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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES IN COSTA RICA AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
by
John William Bradley Baker
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2014
Copyright 2014 John William Bradley Baker
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I am blessed with many encouraging and supportive family and friends. The com-
pletion of this dissertation was made possible by a number of people. First and foremost,
I dedicate this dissertation to the love of my life, Amysue. Without her love and support I
would not be the man that I am today. She is my inspiration, she is my rock. There are
many weekends and late nights that she took the children so I could attend classes and
write this dissertation. Throughout the past 3 years there were many frustrations; how-
ever, I knew it would be all right as I had her undivided support. She never wavered in
her commitment to our family and to this challenging process that we took on 3 years
ago. I thank God every day that HE placed her in my life. I am looking forward to
spending more time with my wife and giving her the love and attention that she greatly
deserves.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my beautiful children, son Benjamin and
daughter Grace. I could not be more pleased with my children. They are truly gifts from
God. The reason I completed my doctorate was to be an example to my children. I
believe it has been incredibly powerful for them to watch me attend school in their edu-
cational foundation years. They might not remember everything that I have told them, but
I believe they have learned that education is important and that it is the great equalizer
which makes everything possible. My hope is that they enjoy the success of learning and
fulfill their dreams in life.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my mother. She instilled a belief in me that I
can achieve all things through hard work and being kind to others. As a young boy I
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
remember her telling me that I had a purpose and that I would be a leader and change
lives. She provided me with strength when I struggled and she always encouraged me to
overcome failure. My success has come from her belief in me and her efforts to build my
faith as a child. Our lives together may not have been easy as we faced many difficulties
as a family; however, through divorces, death, and personal struggles we have all come
out the other side stronger and more prepared to take on the future. I would not be the
man I am today without my mother.
This work is also dedicated to my sisters and my extended family. They are all
strong, supportive, and committed. Every member of my family means the world to me
and I appreciate their understanding and support throughout this process. I apologize to
them as I have missed many family gatherings and events because of the time it took to
complete this dissertation. My hope is that I have shown them that education and learning
are so very important to the success of raising our children. Family is everything and I
plan to celebrate this achievement with them.
Finally, I thank friends and colleagues who have shown support and encourage-
ment over the past 3 years. I am blessed to have these incredible people in my life, I am
extremely fortunate to have such a strong network. Their belief in me has been an integral
part of the success of this process.
All this work has taught me that life is a process and that we must be resilient to
challenges to better ourselves and others. Whatever the future holds, I know that it will be
okay because of the love and support of my family, friends, and colleagues. I dedicate
this work to them.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Acknowledgments
There is never a perfect time to make the commitment to go back to school to earn
a doctorate. Life is full of demands, and to commit 3 years to a rigorous program at USC
is a huge decision. In my first year as an administrator, a colleague was just beginning the
doctoral program at USC. We had many discussions about the program and I knew right
away that this was a challenge that I wanted to experience. One of the key elements that
we discussed was the quality of the professors from whom I would have the opportunity
to learn. Once I explained to my wife the benefits of returning to school to earn my doc-
torate, she did not hesitate to encourage me to apply.
I applied for the 2011 doctoral cohort; however, I was unsure of my chances to be
accepted. There were many days of doubt between submitting the application and the day
I received the news that I was accepted. To this day I remember receiving the news and
feeling a sense of joy that I just took my first step in accomplishing my dreams. The first
day on campus I sat in the quad area and became overwhelmed with emotion. I knew that
day that I had made the right decision and that it was the beginning of a journey that
would change my life and the lives of others. I took a risk and took on a challenge that
would prove to be one of the most challenging of my life. It was hands-down one of the
best decisions I made.
USC is a world-class academic institution. All the professors, staff, and students
are of the highest quality. I knew from the first time I stepped on campus that I was a part
of something bigger than myself; I was a part of the Trojan family. After 3 years I have
developed relationships with some of the most dynamic and amazing people that I have
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
ever met. My first-ever academic class at USC was a class on leadership taught by Dr.
Michael Escalante. I knew after that class that I had made the right decision. Dr.
Escalante has been a tremendous mentor and inspiration. He has been an integral part of
my development as an educational leader. Without a doubt, I would not be where I am
today without his guidance. He is the ultimate practitioner and professional. USC and
education is fortunate to have Dr. Escalante as an ambassador.
Another dynamic leader from whom I was fortunate to learn is Dr. Pedro Garcia.
Like Dr. Escalante, Dr. Garcia has been a tremendous resource with regard to my under-
standing of diversity and my development to become an effective educational leader. Dr.
Garcia is the most caring and authentic professor with whom I have ever had the oppor-
tunity to work. His calm demeanor and confidence in my abilities reduced my anxiety
when taking on the challenge to write this dissertation. He facilitated many classes from
which I walked away with a new perspective; he challenged my beliefs and encouraged
me to reflect on who I am as a person. It is rare to find a person in this world who can
positively influence you after every conversation. Dr. Garcia is that type of person.
I also acknowledge and thank Dr. Robert Rueda. His learning class changed my
perspective on learning. His class opened my eyes to human behavior and taught me how
learning truly works. I sincerely appreciate Dr. Rueda’s efforts to teach me the root of
human learning and how to overcome organizational performance issues. I feel fortunate
to have had the opportunity to learn from such a dynamic teacher.
I am so fortunate I made the decision to enroll at USC when I did. I have made
many lifelong friends and contacts as a result. The Costa Rica dissertation team
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
members—Josh, Orlya, Anita, Alex, Megan, Sam, Sebastian, Felipe, Monica, Star, Eliza-
beth, and Dr. Escalante—are all incredible human beings. They are all amazing educators
and made this journey a lot of fun. Every single member of this team had various skill
sets that played a part in our success. It comforts me to know that these kind of people are
leading our educational system to help our children of the future. I am honored and hum-
bled to have worked with all them and I hope to get to work with them in the future. I
truly enjoyed the time that we spent together and I most certainly will miss my Trojan
family. Fight On!
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 4
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 11
Abstract 12
Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations 15
Delimitations 15
Assumptions 17
Definitions of Terms 17
Organization of the Dissertation 19
Overview of the Study 20

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 21
Costa Rica 22
Political History 22
Geography and Demographics 24
Government 25
Economy 26
Education System 27
Globalization 30
Globalization Defined 30
Globalization and Technology 31
Theoretical Perspectives 32
Impact of Globalization on Education 33
Discussion of Globalization 35
Multinational Corporations in Costa Rica 36
Leadership in the 21st Century 40
Discussion of Leadership 46
21st-Century Skills 46
Core Subjects and 21st-Century Themes 47
Learning and Innovation Skills 48
Discussion of 21st-Century Skills 49
Summary of the Literature Review 49

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
Chapter 3: Methodology 51
Research Design 53
Research Team 55
Population and Sample 55
Exploratory Trip 56
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers 56
Executives of MNCs 57
School Administrators 58
Research Trip 58
Instrumentation 60
Data Collection 61
Data Analysis 63
Ethical Considerations 64

Chapter 4: Research Results 66
Participants 67
Research Organization 67
Participant Roles 69
Results for Research Question 1 70
Increase in MNCs 71
Positive Partnership With Intel 73
Discussion for Research Question 1 75
Results for Research Question 2 76
Use of Technology 77
Collaboration 79
Discussion for Research Question 2 84
Results for Research Question 3 85
Shared Responsibility 86
Instructional Leadership 88
Discussion for Research Question 3 91
Chapter Summary 92

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations 94
Summary of Findings 96
Research Question 1 96
Research Question 2 98
Research Question 3 99
Summary 100
Implications for Practice 101
Recommendations for Research 102
Conclusion 104

References 106
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 112
Appendix B: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 114
Appendix C: MNC Interview Protocol 117
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 120
Appendix E: Survey Protocol for Teachers 123
Appendix F: Classroom Observation Tool 126
Appendix G: Recruitment/Consent Letter 131
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Invited Participants and Those Who Actually Participated 68
Table 2: Summary of Interview Data Indicating an Effect of Globalization in
Costa Rica 73
Table 3: Participants’ Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational
Corporations on the School 74
Table 4: Classrooms Observations at Escuela Fidel Chaves Murillo Indicating
the Focus to Incorporate 21st-Ccentury Learning 76
Table 5: Survey Responses Indicating 21st-Century Learning 81
Table 6: Observations Indicating 21st-Century Learning 83
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
List of Figures
Figure 1: Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model 41
Figure 2: Framework for 21st-century learning 47
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
Abstract
In a highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a
need to adapt to a global market. A country’s educational system can be argued to be the
driving force behind economic development. Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the
past 30 years. Once relying on agricultural exports, it is now influenced by high-
technology foreign direct investment. The resulting growth of technology as a major
export has given new direction and opportunity. In the past few decades, Costa Rica has
seen investment by multinational corporations in the school system’s responsibility to
develop students who are technically literate and possess 21st-century skills.
The Costa Rica school system faces a challenge to ensure that its future workforce
has the skill set to take on new job opportunities of the future. Despite having 5 national
universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remains a low second-
ary graduation rate and a low percentage of students pursuing higher education.
In order to prepare students in Costa Rica to compete in a high-technology global
market, there may need to be educational shifts to ensure future economic success. To
make these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and education may all
need to play a role. This study describes the impact of globalization and multinational
corporations on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools
in Costa Rica. The study also identifies the roles that leaders play in the development and
implementation of educational policies and determines whether these policies are pro-
ducing a greater number of knowledge-ready workers.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Chapter 1
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
financial crisis of the 1980s. Due to a developed educational system and an increased cost
of living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech foreign
direct investments (FDI) to compete in an evolving global market. The resulting growth
of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small
Central American country. As more multinational corporations (MNCs) invest in Costa
Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility to help students to develop tech-
nical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become increasingly more challenging.
Despite five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there
remain a low secondary graduation rate and low rates of pursuit of higher education in
the country. As a result, there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to
take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand what the impact of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study was designed to identify the role that school leaders
play in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national
education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives are pro-
ducing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an educational system that builds
human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Three frameworks were chosen to assist in addressing the research questions. The
questions were studied using the frameworks of research on globalization and education
(Spring, 2008), 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2007), and reframing organizations (Bolman
& Deal, 2008).
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study can influence all stakeholders, including political
leaders and education policymakers, MNCs, and educational leaders in Costa Rica. The
study can help stakeholders who want to understand how to improve education and help
students to develop 21st-century skills. The findings serve as a significant model for other
countries with emerging markets in Latin America looking to enhance human capital
through establishment of an effective and efficient education system. The findings can
empower school administrators with methods and approaches to support their faculty and
staff in preparing students to be equipped with 21st-century skills. These methods and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
approaches will ultimately enable students to compete successfully in the rapidly
changing knowledge-based global economy.
Limitations
The scope of this research study was limited. Time and distance were definite
limitations to this qualitative case study, especially due to its international setting and the
limited travel time of 1 week. The comparative case study examined the efforts of one
prestigious public university in Costa Rica and four high-performing high schools in the
metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica. Due to the purposeful sampling focused on
only one public university and Intel-influenced high schools in Costa Rica, the general-
izability of the findings is limited to other such campuses and may not be generalizable to
the entire education system. Although the research team was choosing to use Intel sec-
ondary schools in Costa Rica, the location of the schools in the metropolitan area of San
José was out of the research team’s control and can be considered to be limitation.
Regardless of limits on generalizability, this comparative case study provides in-depth
data and rich analysis in which policies and best practices are described and applied
based on the similarity of institutional context. The study portrays what happens when
MNCs are invested in schools and identify implications for educational leaders to meet
the demands of this partnership. Participants may have been restrained or limited in their
responses based on personal biases and experiences.
Delimitations
This study utilized a very small sample of interview participants (n = 13) and
student teachers at the University of Costa Rica (UCR; n = 30) in the metropolitan area of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
San José, Costa Rica. As such, the scope of the data sources is a delimitation in this com-
parative case study at UCR and the four Intel-supported high schools in Costa Rica.
Interview participants included a limited number of political leaders and education
policymakers (n = 4), business executives of MNCs (n = 3), and school administrators
(n = 6). In-person interviews were used to assess the opinions and perspectives of the
participants, and the recorded experiences may be uniquely based on the participants’
cultural backgrounds and certain inherent biases. These participants were not meant to
represent the perspectives and experiences of all political leaders, education policymak-
ers, business executives of MNCs, and school administrators in Costa Rica. Instead, this
small sample across groups was intended to triangulate data and analyze common themes
in data. In addition, the small number of student teachers at UCR (30) is a delimitation
because a very narrow demographic of participants was used to analyze the results of the
survey.
Based on knowledge gained from the literature review and collaborative discus-
sion by members of the research team, it was decided that, although there are hundreds of
MNCs invested in Costa Rica, Intel would be the MNC of focus in this study due to its
significant contributions to the country’s education system. The scope of the data sources
for this case study in Costa Rica is a delimitation. The interpretation of the findings from
a researcher with an education perspective from the United States may also be an influ-
ence in the study that should be noted.
The intended purpose is a delimitation of this comparative case study. The team
and researcher attempted to evaluate the impact of globalization and MNCs on
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in secondary schools
partnered with Intel and how UCR is preparing secondary school administrators to
address the need for 21st-century skills. The study did not evaluate the perceptions of
students or parents regarding the schools’ effectiveness in developing 21st-century skills.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made:
1. Globalization and MNCs are affecting the educational system in Costa Rica.
2. The educational system in Costa Rica is highly developed.
3. There is a lack of knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica.
4. MNCs in Costa Rica invest heavily in the educational system.
5. Leadership has been affected by the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica.
6. Twenty-first-century skills are needed for Costa Rica to be globally competi-
tive.
Definitions of Terms
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE): A private, nonprofit,
apolitical organization.
Federal direct investment (FDI): An investment made by a company or entity
based in one country into a company or entity based in another country.
Free Trade Zones (FTZs): Known in Spanish as zonas francas, these zones offer
member companies a wide range of financial incentives and benefits. FTZs are open to
export manufacturing companies, export trade companies (not producers), export service
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
companies, organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing firms with no
export requirements.
Globalization: Changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and
investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population, exerting a
direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which education is a part
(Spring, 2008).
Human capital: The stock of competencies, knowledge, and social and personality
attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce
economic value.
Knowledge age: A tipping point, equivalent in effect to the Age of Discovery, The
Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the internal combustion engine.
Knowledge-based economy: The use of knowledge technologies such as
knowledge engineering and knowledge management to produce economic benefits and
job creation (Machlup, 1962).
Knowledge-ready worker: A person who is employed to produce or analyze ideas
and information.
Ministry of Public Education (El Ministerio de Educación Pública de la
República de Costa Rica; MEP): A world leader in providing quality and accessible edu-
cation to the children in K-12 public education in Costa Rica. Its mission is to promote
the development and consolidation of an exceptional education system that provides
access to quality education to the entire population, centered on personal development
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
and the promotion of a Costa Rican society united through opportunity and social equal-
ity.
Multinational corporation (MNC): An enterprise operating in several countries
but managed from one (home) country; generally, any company or group that derives at
least one quarter of its revenue from operations outside of its home country.
Twenty-first-century skills: Skills that students need to be successful in the 21st
century; they include cross-curricular skills and learning-to-learn skills.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction
and overview of the study, as well as statement of the problem, the purpose of the study,
the research questions, the significance of the study, and the definition of key terms.
Chapter 2 provides an in-depth review of the literature related to globalization and the
presence of MNCs in Costa Rica. Also included in the review are the effects on the Costa
Rican education system, the resulting changes to the educational system, and the current
effects of leadership. The chapter explores 21st-century skills and the current need for
these skills by the Costa Rica work force. The covered topics were examined through
three conceptual frameworks: (a) Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework on the percep-
tions of globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) conceptual framework of 21st-century skills,
and (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frame theory on organizational leadership. Chapter 3
describes the methodology to be used in the study and the research design. The chapter
also details the rationale for sample selection, the instruments, and data collection tech-
niques. Chapter 4 presents the research findings from the data and analysis of the data
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
with regard to each research question. Chapter 5 presents and summarizes the findings of
the overall study, as well as implications for future research.
Overview of the Study
This study was concerned with three main elements: globalization, education, and
leadership. The purpose of the study was to understand the impact of globalization on the
educational system in Costa Rica and the implications for leaders in the country. Since
the financial crisis in the 1980s, Costa Rica has seen many leadership changes and, as a
result, an economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI. Torres
(2002) explained that, with these new technologies to handle finances, countries are
almost borderless and it has become easier to move capital from one country to another.
Costa Rica was once based primarily on an agricultural economy; the growth of
technology as the major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small
Central American country (World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency [MIGA], 2006). In 2006 the World Bank Group, MIGA, described Intel’s
involvement as a signaling effect where investments were made that resulted in billions
of dollars in profits and an increase of FDI by more than 50 foreign corporations. The
article by the World Bank Group, MIGA (2006), also reported educational policy
changes as a result of these investments. Therefore, the Costa Rica school system has
inherited the challenge to develop students’ 21st-century skills that Wagner (2008) sug-
gested students in a global economy will need to be successful. Despite having five
national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remains a lack
of knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica (Roman, 2012).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of a fiscal crisis in the
1980s (Giuliani, 2008). In response to this fiscal crisis, a new economic strategic plan
was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to compete in the global market (Ferreira,
2009; Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). Consequently, Costa Rica has become an active partici-
pant in the international marketplace and plays a large role in many MNCs (Ferreira,
2009). As more of these MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school systems’ challenge is to
meet the demand to develop 21st-century skills in students. Many of these MNCs are
providing resources to schools and deliver training on how to incorporate technology in
the classroom (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
This literature review consists of five sections. The first section focuses on the
history of Costa Rica, highlighting the current demographics, the economy, the structure
of the educational system, and the current organization of the government, to provide
background knowledge on how decisions are made within the Costa Rican systems. The
second section focuses on globalization, the definition of globalization, and four major
theoretical perspectives of globalization proposed by Spring (2008); the section examines
the effects of globalization on Costa Rica’s educational system. The third section exam-
ines the influence of MNCs on Costa Rica and provides an overview of the current liter-
ature regarding the companies that have invested in Costa Rica and the effects of these
companies on Costa Rica’s economy and educational system. The fourth section is an
overview of 21st-century skills, providing a definition and insights into the partnership
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
for the 21st-century skill framework and the theoretical frameworks established by
Wagner (2008). The fifth section explores the organizational framework proposed by
Bolman and Deal (2008) and uses this framework as a lens by which to analyze the
current leadership practices in the Costa Rican educational system. To provide a multi-
dimensional analysis of school leadership, this section also examines the framework
proposed by Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) to identify 21 responsibilities of
leaders.
Costa Rica
Understanding the history and background of Costa Rica and the structure of the
school system is important in analyzing recent changes in the country. For the purpose of
context, this section explores the political history, geography, demographics, government
structure, economy, and educational system in Costa Rica. It is important to understand
the political history along with the current demographics and government structures to
fully understand the Costa Rican culture.
Political History
To understand the current realities of Costa Rica, three significant historical
events are important: (a) the adoption of a new constitution that established basic rights
and abolished the military, (b) the economic downfall in the 1980s, and (c) policy
changes in the 1990s to increase tourism and foreign investment. These historical mark-
ers serve as background for understanding the influences of these events on Costa Rica.
Perhaps one of the most significant events that initiated recent change in Costa
Rica was the rewriting of its constitution in 1949. Costa Rica’s civil war ended in 1948
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
and the Democratic government was restored (Kantor, 1954). In the same year a new
constitution was developed based on the Constitution of 1871, reinstating free elections
and abolishing the military. According to Kantor (1954), the first President under the new
Constitution, José Figures Ferrer, pledged to improve social security and public health.
Written in the Constitution were principles and regulations of private and public enter-
prises, limiting powers of the executive branch and extending the scope of Parliament
(Lopez, 1996). These events have led to the country that is today.
Costa Rica experienced an economic downfall in the 1980s as a result of U.S.
recession and the increasing political violence in the country. President Oscar Arias
Sanchez settled the political violence and led a peace movement to bring stability to
Costa Rica. The peace plan was signed by Guatemala, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Hon-
duras in 1987, guaranteeing free elections in all of those countries, granting basic demo-
cratic freedoms in Nicaragua, and calling for a cease-fire by all participating countries.
President Arias was awarded the Nobel peace prize for leading these efforts.
In 1984 Costa Rica created the Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency
(CINDE), a coalition to promote national development and exports. The coalition was
funded mainly by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to
promote foreign investment, encourage domestic Costa Rican firms to export, and
provide training to businesses interested in exporting to Costa Rica (Nathan Associates,
2003). CINDE has been extremely successful in accomplishing the goal of increasing
foreign investment. This success by MNCs and its impact in Costa Rica is discussed in
the section titled Multinational Corporations and Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
Many policy changes in Costa Rica during the 1990s influenced the current eco-
nomic status. Once Costa Rica had officially entered an economic recession in the mid-
1990s, President José Maria Figueres Olsen led reform efforts in the form of raising
taxes, privatization of state-owned banking and telecommunication systems, and the end
of the statewide insurance monopoly. Two years later, Miguel Angel Rodriguez was
elected President of Costa Rica and his staff focused policies on increasing tourism and
foreign investment.
Currently, Laura Chinchilla is the President of Costa Rica. She served as Vice
President from 2006 to 2008 and then was elected in 2010 to become the first female
Costa Rican President. Her main objectives are to increase spending for law enforcement
and education, create jobs, eliminate illicit drug trafficking, and develop technological
enterprises.
Geography and Demographics
Costa Rica is a unique country because of its geographical location, culture, and
history. The geography, demographics, economy, education system, and structure of the
Costa Rican government provide context for this study. Furthermore, the factors dis-
cussed in this section have made Costa Rica an attractive country for investment by
MNCs (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Costa Rica, Spanish for “rich coast,” is a country in Central America bordered by
Nicaragua, Panama, the Pacific Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea. The area is approximately
51,000 km² or 19 square miles, slightly smaller than West Virginia. The terrain of Costa
Rica’s coastal plain is separated by rugged mountains with over 100 volcanoes
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
(Economist Intelligence Unit Limited, 2012). The Costa Rican rainforest contains 5% of
the world’s biodiversity, and 25% of the country is protected in national parks (Central
Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2012). Costa Rica’s beautiful landscape has made it a highly
attractive destination for tourists from around the world.
Costa Rica has a population of approximately 5 million people. The most popu-
lated city is San José, with 1.5 million citizens. The ethnicity distribution is 83% White,
3% Black or Afro-Caribbean, 1% American Indian, 1% Chinese, and 1% other. In terms
of religious faith, 76.3% of Costa Ricans claim to be Roman Catholics and 13% claim to
be Evangelicals. The age structure of the country consists of 25% people under age 14,
69% ages 15 to 65 years, and 6% over age 65. In 2010 the urban population represented
64% of all Costa Ricans (compared to 82% in the United States (CIA, 2012). According
to Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (2013), the Costa Rican government spends 6.3%
of its gross domestic product (GDP) on the education system, which ranks them 24th in
the world. At the same time, 10.5% of the GDP is spent on health care. Costa Rican liter-
acy is at 94.9% for students over the age of 15 years (Ministerio de Relaciones
Exteriores, 2013).
Government
The current constitution was put in place on November 7, 1949. The Costa Rican
constitution outlines three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial.
The executive branch consists of the President, two vice presidents and a cabinet of 22
ministers. The legislative branch is a 57-member legislative assembly, with each member
serving a 4-year term. The judicial branch consists of 22 members who are elected to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
serve as the Supreme Court. The office of Ombudsman, Comptroller General, and Pro-
curator General emphasizes oversight of the government (CIA, 2012).
Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which are divided into 81 cantons
(cities). These cantons are directed by mayors who are chosen democratically every 4
years (CIA, 2012). According to the Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (2013), the main
foreign policy objective of Costa Rica is to foster human rights for sustainable develop-
ment. In the past few decades many development policies have attracted MNCs to choose
Costa Rica as their home.
Economy
Costa Rica has seen its share of political turmoil, which has had an effect on the
current economy. Moving from a simple agricultural farming mentality to active partici-
pation in world trade has led to many challenges. In the past, Spain imposed merchant
policies, and a lack of roads to the coast impeded the Costa Ricans’ ability to trade with
other countries. Once Costa Rica gained independence from Spain and the Constitution
was approved, abolishing the military, resources were reallocated into development
sectors of the economy such as health care, education, and agriculture (Ministerio de
Relaciones Exteriores, 2013). Coffee became the major export, a trade that boomed in
1845 with the support of the government (Lopez, 1996).
The Costa Rican government has played a major role in the economic develop-
ment of the country, dating back to the 1800s. It was in part due to the government’s
support that FTZs were established, which resulted in investment in Costa Rica by MNCs
(CINDE, 2010). The Costa Rican government has also been key in the creation of state-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
owned monopolies. The Institute of Electricity was developed in 1949 to “control the
producing and distribution of electrical energy through the country” (Lopez, 1996, p.
116). The government also controls oil and telecommunications. These moves were
designed to set up the country’s infrastructure for future economic and population
growth.
Education System
The history of the education system, the current structure, and the policy and
reform efforts provide insights into actions that Costa Rica has taken to compete in the
world economy. The educational system in Costa Rica is very similar to the current
system in the United States; however, what makes Costa Rica unique is that the country
was one of the first to provide a free education for its citizens.
According to CIA (2012), the first school in Costa Rica was opened in 1751 in
Heredia and was supervised by Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Today, the educa-
tional system is overseen by the MEP, which is ultimately responsible for regulating
public education in Costa Rica. In 1994 President José Maria Figueres declared the
teaching of English and computer science to be mandatory in all of the nation’s public
schools (Wiarda, 1995). The government took on the major expense to train more than
500 teachers to use new technologies and implement new English programs that would
boost achievement. According to Wiarda (1995), this was possible because most of the
teachers in Costa Rica live in concentrated areas; therefore, these programs spread
quickly throughout the country. Due to these programs, Costa Rica has the most
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
advanced education system in Latin America and the 23rd highest-ranked system in the
world (CINDE Department of Research, 2011).
Efforts by the MEP have led to the highest literacy rate in Central America. Costa
Rica claims that 96% of its citizens are literate (CINDE, 2010). According to Skidmore
and Smith (2001), in the 1970s only 45% to 60% of adults in neighboring countries, such
as El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, could read and write, compared to
approximately 90% in Costa Rica. Since the 1970s, Costa Rica has invested more than
20% of its national budget on primary and secondary education. In the past 30 years
Costa Rica has made significant gains in educational standards and has achieved a net
rate of 92.6% in 2001 for primary education attendance (Skidmore & Smith, 2001). Costa
Rica’s attendance rates are extremely high compared to neighboring countries, which
could be a result of the great importance that past leaders have placed on education
(CINDE, 2010).
Many of Costa Rica’s leaders have been educators, and historically these leaders
have placed a great importance on expansion of primary and secondary education even in
the most remote areas of the country. Currently, Costa Rica is constitutionally required to
allocate at least 6% of the country’s GDP to educational programs (CINDE, 2011). Costa
Rica spends more of its GDP on education than all neighboring Latin American coun-
tries; however, Wiarda (1995) explained that, even with Costa Rica’s high achievement
rates, there is still a serious problem of grade repetition and students dropping out of
school. In the past 10 years, the MEP has worked with the central government’s budget to
increase spending from 24% in 1997 to 31% in 2006 (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
Also, the MEP employs over 28,000 educators and approximately 80% of educational
expenditures are allocated toward salaries and wages (World Bank, MIGA, 2006). Cur-
rently, Costa Rica’s educational system is ranked 22nd worldwide, the highest in Latin
America (CINDE, 2011).
In Costa Rica, primary schools and high schools are found in every community,
and students are not required to pay for basic schooling. Primary school consists of 6 year
levels and the high school program has 5 year levels. Both primary and high school are
divided into two cycles, and once a student has completed a, the student is required to
pass a test on all subjects studied. The primary education lasts for years and is divided
into the two cycles of 3 years each. Secondary education covers 5 or 6 years, divided into
three cycles. On entering the third cycle, students choose an academic track or a technical
or vocational program. Students who choose the technical or vocational programs earn a
certificate upon completion. Students who take the 2-year academic track follow a core
curriculum that includes social studies, mathematics, Spanish, and a foreign language, in
addition to other specialized subjects. Satisfactory completion of the academic cycle
leads to the Bachillerato test, which provides access to higher education; however, most
Costa Rican universities impose an entry exam (CINDE, 2011). These structures and
exams are crucial to assess a student’s readiness to be prepared for college and the 21st-
century workforce.
This educational structure applies to all Costa Rican public schools, but there are
also many private grammar schools and high schools that utilize an American or Euro-
pean system. More often than not, these schools are attended by the children of wealthy
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
parents. Skidmore and Smith (2001) noted a recent explosion of private Costa Rican and
foreign schools, which has decreased overcrowding in the public schools while providing
alternative education systems for those who can afford it.
Globalization
For this study, globalization is defined as a phenomenon of increased economic
integration among nations, characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social
customs, and products across borders (Spring, 2008). Although Spring’s definition of
globalization is used throughout this study, this section of the literature review examines
review other definitions to draw common themes.
Globalization Defined
The term globalization has recently entered the common language of today’s
world. According to Stromquist (2002), Theodore Levitt is recognized for creating the
term in 1985 and defining it as changes in global economics affecting production, con-
sumption, and investment. According to Stromquist, a rapid increase in technological
advancements has occurred in the past three decades, which has increased global interre-
lationships. Globalization no longer concerns just business; it also includes education and
the development of students to be globally minded. The Asia Society (2009) suggested
that the goal to prepare students for an interconnected world will require them to be
fluent in a foreign language, respect foreign cultures, understand international trade,
become technologically knowledgeable, manage complex work in international teams,
and, most important, possess a strong ethical core.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
Many theorists have defined globalization within various disciplines. In the past,
globalization may have been defined in the business world as internationalism. Scott
(2000) noted that globalization cannot be seen simply as a form of internationalism; it is a
phenomenon that can transcend national boundaries. The force of globalization not only
rearranges the economic structures and lifestyles but also challenges the authority of each
nation’s notion of civic and democratic rights (Scott, 2000). Suarez-Orozco (2001) sug-
gested that the term globalization is used quite broadly and lacks well-defined epistemo-
logical, theoretical, or empirical boundaries. The idea of globalization has increased
circulations in the social sciences and is full of potential, especially for theorizing broad
processes of social change all over the world (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). National economies
have changed from insulated systems and are becoming intertwined complex structures
that are influenced by other nations. As societies ready their students to take on the new
jobs of the world, they may have no choice but to respond to the demands of globaliza-
tion. All recent demands have led to creation of common educational practices and
policies with the foundation of global discussions pertaining to human capital, lifelong
learning, technology, and global immigration by workers, leading to a more knowledge-
based economy (Spring, 2008).
Globalization and Technology
Some educational theorists posit that rapid development of technology is the
driving force behind globalization. One such theorist is Harvard Business School profes-
sor Clayton Christensen, who stated that recent technology has enabled people to retrieve
and send information instantaneously all over the world, allowing humans to transfer new
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
knowledge that is necessary for innovations and to achieve monetary success (Christen-
sen, Horn, & Johnson, 2008). Therefore, a knowledge-based economy relies mainly on
the practice of using technology to create new knowledge rather than physical abilities to
meet the demands of a changing world economy (World Bank, 2003).
The rapid advances in technology over the past three centuries have had a strong
effect on today’s jobs and the way they are organized, monitored, and conducted. The
advancement in informational technology such as communications platforms, computer
hardware, and computer software has experienced a metamorphosis of sorts, resulting in
a movement toward an informational or knowledge-based economy (Karoly & Panis,
2004). To be successful in the global market, one must have access, experience, and a
strong understanding of these technological advances (Spring, 2008). Furthermore, the
technological language must be mastered along with the English language as the interna-
tional language of business (Karoly & Panis, 2004). Globalization is essentially affected
by two required tools, technology and English; being capable to use these tools has been
referred to as global literacy (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007).
Theoretical Perspectives
According to Spring (2008), the concept of globalization is not simply defined or
fully understood; however, there are four major approaches to the process of educational
globalization: the world culture view, the world system approach, a postcolonial analysis,
and a cultural approach. The world culture view foundations lie in the idea of Western
ideals of mass schooling focused on the idea that schooling is a necessity for all children
to preserve democratic and economic rights. The world system approach holds that the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
world is divided into two unequal parts: the United States and the European Union
(including Japan). The postcolonial analysis views globalization as an effort to push a
particular economic and political agenda on a global society that will benefit the wealthi-
est nations at the expense of the world’s underprivileged. The cultural approach relies on
local decision making, borrowing from other educational models and combining them
according to what applies to local need (Spring, 2008). Each of these globalization
approaches will undeniably play a role in influencing educational systems around the
world. The current study applied Spring’s (2008) cultural approach, which defined local
decision making borrowed from other educational models to meet the local need.
Impact of Globalization on Education
Globalization directly affects education because countries must reconsider and
reorganize schools to reshape cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, and cultural sophisti-
cation (Torres, 2002). The goal of an educational system is to produce a work force that
is ready to meet the demands of the job market. Chief executive officers (CEOs) from
most successful business firms have declared that the educational system must prepare
students to compete in a knowledge-based economy. These business leaders insist that
students must develop critical 21st-century skills and gain better understanding of glob-
alization and its effects on societies, cultures, and world economy (Spring, 2008; Wagner,
2008). These new demands require a high level of technology-enhanced skills that play a
major part in a global market. Therefore, globalization and technology cannot be ignored
because of their profound effect on education and their ties to global economy (Torres,
2002).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
Many countries, such as Costa Rica, are currently preparing their students for a
technologically advanced marketplace. Technology-enhanced skills are essential so that
students will develop strategies for discovery and lifelong learning in the ever-changing
knowledge-based world (Christensen et al., 2008). Spring (2008) explained that to
accomplish the goal of preparing students for a knowledge-based world , many schools
must place stronger emphasis on basic skills of communication, mathematics, writing,
interpersonal skills, and skills needed for conceptual understanding. Therefore, it is vital
that schools begin to shift instruction away from simply rote memorization of material to
the larger conceptual understanding and application of learning strategies.
Higher education is not immune to the phenomenon of globalization. According
to Vaira (2004), globalization has forced higher education to create new tasks to meet
social, political, and economic demands. Creating these tasks will prove to be challenging
because higher education institutions have deeply embedded traditions, such as lecture-
based learning (Vaira, 2004). Globalization will challenge such traditions by asking
higher education to respond to new demands, reshaping its role, relationships, policy-
making, priorities, and structure of governance (Vaira, 2004). An example of a current
demand that is reshaping traditional higher education is online learning. The online
learning experience is meeting the needs of many students around the world to gain
access to knowledge that prepares them for the global economy. Thus, higher education
has a major responsibility to prepare students to succeed in an interconnected economy
by shifting the focus to educate tomorrow’s workforce with the appropriate skills to
compete in the global economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
Many educational institutions are moving to embrace new curricula that focus on
conceptual learning that will encompass interpersonal and communication skills, along
with language arts and mathematics skills necessary to compete in the new global market
(Spring, 2008). This is no longer a world where life beyond the village does not matter;
communication, collaboration, and technology have all become pivotal points and neces-
sary for societies to thrive (Friedman, 2008).
Discussion of Globalization
Globalization may ultimately have a larger impact on school systems than is cur-
rently understood. Governments and business groups are having discussions about the
necessary goals of schools to meet the needs of the new global economy (Spring, 2008).
According to Christensen et al. (2008), the goals of education will be to educate and
enhance personal innovation and development with technology-powered knowledge tools
and to use these knowledge tools and technology to continue to develop innovative
talents. Essentially, children must be educated to be thinkers and problem solvers to
compete globally in the 21st century. As goals shift and are further defined to prepare
students for the demands of a knowledge-based global economy, it is important that edu-
cators understand and undertake their new responsibilities. The importance of developing
21st-century skills in students is an invaluable part of this task (Wagner, 2008). There-
fore, having a better understanding of these responsibilities, educational leaders in devel-
oping countries such as Costa Rica are working closely with MNCs to shift policy and
curricula to develop essential 21st-century skills in students.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
Multinational Corporations in Costa Rica
Many countries such as Coast Rica are acquiring FDI in the form of high-tech
MNCs to increase their GDP (Giuliani, 2008). Many countries are quickly adapting to
communicate effectively and conduct business with other countries. The ability to com-
municate quickly and effectively with other countries has opened the metaphorical door
of FDI opportunities for developing countries. According to Mughal and Vechiu (2009),
FDI in the forms of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills has begun to
increase in Costa Rica. This section explores the history of FDI in Costa Rica, the effects
of these investments on economic growth, and the financial impact of MNCs such as
Intel and Microsoft on the Costa Rican educational system.
In response to the economic crisis in the 1980s, Costa Rica attempted to attract
FDI in 1983 by unifying exchange rates by officially recognizing the de facto devaluation
of the colon and closed the gap between black market and bank rates (Clark, 1995).
During the same period, an investment promotion agency called CINDE moved through
the legislative assembly to create a series of export incentives that would attract high-tech
MNCs to invest in Costa Rica. According to Clark (1995), many of these export incen-
tives included contracts with benefits such as tax exemptions for industries that involved
assembly work and FTZ legislation. According to a report by CINDE (2010), the FTZ
legislation provided a strong incentive for export manufacturing companies, export trade
companies, export service companies, and companies and organizations that engage in
scientific research to operate in Costa Rica. The most attractive incentive that these com-
panies received was that manufacturing products that were at least 75% produced in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
Costa Rica would receive 100% exemption from corporate income tax for 8 years
(CINDE, 2010). Further, companies that exceeded manufacturing costs of $10 million
would receive 100% exemption on corporate income tax and be given a 10% income tax
credit to be utilized for domestic and foreign training (CINDE, 2010). These new policies
and incentives set the stage for an influx of movement of MNCs to Costa Rica. Clark
(1995) claimed that these tax incentives, along with a well-educated workforce and good
infrastructure, make Costa Rica one of the most inviting countries for FDI. According to
Costa Rican authorities, more than 46 high-tech MNCs are operating in Costa Rica,
providing employment for more than 14,000 Costa Rican citizens (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007).
Costa Rica has seen a dramatic increase in MNCs in the country in the past two
decades. Many of these MNCs have been technologically based. Giuliani (2008) stated
that attracting this high-tech FDI has great potential for a spillover effect, compared to
other types of investment, such as low-tech or natural resource materials. Many of these
high-tech industries have a higher value than any of the previous resource sectors and are
much less subject to instabilities in international prices (Giuliani, 2008). Domestic sup-
pliers can profit from the connections to MNCs because these connections can work as
networks for distribution of knowledge and skill (Hanson, 2001). This type of connection
and direct distribution of knowledge takes place because the MNCs have an incentive to
improve productivity of suppliers by providing training and quality control and by
upgrading suppliers’ reduction capabilities (Blalock & Gertler, 2005).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
As a result of the legislative changes and the Costa Rican political leaders
providing attractive financial incentives for investment, large high-tech corporations soon
made their home in Costa Rica. One such MNC that recently moved a large branch to
Costa Rica is the largest manufacturer of microprocessors in the world: Intel (World
Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). In 1996 Intel relocated its $300 million semiconductor
assembly and test plant to Costa Rica. Once Intel had started operations in Costa Rica,
other large MNC technical groups made their homes there as well. Microsoft Corporation
started operations in Costa Rica in the year after Intel’s decision. This began an influx of
technical MNCs to Costa Rica.
This was not the first time that high-tech companies had set up shop in Costa
Rica. Between 1950 and 1970 companies such as Eaton, Siemens, and Panasonic oper-
ated in Costa Rica for market-seeking purposes (Giuliani, 2008). World Bank Group,
MIGA (2006), reported that Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica in 1996 began what is
known as the “signaling effect” that Intel had conducted an in-depth analysis before
choosing Costa Rica, which paved the way for other investors to follow Intel’s lead. In
fact, it was the relatively well-educated labor force and the stable business-friendly econ-
omy, coupled with political conditions, that attracted Intel to invest in the country in 1996
(Spar, 1998).
It is obvious that FDI has made a significant impact on the economic development
of Costa Rica. Companies such as Intel can dramatically increase a country’s exports. In
a study completed by Paus and Gallagher (2008), Intel accounted for nearly 25% of Costa
Rica’s exports between 1999 and 2006. World Bank Group, MIGA (2006), reported that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
in 1999 Costa Rica’s GDP grew 8.4%; without Intel’s investment, the GDP would have
grown only 3%, indicating that more than 60% of Costa Rica’s GDP growth was directly
connected to Intel’s investment.
MNCs not only stimulated the economy of Costa Rica; they also challenged its
education system. Costa Rica has a free and compulsory education system, yet the coun-
try struggles to increase enrollment at the secondary and university levels (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). A study by Monge-González & González-
Alvarado (2007) indicated that only 61% of Costa Rican workforce had completed ele-
mentary education, 16% had completed secondary education, and 15% had a university
degree. Costa Rica has responded to the above statistics by restructuring strategic parts of
the overall education system. Efforts include an increase in resources assigned to the
school districts through a scholarship system for university students who are in need.
Another strategy to respond to the educational needs of the country was a national
plan to increase English language proficiency so that the Costa Rican workforce would
be competent in English, enabling them to communicate effectively in the work environ-
ment (CINDE, 2011). This movement toward English language proficiency in the work-
force was coupled with recognition of the need to increase technology skills at the
elementary level in order to create a workforce that is 21st-century literate (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Costa Rica and Intel agreed to increase and improve technical education in the
country. Intel donates approximately $1 million annually to the Costa Rican school
system. In 2001 Intel donated $2.5 million in electronic equipment and English language
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
laboratories (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Intel has focused on sup-
porting elementary and secondary schools by implementing educational programs.
According to World Bank Group, MIGA (2006), the “Intel-Educate for the Future”
program educates over 9,000 primary and middle school teachers in the technological
area. Focusing on training and educating teachers to teach the technological skills will
improve the teachers’ ability to plan and deliver instruction in science, mathematics, and
technical education, which will translate into helping Costa Rican students to develop the
skills that they will need for the 21st century (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007).
Although the above statistics are promising, some researchers maintain that there
is currently a shortage of a well-trained workforce in Costa Rica, particularly with respect
to high-tech MNCs’ expectations (Cespedes & González, 2002). Indeed, Costa Rica is
facing an important challenge to train and develop leaders who are knowledge-ready
workers with 21st-century skills.
Leadership in the 21st Century
This section of the literature review focuses on responsibilities that a 21st-century
leader will face and what can prepare educational leaders to be successful in the 21st
century. To explore the influence of globalization and MNCs on national, district, and
school leadership directly and indirectly by policy decisions, one must first understand
what leadership is and why it is important. The leadership framework posited by Bolman
and Deal (2008) and Marzano’s outline of 21 responsibilities of a school leader provide a
foundation for understanding effective leadership traits. Using these frameworks aids in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
understanding the effectiveness of leaders to allocate resources, incorporate 21st-century
skills in the school system, and inspire future generations to lead.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008) an effective leader is well rounded and
exhibits many characteristics. The four frames of the leadership model consist are struc-
tural, political, symbolic, and human resource, which elaborate on exact areas in which
leadership occurs. While many leaders do not demonstrate all of these characteristics
equally, each of the four frames should be utilized by the effective leader (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Figure 1 illustrates what a leader is and the leadership process within each
frame. This framework was important in addressing the third research question in this
study.
Frame Leader Is: Leadership Process
Structural Social architect Analysis, design
Human resource Catalyst, servant Support, empowerment
Political Advocate Advocacy, coalition
building
Symbolic Prophet, poet Inspiration, frame
experience
Figure 1. Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model. Source: Reframing
Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (4th ed.), by L. Bolman & T. Deal,
2008, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
The symbolic frame draws on social and cultural anthropology. Symbolism is
important, as rituals, ceremonies, and values communicate a sense of organizational
operation. Within the symbolic frame is a strong emphasis on inspiring others and giving
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
purpose to a task. Also within the symbolic frame, a key element of an effective leader is
the willingness to take personal risk and sacrifice for the organization. Costa Rican
leaders have taken a calculated risk by allowing MNCs into their country to build a
common vision and culture. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), symbolic leaders can
build common vision and culture to provide a cohesive and meaningful process for
organizations.
Human resource leaders have a clear understanding of the needs of the people
whom they are leading (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The leader views people as an important
investment and retains those human resources over time. Within the human resource
frame, Bolman and Deal stressed the importance of empowering others by fostering self-
managed teams. Other key elements within the human resource frame are hiring the right
people, rewarding employees well, promoting from within, protecting jobs, and sharing
success. Bolman and Deal also highly recommended encouraging autonomy to empower
employees to self-manage.
Leaders are more successful when they have a clear vision of the culture that they
want to cultivate and can get people to acknowledge that the vision is a worthy goal
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). Self-actualization and self-satisfaction in the workplace are
qualities clearly outlined in the human resource frame. Without these two qualities,
people can lose intrinsic motivation to complete tasks successfully. Bolman and Deal
suggested that leadership is learned through experience and that it is therefore crucial to
allow emerging leaders to experience and learn from their failures.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
Schools in Costa Rica have had to rethink and redesign structural patterns due to
the impact of globalization and MNCs. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the struc-
tural frame of leadership could be described as the traditional approach or top-down
approach. The core concepts of the structural frame are rooted in roles, rules, policies,
goals, technology, and environment. An effective leader who operates within the struc-
tural frame must be prepared, strategize, know the environment, rethink relationship of
structure, focus on implementation, and make adjustments. Bolman and Deal highlighted
the importance for structural leaders to develop a blueprint for patterns of expectation and
procedures to ensure a stable work environment. This can be accomplished by sequential
work duties with close supervision; a leader can thus increase efficiency through special-
ization and problems can be solved by restructuring (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Restructuring an organization alone cannot ensure a stable work environment, as
relationships are a key element of the success of an organization. Political leaders are
important to build networks and bring people together; therefore, creating a large network
is the primary goal of the political leader. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the
political leader emphasizes the importance of building relationships to gain power and to
bring people together to accomplish common goals. The focus of the political frame is
not resolution of conflict but strategy and tactics. Understanding the political leadership
in Costa Rica will help to determine the strategy that was used to directly influence
policy decisions that have come as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs in
Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
If leaders of Costa Rican organizations are not in alignment, one person can take
away from another and collapse the system (Bolman & Deal, 2008). When the system is
in alignment and people enjoy a high level of job satisfaction, the system as a whole will
prosper.
A leadership framework for education leaders to identify attributes that are sig-
nificantly associated with student achievement is that proposed by Marzano et al. (2005)
in their identification of 21 leadership responsibilities. This framework helps to predict
the abilities that leaders need to carry out responsibilities and to understand how, when,
and why to do so. This framework was an important tool to assess the educational leader-
ship in Costa Rica and their responsibilities with regard to policy development of the
21st-century skills needed to complete on a global stage. According to Marzano et al.,
effective leaders have a sense of balance when pushing for change but respect aspects of
culture, values, and norms worth preserving. Because of the Costa Rican cultural value of
fundamental freedoms and a strong sense of responsibility for human dignity, this is a
key framework to hold leaders accountable and provide a palatable form of measurement.
Leaders have many responsibilities when leading successful organizations.
According to Marzano et al. (2005), the 21 responsibilities of leaders are as follows:
affirmation, change agent, contingent awards, communication, culture, discipline,
flexibility, focus, ideals/beliefs, input, intellectual stimulation, involvement in curricu-
lum, instruction and assessment, knowledge of curriculum, monitoring/evaluation, opti-
mizer, order, outreach, relationship, resources, situational awareness and visibility. While
all 21 responsibilities are important to be an effective leader, only three key
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
responsibilities were explored in this study: (a) change agent, (b) curriculum and instruc-
tion, and (c) monitoring/evaluation. Because Costa Rica has been progressive in
leadership and policy decisions, it is important to discover why Costa Rican leaders have
been willing to challenge past practices and old traditions. It is also important to focus on
the leader’s responsibility to develop effective curriculum instruction to meet the
demands of the 21st-century market. The responsibility to monitor all of these changes is
vital to continued economic development in Costa Rica.
Marzano et al. (2005) defined change agent as a leader who is willing to chal-
lenge and actively push the status quo. Based on the literature review, the Costa Rican
education system must make dramatic changes to accomplish the goal of being competi-
tive in the 21st century. The second responsibility, curriculum and instruction, will be a
critical aspect for educational leaders in Costa Rica to put into practice. Leaders who
have a strong knowledge of the current curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices
will provide other educators conceptual guidance regarding effective classroom practices
(Marzano et al., 2005). As Costa Rica focuses on this responsibility, the demands that
their leaders establish clear goals and keep those goals in the forefront of the school
systems will be critical. Understanding how Costa Rican educational leaders have
implemented and adapted curriculum and instruction to promote 21st-century skills is
important. The third responsibility, monitoring and evaluating, is a crucial piece in
determining the effectiveness of change and implementation of curriculum and instruc-
tion that incorporates best practices to increase student learning (Marzano et al., 2005).
Although policy drives the direction of the Costa Rican educational system, it is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
extremely important that leaders constantly monitor and evaluate the curriculum and
instruction to identify practices that lead to student achievement. Further, examining
these responsibilities will provide teachers with materials and professional development
necessary for successful execution of their jobs (Marzano et al., 2005).
Discussion of Leadership
This framework of the 21 responsibilities in conjunction with Bolman and Deal’s
(2008) leadership framework provide guidance for this study to explore the impact of
globalization on the educational system in Costa Rica.
21st-Century Skills
To develop successful leaders for the 21st century, students must be prepared with
essential elements of leadership and 21st-century learning skills. In the past, educational
researchers and practitioners worked to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and teacher
training. Also, in the past 30 years the widespread use of digital technologies has moved
societies from the industrial era into an informational era (Brown & Luterbach, 2011).
Given such changes, how will educational leaders and teachers make education relevant
to 21st-century learners? An organization called the Partnership for 21st-Century Skills
has described the skills, knowledge, and expertise that students will need to be successful
in work and life. The four components of this skills movement framework are (a) core
subjects and 21st-century themes; (b) learning and innovation skills; (c) information,
media, and technology; and (d) life and career skills (Figure 2). Once these skills are
identified, students will need support to develop content knowledge and the ability to
apply that knowledge across many disciplines (Johnson, 2009).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47

Figure 2. Framework for 21st-century learning. Source: Framework for 21st Century
Learning, by Partnership for 21st-Century Skills, n.d., retrieved from http://www.p21
.org/overview/skills-framework
Core Subjects and 21st-Century Themes
The importance of core subject content in the development of critical thinking
creates several challenges for the 21st-century skills movement. One challenge that edu-
cator face is to be deliberate about teaching critical thinking skills to solve problems in
core subjects; otherwise, the 21st-century movement will be just another weak interven-
tion for students (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010). Johnson (2009) stated that, without
providing educators of concrete solutions on how to craft core subject maps and how to
infuse 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, the movement will fail.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
Another challenge is that core subject educators do not know how to teach skills
such as self-direction, creativity, collaboration, and innovation. Many educational experts
contend that giving students more experiences, such as group work, will develop these
skills. Rotherham and Willingham (2010) argued that experience is not the same as
practice, as experience indicates use of a skill, whereas practice indicates work to
improve by noticing what has been done and formulating strategies to do it better. These
strategies must be implemented by educational leaders in Costa Rica if they are to
compete in the global market. Programs that focus on core subjects and on strategies that
incorporate critical thinking and 21st-century skills will be required to meet the demands
of tomorrow’s jobs in Costa Rica.
Learning and Innovation Skills
To meet the demands of the 21st century, students must know more than core
subjects. They must know how to use their knowledge and skills by thinking critically,
applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas,
communicating, collaborating, solving problems, and making decisions (Salpeter, 2008).
According to Rotherham and Willingham (2010), educators must meet the challenge of
delivering content and skills in a way that improves outcomes for students. This calls for
better curriculum, better teaching, and better tests that emphasize 21st-century skills.
Within the ,curriculum educators must understand the importance of “thinking scientif-
ically” by applying knowledge, comprehending new ideas, and using 21st-century tools
such as communication technologies in early grades (Salpeter, 2008). Christensen et al.
(2008) explained that educators must provide students with innovative learning experi-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
ences that will give relevance to the students’ lives and connect them with the world
beyond the classroom. This type of learning experience could be intrinsically motivating
for students who typically struggle in the traditional system (Christensen et al., 2008).
The next question will be how to measure these outcomes and move beyond standardized
testing as the sole measure of student learning (Salpeter, 2008).
Discussion of 21st-Century Skills
As a result of a world moving toward a global economy and the abundance of
accessible information, it is more important than ever to possess 21st-century skills to
compete in a global market place. Organizational leaders must describe the skills,
knowledge, and expertise that students will need to be successful in work and life. A
clear understanding of core subjects and 21st-century themes, innovation skills, technol-
ogy literacy, and life in career skills will be vital to apply across all disciplines for posi-
tive 21st-century outcomes (Johnson, 2009).
Summary of the Literature Review
Costa Rica has unquestionably been affected by globalization and MNCs. Costa
Rica’s unique political history, policies, and current educational structures allow this
Latin American country to compete in the global market. The presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica has increased since Intel’s involvement in 1997, and it is essential to understand the
impact of this situation on Costa Rica in order to address this study’s three research
questions: (a) What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica? (b) What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
universities in Costa Rica? and (c) How has educational leadership been affect directly by
policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
It is evident from the literature review that 21st-century skills are needed to
compete in the economic global market of today. If the Costa Rican workforce is to be
prepared for the demands of the 21st-century job market, they must focus on the 21st-
century skills that are required. To complete this task, leaders in government, corporate
industry, and education must make 21st-century education a top priority. According to
the literature, increasing skills such as English language proficiency and technological
literacy will be the determining factors if Costa Rica can continue to develop as an eco-
nomic competitor in the global market.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
Chapter 3
Methodology
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (M. A. Rodriguez, personal communication, March 5, 2013).
Once a country primarily exporting crops, today its economy has evolved to that of high-
technology products. Due to a highly literate population and an increased cost of living, a
new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract hi-technology FDI to compete in
an evolving global market. The resulting growth in technology as a major export and
more high-technology MNCS such as IBM and HP relocating to the country has given
new direction and opportunity to this small Central American country (CINDE, 2010;
Paus & Gallagher, 2008). As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university
system’s responsibility to help students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-
century skills has become increasingly more challenging (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Despite five national universi-
ties, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remain low rates of secondary
graduation and pursuit of higher education in the country (Roman, 2012). As a result,
there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job
opportunities in Costa Rica (Roman, 2012).
The research team is composed of 12 doctoral students from the USC Rossier
School of Education under the direction of Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team met
monthly to collaborate, establish research questions, examine the research literature, and
review potential conceptual frameworks that would contribute to the study by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
understanding how globalization and MNCs have affected schools and universities and
education policy in Costa Rica. The data were collected from exemplary schools that
have implemented or are implementing 21st-century skills. The results are intended to
advise school leaders and government officials on how to implement these skills.
The purpose of this case study is to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role that school leaders have played in
development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education ini-
tiatives. In addition, the study explored whether these initiatives are producing greater
numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human capital
capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. USC, in conjunction with numerous Costa Rican
political leaders, MNC executives, and educational leaders, participated in the overall
study.
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This chapter presents the research design, the research team, participants, instru-
mentation, and plans for data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
Research Design
This study used a qualitative research approach to address the research questions.
When one moves beyond the judgment of what one sees and begins to examine effects by
using empirical data and careful analysis, one is conducting research (Patton, 2002). A
qualitative researcher, as defined by Merriam (2009), attempts not only to study what
people are experiencing but also how they interpret the experiences. As Merriam (2009)
pointed out, it is important to choose a research design that fits the research questions.
There are many types of qualitative research. For example, Creswell (2009)
articulated differences in approaches to qualitative research among narrative, phenome-
nology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. Each approach is unique to the
research question and should fit the views and comfort of the researcher (Merriam, 2009).
This study is an attempt to understand how the school system in Costa Rica has changed.
The primary instrument of data collection investigated inductively and gathered rich
description of what is observed. Merriam (2009) defined this type of qualitative research
as a case study.
As suggested by Merriam (2009), an object of study must be identified so the
research can explain the “what” and focus on targeted areas. This case study gathered
data from multiple educational sources but focused on schools in Costa Rica that are
influenced by MNCs. This particular area of study creates a bounded system of study,
defining the “what” (Merriam, 2009). Merriam defined three types of qualitative case
studies: historical and observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite case
studies. This study approached the research from a multisite case study perspective.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
Merriam explained this type of study as the gathering and analyzing of data from multiple
sites or cases. This study gathered data from multiple sites and attempt to define common
characteristics. Maxwell (2013) suggested that a conceptual framework be used as a key
part of the research design to identify commonalities. The research team approached the
purpose of this study using three frameworks: Research on Globalization and Education
(Spring, 2008), Partnership for 21st-Century Learning (2012), and Reframing Organiza-
tions (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Researchers who are conducting this study are attempting to understand the influ-
ences of globalization and MNCs on schools and how these influences have affected
school leadership. Given that this research team was from a different country and had
limited access and time to student data, a qualitative case study approach was used to
gather data, as it allowed an opportunity to gather unknown data. This is particularly
important in this study because the school system and methods of governance are not the
same as those in the United States.
This chapter is organized into five sections. The first section describes the
research team, defining the roles and responsibilities of its members. The second section
defines the sample population and explains how participants were chosen. Within this
section, the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process is reviewed, noting the permissions
required to conduct research on human subjects in a different country. The third section
describes the instrumentation to be used to gather data. The fourth section describes the
process for gathering and analyzing the data using a framework by Creswell (2009). The
fifth section identifies the ethical practices (Creswell, 2009) that were used.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
Research Team
The research team is led by Dr. Michael Escalante from the USC Rossier School
of Education. The dissertation group is comprised of 12 doctoral students from USC. The
research team began meeting in fall 2012, dividing into three groups, each designated to
focus on one area to study. Group 1 focused on higher education, Group 2 focused on
secondary education (Grades 7–12), and Group 3 focused on primary education (Grades
1–6). Other key participants included key government officials who guided the study and
arranged interviews with site leaders. These people were an essential component in the
IRB approval process.
The research team approached the purpose of this study using three frameworks:
Research on Globalization and Education (Spring, 2008), Partnership for 21st Century
Learning (2012), and Reframing Organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Population and Sample
This case study observed the impact of globalization and MNCs on the schools
and universities in Costa Rica. The sample population consists of government officials,
site administrators from various schools that receive direct or indirect aid from MNCs,
and executives from MNCs in Costa Rica. After reviewing literature on the Costa Rican
economy, the research team was led to Andrés Rodríguez-Clare, a frequently cited econ-
omist at the University of California, Berkeley, who introduced the team to many of the
country’s leaders, including Miguel Angel Rodriguez, President of Costa Rica from 1998
to 2002. An exploratory team was formed, with representatives from the each of the three
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
teams, to meet with some of the country’s most powerful leaders on an exploratory trip
conducted in early March 2013.
Exploratory Trip
During the March 2013 exploratory trip the research team met with political lead-
ers and educational policymakers, executives of MNCs, and school administrators. The
following three subsections summarize the exploratory team’s experience with these key
contacts.
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Two high-ranking government officials met with the exploratory research team to
discuss issues that the Costa Rican educational system faces, such as teacher training,
lack of resources for particular schools, and the considerable dropout rate at the high
school level. They provided insight into the research questions by highlighting that
MNCs had decided to invest in Costa Rica due to the strength of the education system in
the country. The research team sent a contact letter (Appendix A) to Dr. Garnier, the
Minister of Education in Costa Rica, who also met with the researchers and offered to
serve as a link and provide access to school principals and other potential respondents as
part of this study.
The exploratory research team also met with Isabel Roman, Director of Research
for El Estado de la Nación (State of the Nation) report. Roman gave the team a thorough
explanation of how the Estado de la Educación, a separate report from El Estado de la
Nación, was designed and implemented. The purpose of the Estado de la Educación is to
provide an accurate portrayal of the state of the education system in Costa Rica. In
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
addition to providing a detailed explanation of how education is implemented in Costa
Rica, the report highlights issues of access, equity, student retention, teacher preparation,
and decaying of school facilities. Roman provided statistical data on student enrollment
and distribution of schools throughout the country. She mentioned that the 2012 report
was to be released in July 2013 and offered the research team access to all of the data
housed in her organization. Mrs. Roman and the Estado de la Educación report were
valuable assets to the project.
Executives of MNCs
The exploratory research team also met with Ms. Gabriela Llobet, Director of
CINDE. Llobet served in high-powered positions in Costa Rica before becoming the
Director of CINDE, a private, nonprofit apolitical organization. CINDE was founded in
1983 by prominent business people, supported by Costa Rica’s government, and financed
by grants from USAID. During its 30 years, CINDE has attracted more than 200 com-
panies to Costa Rica, including: Intel, Procter and Gamble, Baxter, St. Jude Medical, and
Western Union.
The exploratory research team spoke with Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educa-
tional Programs at Intel Costa Rica. Bialas provided an extensive overview of the educa-
tional partnerships that Intel has with high schools and universities in the country. She
provided an overview of these partnerships and other initiatives that Intel has imple-
mented to promote science and technology in Costa Rica. Since she is from the United
States, Bialas can provide valuable insight into the Costa Rican education system by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
comparing Costa Rican schools to U.S. schools. She offered to share names of the
schools and persons who carry out academic initiatives on behalf of Intel.
School Administrators
The exploratory research team met with Dr. Chaves, Dean of the College of Edu-
cation at UCR, and Dr. Vargas, director of INIE. INIE is an academic unit of the College
of Education at UCR dedicated to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research in the
field of educational sciences. Its aims are to improve the Costa Rican education system
and collaborate and research nationally and internationally. These leaders identified the
challenges that are faced by the education system, such as high dropout rates at the sec-
ondary schools, and commented that teacher preparation programs are divided into
primary education, secondary education, and university faculty education. They
explained that the Omar Dengo Foundation began in the 1990s with support of technol-
ogy in the schools; however, the greatest impact has been in urban centers. They noted
that Intel provided support for UCR. Dr. Chavez and Dr. Vargas committed to providing
names of school administrators who would take part in this case study.
Research Trip
During the third week of June, 2013 the entire research team revisited Costa Rica
and interviewed the same population as the exploratory group, including school site lead-
ers at the secondary level who receive benefits from Intel. These participants and schools
have been identified using the data gathered on the exploratory trip.
The participants recruited for this qualitative case study included current political
leaders and education policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
administrators in Costa Rica. According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling in quali-
tative designs allows for an in-depth study of a problem and phenomenon. The
researchers were granted significant access to arranging in-person interviews with politi-
cal leaders and education policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school
administrators in San José.
By interviewing political leaders and education policymakers, the researcher
hopes to understand how educational leadership has been impacted directly by globaliza-
tion and multinational corporations in Costa Rica. In addition, a brief survey asking
questions pertaining to how 21st-century skills are being developed in the classroom was
administered to 120 teachers at Intel schools. To augment these data, the perspectives of
business executives of MNCs were necessary to understand how they are driving educa-
tion policy with specific programs and initiatives. While obtaining access to political
leaders and policymakers, and business executives of MNCs was critical, securing school
administrators’ perspectives was equally crucial for data collection.
The research team determined that a minimum sample of 13 participants would be
interviewed: four political leaders and education policymakers, three business executives
of MNCs, and six secondary school administrators.
The case study’s central purpose is to describe and analyze how the Intel high
schools are meeting the demands of MNCs for increased human capital in a rapidly
changing global economy in which 21st-century skills are critical for success. Twelve
Intel schools in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica, were the locations of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
choice for this research effort because of the nation-state’s established track record of a
high literacy rate and effective education system.
Instrumentation
The primary instrument in this case study was the researcher. As defined by Mer-
riam (2009), the researcher quickly analyzes, evaluates, and responds to the process of
data collection. The instrumentation used by each researcher on this team was interviews
(Appendices B, C, and D), surveys (Appendix E), and observations (Appendix F). The
team began discussion of instrumentation in November 2012 and refined the questions
after the exploratory group had returned from the trip in early March. The purpose of the
interviews and surveys was to determine the extent of knowledge that government offi-
cials, representatives of MNCs, and site leaders possess with regard to globalization. In
addition, they gathered information on the implementation of 21st-century learning and
identify relevant leadership traits.
The research team interviewed political leaders and educational policymakers
(Appendix B), executives of MNCs (Appendix C), and school administrators and teach-
ers (Appendices B and E) as the primary method of data collection. The research team
developed interview protocols for the following groups: (a) Political/Policy Leader Inter-
view Protocol (Appendix B), (b) MNC Interview Protocol (Appendix C), and (d) School
Leader Interview Protocol (Appendix D). During the initial exploratory trip the research
team piloted the questions to used in the interview protocols. The exploratory team
divided the responsibility of active note taking and questioning as respondents provided
preliminary data to guide refinement of questions.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
In addition to interviews, the research designed a survey protocol (Appendix E).
Survey data were collected from teachers to validate the interview responses from site
leaders. This survey protocol is similar to Section 3 of the interview protocol, with the
exception that it was given to the teachers who work at the sites where leaders were
interviewed. This protocol was designed to gather data on 21st-century learning in the
classroom, as described by Wagner (2009). The survey was given to the teachers during
the site visit and collected the same day. The interview protocols reflect the work and
emphasis by Wagner (2008), Spring (2008), and Bolman and Deal (2008).
Observation data were gathered by the researchers regarding the participants’
behavior and environment. This observation protocol (Appendix F) was used during
school site visits, where the impact of globalization and the role of MNCs are being
studied. Creswell (2009) suggested using an observation protocol to record information
that may prove difficult for respondents to discuss or that did not emerge from the inter-
views. The observation protocol included 10 questions and reflected the work and
emphasis of 21st-century learning as described by Wagner (2009). This protocol includes
a Likert-type scale and a section to record additional information.
Data Collection
All data collection protocols were submitted to the USC IRB for approval. All of
the members of the dissertation group participated in the IRB application process. The
process entailed completion of the Collaborative IRB training initiative (CITI). The CITI
is an online training program that offers various modules to earn a certificate that ensures
understanding of ethical considerations in conducting research. IRB is a necessary
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
function of the study to ensure that the process is completed with fidelity. It is also
required to ensure that all aspects of the research project are done without harm (physical,
mental, or otherwise) to participants and that all ethical considerations are employed. All
12 members of the group and research leader Dr. Escalante completed the IRB CITI.
The dissertation group acquired a list of available participants to interview,
survey, and observe in June 2013. Participants were visited by the research team and
interviewed in person. A recruitment/consent letter (Appendix G) was signed by all
participants. All names and locations remained confidential. Each interview was recorded
and notes were taken, highlighting significant responses or areas where additional data
are offered. Each interview was transcribed and shared with all members of the research
team.
During the 3rd week of June 2013, survey and observation data were collected
from the school sites. Survey forms were delivered by the research team to the teachers at
the sites where leaders were interviewed during the week of June 21, 2013. The survey
was administered and collected on the same visit. These data were coded and shared with
all members of the research team. Observation data were collected using the protocols
and recorded by the researchers. Upon return, a meeting was held to compile and analyze
the collected observation data collaboratively.
The following good ethical practices identified by Creswell (2009) were followed
during data collection and analysis and the interpretation process: (a) protect the
anonymity of individuals, roles, and incidents in the case study; (b) keep data in a safe
location; (c) resolve issues of data ownership prior to data collection; (d) debrief
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
respondents to ensure an accurate account of the data; and (e) be aware of the repercus-
sions of conducting the research on certain audiences and avoid misuse of results to the
advantage of any one group. The research team did not use language biased toward
persons of any racial or ethnic group, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability.
Data Analysis
A case study requires detailed description of the setting or participants, followed
by analysis of the data for themes or issues (Creswell, 2009). Data were analyzed col-
laboratively and individually. Creswell’s (2009, pp. 185-190) six-step model for data
analysis was used: (a) organize and prepare data, (b) read through data and identify gen-
eral ideas, (c) code the data for a detailed analysis, (d) categorize the data into themes for
analysis and generate a description, (e) describe how the themes will be represented in
the qualitative narrative, and (f) interpret the data and provide a detailed interpretation of
the lessons learned.
Creswell (2009) stated that interviews should be transcribed and data should be
organized to prepare for the next step. The data gathered during interviews were recorded
and transcribed. The protocols for the interviews had each question assigned to categories
not only by type of participant but also tagged by research question and framework. Once
the data were transcribed, the team read through all the data together and discussed what
the participants were trying to say. This is in line with Creswell’s (2009) second step for
data analysis.
The third step of Creswell’s (2009) model required the team to utilize a single
coding model. During this step each datum was categorized and labeled with a term.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
Creswell (2009, pp. 186-187) suggested that the research team analyze the data to address
the following: (a) codes on topics that are well known or expected, (b) codes for new
information that stands out, (c) codes for unusual information, and (d) codes that address
larger perspectives.
It was important for the research team to decide whether to use predetermined
codes or to let them develop (Creswell, 2009). Creswell suggested that, once the coding
has taken place, a description of the setting, people, categories, or themes be generated.
This study used the previously described frameworks—globalization, 21st-century
learning, and leadership—to identify themes.
Creswell’s (2009) fifth step in analyzing data is to determine how the themes are
represented. Creswell noted that researchers often use visuals, figures, or tables to repre-
sent data. The final step of this process was to interpret the data and provide meaning.
Creswell (2009) described this as the process of sharing what lessons were learned. To
check for the accuracy of findings, Creswell (2009, pp. 191-192) suggested eight primary
strategies: (a) triangulating, (b) member checking, (c) using rich thick descriptions to
provide a clear picture of the data, (d) clarifying bias, (e) presenting negative or dis-
crepant information, (f) spending prolonged time in the field, (g) using peer debriefing,
and (h) using an external auditor.
Ethical Considerations
The following ethical practices recommended by Creswell (2009) were followed
during the data analysis and interpretation process in this study: (a) Anonymity of par-
ticipants and their roles and incidents in the case study was protected, (b) data were kept
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
in a safe location, (c) issues of data ownership were resolved prior to data collection, (d)
the researchers and respondents debriefed to check for accuracy of the data, (e) repercus-
sions of conducting the research on certain audiences were considered and data were not
misused to the advantage or disadvantage of any one group, and (f) the research report
did not incorporate language that was biased toward any racial or ethnic group, gender,
sexual orientation, age, or disability.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
Chapter 4
Research Results
The purpose of this study was to explore the results of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities
in Costa Rica. This study identified the changes that educational leaders have experi-
enced as a result of the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major
national education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives
are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system than
builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. This chapter focuses on
Fidel Chaves Murillo Elementary school and the impact of globalization and MNCs on
the primary school level in Costa Rica. A synopsis of the findings are presented as a
result of responses to a survey, interviews, and classroom observations. The results are
presented as related to the research questions and emergent themes from the collected
data.
The findings were analyzed utilizing the frameworks of defining globalization
(Spring, 2008), reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), and Wagner’s 21st-
century skills (Wagner, 2008). The aim of the study was to explore the impact of global-
ization and MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica, guided by three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Participants
The participants were selected based on their roles, influence, and experiences in
Costa Rica. Each participant can be categorized in one of three arenas: MNC, politics, or
schools and universities. The section first describes how this research was organized and
how these participants were selected. Second, the section describes the key participants’
roles and why they were selected. Third, the section outlines the participants who were
surveyed, interviewed, and observed.
Research Organization
The research team consisted of 12 doctoral students from the USC Rossier School
of Education, led by Dr. Michael Escalante and. The team first met in fall 2012, dividing
into three groups, each designated to focus on one area of study. Group 1 focused on
higher education, Group 2 focused on secondary education (Grades 7–12), and Group 3
focused on primary education (Grades 1–6). This chapter reports the primary education
results. Other key participants included government officials and MNC leaders who
assisted in the study by arranging interviews with school site leaders.
The targeted population of this study consisted of government officials, site
administrators from various schools that receive direct or indirect aid from MNCs, and
executives from MNCs in Costa Rica. After reviewing literature on the Costa Rican
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
economy, the research team was led to Andrés Rodríguez-Clare, a frequently cited econ-
omist at the University of California, Berkeley, who introduced the team to many of the
country’s leaders, including Miguel Angel Rodriguez, President of Costa Rica from 1998
to 2002. An team was formed, with representatives from the each of the three teams, to
meet with some of the country’s most powerful leaders on an exploratory trip conducted
in early March 2013.
One of the purposes of this study was to verify the scope of the relationships
within elementary schools in Costa Rica. Data are reported from three elementary
schools: Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo, Escuela Espana, and Escuela Manuel del Pilar.
Comprehensively, 120 survey forms were provided to elementary teachers; 60 responded,
with 20 of those responses from teachers at Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo. In those three
schools, 32 classrooms were observed; 10 observations were conducted at Escuela Fidel
Chavez Murrillo (Table 1).
Table 1

Summary of Invited Participants and Those Who Actually Participated

Factor Total

Number of teachers surveyed 120

Number of responses 60

Number of responses from Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo 20

Number of observations 32

Number of observations at Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo 10

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
Participants interviewed for this study were selected based on their connection to
the school system established by the data received during the exploratory trip. All
members of the team participated in the interviews, with the exception of the site admin-
istrator at Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo. Only this researcher, with the assistance of an
interpreter, conducted the interview with the Director of Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo.
Participant Roles
Political leaders and educational policymakers were interviewed to gain insight
into their experiences as a result of the development and implementation of policy
changes seen in major educational initiatives. In addition, it was important to understand
the political view of the possible impact of MNCs on the educational system in Costa
Rica. The following political leaders’ interviews were used for this study: Dr. Leonardo
Garnier, Minister of Education; and Ms. Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE.
Executives of MNCs were interviewed to understand their experiences as corpo-
rate leaders in Costa Rica. Understanding the corporate leaders’ role and influence in the
educational system was vital to address the three research questions. The following MNC
leaders were interviewed: Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs at Intel
Costa Rica; and Patricia Chico, Former Director Intel Teach Costa Rica.
School leaders were surveyed and interviewed to understand the possible impact
of MNCs on their school sites. For this study, the focus was on the elementary school
level, with Escuela Fidel Chaves Murillo as the target school. The following elementary
school leaders were interviewed: Director Ronny Morales Guabamus, Escuela Fidel
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
Chaves Murillo; Director Abraham Bermudez, Escuela Manuel de Pilar; and Director
Rutyard Miranda, Escuala Espana.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The aim of this question was to identify the results of
globalization and the presence of MNCs in the country of Costa Rica. Understanding first
what results are actually seen due to the possible increasing presence of MNCs is vital for
understanding the level of influence that these corporations may have on the educational
system in Costa Rica.
The theoretical framework of Spring (2008) indicated that globalization is a phe-
nomenon of increased economic integration among nations, characterized by the people,
ideas, social customs, and products across borders. One interpretation of educational
globalization is the world culture view, which is built on the foundation that Western
ideals of mass schooling centered on the idea that schooling is primarily based on the
acceptance that all children have the right to an education and that education is of highest
importance of maintaining an economic and democratic rights (Spring, 2008). Political
leaders in Costa Rica implemented a new economic strategic plan to attract high-
technology FDI to compete in the global market place that is now challenging the school
system to meet the demands to develop 21st-century skills in students (Ferreira, 2009;
Rodriguez-Clare, 2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
Data analysis revealed two predominate themes. First, there has been a noticeable
increase in MNCs in Coast Rica. Second, the MNCs have entered into partnerships with
schools to play a large positive role in incorporating 21st-century learning in Costa Rica.
Increase in MNCs
Over the past few decades there has been an increase in MNC investment in Costa
Rica. As a result, organizations such as CINDE have been created to form relationships
between government and the multinational corporations. Gabriella Llobet, Director of
CINDE, stated that “the foreign direct investment has grown at an average annual rate of
9% in the last decade” (personal interview, June 24, 2013). Political leaders also indi-
cated this investment growth in Costa Rica. Costa Rica’s Minister of Education, Dr.
Leonardo Garnier, stated that there has been an increase in FDI and that there was an
intentional change to the economic model format to attract FDI. Dr. Garnier indicated,
“Starting in the late 70s, early 80s we changed economic strategies” (personal interview,
June 24, 2013). He also stated,
We [Costa Rica] have to continue to transform our external economic sector, we
have to export different things not just coffee and sugar, this is not about protect-
ing international markets, we have to be actually competitive and international
investment can be very useful for this. So, Costa Rica started to attract foreign
investment. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Intel director and multinational corporate leader Mary Helen Bialas agreed that
there has been an increase in FDI in Costa Rica, particularly an increase in technology-
based companies such as Intel.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
I think there’s been a lot of initiative on the part of the government to support this
change, and the multinational say they become attracted to Costa Rica, and are
supporting the continued development and continued revenue. We went from
producing bananas to banana chips, and now computer chips. (personal interview,
June 25, 2013)
During a school site interview, Fidel Chavez Elementary School Director Ronny
Morales Guadmuz confirmed that there has been an increase in MNCs.
The increase presence of multinational corporations has served us to which this
country has changed a lot. The movements should bring changes to life and will
give opportunity and processes to our children in schools. We want to be well
informed, this whole movement is going toward what we want, believing that one
cannot depart from globalization. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Throughout this research project one of the most evident pieces of data was the
participants’ indication that the existence of MNCs and globalization had increased in
Costa Rica. As a result, using the evidence presented in the literature review and data
collected in the study, the education system in Costa Rica has been heavily influenced by
MNCs. Of the nine participants interviewed, all indicated that the numbers of MNCs
have increased over the past few decades. Seven of the nine interviewed indicated that
the influx of MNCs has been positive, with the remaining two interviewees not indicating
either a positive or negative impact (Table 2).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
Table 2

Summary of Interview Data Indicating an Effect of Globalization in Costa Rica

Factor Total

Number of interviews 9

Number indicating a positive effect 7

Number indicating a neutral effect 2

Number indicating a negative effect 0

Positive Partnership With Intel
The second theme that emerged from the data analysis was that the presence of
MNCs, in particular Intel, has resulted in positive partnerships with schools in Costa Rica
to incorporate 21st-century learning. This theme emerged from the survey responses, the
interview with Director Ronny Morales Guadmuz, and school site observations. During
this researcher’s school site visit to Fidel Chavez Elementary School, 20 teachers were
surveyed; of those 20 teachers, 17 strongly agreed that the partnership with Intel has had
a positive effect on their school. Furthermore, the combination of the collected survey
data from all three primary school sites shows that 85% of all 59 elementary school
teachers indicated that the Intel partnership has positively impacted their school site
(Table 3).
School leaders, political leaders, and corporate leaders who participated in this
study expressed that Intel partnerships with schools have had a positive impact. In fact,
Fidel Chavez Elementary School Director Ronny Morales Guadmuz Director stated,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
Table 3

Participants’ Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational Corporations on the
School

Escuela Fidel
Item: Intel has positively impacted school Total Chaves Murillo

Strongly Agree 32 17

Agree 21 2

Disagree 5 1

Strongly Disagree 0 0

Don’t know 1 0

“Intel has helped us a lot due to the fact that there has been much collaboration and
equipment donations of computers that you have seen today” (personal interview,
June 26, 2013). Similarly, Patricia Chico, former director of the Intel Teach Costa Rica
program, stated, “The Intel Teach to the Future program began in Costa Rica in the year
2000. It was sponsored by Intel and the Omar Dengo foundation which gave teachers and
students from every level opportunity to have access to technology” (personal interview,
June 26, 2013). Furthermore, political leader and Minister of Education Dr. Leonardo
Garnier said, “We have great relations with the Omar Dengo foundation, basically our
objective is that every kid should be in contact with technology” (personal interview,
June 24, 2013).
Further proof that Intel has had a positive influence on schools came from the
onsite observations. It was noted in the field notes during the classroom visits at Fidel
Chavez Elementary School that there were Intel/Omar Dengo-donated technology and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
equipment in the classroom. Nine of the ten classrooms that were observed at Fidel
Chavez Elementary School had some type of technology in the classroom. One of the
observed classrooms’ students were using laptops that were donated by Intel and the
teacher explained that the computers were donated by the Intel Teach to the Future
program. In all 10 classrooms observed at Fidel Chavez, there was evidence of lessons
that promoted higher-level thinking through a curriculum that reflected 21st-century
skills such as communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking. These
observed skills are indicative of education focused on producing students with the 21st-
century skills outlined by Wagner (Wagner, 2008). Similar results were found in the
other two elementary schools that are partnered with Intel. In the large majority of class-
rooms observed at Fidel Chavez it was evident that lessons promoted higher-level think-
ing skills, students had access to technology in the classroom, and there was collaboration
among students (Table 4).
Discussion for Research Question 1
There has been a definite increase in MNCs in Costa Rica over the past few
decades. These MNCs have entered into partnerships with schools to prepare students
with the skills needed to meet the job demands of the future. These partnerships with
schools were intentionally developed programs to support students and teachers to
achieve this goal. These supports are seen by the number of training programs offered to
teachers and donations of computer equipment to the school sites. These partnerships
between MNCs and schools have led to positive relationships that have clearly influenced
the focus on implementing 21st-century skills in the classroom. Intel has supported Fidel
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
Table 4

Classrooms Observations at Escuela Fidel Chaves Murillo Indicating the Focus to
Incorporate 21st-Ccentury Learning

Observation item and response Total

Lessons promote higher-level thinking
Yes 8
No 2
Don’t know 0

There is access to technology in the classroom
Yes 9
No 1
Don’t know 0

Collaboration by students takes place in the classroom
Yes 10
No 0
Don’t know 0

Chavez Elementary School to meet their need to produce students with 21st-century skills
by offering training, resources, and technology that otherwise would be unavailable to the
school.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The aim of research question
two was to identify the results of globalization and presence of MNCs in the schools of
Costa Rica. Understanding first what results are actually seen due to the increasing
presence of MNCs is vital for understanding the level of influence that these corporations
may have on the schools in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
The two themes that emerged regarding globalization and MNCs at Fidel Chavez
Elementary School and the increased in focus on incorporating 21st-century skills were
related to (a) use of technology, and (b) focus on collaboration.
The partnerships with MNCs, specifically Intel, have influenced a shift to valuing
technology and 21st-century skills in the classroom to meet the needs of the increasing
knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. According to Wagner (2008), skills in
technology will allow students to become much more prepared and are necessary for
success in business. Of the 127 Costa Rican teachers surveyed, 93% agreed that the use
of technology and development of 21st-century skills are important to the economic
future of Costa Rica
Use of Technology
Fidel Chavez Elementary School has partnered with Intel for over 20 years. The
partnership has led to many technological improvements at the school site and has
changed the instructional approach to develop students’ 21st-century skills as outlined by
Wagner (2008). Therefore, the focus on technology has increased on the Fidel Chavez
Elementary School campus. Fidel Chavez Elementary School Director Ronny Morales
Guadmuz was certain that Intel’s involvement with his school has vastly improved the
students’ and staff’s use of technology skills. In an interview, Director Guadmuz stated,
We [Fidel Chavez Elementary School] were first to start a partnership with Intel
years ago and they helped us integrate computers in the classroom, trained us to use the
Internet, and taught us to send email. . . . When I arrived here, before Intel, we had no
technology, just a typewriter. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
The collected data in this study suggest that Fidel Chavez Elementary School has
greatly benefited from the partnership with Intel. This is evident by the observed number
of computers and the technology donated to the schools. The onsite observation data
collected in June 2013 indicate that all children at the school have access to technology
within the school day. The survey provided further evidence, as 88% of Fidel Chavez
Elementary School teachers indicated that they strongly agreed that Intel has had a
positive impact on their school’s technological resources and training.
One result of the increase in technology training and resources is the development
of new programs at Fidel Chavez Elementary School; these programs include one-to-one
laptop classrooms, math club, science fair, and robotics club. In addition, the school
developed a website and participates on social media as a form of communication to the
school’s stakeholders. All of these new programs emphasize the four aspects of 21st-
century learning: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity, all of
which are vital to meet the new demands of the increasing knowledge-based jobs in Costa
Rica.
According to the literature review, business leaders insist that students develop
critical 21st-century skills and understand globalization and its effects on societies,
cultures, and world economy (Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Subsequently, the skills in
technology will allow students to become prepared to access and analyze information,
which Wagner (2008) deemed to be a necessary skill for survival in business. As
previously noted, business leader and Intel director Mary Helen Bialas specified that Intel
was working on supporting the learning of 21st-century skills, in particular the use of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
technology. This was confirmed by former director of Intel Patricia Chico in her
interview:
Yes, there’s been an increase in the teacher technology training offering here at
Intel. We have trained 250 master teachers and began in the Metropolitan area and
then moved to the rural areas, our objective was to have least one master teacher
in every school district around the country. We did quite well because we now
have 240 master teachers. In the beginning we trained them face-to-face; we
couldn’t bring all the teachers to San José for training because it is very difficult
and is very expensive. We started moving to online training, because all the
courses that Intel has are now online and they have to do with 21st-century skills.
Teachers can now communicate with the Intel teach to the future coordinators all
over the world. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
It is evident from the literature review, teacher survey, classroom observations,
and interviews that the use of technology at Fidel Chavez Elementary School, along with
many other schools in Costa Rica, has dramatically increased since the arrival of Intel.
Collaboration
Collaboration and communication skills are highlighted in many studies that focus
on preparing students for college and the workplace. These skills are increasingly
important as individuals will be expected to work in teams from diverse cultures.
According to Wagner (2008) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, the ability to
express one’s view clearly in a democracy and to communicate effectively across cultures
is an important 21st-century skill.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
The survey of teachers conducted at the three local elementary schools who are in
partnership with Intel indicated a certain focus on collaboration and communication.
When asked whether collaboration by students takes place daily, 55 of 60 teachers
agreed, indicating that over 90% of those teachers are finding ways to get students talking
and working with each other. At Fidel Chavez Elementary School, all 20 of the surveyed
teachers indicated that collaboration by students takes place daily in the classrooms.
When teachers from all three elementary schools partnered with Intel were asked whether
their curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as the use of oral communication, 45 of
the 60 teachers agreed, indicating that the majority of the teachers are promoting the skill
of oral communication in their classroom curriculum. The responses reported in Table 5
indicate that 21st-century learning is taking place in the classrooms at Fidel Chavez and
the other two elementary schools included in this study.
The data collected from the teacher survey were further supported by observations
conducted at the school sites. According to the data collected from the three area
elementary schools partnered with Intel, 24 of the 32 classrooms reflected that
collaboration by students takes place in the classroom. At Fidel Chavez, 9 of the 10
classrooms reflected collaboration. Furthermore, the survey responses were supported by
the observations of the physical classroom settings. The observation data collected from
all three elementary schools showed that 28 of the 32 classrooms had physical seating
arrangements to encourage collaborative activities. At Fidel Chavez Elementary School,
9 of the 10 classrooms had physical seating arrangements to encourage collaborative
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
Table 5

Survey Responses Indicating 21st-Century Learning

Item Total Fidel Chavez

Collaboration by students takes place daily
Strongly agree 30 15
Agree 25 5
Disagree 5 0
Strongly disagree 0 0
Don’t know 0 0

Technology is used in the classroom
Strongly agree 22 10
Agree 33 4
Disagree 2 4
Strongly disagree 1 0
Don’t know 1 1

Teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills
such as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication
Strongly agree 17 5
Agree 30 5
Disagree 7 2
Strongly disagree 5 2
Don’t know 1 1

Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as critical
thinking, collaboration, and communication
Strongly agree 20 5
Agree 25 6
Disagree 14 4
Strongly disagree 1 0
Don’t know 0 0

Student are college and/or career ready with 21st-century skills
Strongly agree 11 2
Agree 31 9
Disagree 17 4
Strongly disagree 1 0
Don’t know 0 0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
activities. The findings from the classroom observations at Fidel Chavez Elementary
School indicate that 21st-century learning was taking place in the classroom (Table 6).
In addition to teacher surveys and observations, interviews showed evidence of
communication and collaboration taking place in the classroom. When asked about 21st-
century learning, Costa Rica’s Minister of Education, Dr. Garnier, expressed his belief
that effective communication is an important aspect of learning. “Kids need to solve
problems, kids have to ask questions, they have to debate, they have to think” (personal
interview, June 24, 2013). Students who can debate and effectively communicate
questions are more likely to lead into deeper critical thinking (Wagner, 2008).
Intel director Mary Helen Bialas stated that Intel’s involvement with the school is
much more than donating resources. “It’s more of a partnership, we can work on things
together, and is not always resources, but the transfer of knowledge” (personal interview,
June 25, 2013). This partnership between Intel and the area schools reflects the
importance of communication and collaboration not only at the school site level but at the
MNC level as well.
At Fidel Chavez Elementary School, the evidence of Intel’s impact on the
school’s ability to integrate 21st-century skills such as communication and collaboration
was evident in interviewing the school site director, Ronny Morales Guadmuz. When
asked about the incorporation of 21st-century skills into Fidel Chavez Elementary
School, Guadmuz provided multiple examples of how students are working together on
projects within the robotics course and the science fair. “We must create a child to be
more creative and give students tools to more easily communicate with each other and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
Table 6

Observations Indicating 21st-Century Learning

Item Total Fidel Chavez

Collaboration by students takes place in the classroom
Strongly agree 4 9
Agree 20 0
Disagree 2 1
Strongly disagree 5 0
Don’t know 1 0

Technology is used in the classroom
Strongly agree 17 5
Agree 30 5
Disagree 7 2
Strongly disagree 5 2
Don’t know 1 1

Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills
Strongly agree 3 5
Agree 13 6
Disagree 13 4
Strongly disagree 3 0
Don’t know 1 0

There is access to technology in the classroom
Strongly agree 6 2
Agree 4 9
Disagree 7 4
Strongly disagree 15 0
Don’t know 0 0

There is student work posted in the classroom reflective
of 21st-century skills
Strongly agree 2 3
Agree 6 8
Disagree 11 3
Strongly disagree 13 0
Don’t know 0 0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
Table 6 (continued)

Item Total Fidel Chavez

Students are engaged in the classroom
Strongly agree 11 5
Agree 18 6
Disagree 3 4
Strongly disagree 0 0
Don’t know 0 0

Student desks are set up in a collaborative manner
Strongly agree 13 9
Agree 15 0
Disagree 2 1
Strongly disagree 2 0
Don’t know 0 0

develop new ideas” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). To accomplish this goal,
Guadmuz said that, as an instructional leader, he too must stay focused on the new
technology so he is able to communicate and work collaboratively with the community
and the MNCs.
Discussion for Research Question 2
Based on the four prongs of research—the literature review, the survey, the
interviews, and the classroom observations—it was demonstrated that the presence of
MNCs such as Intel has directly influenced the educational system, particularly at Fidel
Chavez Elementary School. The relationship with Intel has had a positive impact on Fidel
Chavez Elementary School and has strongly influenced the curriculum focus toward the
area of technology and the development of 21st-century skills, in particular,
communication and collaboration.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
Based on the observations, there has been an increase in access to technology and
an increase in the use of project-based learning, both of which were visible during all 12
school site visits in Costa Rica. Teacher survey data from all 12 visited schools indicated
that 70% of the teachers agreed or strongly agreed that the focus of education had
changed at their school site to incorporate 21st-century learning; 75% of the teachers
surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that their current curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication. These data
strongly suggest that the schools’ relationship with Intel has been a positive influence to
implement these 21st-century skills within the curriculum to prepare Costa Rican
students for knowledge-based jobs in Costa Rica.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been influenced
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? The
aim of this question was to identify the results of the influence of globalization and the
presence of MNCs on the Costa Rican educational leadership. Understanding first what
results are actually seen due to the increasing presence of MNCs is important for
understanding the level of influence that these corporations may have on educational
leadership in Costa Rica. Two themes were identified related to this research question: (a)
a shared responsibility among Costa Rica’s leaders to emphasize 21st-century learning,
and (b) a change in instructional leadership to focus on incorporating 21st-century skills
at the school sites.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
Shared Responsibility
Educational leaders in Costa Rica are changing to emphasize the 21st-century
learning in the classroom to support the national goal of moving toward a knowledge-
based economy. This shared responsibility to emphasize 21st-century skills causes
characteristics that are found in all four frames of leadership identified by Bolman and
Deal (2008). The structural characteristic highlights the connection between shared
responsibility and the fulfillment of a rational need. The political aspect is fulfilled by the
notion that this shared responsibility can lead to partnerships among stakeholders. The
human resource frame supports that shared responsibility leads to the focus on investing
in people through education. Leaders who share this responsibility exhibit elements of the
structural frame because they have to meet goals and objectives set through their
organizations/schools. Consequently, to be an effective educational leader in Costa Rica,
one must operate from all four frames to accomplish the national goals.
Based on the literature review, an effective leader must also possess a clear vision
and know how to get people moving toward the vision (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
According to the teacher survey data from Fidel Chavez Elementary School, 17 of the 20
teachers agreed or strongly agreed that school site leaders communicate the goals in the
vision of the school to the teachers and students. Furthermore, 71% of all 127 teachers
surveyed at the 12 Costa Rican school sites either agreed or strongly agreed that their
school site leader communicates the goals in the vision of their school to teachers and
students.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
Interviews conducted for this study reflect focus on a shared responsibility to
implement 21st-century skills as a result of policy decisions. When asked how curriculum
in schools has changed to incorporate 21st-century skills, Dr. Garnier, the Minister of
Education of Costa Rica stated,
The funny thing is that we been talking about constructivism for over 30 years in
they keep teaching the same, so we do not talk about constructivism, we said
okay, kids have to solve problems, kids have to ask questions, kids have to debate,
they have to think and I know that’s constructivism but I don’t use that word. You
need to preach constructivism and critical thought. (personal interview, June 24,
2013)
Dr. Garnier said that, through policy implementation and the partnership of MNCs such
as Intel, he will be able to provide the students with the necessary resources to collaborate
and solve problems.
In addition to how curriculum has changed in schools, Fidel Chavez Elementary
School Director Ronny Morales Guadmuz indicated how his job as an educational leader
has changed to meet the needs of 21st-century educational demands:
My role as a director has definitely changed because of the new demands and
goals of our country. I need to get out of the office more, I need to be involved
with the kids and teachers more. I need to look for new options for change, new
projects, new programs, and new skills to teach, more technology, and I also need
to be a part of this learning change. We need thinkers at the administrative levels
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
to maintain a line of solid principles and be able to support our teachers and
students; we are all accountable for this. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
As further evidence of a shared responsibility to implement 21st-century skills as
a result of policy decision, Intel is sharing the responsibility by donating goods and
services to Costa Rican schools. In addition, Intel funds an educational program in which
more than 60% of the Intel Costa Rican staff participates to give back to the schools.
Former Teach Intel program leader Patricia Chico watched the program evolve from
nothing to more than 2,800 staff members. Chico explained,
We were targeting skill-based volunteering so that every kid can be involved, we
would go and mentor a child, and judge science fairs or present at career day. All
these efforts were meant to show students that their options out there in the career
world and make a personal connection with students. (personal interview, June
26, 2013)
It is evident through survey data, observations, and interviews that there is a
shared responsibility among the educational leaders and political leaders in Costa Rica.
This collaboration and shared responsibility is helping to implement 21st-century skills to
meet the vision and direction of the country.
Instructional Leadership
An instructional leader must be goal oriented and focused on improving student
academic outcomes. Given the cultural shift of academia taking place in Costa Rica
resulting from policy change and the presence of MNCs, instructional leaders must be
willing to lead change. According to Marzano et al. (2005), to lead change, one must be
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
defined as a change agent, that is, is a leader who is willing to challenge and actively
push the status quo and take risks. During his interview, the Minister of Education of
Costa Rica, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, noted the following:
One problem is people don’t take chances, they don’t take risk. So I wrote my
first circular letter to all the administrators called “Authority and Responsibility”
basically saying that you are the director and you should run the schools. Be in
charge. And this is very difficult because supervisors, pedagogy, everyone is
trying to tell the director of the high school what to do and then again the director
is telling the teachers in the same thing in the classroom teacher should be in
charge of the classroom. The wording I’ve used is that the ministry should not be
run through controls but through leadership. I do hope that at least one third will
change and if you have changed one third that’s really good but I don’t know if I
can be that optimistic. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
MNC leader and Intel director Mary Helen Bialas was asked whether the focus on
educational leadership has changed at the school sites.
I think it’s in the process of change. Some schools where you will see that there’s
a definite knowledge and interest on the part of leadership and that there has to be
a change. They are not sure how to make that change it but they’re working on it.
We are still very much on a memorization based curriculum, although there are
many initiatives from the Ministry of Education which are trying to create this
new process or change and bring some core-based learning and bring in project-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
based learning and definitely bring in a lot of technology. (personal interview,
June 25, 2013)
The survey responses provided further evidence that the instructional leadership is
in the process of change to incorporate 21st-century skills. According to the teacher
survey at Fidel Chavez Elementary School, 18 of 20 teachers at the school agreed or
strongly agreed that the school site leaders are active participants in the implementation
of 21st-century skills in the classroom. This was supported as 71% of 127 teachers at the
12 school sites agreed or strongly agreed that their school site leader is an active
participant in the implementation of 21st-century skills in the classroom.
When observing the classroom the Fidel Chavez Elementary School, it was noted
that all 10 classrooms that were observed showed one or more aspects of students using
21st-century skills. According to the observation notes, teachers guided students through
high-level questions and encouraged collaborative discussions in small groups. Students
were asked to solve problems using critical thinking skills such as creating, analyzing, or
comparing two or more concepts. All 10 of the classrooms that were observed at Fidel
Chavez Elementary School had posted student projects on the walls suggesting that
inquiry, research, critical thinking and collaboration had been used. Fidel Chavez
Elementary School Director Ronny Morales Guadmuz explained,
As an instructional leader, you must be in the classroom, you must know what is
going on in the classroom. This requires a commitment to understand the
importance of 21st-century skills and be able to communicate this importance to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
students and teachers so they too understand why it is important. (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
Discussion for Research Question 3
Research shows that an effective leader is well rounded and exhibits many
characteristics (Bolman & Deal, 2008). One of these characteristics that a leader must
possess is a clear vision of the organization’s goals and how to get people to
acknowledge that the vision is a worthy goal (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Costa Rica leaders
have the shared responsibility to support the national goal of moving toward a
knowledge-based economy. The political leaders have the challenge to work with their
constituents to change or revise policy to support the Costa Rican goals. The MNC
leaders have the responsibility to influence the Costa Rican school system positively to
prepare students to take on the jobs of tomorrow. Educational leaders have the
challenging task as instructional leaders to teach and implement 21st-century skills so
students are prepared to be successful in the global economy.
The survey, interview, and observations strongly support the theme that
educational leaders are making changes to emphasize 21st-century skills in the classroom
to support the national goal of moving toward a knowledge-based economy. The data
also suggest that Intel has positively influenced the educational leadership at Fidel
Chavez Elementary School by incorporating 21st-century skills such as the use of
technology and collaboration.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
Chapter Summary
Data analysis included a review of the literature, survey responses, interviews,
and observations of classrooms. The data were analyzed and systematically aligned to
address the three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Data analysis for Research Question 1 presented two significant themes. First,
there has been an increase in MNCs in Costa Rica. This was expressed in many of the
interviews and was found in the literature review. Second, MNCs have partnered with
schools, which has led a shift toward the focus on 21st-century skills. During the school
site observations it was apparent that Intel had donated much of the technology
equipment and, according to the teachers’ survey responses, Intel has also helped to train
teachers to start programs that emphasize the use of technology and 21st-century skills
such as communication and collaboration. These programs and the educational shift
toward 21st-century skills are influences of the presence of Intel in Costa Rica.
Data analysis for Research Question 2 yielded two major themes. First, the
presence of MNCs, in particular Intel, has a direct influence on the Costa Rican school’s
increased use of technology. Second, Intel has created relations with schools to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
incorporate 21st-century skills such as collaboration. Most of the stakeholders who
participated in the interviews expressed that these MNCs have influence over the
educational system in that they are aware that these companies have created partnerships
with schools to help prepare students for the future knowledge-based jobs.
Data analysis for Research Question 3 generated two major themes. First,
educational leaders have changed to emphasize 21st-century learning in the classroom to
support the national goal of moving toward a knowledge-based economy. The director at
Fidel Chavez Elementary School clearly expressed in his interview that his job has
changed significantly in the past 20 years and he stated that this change was to support
the national goals to incorporate 21st-century learning in the classroom. Second Intel has
influenced the educational leadership at Fidel Chavez Elementary School to incorporate
21st-century skills in the use of technology and to hold teachers accountable for the
implementation of these 21st-century skills in the classroom.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school system’s challenge is to meet the
demand to develop 21st-century skills in students. Many of these MNCs are providing
resources to schools and deliver training on how to incorporate technology in the
classroom (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Throughout this study, it was
clear that MNCs have affected schools in Costa Rica and that there are implications for
leaders so that students may develop 21st-century skills to meet the demand of the
emerging knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. Improving and continuing positive
relationships between MNCs and schools can prepare educational leaders to implement
21st-century skills so that students are able to compete in a global economy. Costa Rica’s
children deserve to be led by competent, committed political, corporate, and educational
leaders who will make decisions with fidelity and participate in the implementation of
21st-century skills that will equip the country’s future workforce to compete on a global
level.
Chapter 1 provided an introduction and overview of the study, as well as
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, the
significance of the study, and the definition of key terms. Chapter 2 provided an in-depth
review of the literature related to globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica.
Chapter 3 presented the qualitative methodology research, the research design, sample
and population, participants, instrumentation and surveys, interviews, data collection, and
data analysis. Chapter 4 provided an analysis of the data; addresses to the research
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
questions; and themes and findings revealed through the literature review, interviews,
survey responses, and observations conducted in Costa Rica. Chapter 5 summarizes the
results and presents recommendations for further research.
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study was designed to identify the role that school leaders
play in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national
education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives are
producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an educational system that
builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
The research team examined the problem through three theoretical frameworks:
defining globalization (Spring, 2008), reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008),
and Wagner’s 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). These frameworks offered a lens
through which the research group could formulate the problem and develop three
research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
Summary of Findings
Data analysis revealed important emergent themes.
1. There has been a rapid increase in MNCs in Costa Rica since the early 1980s.
2. The MNCs have partnered with schools, playing a large positive role in
perpetuating 21st-century skills in Costa Rica.
3. Globalization and the presence of MNCs have directly influenced the Costa
Rican education system by increasing use of technology in schools and the focus on
collaboration.
4. The influence of MNCs can be seen in the current partnerships between Intel
and the schools in Costa Rica.
5. There is a shared responsibility among Costa Rica’s leaders to emphasize 21st-
century learning.
6. Instructional leadership has changed to focus on incorporating 21st-century
skills at the school sites.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations are seen in Costa Rica? The data analysis identified two
emergent themes: (a) There has been a rapid increase in MNCs in Costa Rica since the
early 1980s, and (b) MNCs such as Intel have partnered with schools, playing a large
positive role in perpetuating 21st-century skills in Costa Rica. All of the interviewed
participants agreed that there has been a rapid increase in MNCs in Costa Rica and many
of them stated that it was a strategic plan to stimulate the economy. As noted in Chapter
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
2, it was reported in 1999 that Costa Rica’s GDP grew 8.4%; without Intel’s investment,
the GDP would have grown only 3%, indicating that more than 60% of Costa Rica’s
GDP growth was directly connected to Intel’s investment. Research from the literature
review stated that Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica began what is known as the
“signaling effect,” which paved the way for other MNCs investors to follow Intel’s lead
(World Bank Group MIGA, 2006).
This increase in MNCs placed challenges on the educational system. In his
interview, Costa Rica’s Minister of Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, stated, “You cannot
make decisions without taking into account what’s going on in the global economy; this
means a lot of preparation because you have to prepare kids for a variety of different
things.” Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Academic Relations at Intel, agreed with Dr.
Garnier regarding the importance of preparing students with a variety of skills:
There is a huge interest in the part of the government to bring in higher level
workforce opportunities to develop the economy and there are many initiatives
from the Minister of Education to try to create a new process to bring in some
core-based learning which includes the use of technology.
Because of this mutual interest, MNCs such as Intel have partnered and invested
in educational system to meet the country’s objective to develop knowledge-ready
workers. For example, Intel invests around $300,000 per year in Costa Rica to support
and improve teachers’ preparation in the areas of science, mathematics, technical
education, and computing, providing students with the skills that they will need to
confront the demands of modern times (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
The collected data reflect a positive image of Intel’s impact in Coast Rica as 127 teachers
surveyed agreed that Intel had positively impacted their school.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Data related to this question
was analyzed to identify results of globalization and the presence of MNCs in schools in
Costa Rica. Two themes emerged from the analysis of the literature review, survey
responses, observations, and interviews: (a) increased use of technology, and (b) focus on
collaboration. The literature suggests that focusing on 21st-century skills such as
technical literacy and collaboration will allow students to become much more prepared
and are necessary for success in the global economy (Wagner, 2008).
The survey responses provided supporting data that suggested that the schools in
Costa Rica were indeed focused on teaching their students 21st-century skills. According
to the survey responses, the teachers agreed that these skills are important to prepare their
students for the workforce. Specifically, more than 90% of the Fidel Chavez Elementary
School teachers indicated that 21st-century skills such as the use of technology and
collaboration were taking place in the classrooms. The classroom observation data
supported this claim, as the three elementary schools observed all had access to
computers and the classroom lessons all had elements of collaboration. The type and
amount of technology observed at all three elementary school sites were more than
adequate to accommodate daily technology access for every student. Furthermore, during
the observation at Fidel Chavez Elementary School, it was evident that collaboration was
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
encouraged, based on the physical seating arrangements in the classrooms. Nine of the 10
classrooms observed had student seating that was grouped in fours; only one had
traditional row-style seating. The one-to-one laptop program observed at Fidel Chavez
Elementary School nicely combined two 21st-century skill elements of use of technology
and collaboration.
The real strength of the data that supported the themes related to this research
question came in the form of interviews. Fidel Chavez Elementary School Director
Ronny Morales Guadmuz indicated numerous times that Intel’s involvement with his
school had resulted in a positive partnership which has helped the school to focus on
implementing 21st-century skills. He explained that Intel’s involvement was more than
just donating technology to the school, that it was the training to integrate computers in
the classroom and train the staff to use the technology. Patricia Chico, the former Intel
Teach program director, confirmed that the relationship between Intel and Fidel Chavez
Elementary School has been a 20-year symbiotic relationship that has resulted in many
positive outcomes for staff and students. This relationship between Intel and the schools
in Costa Rica lends credence to the recommendations provided later in this chapter.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been influenced
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? This
question was designed to provide data to explain how educational leadership has been
influenced as a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs. One of the themes that
emerged was a shared responsibility among leaders in Costa Rica to emphasize 21st-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
century learning. In a majority of the interviews conducted with political, corporate, and
educational leaders, shared responsibility was seen as essential to accomplishing the
national goal of moving toward a knowledge-based economy. According to the literature,
the structural characteristics found in the leadership frames of Bolman and Deal (2008)
require leaders to meet goals and objectives that are set by the schools/organizations.
Therefore, an effective leader in Costa Rica must possess the structural characteristic to
be successful. Furthermore, Bolman and Deal (2008) stated that an effective leader must
possess a clear vision and know exactly how to get people moving forward. Ultimately,
the administrators at the school sites will need to hold teachers accountable for
implementing 21st-century skills in the classroom. Again, survey data suggested that the
school site leaders were in fact focused on a shift toward incorporating 21st-century
skills. Seventy-seven percent of the teachers agreed that they are held responsible for the
implementation of 21st-century skills and that their administrators share the
responsibility.
Summary
The study showed through review of literature, survey data, observations, and
interviews that school improvement can be achieved through an effort of shared
responsibility among many stakeholders in a community. Costa Rican leaders are playing
a vital role in accomplishing the national goals to increase the access to technology and
implement the 21st-century skills to prepare students for a knowledge-based workforce.
Many positive partnerships between schools, business, and government leaders were
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
observed throughout this study. All these partnerships between the government,
education, and business are very beneficial for all stakeholders in Costa Rica.
Implications for Practice
This research inquiry validates the concept that partnerships between government,
education, and business can be beneficial for all stakeholders and work efficiently toward
improving socioeconomic conditions. All stakeholders in Costa Rica are taking on roles
that are critical in how the country operates. The national goal of becoming a knowledge-
based economy is daunting and full of significant challenges; however, Costa Rica’s
leaders are clearly working together. The responsibility to increase the economic stability
in Costa Rica and improve the way of life for the people falls on the shoulders of the
country’s leaders. Political leaders have the responsibility to maintain and develop policy
to support the people so they are able to have a high quality of life. MNC leaders share
this responsibility and have a mutual interest in progressing toward a knowledge-based
economy. Educational leaders may arguably have the most difficult task, as they are
responsible for the daily instruction and implementation of skills that will lead the way to
improve socioeconomic conditions.
This study provides evidence that all children can learn, irrespective of social
economic status, home language, and education level of parents. These implications are
important for U.S. educational leaders and policymakers, as Costa Rica has been
progressive, regardless of the country’s socioeconomic challenges. The Costa Rican
educational system is a good example to other developing countries because they have
intentionally built partnerships with MNCs such as Intel to accomplish national goals to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
improve their economy through the avenue of learning. These partnerships between
schools and MNCs in Costa Rica have led to a wide variety of intentionally developed
educational opportunities such as multilingual programs, technology-based courses,
robotics curriculum, science fairs, and accelerated courses in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM). These educational opportunities are essential to
prepare Costa Rican students for college and career in their newly forming knowledge-
based economy.
Recommendations for Research
The findings in this study strongly suggest that the partnerships between
government, education, and business can be beneficial for all stakeholders when working
toward improving socioeconomic conditions. MNCs have a significant impact on the
schools in Costa Rica and these corporations are supporting the national educational
goals to implement 21st-century skills and increase the use of technology. The research
shows an increasing presence of MNCs in Costa Rica and that these corporations are
partnering with schools to improve the learning outcomes and leadership practices.
Education is ever changing; consequently, to remain current and educate students with
the skills necessary to attain the jobs of tomorrow, all stakeholders must make decisions
that are in the best interest of the children.
The majority of participants in this study indicated that it is important for students
to have access to technology and possess 21st-century skills. They also indicated that
they face many economic challenges in providing access to technology to all students.
Corporations such as Intel are supporting some schools by donating technology and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
providing training; however, many schools in Costa Rica do not have the support of such
a large corporation. Schools that do not have partnerships with MNCs may have trouble
in gathering technology resources and may lack the necessary skills to use technology.
This is a strong suggestion that certainly should be studied further. Because the
researchers in this study observed only schools that were supported by Intel, it would be
advantageous to visit non-corporate-supported school sites.
An additional recommendation emanates from the research and strongly suggests
that future researchers investigate the value in the STEM programs that is emerging in the
country. Furthermore, observing the national science fair and interviewing participants
who lead the fair efforts may be beneficial to understanding the increasing success of this
program. Understanding the increasing excitement and success of Costa Rican science
fairs may help to understand the emerging shift toward STEM education.
Costa Rican schools face great challenges in the years to come. Expert leadership
will most definitely be the way to ensure success for students and development of their
21st-century skills. It is a shared responsibility that the Costa Rican leaders collaborate
and commit to making the very best decisions for Costa Rican people. Political leaders,
corporate leaders, and educational leaders must believe in lifelong learning and adapt and
learn as society changes. Mandating and holding all stakeholders accountable for
implementing 21st-century skills could ensure that future leaders will be seekers of
knowledge and make decisions that will benefit the country as a whole
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
Conclusion
The Ministry of Education, school site leaders, and Intel all share a vision of
Costa Rica evolving into a knowledge-based economy. This shared vision has enabled a
symbiotic relationship that has resulted in collaboration efforts by Costa Rican leaders.
Many positive outcomes are visible in the schools that were studied for this project. The
findings reported in Chapter 4 clearly show an increased presence of MNCs in Costa Rica
and confirm that these corporations are partnering with schools to achieve national goals.
The results is a collaborative effort at the school sites to increase students’ access to
technology and to implement 21st-century skills in the curriculum.
Intel’s self-evident goal of a more productive workforce from which to draw did
not diminish the considerable benefits to the students by partnering with the schools to
enhance students’ targeted proficiencies through technology. In short, it becomes a
win/win situation for all stakeholders.
Costa Rican leaders are making shifts toward using technology in their daily jobs
to increase the schools’ efficiency and allow for timely communication among
stakeholders. School site leaders, such as Fidel Chavez Elementary School Director
Ronny Morales Guadmuz, are adapting and becoming more instructional leaders instead
of managers. Instructional leaders exhibit the 21st-century skills outlined by Wagner
(2008). A 21st-century school principal/director is a collaborative partner with the
teaching staff and provides sound instructional feedback to increase the effectiveness of
lessons. Leaders should operate out of the four frames presented by Bolman and Deal
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
(2008); specifically, Costa Rican leaders must exhibit characteristics that are found in the
structural frame to accomplish agreed-upon organizational goals.
This study explored the impact of globalization and MNCs on educational
leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools in Costa Rica. The study
identified changes that educational leaders have experienced as a result of development
and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives. The
study determined that current initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-
ready workers and that the education system is building human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs. The school of focus, Fidel Chaves Murillo Elementary
School, has definitely been positively impacted by globalization and Intel as a result of
the shared vision and collaboration by Costa Rica’s leading entities.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
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Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education

Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and multi-
national corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is
asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of
globalization and multinational corporations?

2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study, we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey and
interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly.
We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence
possible to go over the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
Appendix B
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and
universities that promote access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
Appendix C
MNC Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education
system in Costa Rica?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the
21st century?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathe-
matics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
Appendix D
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be pre-
pared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathe-
matics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
Appendix E
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: Location of Survey:
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.

5

4

3

2

1
2. Collaboration among students takes
place daily.

5

4

3

2

1

3. Technology is not used in your class-
room.

5

4

3

2

1

4. Lessons promote higher level thinking.

5

4

3

2

1

5. Curriculum promotes 21st-century
skills.

5

4

3

2

1

6. There is access to technology in the
classrooms.

5

4

3

2

1

7. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.

5

4

3

2

1

8. Intel has not improved resources at
your school.

5

4

3

2

1

9. Students are college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.

5

4

3

2

1

10. Teachers are held accountable to
implement 21st-century skills in the class-
room.

5

4

3

2

1

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.

5

4

3

2

1

12. Educational decisions are not influ-
enced by multinational corporations.

5

4

3

2

1

13. School site leaders are active partici-
pants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.

5

4

3

2

1

14. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students.

5

4

3

2

1

15. Is there evidence of the following that
can be seen in your curriculum:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

16. Have the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

17. Has the Minister of Education sup-
ported the emphasis on:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125
Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

18. Do you receive adequate support to
teach the curricula in the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

19. Do you believe that STEM education
is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
Yes No

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
Appendix F
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ______________________

Location of Observer: Observer:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically
toward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

2. Collaboration by students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 127

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

4. Lessons promote higher-level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

8. Students are engaged in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

9. Students desks are set up in a col-
laborative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

10. Student-centered instruction is evident
in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130

Question Science

Tech-
nology
Engineering Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM being
taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes No Yes No
Field Notes and Examples:

Other Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
Appendix G
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date

Dear ,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed in
this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may
shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in
Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational
leadership and 21st-century skills.

My name is Xxx Xxx, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction and
guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the Univer-
sity of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please sign the
consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw
at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous
by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a
manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact Xxx Xxx or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Xxx Xxx and Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in
a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In a highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a need to adapt to a global market. A country’s educational system can be argued to be the driving force behind economic development. Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the past 30 years. Once relying on agricultural exports, it is now influenced by high‐technology foreign direct investment. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity. In the past few decades, Costa Rica has seen investment by multinational corporations in the school system’s responsibility to develop students who are technically literate and possess 21st‐century skills. ❧ The Costa Rica school system faces a challenge to ensure that its future workforce has the skill set to take on new job opportunities of the future. Despite having 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remains a low secondary graduation rate and a low percentage of students pursuing higher education. ❧ In order to prepare students in Costa Rica to compete in a high-technology global market, there may need to be educational shifts to ensure future economic success. To make these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and education may all need to play a role. This study describes the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on educational leadership and development of 21st‐century skills in schools in Costa Rica. The study also identifies the roles that leaders play in the development and implementation of educational policies and determines whether these policies are producing a greater number of knowledge-ready workers.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Baker, John William Bradley (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/02/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag educational leaders,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,schools and universities in Costa Rica

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory A. (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email bradbaker79@gmail.com,johnwbak@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-371952

Unique identifier UC11297260

Identifier etd-BakerJohnW-2311.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-371952 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BakerJohnW-2311.pdf

Dmrecord 371952

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Baker, John William Bradley

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA