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Academic coaching practices for students with learning disabilities and differences
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Academic coaching practices for students with learning disabilities and differences
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Content
Running head: ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 1
Academic Coaching Practices for Students with Learning Disabilities and Differences
by
Wayne A. Combs
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2015
Copyright 2015 Wayne A. Combs
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 2
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the director of the learning center for serving as my champion and
providing access to the learning center of this case study. I would like to thank the participants
of my study for their genuine commitment in supporting my efforts to understand the value and
significance of academic coaching in supporting students’ academic success. I would like to
acknowledge the amazing staff, academic coaches and students of the learning center who
demonstrate the power of kindness and collaborative learning on a daily basis.
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee for their patience in
helping me successfully navigate the evolution of my dissertation. I would like to thank my
fellow thematic group doctoral students for their support, feedback and friendship.
I would like to thank my mother and father for their life time of support and
encouragement in my efforts to transform and achieve in all my pursuits. I would like to thank
my family and friends for their patience and support during my prolonged absence from
engaging in their lives and milestones.
Lastly, and most importantly, I would like to thank Marvin Glover, my life partner and
best friend, for supporting me through this challenging and fulfilling journey now and forever.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 11
Significance of the Study 12
Limitations and Delimitations 13
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of the Study 15
Chapter Two: Literature Review 17
Institutional Setting 17
Personal Identity 22
Developing Strategies 26
Academic Support 31
Transition Theory 36
Theory Critique 39
Theory Implications 42
Academic Coaching 47
Summary 50
Chapter Three: Methodology 52
Site and Sample Selection 53
Pilot Study 55
Data Sources 55
Interviews 56
Focus Group 57
Observations 58
Documents 58
Data Collection 59
Interviews 59
Focus Group 60
Observations 61
Documents 62
Confidentiality 63
Data Analysis 63
Trustworthiness and Credibility 66
Timeline 67
Chapter Four: Results 68
Study Context 68
Academic Coaching 71
Findings 72
Theme 1: Foster an Environment of Shared Learning 73
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 4
Theme 2: Enhance Level of Social Supports 78
Category 1: Demonstrate value of supportive relationships 78
Category 2: Promote benefits of interdependence 82
Theme 3: Guide Attention Towards Wellness Principles 87
Category 1: Promote a work life balance approach 87
Category 2: Maintain awareness on personal health 91
Theme 4: Develop Ability to Achieve Results 95
Category 1: Foster commitment through understanding 96
Category 2: Leverage personal strengths to improve outlook 99
Category 3: Develop ways to manage the meaning of challenges 104
Category 4: Identify diverse resources to modify challenges 107
Summary 111
Chapter Five: Discussion 113
Overview of the Study 113
Summary of Findings 114
Strengths and Weaknesses 117
Study Implications 118
Future Research 120
Conclusion 122
References 124
Appendix A: Pilot Study 130
Appendix B: Research Design Matrix 154
Appendix C: Interview Protocol - Center Staff 155
Appendix D: Interview Protocol - Academic Coach 156
Appendix E: Interview Protocol - Student 157
Appendix F: Focus Group Protocol - Academic Coaches 158
Appendix G: Observation Protocol - Descriptions 159
Appendix H: Observation Protocol - Reflections 160
Appendix I: Table of Documents 161
Appendix J: Relationship Agreement 162
Appendix K: Learning Contract 163
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Profiles of Interview Participants 70
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 6
List of Figures
Figure A: Theoretical framework and research question 53
Figure B: Evolution of coding scheme with themes 65
Figure C: Learning center floor plan 69
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 7
Abstract
Postsecondary education has experienced a continual rise in students entering with
documented learning disabilities as a result of legislative and social change. As a result,
institutions are faced with the challenge of determining how to provide academic support
services to this growing student population. The research question for this study was to explore
the ways in which academic coaches enact their practices to support students’ transitions through
postsecondary education. The research design is an instrumental case study of the academic
coaching model at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and differences
within a large urban university. Staff, academic coaches and students were interviewed along
with observations of the coaching model, and document analysis of surveys and session notes to
gain an understanding of how academic coaching practices are delivered and received at the
learning center. Schlossberg’s transition theory provided a framework of four factors for
examining how individuals address change by taking stock of their situation, self, strategies and
support when addressing transitions. Ultimately, the findings extended beyond the framework of
transition theory to reveal academic coaching practices that support students’ learning strategies
by fostering a collaborative learning environment with a focus on building supportive
relationships, following principles of wellness, developing individual strengths and utilizing
diverse resources to achieve desired results. The results of these findings support academic
coaching as an important campus resource for guiding students through learning strategies that
can help them address the academic challenges of pursing a postsecondary education.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The research interest of this study is how postsecondary education institutions are
responding to the academic support needs of an increasing population of students with learning
disabilities and differences. Over the last 20 years, postsecondary education has experienced a
continual rise in students entering with documented learning disabilities (Skinner, 2007). This
demographic shift appears to be a product of legislative and social change. Recent advances in
legal protections and reform movements have resulted in more students with learning disabilities
pursuing higher education than ever before (Cook, Hennessey, Cook, & Rumrill, 2007). As a
result, institutions are faced with the challenge of determining how to provide programs and
services that can support these students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
This resource and services challenge can be even more difficult to navigate if students
with learning disabilities lack the self-advocacy skills necessary to access support, or if they do
not fit into traditional definitions of what it means to be learning disabled. Hadley (2011)
indicates that students with learning disabilities in high school are surrounded by support teams
that intervene on their behalf and ensure they are integrated into the learning environment.
However, students with learning disabilities entering postsecondary education are accountable
for registering with disability services and advocating for their academic support needs.
Additionally, as Cawthon and Cole (2010) note, students with learning disabilities may not
maximize their access to resources unless institutions promote the benefits of academic support
services. Therefore, even with a broad spectrum of programs, institutions have to consider how
disability services are communicated, delivered, and used by this student population.
Supporting the needs of students with learning disabilities and differences involves
members from across the campus community, including faculty, student affairs professionals,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 9
residential life advisors and academic administrators. Student needs include academic
accommodations, support services, adaptive technology and the need to apply concepts of
universal design to assist with the learning process (Raue & Lewis, 2011). The involvement of
disability services offices and campus learning centers should serve as valuable resources in
these efforts. However, as Marshak, Van Wieren, Ferrell, Swiss, and Dugan (2010) suggest, a
desire to avoid stigma or lack of knowledge can be reasons why students still do not request
accommodations or fully utilize academic support or other services. Thus, an institution’s ability
to promote support for students with learning disabilities and differences plays an important role
in student success in postsecondary education.
Background of the Problem
Advancements in legal protections and social movements to promote equity in accessing
education have resulted in a steady increase of students with disabilities pursuing higher
education (Cook et al., 2007; Raue & Lewis, 2011; Skinner, 2007). The U.S. Department of
Education reports that students with disabilities entering postsecondary education almost doubled
from 6% in 1992-93 to 11% in 2007-08 (National Center for Education Statistics, 1995, 2012).
Specifically, Raue and Lewis (2011), on behalf of the U.S. Department of Education, found that
49% of students with disabilities were associated with a specific learning disability, including
ADD/ADHD, attention deficit disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as opposed to
other physical or medical disabilities. In other words, one in every ten freshmen entering higher
education may be addressing a disability of which half of these students are most likely
experiencing a learning disability. Given these statistics, postsecondary institutions can evaluate
their ability to serve this expanding population based on an assessment of resources and number
of students in each freshmen class.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 10
A learning disability is defined as any disorder involving the ability to understand or
convey information due to an impairment of cognitive capabilities (Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act Amendments of 1997). In the postsecondary education environment, students
with disabilities are protected by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (A Guide to Disability Rights Laws, July 2009). However, there
are additional challenges faced by these students when transitioning through postsecondary
education without the guided processes and inherent support associated with high school.
Statement of the Problem
In reviewing the literature, many studies have been conducted on how institutions are
attempting to provide accommodations in the classroom to help students with registered
disabilities fulfill course requirements. However, this study focused on how institutions provide
academic support outside of the classroom to help students with learning differences and
students with learning disabilities successfully transition through postsecondary education and
achieve their academic goals. Four influential factors involving transitions emerged from the
literature as areas of concern that can have particular significance for students with learning
disabilities. The first area involved concerns over conditions within the institution which impact
how to respond to a new setting with more freedom and less structure (Denhart, 2008; Hadley,
2011; Murray, Flannery, & Wren, 2008; Skinner, 2004, 2007; Stodden, Brown, & Roberts,
2011). The second involved potential concerns over personal identity or disclosing one’s
disability status for obtaining necessary accommodations to successfully pursue a new academic
experience (Cook et al., 2007; Gobbo & Shmulsky, 2007; Hadley, 2011; Marshak, Van Wieren,
Ferrell, Swiss, & Dugan, 2010; Mytkowicz & Goss, 2012; Skinner, 2004). Next were concerns
over how best to develop strategies for communicating requests for disability accommodations
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 11
and academic support (Anctil, Ishikawa, & Scott, 2008; Barnard-Brak, Lechtenberger, & Lan,
2010; Connor, 2012; Cawthon & Cole, 2010; Hadley, 2011; Skinner, 2004). Finally, there were
concerns over how to develop supportive relationships with faculty, administrators and staff in
order to access the support necessary for academic achievement (Hartman-Hall & Haaga, 2002;
Hadley, 2011; Harris, Ho, Markle, & Wessel, 2011; Parker & Boutelle, 2009; Skinner, 2004;
Vogel, Fresko, & Wertheim, 2007).
To better understand the impact of these four areas of concerns, Schlossberg’s transition
theory provides a framework of four factors for examining how individuals address change by
taking stock of their situation, self, strategies and support (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002).
Prior success in dealing with transitions can help individuals develop new approaches for dealing
with change. However, students with learning disabilities may have less experience approaching
challenges independently due to the more structured support and guidance received in high
school. Therefore, student and academic affairs practitioners can use the principles of transition
theory to help students with learning disabilities and differences assess their ability and readiness
to handle change.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine how academic coaching practices are supporting
students’ transitions at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and
differences. This study applied the principles of qualitative research using inductive reasoning to
develop a rich understanding of the conditions that best inform purposeful action (Merriam,
2009). Multiple sources of data from interviews, observations and documents were collected,
organized and analyzed by the researcher into themes that can be continuously evaluated to form
a holistic view of factors which inform the research question (Creswell, 2009). A case study
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 12
provided a strategy for inquiry that focused on a comprehensive approach of examining and
collecting data on activities within a setting bounded by space, time and inherent processes
(Creswell, 2009). Therefore, identifying an information-rich research setting which provides
academic support while performing research to address the challenges of students with learning
disabilities and differences provided greater insights on this research topic.
Students with learning disabilities face many of the same challenges as all students
transitioning through postsecondary education such as how to engage faculty and integrate into
new social networks. However, the four areas of potential concern that emerged from the
literature review have particular significance for students with learning disabilities such as
concerns over a new institutional setting (situation), disclosing disability status (self),
communicating requests for academic support (strategies) and developing supportive
relationships (support). Regardless of one’s background, successfully navigating transitions
depends upon one’s ability to assess their personal strengths and weaknesses (Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2002). Academic coaching provides an approach that is both flexible and strategic
in addressing the support needs of each student including the challenges of handling transitions.
Therefore, the research question for this study will be to examine the ways that academic
coaches enact their particular practices to support students’ transitions through postsecondary
education at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and differences.
Significance of the Study
While many students face challenges in transitioning through postsecondary education,
results of this study can inform institutions on how to provide academic support that meets the
specific needs of students with learning disabilities and differences. Schlossberg’s transition
theory can be used to assess how institutions might address related issues such as campus climate
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 13
(situation), personal development (self), accessing accommodations (strategies) and identifying
resources (support). One outcome that was not achieved through this study was an opportunity
to further extend the application of transition theory related to the specific conditions faced by
postsecondary students.
Through these insights, institutions can develop new ways to expand academic support
programs and services to better serve students with learning disabilities and differences. An idea
for consideration could involve promoting equal access to academic coaching opportunities for
any student with a learning difference. As a result, student and academic affairs professionals
can assist students by recommending a range of strategies that extend their ability to engage in
productive learning while adjusting to the heightened social and academic expectations of
postsecondary education.
Limitations and Delimitations
Ultimately, as a case study, the research results provided potential recommendations for
other settings but may be limited by unique characteristics of the study’s setting and participants.
As part of data analysis, addressing the validity and reliability of qualitative research involves
considering threats throughout the research process (Maxwell, 2013). A strategy to address
threats was supported through triangulation by collecting information from interview participants
operating in different areas within the learning center, selecting different observation settings
within the center’s environment and reviewing multiple documents that illustrate the center’s
activities. The overall approach to triangulation was designed to validate data collected in
interviews, observations and documents on how academic coaching practices are performed to
support students’ transitions.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 14
Limitations involving the use of a case study are partially alleviated by using
pseudonyms so practitioners can interpret and extend the research findings to their own
institutional setting. Interview participants included staff who oversee the coordination of
services as well as the coaches who provide academic support in order to explore a broader range
of actions that might influence coaching practices. In addition, an opportunity to interview the
students who receive coaching services at the center was possible. Observations were conducted
in multiple settings that provided insights into the development and delivery of academic
coaching. These sources of data, along with relevant documents, were analyzed to extend the
research by contributing to a comprehensive view of how academic coaching practices are
delivered to support students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Definition of Terms
Academic coaching – coaches and students engage in a partnership for the purpose of exploring
the process of learning. They work collaboratively to examine approaches to learning, studying
and working in order to identify and/or develop methods for addressing challenges and obstacles
to academic success (What is Academic Coaching, August 2014).
Disability – The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) defines an individual with a disability
as a person who is diminished in capacity by a physical or mental deficiency that has a
significant impact on their ability to engage in one or more major life endeavors (A Guide to
Disability Rights Laws, July 2009).
Learning difference – The unique ways an individual learns in relation to how they observe and
process information as influenced by their psychological, social and contextual circumstances
(Schwartz, Williams, & staff of the NYU Child Study Center, 2004).
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 15
Learning disability – Any disorder in one or more fundamental cognitive processes involved in
comprehending or expressing language, which may impair one’s ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell or perform mathematical functions (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Amendments of 1997).
Organization of the Study
The research method for this study was an intrinsic case study based on the principles of
qualitative design to develop a comprehensive view of data on the research topic. Inductive
reasoning was applied to develop a rich understanding of the conditions that best inform
purposeful action (Merriam, 2009). Multiple sources of data including interviews, observations
and documents were collected, organized and analyzed to develop themes that can be
continuously evaluated to form a comprehensive view of factors which can provide insights into
the research question (Creswell, 2009). Interviews involved staff, academic coaches and
students in the setting. Observations were conducted in settings where academic coaching
practices are conducted to support students’ transitions. Data from these interviews,
observations and documents were analyzed in-depth to explore the research topic and provide
information to support detailed findings.
To begin addressing the research question, a matrix was developed to keep track of the
relationships between the components of the research design, including the research questions,
goals, data and protocol of the case study (Maxwell, 2013). To identify appropriate interview
participants, the director of the center was approached as the gatekeeper capable of making
introductions and facilitating access. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the
participants who are actively engaged in defining, delivering and assessing academic coaching
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 16
practices. These interviews were accompanied by observations at the center’s facility and
settings involving the development and delivery of academic coaching practices.
The next chapter presents a survey of the literature that illustrates areas of concern for
students with learning disabilities followed by an examination of the principles of transition
theory. The final section explores academic coaching practices and assessment strategies that
further inform the organization of this study.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The following literature review considers studies that illustrate four areas of concern that
have particular significance for students with learning disabilities. This literature review will
focus on students with learning disabilities as less information was found that addresses the
specific concerns of students with learning differences pursuing a postsecondary education. The
first area involves concerns over how to integrate into a new institutional setting with more
freedom and less structure than high school. Next are concerns over personal identity and
whether to disclose one’s disability status as students attempt to pursue a new academic
experience without the stigma associated with their status. These two areas are followed by
concerns over how to develop strategies for requesting classroom accommodations and support.
The final area involves concerns over building relationships that can assist in accessing the
support necessary for academic achievement. These four areas of concern are examined in
relation to Schlossberg’s transition theory for taking stock of one’s situation, self, strategies and
support for handling change. In the last section, academic coaching and assessment methods are
considered as an approach for supporting students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Institutional Setting
In regards to institutional setting, students with learning disabilities express concerns over
the challenge of operating in a new institutional setting with more freedom and less of the
structured support associated with high school. As a concept of transition theory, this process
involves taking stock of the situation by considering one’s personal state and experience in
handling similar situations (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Consequently, students with
learning disabilities can remain more receptive to direction and less willing to independently
define their future academic or career direction without the confidence of receiving validation
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 18
from a person of assumed authority. They can experience considerable anxiety as they transition
to postsecondary education where they are required to independently engage with faculty and
take the initiative to explore social networks (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). As a result,
students with learning disabilities are challenged by many of the same concerns felt by all
incoming students entering a new institution setting but could be hindered by prior reliance on
structured support in high school. The following studies address student perceptions, faculty
presence and campus climate related to institutional setting.
The transition to postsecondary education can involve a more significant adjustment for
students with learning disabilities who are accustomed to a greater degree of institutional support
in addressing academic challenges and social dynamics. Denhart (2008) interviewed 11 students
with learning disabilities to explore their perceptions of barriers to achieving success in
postsecondary education and the ways in which they surmounted these challenges. Barriers
identified by students were derived primarily from issues related to managing their internal
perceptions while attempting to respond effectively to challenges in the environment. Themes
emerging from the study included assumptions regarding their cognitive ability to learn and
succeed academically as well as faculty assumptions of their limitations.
As part of the process for providing support, student assessments can be conducted to
identify appropriate academic support services. While the study participants were approved for
accommodations, Denhart’s (2008) findings revealed that they may not want to pursue these
requests. Explanations for avoiding requests included fear of being treated differently,
perception of not deserving an accommodation and concerns over being penalized through lower
grades. The majority of participants identified involvement by a learning specialist as significant
in facilitating connections with faculty to develop an understanding of the nature of their
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 19
workload. Community groups for students with learning disabilities were viewed as an
important resource for peer support. A limitation of this study is the lack of applicability across
the larger population of students with learning disabilities given the small number of study
participants. However, their perceptions contribute towards a greater understanding of the issues
that are experienced by these students and concurrent stresses inherent in the institutional setting.
Given these perceptions, faculty can fulfill an important role in the academic
achievement of students with learning disabilities. In Skinner’s (2007) survey comprising 253
faculty members at a mid-sized liberal arts institution, an issue communicated by faculty
involved the challenge of addressing the needs of an increasing number of students with
documented learning disabilities. The purpose of the study was to investigate the willingness of
postsecondary instructors to provide accommodations and course alternatives. Faculty responses
that were viewed as disinterested or unreceptive to requests for accommodations can diminish
the probability that students would push for appropriate and necessary academic adjustments. As
a result, an implication of the study was to develop programs to enhance self-advocacy skills for
students and knowledge of disability support requirements for faculty. In this way, a mutual
understanding could serve to facilitate productive interactions between students and faculty for
requesting and receiving accommodations.
If successfully applied, classroom accommodations and academic support help to
increase the probability of academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. Skinner
(2007) indicated that students who qualify and request course accommodations were more likely
to succeed in a postsecondary environment. Faculty willingness to provide academic
adjustments can be improved if they are provided with information on the justification for
providing accommodations so as not to be viewed as inequitable to other students. An organized
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 20
and resourced disability office was viewed as significant to the implementation of
accommodations given the sometimes complex nature of these requirements. Limitations of this
study involve the particular characteristics associated with teaching in a smaller more intimate
institutional setting and the ability to provide comprehensive disability services to a smaller
student population.
If faculty is expected to demonstrate support for students with learning disabilities, the
institutional environment should be examined for qualities which can best foster and value
diversity among students. After 10 years of collecting data on providing academic support
services for students with learning disabilities, Stodden, Brown, and Roberts (2011) discuss the
value of using climate assessment instruments as a means of collecting data to better understand
an institution’s response to providing accommodations for students with learning disabilities.
These assessments reveal insights into the effectiveness of existing programs and the need for
funding to support different types of services or to expand the provision of existing resources.
Hence, campus climate assessments can be used by administrators to become better
informed about the responsiveness of the institutional setting in supporting diverse student
learning needs. Stodden et al. (2011) suggest that climate assessments have the potential for
providing faculty with a better understanding of their own perceptions in responding to requests
for accommodations while enhancing both the teaching and learning experience for all students.
Administrators and students with learning disabilities can become aware of their own
assumptions of how accommodations should be applied in the learning environment. Through
this process of assessment, administrators, staff and faculty learn how well their institution
demonstrates a campus climate of inclusivity towards students with disabilities.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 21
In Murray, Flannery, and Wren’s (2008) survey of 300 staff with 70 respondents at a
university focused on the institution’s overall knowledge of learning disabilities and willingness
to provide accommodations. The purpose of their study was to assess the institution’s
knowledge of learning disabilities, willingness to provide accommodations and understanding of
available services. They explored a gap in prior research which examined faculty perceptions of
students, but little on staff members’ attitudes and perceptions. Their survey concluded that staff
generally had a positive attitude towards supporting students with learning disabilities and a
willingness to provide accommodations. However, a substantial number of respondents
indicated the need for training and professional development. Consequently, promoting the
alignment of institutional priorities regarding the needs of students with learning disabilities
involves educating staff on supportive strategies.
In summary, these studies suggest institution settings that promote a climate of
inclusiveness can help students with learning disabilities feel more comfortable engaging faculty
and administrators in a requesting assistance. As Hadley (2011) states, students with learning
disabilities are responsible for taking the initiative to register with the office of disability
services, request accommodations and seek support services. Skinner’s (2004) study involving
interviews of 20 college graduates with documented learning disabilities indicates that
registering with disabilities services and knowledge of one’s disability and associated
accommodation requirements were significant in achieving academic success in a postsecondary
education setting. Finally, institutional settings that promote disability services and awareness
along with positive interactions between faculty, students and administrators demonstrate a more
inclusive campus environment.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 22
Personal Identity
In considering one’s personal identity, students with learning disabilities can have
concerns over how they view themselves and the impact of revealing their disability status to
faculty and peers. In relation to transition theory, this process involves taking stock of self by
considering the impact of one’s background, level of self-confidence and acceptance of personal
identity (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Consequently, academic success can be highly
dependent on students’ willingness to accept their disability status and advocate for their
accommodation needs. Efforts to remain incognito can be a result of their wish to establish a
new identity separately from the special education programs and counselors associated with high
school.
This conflict between the desire to succeed academically and their emotional self-interest
to protect themselves against rejection and criticism prevents progress in developing attainable
goals (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). For students with learning disabilities, the process of
disclosure involves a heightened level of anxiety over social status or perceptions of their
condition and concern over how others view their learning disability. They have developed their
own assumptions on how they will be treated if they disclose their condition. They may be
unwilling to expose themselves in order to obtain necessary accommodations and support. The
proceeding studies address issues of identity that undermine efforts to access accommodations
and support services such as fear of stigma, skepticism over quality of support and lack of
confidence in faculty receptiveness.
Students with learning disabilities leaving the established support of home and high
school face challenges that are magnified by a desire to avoid disclosing their disability and
being treated differently, stigmatized or ignored. Marshak et al.’s (2010) study of 16 college
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 23
students with disabilities at a medium-sized public university revealed that identity issues were
the most prevalent reason for not engaging academically or seeking support services. This view
was further substantiated by study participants who expressed a desire to avoid negative social
reactions for receiving additional support, especially when a disability was not physically
apparent. They viewed their disability as unacceptable and did not want to integrate their
disability with their identity in an attempt to avoid negative social reactions. They saw college
as an opportunity to begin a new identity separate from the stigmatization they experienced in
high school. As a result, these students choose not to become aware of the available services that
could support their academic success or learn how to explain the nature of their disability and
required level of accommodation.
Consequently, institutions need to better understand how students with learning
disabilities view the merits and quality of campus services and policies in relation to disability
rights and accommodation. In Marshak et al.’s (2010) study, students with learning disabilities
needed to feel like they could operate independently and that college could provide an
opportunity to begin a new identity separate from the stigma they felt in high school. Marshak et
al. (2010) suggest coaching students with disabilities on how to explain their accommodation
requirements and creating a campus climate that values students with disabilities. They found
that most students did not fully utilize services and accommodations or initiate an effort to be
aware of services. Ultimately, the ability to locate and access support services can be as
important for students with disabilities as their willingness disclose their disability status and
approach faculty for accommodations.
Even when the institution promotes inclusion through the office of disability services,
student affairs and residential life, students with learning disabilities can still be reluctant to seek
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 24
academic support. In another study, Mytkowicz and Goss (2012) interviewed 14 undergraduates
with learning disabilities who had access to a campus support program involving faculty
mentorships. Participants valued the program for promoting a safe and caring climate,
supportive relationships with faculty and discourse on learning strategies. Results of the study
indicated that the participants developed qualities associated with empowerment as an outcome
of the campus program.
These qualities included self-efficacy, viewing one’s abilities through a focus on
strengths and enhanced learning strategies. Mytkowicz and Goss (2012) suggest that students
utilizing the program demonstrated higher levels of metacognition that enhanced their ability to
develop approaches for supporting their individual learning needs, fostering beneficial
relationships and promoting confidence in their ability to address challenging situations.
Institutions seeking to assist students with learning disabilities can consider campus support
programs that engage students in similar opportunities for transformative learning.
Accordingly, faculty has the potential to perform a significant role in promoting the
success of students with learning disabilities by demonstrating an approachable response to
requests for accommodations. In Cook, Hennessey, Cook, and Rumrill’s (2007) interviews of
six faculty, two office of disability services staff and one tutor at a public institution, concerns
were expressed over students with disabilities who avoid registering their status for accessing
accommodations that would enhance their academic performance. Faculty perceived students
with learning disabilities as lacking the advocacy skills and awareness of their disability needs to
effectively pursue requests for classroom accommodations or course adjustments. Consequently,
disclosure of one’s disability can be avoided until there is a significant impact on academic
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 25
performance which then leads to registering with the office of disability services to seek
accommodations and support services.
Therefore, students with disabilities who are reluctant to disclose their identity can effect
efforts to foster instructional outcomes that could support their learning needs. Suggestions from
Cook et al.’s (2007) study included providing information and training to faculty on disability
requirements as well as providing information to students on the importance of disclosure and
self-advocacy in supporting their academic achievement. In addition, faculty recognized that
offering expanded classroom resources and flexible instruction can be beneficial for all students.
As a result, students with learning disabilities who disclose their status and academic support
needs promote the development of an educational environment that supports all students with
learning differences.
Institutions that have a positive culture of faculty and staff engagement can support this
effort more effectively. As Gobbo and Shmulsky (2007) state, faculty might not be aware of a
student’s learning disability unless the student is willing to disclose their condition and has a
clear understanding of their diagnosis. The purpose of their article was to outline the ways
learning disabilities can interfere with students’ in-class performance and affect achievement.
They suggest that faculty take a practical approach to extend learning for all students in the
classroom while supporting accommodations for those in need. For instance, faculty can provide
opportunities at the beginning of the semester for students to share input on their learning style
and any issues that impact their performance. However, unless students are comfortable
disclosing their status, faculty still can be unaware of students’ disability support requirements
due to privacy laws.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 26
Even if students disclose their disability, they may not have a clear understanding of their
diagnosis making attempts to provide accommodations very challenging. One institutional
approach is providing practical techniques for faculty to address these difficulties and maximize
learning for all students in an educational setting. As Gobbo and Shmulsky (2007) recommend,
faculty can extend learning for all students by providing opportunities at the beginning of the
semester for students to share input on any issues that affect their ability to perform required
coursework. In addition, faculty can seek out support services and training opportunities to
enhance their understanding of accommodations for students with learning disabilities.
In summary, these studies reveal that institutions can better serve their growing
population of students with learning disabilities through support programs to promote personal
agency, confidence and communication. As Hadley (2011) indicates, success in self-advocacy
requires that students with learning disabilities have a good understanding of the coping
mechanisms and strategies that support their educational goals. Skinner (2004) notes that taking
the initiative to understand and effectively address one’s support requirements as well as the
ability to persist while facing challenges were significant in achieving academic success.
Ultimately, campus programs that focus on personal strengths and opportunities for positive
interactions can assist students with learning disabilities develop confidence in their abilities.
Developing Strategies
In regards to the development of strategies, students with learning disabilities can have
concerns over their ability to identify approaches that will help them communicate and access the
appropriate resources to support their efforts to learn. As a concept of transition theory, this
process involves taking stock of strategies by considering how one evaluates and communicates
their needs for successfully handling change (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Consequently,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 27
students with learning disabilities can be accustomed to receiving significant support in defining
goals and developing relationships through the structure of high school and family.
In the postsecondary environment, this structure is less evident and requires that students
proactively seek support programs and services that can help them define academic goals that
will lead to desired outcomes (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). For students with learning
disabilities, developing competencies include navigating the physical dimensions of a campus or
effectively communicating the need for accommodations to faculty. Additionally, they can be
apprehensive about joining social groups or student activities if they fear exposure of their
disability status will lead to rejection or prejudice. The following studies address potential
strategies that benefit students with learning disabilities such as taking the initiative to
understand one’s disability needs and required accommodations as well as communicating with
faculty and administrators to identify and access services.
Students with learning disabilities may not effectively apply strategies to address
challenges during their transition through postsecondary education if they lack knowledge of
their own disability needs and associated academic support requirements. Cawthon and Cole
(2010) gathered data from a convenience sample of 110 students with learning disabilities at a
university who were surveyed to identify their unique challenges in postsecondary education. As
a result, they found that successful transitions required knowledge of one’s disability needs as
well as seeking access to resources available at the institution. In general, the study found that
students could identify their type of disability but lacked knowledge in fully understanding the
nature of their disability. This was coupled with survey results indicating that the majority of
students were unable to communicate what accommodations and services were needed to support
their learning disability.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 28
The findings further indicated that students are not be properly prepared to locate, secure
and advocate for resources that can best support their specific learning needs. In contrast,
students with learning disabilities who contacted the office of disability services were more
likely to engage faculty in formally requesting accommodations and services. Another potential
outcome was that students with disabilities would not seek assistance until they began to fail in
addressing the more demanding expectations of a postsecondary education. One suggestion
from the study noted that institutions could promote the benefits of proactively accessing
disability services as a means of helping students with learning disabilities better understand
their academic support requirements.
While the importance of understanding one’s disability helps identify necessary
accommodations and services, students with learning disabilities can still be hindered if they lack
strategies for communicating these needs. Through interviews of self-selected students with
disabilities at a large public university, Barnard-Brak, Lechtenberger, and Lan (2010) examined
the abilities of postsecondary students with disabilities to develop and utilize strategies that
facilitate access to accommodations based on their support needs. The purpose of the study was
to better understand how these students decide to disclose their disability as part of strategies
they invoke while seeking accommodations. The results of the study revealed that scripting
disclosure of one’s disability was viewed as an effective strategy for facilitating productive
outcomes between students and faculty. Consequently, postsecondary students with disabilities
found a way to feel more comfortable with expressing their accommodation requirements as a
strategy for accessing support.
The study further illustrates the meaning of disclosure for college students with
disabilities in relation to strategies they invoke while seeking accommodations. Barnard-Brak et
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 29
al.’s (2010) study revealed that students choose to negotiate for accommodations or downplay
disability status especially if their disability was not visible. An attempt to negotiate for
accommodations was seen as an effort to complete academic requirements and graduate while
avoiding a potential negative reaction by revealing one’s disability status. Their study indicated
that building rapport with faculty can be a strategy for students requesting accommodations.
This approach can be enhanced if disability services staff encourage faculty to develop positive
views of students with disabilities as highly motivated and contributing to institutional diversity.
Downplaying one’s disability status due to concerns over being stigmatized was a reaction that
undermined the ability of students to request accommodations that support academic
achievement. Therefore, students with learning disabilities benefit from developing strategies
involving interpersonal skills that make them feel more confident disclosing their disability
status to access necessary accommodations.
Consequently, strategies for achieving academic success can be intertwined with both
personality behaviors and the nature of one’s disability. In another study, Anctil, Ishikawa, and
Scott (2008) conducted interviews of 19 high achieving students with learning disabilities who
gained a greater understanding of their strengths and weaknesses by continuously attempting to
tackle challenges. Participants had documented learning disabilities and were receiving
academic accommodations through a disability resource center at a large university. The
purpose of the study was to explore the ways students with learning disabilities were able to
apply strategies to achieve academic success. The findings from these interviews resulted in a
profile of students with learning disabilities that included personal qualities associated with
persistence, competence and determination. These qualities represent skills that are important
for the success of all students seeking academic achievement.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 30
However, students with learning disabilities can lack the confidence and experience in
applying strategies that promote development of these qualities. Anctil et al.’s (2008) results
revealed that applying a strategy of pursuing actions in a persistent manner can lead to increased
feelings of competence. On the other hand, negative experiences were viewed as significant for
developing a perspective on alternative approaches to strategies through problem-solving.
Finally, many of the experiences were not academically related yet resulted in self-assessments
that enhanced competence and academic confidence. The importance of providing opportunities
for students to better understand their disability can empower students to advocate for proper
accommodations and resources.
The experiences that students with learning disabilities encounter while transitioning
through higher education can be varied depending upon their diverse backgrounds and strategies
for addressing change. Narratives of three students with learning disabilities were collected by
Connor (2012) to reveal the ways in which these students address their transition from high
school to college where they must negotiate more complex academic demands, social
expectations and emotional challenges associated with the postsecondary environment. While
this study represents a small sample, the narratives provide a rich understanding of the
challenges experienced by these students. All three students in this study indicated that
disclosing disability status to access accommodations, taking the initiative to notify and build
rapport with instructors and applying time management practices were important strategies for
supporting academic success.
Outside of the classroom, however, students with learning disabilities are faced with the
challenge of navigating social and personal expectations. Strategies indicated from students in
Connor’s (2012) study appeared to be based upon prior experiences in similar situations
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 31
revealing diverse responses for considering social engagement. Strategies ranged from
examining potential involvement in student organizations, engaging in student groups that
advocate for disability causes or accepting social engagement as a lower priority.
Recommendations from the study to promote positive experiences for entering students with
learning disabilities involved building a culture of awareness through campus based activities
and publications that identify and value disability as an element of institutional diversity.
In summary, these studies illustrate that students with learning disabilities expand their
access to support by developing strategies to address their disability needs while fostering
positive engagement with faculty, administrators and peers. As Hadley (2011) suggests, students
with learning disabilities can feel uncertain how their disability might impact handling the
demands of postsecondary education and need to develop new skills that support their academic
achievement. Additionally, Skinner (2004) identifies the importance of setting goals as a
conscious effort to understand one’s own support needs and initiate proactive strategies that
overcome challenges to academic progress. Consequently, responsive institutions that encourage
students to better understand their disability and required accommodations can support efforts by
students to develop strategies for communicating and obtaining academic support.
Academic Support
In considering academic support, students with learning disabilities can have concerns
over developing and maintaining relationships that provide the assistance necessary for academic
achievement. In relation to transition theory, this process involves taking stock of support by
assessing how one uses their interpersonal skills to engage others in productive relationships that
can encourage progress in reaching personal and educational goals (Chickering & Schlossberg,
2002). Consequently, students with learning disabilities can have significant concerns about
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 32
their own ability to independently make decisions regarding future goals without some level of
validation from an outside source due to a history of reliance on support. Students with learning
disabilities demonstrate the need for more emotional support and self-assurance depending upon
the nature of their disability and the level of support received in high school. Lack of self-
direction and problem solving can be due to a lack of practice from being in structured programs
associated with high school and assumptions of inadequacies that deter developing productive
relationships. The following studies describe influencing factors for accessing academic support
through coaching, tutoring and mentoring to foster beneficial learning outcomes for students
with learning disabilities.
Students with learning disabilities gain assistance from developing relationships with
academic support personnel such as mentors or coaches that can lead to positive learning
outcomes. Parker and Boutelle (2009) conducted a study involving 54 undergraduate students
with learning disabilities resulting in seven students selected for in-depth interviews. The
purpose of their study was to examine why students with learning disabilities selected coaching
as a means to develop skills that can support academic achievement as opposed to other services.
An outcome of the study revealed that coaches were viewed as partners helping students create
their strategies while empowering them to take action. Consequently, coaching that involves
collaborative learning can be a productive approach to support students with learning disabilities.
Therefore, through a process of shared learning, students develop confidence in their
ability to develop their own strategies for pursuing various challenges associated with academic
and personal development. To this aim, Parker and Boutelle’s (2009) study revealed that
coaching helped students understand the nature of their goals so they could effectively break
down projects and develop plans to achieve desired results. An outcome of this process was a
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 33
greater sense of competency and encouragement that diminished the experience of feeling
overwhelmed in pursuing goals. In addition, coaching helped students engage in reflection that
reduced their stress leading to more effective problem solving and greater self-confidence. As a
result, students identified coaching as a transformational experience that encouraged them to take
responsibility for their own personal development while incorporating skills gained through the
process. This type of support model is relevant to supporting the adaptation of strategies through
self-discovery that can address the diverse needs of students with learning disabilities.
Coaching that engages in collaborative learning can be supported by professional staff,
graduate students or peers within the institution. In another study, Vogel, Fresko, and Wertheim
(2007) surveyed 25 postsecondary institutions involving 234 tutees and 316 tutors. The
participants represented a large number across institutions supporting the strength of the study.
Peer tutoring was viewed as an appropriate approach for providing academic support services to
students with learning disabilities. Tutors focused on activities associated with organizational
skills and learning strategies while tutees viewed the experience as being more task oriented in
completing assignments and preparing for tests. In general, the level of satisfaction was very
high for both groups and tutoring was viewed as very beneficial for tutees.
Addressing the study further, Vogel et al. (2007) found that tutors and tutees expressed
few challenges in the tutoring process. However, tutors expressed lacking necessary skills to
address learning disabilities associated with tutees which implied the need for additional training
or assistance from learning specialists. In addition, tutors reported difficulties in the ability of
tutees to explain the nature of their learning needs indicating the importance of training for tutees
to develop more self-advocacy skills in identifying and communicating their needs. Both tutors
and tutees expressed some challenges in developing the tutoring relationship which could be
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 34
addressed through practices that quickly build rapport. Finally, both tutors and tutees expressed
the benefits of having a common understanding by attending the same courses while tutees
expressed a greater benefit by receiving additional insights and targeted content.
However, challenges arise if all participants are not equally committed or knowledgeable
about how best to engage each other to succeed in accomplishing results. Hartman-Hall and
Haaga’s (2002) study of 86 university students with learning disabilities involving questionnaires
and interviews focused on students who were currently using support services and students who
had not used support services. Students were asked to address a variety of hypothetical
situations involving faculty responses and peer reactions for those seeking accommodations or
academic support services. In addition, students were presented advertisements on learning
disability programs resulting in a higher response to services that promoted performance goals
associated with the importance of obtaining good grades and concerns over the opinions of peers.
The study assessed students’ perceptions of their learning disability and self-esteem as a result of
their desire to seek support based on impressions of faculty and institutional responsiveness.
Students with learning disabilities need to view support services as a significant resource
in achieving educational goals in spite of any negative reactions from faculty or peers. The
results of Hartman-Hall and Haaga’s (2002) study implied that exposure to positive responses
from professors to requests for accommodations were more likely encourage students with
learning disabilities to seek assistance as an ongoing strategy. In contrast, the inclination to seek
help was less likely in cases where students were disclosed incidents involving negative
reactions to requests for accommodations from professors. However, the study indicated that
students who viewed their learning disability as stigmatizing and unmodifiable were less likely
to pursue assistance in the face of negative reactions from faculty or peers. As a
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 35
recommendation, institutions can inform faculty and students on the importance of
accommodations and how their reactions to requests for assistance positively or negatively
impact academic choices made by students with learning disabilities.
Postsecondary institutions that create opportunities for assessment can demonstrate the
effective provision of academic support resources and collaborative engagement. Harris, Ho,
Markle, and Wessel (2011) performed an assessment of a five-year faculty mentorship program
for students with disabilities to address concerns over their transition to a postsecondary
education environment. As an institutional goal, the program was designed to address concerns
over transition to postsecondary education by connecting students with a faculty member in their
prospective major or area of interest. After four years, the program reported that participating
students achieved consistently higher grade point averages than nonparticipants and accessed
more campus support resources. Additionally, faculty benefited by gaining knowledge on how
to provide accommodations and services including the learning center and training on adaptive
technologies. As a result, the institution was able to promote awareness of its academic support
services leading to a model for collaboration between the disability services office, faculty and a
learning center. Programs that involve members from across the institution yield results that can
extend the benefits of support programs for all students with learning differences.
In summary, these studies indicate that academic coaching, faculty mentoring and
tutoring programs engage students in practices that help them understand their optimal learning
strategies while developing interpersonal skills that support positive relationships. In Skinner’s
(2004) study, the importance of building relationships with friends, faculty and academic support
personnel for achieving academic success was communicated by all participants. However, as
Hadley (2011) notes, students with learning disabilities can face additional challenges in
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 36
completing academic assignments and engaging in social activities that inhibit their interaction
with peers and faculty. Consequently, academic support programs represent an important
resource for helping students develop skills that provide them with more time for exploring
individual interests and campus life. In the next section, student development theories provide a
basis for practices that can support students’ transitions through postsecondary education while
providing opportunities for personal development.
Transition Theory
In the case of students with learning disabilities, the process of transitioning through
postsecondary education can be made more challenging without the established systems and
guidance associated with high school. To address this process, Schlossberg’s transition theory
offers a model for examining how personal perceptions of life changes can impact achievement,
decisions and future directions (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010). While insights
and strategies can help learning, successfully navigating through transitions depends upon an
individual’s perceptions along with an assessment of personal strengths and weaknesses.
Opportunities to engage in transitions assists students in developing learning concepts that enable
them to more effectively address the nature and duration of transitions over time. Therefore, the
ability to effectively manage change can be based upon personal characteristics of the individual
and the qualities of each potential transition.
In Chickering and Schlossberg’s (2002) book on “Getting the Most Out of College,
transitions are described as anticipated, unanticipated or nonevents as defined by their proximity,
context and impact. Responding to transitions can be enhanced if they are anticipated but can
cause additional anxiety that disrupts effective decision making. Although surprising,
unanticipated transitions can require decisive actions that result in necessary change. Nonevents
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 37
can involve abstract transitions that are difficult to define and undermine personal progress if left
unchecked over time. The proximity of an event is determined by an individual’s direct
involvement as opposed to events that impact those close to an individual or are anticipated to
happen at some point in the future. Context relates to the intimacy of one’s relationship
associated with the setting of a transition which can involve dormitory residents, personal
relationships or classroom peers. Finally, impact is determined by the magnitude in which
transitions change current perspectives and establish new directions.
Transition theory can be expanded further by examining the factors that affect an
individual’s ability to manage change. A person’s ability to successfully cope with change is
associated with how they perceive transitions in relation to their situation, supports, self and
strategies (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Taking stock of these four areas may not help an
individual avoid or exploit transitions, but can help them better negotiate the conditions
associated with change. Taking stock of the situation is influenced by one’s ability to assess
transitions based upon the perceived duration and prior experience with similar transitions. For
instance, preceding events such as the decision to enter college after establishing a career or
family can influence one’s assessment of time management and priorities. One’s position is not
fixed thus requiring a constant process of assessing the merits of each situation (Chickering &
Schlossbeg, 2002). For students with learning disabilities the ability to assess situations can be
impacted by the nature of their disability and further influenced, like all students, by one’s
unique cultural, religious and socio-economic background.
Next, taking stock of self involves personal identity which is addressed by assessing
one’s personal characteristics as another element that influences how one might approach and
navigate transitions. An individual’s internal state, whether empowered and optimistic or
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 38
depressed and insecure, can help or hinder a student’s ability to face transitions (Chickering &
Schlossbeg, 2002). In other words, the way in which an individual perceives change can impact
their ability to cope with transitions that contains a mixture of both good and bad experiences.
Consequently, the development of self-efficacy can be instrumental in building the mental and
emotional capacity to address the complex outcomes associated with transitions (Chickering &
Schlossbeg, 2002). In the case of students with learning disabilities, limited physical and mental
capacities associated with a disability can undermine optimistic behaviors. However, students
with learning disabilities can be better informed of their limitations and, therefore, capable of
developing strategies while remaining optimistic and resilient in the face of uncertain outcomes.
Taking stock of strategies involves evaluating approaches that an individual employs in
order to alter the conditions of change. Strategies focus on attempting to maintain the meaning
or commitment for navigating through transitions as well as managing the potential stress of a
transition’s outcome. One’s ability to cope is exemplified by their adaptability and
resourcefulness in seeking insights, solutions and whether one chooses to engage or reject a
transitional event (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Depending upon the relevance and
perceived outcome, the timing of transitions can be viewed as either a burden or opportunity.
The ability to quickly assess and make adjustments based upon changes or events is an important
function of moving through transitions successfully (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). In the
case of students with learning disabilities, successful coping strategies that helped them gain
access to higher education can indicate a confidence in one’s ability to seek and acquire
disability support services.
Finally, taking stock of support by seeking assistance from family, friends, campus
organizations and support groups to help manage a transition. The type of support that is best
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 39
suited to help individuals address transitions is derived from stable, affirmative and honest
counsel (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Whether good or bad, change involves some level of
stress. The ability to handle stress can be improved by seeking support that provides
understanding, confirmation, assistance or feedback. The type of support required can be
different for each new challenge and the same individuals may not always provide the help
needed or result in a negative outcome. Thus, an overall goal for achieving support could be to
build a diverse network of positive and accessible resources for managing change (Chickering &
Schlossberg, 2002). In the case of students with learning disabilities, support networks are
represented by a support team including academic coaches or tutors, office of disability services
staff, academic advisors and faculty. Additionally, residential advisors and student groups can
serve as positive support networks if the campus climate respects diversity of all types including
disabilities. Ultimately, students with learning disabilities represent another element of campus
diversity requiring institutions commit additional attention to evaluate the impact of existing
social and academic conditions.
Theory Critique
The following critique examines the development of transition theory in order to evaluate
the appropriateness of applying its principles for the purposes of student development including
students with learning disabilities. The basis for transition theory is Nancy Schlossberg’s
framework for addressing adults in transition which is a culmination of assimilating and
expanding upon her interpretation of existing theories and research (Evans et al., 2010).
Regardless of age or background, students are confronted with many challenges that positively or
negatively affect their ability to maximize learning and adult development in the postsecondary
education environment. Transition theory was further developed by Goodman, Schlossberg, and
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 40
Anderson by introducing concepts of transition types, context and impact as well as factors
which influence an individual’s coping abilities (Evans et al., 2010). In critiquing Schlossberg’s
theory, McEwen (2005) provides a list of six challenges student affairs professionals should
examine when determining the appropriateness of applying theory to postsecondary student
development. The following assessment of these challenges provides insights into using
transition theory for assessing personal and student development.
The process of critiquing theory provides additional perspectives that support more useful
and targeted activities and strategies for fostering student development. The first consideration
that McEwen (2005) identifies is whether a theory applies a comprehensive perspective of
student interrelationships with their environment. Schlossberg has extended her theory to serve
as a tool for assisting student and adult development through her willingness to accept and
respond to feedback, allowing her theory to evolve into a flexible and adaptable model. As a
result, transition theory addresses the first critique by supporting an approach that can be applied
to a wide range of personal experiences in a variety of environmental contexts. The second
consideration for critique is whether the theory addresses identity qualities as concerns for social
acceptance and individual autonomy (McEwan, 2005). Schlossberg’s transition theory was
originally developed for addressing transitions associated with adult development and soon was
extended to address a wide variety of issues including traumatic events and addiction recovery
(Evans et al., 2010). In so doing, transition theory addresses the second critique by providing a
model that does not rely upon a stage but allows each factor to be applied independently towards
a range of issues.
Further, conditions associated with the inception and development of a theory should be
evaluated for implications. In this case, the adaptable nature of Schlossberg’s theory supports
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 41
McEwen’s (2005) next two considerations which focus on the appropriateness of the social
conditions, target group and environmental variables associated with a theory’s development.
The framework for Schlossberg’s transition theory originated in 1981 as a way to address how
adults cope with the dynamics of life including the process of transitioning which was later
extended to postsecondary student development (Evans et al., 2010). While transition theory is
adaptable to a wide range of conditions, little research has been completed that confirms its
application to postsecondary education. That being said, students entering higher education can
be experiencing similar transitions as identified through adult development if they are employed,
parents or addressing a personal life event.
The final two considerations address a theory’s applicability to a wide range of
participants and contexts. Therefore, the nature of Schlossberg’s transition theory framework
has implications which relate to McEwen’s (2005) last two considerations for assessing the
development of a theory by examining the degree of direct participation by applicable subjects
and the range of applicability. The resultant flexibility and sophistication of Schlossberg’s
model provides great utility for a wide range of subjects and conditions but causes challenges in
designing applicable qualitative and quantitative research studies (Evans et al., 2010). As a
result, qualitative studies offer a potential advantage and the capacity to describe the
comprehensive nature of an individual’s transition experience for those with diverse
backgrounds and abilities. Ultimately, transition theory is a model comprised of factors
involving situation, self, strategies and support which can be examined independently of each
other to allow for broader applications to a wide range of personal characteristics including age,
race, religion and disability status.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 42
Student and academic affairs professionals can use transition theory to addresses the
importance of preparedness when identifying appropriate learning experiences and diverse
opportunities to engage students with the academic community. While transition theory can
serve as an effective basis for addressing change, learning how to effectively take stock of the
four areas of situation, self, strategies and support poses additional challenges. In Chickering
and Schlossberg’s (2002) book, “Getting the Most Out of College”, the authors create an
adaptable and accessible guide for maximizing student and adult development. Therefore, this
guide serves as a resource for students by providing them with directions on how to develop their
approach for addressing transitions through postsecondary education.
Theory Implications
The implications of transition theory as a student development framework may be useful
for students with learning disabilities because it provides them with a resource that promotes a
proactive approach for addressing the challenges of transitions. To achieve this goal, Chickering
and Schlossberg’s book is structured according to the three phases of transition theory designated
as moving in, moving through and moving on. Each phase is associated with events in
postsecondary education where success is dependent upon an individual’s readiness, context and
perception of an event that may or may not happen. Illustrations, exercises and activities provide
opportunities for students to gain practical information that will assist them in understanding and
achieving their academic and career objectives. In the end, Chickering and Schlossberg (2002)
intend their book to be a useful guide that can be revisited to serve the broader educational
purposes of building knowledge and expertise that endures throughout one’s life.
The following discussion will illustrate the implications of using this guide for student
development and approaches for supporting students with learning disabilities. Whether a high
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 43
school student entering college or an adult returning to college as a working professional,
Chickering and Schlossberg’s book can be used to assess how one might address competing
interests, use of resources, support systems and the range of available learning possibilities. The
degree of impact caused by transitions can be influenced by the supports and strategies
individual’s use to address change. Therefore, parents, family, friends and institutional
representatives can use this book to gain a better understanding of how to provide support to all
types of students by learning about the challenges and transitions associated with the pursuit of a
postsecondary education.
For student and academic affairs professionals, the implications of transition theory as
applied in this book serve as a framework for developing a useful guide to assist students
addressing change. As Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) note, in the first phase of moving in,
students are separating from one environment of established routines in order to pursue new
activities in college which can result in feelings of grief and confusion. By providing
orientations and counseling opportunities, student affairs professionals can help incoming
students better adjust to the new expectations and forms of engagement associated with college.
The extent of this transition is determined by the impact of change on personal roles, routines,
relationships and assumptions of how new students perceive themselves. Students with learning
disabilities can forestall addressing the impact of transitions if they are unwilling to accept their
disability status because they wish to avoid the stigma associated with high school.
In addition, students have many reasons for pursuing postsecondary education. Upon
entering college, students are faced with choices that will set the stage for their academic
experience as they begin to assess potential career directions. As Chickering and Schlossberg
(2002) suggest, success in achieving goals through transitions can be enhanced by developing
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 44
cognitive skills, personal competence and motivation. They go on to associate the ability to
acquire and apply knowledge through the use of cognitive skills as the most important factor for
success in personal development. Of these skills, critical thinking is identified to be essential for
evaluating the relevance and importance of new information to successfully navigate the events
associated with transitions. Academic advisors and student affairs professionals can assist
students with learning disabilities by helping them examine how they assimilate and prioritize
information for making decisions and setting goals.
As a result, peers, faculty and college administrators become potential resources that can
assist students in assessing the importance of information provided in the college environment.
However, to effectively approach others for assistance requires effective communication and
interpersonal skills. As Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) state, communication skills are
valuable for developing relationships, seeking support and establishing social networks that
provide resources for navigating transitions successfully. However, interpersonal skills are
necessary for engaging others to achieve mutual goals and personal fulfillment. These skills
represent one’s ability to observe and monitor nonverbal cues such as body language and facial
expressions to assess if others are experiencing a positive and beneficial relationship. Learning
how to identify these cues can help students with learning disabilities develop and maintain
supportive relationships.
Consequently, the ability to accurately assess how people respond to one’s engagement is
important for developing and maintaining relationships. Being authentic and flexible when
empathizing with other people’s conditions supports collaborative outcomes with a diverse
spectrum of individuals (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). In the same vein, emotional
intelligence can be defined by how effectively one is aware of how they impact others, manage
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 45
their emotions and direct ambitions towards larger goals. As an extension, interdependence
guides one’s actions towards developing mutually fulfilling and beneficial relationships based
upon self-confidence and reciprocity. Academic advisors and student affairs professionals can
help students with learning disabilities advance their interpersonal skills by providing social
engagement opportunities through events, team building exercises and group activities.
In the second phase, Chickering and Schlossberg’s book discusses the conditions
associated with moving through the learning experiences of postsecondary education. Success in
college can be based upon one’s ability to learn as defined by how one contemplates about
learning and acts upon the results of this process. Intelligence is demonstrated by one’s ability to
develop new mental capacities through the settings and situations experienced while learning.
To maximize learning that endures, Chickering and Schlossberg (2002) state that one must
pursue deep learning where one is able to access the results of learning and re-create this
knowledge into a personal understanding of the concepts. The ability to convert learning to
action benefits students with learning disabilities as they explore how to attain their academic
goals and professional aspirations while developing strategies to address their disability.
Further, learning is based upon experiences, observations and reflections that form
concepts that can be tested for new situations. Consequently, the process of learning that
supports decisions on the choice of an academic major requires that one is able to accurately and
honestly identify their interests and capabilities while accessing and exploring institutional
resources and opportunities (Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Learning beyond the classroom
provides additional challenges that help to develop skills, concepts and competencies valuable
for supporting career success. Academic advisors and student affairs professionals can aid
students with learning disabilities by promoting inclusive environments through campus
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 46
activities that value and support diversity as well as exploring external activities that can
accommodate their disability such as internships, community service and study abroad programs.
Therefore, taking control of challenges can provide individuals with opportunities to
examine their options, reflect upon their goals and determine a course of action that best supports
their desired goals for personal and career achievement. This process involves evaluating the
scope of the challenge and the resources required and available to accept the challenge
(Chickering & Schlossberg, 2002). Coping skills can be adapted to proactively approach a
transition or challenge by negotiating the terms, seeking counsel or considering different tactics.
One can choose not to act and consciously determine that they will witness the outcome as it
unfolds. Academic advisors and student affairs professionals can assist students with learning
disabilities address transitions by facilitating opportunities to develop positive relationships with
faculty and peers, engage in learning, seek feedback and uphold appropriate expectations for
learning goals.
In the final phase of moving on, students are tasked with taking advantage of the
experiences, knowledge and skills acquired through learning by documenting accomplishments
and continuing to perform self-assessments throughout their lives (Chickering & Schlossberg,
2002). As a result, applications for Schlossberg’s theory can be extended to other applications
involving professional training programs, community advocacy and individual transformations
(Evans et al., 2010). Ultimately, the manner in which institutions respond to the particular needs
of students with learning disabilities involves a collaborative approach involving staff, faculty
and peers across the academic and social landscape to address the challenges associated with
transitioning through postsecondary education.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 47
Academic Coaching
One collaborative approach institutions can consider involves the use of academic
coaching to promote student achievement. A premise for academic coaching is based upon the
view that an intervention involving adaptable instruction can enhance success in learning and
participation. As Barkley (2011) states, the goal of academic coaching is to develop a
collaborative partnership between coaches and students that supports efforts to examine ways of
learning that resolves issues preventing academic achievement. Through early detection of
support requirements, academic coaches can provide advice on how best to approach learning
challenges including executive functioning skills such as time management, organizing
coursework and study skills. Therefore, academic coaching provides an approach that is both
strategic and flexible to the needs of the student in order to enhance the results of learning.
In a study conducted by Barkley (2011), the research goal was to explore the potential of
academic coaching to promote student accountability and learning by examining student
evaluation scores from traditional teaching and collaborative coaching approaches across three
academic school years. In years where academic coaching was utilized, results of a Likert
survey revealed a higher correlation between amount learned and academic coaching practices.
Additionally, higher exam scores were associated with years where academic coaching was
applied to enhance learning. While this study suggests a relationship between coaching and
learning, the way in which an institution defines and implements academic coaching can have
further implications.
Therefore, examining the model for academic coaching yields additional insights into the
benefits of providing this type of support. Robinson and Gahagan (2010) discuss a framework
for coaching that involves engaging students in the strategy of planning for their academic
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 48
pursuits which promotes enhanced learning, commitment and appreciation for their efforts.
Three main steps emerged from their study including self-assessment, reflection and goal setting.
This framework provided opportunities for students to discover their learning interests while
determining how to plan and prepare for academic success. Through self-assessment, students
evaluated their executive functioning skills, level of commitment and motivation to achieve in
their efforts to learn. During reflection, students were asked to address their progress towards
goals and what motivational factors are negatively or positively impacting their learning
outcomes. Finally, goal-setting empowered students to take control of their future and define a
strategy that would best address their strengths and weaknesses in achieving academic success.
Over a two academic school years, out of 182 students participating in academic coaching, 92%
improved their GPA and exhibited enhanced learning outcomes. By engaging in this process,
academic coaches and students worked together to create a plan for successfully achieving
academic goals.
In the case of students with learning disabilities and differences, academic coaching
practices need to address additional areas of concern that involve the challenges of transitioning
through a more independent academic environment. Swartz, Prevatt, and Proctor (2005)
examined a program for students with AD/HD, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, who
received eight weeks academic coaching through a campus based center at a large university. In
this case, academic coaching involved addressing the disability elements that undermine
performance and handling the social and regulatory skills associated with a postsecondary
education experience. The coach worked collaboratively with the student to help them develop a
plan to address their learning needs and academic goals through the autonomous development of
strategies that addressed their personal state and outer support structure. Through interaction, the
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 49
coach formed an understanding of the student’s support needs and level of empowerment to
achieve their goals. Together, the coach learned how best to assist the student and the student
learned how best to support themselves. The initial meeting typically involved establishing
guidelines of trust, reviewing current academic challenges and building a plan with goals.
Over time, goals were set to motivate students and serve as markers for measuring
progress and verifying outcomes. Weekly meetings provided opportunities to meet ongoing
objectives and reinforce strategies while building assurance in one’s ability to independently
achieve academic progress. Rewards and consequences for meeting or missing expectations
were established by the student with guidance and support from the coach who was observing
the student’s progress in order to introduce new strategies or methods for success. As a result,
the collaborative relationship between student and academic coach helped to develop a
partnership that could support enhanced learning outcomes.
However, attempting to assess the impact of academic coaching on behaviors related to
how well students address transitions can be more challenging than assessing progress in
developing cognitive and performance skills. Suskie (2009) suggests using reflection papers,
observation of behaviors, interviews and focus groups and rating scales as methods for assessing
student learning related to attitudes, values, dispositions and habits of mind. Reflection papers
help students set discrete goals, monitor progress, seek feedback, evaluate outcomes and conduct
personal reviews. Interviews and focus groups can be used to identify concerns, questions and
objectives for further assessment. Rating scales, such as Likert scales, can be used to provide
insights into a student’s agreement with a stated goal or outcome.
Additionally, evaluating the results of coaching requires examining areas of personal
concerns that students address when facing transitions. Maki (2010) recommends focus groups,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 50
interviews and surveys as indirect methods for identifying evidence of perceptions and
experiences. She suggests that these indirect methods can be used to compliment information
gathered from rating scales and assessment tools. Interviews provide information over time that
reveal challenges and strategies related to a student’s pursuit of academic achievement. In
summary, these indirect methods along with data collected on performance outcomes yield a
more holistic view when assessing the results of how academic coaching practices support
students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Summary
In summary, students with learning disabilities face many of the same challenges as all
students who transition through postsecondary education with some additional influencing areas
of concern. This literature review provides an overview of studies that illustrate concerns faced
by students with learning disabilities. The four areas of concern identified involve integrating
into a new institutional setting, disclosing personal identity, developing strategies to access
services and building supportive relationships. These four areas align with Schlossberg’s
transition theory for taking stock of one’s situation, self, strategies and support.
In taking stock of the situation, institutional settings that provide opportunities for
authentic and candid experiences between faculty, students, administrators and peers facilitate
greater inclusion and appreciation for the needs, concerns and aspirations of students with
learning disabilities. In taking stock of self, students with learning disabilities express concerns
regarding their personal identity, willingness to accept their disability status and seek necessary
accommodations that influence decisions on how they respond to change. In taking stock of
strategies, developing approaches for communicating necessary support requirements helps
students with learning disabilities access accommodations and course adjustments that support
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 51
their learning disability and have the potential to extend outcomes beyond perceived limitations.
Finally, in taking stock of support, accessing academic resources through campus programs and
learning centers can be fostered through positive interactions with faculty and peers who assist
students with learning disabilities develop the confidence to achieve academic success.
In closing, results of information presented in this literature review reveal that students
with learning disabilities have areas of concerns that can be addressed through the principles of
transition theory. While these concerns have similar implications for all students, support
programs that take into account the areas of concern students with learning disabilities face when
obtaining support can be better suited for assisting this student population. An approach for
supporting students with learning disabilities involves academic coaching practices that consider
these specific areas of concern. The results of these academic coaching practices can be assessed
by conducting interviews, surveys and seeking reflections from participating students.
Future research might benefit from longitudinal studies and attitudinal surveys of
students with learning disabilities who access learning centers for academic coaching services.
This research might provide insights into characteristics of students who demonstrate self-
advocacy in seeking additional help beyond accommodations supported through the office of
disability services. Additionally, studies that assess the impact of applying universal design in
classrooms could provide value in understanding how to support the efforts of institutions
attempting to meet the needs of an increasing student population with learning disabilities.
Finally, campus climate assessments could yield additional insights on how institutions develop
inclusive environments that promote diversity and the value of all abilities. In the following
chapter, a methodology will be presented for performing a case study on academic coaching
practices at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and differences.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 52
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Higher education institutions are faced with the challenge of serving an increasing
population of students with learning disabilities and differences entering postsecondary
education. The purpose of this study was to examine how academic coaching practices are
supporting students’ transitions at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and
differences. Although studies have addressed issues with the provision of classroom
accommodations, this study focused on how learning centers are extending these efforts outside
of the classroom through academic coaching services. The research question for this study was
to explore in what ways do academic coaches enact their practices to support students’
transitions through postsecondary education at a learning center serving students with learning
disabilities and differences.
The research focus for this study was a learning center at a large urban university and the
research method applied the principles of qualitative design to explore academic coaching
practices at the center. An instrumental case study of the academic coaching model within this
learning center represented an appropriate research design. As a form of qualitative research,
this case study used inductive reasoning to develop a rich understanding of the conditions of the
phenomenon under consideration (Merriam, 2009), namely, those that illustrate coaching
practices that support students’ transitions through postsecondary education. Multiple sources of
data including interviews, observations and documents were collected, organized and analyzed to
develop themes that could be continuously evaluated (Creswell, 2009) to form a holistic view of
coaching practices which may influence students’ transitions. As illustrated in Figure A, the
theoretical framework for this study provides context for the research question (Merriam, 2009).
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 53
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Schlossberg’s Transition Theory:
Taking stock of situation, self, strategies and support
to effectively address transitions or change.
RESEARCH QUESTION
In what ways do academic coaches enact their practices to support students'
transitions through postsecondary education at a learning center serving
students with learning disabilities and differences?
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Examine how academic coaching is supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary
education at a learning center serving students
with learning disabilities and differences.
PROBLEM OF THE STUDY
Institutions are faced with supporting an increasing
population of students with learning disabilities and
differences transition through postsecondary education.
Figure A. Theoretical framework and research question.
Site and Sample Selection
The uniqueness of this site is described on the learning center’s website as the only
known center in the nation using a multidisciplinary approach by drawing upon experts in related
fields from across the institution while serving as a field site for disability scholars conducting
research. Purposeful sampling is supported by the selection of a site that provides an
information-rich case that can reveal insights into the research question of a study (Patton, 1990).
The learning center’s approach of merging disciplines to support research, with programming to
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 54
serve the needs of students with learning disabilities and differences, provided a robust case for
examining academic coaching practices. Students are assisted by an array of programs and
services including academic coaching, learning strategy sessions, tutoring in academic
disciplines, access to assistive technology as well as referrals to outside professionals including
psychologists, therapists and learning specialists. For the purposes of this study, access to the
center was gained by proposing an area of interest aligned with the center’s mission of providing
academic support services informed by research and practice.
The learning center was founded in the Summer of 2010, opened in the Spring of 2011
and has encompassed a total of 8 semesters. Based upon a recent data usage report as of
November 1, 2014, there have been 9,415 visits to the center for the main purposes of accessing
academic coaching, a quiet study room and a computer lab. The primary challenges indicated by
students for seeking the center’s services included study habits and time management followed
by response to stress. Over the past eight semesters, a total of 515 individual students have
enrolled in academic coaching with a low of 62 students to a high of 153 students in a single
semester. While registering with disability services is not required, 220 individual students who
enrolled in academic coaching since the center’s opening were concurrently registered with
disability services representing almost half of all students who have enrolled in academic
coaching. Over the past eight semesters, students participated in 5,351 academic coaching
sessions or approximately 670 sessions per semester. Students visited the center for academic
coaching primarily in October followed by February which may be due to increased academic
support needs associated with mid-term exam schedules.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 55
Pilot Study
An initial pilot study involving this learning center was conducted in the Fall Semester of
2013 (see Appendix A for additional pilot study details). The purpose of the pilot study was to
understand how a learning center provides academic support services serving the needs of
students with learning disabilities and differences on the campus of a large urban university. A
university administrator and current director of the center was approached for consultation and
facilitation of introductions and access to the center. Three interviews were conducted with the
center director, a learning specialist and an academic coach. Observations were conducted in the
center lobby and an academic coaches’ meeting. The learning center’s approach to providing
services appeared to involve a collaborative learning model that engaged everyone in the process
of building academic support strategies. The pilot study provided an opportunity to gain
familiarity with center staff and operations as a basis for proceeding with this case study.
Data Sources
A matrix was developed to keep track of the relationships between the components of the
research design including the research questions, goals, data and protocol of the study (Maxwell,
2013) (see Appendix B for complete matrix). Three sources of data were used to inform this
case study: interviews, observations and document analysis. Semi-structured interviews served
to gather in-depth information from individuals representing different roles and experiences
within the research setting (Merriam, 2009). Observation settings were identified for the
opportunity to obtain the broadest a view of how academic coaching practices are performed at
the center. Documents, such as data usage reports, student surveys and coaches’ session notes,
were analyzed for insights on how academic coaching practices support students’ transitions
through postsecondary education.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 56
Interviews
Within the center, the first category interviewed involve staff including two learning
specialists, one occupational therapist and one administrator all of which participate in academic
coaching. Next interviews included three academic coaches representing students at the
institution enrolled in graduate studies interested in the role of academic coaching. Finally, four
current students were interviewed including at least one student associated with each of the three
academic coaches interviewed in the study. Staff and academic coaches were interviewed for
approximately forty-five minutes at the beginning of the study and thirty minutes in a second
interview towards the end of the study. Similarly, students participated in one interview lasting
approximately thirty minutes towards the end of the study. A one hour focus group interview
with staff and academic coaches was conducted in the middle of the study.
To identify appropriate individuals for interviews, the director of the center was
approached for consultation and as the gatekeeper capable of making introductions and
facilitating access in support of the case study. Seeking significant information-rich participants
involved using chain sampling by working with center representatives to identify those who are
most capable of addressing the research question (Patton, 1990). The director made the
introductions to staff who, in turn, introduced the academic coaches who, subsequently,
introduced their students. The director’s periodic involvement, especially when timing was
important, appeared to validate leadership support of the case study and facilitate commitments
from participants.
The next step was to develop questions for each interview category that addressed the
provision of academic coaching practices. The protocol for the interview began with two
questions for each individual focused on the participant’s basis for being involved with the
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 57
learning center. The next eight questions explored how academic coaching practices were
delivered at the center according to Schlossberg’s transition theory for taking stock of situation,
self, strategies and support (see Appendices C, D and E for complete interview guides). For the
staff and coaches, these questions focused on factors which may determine how academic
coaching practices support students’ transitions and included summarizing questions for the
second interview. For students, these questions focused on how well academic coaching
practices might assist them in transitioning through postsecondary education. Interview
questions for each guide were coded with one of the four factors of transition theory to support
themes that may emerge from participant responses.
Focus Group
To address an overarching issue, staff and academic coaches were invited to participate in
a group discussion on a topic related to the research focus involving academic coaching to
support students with learning disabilities and differences. For instance, changes in legal
regulations and advancements in medical therapies may increase the complexity of academic
support needs necessary to assist students with learning disabilities and differences. A focus
group interview was conducted to explore the attitudes and decision making of a small group of
8-10 similar participants following a semi-structured approach where the researcher served as the
moderator (Morgan, 1997)(see Appendix F for focus group guide). The focus group consisted of
staff and all current academic coaches, including those who participated in the interviews, to
support a broad perspective on the topic to reveal or substantiate themes in the research data.
These results contributed to findings from individual interviews, observations and document
analysis to substantiate that the data is aimed at the research question (Morgan, 1997). Focus
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 58
group responses expanded the data available for inductive reasoning and provide additional
opportunities to clarify the findings of the study.
Observations
To gain a comprehensive view of how academic coaching services are performed,
observations were conducted in four settings including one academic coaches’ orientation
session, one academic coaches’ meeting, one academic coaching session with a student and one
more in the center lobby. To access these observation settings, the director and staff of the
center were approached for consultation on the timing of observations in order to optimize
viewing how coaching practices are conducted to support students’ transitions through
postsecondary education. The sequence of observations began with the coaches’ orientation,
followed by the coaches’ meeting, the coaching session and ended with the center lobby.
The design of the observation protocol was based upon Bogdan and Biklen’s (2007)
concepts for collecting descriptive and reflective fieldnotes (see Appendices G and H for
observation protocols). The observation protocol consisted of a form with descriptive topics that
was clipped to a journal for reference while collecting fieldnotes in the observed setting. Some
of the topics considered included subject portraits, dialogue, setting, events and activities. Once
the observation was completed, a separate piece of paper with pre-identified topics was clipped
to the journal for collecting post-observation fieldnotes. These topics include themes, research
study strategies, ethical dilemmas and other observer comments.
Documents
Documents associated with the learning center were identified for analysis to gain
insights into how academic coaching practices support students’ transitions. A table was used to
identify, track and justify the use of these documents, as well as an assessment of any questions
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 59
regarding their strengths or limitations for data analysis (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) (see Appendix
I for table of potential documents). The types of documents used for this analysis included
survey responses from students participating in coaching during this study, academic coaches’
session notes taken during this study and, finally, data usage reports summarizing academic
coaching outcomes at the center. The selection of documents was evaluated based upon their
availability and applicability in addressing the research question of this case study.
Data Collection
After receiving approval of the study by the institution’s Institutional Review Board, the
director of the center was consulted to determine the accessibility of staff, academic coaches and
students during the Fall Semester of 2014. All data was collected during the fall semester
beginning with observations followed by interviews according to the availability of staff,
academic coaches and students. Activities within the center at the beginning of the academic
year resulted in the interviews being conducted during the second half of the semester.
Observations were conducted at the beginning, middle and end of the study. Document analysis
was conducted throughout the study as data was made available.
Interviews
The process for conducting interviews involved contacting the learning center’s director
in July 2014 to confirm the appropriate timing and location for conducting interviews and
observations while considering the schedule of the center’s ongoing activities. All staff
interviewees were identified by the director while academic coaches were identified by the staff.
In turn, academic coaches were approached to identify which of their students would be most
receptive to participating in interviews. All interviewees were contacted via email for
confirmation and scheduling interviews. All interviews were conducted at the center in offices,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 60
conference rooms or other private meeting spaces. Prior to beginning the interview, a short
greeting was provided followed by sharing the purpose for the study and that all responses would
be confidential. The interviews were conducted with a tape recorder to support the
comprehensive collection of data.
Interview participants were selected based upon maximizing representation from those
individuals with involvement in defining, applying and receiving academic coaching practices at
the center. The staff of the center were interviewed first to reveal the overall scope and direction
of academic coaching at the center. Staff included the director, two learning specialists and an
occupational therapist who guide the academic coaching experience and influence coaching
practices. As a means of chain sampling, these same staff were asked to identify three academic
coaches who represented active participants in coaching and might be willing to participate in
interviews. Similarly, these same academic coaches were asked to identify any of their students
actively engaged in coaching who might be interested in being interviewed. After attempts
failed to secure student interviews, a twenty dollar gift card was offered as an incentive in order
to show appreciation for students’ willingness to offer time out of their challenging schedules.
Each of the academic coaches interviewed were able to introduce the incentive and secured at
least one student to participate in an interview. Students provided robust responses to the
interview questions and expressed appreciation for the gift card.
Focus Group
The focus group interview involved contacting staff to identify an appropriate time and
venue for participating in a group discussion on a topic related to their role in supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary education. As a result, time preceding a weekly
coaches’ meeting was provided for this purpose. The focus group format served as a group
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 61
interview allowing individuals to express their experiences and perspectives in relation to issues
of offering academic for an increasing population of students with learning disabilities and
differences. To expand representation, three of the staff interviewed for the study, who serve as
academic coaches, were invited to participate in the focus group interview.
To avoid any aggressive participants, the researcher served as the facilitator and
moderator for the group discussion to ensure participants had an opportunity to share their
perspectives on the topic. As Stringer (2007) suggests, the researcher introduced the session
with the premise that all comments would remain confidential and that all participants would
have an equal opportunity to express their views and engage in dialogue. Clark and Estes (2008)
identify concerns for conducting focus group interviews including stakeholder representation,
intimidation by participants and lack of transparency in providing comments. To address these
concerns, the director who is a stakeholder for this case study did not attend the focus group
interview. The moderator did not witness any aspects of intimidating behavior. To foster candid
responses, participants were advised that all notes and recordings would be secured for access
only by the researcher and without identifiable information.
Observations
The process for conducting observations involved contacting the staff of the center for
approval of times best suited to perform observations of settings that would not impact activities
at the center. In addition, the center’s staff were contacted for a schedule of academic coaches’
orientation sessions and coaches’ meetings for appropriate times to conduct observations. As a
result, an orientation session was observed at the beginning of the semester followed by an
academic coaches’ meeting towards the middle of the semester. At the end of the semester, an
academic coaching session was offered by a coach and their student who were interviewed
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 62
individually as part of the study. The final observation was conducted in the center lobby.
During all observations, descriptive fieldnotes were collected about participants, interactions and
characteristics associated with the setting. After the observations were completed, the observer
retreated to another setting to reflect upon the observation in order to extend the fieldnotes.
A form with references for supporting fieldnotes such as portraits, events, dialogue, and
setting was clipped to the journal, capturing the important elements of the observation. Initially,
a small diagram was drawn in the journal for each observation to help describe and trace
movement within the physical setting. In documenting fieldnotes of conversations, subjects were
tracked with coding such as each coach (c1) and student (s1) portrait to reconstruct and maintain
continuity in their dialogue. Events and activities that occurred within the setting were bracketed
in the journal fieldnotes in order to capture the observation while continuing to describe ongoing
dialogue among staff, coaches and students.
Documents
To collect documents associated with the learning center, the director was approached for
access to official and internal documents that illustrate how academic coaching practices support
students’ transitions through postsecondary education. Documents were selected based upon
their accessibility and usefulness for addressing the research questions as well as emerging
themes in the data analysis (Merriam, 2009). Staff were approached to request access to the
academic coaches’ session notes where coaches hand-write their comments on future directions
for providing academic support for each of their students. Additionally, staff review the binder
to provide additional feedback or references to tools and resources that may enhance the delivery
of academic coaching practices. Data usage reports were accessed to collect data on student
survey responses regarding their academic coaching experience as well as data on the center’s
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 63
activities. Website content was reviewed for information on how the center promotes academic
coaching. Finally, all documents were analyzed in association with interview and observation
notes to examine how academic coaching practices support student’s transitions through
postsecondary education.
Confidentiality
All data was converted to pseudonyms for identifying the institution and observation
settings, and generic titles for the roles of the interview participants. All references to the
characteristics of the institution and settings as well as any associated statistical references were
identified through pseudonyms. All data, aggregated into themes to support the findings and
quotations of interview participants, was identified by generic titles. All data is stored on
password protected devices, including a personal computer, external hard drive and secure online
storage providers. Interview notes and recordings as well as observation fieldnotes, including all
copies, are stored in a secured cabinet. Storage of data and notes is periodically checked to
ensure that the information has not been accessed by anyone other than the researcher of this
case study.
Data Analysis
The first stage of data analysis involved reading, reviewing and reflecting upon recorded
and typed documents of interview responses, fieldnotes and documents. This process was
conducted multiple times to identify patterns of meaning while applying open coding, which
Merriam (2009) describes as the unrestricted application of labels to data. Open codes were
inserted directly into interview data and observation fieldnotes to support the future development
of themes. In addition, reflections from fieldnotes were reviewed as a basis for analytical coding
and to support expanding the open codes to phrases of meaning (Merriam, 2009). Schlossberg’s
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 64
transition model (Evans et al., 2010, p. 218) was used as a basis for analyzing and applying open
codes to the data.
The next stage involved examining patterns in the data that could be synthesized into
ideas that may support the research questions. Concurrently, concepts for themes were
considered throughout the coding process for relevance and continuity with the purpose of the
study (Merriam, 2009). In addition, memos were written to generate ideas and inspire insights
that could support the development of descriptive categories of data and themes (Maxwell,
2013). As a result, coding phrases were developed with categories that supported the creation of
themes related to the research question. The final outcome of the coding process was the
creation of themes and categories used to compile data into tables for additional analysis. See
Figure B for a flow chart revealing how the coding scheme evolved into themes in order to
support a richer analysis of the data.
In proceeding, the process of defining themes was assessed against the internal biases of
the researcher and external limitations of the setting. Corbin and Strauss (2008) identify an array
of tools for analyzing data as a means of motivating inductive reasoning, identifying biases and
avoiding assumptions in evaluating the data. For instance, interview participants were selected
to provide multiple perspectives that were compared and contrasted as a means of providing a
comprehensive analysis of the data. Looking for biases in the responses from interview
participants revealed potential themes that contributed to analysis of the findings. Interview
responses were contrasted with experiences encountered through observations in multiple
settings to identify variations and avoid assumptions.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 65
Figure B. Evolution of coding scheme with themes.
Merriam’s (2009) strategy for applying analytical questions during the study provided an
approach for uncovering further details that informed the research question. For example, during
observations, unanticipated interactions occurred with academic coaches, staff and students
allowing for dialogue on their impressions of the learning center. Consequently, sensitizing
questions were explored to better understand the dynamics of interactions between staff,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 66
academic coaches and students observed in the setting. This process provided an opportunity to
explore ideas on the research study for confirmation and supplementary insights.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
As part of data analysis, the overall approach to trustworthiness was designed to validate
evidence collected in interviews, observations and documents on how academic coaching
practices are performed to support students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Addressing the validity and reliability of qualitative research involved considering threats
throughout the research process (Maxwell, 2013). A strategy to address threats was supported
through triangulation by collecting information from interview participants operating in multiple
areas within the academic coaching program. In addition, multiple observation settings were
selected within the center’s environment including specific venues where academic coaching
practices were determined and delivered. For instance, the center’s lobby adjacent to the
coaching carrels provided candid exposure to the ways in which academic coaches conduct their
practices. These observations were compared to observations from the coaches’ orientation and
coaches’ meeting to gain insights into how academic coaching practices are identified and
delivered. Finally, an opportunity was offered to witness a coaching session which allowed
direct access to observe an academic coach performing their practices.
To help address internal generalizability, observations involved multiple settings and
interviews with multiple areas of responsibility (Maxwell, 2013). For instance, the academic
coaches’ orientation afforded the opportunity to observe how staff guide academic coaches to
engage students and enact practices. The academic coaches’ meeting offered the opportunity to
observe how the views of multiple participants determine what coaching practices may be
applied to support students’ transitions. Staff interview participants represented multiple roles
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 67
involved in developing academic coaching services including the center director, learning
specialists, and an occupational therapist. Finally, interviews with academic coaches yielded
insights into the ways they deliver their practices while interviews with students offered
perspectives on how these practices support their transition through postsecondary education.
Timeline
The timeline for collecting data from interviews, observations and document analysis
began in late August, 2014 and ended in mid-December, 2014. Analysis of data took place
during the data collection until completion of findings.
August, 2014 through November, 2014 – conduct observations
September, 2014 through December, 2014 – perform document analysis
October, 2014 through December, 2014 – conduct interviews
The next chapter will explore findings and themes derived from analyzing data collected
to inform the research question for this study.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 68
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The following results of this study provide insights into how academic coaching practices
can be both flexible and strategic in addressing the academic support needs of students facing the
challenges of pursuing postsecondary education. Analysis of these findings extends beyond the
framework of Schlossberg’s transition theory. Students taking stock of factors such as situation,
self, strategies and support while engaged in academic coaching was not evident in the data.
However, from the findings emerged discrete and targeted practices that academic coaches
perform to support students’ learning strategies. To set the stage for the research findings, the
following description provides a perspective on how the learning center functions and an
overview of the academic coaching model.
Study Context
As shared on the center’s website, the mission of the learning center is to provide
enhanced academic support services through individual learning strategy sessions, tutoring in
academic disciplines and access to assistive technology for students with learning disabilities and
differences. The learning center was established through funding from a significant endowment
for the delivery of innovative services and creative learning strategies to support students’
academic achievement. As shown in Figure C, the learning center is a suite of offices, academic
coaching carrels, meeting spaces and a computer lab located within the student union building at
the center of the university’s campus. A staff member describes:
The fact that we have those couches in there, we've got these plants. We have (staff
member), she has little crafty little decorations. We have our little festive things around
the office. And that's something that I've heard from a lot of students that it's a space that
they want to be in, they feel comfortable in, they like coming here. And so all those little
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 69
touches really impact it, and I think it makes it feel safer, more comfortable for students
to explore.
Figure C. Learning center floor plan.
The learning center occupies an open space that supports ongoing communication and
feedback. Students arrive through the center lobby and first meet the receptionist to verify
registration with the center and status as a student of the institution. The student can then meet
with an academic coach, request to use the quiet study room or access the computer lab with
accessible workstations, software and adaptive learning materials for students with disabilities.
Students, academic coaches and center staff are continuously moving throughout the facility and
engaging in thoughtful and encouraging dialogue. As detailed in Table 1, profiles of the
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 70
interview participants provide a perspective on the individuals who occupy the learning center.
Table 1
Profiles of Interview Participants
Participant Demographics Background/Objective
Coach 1 Gender, Ethnicity: Male, White
Status: Graduate Student
Concentration: Postsecondary
Administration / Student Affairs
Currently serves as a residential advisor.
Academic coaching viewed as another
opportunity to work with students.
Second semester as an academic coach.
Coach 2 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, Latina
Status: Graduate Student
Concentration: Postsecondary
Administration
Prior experience supporting high school
students. Academic coaching viewed as
an opportunity to work with students.
First semester as an academic coach.
Coach 3 Gender, Ethnicity: Male, Asian
Status: Graduate Student
Concentration: Educational
Counseling
Academic coaching viewed as an
opportunity to work one-on-one with
students and contribute back. First
semester as an academic coach.
Student 1 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, White
Class Year: Senior
Major: Business
Administration
Seeking help with time management and
task organization skills. Psychiatrist
recommended a life coach. Last two
semesters using academic coaching.
Student 2 Gender, Ethnicity: Male, Latino
Class Year: Junior
Major: Business
Administration
Seeking help with time management and
prioritization skills. Involved in outside
activities. Peers suggested coaching.
First semester using academic coaching.
Student 3 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, Asian
Class Year: Senior
Major: Biochemical
Engineering
Seeking help with study and test
preparation skills. Met center staff at
freshman orientation. Use academic
coaching in sophomore and senior years.
Student 4 Gender, Ethnicity: Male, White
Class Year: Freshman
Major: Neuroscience
Seeking help with study habits and task
organizational skills. Identified self as
having AD/HD and needing help. First
semester using academic coaching.
Staff 1 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, Black/White
Role: Occupational Therapist
Started: August, 2014
Formerly with disability services and
worked with center, desire to be directly
involved in academic coaching program.
Staff 2 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, Latina
Role: Learning Specialist
Started: December, 2010
Oversee academic coaching program
while identifying new practices to
support students’ learning strategies.
Staff 3 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, White
Roles: Administrator, Director
Started: Spring, 2010
Involved with the inception of the
center, promote the academic coaching
program and expand center’s services.
Staff 4 Gender, Ethnicity: Female, Black/White
Role: Learning Specialist
Started: August, 2014
Assist academic coaches with their
practices, manage center’s metrics and
supervise computer lab enhancements.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 71
In addition to these individuals, the learning center promotes access to outside
professionals in psychology, occupational therapy and neuropsychology as well as serving as a
field site for researchers and graduate students from associated disciplines. The resulting
collaborations promote a multidisciplinary approach with a focus on individual strengths to
better understand learning differences with the intention of providing expanded learning
opportunities for students.
Academic Coaching
According to the center’s website, the mission of the academic coaching program is to
empower students to become successful and self-directed lifelong learners. Academic coaches
work with students to identify and apply tools and learning strategies that can support student’s
efforts to fulfill academic and personal goals. Creative and innovative concepts are integrated
into learning strategies to provide the best possible approach for each student. The center’s staff
serve as academic coaches, learning specialists and occupational therapists. Students are not
required to register with disability services to access the center’s services. A one hour intake
meeting is a requirement of each student who seeks to participate in the academic coaching
program. Students are asked to explain their interest in the program and the academic challenges
they are facing as well as the strategies they apply while working on coursework.
During an observation of academic coaches’ orientation, two types of binders were
identified as primary tools for supporting academic coaching practices. The first binder contains
concepts, presentations and worksheets with tabs for topics such as AD/HD (attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder), types of learning disabilities and anxiety so academic coaches can
determine an approach for assisting students with addressing their learning needs. The second
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 72
binder contains tabs for each student including in-take forms, short-term and long-term goals,
weekly schedule and syllabi. Also included are forms that substantiate the nature and
expectations of the academic coach-student relationship. The relationship agreement outlines
expectations for attendance and participation in academic coaching sessions (see Appendix J for
copy of relationship agreement). The learning contract identifies academic goals and establishes
commitments for achieving learning outcomes (see Appendix K for copy of learning contract).
Additionally, a feedback form is used by the academic coaches to identify challenges and areas
for improvement for each student and supplemented by comments from the learning center’s
occupational therapist and learning specialists. These binders are centrally located for easy
access by staff and academic coaches to facilitate ongoing feedback and shared learning.
Findings
As a recent data usage report from the learning center indicates, academic coaches often
assist students with schedules, study strategies, time management and test taking strategies.
Student evaluations of the academic coaching experience generally reveal a positive response to
the academic coaching relationship as approachable and accessible as well as, patient and
supportive. From a survey on how academic coaching was helpful, students express appreciation
as: “she motivates me to do better and she has helped me stay organized and do well,” and, “he
had many suggestions on study habits and time management so when one thing wasn’t working
we switched it up and improved my study habits.” From a survey on how academic coaching
was least helpful, fewer students express dissatisfaction including: “the writing worksheets were
the least helpful,” and, “I need to learn study strategies and we really didn’t do any.” The
following sections explore the research findings in more detail by theme and category according
to how academic coaches enact their practices to support students’ learning strategies.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 73
Theme 1 – Foster an Environment of Shared Learning
The first theme involves fostering a culture that supports and values shared learning by
performing academic coaching practices that exemplify productive and ongoing communication.
Promoting collaboration and openness can make students feel more comfortable accessing and
using the support services of the learning center to address the academic challenges of pursuing a
postsecondary education. By providing a receptive and safe space, academic coaching practices
demonstrate the benefits of continuous review and feedback between students and coaches. The
learning center demonstrates a commitment to providing opportunities to learn for everyone
including academic coaches. A staff member provides this perspective:
…we have coaches who are coming out of educational counseling programs, they're
coming out of student affairs masters programs, and we've had some doctoral students in
the past that have also been involved. But looking at what is the program teaching these
students in their work, what are they learning so we can get the professional development
for them…
As stated on the learning center’s website, a goal of the academic coaching program is to provide
opportunities for graduate students and researchers from other disciplines to develop insights into
providing academic support to students with learning disabilities and differences.
Through direct involvement, academic coaches and staff continually collaborate on
innovative ideas and creative approaches to support students’ learning strategies for achieving
academic progress. A staff member explains:
The way we're structured is that we have the director and three learning specialists. We
all oversee and help with the coaching. One of things we do is we have the Monday
morning meetings that we all take turns leading different topics and all the coaches also
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 74
fill up feedback forms for every academic coaching session that they do, what they talk
about, challenges, future directions. Instead of saying it's, we select for them to meet
individually with us each for an hour a week which is a lot of time. Even this morning, I
sat down and read all the feedback forms from last week and just wrote little hints and
said like, “Hey, if you need help with this, come and see me.” Different resources,
different ways of thinking about problems…
While the learning center environment supports collaboration, academic coaches consider
opportunities and resources that serve their individual needs. An academic coach recounts:
I've learned on the job, in a lot of ways by shadowing other coaches, and then taking the
time to flip through the plethora of information and manuals and things like leadership
team has put together here. It's an ongoing process, and while we're never experts, I
would say academic coaches, we're not trained to be experts by any means in one
particular area. We're taught to be a jack of all trades and become familiar with a lot of
things.
Consequently, academic coaches establish a commitment to collaboration by accepting that
practices for providing academic support require an ongoing effort to acquire and assimilate
knowledge to meet the learning needs of a diverse student population. Additionally, other
insights can be derived from students receiving academic coaching or accessing the learning
center’s services. A staff member shares:
I just worked with a student the other week who was talking about how he makes for
himself little mini-mission statements for each course that he takes. So, when he loses
motivation in the middle or end of the semester, he refers back to that statement that he
created at the beginning, why did he want to take that class and what does he hope to
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 75
have achieved, or what tools at the end of it? And that's something that he created for
himself.
These examples illustrate opportunities where academic coaches and staff can learn from others
in the learning center’s environment to enhance their practices. A perspective revealed in these
examples involves an appreciation and value for seeking information without threat of criticism
for lack of knowledge.
This environment of shared learning is supported by the openness of the space that
creates opportunities for ongoing communication and feedback. An academic coach explains:
I love the fact that it's the set-up of even just the physical space here. Our learning
specialists, their doors are often open and they can hear us in our session. They'll talk to
me afterward and be like, "I didn't hear everything necessarily, but I thought you did a
great job here and you might want to try this resource with this student next time, because
it sounded like they were doing that." Because there is a lot of different expertise in the
room with the different graduate students coming from different disciplines and different
experiences on campus, in combination with the fact that we have an occupational
therapist, a learning specialist, so everyone's perspective is definitely valued. And it's
encouraged that if you're just not sure what to do with students and you want to bounce
ideas around, then it's always open.
The value of openness is demonstrated in the way academic coaches can engage each other and
staff while in a session with their student. Another academic coach indicates:
…we're all really close together. If I'm with a student and then I have a quick question, I
can quickly look over my shoulder and then I can ask an academic coach or ask (staff).
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 76
We're all really right there, and then we are free to ask each other any questions that we
may have.
A perceived lack of privacy in this type of environment can be a concern for some students
seeking academic coaching services. A staff member addresses this concern:
I think what the center provides is a sense of again kind of teasing out what some of the
other factors are, and then coming into make appropriate referrals. So we are not the
place to assess, or to take full responsibility for any of that, but it is just to help a student
dig a little deeper sometimes. Sometimes trying to find some of those sources of high
anxiety, high stress, and make appropriate referrals, and talk about; and talk to the student
about, what does the counseling center do? What does the center for women and men
do? What does confidentiality look like? That's a huge question from many of the
students about, “Well if I go to this, if I go somewhere, the counseling center, if I go to
this place, will people know?”
Not all students who come to the center are comfortable with their learning disability or learning
difference and wish to keep their status private. In these cases, there are separate rooms where
students can engage in academic coaching without the fear of revealing their status.
Aside from learning new practices, academic coaches develop confidence in their
approach for supporting students by receiving validation from staff and their peers. For example,
a staff member reflects on this possibility in working with students:
I feel like there's so many opportunities as a coach to be witness to these brilliant
suggestions and solutions and strategies that students who learn differently and who think
about things differently come up with on their own that can really be applied in a lot of
different settings, situations, different students. There are a lot of things I've learned from
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 77
my students that I'll incorporate into my daily life. So, I really feel like it's a mutually
beneficial relationship.
The concept of a “mutually beneficial relationship” is echoed by another academic coach, who
explains:
I can often hear what the other academic coaches and their students are talking about.
Sometime afterwards, we'll have a debrief about, “That seems like you're starting with
that conversation,” or “You did a really good job with that.” Then they'll talk about like,
“I thought I was great. But this is something that I'm not sure will work. What you
think?” We'll give each other support in that way.
The openness of the learning center provides opportunities for students to feel
comfortable socializing and forming supportive relationships with their peers. So while students
are not at ease with sharing their learning differences, others see it as an opportunity to learn
from the work of others. One student described this experience as follows:
I think there's a lot of centering, and a lot of knowing that, yeah, it's hard, but there are a
lot of other students in your position, and there's somebody that's been through that and
has found a way to actually find a peacefulness in it, and is actually wanting to help
people through it. So knowing that is kind of like a group, like struggling through a
group, because college sometimes can be very isolating…
As a result, academic coaching practices that promote collaboration and openness can support
students in feeling more comfortable accessing and using the support services of the learning
center to address the challenges of pursuing postsecondary education. In some cases, however,
students need to feel their privacy is respected and that the center represents a safe place for
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 78
them. In one way, the learning center supports this privacy by not requiring students to register
with disability services in order to access the center’s resources or services.
Theme 2 – Enhance Level of Social Supports
The second theme involves developing supportive relationships by applying academic
coaching practices that demonstrate the value of building rapport and valuing the mutual benefits
of interdependence. Through ongoing interaction, academic coaches promote the importance of
supportive relationships based on trust, kindness and authenticity when students are seeking
support to address the academic challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education.
Category 1: Demonstrate value of supportive relationships. Academic coaches apply
their practices to support students’ learning strategies by building rapport based on integrity to
foster confidence in academic coaching recommendations and feedback. Academic coaches
develop a close relationship with students by listening and sharing to gain a deeper
understanding of the challenges a student is facing. An academic coach explains:
We build a relationship, and oftentimes, we're talking about their personal relationships,
or their family life, or what they are doing to exercise and things like that. Even that has
the intention of building the relationships so that we can dive a little bit deeper…
The intimate nature of the relationship between academic coach and student is cultivated through
practices that demonstrate integrity. As a staff member shares, “that rapport that the student is
building with their coach is very, very important because they feel that trust and so forth and can
talk a little bit about some of the current concerns they have.” Students identify the importance
of developing a positive relationship with their academic coach.
As a student expresses, their academic coach:
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 79
…was able to achieve that rapport. She has been very kind. I'm very surprised by the
caring that she shows. She's very calm, and she's not really scared of like if I say, “Oh,
man. I did this.” She's going to be calm about it, and I know that we can incorporate
what happened with why I did or didn't do certain things on my schedule, and we can
work off of that…
This relationship can extend beyond the academic coaching session and provide additional
opportunities to develop rapport. A student describes this experience:
Like my academic coach literally, like in a lot of sports you have a coach. So now you
are using, you're implementing that into education which is very cool especially for
younger people who are mostly into that kind of thing. It's cool having a coach that feels
like an assistant, but they know what's going on in your life academically, and they want
to know what's happening socially and stuff like that.
It can be challenging for an academic coach to know if they are developing rapport. In one
response to a survey on how coaches could be more effective, a student indicated that their
academic coach could “…share more personal experiences to become more relatable.” It can be
difficult for academic coaches to determine how much disclosure of personal information is
necessary in order to achieve rapport with their student.
In some cases, sharing a common understanding facilitates a deeper connection with the
student. As expressed by one academic coach in a focus group interview:
…if they're struggling with something, you tell them, “I have struggled the same way too,
and this is how I dealt with it,” they really respond to it. And I actually had an instance
with one of my students and she was like, “I am glad you told me this because it makes
me feel a lot better to know that I'm not the only one.”
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 80
By establishing a shared understanding of academic experiences, academic coaches promote
confidence in strategies that support specific learning needs. This is disclosed by another
academic coach:
….it's really just like letting them know I've been there before, I've done that. Some of
the concepts that they're learning, I remember learning them. It's relating a lot of my
experience and telling them how I prepared for it.
Another contributing factor for establishing a shared understanding is that academic coaches are
students participating in graduate programs. Academic coaches have experience in overcoming
the challenges of obtaining an undergraduate degree. A staff member explains:
…the idea of that, we're all in this together. We're students too, we know what it's like
we; they went through undergrad, they made it through, now they're in grad school. I
think that's a huge component, and just the idea of being able to build that rapport, and
build that relationship, and that the coach is someone that they can trust, because we have
had students open up about deeper personal issues, family issues, that kind of thing. And
you only do that if you feel that rapport with someone.
These examples reveal several ways that academic coaches disclose more about themselves to
achieve a greater level of rapport with their students. However, academic coaches can consider
setting boundaries when determining what degree of information is appropriate and necessary to
achieve this goal.
Once rapport is established, academic coaches leverage this relationship to ensure
students uphold their commitment to attend academic coaching sessions and work through
challenges. A staff member explains:
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 81
…when a student has come to more than a few coaching sessions, let's say, and the
rapport is building, and the students begin to feel that sense of accountability with their
coach, like they want to come, and they want to work on whatever it is, and they want to
have followed their followed their schedule for the week, or completed a to-do list, or
whatever it is, and they want to share that with their coach. Or maybe they didn't
complete what they needed to do but they know they have that coaching session every
Tuesday afternoon, and so they are going to come into the center and then they'll catch up
on whatever. That continues to help with the follow-through.
An important outcome of academic coaching practices is to confirm that students understand the
importance of being accountable to the strategies and choices they make during their session. An
academic coach notes:
I feel like also having that one-on-one relationship and being able to meet with them on a
weekly basis makes them accountable for their own actions. So then they feel like, “I
really need to go, or else I'm going to tell my coach next week that I didn't go.” You start
building a relationship with them, and it's like neither of you want to let the other one
down…
As a result, developing a positive relationship with students gives academic coaches more
influence when encouraging students to make commitments that support their efforts to achieve
academic goals. As one student summarizes in responding to a survey on how academic
coaching has been helpful, their academic coach represented “someone to talk everything out
with, someone who has been supportive since day 1, and someone who helps me stay on top of
my work and actually achieve my academic goals for once!” As this response reveals, academic
coaching practices that build rapport demonstrate the characteristics of a supportive relationship
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 82
that can help students address the academic challenges of pursing a postsecondary education. If
it appears that rapport is not building with a student, the academic coach can consider disclosing
more about themselves or assigning the student to another more compatible academic coach.
Category 2: Promote benefits of interdependence. Academic coaches perform their
practices to support students’ learning strategies by identifying and recommending networks of
support where students can build productive relationships for mutual benefit. Academic coaches
use the learning center’s resources and their knowledge of the institution to guide students
towards groups that can assist in achieving their personal and academic goals. A staff member
explains this objective:
…getting them involved and trying to help them and being able to see that the
connections with others, the interpersonal connections. And we use a lot of the terms of
interdependence is key so going from, “I can do this all on my own,” and not be, “I need
somebody else to do something for me,” but, “How can I work collaboratively with
people in my environment, with faculty, with staff, with peers, in order to really enjoy
what I'm doing?” That's the interdependence that we want students to be able to realize
and see how that feels for them.
As this example indicates, academic coaching practices attempt to help students understand the
value of working with others. The resulting benefits can be illustrated by a student’s response:
When I did have a group project this semester, I was the one that, like not know where I
was like wholly supporting the group. I just knew what I was going to do and knew how
to help other group members out and we ended up getting a good grade on our group
project and presentation. So it was like, because I'm organized and a lot of people here
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 83
aren't, they can build off of you. There's a lot of peer support. So just making me feel
like I'm in a better place definitely helps me.
In the preceding example, the student’s appreciation of a group activity is an outcome of the
interpersonal skills and direction they developed while receiving academic coaching.
In considering the concept of interdependence beyond the academic environment, the
following example depicts an exchange where an academic coach asks their student if they have
a list of people who they can call for support. The student responds:
I see everyone that I'm friends with all the time, but moving forward, I'm moving to San
Francisco to do finance up there. Once I'm not in Southern California, it will be more
important to make a conscious effort to keep in contact with people. And even now,
people who aren't here at school, or family, and that sort of thing, we talked about how
adding that into task lists, and that sort of a thing, or your calendar about when to contact
people, and making sure you keep up relationships is something we talked about, as well.
At first, the student confirms their social support in the current academic environment but then
goes on to address the importance of maintaining and developing a network of support as they
proceed beyond graduation. In another portrayal, an academic coach details their attempt to
assist a student in understanding the importance of establishing support networks:
He described himself in one point as a lone wolf. But it was all within a very strength,
like it wasn't anything that he was concerned about. He was like, “I'm here to get this and
do that.” I was trying to get him to realize that, I think you're incredibly driven and
you're doing a really great job coming here on your own, and doing this, and finding this
resources out on your own, but I think you should really think about what else are you
getting involved in on campus. What are the student organizations might you align
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 84
yourself with, that you can find support with other friends and other groups on campus or
other resource centers on campus that might be helpful for you to really find people that
you identify closely with, that you can really find support network there yourself.
In each of these examples, the academic coach engaged the student in a process of examining the
benefits of participating in support networks. However, this outcome can be difficult to achieve
if the student is unable to realize how engaging others is of value in supporting their goals.
In some cases, students are seeking networks to access resources and academic coaches
can guide them to appropriate social groups. An academic coach describes:
…for instance, students who are in clubs and are trying to fundraise. I know, like I was
in a club that had to fundraise a lot, so I translated a lot of my ideas and lot of things that
we did on to one of my students, and she was just so grateful. She was like, “Oh my god,
I had never thought about those things.” It's just like that networking component that
they receive from us as well. Sometimes, the student is interested in something, but I
don't know the means in which to help them out, I will ask the learning specialist or other
coaches. It's like they have a network within academic coaching. Just by coming to us,
we have our network and then they can move on from there, too.
Academic coaching practices involve sharing their knowledge with students of campus
resources, support networks and social groups to encourage their pursuit of personal as well as
academic development. A staff member expresses:
… the coach is going to go do research on here's all the real estate club, here's all the
organizations you can join. Let's look up when they meet, let's see if we can get on the
list of them. They can help the students kind of branch out of their social network,
especially if you're a freshman, unless you came here with a group of people that you
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 85
know from high school, or family friends, or cousins or whatever. You really usually
know people in your classes and people on your hall that's about it, that's only people you
know. So just teaching them or letting them know like here's how you join clubs, here's
where clubs meet, here's how you look up, because students may not know.
Academic coaches who are actively involved in campus life are better suited to provide this type
of direction. However, academic coaches can rely upon the network of support at the learning
center for obtaining information on student organizations and activities.
There can be a need for academic coaches to directly assist students in accessing support
groups. Students who participate in academic coaching and access the learning center’s services
have different support requirements. As a result, academic coaches can engage students in a
probing conversation to identify an appropriate resource. A staff member illustrates this process:
…are you registered with this disability services? Sometimes they say yeah. Sometimes
they say “I don't understand,” sometimes they say “No I don't want accommodations.”
And so, it's a good way to just get them to start the process.
The outcome of this process involves directly guiding a student to the appropriate resource and
supporting their access to necessary support services. An academic coach shares:
We'll physically take them, and we'll walk them over to DSP (disability services and
programs) just to help them out. I had that actual experience, I think two weeks ago.
One of my students, he had a disability but he didn't know about the office. We ended
our sessions just about ten minutes short, and then I walked them over there to the office,
and then I explained to them that some of the services that he was looking for, and if they
could help him like with the whole paperwork. He just told me this week that
everything's done, and he's getting extra time on his test.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 86
In some cases, students may not want to be directed to certain support groups. For instance, in
response to a survey on what was least helpful about academic coaching, a student related an
experience with their academic coach “offering to take to the health center to seek counseling. I
understand why she tried, but for some reason I just don’t want to see a school counselor.” In
this example, the academic coach needs to develop deeper rapport with the student to understand
how counseling might be addressed outside the formal setting of a health center.
Additionally, academic coaches have access to resources and receive training to help
identify when students are exhibiting behaviors that require the need for support networks
outside of the learning center. In another example, an academic coach notes:
I've had a couple of sessions where I've had to walk a student over to the counseling
center to help them see that what they're going through is not necessarily normal, like
having a panic attack and breaking down and not being able to go to class because you're
so nervous and have some so much anxiety around class. That's not something that is
necessarily normal or something that's healthy.
Academic coaches rely upon campus services when they are unable to provide appropriate
support through the learning center. One student responds to a survey on how academic coaches
are helpful:
This semester was the hardest semester for me, academically and emotionally, but
(academic coach) really inspired me to pull through. When I was really down, he urged
me to use campus resources like the counseling center, and even walked me over there to
provide support.
Overall, academic coaching practices that identify and access networks of support can help
students understand the value of interdependence when seeking assistance to address personal
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and academic challenges. Finally, academic coaches can seek expertise outside of the learning
center, if necessary, in order to address a student’s support requirements.
Theme 3: Guide Attention Towards Wellness Principles
The third theme involves guiding students’ attention towards wellness by conducting
academic coaching practices that support students’ learning strategies that focus on work life
balance and self-care. Through exercises that promote awareness and health, principles of
wellness can enhance a student’s ability to perceive what aspects of their academic challenges
are in their control and how they might respond to achieve desired results.
Category 1: Promote a work life balance approach. Academic coaches apply their
practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging them in actions that focus on work
life balance. An academic coach shares their view on work life balance:
… sometimes, it's easy for students to compartmentalize their academics versus
everything else they do where, I think, some of the intention that we have here is to help
them see that it's all connected. And how you're spending your time when you're not
working on academics does have an impact on the academics.
Other academic coaches highlighted their commitment to assisting students in establishing work
life balance through other aspects of their life that support academic achievement. An academic
coach relates:
...one of the things we've tried to do is see the bigger picture, their whole experience here.
Everything from what they eat to how they sleep, to how they spend their time, in terms
of being well, has an effect on their ability to be academically successful.
However, once they leave their academic coaching session, students need to take responsibility
for ensuring they have the discipline to maintain work life balance to better address academic
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challenges. For example, this student expresses a view of academic coaching practices that
focuses on balance:
My coach was also really helpful with helping me remember that it is okay, that I should
be doing balance, and I don't have to be so overwhelmed and stressed, because the
semester isn't as stressful. I'm not taking as many hard classes, so helping me to organize
it effectively so that I have time to enjoy being a student, as well.
Another student provides a view of how work life balance changed their perspective from solely
focusing on academics to introducing other aspects of their life. The student explains:
Kind of looking at the life balance thing again and figuring out, rather than my first
semester on my calendar, I just had school stuff, versus my coach this semester really
helped me incorporate the other parts of my life into that as well, which made it more
realistic like, “alright, if I'm going home this weekend, I probably won't get things done
on these certain days.” So that was definitely helpful.
These examples illustrate that students are not always aware of how work life balance can assist
them in addressing the challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education. A staff member
describes how this topic might be introduced to a student:
…often it will be kind of a conversation around, “what do you do for fun, and what do
you do to balance all the school work that you are doing?” Because that conversation is
something that they maybe don't feel like they are supposed to have or allowed to have it.
Once the concept of work life balance has been accepted by the student as a desired goal, the
next step is to identify a practice for obtaining this outcome.
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Planning and making schedules are practices that can support work life balance but can
require new skills that pose additional challenges for students. An academic coach suggests an
approach to planning:
…something I often find myself doing when I'm helping a student breakdown a weekly
schedule which is a great tool. We're breaking down, first, you put in the specific hours
that they have their classes on. That's mandatory stuff. You have to work around that
because that's when class is happening. Then you put in maybe some of the mandatory
meetings that you have. Okay, now we're getting a picture of when you have big breaks,
when are some good times for you to study.
By establishing a plan, academic coaches can support students in developing a structure that will
allow them to see where they might incorporate activities that support work life balance.
However, other aspects of the student’s experience may need to be considered before proceeding
with a plan. Another staff member explains how the student’s emotional state impacts their
ability to focus attention on planning for work life balance:
…they always come in frantic. “I'm so busy. I have so much going on. I have two tests
next week. How am I going to fit it in?” And when you break out the schedule, here's
where you have meetings, here's where you have class, here's where you eat, and you're
going to show, “Look at all these free time that you have.” You can see a light bulb kind
of go off, like one of either, “Wow, I have so much more time than I thought,” and
usually the second thought is, “Whoa, I have a lot of time and I'm wasting it somehow.
What am I doing?”
By realizing the amount of time being underutilized, students can begin to focus attention on
tools that can optimize their schedules for academic achievement as well as personal fulfillment.
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Consequently, this perspective can help alleviate the stress or anxiety a student is experiencing
from not having their life in balance.
Additionally, academic coaching practices focused on balance can support student’s
efforts to become active participants in managing their academic experience. Students learn
skills that support their ability to assess their schedule and determine how to incorporate work
life balance. A student details one planning tool:
So it's a sheet, and I sit down with my coach for about 25 minutes each week and I fill out
on every single grid, what I'm going to do in that exact hour. Some of it writes lunch,
some of it writes sleep, some of it writes I'm going to sit in (student center) for a half
hour. I am literally planning every hour of my day. That was usually helpful, in that I
can visually see how many hours in this week I have, and how many hours do I need to
use to do things.
In the prior example, attention is focused on planning daily routines that support academic
progress and work life balance. In the following example, a student describes a broader view of
planning that encompasses the entire semester:
Yeah, the first thing we did was go over my syllabus, all of them, and take them out and
write down the important dates on them like the midterm date, the final date, the big
paper of the class. Stuff like that. The policies of what's going to happen with homework
and stuff. That was one of the first things and I swear when you see it all written down
on one page with all your classes and you realize you have a lot. It maybe look
intimidating, but it's a lot less intimidating when it's on one page.
As these examples illustrate, understanding how time can be maximized to support goals can be
an important first step in understanding the importance of planning. A student survey response
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on how academic coaching has been helpful, summarizes the value of creating a schedule to
allow time for work life balance:
When planning out the week, my AC (academic coach) is very understanding and takes
into consideration not only my class schedule and my work schedule but she also makes
sure that I have time to spend some time with friends or to do something I find personal
fulfilling.
However, achieving the benefits of work life balance can require developing skills that pose
additional concerns for students if they are unable to find an approach that succeeds for them. A
student’s survey response on how academic coaching was least helpful disclosed “my inability to
find a scheduling tactic (worksheets) that worked well for me. I was only able to find some
things that helped a little bit.” As a result, academic coaches who wish to promote the
importance of planning for work life balance need to continuously explore approaches that are
adaptable and accessible to the diverse requirements of students.
Category 2: Maintain awareness on personal health. Academic coaches perform their
practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging them in creating self-care goals
including mindfulness exercises. Self-care involves intentional actions to care for one’s
physical, mental and emotional health. For example, one academic coach’s session notes
captured a number of areas for further action since the student was assessed as, “feeling
overwhelmed; not getting good sleep; focus on methods to reduce stress – practicing good
wellness techniques.” An academic coach explains the practice of setting self-care goals:
I think setting up self-care goals, too, for sure, a lot of the students that come here are
very overwhelmed. They just feel like they just have to study all the time and that their
goal is to get good grades. But it's just letting them know that sleeping habits is
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 92
important, eating habits is important, being able to have fun and rest. That gives them a
little bit of a step back from school which, in turn, actually help them perform better in
school.
An initial step in assisting students to set self-care goals can be a process of inquiry where the
academic coach first attempts to identify areas where the student is being impacted by unhealthy
behaviors. Students appear to be responsive to efforts by academic coaches to guide their
attention towards health. A student provides this perspective:
Also, I think, sometimes she was very concerned about me, though, because I would
drink a lot of caffeine, a lot of coffee, too much in excess. So, we also helped establish
little goals like drink more water, or get more sleep, or do these other things.
In the aforementioned example, the student identifies a habit that poses a health issue and
responds by establishing a self-care goal. In the next example, a student describes how they
worked with their academic coach to assess and establish an arrangement of self-care goals:
…she does an exercise with me to set self-care goals. So, every week we write down
three self-care goals. Examples of those would be eating fruits, and she would be like,
“how much are you going to buy, how much are you going to get through?” Literally
like that. Or, “I'm going to go to sleep before 12:00 four out of the five days,” or, “I'm
going to watch a movie, I'm going to make sure to hang out with my friends for X
amount of time.”
In this example, performing a personal assessment enables the student to combine multiple self-
care goals for a holistic approach to wellness and work life balance. As a student expresses in a
survey on how they have grown from academic coaching, “I have learned to take better care of
myself personally. Sometimes I need not overwhelm myself with too many things.” Another
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 93
student goes on to reinforce, “caring for myself, that's something I deserve and that's something
I'm going to do, just like homework is something I'm going to do. And that's been endlessly
helpful, I think, in terms of my mindset.” These examples reveal how students recognize the
importance of self-care and work life balance and are taking steps to incorporate strategies
focused on health and planning.
One frequently identified self-care goal involves the practice of mindfulness. Engaging
in mindfulness involves maintaining hyper intensive focus on the moment to examine the
sensations of one’s personal state and the environment around them. These exercises can
involve self-observations, meditation and measured breathing. An academic coach explains:
… they'll get really stressed out, so we'll recommend them simple like mindfulness
activities or websites, also apps, and I'll have my students make it a self-care goal to
actually do it at least three times a week, and then for at least like two or five minute, the
majority of them do it, but some of them sometimes they don't. But they really like it, it
just kind of calm them down, or I'll tell them to do it right before they go to sleep.
Academic coaches are trained by staff to consider mindfulness exercises as an approach for
helping students address stress in order to support academic achievement. A staff member
reveals this consideration:
We have so many of our students that come in here, they're just overwhelmed. Some of
our students are just ready to give up sometimes, so then we help them. Also, being very
mindful, so we've taught our coaches about mindfulness, and centering meditation and so
forth, the stress relaxation response. Imparting that type of information to the students is
really helpful and helps bring down their anxiety so that they can approach a task.
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Additionally, academic coaches can use a mindfulness exercise as a means of addressing a
student’s emotional state before attempting to proceed with academic support strategies.
Practicing mindfulness can help students understand the impact of stress on their ability to make
progress in meeting their academic goals. A student shares this insight:
It just so happens that a lot of the people here know a lot about mindfulness based stress
reduction and it really helped me, because just breathing and slowly calming yourself
down. Because you're so on all the time. And for me, something specifically being able
to come back to a base, because my mind can drift really fast and I can start ruminating
on it and just make myself really tense. So it's good to slow it down.
Depending upon a student’s familiarity with mindfulness, academic coaches need to consider
how to demonstrate the benefits of these practices. One approach involves helping students
understand the importance of managing their emotional state as a means of focusing on their
academic and personal goals.
Meditation is a common mindfulness exercise identified by academic coaches and staff
that is more familiar to students. A staff member shares the concept of mediation in more detail:
Really it's more of the reflective practice of how one is feeling. Looking at some of the
breathing techniques to help get a sense of if the student is breathing very rapidly or very
shallow kind of going into more deep breathing. So, that helps calm, that helps focus.
Visualization techniques about visualizing the student getting through the exam, a very
positive type of vision, or something that is very calming to the student in terms of
visualizing that. Self-mantras that a student will need to repeat to themselves. So again,
very quiet, very still. It takes a lot of practice, but we know from the literature, so forth,
that it works.
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However, it can take some time for students to realize the benefits of practicing mindfulness
exercises as an ongoing approach to supporting academic achievement. Students can lose
interest if they are unable to perceive a direct relationship with mindfulness and their progress in
meeting goals.
Many resources are available to assist in identifying mindfulness exercises that can meet
the diverse requirements and preferences of students. An academic coach shares:
While I'm not in any way an expert on meditation, I do know specific tools and specific
apps and websites that can help do a very simple meditation. I've done that with students
too when they came in here I saw that, you're very anxious right now. Let's practice
meditation.
In general, academic coaching practices that involve setting self-care goals can support students’
ability to be attentive to the importance of health when responding to personal and academic
challenges. However, students can face challenges in setting self-care goals and practicing
mindfulness without the intervention and monitoring of an academic coach. Students who
continuously attempt and fail to achieve self-care goals or apply mindfulness exercises can lose
interest in these strategies as approaches for supporting their academic achievement.
Theme 4: Develop Ability to Achieve Results
The fourth theme involves using a strengths-based approach by applying academic
coaching practices that support students’ learning strategies that focus on maintaining
commitments and build on personal assets. Developing confidence in one’s assets and ability to
meet commitments enhances one’s outlook when handling challenges. Academic coaching
practices that use adaptable and diverse resources assist students in gaining insights and skills
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that expand their learning strategies and promote confidence in managing the academic
challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education.
Category 1: Foster commitment through understanding. Academic coaches conduct
their practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging them in task analysis and
creating action plans that encourage meeting commitments. Through task analysis, assignments
are broken down into smaller more manageable objectives that become part of an action plan that
is easier to understand and motivates a greater level of commitment. Academic coaches use
SMART goals for breaking down tasks that are specific, measureable, achievable, results
focused and time-based. This practice was emphasized in an observation of a coaches’ meeting
where recommendations for assisting students who are dealing with AD/HD involved helping
them get organized and maintain that structure by prioritizing and breaking up tasks using
SMART goals. After meeting with students, academic coaching session notes often support this
recommendation by stating, “open about how challenging her classes will be; create weekly
schedule; plan out all priorities and create SMART goals.” Academic coaches can assist
students in achieving their goals by helping them understand how to break down assignments
through task analysis.
An academic coach explains this practice:
When they see their assignments broken down, they could also see where they might be
struggling. If I'm dissecting an essay with a student, we try to do it intro, first, second,
third, conclusion paragraphs; sometimes that doesn't work for her. Sometimes she might
want to do the second paragraph first or do you want do the first paragraph first and then
do the conclusion and then the intro will be the last. Whereas before she would be just
kind sit down and do the whole thing and cram like five hours and all this information in
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 97
five hours so that she can form a paper. If we break it down into smaller manageable
pieces and we do the SMART goals with them too…
In a survey response from students addressing the question of how academic coaches are helpful,
a student substantiates the benefits of task analysis by saying of their academic coach, “she is
very good at organization, and also she is great at helping me break big assignments into smaller
ones and keep up a positive attitude.” Once academic coaches help students understand the
importance of task analysis, the next step is to develop an approach for getting desired results.
Academic coaches utilize action plans as a common practice for supporting students’
efforts to complete assignments and reach goals. An academic coach describes this process:
“I often go over their syllabi and break down their schedule for the entire semester. A lot
of us use the starting tool of a weekly action plan. We come up with what they're going
to do over the next week before we meet again. It's a great reference. The next time we
meet to say, okay, I know you said you were struggling with procrastination. These are
the things we set out to do. This is what you didn't accomplish. What happened there?
And then having them elaborate a little bit more.
Action plans can provide greater clarity on what tasks must be accomplished in a time frame to
meet certain goals. This process promotes students’ commitment to complete necessary tasks. A
student explains:
…she puts the subject and the things that I need to do for the week. I can't really follow a
time constraint, so between six and ten, you're going to be working on this. Because
sometimes I like to go over the time, because I really like to take and learn everything as
detailed as possible, do some additional research, see how everything plays out. But
what really helped me the most was the time blocks, how it showed what I need to get
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done for the week, and based off of that, I can see, “Okay, if I have this much work here
on this, maybe I can focus more on this.” So, that helped me put the time needed for each
subject.
In this example, the student was aware that time management was a challenge. In other cases,
the process of breaking down assignments assists students in realizing the importance of
managing their time more effectively to achieve a desired goal.
The process of task analysis can assist students in understanding the value of developing
an action plan to organize their time for completing assignments. Academic coaches provide
tools for supporting this learning strategy. Another student describes:
It's a grid of different boxes and on the right-hand side of it, you write everything that
you need to go over for the exam, and then you can break those down into different
pieces, so you can go at it in a more organized manner, that a lot of times it's
overwhelming, like, “Oh my Gosh, I have this many chapters to get through,” and that
sort of thing. So, that breaks down exactly what you have to do and can check off things
as you go along, which made studying for things more manageable.
This approach is reinforced from an observation of an academic coaching session where the
focus was on upcoming finals and many questions were about preparation, compiling notes, what
has been received from professors to prepare for exams and reviewing the calendar to determine
how the student is preparing to complete assignments. The academic coach immediately
introduced an action plan for the week to support the student’s focus on the activity and
preparation required to complete exams and final assignments.
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By continuing to apply this approach, academic coaches are able to demonstrate how
action plans can facilitate students’ management of time to achieve academic goals. A student
identifies the benefits of action plans:
A lot of times, I can get overwhelmed and write so many things that I should do and end
up not doing them, versus if there's this specific amount of time associated with each
task, then it seems more manageable, plus it helped me from getting stuck on one thing,
like spending way too much time on one thing and kind of moving along.
Therefore, breaking down coursework into manageable tasks through an action plan enhances a
student’s confidence in their ability to achieve academic goals. Developing and following action
plans can support students’ commitment to prepare for exams and complete assignments on time.
A student further relates:
I'm realizing that you have all this time to do. There are things you do that sometimes get
in the way and cut down on your time. But in fact, if you follow a nice schedule, you can
see how you're going; your plan of action as they call it. You could see how you'll get
done, or have the time available to do the research properly.
Academic coaching practices help students understand the scope of their work load and create a
plan for completion that eases their academic challenges. However, action plans can require
continued assessment and adjustments outside of the scheduled weekly academic coaching
session. If students are unable to manage their time effectively, they can abandon their action
plan without guided support.
Category 2: Leverage personal strengths to improve outlook. Academic coaches
perform their practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging them in behaviors
that develop confidence in leveraging their personal assets. One’s outlook can be enhanced
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through practices that identify and reinforce strengths rather than deficiencies. An emphasis on
valuing strengths is communicated by one academic coach during a focus group interview:
I think something else that's kind of at the core of our coaching is that it's always strength
based, so there's definitely that positive affirmation for students and positive regard for
them, even if they are coming from a point of struggle or they are having a hard time,
you're always acknowledging their strengths and kind of encouraging that. And helping
introduce tools so they can refine those strengths that are already there.
In some cases, it is necessary to assist students in identifying their strengths as a means of
developing strategies that can support their academic progress. Another academic coach’s
session notes reveal an assessment as well as strategies for supporting the student’s ability to
achieve results:
Student lacks confidence in academic skills. Spends hours but does not feel
accomplished; work on building academic confidence; work on effective reading skills,
study skills; try active reading worksheet; continue to change framework and help him
focus on academic strengths.
Academic coaching sessions are used to identify students’ strengths by evaluating their ability to
apply different strategies for handling coursework. The outcome of this process helps students
recognize and value their strengths as a means of achieving desired results.
Consequently, academic coaches focus on a student’s abilities as strengths that can
inform strategies for maximizing their efforts. A staff member views this as:
… seeing it more as a strength or a unique characteristic or that kind of thing versus any
kind of deficit, because now hopefully after receiving coaching, I'll know what works
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 101
best for them and how; what environments, what systems, what questions to ask
themselves…
Once a student’s abilities are more fully understood, academic coaches are better positioned to
identify resources that can support a student’s academic progress. Additionally, academic
coaching provides an approach that can guide students through a process of helping them
discover their strengths. A staff member shares:
… coaching helps students no matter what their challenges are, figure out a solution and
figures out how to cope with that challenge or see that challenge as a strength. And so I
see coaching as the practical, what to do with whatever you have in your tool box. And
how can you gain new tools or use the tools you have or that kind of thing.
Through this process of discovery, students gain a greater sense of understanding of themselves
and how to address challenges in pursuit of their goals. A staff member explains:
So coaching has been able to open up a conversation about all of the additional things
that a student is experiencing. And of additional elements in which institutions can
support a student in a healthy manner, in a supportive manner, in a very inclusive
manner, inclusive of whether a student has a disability or not. But in particular what their
own style is and what their talents and strengths are and in supporting that.
However, determining one’s strengths presents other challenges. As revealed by a student’s
response to a survey on how academic coaching could be more effective indicated the need for
“reading the syllabus together. Encouraging students to question their weaknesses and
strengths.” Therefore, academic coaches can inquire in multiple ways to assess students’
strengths and weakness. Students may wish to have direct involvement in developing an
understanding of their abilities.
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To complicate this process, students have different ways of learning, which does not
necessarily imply a deficit. Academic coaching practices involve a detailed approach to
understanding which aspects of a strategy require adaptation to address a student’s academic
challenge. A staff member describes:
…helping students realize that it’s okay, if that's not the best way for them to learn, but
teaching them how to adapt to their environment, and adapt so that they can work in that
environment especially if it's a lecture based class that's how it's going to be. But to work
on note taking strategies, work on, “Oh the professor posts the slides. Let me print the
slides and read them before class, and familiarize yourself with the material.” And I
think that's a huge portion of it is that, it's not so much, it's on a negative, it's on a deficit
like, “Oh you don't learn this way.” It's that you just learn differently and that's fine, but
we need to figure out the best way for you to adapt to the system that's in place.
As observed during an academic coaches’ meeting, one academic coach tells about an experience
with a student with AD/HD who knows they don’t have a long attention span and finds ways to
multi-task at all times by developing tactics such as painting nails while studying or doing yoga
while looking at flash cards. The academic coach acknowledged that the student was engaging
in useful tactics in relation to their learning needs which was revealed by the student as very
important and lead to increased self-efficacy.
However, while academic coaching practices are able to identify one’s strengths, students
need to perform self-assessments on their own as they move through different environments
within postsecondary education. A staff member explains:
…the advocacy of seeing how much the student is well-versed or not in what does really
work for them, or are they comfortable in talking with their professors or not? Really
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being able to assess where is that student with their own identity, with executive
functioning challenges, or with a learning disability. How can we support and empower
the student to feel as though they have as much support as possible…”
Hence, academic coaching practices can assist students in their efforts to develop abilities for
new challenges by ensuring they feel supported throughout the process. As students develop
their abilities, they can become more confident in upholding their academic goals even without
the presence of their academic coach. This outcome is expressed by a student’s response to a
survey question on how they have grown from academic coaching:
I have grown as an individual in that I feel like if something were to happen that me and
my AC (academic coach) could not meet one day, I would know what to do and how to
go about without worryng that I could fail.
In this example, the student has developed an understanding of their abilities and feels
empowered to pursue academic challenges independently of academic coaching. Academic
coaches use positive reinforcement to support students’ focus on their strengths as a means of
pursing academic achievement. A staff member summarizes:
….we go in with the lens of looking at the student as I think academically and actually
reassuring with the student verbally that academically their ability is just there's no
question on that. There's absolutely no question that these are incredibly talented and
very successful students…
Academic coaching practices that focus on personal assets can empower students to cope
effectively with the academic challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education. Identifying
strengths that help students maximize their learning potential can take time and require multiple
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 104
approaches. In addition, academic coaches need to assist students in learning how to engage in a
process of continual self-assessment to identify strategies for achieving academic goals.
Category 3: Develop ways to manage the meaning of challenges. Academic coaches
apply their practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging students in a process of
building awareness and goal setting to develop a clearer understanding of their challenges. An
academic coach describes engaging students through a process of inquiry to help them become
aware of their challenge:
They don't really think about what it is that they're doing with their time. So it's just
about making them reflect and then I'm questioning that like, “Okay, when you do this,
when you study for an exam, what do you usually do? Where do you study, as well?”
It's like making them reflect upon how they go about completing their assignments, and
what they can do to work on that, or what they find works better for them.
Students can develop a reactionary approach to issues instead of considering the nature of a
challenge as a way of determining an effective strategy for resolution. A student shares their
experience of becoming aware of challenges:
She would ask me how my week is going. She would actually kind of in an indirect way
to ask me what's been good and what's been not so great in my week, both academically
and personally. That's literally identifying my challenges. That's literally what we're
doing. I think it's good to have someone ask that, because I think we don’t always ask
ourselves.
Academic coaches engage students in a process of examining the nature of their concern to build
awareness of their challenge. Students can have concerns about a challenge but not fully
understand how to identify an appropriate strategy for resolution.
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Therefore, academic coaches help students understand the nature of a challenge and then
assist them in applying a strategy that addresses the issue. From a survey on how academic
coaching helped, a student’s response:
I have been able to realize that I need to use all my time wisely especially because at
times it takes me extra time to complete certain assignments. My AC (academic coach)
has helped me plan time slots that work with my schedule.
Academic coaching provides an approach for guiding students through a process of
understanding their challenges. Once a challenge has been identified, academic coaches support
students’ efforts to monitor their progress in overcoming challenges. Addressing this further, an
academic coach expresses:
…we do challenge them to push themselves toward the goals that they gave us
themselves. We hold them accountable in that regard by checking in with them
throughout; we have a weekly meetings, but throughout the semester, we're also checking
in to see where we are at and how we're doing. You had this goal and pushing them to see
what they can really achieve…
Academic coaches attempt to hold students accountable to goals they set for achieving desired
results. In the context of postsecondary education, students can have difficulty handling more
complex academic expectations or competing social interests while maintaining progress in
meeting goals. A student confirms:
…I started adding other things as I went through school, like work, and the fraternity, and
other things. And then, I kind of lost track of everything. I felt like there was so many
things to do that I just couldn't do everything. So, coming to the learning center, it helped
me prioritize and it helped me realize what things really matter.
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These examples illustrate the importance of probing students regarding their concerns to assist
them in better understanding the nature of their challenges and potential solutions.
Once there is greater clarity about the challenge, academic coaches work with students to
set goals that meet their objectives. When asked to describe how goal setting can address the
nature of challenges, a staff member explains:
…because that really helps to clarify a little bit of where the student's at, and really what's
a priority to them. Because I can't, as a coach, I can't impose upon what I see as a
priority. So maybe the paper is a priority and I clearly see that, but to the student
attending all of their club meetings this evening is just as much as a priority, for whatever
particular reason. So really trying to identify what priority is, and being able to say what
they're really valuing, given where they're spending the most time.
For some students, academic coaches determine that a more comprehensive and structured
approach is required to establish and monitor goals. An academic coach indicates:
In the beginning, we'll set up goals. We'll set up personal goals, academic goals, and at
least, I like to do short-term and long-term goals. Short-term, I'm more like weekly
goals. Long-term, it's like this semester and then plus, maybe, even the year. So every
time we meet with them on a weekly basis, we'll keep them accountable for those goals.
That's how we make them accountable for that commitment that they had made to us, to
themselves, and everything.
While setting goals is a practice for achieving results, academic coaches need to consider one’s
ability to adapt goals as circumstances change.
Therefore, students can benefit from developing skills that help them independently
monitor and maintain goals as an ongoing process. A student explains:
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 107
...we set academic goals in the beginning of the semester. She has a surprising ability to
keep them in mind that just blindside me with them at the most unexpected moment.
We'll be trying to do a time table and she's like, “Are you on track to do this?” I'm like,
“Am I?” I think goal setting is important and I think reminding myself of those goals is
important.
In this example, the student is somewhat reliant on their academic coach to monitor progress in
meeting goals. In another example, a student response from a survey on how academic coaching
helped them grow simply states, “I’m more aware of the work I have to get done and when they
have to be done by. Because of my (academic coach) I am becoming more organized.” In
general, academic coaching practices that help students develop an understanding of their
challenge can support their efforts to establish meaningful goals. However, students may still
require the ongoing assistance of academic coaching in meeting and maintaining goals as they
develop these skills.
Category 4: Identify diverse resources to modify challenges. Academic coaches
perform their practices to support students’ learning strategies by engaging them in utilizing and
adapting diverse resources to address challenges. Academic coaches demonstrate a commitment
to identify or adapt tools to meet each student’s individual needs. This commitment was
substantiated by a student response from a survey on how academic coaching was helpful by
indicating that, “my AC (academic coach) was always willing to accommodate my requests.
When I told her something was not working for me, she changed the worksheets we used to
something I was more comfortable using.” In this response and in the following examples,
academic coaches affirm their dedication to practices that identify resources for meeting the
diverse requirements of their students.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 108
In working with a student, an academic coach recounts:
…I'll ask on a weekly basis, I'll check up on them like, “Okay, did this particular handout
work out for you?” If not, then we'll try something else, or I'll ask them if they want me
to personally go and modify their sheet. So whether they need more squares on a weekly
action-plan or less, depending on their level of involvement. I'll check up on them on a
weekly basis to see if they're actually following the handout…
Some students might find it useful to explore all options available for tackling an issue before
identifying the tool that works best for them. From a focus group interview with academic
coaches, an academic coach shared:
…I use the worksheets in every single one of my sessions. So I'll bring them and I'll say
like, “Which one do you like better?” And they'll have me explain the differences
between one and the other, and they'll be like, “I think this one will work better for me.”
So kind of giving them that choice so that they're kind of leading their session, and
they're getting tools that they want to use.
Having too many options can have an impact on whether students utilize resources. As a student
explained in their response to a survey on how they found academic coaching to be least helpful,
“sometimes, I would get too many handouts and felt less incentive to use them…” Given this
response, academic coaches should consider that practices which promote more options may not
always result in a better outcome for their students.
Consequently, some students require assistance focusing on a single approach rather than
the distraction of choosing from many diverse resources. For example, a staff member explains:
The coach can keep them on task, keep them accountable, and at least show them
different strategies and just let them know that outside on the wall we have five different
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 109
actions study plans. Whenever I'll be with the students I will bring all five and say,
“Which one of these looks like something you would like? Which one do you think you
will use?”
An alternate academic coaching practice involves an iterative approach that might be more
useful for some students. This process is further illustrated by another academic coach:
I'll check up on them the following week and ask them, “Did you like what we did? How
did you feel about the handout? Did it cause stress on you?” For some students, they will
tell me, “Oh, it was just too much. I couldn't follow it.” That's when I'll resort to the to-do
list, or to Covey's Quadrants, where it's a little more flexible for them, and then they'll be
able to complete. They'll still be able to complete all the assignments for that week, but
they can pick and choose when they want to do the assignment.
As a result, academic coaching practices that use one approach for delivering diverse resources is
not always the best way for providing students with support. Therefore, academic coaching
practices can consider the capacity of each student to assimilate resources before proceeding
with presenting a variety of tools and approaches.
Ensuring diverse resources are available to students can still be considered an important
goal of academic coaching practices. The learning center staff has access to many different
resources and continuously seeks out more tools in order to provide students with support. A
student describes an example:
One of the other things was I'm not someone who tends to use like an agenda, a paper
agenda. If I have one, I'll stop using after a week. So my coach and I tried out a lot of
different methods on what I could use as a task manager. So, we tried a paper one, like a
little notebook and that was not; I was not very good at getting used to that. So helped
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 110
me find an app called Wunderlist, and so that's a different kind of tasking. You can
forward e-mails to yourself with it.
Having access to many different resources requires that academic coaches maintain their
knowledge and familiarity with applying tools and approaches. In this way, they can remain
responsive to students’ requirements for diverse learning strategies. In another example, a
student notes:
…I wanted to read faster and my first coach was really; I think she was a lot more
familiar with the different resources the center had to offer, so I just mentioned I wanted
to read faster and she grabbed this handout about power reading. She just knew that was
there and we went over strategies of power reading and how to get the key points of a
very dense piece of writing. That was really helpful.
Further, while observing in the learning center lobby, an academic coach was monitoring a
student’s progress with using software in computer lab while identifying and recommending
different uses of technology. As these examples reveal, academic coaching practices are focused
on accessing diverse resources in order to determine the best approach or tool that can help
students achieve their academic goals.
An academic coach explains, “…we give students support, whether it be personal, or
whether it be academic; whatever the case may be, we give them support. And if we can't
provide it for them, then we'll find a way to get them the support that they need.” Overall,
academic coaching practices that provide access to diverse and adaptable resources provide
strategies that can assist students in finding an approach to successfully modify academic
challenges. Academic coaches may consider that providing more options does not always
benefit every student and, in some cases, students require more direction than choices.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 111
Summary
As revealed through these findings, four themes encompass the practices academic
coaches use to support students’ learning strategies for addressing the academic challenges of
pursuing a postsecondary education. The focus of the first theme is on academic coaching
practices that are enhanced by an environment that supports collaborative learning and openness.
Students gain confidence in their ability to independently interpret how to approach challenges
when encouraged by an environment that values their contributions to learning strategies.
Academic coaches reinforce this value by openly collaborating with each other and staff while
validating creative ideas and adaptations initiated by students. Collaborative relationships
between staff, academic coaches and students foster a shared learning experience that supports
the personal growth of all participants.
The second theme focuses on academic coaching practices that promote the value of
developing supportive relationships and accessing networks of support. Academic coaches apply
their practices by building rapport with their students to establish a foundation of trust when
providing guidance. Additionally, academic coaches assist students in accessing support
networks and social groups that promote the value of interdependence when handling both the
academic and personal challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education.
The focus of the third theme is academic coaching practices that help a student control
their reaction to academic challenges. Academic coaches conduct their practices to guide
students’ attention towards wellness by focusing on work life balance and self-care. By
engaging students in reflection, they are able to understand the scope of their challenges and
develop schedules that support a balanced personal and academic life. Additionally, academic
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 112
coaches support students in identifying self-care goals to promote health when responding to
academic challenges.
The fourth theme focuses on academic coaching practices that focus on students’
learning strategies that support achieving results. Academic coaches pursue a strengths-based
approach to emphasize a student’s personal assets rather than deficiencies. Practices involving
task analysis and action plans motivate students to better understand how to achieve results and
remain committed to their goals. Academic coaches provide diverse and adaptable resources so
that students can discover the best tools and approaches to modify challenges. Through
achieving results and leveraging personal strengths, students can develop a positive and
confident outlook for tackling their academic challenges.
In closing, academic coaches serve as the agents responsible for developing a relationship
with students that can provide insights for applying academic coaching practices that support
students’ learning strategies. From the centrally located academic coaching binders to the open
door and open carrel meeting space, the learning center supports an environment that attempts to
maximize shared learning as an integrated practice involving continuous review and feedback. A
major challenge for academic coaches is identifying and maintaining a set of practices that meet
the evolving academic support needs of an increasingly diverse population of students pursuing
postsecondary education.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
The rising demand for access to higher education represents a challenge for institutions
attempting to meet the diverse requirements of a broad student population. Postsecondary
education institutions have experienced a continual increase in students entering with
documented learning disabilities as a result of legislative and social change (Cook et al., 2007;
Raue & Lewis, 2011; Skinner, 2007). According to the U.S Department of Education, students
entering with disabilities almost doubled from 6% in 1992-93 to 11% in 2007-08 (National
Center for Education Statistics, 1995, 2012). Given this trend, higher education institutions need
to consider the resource requirements of providing programs and services to address the
academic support needs of this expanding demographic.
Previous literature highlights four areas of concern as having particular significance for
students with learning disabilities such as integrating into a new institutional setting, disclosing
personal identity, developing strategies to access services, and building supportive relationships.
Institutions that provide access to academic support programs regardless of a registered disability
status can serve as an important resource for students with learning differences. Academic
advisors, student affairs professionals, residential advisors and faculty play an important role in
communicating the benefits of programs and services that support different learning needs.
Overview of Study
The research interest of this study was how one postsecondary institution has attempted
to address the academic support requirements of an increasing population of students with
learning disabilities and differences. The purpose of this study was to examine how academic
coaching practices are supporting students’ transitions at a learning center serving students with
learning disabilities and differences. Schlossberg’s transition theory for taking stock of one’s
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 114
situation, self, strategies and support was used as a framework for analysis. Transition theory
offered an adaptable method for exploring how each student addresses the many aspects of
change. Similarly, academic coaching provides an approach that is adaptable in addressing the
specific learning needs of each student.
However, analysis of the findings provided a much deeper understanding of how
academic coaching practices support students’ learning strategies rather than how their practices
support students’ transitions. The research question for this study was to examine the ways
academic coaches engage in practices that support students’ transitions through postsecondary
education at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and differences. The
research focus for this study was a learning center at a large urban university and the research
method applied the principles of qualitative research. An intrinsic case study of the academic
coaching model within this learning center was identified as source for collecting rich data.
Summary of Findings
While transition theory helped organize and inform my findings, the framework was
insufficient for addressing the scope of academic coaching practices performed at the learning
center. After working through the lens of Schlossberg, additional findings emerged. The results
of this study provided insights into how academic coaches perform their practices to support
students’ learning strategies for addressing the academic challenges of pursuing a postsecondary
education. I identified four themes that encompassed these academic coaching practices:
fostering shared learning, enhancing social supports, promoting wellness and achieving results.
The first theme focused on the setting where academic coaching takes place which
revealed an environment that values shared learning. I consistently witnessed academic coaches
engaged in practices that support productive feedback and ongoing communication with peers,
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 115
staff and students. As an academic coach described, “…it's encouraged that if you're just not
sure what to do with students and you want to bounce ideas around, then it's always open.” This
sentiment was shared by staff as well. As a staff member noted, “I sat down and read all the
feedback forms from last week and just wrote little hints and said like, ‘Hey, if you need help
with this, come and see me.’” My experience in the learning center continually exposed me to
staff, academic coaches and students sharing creative ideas to identify diverse learning strategies.
The basis for the second theme involved strategies for helping students develop
relationships and identify social networks that can provide support when tackling personal and
academic challenges. I often observed academic coaches building rapport with their students by
engaging in personal dialogue and revealing similar academic experiences. A staff member
described this process as, “…rapport that the student is building with their coach is very, very
important because they feel that trust and so forth and can talk a little bit about some of the
current concerns they have.” Through their interaction with students, academic coaches
promoted the importance of interpersonal skills and authenticity when developing supportive
relationships and engaging in group activities.
The emphasis of the third theme was on strategies to identify areas where one can control
their reaction to the challenges of pursuing a postsecondary education. In response, academic
coaches applied their practices to guide students’ attention towards wellness with a focus on
work life balance and self-care. As an academic coach shared, “everything from what they eat to
how they sleep, to how they spend their time, in terms of being well, has an effect on their ability
to be academically successful.” A student shared a similar sentiment when they acknowledged
that: “caring for myself, that's something I deserve and that's something I'm going to do, just like
homework is something I'm going to do. And that's been endlessly helpful, I think, in terms of
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 116
my mindset.” Academic coaches and staff participated by practicing mindfulness exercises and
monitoring their own self-care goals to reinforce the value of wellness principles.
Achieving results was the focus of the fourth and final theme and involved learning
strategies that build on personal assets and utilize diverse resources. In the focus group
interview, an academic coach noted, “you're always acknowledging their strengths and kind of
encouraging that. And helping introduce tools so they can refine those strengths that are already
there.” Students are guided through learning strategies to adapt tools and seek out resources that
support their efforts to manage academic challenges. As a staff member explains, “the coach can
keep them on task, keep them accountable, and at least show them different strategies…” By
utilizing diverse resources, students gain insights and develop new learning strategies that can
help them address their academic challenges.
These themes encompass academic coaching practices that imply a holistic approach for
supporting students’ learning strategies. Through an environment that values collaboration,
academic coaches can build productive relationships with staff, peers and other professionals to
identify learning strategies that help students in their pursuit of postsecondary education.
However, the findings suggest that academic coaching practices require continual evaluation to
address the changing academic support needs of a growing student population. Learning centers
can be positioned to support this outcome through practices that foster shared learning, creativity
and innovation.
Finally, academic coaching provides an adaptable approach for serving the diverse
academic support needs of students with learning disabilities and learning differences. Students
with learning disabilities are accustomed to receiving more structured support in high school.
However, in postsecondary education, students with learning disabilities and learning differences
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 117
must take the initiative to seek out resources that meet their individual academic support needs.
Academic coaching provides opportunities for these students to engage in supportive
relationships and apply diverse resources that can help them meet their goals. As a result,
students with learning disabilities and learning differences can explore learning strategies that
maximize their strengths and promote confidence in their ability to achieve results.
Strengths and Weaknesses
A strength of this study was the successful collection and analysis using data
triangulation involving interviews, observations and documents. Interviewees represented center
staff, academic coaches and students of these same coaches to provide a comprehensive view of
academic coaching practices. Second round interviews with coaches and staff were coupled with
a third focus group interview involving the same participants to yield a deeper level of responses.
Three interviews were conducted with coaches and staff, and one interview with each student.
Observations provided additional opportunities to witness the development and delivery
of academic coaching practices. An initial coaching orientation involved identifying resources
for supporting coaching at the center. An academic coach conducting a session with a student
demonstrated the way practices are delivered and received by students. Another observation
involved a coaches’ meeting where practices are defined and explained through feedback from
academic coaches and staff. The final observation was held in the center lobby where the daily
movement and functions of the learning center could be witnessed.
Document analysis played an important role in triangulating the data. Access was
provided for examination of the student binders where academic coaches submit their comments
after each session with a student. These hand-written notes identified the academic coaches’
suggestions on how to add or modify their practices for providing support to their students. In
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 118
addition, learning specialists and occupational therapists reviewed these notes and contributed
their own thoughts on recommendations for providing support. These notes provided a unique
perspective on the collaborative learning that occurs among coaches and staff. Finally, student
survey responses on academic coaching provided a broader set of data on the views of students.
The time frame for data collection was one semester. Therefore, a weakness of the study
might be the lack of longitudinal data to explore how academic coaching practices evolve over
time to meet the changing needs of students with learning disabilities and differences. Adding to
this consideration, the academic coaches interviewed were new to the program and did not have
the benefit of experience in developing and delivering their practices over time. That being said,
staff represented in the study have been involved with the learning center for multiple semesters
and were able to contribute deeper insights into the development of academic coaching practices.
Study Implications
The results of this study can inform institutions on providing academic support for
students as they pursue a postsecondary education. Academic coaching practices discussed in
the findings have broader implications by addressing learning strategies for all students including
students with a learning disability or learning difference. Academic coaching is a model for
providing academic support that represents an approach intended to be flexible and adaptable to
the specific learning needs of each student. Therefore, institutions can develop new ways to
expand academic support for all students by considering the beneficial outcomes of providing
academic coaching services through learning centers.
Developing supportive relationships and engaging in social activities can be challenging
for any student entering postsecondary education. Academic coaches can reinforce the value of
integrity when developing supportive relationships by disclosing shared experiences and
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 119
extending their support beyond academically related topics. Academic coaches can help students
advance their interpersonal skills by identifying social groups and student activities that satisfy
their personal interests. Learning centers can also inform student affairs professionals on issues
revealed through student surveys that may support efforts to develop an inclusive campus
environment that serves the diverse needs of all students.
The degree of impact caused by academic challenges can have different effects on each
student that may be addressed through learning strategies that incorporate one’s personal state.
Institutions can encourage healthy perceptions by promoting the principles of work life balance
and setting self-care goals through student orientations, residential life activities and campus
events. Institutions can support academic coaching and other programs that communicate and
promote the benefits of wellness as an approach for successfully pursuing a postsecondary
education. In general, institutions can commit to fostering a positive and receptive campus
climate that values the personal and academic development of students.
Institutions that provide access to a broad array of academic support programs and
services can help students better understand the nature of their challenges and how to achieve
their objectives. For those students wanting to explore strategies independently, learning centers
can provide access to tools and technology labs. In cases where a personalized approach is
desired, academic coaching can serve to guide students through the process of applying different
approaches and modifying tools to meet individual learning needs. As a result, students with
learning disabilities and learning differences can benefit from opportunities to better understand
the nature of their learning needs through experimentation with diverse and adaptable resources.
Finally, academic coaching can address the institutional goal of promoting student
development by demonstrating the benefits of reflecting, collaborating and optimizing personal
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 120
strengths and strategies that support life-long learning. Consequently, learning centers can serve
as important campus resources where staff, students, faculty and researchers can benefit from the
continual assessment of practices that may best serve the learning needs of a diverse student
population. Through academic coaching practices that value and promote shared learning,
students can acquire the communication skills and confidence to develop supportive
relationships that can extend beyond postsecondary education. All students can benefit from
evaluating their learning strategies through academic coaching practices where they are guided
through activities that help them understand how to successfully meet their personal and
academic goals.
Future Research
Future research could focus on developing a replicable model for providing academic
support to students with learning disabilities and differences. The goal for this project would be
to develop an academic coaching model to help students with learning differences successfully
address the academic challenges of obtaining a postsecondary degree. The intention would be to
develop an evidence-based model that could be replicated across institutions of higher education.
This project would be based upon the findings of this case study while drawing upon the learning
center’s unique position within a top 25 university serving as multidisciplinary research site
benefitting from the expertise of professionals across related fields while providing free services
to all students seeking support for learning disabilities and differences.
The goal of this project would be to develop an academic coaching model that can be
measured for its impact on helping students with learning differences achieve academically while
pursuing a postsecondary education. As a result of legislative and social change, higher
education institutions have experienced a continual increase in students entering with learning
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 121
disabilities. A student with a learning disability or difference can take longer to achieve their
academic goals risking matriculation and adding to their overall costs for education. Issues
include assimilating into a new environment with less structured assistance than high school,
disclosing individual learning challenges, understanding one’s learning requirements and
developing relationships that support academic success. Academic coaching represents an
important method for engaging students in learning exercises that assist them in defining their
preferred academic strategies while monitoring outcomes.
To create a replicable academic coaching model, the first action would involve
establishing a conceptual framework for evaluating academic coaching practices. From this
process, the next step would be to develop the instrument and methods for data collection
followed by the implementation of a pilot study to test the research design for effectively
gathering information on coaching practices. This process would involve analyzing data from
the pilot study to make modifications to the research instrument and methods. Once the method
has been validated, data collection would resume over a longer period involving several
semesters to further examine how academic coaching practices address a diverse scope of
learning skills over time. The final stage would involve validating the results of the project and
formalizing a model for academic coaching.
Using a qualitative research approach, interviews with coaches and students would be
conducted at the beginning, middle and ending of each academic semester. Student reflections
would be scheduled at the beginning and ending of each semester to provide additional insights
on the outcome of academic coaching. Surveys involving student participants would be
conducted at the beginning and ending of each semester to assess how views of academic
coaching practices can change. Finally, academic coaches and students would be asked to
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 122
maintain a journal of their experiences. These indirect methods of assessment can be useful
indicators in developing a replicable academic coaching model for supporting students’ learning
strategies as they pursue a postsecondary education.
Conclusion
The results of my research provided me with a perspective on the value of academic
coaching for all students including students with a learning disability or learning difference.
While not all students require the direct guidance of an academic coach, students can benefit
from access to diverse tools and approaches that address their specific learning strategies. Many
students may not be aware that they have a learning difference unless they were diagnosed with a
disability. Their academic pursuits could be filled with frustration and disappointment while
never realizing that there were resources available to support their academic achievement.
Through guided feedback and reinforcement, academic coaching has the potential advantage of
providing students with the opportunity to develop effective learning strategies for addressing
their academic challenges.
The setting where academic coaches and students can explore learning strategies plays an
important role. The significance of academic coaching as a collaborative learning experience
was reinforced by the results of my research. Staff, coaches and students consistently expressed
the value of the open space concept within the learning center and everyone’s willingness to
share ideas and feedback. Academic coaches often remarked on the importance of access to the
expertise of others and how a wide array of resources helped them to successfully support
students’ learning strategies. Thus, the collaborative learning model appears to effectively
support the ability of academic coaches to obtain knowledge for addressing the learning needs of
a diverse student population.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 123
In conclusion, I view academic coaching as a resource that can support all students’
learning strategies and, in particular, students with a learning disability or learning difference.
Identifying individual learning strategies is beyond the scope of the classroom and can require
access to outside expertise and resources. Ideally, a learning center that supports academic
coaching would be seen as an asset to an institution’s mission for supporting academic
achievement and recommended for all students. In the case of this learning center, the academic
coaching model represents a dynamic and diverse resource fostering creative and innovative
learning strategies. A mantra for this learning center might very well read, “Everybody Learns,”
where creativity and collaboration are valued and nurtured by all participants.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 124
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Appendix A
Pilot Study
University Center Serves Students with Learning Differences and Disabilities
Over the last 20 years, higher education has experienced a continual increase of students
entering with documented learning disabilities (Skinner, 2007). This demographic shift appears
to be a product of both legislative and social change. Recent advances in legal protections and
reform movements have resulted in more students with disabilities pursuing higher education
than ever before (Cook, Rumrill, & Tankersley, 2009). As a result, higher education is faced
with the challenge of serving a growing number of students with learning differences and
disabilities. The involvement of disability services offices and learning centers on a campus can
serve as valuable academic support resources for all students, including those with disabilities.
The purpose of this pilot study is to understand how a learning center provides academic
support services on the campus of a large urban university that is serving the needs of students
with learning differences and disabilities. Although studies have addressed issues with providing
accommodations for students with disabilities, less is known about how institutions are
attempting to provide academic support services to address the needs of all students with
learning differences. Therefore, a question for research would be to explore the decision making
process of how a learning center determines what academic support services to provide in order
to meet the needs of students with learning differences and disabilities.
Research Design
An intrinsic case study was considered to be an appropriate research design for
addressing this question because of the uniqueness of this particular center’s focus on serving the
academic support needs of both students with learning differences and the more common
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practice of serving registered students with disabilities (Merriam, 2009). Consequently, students
are not required to register with the office of disability services in order to access the center’s
services. The selection of this site supports purposeful sampling because of the center’s physical
location within the student union building at the center of campus connected to both the offices
of student affairs and disability services and access to the individuals directly involved in making
decisions about how to provide these services (Maxwell, 2013).
This research question was identified, in part, because access was offered to a learning
center by the center’s supervisor, who is currently serving as the dissertation chair for the
researcher performing this pilot study. In order to begin addressing the question, Maxwell
(2013) suggests developing a matrix to keep track of the relationships between the components
of the research design including the research questions, goals, data and protocol of the pilot
study. As a result, three semi-structured interviews were conducted with the center director,
learning specialist and an academic coach along with three observations at the center involving
the delivery of academic support services (Merriam, 2009).
To identify appropriate individuals for interviews, the supervisor of the center was
approached for consultation and as the gatekeeper capable of making introductions and
facilitating access in support of the case study (Maxwell, 2013). The supervisor serves as a
senior administrator in student affairs and oversees several units, including the center but does
not actively participate in providing services. The administrator proceeded in giving a tour of the
center’s facility, pointing out labs with assistive technology, conference rooms for workshops
and study carrels for coaching students. Introductions were made with the center director,
learning specialist and technology specialist, as well as an explanation of the pilot study as the
basis for a dissertation.
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The three individuals identified for interviews included the center director, learning
specialist and an academic coach all of whom directly engage in the assessment and delivery of
services. In order to better understand how these participants might respond to interview
questions, the interview guide was first pilot tested with doctoral students as part of an in-class
exercise (Maxwell, 2013). The first four questions were the same for each participant and
focused on their reason for getting involved with the center while the last six questions were
based upon their individual role in in providing services at the center (See Appendices A1, A2
and A3 for interview protocols). The result of this process was confirmation from student peers
that the questions were well crafted for the purpose of gaining an understanding of the research
topic.
The next step was to contact the center director, learning specialist and an academic
coach via email and seek approval for an interview as well as further explain the purpose of the
pilot case study. All three interviews were conducted at the center in offices for the center
director and learning specialist and in the conference room for the academic coach. Prior to
beginning the interview, a short greeting was followed by sharing the purpose for the study and
that the results of the questions would be confidential. The interviews were conducted without a
tape recorder to facilitate more candid responses. This strategy resulted in open responses from
each participant and periodic pauses to ensure complete notes were taken of their responses.
To identify appropriate observation settings, the supervisor of the center was approached
as the gatekeeper capable of making introductions and facilitating access in support of the pilot
study (Maxwell, 2013). During a tour of the facility, the supervisor suggested using the lobby as
an observation setting for viewing the center’s activities and disclosed the proposal to the
center’s staff. However, during the interviews, the learning specialist, who oversees the
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academic coaches, offered the weekly coaches’ meeting in the conference room of the learning
center as an additional observation setting for viewing how academic support services are
assessed at the center.
The design of the observation protocol was based upon Bogdan and Biklen’s (2007)
concepts for collecting descriptive and reflective fieldnotes (See Appendices A4 and A5 for
observation protocols). The observation protocol consisted of a piece of paper with descriptive
topics that could be clipped to a journal for reference while collecting fieldnotes in the observed
setting. Once the observation was completed, a separate piece of paper with pre-identified topics
could be clipped to the journal for collecting post-observation fieldnotes. The protocol was first
reviewed by doctoral students as part of an in-class exercise which resulted in positive feedback
with no changes and that the protocol was beneficial for facilitating the collection of fieldnotes.
The process for conducting observations in the center’s lobby involved emailing the
center director and learning specialist to inform them of the dates and times observations would
be taking place in the center lobby. The process for conducting the observation of a coaches’
meeting involved emailing the learning specialist to confirm attendance and time of arrival to
avoid confidential dialogue on casework assessments. During all observations, descriptive
fieldnotes were collected on participants, interactions and characteristics associated with the
setting. Once the observations were completed, the observer retreated to an outdoor student
dining plaza to reflect upon the observation resulting in additional fieldnotes.
Data Analysis
The first stage of data analysis involved reading, reviewing and reflecting upon typed
documents of interview responses and fieldnotes. This process was performed multiple times to
identify patterns of meaning while applying open coding, which Merriam (2009) describes as the
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unrestricted application of labels to data. Open codes were inserted directly into interview data
and observation fieldnotes to support the future development of themes. In addition, reflections
from observations were reviewed as a basis for analytical coding, which supported expanding the
open codes to phrases of meaning (Merriam, 2009). As a result, these coding phrases were
identified as subcategories that could support the creation of themes related to the research
question.
Concurrently, concepts for themes were considered throughout the coding process for
relevance and continuity with the purpose of the study (Merriam, 2009). In addition, memos
were written to generate ideas and inspire insights that could support the development of
descriptive categories of data or themes (Maxwell, 2013). The final outcome of the coding
process was the creation of four themes and 14 subcategories that were used to separate and
compile data into a table for additional analysis. Ultimately, as shown in Figure A, a flow chart
was developed to show how the coding scheme evolved in relation to the research question in
order to support a richer analysis of the data.
In proceeding, Corbin and Strauss (2008) identify an array of tools for analyzing data as a
means of motivating inductive reasoning, identifying biases and avoiding assumptions in
evaluating the data. For instance, interview participants were selected to provide three different
perspectives that could be compared and contrasted as a means of providing a comprehensive
analysis of the data. Looking for biases revealed the potential of all interview participants to
provide responses in such a way as to promote the center’s benefits. Consequently, sensitizing
questions were explored to better understand the dynamics of interactions between academic
coaches and students observed in the setting. As a result, interview responses were contrasted
with experiences encountered through observations to identify variations and avoid assumptions.
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Figure A. Evolution of coding scheme.
In addition, Merriam’s (2009) strategy for applying analytical questions during the study
provides an approach for uncovering further details that may inform the research question. As a
result, during the second lobby observation, several unanticipated interactions occurred with
academic coaches allowing for dialogue on their impressions of the learning center. This
provided an opportunity to try out ideas and themes on participants of the study for confirmation
and supplementary insights. Merriam (2009) also identifies the strategy of reviewing literature
while in the midst of collecting data. In response, two assignments as part of another doctoral
course involving student development and transition theory permitted the opportunity to explore
relevant literature that supported more robust analysis of the data.
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As part of data analysis, addressing the validity and reliability of qualitative research
involves considering threats throughout the research process (Maxwell, 2013). A strategy to
address threats was supported through triangulation by collecting information from interview
participants operating in different areas within the learning center. In addition, different
observation settings were also selected within the center’s environment. The center’s lobby was
selected to provide candid exposure to the center’s activities. These observations were compared
to observations from the coaches’ meeting to gain insights into how academic support strategies
are carried out in the center. The overall approach to triangulation was designed to validate
evidence collected in interviews and observations on how services are provided to students.
To help address internal generalizability, lobby observations were conducted in both the
morning and afternoon on different days of the week. An academic coaches meeting was also
selected to observe the views of multiple coaches on how to effectively provide academic
support services (Maxwell, 2013). In addition, interview participants were chosen from three
different levels of decision makers beginning with the center director who oversees the facility’s
operations to the learning specialist who coordinates the provision of services to an academic
coach who delivers services to the students. The result of this examination further substantiated
the center’s use of an academic coaching model for identifying multiple academic support
strategies to meet the diverse needs of students with learning differences and disabilities.
Findings
In order to set the stage for the research findings, the following description provides a
perspective on how the learning center functions. As shown in Figure B, the learning center is a
suite of offices, study labs and meeting spaces, which is located within the student union
building at the center of the university’s main campus. Students arrive through the center lobby
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 137
and first meet the receptionist to verify registration with the center and status as a student of the
university. The student will meet with an academic coach or request to use the quite study room
or assistive technology lab. Students, coaches and center staff are continuously moving
throughout the facility and engaging in thoughtful and encouraging dialogue. The general
cultural climate of the center represents an environment that promotes communications involving
positive feedback and support. The following sections will address the study findings by theme
and subcategory.
Figure B. Floor plan of learning center.
Theme 1 – Provide Robust Academic Support
The first theme identified from the data is to provide robust academic support. The
learning center provides academic support to students with learning differences and disabilities
by serving as a comprehensive resource. The four subcategories attributed to this theme are
described below and include resource, learning, options and services. These four subcategories
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 138
were considered appropriate for this theme as they illustrate the learning center’s goal to
represent a resource for learning by providing options and services to meet the diverse needs of
students with learning differences and disabilities. The center also provides a venue for graduate
students to serve as academic coaches and explore the process of assisting students with
academic support.
The first subcategory identifies the center as an important resource. The learning center
demonstrates this objective by providing a learning environment, assistive technology and
academic coaching to “all students who presented symptoms of issues with executive functioning
or learning disabilities” stated the center director. The goal of the learning center is to
supplement services offered through the office of disability services by providing coaching to all
students who indicate a need for academic support. The learning center serves as a robust
resource by offering tailored learning strategies for individual needs as well as access to software
and assistive technology. Interview participants indicated the desire to extend operating hours,
launch podcasting services and provide more online applications.
The second subcategory is to support the learning environment not only for students with
learning differences and disabilities but also for graduate students serving as academic coaches.
As the learning specialist indicated, they “deliberately want to make it relevant and provide
professional development to them as well.” The dynamic of engaging graduate students instead
of professional coaches to work with students needing academic support expands the
opportunities to support learning. The center’s staff also gain knowledge on how to best provide
a learning environment and technology lab that assists students with learning differences.
Through lobby observations, I could hear coaches and students exchanging ideas and learning
strategies in an encouraging manner that appeared to support learning.
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In considering the third subcategory to provide more options, the learning center
represents the “icing on the cake…because can do so much more when working with disabled
students,” indicated the center director. Also, as the learning specialist suggested, “looking at the
center to provide more options for training in the area of AD/HD, learning differences is a new
dynamic not incorporated into other centers.” The learning center devotes attention to the
diverse needs of students by delivering workshops on learning strategies, customized handouts
for specific needs, and presentations on assistive technologies. As the academic coach stated,
identifying appropriate support strategies is the “most challenging part of job, but most fun
because have to be creative to find right combination of factors for each student.”
The final subcategory contributing to the theme of robust academic support represents the
importance of services provided at the learning center. As the academic coach noted, students
get a “sense of relief that they are not alone. That it’s OK to take an accommodation.” If
students have not registered with the office of disabilities, the academic coaches will guide them
through the process and help them go through the assessment process necessary to request an
accommodation or determine an appropriate academic support strategy. As the learning
specialist stated, the center’s focus is “helping students with disabilities, identify even more
strategies” to achieve personal success. Ultimately, the learning center serves as an advocate and
supplementary resource in efforts to serve students with learning differences and disabilities.
Theme 2 – Engage In Responsible Learning
The second theme identified from the data is to engage in responsible learning. The
learning center provides academic support to students with learning differences and disabilities
by upholding requirements for academic success. The three subcategories that are attributed to
this theme are described below and include relationships, requirements and accountability.
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These three subcategories were considered appropriate for the theme as they represent the
learning center’s goal to ensure that efforts to support students result in productive relationships
that lead to academic progress and success. These efforts are demonstrated by providing
strategies that support learning requirements based on maintaining accountability for meeting
goals and objectives outlined through academic coaching sessions.
The first subcategory identifies the importance of building supportive relationships in
order to engage students with learning differences and disabilities in applying academic support
strategies. The process of assessing students wishing to access the learning center involves
discovering how academic coaching would help them and “talking to students about what this
looks like and importance of having someone to talk to”, stated the learning specialist. In
observing activities in the center lobby, interactions with coaches were very thoughtful,
supportive and encouraging. Conversations observed through the center lobby began with
asking the student how they are doing and how was their week. As the academic coach
indicated, “through one-on-one regular visits, become part of their lives and vice versa.”
The second subcategory supports responsible learning by maintaining a focus on
academic requirements that guide strategies for acquiring the necessary skills needed by students
with learning differences and disabilities. As the center director stated, the process is to “make
vetting more robust so can provide greater depth of services.” As the learning specialist also
reinforced, “they will need to implement more strategies to deal with the rigor” of postsecondary
education. In other words, the purpose of the learning center is not focused just on helping
students obtain a grade but helping students set reasonable goals, develop time management and
foster effective study habits that can support overall academic progress and success.
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As a result, the last subcategory implies that each student is responsible for their learning
by maintaining accountability with the support strategies developed and agreed upon with their
academic coach. As the center director stated, “coaches provide extra level of accountability and
structure that students need in order to avoid losing needless points on assignments such as
turning papers in on time.” The process of coaching involves checking on how students are
making progress in applying support strategies towards their academic goals. As the academic
coach stated, “I just don’t give them answers… here to help but they have to do the work.”
Accountability can also extends to the academic coaches through feedback forms provided by
students at the end of each session which may be used to improve support strategies necessary to
achieve long-term goals.
Theme 3 – Promote Collaborative Results
The third theme identified from the data is to promote collaborative results. The learning
center provides academic support for students with learning differences and disabilities through
collaborative engagement. The three subcategories that are attributed to this theme are described
below and include trust, commitment and need. These three subcategories were considered
appropriate for the theme as they define the basis for collaborative engagement between
academic coaches and students. The learning center serves students with learning differences
and disabilities by building trust with students through academic coaches, who are committed to
helping students achieve by developing strategies that will meet their individual academic
support needs.
The first subcategory involves the importance of developing trust between the student
and the academic coach as well as learning center staff. The learning specialist indicated that
academic coaches are required to “be authentic with students and be there to listen.” The
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academic coach also expressed the need for trust as part of supporting success in coaching
through the “more information they give up, the more I can help.” Consequently, by building
rapport, academic coaches can engage students in a collaborative process for developing
academic support strategies. This approach is supported by creating an open environment in the
learning center where students can meet with their academic coaches and feel comfortable and
candid expressing issues with coursework and learning needs.
Building trust may be tied to the second subcategory identified as a commitment to
deliver service to students with learning differences and disabilities. One of the unique qualities
of this learning center is the commitment to “provide help and support for all that desire services
through mentors” regardless of registered disability status informed the center director. As the
learning specialist stated, a goal of the center is to “try to downplay the stigma of only caring
when in trouble but…maybe you just want to study smarter.” Academic coaches remain
committed to learn how best to provide services to students by working with them to develop and
evaluate support strategies. Both academic coaches and staff expressed a desire to take personal
responsibility for supporting progress with students.
Finally, in considering the last subcategory for promoting collaborative results,
engagement with the center by students with learning disabilities and differences is based upon a
need for support from others with expertise. “Many offices of disability services will have
services but not a devoted center with coaches working with all services for learning differences”
as well as registered disabilities stated the center director. For the learning specialist, the initial
student assessment is important to determine what needs should be address as well as
substantiating strengths that have supported their success in the past. In many cases, the need for
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support is ensuring that a coach is available on a weekly basis to assist in the long-term
development of goals that support academic success and not just when a crisis arises.
Theme 4 – Achieve Shared Objectives
The fourth and final theme identified from the data is to achieve shared objectives. The
learning center provides academic support for students with learning differences and disabilities
by accomplishing multiple goals. The four subcategories that are attributed to this theme are
described below and include independence, skills, self-confidence and satisfaction. These four
subcategories were considered appropriate for the theme as they identify the desire to achieve
results based upon collaborative engagement between academic coaches and students. The
learning center serves students by helping them develop tools that will support their academic
success. In so doing, academic coaches share in the satisfaction of achieving this goal through
their collaborative efforts to support each student’s individual learning needs.
The first subcategory involves developing independence by empowering students to have
confidence in the academic support strategies developed with their academic coach. The center
director identified executive functioning as the primary challenge for students including time
management, organization skills and communication. As the learning specialist stated, students
“can be an advocate for themselves or get support…take advantage of activities...” Additionally,
the learning center focuses attention on helping students develop self-advocacy skills that will
enable them to maintain and evolve their academic support strategies as well as become engaged
in campus life. As the academic coach indicated, “some students want to be told…had to help
them understand how to achieve success themselves.”
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The second subcategory involves helping students gain the necessary skills to achieve
success with their academic support strategies. This process is a joint effort and “more about
strategies…have students create handouts and other study guides,” stated the academic coach.
The specific skills identified through assessments encompass writing, studying and critical
thinking. The academic coach further specified that “the goal is skill development…and how to
make meaning of information that can be used for writing…” Lobby observations provide
insights into how coaches took time to ask exploratory questions with the potential purpose of
understanding where issues exist and to respond with appropriate tactics and resources.
The third subcategory involves efforts to develop self-confidence in students with
learning differences and disabilities. This goal may be accomplished by developing learning
strategies that are realistic and transferrable to multiple settings. As the learning specialist
indicated, the result of academic coaching is “to help students leave feeling more confident and
feeling that they know how to use resources...don’t always need to be struggling.” A part of this
process is to help students deal with anxiety and build self-efficacy by applying academic
support strategies developed with their coaches. As a result, a goal is to help students with
learning differences and disabilities stop “feeling alone, that everyone else has this under
control,” stated the academic coach.
Finally, the fourth subcategory illustrates an outcome derived by both students and
coaches involving the personal satisfaction of services experienced at the learning center. As the
center director revealed, “love seeing people thrive and being successful, working with staff at
the center and being able to support student oriented services.” Aside from providing services,
the learning specialist also indicated satisfaction in watching academic coaches learn about their
own career objectives and successfully secure positions in the field upon graduation. Ultimately,
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the academic coach shared that there is “a lot of fun seeing a student address issues struggling
with and seeing it come together…a gratifying experience.
Findings Summary
The learning center’s approach to providing services appears to involve a collaborative
learning model that engages everyone in the process of building academic support strategies.
The majority of students are referred to the center by registering through the office of disability
services or academic advisors and student affairs professionals. Beginning with the in-take
process, students meet with the learning specialist or an academic coach to assess and review
academic support needs. To best serve students, academic coaches are trained on emerging
regulations and trends through conference attendance and presentations by peers. Essentially,
each student is different and may require a different approach for support. The academic coach
has the responsibility of developing a relationship with the student that provides insights into the
best support strategies for their particular needs. Consequently, the learning center determines
what types of services to provide through an ongoing, internal dialogue with students, coaches
and staff as well as external requirements and advancements in the field of study.
In closing, the center director divulged that the center is going through a transformation
as a result of organizational changes made within the university and new expectations from the
advisory board. These changes may have significant impact on the current decision making
process and what services to provide at the center. Instead of being aligned with disability
services, these two areas will be under different departments. In addition, the advisory board is
contemplating a move from student academic coaches to professionals with an emphasis on
research limited to students with learning disabilities. This change would impact the learning
specialist’s vision to provide services for all students in need and a forum for graduate students
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 146
to build expertise as coaches for future career opportunities. Finally, this outcome would prevent
the academic coach, who is a graduate student, from fulfilling the desire to help students achieve
academic and personal success.
Conclusion
I gained many insights from performing this pilot case study. Analyzing data provided
me with a perspective on the many different stories that can be derived from a single study. As
Corbin and Strauss (2008) indicate, depending upon my purpose, background and perspective, I
could view the data differently each time I attempted to define concepts and themes. This was
particularly relevant for me as I currently find myself assessing my future career direction. As a
result, there were times when I viewed the data from the lens of my profession as a development
officer and, at other times, as a student excited about the potential of exploring a career in
academic affairs. Thankfully, I could always return to the objectivity of grounding my analysis
on how the data and themes informed my research question.
Writing the analysis reminded me of the importance of managing information and
maintaining continuity across a range of concepts. I learned that, if all else fails, performing
transactional activities with data can help stimulate ideas and help with data analysis. This
required that I manage my time and pace my mental effort to derive the best results from data
analysis and writing. Ultimately, as Glesne (2011) describes, I see myself as an artist in my
efforts to ensure my writing is accessible, intentional and complete in conveying the ideas and
purpose of my research. I thrive on the opportunity to be creative with my words, transitions and
connections but insist that the outcome is practical and judicious in conveying meaning.
Finally, the process of building the presentation forced me to synthesize my findings and
ultimately produced an outcome to my primary research question. I realized that the nature of
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the learning center as a collaborative learning environment also serves as a framework for
determining what services are provided to students with learning differences and disabilities.
The outcome of my presentation was further enhanced by a question from the class asking what I
learned about students with learning disabilities. This caused me to consider a finding from my
review of the literature. What I learned is that students with learning disabilities in college may
want to leave their identity from high school behind to get away from being stigmatized which
may hamper their ability for self-advocacy. As a result, they may not attempt to access services
from a learning center, thus, impacting their potential for academic success. For me, education
has always been a pathway for achieving my aspirations. It saddens me that fear of disclosing a
disability could prevent others from fulfilling their own dreams of higher education.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 148
References
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and methods (5
th
ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Cook, L., Rumrill, P. D., & Tankersley, M. (2009). Priorities and understanding of faculty
members regarding college students with disabilities. International Journal of Teaching
and Learning in Higher Education, 21(1), 84-96. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/757172909?accountid=14749
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for
developing grounded theory (3
rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Glesne, C. (2011). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (4
th
ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3
rd
ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Skinner, M. E. (2007). Faculty willingness to provide accommodations and course alternatives to
postsecondary students with learning disabilities. International Journal of Special
Education, 22(2), 32-45. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/61918702?accountid=14749
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 149
Appendix A1
Center Director – Interview Protocol
The purpose of this study is to understand how a learning center providing assistive
technology and academic support services on the campus of a large urban university is serving
the needs of students with learning differences and disabilities.
Questions
1. How long have you been with the center and what attracted you to come here?
2. What is the nature of your role in providing services at the center?
3. What do you like most about working at the center?
4. In what ways do you see the impact of the center’s services on students?
5. How does the center determine what services to provide?
6. What is the biggest challenge in providing services at the center?
7. How could services be expanded with additional resources?
8. What methods of communication are used to promote the center’s services?
9. What is the future vision for providing services at the center?
10. What does the future hold for these types of learning centers?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 150
Appendix A2
Learning Specialist – Interview Protocol
The purpose of this study is to understand how a learning center providing assistive
technology and academic support services on the campus of a large urban university is serving
the needs of students with learning differences and disabilities.
Questions
1. How long have you been with the center and what attracted you to come here?
2. What is the nature of your role in providing services at the center?
3. What do you like most about working at the center?
4. In what ways do you see the impact of the center’s services on students?
5. What are the most utilized services at the center and why?
6. What is the future direction of the center for providing these services?
7. What services are you unable to provide and why?
8. What are the intended results for students who use the center’s services?
9. How does the center monitor and track its effectiveness?
10. What is the biggest challenge in providing services at the center?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 151
Appendix A3
Academic Coach – Interview Protocol
The purpose of this study is to understand how a learning center providing assistive
technology and academic support services on the campus of a large urban university is serving
the needs of students with learning differences and disabilities.
Questions
1. How long have you been with the center and what attracted you to come here?
2. What is the nature of your role in providing services at the center?
3. What do you like most about working at the center?
4. In what ways do you see the impact of the center’s services on students?
5. What does it mean to be a coach?
6. What methods or tools do you use to coach?
7. What is your goal when coaching?
8. What do students find most useful about coaching?
9. How do students respond to coaching?
10. How do students hear about the center?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 152
Appendix A4
Observation Protocol - Descriptions
Portraits of subjects Reconstruction of dialogue Description of setting
Accounts of particular events Depiction of activities Observer’s behavior
OBSERVATION 1
Observer:
Date:
Time:
Place:
Subjects:
Descriptive Fieldnotes
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 153
Appendix A5
Observation Protocol - Reflections
On analysis, patterns, themes Strategies for study, design Ethical dilemmas, conflict
Observers frame of mind Points of clarification Dissertation implications
REFLECTION 1
Reflective Fieldnotes
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 154
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 155
Appendix C
Interview Protocol - Center Staff
The purpose of this study is to examine how academic coaching practices are supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Questions
1. How long have you been involved with the center and what attracted you to come here?
2. How are you involved in the provision of academic coaching services at the center?
3. In what ways can academic coaching practices help students understand the academic
requirements of a postsecondary education setting?
(situation – role)
4. How might academic coaching practices help encourage students to manage the academic
challenges of postsecondary education?
(situation - control)
5. In what ways can academic coaching practices help students understand the nature of
their academic support needs?
(self – view)
6. How might academic coaching practices help students develop the commitment
necessary for academic achievement?
(self – values)
7. In what ways can academic coaching practices help students understand the meaning of
their learning challenge in order to support academic progress?
(strategies – control)
8. How might academic coaching practices help students develop effective ways of
managing the stress of their learning challenge in order to support academic progress?
(strategies – manage)
9. In what ways can academic coaching practices help students develop skills for building
relationships that can support their academic efforts?
(support – relationships)
10. How might academic coaching practices help students learn how to engage in social
networks and communities that can support their academic efforts?
(support – network)
11. 2
nd
Interview: What practices do you enjoy performing and why? Which practices do
you feel are most useful in supporting students’ transitions through higher education?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 156
Appendix D
Interview Protocol - Academic Coach
The purpose of this study is to examine how academic coaching practices are supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Questions
1. How long have you been involved with the center and what attracted you to come here?
2. What type of training do you have to take in order to provide academic coaching services
at the center?
3. In what ways can your academic coaching practices help students understand the
academic requirements of a postsecondary education setting?
(situation – role)
4. How might your academic coaching practices help encourage students to manage the
academic challenges of postsecondary education?
(situation – control)
5. In what ways can your academic coaching practices help students understand the nature
of their academic support needs?
(self – view)
6. How might your academic coaching practices help students develop the commitment
necessary for academic achievement?
(self – values)
7. In what ways can your academic coaching practices help students understand the
meaning of their learning challenge in order to support academic progress?
(strategies – control)
8. How might your academic coaching practices help students develop effective ways of
managing the stress of their learning challenge in order to support academic progress?
(strategies – manage)
9. In what ways can your academic coaching practices help students develop skills for
building relationships that can support their academic efforts?
(support – relationships)
10. How might your academic coaching practices help students learn how to engage in social
networks and communities that can support their academic efforts?
(support – network)
11. 2
nd
Interview: What practices do you enjoy performing and why? Which practices do
you feel are most useful in supporting students’ transitions through higher education?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 157
Appendix E
Interview Protocol - Student
The purpose of this study is to examine how academic coaching practices are supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Questions
1. How long have you been using the center’s academic coaching services?
2. What attracted you to seek academic coaching services at the center?
3. In what ways does academic coaching help you understand the academic requirements of
higher education?
(situation – role)
4. How does academic coaching help you manage the academic challenges of higher
education?
(situation – control)
5. In what ways does academic coaching help you focus on areas of growth for academic
achievement?
(self – view)
6. How does academic coaching help you learn about the level of preparation required for
academic achievement?
(self – values)
7. In what ways does academic coaching help you understand the challenges you are
experiencing in order to support your academic progress?
(strategies – control)
8. How does academic coaching practices help you develop effective ways of managing
stress in order to support your academic progress?
(strategies – manage)
9. In what ways does academic coaching help you build relationships that can support your
academic efforts?
(support – relationships)
10. How does academic coaching help you identify social networks and communities that can
support your academic efforts?
(support – network)
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 158
Appendix F
Focus Group Protocol - Academic Coaches
The purpose of this study is to examine how academic coaching practices are supporting
students’ transitions through postsecondary education.
Question
1. What are your thoughts on the role of academic coaching practices in helping an increasing
population of entering students with learning disabilities and differences successfully
transition through postsecondary education?
If resources were not a constraint, what would the ideal coaching model look like for students
with learning disabilities and differences?
What top practices would you promote?
What are the threats?
What are the opportunities?
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 159
Appendix G
Observation Protocol - Descriptions
Portraits of subjects Reconstruction of dialogue Description of setting
Accounts of particular events Depiction of activities Observer’s behavior
OBSERVATION
Observer:
Date:
Time:
Place:
Subjects:
Descriptive Fieldnotes
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 160
Appendix H
Observation Protocol - Reflections
On analysis, patterns, themes Strategies for study, design Ethical dilemmas, conflict
Observers frame of mind Points of clarification Dissertation implications
REFLECTION
Reflective Fieldnotes
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 161
Appendix I
Table of Documents
Document Type Justification for use/
potential insight document provides
Questions about documents
Official:
Mission statement and associated
documents establishing the
founding principles of the center
Marketing collateral; website
Data usage reports
Provides insights into how services
are promoted and delivered as well as
data used to validate results.
Documents reveal purpose and
motivation for founding
learning center. Collateral
materials may provide view of
how services are promoted.
Data usage reports reveal what
the center identifies as
important to track in justifying
role of center.
Personal:
Academic coaches journals
Student journals
Provides insights into coaches’
personal motivations for providing
services and students’ motivations for
accessing and using services.
These journals may provide
strong insights into the reasons
paraprofessional students serve
as coaches and students seek
their services for academic
support.
Popular culture:
Portrayal of students with learning
disabilities as represented in film
and literature
Not applicable to this study.
Not relevant to this study.
Visual:
Layout of signage at center
May help to define expectations for
behavior within the facility and
purpose of the center’s services.
Center website
Promotes and defines center’s
services and instructions for gaining
access.
Provides information on what
the center chooses to promote
to the public as priorities and
approach for providing services
to students.
Physical material/
documents:
Casework notes
Provide strong evidence into process
for determining services and method
for delivery.
Presentations at coaches’ meetings
May be useful for identifying how
decisions are made to deliver services.
Access to casework notes may
be difficult to obtain if
controlled by federal
regulations. Presentation
topics may be selected as a
reaction to changes in federal
regulations and not on how to
advance academic support.
Researcher
generated:
Written reflections from coaches
and students.
May be influenced by current issues
and not overall experience.
Testimonials can provide
powerful insights into how
coaching supports personal and
student development.
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 162
Appendix J
Relationship Agreement
We, the undersigned, as participants in the Academic Coach Program, agree to work together to
uphold the spirit and intent of the mentoring relationship and agree to:
Meet in person at least 1-2 every week for a minimum of one hour except in the case of
emergency or illness. In the event of emergency or illness, call or email at least 24 hours
in advance to postpone or cancel. Failure to attend more than two appointments without
prior notification may result in termination of participation in program.
Conduct mid-point evaluations with coach so as to determine progress of goal attainment.
At this point, Academic Coach and Mentee can determine if mentee will continue in
program.
Make a genuine effort to be on time for ALL meetings, or CALL IMMEDIATELY if
running late.
Accept assignments with an open mind and a willingness to learn.
Ask about things we do not understand. It is the responsibility of the mentee to
identify challenges or concerns they are experiencing.
Respect each others’ points-of-view and personal lifestyle decisions.
Keep personal matters confidential unless someone’s safety is at stake.
Bring agreed upon materials to the following meeting.
Contact the Learning Specialists as soon as possible to discuss any problems or concerns
that could impact the mentoring relationship.
Mentee: Date:
Academic
Coach: Date: ____________
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 163
Appendix K
Learning Contract
Name: ID#:
E-mail: Phone #:
Personal Commitments INITIALS
Meet with my Academic Coach at our agreed upon time (DAY & TIME: )
Attend ALL of my classes except in the case of emergency or illness.
Complete all of my assignments AHEAD of time.
Set aside at least ______ hours to study each week.
Academic Goals for the Semester
Earn a semester GPA of
Earn an (A/B/C/CR) in:
Earn an (A/B/C/CR) in:
Earn an (A/B/C/CR) in:
Earn an (A/B/C/CR) in:
Earn an (A/B/C/CR) in:
Academic Areas I Want to Improve
Time Management:
Motivation and Attitude towards School:
Knowledge of/Involvement with an Academic Department:
Interactions with My Professors:
Knowledge of Campus Resources:
Campus Involvement:
Reading Strategies:
Note-Taking Skills:
ACADEMIC COACHING PRACTICES 164
Test-Taking Skills:
Other:
I AM RESPONSIBLE FOR MY LEARNING. I WILL FULFILL THE COMMITMENTS
I HAVE LISTED ABOVE, AND AGREE TO ALLOW MY Academic Coach TO HOLD
ME ACCOUNTABLE.
MENTEE: Date:
Academic Coach: Date:
(Academic Coach keep copy in binder)
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Postsecondary education has experienced a continual rise in students entering with documented learning disabilities as a result of legislative and social change. As a result, institutions are faced with the challenge of determining how to provide academic support services to this growing student population. The research question for this study was to explore the ways in which academic coaches enact their practices to support students’ transitions through postsecondary education. The research design is an instrumental case study of the academic coaching model at a learning center serving students with learning disabilities and differences within a large urban university. Staff, academic coaches and students were interviewed along with observations of the coaching model, and document analysis of surveys and session notes to gain an understanding of how academic coaching practices are delivered and received at the learning center. Schlossberg’s transition theory provided a framework of four factors for examining how individuals address change by taking stock of their situation, self, strategies and support when addressing transitions. Ultimately, the findings extended beyond the framework of transition theory to reveal academic coaching practices that support students’ learning strategies by fostering a collaborative learning environment with a focus on building supportive relationships, following principles of wellness, developing individual strengths and utilizing diverse resources to achieve desired results. The results of these findings support academic coaching as an important campus resource for guiding students through learning strategies that can help them address the academic challenges of pursing a postsecondary education.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Combs, Wayne A.
(author)
Core Title
Academic coaching practices for students with learning disabilities and differences
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
04/14/2015
Defense Date
03/09/2015
Publisher
University of Southern California
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Tag
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