students
with emotional and behavioral problems, several participating teachers also addressed their
behavioral expectations for these particular students. According to the teachers, it was very
important that these particular students learned how to cope and manage their behaviors both at
school and in the community at large. This notion was expressed in the following statement
made by Joyce:
I hope that they come to learn and understand that they can change their behaviors. We
can go up and down, and that’s okay, but they need to understand that if they have down
moments, they have the ability to go back up…. We talk about middle school and high
school. We talk about how they will need to learn how to deal with a whole new group
of people when they go to middle school and high school. We talk about what happens
outside in the real world. I really try and talk to them because I feel like a lot of times
they feel like nobody’s paying attention…. I guess my goal for them, the ones with
behavior problems, is for them to see that they can and need to change their behaviors
and get them to realize that they can’t be like this all the time.
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Joyce spent additional time talking to these students about their future, including expectations in
middle and high school. She believed that with further support, students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems were able to change their behaviors. These interactions
between Joyce and a particular student also provided opportunities for the student to feel like
they were being heard, recognized, and appreciated by an empathetic adult.
Elizabeth shared similar feelings as Joyce:
I want them to try their best. I want them to better understand the classroom setting. I try
and get them to figure out how to relate to others and be a part of the class. I want them
to feel connected and have friends. It may mean that I need to help them find the right
buddy to sit with or play with, but it’s important to set them up for success so they can
feel more like a part of the class.
Elizabeth understood that students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems
often need additional support and she was willing to reflect on what interventions would provide
opportunities for the child to succeed. She tried to create a learning environment where all
students felt accepted and able to learn.
Communication with parents or primary caregiver. Three of the five participating
teachers spoke about the importance of routine communication with parents or primary
caregivers of students with emotional and behavioral problems. The participating teachers
indicated that having such support was vital for program success. Regular contact with parents
or primary caregivers is a key element in an interventionist belief system (Jordan & Stanovich,
2001; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Peg stressed the importance of “maintaining daily contact
with parents” and mentioned that everyday she either makes phone calls or constructs emails to
parents or primary caregivers of students with emotional and behavioral problems. She spoke
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about the importance of such adults knowing what their child was working on at school, both
academically and behaviorally “with the hopes that they [parents or primary caregiver] could
help their child with the same things at home.” Peg deemed continuity between school and home
as an important factor to promote students’ success. To Peg, it was important that the child be
able to focus on adjusting targeted behaviors both at school and home, while also informing the
parents or primary caregiver of the child’s academic needs. This demonstrated an incremental
belief system in which there was firm understanding that a student’s ability is malleable and
influenced by learning both at school and home (Jordan et al., 2010).
Joyce also expressed her desire for constant communication between home and school.
She credited much of her success in working with students with emotional and behavioral
problems to her efforts to talk with parents or primary caregivers on a consistent basis. She
asserted:
It’s about getting parents to be there with you. There is just so many of them [parents or
primary caregivers] who, they hear it in kindergarten, they hear it in first grade, they hear
it in second grade, it’s the same kind of behaviors. Yet some of the parents will simply
say, “Well, that’s just how he is.” Well, no, his behaviors are out of control. I think it is
important to guide parents on how to help at home. If the parents become more willing to
keep them on a schedule similar to school, keep them going on similar rules, then it
becomes easier for the child to understand school rules. You just have to keep
communicating. Always keep the lines open.
Joyce felt inclined to support parents or primary caregivers in understanding their child’s
behaviors and assist in establishing a routine schedule consisting of common rules between
school and home. Frequent open communication between school and home was considered a
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necessary element in supporting the needs of a student with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems.
Elizabeth also spoke about the importance of parental communication with the goal that
the child’s school and home can support each other. She purported, “Parent support is huge for
success. Without it sometimes it feels like you go two steps forward at school and then they take
one step back at home.” She said that consistent communication provides opportunities to help
parents establish similar routines at home as their child experiences at school.
Frequent communication between school and home was considered a necessary element
in supporting the needs of a student with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
Teachers who spoke of such importance maintained an interventionist belief system where they
affirmed that these particular students are capable of learning if given appropriate supports
(Jordan & Stanovich, 2001; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Considering that children spend the
majority of their waking moments with their teacher or parent/primary caregiver, routine
communication, consistent expectations, and firm understanding of the child’s needs becomes
imperative for promoting opportunities for success.
Pre-Service Training Experience
Pre-service training programs are formal training programs designed to teach future
teachers the content knowledge and skills necessary to support the learning and social needs of
students in a school setting. Research studies have found that successful pre-service training
programs can influence teachers’ behaviors as to whether they implement best practice
methodology for students with emotional and behavioral problems (Alvarez, 2007; O’Neill &
Stephenson, 2012; Rathel et al., 2008; Woodcock & Reupert, 2012). Studies have found that
explicit teaching on effective instructional strategies followed by routine practice of newly
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learned strategies can lead to increased teacher engagement with students who suffer from
emotional and behavioral problems (Rathel et al., 2008), enhanced teacher ability to identify root
causes of students’ behavior, and increased teacher knowledge of appropriate instructional
strategies to implement based on the specific need (Broomfield, 2006). Such practice has also
been found to increase teachers’ confidence in their use of effective instructional strategies for
these particular students (O’Neill & Stephenson, 2012). Despite evidence suggesting the
positive benefits of effective pre-service training, additional studies have found that many
beginning teachers report feeling inadequately trained to work with students with emotional and
behavioral problems (Atici, 2007; Giallo & Little, 2003). Although the five participating
teachers did mention some positive aspects of their pre-service training, in particular their
exposure to students with emotional and behavioral problems during their student teaching
experience, similar to previous research findings, they also felt that their programs did not
adequately prepare them to work with students with emotional and behavioral problems. All five
participating teachers completed similar pre-service programs as required by the state in
preparing them to become general education teachers with a multiple-subject credential. While
talking about her pre-service program, Joyce lamented:
I only had one class that I had to take, and it was more about how to identify special
education students. But it was only one quarter…so it seemed really fast. But again, it
was only about the process of how to identify, never how to actually work with these
kinds of students…. They [instructors in pre-service programs] don’t get specific on how
to work with these students, like what kinds of strategies we can use with them.
Joyce felt that her pre-service program did not provide her with necessary instruction on
effective strategies to meet the learning needs of student with emotional and behavioral
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problems. This is in alignment with past research indicating that teachers often do not feel
adequately prepared to support the learning needs of these particular students following their pre-
service experience (Atici, 2007; Giallo & Little, 2003).
Peg had a similar experience. She recalled, “The only time they [students with emotional
and behavioral problems] were addressed was during my one special education class that I had to
take.” She went on to express her frustration with the lack of training she received during her
pre-service program: “They just didn’t prepare me to work with these types of students. I kind of
had to figure it out on my own.” Peg felt frustrated by the lack of instruction she received for
how to best support students with emotional and behavioral problems. She felt inclined to take it
upon herself to discover best practice for these particular students.
Elizabeth shared that her pre-service program placed more emphasis on effective
instructional strategies for English Language Learners (ELL). She recalled that the one required
course she did take during her pre-service training that addressed issues related to students with
emotional and behavioral problems was “all based more on theory, not on what to actually to do
with these students.” The pre-service instruction Elizabeth received regarding students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems was more focused on theory and less on
content that was more applicable for her teaching practice. The lack of germane instruction on
effective instructional strategies for students with emotional and behavioral problems resulted in
many teachers’ feelings of frustration and inadequacies on how to best support the learning needs
of these particular students.
Anne also expressed her desire for more guidance during her pre-service training on how
to work with students with emotional and behavioral problems:
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I would have liked more practical application. I think what we learned was a kind of
general love- love all of your students equally, treat everyone fairly. We didn’t get a lot
of scenarios that we could have brainstormed together, like what if you have a child that
refuses to do any of their work and is having a tantrum in the class. Those kinds of things
would have been helpful to talk about beforehand.
Anne felt that her pre-service experience did not provide her with specific, concrete strategies
applicable to the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. Rather, she
recalled her training program to be more general and universal for all types of learners.
Lynn had more difficulty recalling her specific course work during her pre-service
program. However, she did remember having one student during her first year of teaching that
struggled with emotional problems. She remembered it being a difficult time period stating:
I cried a lot. I didn’t know what to do with him…. I feel like they [instructors in pre-
service programs] don’t prepare us for these kids. I don’t think we’re prepared for them,
especially when you have 27 other kids in your class.
Similar to her colleagues, Lynn felt like she was inadequately prepared to work with students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. She found this insufficiency to be
incredibly challenging and overwhelming, especially given she had others students in her
classroom with unique needs of their own.
Although most of the teachers expressed their frustration with their lack of knowledge
and skills gained from their pre-service coursework, three participating teachers did speak
positively about their student teaching experience. They all stated that their student teaching
experience exposed them to students with emotional and behavioral problems and allowed them
to observe their master teachers implementing various strategies to support these students’ needs.
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The three participating teachers discussed how the experience also permitted them to practice
various strategies and learn how to modify instruction based on individual student needs. For
example, Joyce recalled her student teaching experience to be one of the most beneficial aspects
of her pre-service program in regards to supporting students with emotional and behavioral
problems stating, “I liked being in the classroom. It was more hands on.” She did share that she
wished her program provided additional opportunities for her to observe in the classroom and
practice skills she learned while watching more expert teachers.
Peg fulfilled her student teaching hours by being a long-term substitute teacher in a self-
contained classroom. She recalled her master teacher coming in periodically to observe and
provide feedback, but for the majority of the time she was on her own. She said that when her
master teacher did come into the classroom, she would provide Peg with some helpful ideas that
Peg would implement the following day. Peg credited her initial work in a self-contained
classroom as being very beneficial admitting, “Being in a self-contained classroom allowed me
to learn how to make modifications and what strategies worked for which kids.” Having
exposure to and experience with students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems proved beneficial for Peg. Though feeling challenged at times, Peg was supported by
her master teacher and gained insight into effective instructional strategies by way of a more
expert teacher.
Anne endorsed her student teaching experience, crediting that portion of her pre-service
experience as being the most beneficial to her current practice with students with emotional and
behavioral problems. She declared:
Definitely the student teaching part of my program was useful. I mean that was probably
the most helpful in terms of actually learning what to do. I know I’m sure we talked
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about it in class and I do remember there were a couple of times when they gave us kind
of like a case study and we went over it. Those were helpful, but I think student teaching
was more helpful cause you could practice what you learned.
All five participating teachers believed that their pre-service training experience did not
provide them with applicable knowledge and skills on how to best support the learning needs of
students with emotional and behavioral problems. This created frustration and forced the
teachers to discover best practice for these particular students on their own or through discussion
with more experienced teachers. Despite the overall sense of dissatisfaction in the applicable
content of their pre-service programs, many teachers expressed appreciation for their student
teaching experience. Many admitted that it was not until they were physically in the classroom,
learning under a more experienced teacher, that they actually learned strategies that best support
the learning needs of these particular students.
Professional Development Experience
Professional development can be defined as formal classes and training programs focused
on the enhancement and development of a teacher’s professional skills (Elmore, 2002).
Evidence suggests on-going professional development programs are necessary in maintaining
high quality teachers who continually implement effective instructional practices on a daily basis
(Adams, 2010; Koppich & Rigby, 2009). Given this notion, it was originally hypothesized that
the five participating teachers who were identified as successful in working with students with
emotional and behavioral problems would have some level of experience and on-going
commitment to professional development endeavors. However, the results from this study
indicated that the participating teachers did not consider on-going professional development as a
major factor that influenced their behaviors when implementing effective instructional strategies
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to support the learning needs of these particular students. At the time of data collection, only one
of the five teachers was engaged in a professional development course, while a second teacher
had just recently attended a training program. Lynn was attending bi-monthly training on a new
writing program the school hoped to adopt the following year. Joyce just recently attended a
class discussing the topic of girls who bully and how to positively redirect their behaviors. Joyce
and Anne have both attended trainings on how to perform therapeutic holds on students who lose
control of their own behaviors. Elizabeth shared that most of her professional development
experience focused on topics surrounding ELL and Gifted and Talented Education (GATE)
students.
Joyce, Elizabeth, and Lynn expressed a desire to attend professional development courses
focused on best practice for students with emotional and behavioral problems. All three teachers
admitted to rarely hearing of programs being offered that focus on such particular topics. Joyce
stated, “I don’t see many trainings, I just don’t see a lot of classes on how to work with
behavioral students…. It’s once in awhile, rare conferences that you find one.” Elizabeth also
shared that she does not often hear of professional development programs targeted at best
practice for students with emotional and behavioral issues. She commented, “I hear way more
about training on ELL, GATE, and how to integrate technology.” All three teachers admitted
that if they were given the opportunity to attend professional development pertaining to students
with emotional and behavioral issues, they would “definitely go.”
Prior Personal Experience
After close analysis of the data, it became evident that many participating teachers also
attributed some of their success in working with students with emotional and behavioral
problems to prior exposure of someone who suffered from such challenges. Two teachers shared
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that they had either a close family member or friend who had emotional and/or behavioral
challenges, while two teachers spoke about their prior work experience with these particular
children before they became teachers. All four teachers admitted that their personal experience
impacted their current practice in unique and powerful ways. For example, Joyce shared that
both her brothers had Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and “were always getting into trouble at
school.” She lamented that her oldest brother was not diagnosed until 17 years of age, which
sadden her because she still wonders if he could have had a different schooling experience had
he received appropriate supports. She admitted that having two brothers who struggled with
behavioral issues throughout their lives made her “a lot more patient with these types of kids…. I
think I have a really high tolerance for them.” Prior personal exposure allowed Joyce to better
understand possible behaviors that may be associated with an emotional and/or behavioral
challenge these particular students may be facing. Through such exposure and understanding,
Joyce was able to foster a personal sense of patience and forbearance for these particular students
that supports her current practice.
Elizabeth spoke about the personal impact her own children have had on her. She shared
that her two children each had a very close friend with special needs. Through tear-filled eyes,
she admitted that by observing and listening to her own children and how they interacted with
their friends with special needs, she learned “more about patience and love” and how “everyone
has a special gift.” She shared that her children’s friends who had special needs each had a
unique gift and was able to use that gift in positive, healthy ways. This experience inspired
Elizabeth to search for special gifts in everyone and encourage her students to use their gifts to
enhance their lives. She shared the following story:
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There was this boy once, who was kicked out of the neighboring school so he came to
Sunny Basin. It was really hard to reach him, but I noticed that every time I saw him on
the field, playing some sort of sport, he really lit up. Because of budget cuts, I had to
teach my kids P.E. that year and he was a superstar. It made me realize that each child
has a gift, something that they are really good at and when we [teachers] tap into that one
thing, the child is more likely to stay at school and engage in school. He inspired me to
create the Sunny Basin Olympic Games that year. They still go on every spring. Kids
need something to make them feel good. We [teachers] need to connect them to school
and we can by finding what they are good at and expand upon it. I saw him at his high
school graduation last year. I found him after the ceremony and told him how he inspired
me to create the Olympic games and how they are still going on today.
Elizabeth paused for a moment, dabbed the corner of her eyes with her finger, and said, “A boy,
who another school gave up on, was able to graduate and inspire a teacher to begin a program
that is still honored today. Pretty amazing boy.” Upon witnessing her sons’ patience and love
for their friends with disabilities, Elizabeth changed her perspective of these particular students
and discovered a new appreciation for their abilities. She fostered this idea and was able to
develop a program that highlights people’s abilities or unique gifts. Elizabeth was transformed
through her experience with children with disabilities and applied her growth mindset when she
developed her teaching practice.
Peg and Anne shared that their professional experience with children with emotional and
behavioral problems prior to teaching positively impacted their current practice. Before she
began teaching, Peg worked at a juvenile detention center where she learned several
interventions aimed at supporting the social and emotional needs of youth, many of whom
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suffered from varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. Peg spoke very positively of
the experience and admitted that her professional experience at a juvenile detention center
impacted her teaching practice. She stated:
It has helped me to help my students to understand that you can control what you can
control. You can control your learning, you can take control of your learning. You may
not be able to control whether you are being raised by your grandma or mom and dad are
in jail, but you can control your learning.
Through her prior experience, Peg gained a better understanding of how to foster in children the
sense that they can learn and it is in their control to contribute to their learning process. Peg
understood that incidents outside the child’s control can create barriers; however, none too great
to restrict him or her from learning.
Anne credited some of her success in working with students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems to her prior professional experience as a behavioral
interventionist working with children in their home setting. She stated:
Well, I think it [knowledge of effective strategies] is probably due somewhat to my
behavioral intervention experience because I did that for a couple years and that was
specifically working with kids that had behavioral needs. It taught me to look at the
function of the behavior and the antecedents of what was going on. I think it just gave
me a broader perspective of the kinds of behaviors that are out there and why they are
occurring, instead of just looking at it, you know, like there is something wrong with this
child or there must be something wrong with the way the parents are raising him, you
know…. It’s something that makes the person who they are and so, we have to address
that in just a different way. I think that kind of helped my perspective a lot and gave me
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strategies on how to target problem behaviors and work for a solution. It’s about giving
children an alternative way to respond to behaviors.
Anne’s prior experience helped her understand factors that may cause a child to act in a certain
way and appropriate strategies to assist the child to act in a more appropriate manner. It revealed
that despite challenges in the child’s environment, he or she is capable of learning appropriate,
profitable behaviors, and Anne can help the child learn such behaviors.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
The second research questions sought to discover what factors teacher perceived to
influence their behaviors in implementing effective instructional strategies for students with
emotional and behavioral problems. Findings from the data indicated that teachers perceived
school norm to be a major factor influencing their behaviors. In particular, themes from the data
revealed three prominent areas of school norm that were chiefly impactful on teachers’
behaviors: (a) the school’s recent adoption of a SWPBS system, (b) routine discussion about
effective instructional strategies among teachers and administrators, and (c) positive
administrative support for professional development.
Data also indicated that teachers’ beliefs about the abilities and disabilities of students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems had a significant impact on their
teaching practice. It was apparent that the five participating teachers maintained an
interventionist and incremental belief system, which caused them to firmly believe that these
particular students had the ability to learn and it was up to the teachers and administrators at the
school site to provide them with the supports necessary. This was evident in the teachers’
expectation of the students’ ability to learn, expectation of themselves and what they needed to
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do to support these students, and how much they valued open communication with students’
parents or primary caregivers.
Additionally, data from this study was in alignment with previous research findings
indicating that general education teachers felt that their pre-service programs did not fully
prepare them to work with students with emotional and behavioral problems (Atici, 2007; Giallo
and Little, 2003). Although the participating teachers indicated that they did not feel well
prepared to teach these particular students after completing their coursework, three teachers
shared that their student teaching experience was most beneficial in providing them with
increased knowledge of various strategies and opportunities to practice such strategies.
Furthermore, data revealed that the five participating teachers did not perceive on-going
professional development courses to be very influential in guiding their current practice as many
of them were not currently attending, nor recently attended classes focused on best practice for
students with emotional and behavioral problems. Many teachers indicated that they did not
frequently hear about professional development courses focused on students with emotional and
behavioral problems, while three teachers stated they would attend professional development
courses on topics pertaining to these particular students if they heard of such offerings.
Finally, it was evident that teachers believed their prior experience with individuals with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems, whether personal or professional,
influenced their current teaching behaviors. Teachers admitted that such exposure taught them
skills and strategies they continue to use in their everyday practice.
Research Question 3: Where Teachers Learn Effective Instructional Strategies
The primary purpose of the third and final research question was to reveal where
teachers, who were identified by their administration as successful in implementing effective
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instructional strategies to support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional
and behavioral problems learned these particular strategies. Observations and interviews
revealed that all participating teachers routinely implemented instructional strategies that have
been shown through empirical studies to be effective in supporting the learning needs of students
with emotional and behavioral problems. These instructional strategies included, increased
opportunities to respond (OTR), curricular modifications, and specific praise statements
(Fullerton et al., 2009; Kern et al., 2001a; Sutherland et al., 2003). Additionally, the
participating teachers utilized an universal behavior management program based on the
principles of SWPBS, a system that has been found through empirical research to be beneficial
for students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems (Bohanon et al., 2006;
Netzel & Eber, 2003; Warren et al., 2006). In order for this study’s findings to be instructive, it
was necessary to discover where successful teachers learned such effective instructional
strategies. Two major themes emerged from the data: (a) teachers learned effective strategies at
their current job location through identifying human resources on campus and actively seeking
their advice and (b) teachers learned effective strategies in their own classrooms through the
process of trial and error.
Teachers Identify Human Resources on Campus and Actively Seeking Their Advice
Several teachers spoke about how they are constantly learning new strategies by talking
with each other and observing in one another’s classroom. Lynn acknowledged that although
she has been teaching for many years, she continued to seek guidance from her fellow
colleagues. She stated:
I mean, I’ve taught for 17 years, but I’m always going into Amanda’s classroom asking,
“What are you doing?” and thinking, “How is she doing it differently?” That’s a good
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way to do it. That’s the way I have learned so many new things. Some things I do
differently, but many things I do the same as what I saw in her classroom.
Though Lynn had been teaching for quite some time, she actively sought out ideas from other
skilled teachers and experimented with the newly learned strategies within her own classroom.
Anne and Elizabeth both spoke about how they often meet with teachers who had their
current student(s) the previous year and inquire as to what strategies worked for each particular
child. Elizabeth talked about how she does “not want to reinvent the wheel,” and if a specific
strategy worked for the child the year before, then she felt it necessary to try the strategy again.
She disclosed, “I’ve learned a lot by just asking the grade below me how they handled the child
all last year.” Anne discussed similar experiences stating, “I feel very comfortable going to the
second grade and asking for advice. Sometimes they tell me new strategies or give me new ideas
that I didn’t think of before.” Both teachers believed that the teacher who had their students
previously was a fruitful resource with ideas based on their experience working with these
particular students. They actively sought out the teacher’s advice on how to best meet the
learning needs of students and attempted to incorporate his or her suggestions into their current
practice.
Peg was observed asking two colleagues during her lunch break what strategies they were
using for a particular child in her grade-level who was recently caught cheating and forging his
parent’s signature on graded assessments. Each teacher shared the specific strategy they were
using. Peg listened and nodded her head in agreement as each teacher spoke. At the end of the
discussion, all three teachers agreed to meet with the student and his parents to create a
behavioral management plan that included specific rewards and consequences. The teachers
decided to meet and discuss this particular student’s progress at every lunch break for the
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remainder of the week. During the interview, Peg referenced this interaction between the three
teachers and informed me that these exchanges of ideas and strategies occur on a routine basis.
She stated, “It’s really helpful to talk with each other, learn from each other, and all be on the
same page in the end.” Such discussion amongst colleagues afforded teachers opportunities to
share ideas and learn from one another.
Joyce spoke about how she learned a great deal from consulting with her principal. She
stated that she and the principal meet often and talk about various strategies for different
students. After each meeting, Joyce returned to her classroom and implemented the newly
learned strategy. She admitted that “often they don’t work,” but stated, “I will do my best to
remember the strategy in case it might work better with another child in the future.” Principals
and other administrators can be considered resources with whom teachers can consult. Often
times, they have had experience working with these particular students and have a large
repertoire of effective instructional strategies they have used in past.
Both Anne and Joyce endorsed a school-wide communication system where every
teacher at the end of the year writes notes about the students they had all year. Joyce described
the system as follows:
At the end of the year we fill out these little cards, and on the cards the teacher will
always write comments like, “Needs to sit alone,” so we have on the card ideas about the
child and the environment, like what works best for the child. That’s been really helpful.
Teachers who have worked with a particular student may have noteworthy suggestions as to
what interventions did and did not work with that particular child. Though children can change a
great deal over an extended period of time (i.e., summer months), it can be deemed beneficial to
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consider suggestions from the teacher who taught the child the previous year and determine if
such strategies are still effective.
Process of Trial and Error
Many teachers disclosed that they learned effective strategies through the process of trial
and error. They would often be informed of a strategy another teacher was using or remember a
strategy they used in past and incorporate it into their current practice. If the teacher perceived
the strategy to be effective in supporting the learning needs of the student(s), they continued to
use it; however, if the teacher did not observe positive effects, they discounted its use and sought
an alternative strategy. Anne asserted:
I definitely feel like sometimes you just have to learn by fire, you know? You just jump
in and do it. If it doesn’t work, then you try something new. And you just keep trying
until you find something that works.
Peg shared that she often tried out strategies in her own classroom that she learned from
her colleagues. She admitted that sometimes “they don’t work, but you can always save them
and use them later on a different set of kids.” While the process of trial and error may feel
challenging at times, it can be an effective process in discovering successful strategies. Through
the process, participating teachers have ascertained what strategies were feasible for their style of
practice, while also valuable for the student(s) in need.
Both Elizabeth and Lynn admitted that they learned effective instructional strategies
through personal navigation of their own teaching experience. Lynn asserted:
A lot of it I have just had to figure out on my own. I try one thing and if it works I keep
it. Of course if it doesn’t work, I stop. But I’ll try it again later. Some things work with
some kids and not others. You’re their teacher and you just have to figure it out.
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Elizabeth shared similar feelings:
I’ve just kind of found my way. I’ve tried different things throughout the years. I use
what works and ditch the rest. With a severe case, I’ll bring it up in staff meeting and see
what people say. But for the most part, I have done a lot of figuring it out on my own.
Teachers often felt as though they were discovering effective strategies on their own
through the process of trial and error. During the progression, teachers became reflective on
their practice and determined what worked best for their current students, while striving to
remember possible strategies for future cases. As the students’ teacher, they felt inclined to exert
effort through the process of trial and error to discover most effective strategies applicable for
their practice and beneficial for their current students.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
The primary purpose of the third research question was for the researcher to discover
where teachers, who were successful in working with students with varying levels of emotional
and behavioral problems, learned effective strategies to support the learning needs of these
particular students. Close analysis of the data revealed that the participating teachers learned
most strategies by identifying on-site human resources and seeking their advice, as well as
through the process of trial and error in their personal teaching practice.
Summary
This chapter provided a description of the participating teachers and discussed the study’s
findings by research question. The results from the first research question indicated that the
participating teachers utilized research-based interventions that have been found to be effective
in supporting the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. These
strategies included OTR, positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular modifications
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(Jolivette et al., 2001; Kern, Lindsay et al., 1997; Kern, Delaney et al., 2001a; Sutherland et al,
2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001; Umbreit et al., 2004). The data also uncovered three
additional strategies all five participating teachers perceived to be effective with these particular
students. These included a school-wide behavioral management plan, verbal explanations for
redirections, and posting of weekly academic and social goals.
Results from the second research question indicated that teachers perceived school norm
and teacher beliefs to be primary factors influencing their teaching behaviors when working with
students with emotional and behavioral problems. The findings revealed that pre-service training
programs and on-going professional development courses did not have as much influence on
teachers’ behaviors as did school norm and their beliefs about students’ abilities and disabilities.
Finally, results from the third research question revealed that the participating teachers
believed they learned most strategies by identifying human resources on campus and seeking
their advice, and through the process of trial and error within their personal teaching practice. It
is important to consider the implications of these findings for informative purposes. To that end,
Chapter 5 will examine the implications of these results and provide suggestions for future
research in this area of study.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Research indicates that approximately 20% of our country’s children and adolescents
suffer from some level of an emotional and/or behavioral problem; however, only 25-35% of this
population have been formally identified and receive the supports necessary to meet their social,
emotional, and behavioral needs (Herman et al., 2009; New Freedom Commission on Mental
Heath, 2003). Although these findings have been reported to represent the national average,
additional evidence suggests that the prevalence rate of these particular students is even higher in
urban settings due to this populations’ exposure to increased rates of poverty and community-
based risk factors (McCurdy et al., 2003; Qi & Kaiser, 2003). Research indicates that symptoms
of emotional and behavioral disorders can significantly impact a child’s academic performance
(Herman et al., 2009; Maag & Reid, 2006; Owens et al., 2012; Ward et al., 2010). Students who
have such symptoms and do not receive appropriate interventions often experience lower grades,
higher absentee rates, higher dropout rates, lowered rates of future employment, and increased
participation in criminal activity (Lewinsohn et al., 2003; Pfeiffer & Reddy, 1998). Studies have
also found that symptoms of emotional and behavioral problems impact children’s behavior in
school (Valdez et al., 2011). Researchers have discovered that these symptoms are directly
related to students’ level of aggression and/or sense of loneliness and isolation resulting in
barriers to their academic attainment (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Valdez et al., 2011).
Additionally, studies have found that these particular students are less likely to participate in
class discussions and activities created to enhance their learning (Da Fonseca et al., 2008; Valdez
et al., 2011). Given the evidence that one in five students suffer from emotional and behavioral
problems, as well as the evidence that such problems can impact students’ academic functioning,
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it is imperative that general education teachers are well equipped with the skills and knowledge
necessary to support the learning needs of these particular students.
Purpose of the Study
General education teachers are being called upon to provide academically rigorous
instruction to emotionally and behaviorally heterogeneous classrooms. It is commonly known
that teachers are the primary implementers of social, emotional, and academic learning programs
within their classrooms (Brackett et al., 2012; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Evidence suggests
that students’ academic achievement can vary up to one full grade level based on whether they
are being taught by an effective teacher utilizing best practice methodology versus a less
effective teachers using outdated pedagogy (Erchul & Martens, 2010). The purpose of this study
was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of what influenced successful general education teachers
immersed in a school-wide positive behavioral support (SWPBS) environment to use effective
instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional
and behavioral problems. This group warrants attention due to the persistent population of
students who suffer from varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. As a result of
this fact, it is critical to examine teachers’ perceptions of which factors influenced their
successful behaviors and where they learned such effective instructional techniques.
This study sought to discover what a classroom looked like when a teacher was
implementing effective instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems. An additional objective of this study was to identify factors
teachers perceived to have influenced their successful behavior. The final aim of this study was
to discover where successful teachers learned effective instructional techniques. Previous studies
have examined which instructional strategies are most effective for students identified with
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Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance (EBD), what effects a SWPBS system can have on these
particular students’ learning, and teacher characteristics and school-related factors that predict
the effectiveness of general education teachers’ practice with these particular students included
in their classrooms. Little research has been done to investigate general education teachers’
perceptions of factors that influence their behavior to successfully implement effective
instructional strategies for students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
This study’s particular focus on (a) general education teachers immersed in a SWPBS
environment, (b) their perceptions of what influenced their successful implementation of
effective instructional strategies for these particular students, and (b) where these teachers
learned such strategies intended to fill the gap in literature and provide insight for current and
future teachers, administrators, and instructors of teacher education programs. The following
research questions guided this study:
1. What does it look like when primary general education teachers are implementing
effective strategies that support the learning needs of students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems?
2. What factors do primary general education teachers perceive to influence
implementation of effective strategies to meet the learning needs of students with
varying emotional and behavioral problems?
3. If primary general education teachers are implementing effective strategies to
support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems, where did these teachers learn such strategies?
A qualitative case study methodology was used for this study (Creswell, 2007). Data
collection occurred through teacher observations and interviews. Pseudonyms for the school
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site, teachers, principal, and students were created to ensure identity protection. All data was
collected and carefully coded for inductive analysis with attention focused on the proposed
themes outlined in the conceptual framework utilized for this study.
Summary of the Findings
Data collected through observations and interviews revealed what a classroom
environment looked like when teachers, who had been identified as successful in working with
students with varying emotional and behavioral problems were implementing effective
instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of these particular students. Additionally,
results from this study uncovered factors successful teachers perceived to influence their
behaviors. Finally, findings indicated where and how teachers learned about these instructional
strategies.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
Common interventions identified to support the learning needs of students with varying
levels of emotional and behavioral problems were observed in all five participating teachers’
classrooms. These interventions included: (a) opportunities to respond (OTR); (b) positive
teacher praise; (c) individualized curricular modifications; (d) use of a universal, school-wide
behavioral management program; (e) teacher explanations for why they redirected students’
behaviors; and (f) posting of weekly academic and/or social goals. The participating teachers’
use of OTRs, positive teacher praise, and individualized curricular modifications supports past
empirical research that has found these three interventions to be particularly effective for
students with emotional and behavioral problems (Jolivette et al., 2001; Kern et al., 1994; Kern
et al., 2001a; Sutherland et al, 2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001; Umbreit et al., 2004). The
remaining three strategies, implementation of a universal behavioral management program,
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teacher explanation for redirection of students’ behavior, and posting of academic and/or social
goals were commonly observed in all five participating teachers’ classrooms and identified by
each teacher as being effective with these particular students. Each teacher spoke about the
positive aspects of a universal behavioral management program, emphasizing how it created a
more consistent and predictable learning environment for students. Additionally, teachers
discussed how they have seen improvement in students’ motivation to follow school rules and
display appropriate classroom behaviors. Teachers also spoke about the importance of providing
explicit instruction on appropriate behaviors for students who struggle with emotional and
behavioral problems. This belief was carried out when teachers provided an explanation for
students’ redirected behaviors. With redirection, teachers would often provide a verbal
description of a more appropriate behavior. A final common thread observed throughout all five
classrooms was teachers’ postings of weekly academic and/or social goals. In each classroom,
the goals were displayed in an area where all students had visual access.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
Data from this study revealed that teachers perceived school norms and their personal
beliefs about a child’s ability and disability to be primary factors that influenced their teaching
behaviors. This finding was in accordance with what researchers in the Supporting Effective
Teaching (SET) project found (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). In regards to school norm, closer
analysis of this study’s data uncovered three key elements of which the teachers identified as
being particularly influential in sustaining their efforts in implementing effective strategies for
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. These key elements of
school norm included: implementation of a SWPBS system, routine discussion among teachers
and administrators, and administrative support for professional development.
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It was quite evident that all five participating teachers held interventionist and
incremental belief systems (Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Past research has
found that teachers who hold such beliefs are of the understanding that it is their responsibility to
work harder and longer with students with disabilities, provide appropriate accommodations to
meet the learning needs of these particular students, and maintain routine communication with
these students’ parents (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Data from interviews revealed that two of
the identified teachers had professional experience working with children and youth with
emotional and behavioral problems prior to teaching, and thus entered the field with predisposed
beliefs about these particular students. Joyce, the fifth grade teacher, worked at a juvenile
detention center, and Anne, the third grade teacher, worked as a behavioral interventionist
designing and implementing behavioral programs for children in their home and community
setting. They both chose to work with children with these particular problems immediately
following their undergraduate experiences; therefore, they entered the educational field with
predisposed beliefs about a student’s ability and disability and how it can influence learning.
Additionally, data revealed that two teachers held unique positions at Sunny Basin Elementary
School. Joyce, the first grade teacher, was hired by administrators at Sunny Basin to serve as the
school’s intervention specialists for one year. As a result of budget cuts, she returned to the first
grade classroom the following year. Lynn, the kindergarten teacher, was asked by the
administration to participate on the school’s SWPBS Committee. Due to both women’s
specialized positions, it can be assumed that they also had predisposed beliefs about students
with emotional and behavioral problems and their ability to learn with proper support. These
four teachers were unique in that many general education teachers often do not have similar
experiences working with children with emotional and behavioral problems prior to entering the
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education profession and/or do not fulfill specialized roles on school campuses focused on
providing specific supports for these particular students. These participating teachers had
predisposed beliefs about the abilities of students with emotional and behavioral problems that
most likely influenced their teaching practice.
In accordance with what researchers have found to be true with individuals who hold
interventionist and incremental belief systems, the participating teachers spoke about the
importance of implementing various interventions to support the learning needs of students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems (Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan,
2002). Many admitted that working with these particular students often takes more time and
effort requiring extra patience; however, all teachers felt that these students would benefit
socially and academically from such undertakings. Three of the five participating teachers spoke
about the value of regular communication with parents of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. They emphasized the importance of having parent support
to ensure continuity and program success.
It was originally hypothesized that pre-service training and on-going professional
development experience would also be factors teachers perceived to be influential in supporting
their implementation of effective instructional strategies for students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. Although the participating teachers did not believe both
factors to be heavily influential in sustaining their current teaching practice with these particular
students, teachers’ discussions did reveal additional information regarding pre-service training
and on-going professional development. It would be remiss of me to not discuss such factors as
the findings have the potential to be instructive for those designing pre-service and professional
development programs.
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First, all five participating teachers felt that their pre-service training programs did not
adequately prepare them to work with students with emotional and behavioral problems. Peg
and Joyce stated that they only had one class that briefly discussed how to identify students with
special education needs. Elizabeth recalled that her pre-service training focused more on
effective strategies to support the learning needs of English Language Learners (ELL) and stated
that she had one class on theories pertaining to emotional and behavioral issues. Several teachers
expressed their desire for more guidance on how to work with students with emotional and
behavioral problems. Joyce, Peg, and Anne praised their student teaching opportunities and
commented on how such experiences were most beneficial to their current work with students
with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. A delimitation to this finding was the
small sample size.
Secondly, only two of the five participating teachers were currently or recently engaged
in on-going professional development programs at the time interviews were conducted. Lynn
was attending a series of courses designed to support teachers in implementing a new writing
program, and Joyce just recently attended a class on how to redirect behavior of girls who
present bullying-type behaviors. Three of the five teachers shared that they had a desire to attend
professional development programs focused on issues pertaining to students with emotional and
behavioral problems; however, they expressed their frustration in their struggle to find such
available programs. Many teachers spoke about the abundance of professional development
programs focused on ELL, Gifted and Talented Education (GATE), and technology, while
lamenting about the dearth in programs focused on students with varying emotional and
behavioral problems. Once again, a delimitation to this finding was the small sample size.
Another delimitation to this finding was the fact that all participating teachers were from the
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same urban elementary school and thus receiving similar information regarding available
professional development programs.
Findings from this study revealed that teachers attributed some of their success in
working with students with emotional and behavioral problems to their previous exposure to
someone who suffered from such challenges. Two teachers shared that they had a close family
member and/or friend who suffered from emotional and behavioral challenges, while two
teachers stated that they had prior professional experience working with these particular children.
Previous exposure allowed teachers to gain a better understanding of these students’ unique
behaviors, their ability to succeed with proper interventions, and the importance of patience
when working with these particular children and youth.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 3
Teachers learned about various effective instructional strategies at their school site by
identifying resources on campus and actively seeking their advice, as well as in their classrooms
through the process of trial and error. Teacher collaboration amongst fellow colleagues, as well
as between teachers and school mental health counselors has shown to positively affect students’
academic achievement (Sink, 2008; Sparks, 2013). All of the participating teachers routinely
met with colleagues both formally and informally. Teachers had designated weekly meetings
with same grade-level teachers, monthly meetings with all grade-level teachers, and bi-yearly
meetings with teachers from the grade-level below and grade-level above their current grade.
During the meetings, teachers shared strategies they implemented and sought suggestions from
other teachers. Teachers also met informally during recess, lunch, and after school to share
successes, frustrations, and to solicit advice from colleagues. Teachers also shared that they
actively seek guidance from their administrators, including the school principal and/or the
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resource teacher. Such alliance has provided teachers with fresh ideas of new strategies to use,
as well as additional supports in the classroom if deemed appropriate.
Many teachers disclosed that they learned effective instructional strategies through the
process of trial and error. Often teachers heard about a new strategy through discussions with
colleagues and would return to their individual classroom and attempt to implement the strategy
into their daily teaching repertoire. If the strategy proved effective with a particular student or
multiple students, the teacher would sustain usage of that particular strategy; however, if it
appeared to be ineffective, the teacher ceased implementation and preserved it for later use with
another student or group of students.
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study have implications for current and future teachers,
administrators, and designers of pre-service and professional development programs. The
following recommendations are intended to help teachers, administrators, schools, and
instructors of pre-service and professional development programs prepare teachers to support the
learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. It is
important to consider each recommendation as a fluid system where it is necessary to execute all
proposed steps together and with rigor. Creating a learning environment where teachers are
routinely implementing a system of strategies to support the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems is a very complex and challenging task because a large
determinant as to whether they enact such strategies is dependent on their beliefs about these
students’ abilities and disabilities in relation to their learning (Stanovich & Jordan, 2002).
Additionally, teachers’ behavior is influenced by their school’s principal, his or her beliefs about
students with disabilities, and the culture he or she establishes at the school as a reflection of
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such beliefs (Leithwood et al., 2004; Stanovich & Jordan, 1998). Although the implications for
practice will be discussed individually for descriptive purposes, it is important to note that I am
recommending that great effort be made by teachers, administrators, and teacher education
program designers to adopt the recommendations and consider the tasks as on-going steps that
must be implemented in unison to promote the likelihood of program success.
Teachers may find the evidence of the five effective instructional strategies to be
intriguing and consider adding such strategies as a comprehensive system where each are
implemented simultaneously. OTR (Sutherland et al, 2003; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001),
positive teacher praise (Sutherland et al., 2000), individualized curricular modifications (Kern et
al., 2001a), universal behavioral management plan (Lassen et al., 2006), and posting of weekly
academic and/or social goals are interventions that support the learning needs of students with
emotional and behavioral problems. It is important that teachers are made aware of such
strategies and how they should be implemented concurrently creating a supportive system of
instructional techniques. For example, when teachers are utilizing a universal behavioral
management program where appropriate behavior is rewarded and inappropriate behavior is
penalized, it is recommended that teachers provide positive teacher praise for suitable behaviors,
while also providing explanation for redirection of improper behaviors. It is also critical that
teachers are provided opportunities to practice such dynamic implementation. Pre-service
training courses and on-going professional development programs should be designed to
incorporate instruction on and exposure to such system of strategies. Additionally, teachers
should be afforded opportunities to collaborate with colleagues to discuss the process and result
of such implementation. While knowledge of and exposure to such strategies is a necessity for
implementation, an equally influential determinate as to whether such system of strategies are
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enacted are teachers’ beliefs about whether a child with emotional and behavioral problems has
the ability to learn if given the appropriate support.
Teachers need to be cognizant of their current beliefs about students’ abilities and
disabilities and strive towards adopting an interventionist and incremental belief system (Jordan
et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). It can be a very challenging and complex undertaking
to change teachers’ beliefs. Pre-service and professional development programs can provide
content and instructional activities that align with such belief systems. It should be noted that
influencing teachers’ beliefs is not an easy, nor always a successful endeavor. Some research
has found that teachers’ beliefs do not change as a result of their pre-service training (Tait &
Purdie, 2000). However, other studies have found that when teachers reflect on similarities and
difference between their beliefs and teacher education content and focus on the most appropriate
perspective that will result in student growth, their thinking and belief system can be revised
(Thomas, 2013). Additional studies have also found positive changes in teachers’ beliefs of
inclusion of students with disabilities after exposure to relevant course work pertaining to the
needs of these particular children and youth (Shade & Stewart, 2007; Shippen, Crites, Houchins,
Ramsey, & Simon, 2005) and field experience working with these unique individuals (Kim,
2010). Pre-service and professional development programs alone cannot move teachers’ beliefs
towards an interventionist and incremental belief system. Administrators also need to strive
towards adopting such a belief system and model behaviors associated with it.
Administrators have the capacity to shape the school’s learning culture through modeling,
communication, and providing access to resources such as professional development programs
(Leithwood, et al., 2004; Stanovich & Jordan, 1998). It is equally important that administrators
adopt an interventionist and incremental belief system and model such beliefs through their
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words and actions (Jordan et al., 2010; Stanovich & Jordan, 2002). Researcher have found that
principals have powerful and positive influences on teachers’ motivation, commitments, and
beliefs regarding the supportiveness of the school environment and in turn, these motivations and
beliefs have a considerable effect on teaching behaviors (Leithwood et al., 2004). Thus, it is
important that school administrators model and communicate the importance of supporting all
students’ needs. Additionally, they need to encourage teachers’ professional development and
growth and provide teachers access to programs focused on the needs of students with emotional
and behavioral problems. Furthermore, administrators should strive to make themselves
available for teachers to consult with when they are seeking support for students with emotional
and behavioral problems. Similar to changing teachers’ beliefs, the challenge and complexity of
altering principals’ beliefs is also quite significant. This implication is not given lightly and must
be recognized as a challenging task that requires great effort from administrators.
School norm is an integral factor influencing teachers’ behaviors. Teachers and
administrators should consider implementing a SWPBS system that meets the needs of their
student population. Universal behavior management systems allow for a consistent, predictable
learning environment where students are routinely reminded of important campus-wide
expectations. Researchers have found SWPBS systems that are implemented effectively foster a
more predictable learning environment, which ultimately can contribute to better student
outcomes (Lassen, et al., 2006; Luiselli, et al., 2005). In accordance with a key element of the
SWPBS system, it is important that the school adopts a universal reinforcement program for
expected behaviors, coupled with routine specific praise statements identifying positive
behaviors (Warren et al., 2006). Implementation of a SWPBS system can help teachers learn
more effective strategies for dealing with challenging behaviors both in and out of the classroom
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(Medley et al., 2008; Netzel & Eber, 2003; Warren et al., 2006). Once again, teachers’ beliefs
and behaviors must be considered when schools adopt a SWPBS system as, “failure to consider
those who implement the change will doom it [change] to failure” (Burns, 2007, p. 38).
Researchers have found that teachers who do not believe they are responsible for changing
students’ behaviors are less likely to implement classroom behavioral management plans that
guide students towards more appropriate behaviors (Brownell, Adams, Sindelar, Waldron, &
Vanhover, 2006). Studies also indicate that if teachers do not believe they are well equipped to
implement a new program, they are less likely to enact the change (Boardman, Arguelles,
Vaughn, Hughes, & Klinger, 2005). It is recommended that administrators make themselves
readily available to listen to teachers’ concerns regarding implementation so that they can
appropriately support them through professional development and learning communities, as well
as provide teachers time to make sense of a universal behavioral management plan and change
their instructional practice to meet the new requirements (Fuchs & Deshier, 2007).
Schools and districts should designate ample time for teachers and administrators to
collaborate and share ideas focused on the learning needs of students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. Meetings should include discussions of effective strategies
used both currently and in the past; interventions that have been deemed useful for specific
students, as well as the whole class; available professional development opportunities focused on
issues pertaining to students with emotional and behavioral problems; and latest research
findings related to these particular students. The designated time should be very focused and the
conversations should be targeted at the needs of these particular students.
Developers and instructors of general education pre-service programs need to integrate
explicit instruction on issues pertaining to students with emotional and behavioral problems.
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Important topics to address include, but are not limited to, how to identify antecedents, recognize
the behavior, distinguish empirical based effective instructional strategies, and implement such
strategies to support the learning needs of these particular students. It would also benefit
teachers in pre-service programs to have opportunities to practice such strategies during their
student teaching work. It became quite evident that there is a gap in this specific type of
instruction in general education pre-service programs. Evidence from this study corroborates
previous research with similar results (Atici, 2007; Giallo & Little, 2003). Therefore, it is
necessary for developers and instructors of general education pre-service programs to re-evaluate
current courses and integrate instruction on and practice of effective instructional strategies to
meet the learning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Finally, experts within the educational field need to create more professional
development programs focused on topics related to students with varying levels of emotional and
behavioral problems. Valuable, on-going professional development programs are necessary in
sustaining high quality teachers who routinely implement current, effective instructional
techniques (Adams, 2010; Koppich & Rigby, 2009). Specialists on the topic of issues related to
students with emotional and behavioral problems need to create training programs grounded in
empirical research that provide educators with the knowledge and resources to support the
unique learning needs of these particular students. Teachers and administrators would benefit
from increased opportunities to learn from experts and practice their newly learned knowledge
and skills.
Recommendations for Future Study
The findings from this study provided insight into what a general education classroom
looked like with teachers were implementing effective instructional strategies to support the
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 211

learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. The results
also revealed teachers’ perceptions of factors that influenced their behaviors to implement
effective interventions and where they learned such approaches. Several recommendations were
made based on the findings; however, many queries still remain. This section outlines four
recommendations for future study.
First, it would be informative to conduct more research on effective instructional
strategies for students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems who have not
been identified yet or their behaviors did not meet the specific requirements to receive special
education services, and thus are being educated in a general education classroom. Although this
study revealed six effective strategies that were being implemented by general education
teachers, it would be beneficial to ascertain additional strategies general education teachers could
use to expand upon their teaching repertoire. Much of the research that has been done thus far
has focused on students who have been identified with EBD and accordingly are receiving such
interventions as a result of specialized education programs. It would benefit the educational field
to know effective instructional strategies that can be implemented in general education
classrooms to support the learning needs of those who still suffer from some level of emotional
and behavioral problems. This is an important line of research because previous studies have
found that students who suffer from emotional and behavioral problems and do not receive
appropriate supports are more likely to suffer academically (Lewinsohn et al., 2003).
Implementing necessary supports for students with symptoms of emotional and behavioral
problems in general education classrooms can lead to improved opportunities for success at
school (Levitt et al., 2007).
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 212

Secondly, it would benefit the educational field to conduct more research on the effects
of exposure to curriculum in pre-service training programs focused on topics related to the needs
of students with emotional and behavioral problems and the impact it may have on teachers’
beliefs of these particular students. Previous research has investigated the impact of pre-service
training on teachers’ beliefs about including students with various forms of physical and
cognitive disabilities into general education classrooms (Kim, 2010; Shade & Stewart, 2007;
Shippen et al., 2005). However, little research has been done to investigate the effects of pre-
service training regarding best practices for students with emotional and behavioral problems,
and how such exposure may impact general education teacher beliefs regarding these particular
students. It is important to know the impact such curriculum may have on teacher beliefs to
ensure appropriate development of effective pre-service programs.
Thirdly, more research should be conducted to discover the relationship between varying
levels of professional development (e.g., one-hour workshops, ten day workshops, annual
workshops, biennial workshops) and student outcomes. Researchers have discovered that
effective professional development programs are essential in retaining high quality teaching in
classrooms (Adams, 2010; Koppich & Rigby, 2009). It is readily known that professional
development can be an expensive endeavor for schools and/or school districts. It would benefit
the educational community to discover the most effective level of professional development as it
relates to student outcomes. Once this knowledge is confirmed with empirical findings,
developers of professional development programs will be better able to create effective courses
while considering appropriate feasibility of such programs for schools.
Finally, it is recommended that further research be carried out to investigate possible
barriers impacting communication between organizations that provide professional development
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 213

programs focused on students with emotional and behavioral problems and the classroom
teachers they are intended to serve. When professional development programs become available,
it is imperative that classroom teachers are informed so they may be better able to attend such
programs. Teachers cannot participate in such programs without first knowing they exist. This
is an important line of research because by eliminating barriers and effectively communicating to
teachers, they become better informed of availability and more likely to attend.
Conclusion
This study aimed to discover general education teachers’ perceptions of factors that
influenced their behaviors to implement effective instructional strategies to support the learning
needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. An additional
objective of this study was to provide insight into what classrooms looked like when teachers
were implementing successful interventions and where teachers learned such strategies. The
findings suggested that teachers perceived school norm and their own personal beliefs of
students’ abilities as key factors guiding their behaviors. Teachers perceived their pre-service
training and professional development programs as less influential. Close analysis of the data
revealed that teachers were exposed to little or no instruction on best practice methodology for
these particular students during their pre-service training programs. Furthermore, it became
evident that teachers were unaware of opportunities for professional development programs
targeted at issues relevant to students with emotional and behavioral problems. This may be due
to the dearth of available programs and/or possible barriers between program instructors and
teachers. The participating teachers shared that they learned effective instructional strategies as a
result of on-site collaboration with colleagues and through the process of trial and error within
their own classrooms.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 214

The findings from this study are beneficial for current and future teachers, administrators,
and developers and instructors of pre-service training and professional development programs.
From this project, general education teachers can learn new effective instructional strategies that
support the learning needs of students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems.
These new strategies can be implemented into the daily routine of general education classrooms.
Administrators can profit from the understanding of how impactful school norm is on
influencing teachers’ behaviors to implement effective instructional strategies. Of particular
importance is increased opportunities for teachers to discuss effective instructional strategies
with each other, a universal behavioral management plan, and a sense of administrator support
regarding on-going professional development pertaining to topics surrounding students with
varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems. It was evident that the participating
teachers felt that their pre-service training programs did not provide sufficient instruction on best
practice methodology for these particular students. It is critical that developers and instructors of
general education pre-service programs critically analyze their current programs, and consider
opportunities to integrate curriculum pertaining to issues relevant to students with varying levels
of emotional and behavioral problems. Finally, teachers need to be made aware of and afforded
opportunities for current, effective professional development programs targeted at developing
teachers’ skills in working with these particular students. The participating teachers shared that
they were unaware of any opportunities for professional development targeted at this specific
population of students. It was beyond the scope of this project to investigate whether there was a
lack of communication between organizations offering such programs and the participating
teachers, if there was a scarcity in program availability, or if it was a combination of both
obstacles. The findings from this study should prompt professionals in the educational field to
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 215

examine the availability of such programs to ensure ample opportunities for teacher development
and growth in this particular area.
Roughly 20% of our country’s children and youth suffer from some level of emotional
and/or behavioral problem, yet only 25-35% of these students have been identified and receive
the supports necessary to best meet their learning needs (Herman et al., 2009; New Freedom
Commission on Mental Heath, 2003). The students who are not identified and/or their symptoms
do not meet the specific criteria required in order for them to qualify for special education
services are being educated in general education classrooms. As long as the population of
students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems exists, it is imperative that
our nation’s general education teachers have a solid foundation of knowledge of effective
instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of these particular students and know how to
implement such strategies. Additionally, it is important that professionals within the educational
field are aware of the factors teachers perceive to be influential in supporting their
implementation of effective strategies. Evidence suggests that proper implementation of
effective instructional strategies for students with symptoms of emotional and behavioral
problems can lead to greater school success and improved opportunities in the job market (Levitt
et al., 2007). Students who suffer from varying levels of emotional and behavioral problems and
are being taught in general education classrooms would be better supported by teachers who are
well equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to accommodate their learning needs.
They would also profit from administrators who know how to best support teachers in sustaining
their successful efforts. Finally, these particular students and the teachers who work with them
would benefit from experts who create pre-service training and professional development
programs that educate teachers on best practice. By working together, teachers, administrators,
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 216

and program developers can make a positive difference in the lives of students with emotional
and behavioral problems.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 217

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FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 230

Appendix A
Informed Consent to Participate in Study

Factors that Influence the Implementation of Effective Instructional Strategies Study

Voluntary Status: You are being invited to participate in a research study. You are being asked
to partake because you meet the prerequisites for participating in this study. These prerequisites
include graduation from a pre-service program and experience working with students with
emotional and behavioral problems. Your participation is voluntary which means you can
choose whether or not you want to participate and you may withdraw anytime without penalty.
Purpose: The purpose of this study is to gain insight into factors that influence general
education teachers to implement effective instructional strategies to support the learning needs of
students with emotional and behavioral problems.
Potential Risks: It is anticipated that you will not experience any risks for participating in the
interview.
Potential Benefits: Your response will help the researcher better understand what factors
influence general education teachers to implement effective instructional strategies to support the
leaning needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems. This insight may help
current and future educational professionals to know how they can best support general
education teachers work in emotionally and behaviorally heterogeneous classrooms.
Confidentiality: You comments and behaviors will be strictly confidential. I will not identify
you, or your organization by name.
Consent: I am aware that my participation in this study is completely voluntary. I am aware that
I may withdraw from this study at any point without penalty. I have read this form and
understand what it says. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand that
by signing this form I agree to participate in this study.

_______________________ ______________________ ______________
Participant’s name (printed) Participant’s signature Date

_______________________ _______________________ ______________
Researcher’s name (printed) Researcher’s signature Date

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 231

Appendix B
Interview Protocol: Factors that Influence the Implementation of Effective Instructional
Strategies

Interview Protocol: Current Teachers

Interviewer: _____________________________ Date: ____________

Interviewee: _____________________________

Job Title: ____________________ Phone: _______________________

Start Time: __________________ End Time: ____________________

Introduction:
Hi, my name is Alison Keller. I am a doctoral student at University of Southern California.
During this discussion, I am hoping to learn more about what influences general education
teachers’ use of effective practices to support the varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems displayed by their student population. Additionally, this study is designed to discover
where those teachers who are implementing strategies to support students’ varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems learned such strategies. The study’s ultimate goal is to
uncover what influences teachers to implement effective strategies and where they can best learn
such strategies. You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been
identified as someone who is successful in working with students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems. My study aims to learn more about what has influenced you
to implement effective instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of these particular
students.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. I have a consent form that
I would like for you to review. Please take a moment to read and sign it if you wish to proceed
with the interview.
I would like to tape record and take written notes of this interview to ensure an accurate record of
our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should take approximately 45-60 minutes. Do you have any questions?

____ I. Background Information
____ II. School Norm
____ III. Teacher Beliefs
____ IV. Pre-service Training
____ V. On-going Professional Development
____ VI. Other Influences

I. Background
I would like to begin by learning a bit about you, your professional experiences, and both your
personal and professional experiences with students with emotional and behavioral problems.
1. How long have you been teaching?
2. What brought you into the teaching profession?
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 232

3. Have you always taught in a general education classroom?
a. If not, in what other types of classrooms have you taught?
4. Prior to your pre-service or teacher-training program, did you have any personal
experience with someone who has suffered with emotional and/or behavioral problems?
An extreme form would be someone who has been identified with Emotional and
Behavioral Disturbances (EBD) (EBD is a condition characterized by one or more of the
following behavioral features persisting over a long period of time and to a marked
degree which negatively impacts educational performance: (a) an inability to learn that
cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (b) an inability to build or
maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teacher; (c) inappropriate
types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; (d) a general pervasive mood
of unhappiness or depression; and (e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
associated with personal or school problems (IDEA 300.8(c)(4))?
a. If so, how has this experience impacted your professional practice in supporting
students with emotional and behavioral problems?

II. School Norm
Now I would like to ask you some questions about your current school environment, including
the leadership at your school and your interactions with fellow teachers.
5. How often does the administration discuss factors relating to the learning needs of
students with emotional and behavioral problems?
a. Can you give me some examples to what the discussions may look like?
b. How often do they discuss the topic to you personally?
6. Does you administration provide you with information regarding possible professional
development opportunities?
a. If so, how often?
7. Do you and your colleagues collaborate and support each other in implementing
instructional strategies that support the learning needs of other students?
a. How often do you discuss the topic of best practices for students with emotional
and behavioral problems with your fellow teachers?
b. Can you give me some examples of what you discuss?
8. To your knowledge, do your colleagues seek out resources such as professional
development and/or research articles to gain knowledge in how to support the learning
needs of students with emotional and behavioral problems?
a. Can you provide me with some examples?

III. Teacher Beliefs
9. What is your approach to how you plan instruction with students with varying levels of
emotional and behavioral problems?
a. Can you give me some examples?
b. What would those examples look like in your classroom?
10. What do you see as your role with students with emotional and behavioral problems?
a. What are your goals/expectations for these particular students?
b. What are your goals/expectation for yourself when working with these students?

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 233

IV. Pre-service Program Information
I would like ask you some questions specific to your experience during your pre-service
program.
11. Tell me a little bit about your pre-service program.
12. What is your opinion of the quality of training you received during your pre-service
program on how to support students with varying levels of emotional and behavioral
problems?
a. If you felt as though the quality of your program was poor regarding this topic,
why do you think that is so?
b. If you felt it was an adequate program, what were some of the strengths of your
program?
i. Can you give me an example?
c. Did you have any coursework that specifically focused on the nature of emotional
and behavioral disabilities?
i. Can you give me an example?
13. During your student-teaching experience, were you exposed to any students who
displayed symptoms of emotional and behavioral disorders?
a. If so, how often?
b. What was your master teacher’s instructional approach for these students?

V. Professional Development and/or Continuing Education Courses
Next, I would to learn more about your experiences with any professional development and/or
continuing education programs.
14. Have you attended any professional development and/or continuing education programs
recently? (if participant answers “no”, skip to c)?
a. Can you give me some examples?
b. How has the professional development class(es) impacted your current
instructional practices?
i. Can you give me an example of something you learned in the professional
development class?
ii. What would it look like in your classroom?
c. What do you believe are some of the barriers to on-going professional
development attendance?
15. How does the administration support you in attending professional development courses?

VI. Other Influences
16. How does the fact that your school has implemented a School-wide Positive Behavior
Support system impact your teaching practice with students with emotional and
behavioral problems?
a. Can you give me an example of what this may look like in your classroom?
17. Why do you implement evidence-based strategies that support the learning needs of
students with emotional and behavioral problems into your instructional practice?
18. Where did you learn about such strategies?
19. Why do you continue to use evidence-based strategies in your instructional practice?
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 234

20. Is there anything else you would like to share with me at this time regarding your
instructional practice as it pertains to supporting students with emotional and behavioral
problems?

Thank you very much for your time.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 235

Appendix C

Observation Protocol: Factors that Influence the Implementation of Effective Instructional
Strategies

Observation Protocol: Current Teachers

Observer: _____________________________ Date: ____________

Observation Location: ____________________ Participant Code: ______________

Start Time: __________________ End Time: ____________________

Lesson Description: (What subject? Was it direct instruction, independent activity,
group activity, small group activity, or assessment?)

Description of room set-up: (What is the physical environment like? What kinds of
teacher and student behavior is the setting designed for? What objects, desk
arrangements, and resources are in the room?)

Materials in use: (What materials are present? Extra printouts? Alternative method of
communicating work?)

Participants: (Who is present? What are the general characteristics of the participants?)

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 236

Guiding
questions:
What
strategies
(i.e., OTR,
praise
statements,
modified
curriculum,
additional
time, copies
of lecture,
preferential
seating, etc.)
is the teacher
utilizing to
best support
the student(s)
with
emotional
and
behavioral
problems?

Observer’s notes:

Observer’s
comments:
How does the
student(s)
respond to
each
strategy?

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 237

How does the
teacher react
to the student
after the
student’s
response to
his/her
intervention?

How
frequently
does the
teacher
implement
strategies that
have been
identified to
support
student(s)
with
emotional
and
behavioral
problems?

Time:

Notes: Observer’s
comments:
FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHERS 238

Activities and
interactions:
(Were there any
unusual
activities or
interactions?
How did the
people interact
with one
another?)

Notes: Observer’s
comments:
Conversations:
(Were there any
unusual
conversations?
Were there any
relevant
conversations?)

Notes: Observer’s
comments:
Subtle factors:
(Were there any
informal and
unplanned
activities? Any
relevant
nonverbal
communications
such as dress?)

Notes: Observer’s
comments:
Researcher’s
behaviors:
(How was your
role affecting
the scene you
were
observing?)

Notes: Observer’s
comments:

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Asset Metadata

Creator Muraszewski, Alison K. (author)

Core Title Factors influencing general education teachers to implement effective strategies for students with emotional and behavioral problems

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/20/2015

Defense Date 02/17/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag effective instructional strategies,emotional and behavioral problems,increased opportunities to respond,individualized curricular modifications,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive teacher praise,school norm,school‐wide positive behavioral supports,SWPBS,teacher behaviors,teacher beliefs,universal behavioral management system

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crispen, Patrick (committee chair), Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), Slayton, Julie M. (committee member)

Creator Email alisonkeller4@yahoo.com,alkeller@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-540714

Unique identifier UC11297856

Identifier etd-Muraszewsk-3235.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-540714 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Muraszewsk-3235.pdf

Dmrecord 540714

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Muraszewski, Alison K.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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