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Study of international intellectual cooperation

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Content STUDY OP IHTERNATIONAL IHTELLECTUAL COOPERATION A Thesis Presented to the Paoulty of the Department of Political Science The University of Sonthern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts hy Floyd Weaver Thornton June 1947 UMI Number: EP63746 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oissattation RjWlsMng UMI EP63746 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 TS This the sis f ‘written by Floyd-W.eaver.-Tjxornton.......... under the guidance of hXs.... Faculty Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfill ment of the requirements for the degree of D ate. . ..... Secretary June 1947 Faculty Committee Chairman TABLE OF CORTEHTS CHAPTER page I; IBTEODUCTIOÎi. 1 Reason for Study* * « • * « « • * * 1 Importano© of Study* * * . . # . 1 Miguel Ozorlo d© Almeida * 1 James T* Shot well. * . * . * * . * 2 Alexander von Humholdt « # * » * # # 2 Paul K* Hadley. 3 William G. Carr * * . * * . . * * 3 X . « L-à Rand el # « * * # » * # * 3 J* Eugene Harley * * * * * . . . 4 Rudulf o Fouoher . * . * * # . * 4 President Truimn . . . ♦ * * . . . 5 W. W* Brletaan* . . . , * « . # . * 5 Organisation of thesis. . . ... . * 6 II. PAR AMERICAN OTXOR. * . * * . . . . . 7 ^okground. . * . . * . * . . . . 7 year hy year progress — 1919*^1945. . . . 9—»32 III. IRTERRAlOmL IHSTlTO*m OF INTELLECTUAL GO- OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Pre-League Period . . . . # . • • . 33 League of Nations * . . . . . . . . 33 League Committee on Intellectual Co- operation . * . . . . . . . . . 34 Ill CHAPTER PAGE National Committees # * # , * . . • 35 International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation,at,Paris 36 Background « . . « • • • . . 36 Inception# # # # . # # # 36 Work * . * * ............... . 37 War Years # # # # . # 41 Conclusion 41 IV. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OP EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY. 43 Background . . . . . . . 43 Inception . # * . . . . # * # • * 44 Work . . . . . . . . . . 45 Film Agreements . . . . » . 46 Pan American Union and films . . . . . 46 Demise . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Film Centers . * . . . . . . * . ' 48 V. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND ' CULTURAL ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . 50 Introduction . . . . . . . . 50 Background . . . 50 London Conference of Allied Ministers . 51 Need for organization . . . . . . . 52 Liaison Committee for International Edu cation « . . • . . . . . . 53 International Education Assembly. . . . * 53 iv CHAPTER PACE Dumbarton Oaks Proposals 54 United Nations San Francisco Conference . . 55 Charter and Intellectual Cooperation . . # 56 UNESCO and the Economic and Social Council . 56 London Conference, November 1-16, 1945 * . 57 UNESCO Constitution* 60 Projects and fields of action . . . 64 Interim Commission . . « « » * * * * 67 London Preparatory Commissions . . * . . 67 UNESCO’s First General Conference * . 71 Work of UNESCO * . * * . . * . * * 71 United States and UNESCO. * . . . . . . . 72 United States National Commission . * * . . * 73 Russia and UNESCO . * * . * * . * . 75 Conclusion. . . . ... . . . . 76 VI. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 The Future — Proverbs — I. L. Kandel — James T. Shot we 11 — President Truman — Paul Mantoux — J. 1. Morgan — Madame Curie — Alberto Mane . * . . . . . 82-84 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 CHAPTER î INTRODUCTION Because of the Homo Sapiens’ refusal to put into practioe his Creator’s admonition, that he is his brother’s keeper* our Society is palsied by the lunatic and satanie practice of mass murder# God gave us emotions* a will, and a mind. We have let our emotions get away from us in the fields of race and religion, and we have tried to impose our sovereign will upon others. As we refuse to try Cln»ist, the last alternative is the spmrk of the divine in us — the Hence, we come to the raison d’etre of this paper ; A Study of International Intellectual Cooperation, 1889-1946, Which will review the organisations purporting to bring Utopia through the medium of education. In the Middle Ages intellectual cooperation consisted of letters, visits, and trips ; while in the Nineteenth Century, we had progressed to international congresses, missions, and the exchange of professors. Miguel Osorio Be Almeida, chairm^ of the Brazilian Committee oh Intellectual Cooperation has said tîmt ”Intel lectual Cooperation is an expression, therefore, either of a need for expansion, mutual comprehension, and reciprocal aid and understanding, or of the idea of defense, support, and X solidarity in the face of common dangers#** As one authority states it: **Th© terrible destruction and degradation wrought by the Second World War in these higher realms of the mind is worse, if anything, than the destruction of life and property. * * • The interchange of international cultures, #iich mutually enrich those undertaking it, should not be left wholly to private organizations, nor to individual 2 nations distorting it into a medium of propaganda.** Shotwell also observes that While it is true that specialists in different fields had kept track of what their colleagues in the arts and sciences were doing in different countries,, there had never been a central clearing house to coordinate these efforts in the interest of a common civilization until the League of Nations set about the task of founding one. Alexander von Humboldt, writing to the president of the Royal Society, the Duke of Sussex, in April, 1836, proposed international cooperation in furthering the study and knowledge of terrestrial magnetism# What distinguishes, in certain respects, the present from earlier periods, is the attempt to give intellectual coopération a separate existence as a recognized and indispen- 4 sable movement. 1 Bulletin of the Pan American Union* 74:326 (April* 1940. ^ ^James T. Shotwell, The Great Decision (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1944), pp. 189, 19Ù. ^Ibid.* p. 186. ^Bulletin of the Pan American Union, ibid. * p. . 325. 3 The statement of Paul Hadley, In referring to United States relations with South America, that * * cultural coopera tion. * . the first step in what xmj well prove to be a new 3 form of diplomacy,” offers hope for the future, may be amplified to include international intellectual cooperation* William 0. Carr feels that ”there are certain types of education which are so dangerous to all of us, that they should be discouraged in every possible manner. • * and it Is better to detect and counteract such tendencies at an early stage, than it is to wait until the tendencies reduce a nation which 6 is irrevocabiy educated for aggression and war.” According to I. L. Kandel, "The failure to promote international understanding was in large measure due to failure to understand the aims and principles underlying national sys- terns of education,” Man has sought the meaning of this mundane existence through religion, philosophy, and science. Now that science has unlocked Pandora’s Box, but has no moral restraints, it has called upon the social scientists to solve the relationships of man to man in, the new era. Thus the problem is to create an international intellectual organization that can bring us 6 Paul E. Hadley, ”Cultural Cooperation: Essential of Diplomacy in Latin America,” World Affairs Interpreter, 17:74 (Spring), 1946. W. W, Brickman, ”International Educational Cooperation,” School and Society * 64:390 (November 30, 1946). *^Loc. cit. 4 back from the brink of destruction# One writer stresses the view that ”in order to meet the need for developing the mutual cultural emd intellectual appreciation among the peoples of various countries,” ^ "the need for intellectual cooperation has passed from the obscure and indefinite subconscious to the clear light of collective , , 9 consciousness #’ In another connection the importance of intellectual cooperation is stressed: ”For some time the idea has been growing# . ' # that the successful solution of the great inter national problems of the day demands a wider diffusion of knowledge concerning the factual and spiritual difficulties 10 of those problems.” Rudulfo Foueher, former rector of the University of Mexico, stated that the purpose of intellectual cooperation was: To accelerate the development of human culture through the organized contribution of all nations, to extend the benefits of instruction to all peoples, and to place cul ture at the service of the masses of the world, in order to create a fair and just political, social, and economic order In the commonwealth of nations and within every par ticular state.^^ 8 J. Eugene Harley, Documentary Textbook on International Relations (Los Angeles: Suttonhouse, 1934), p. 293. 9 Bulletin of the Pan American Union, op. cit., p. 326. ^^Harley, International Understanding (Palo Alto : Stan ford University Pr © s s , 193 l T , " p . V i i • 3-lBrickman, op. cit., p. 391. 5 President Truman, at the closing of the San Francisco Conference, June 26, 1945, emphasized the point that The world had learned again that nations, like in dividuals, must know the truth, if they would be freot— must read and hear the truth, learn and teach the truth. We must set up an effective agency for constant and thorough interchange of thought and ideas. For there lies the road to a better and more tolerant understanding among nations and among peoples There has been no more propitious time since the Kellogg Pact than now, to make a study of man’s mental efforts to con quer greed and ignorance, the mother of all wars. "Through the dissemination of knowledge,” writes I. 1. Kandel, "mutual understanding between the peoples of the world can be promoted, and that respect for each other be . * j r cultivated, which will eradicate war from the minds of men.” According to Brickman much will be gained for the progress of the world ”by an exchange of experiences in education, as in other scientific and educational fields. Mucational systems cannot be transferred from one country to another, but ideas, practices, devices, developed under one set of conditions, can always prove suggestive for improvements even when the condi- 14 tions are somewhat different.” 12 Hadley, 22’ Git.* p. 84. L. Kandel, "Salvation Through Literacy,” School and Society, 64:396 (December 7, 1946). ^^Brickman, og. cit., p. 386. 6 Shotwell feels that "the way of defense. Is the develop ment of international understanding, which offers the only ,'15 pure hope of safeguarding our inheritance of culture# . # . As there are unnumerahle agencies in the field of international cooperation, this paper will he concerned with the four which deal primarily with intellectual cooperation. Chapter Two will discuss the work of the Pan American Union from 1889 through 1946 in the field of intellectual cooperation. Chapter Three deals with the League’s Committee on Intellectual Cooperation and its protege, the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation at Paris. Chapter Four relates the histozy of the now defunct International Institute of Educational Cinematography. Chapter Five deals with the birth and infancy of the latest attempt of xmn to save himself from destruction, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organi- cation. As Shotwell further observes: "The greatest stimulus to thought is the increased knowledge of what other people I t 16 are thinking. So let us turn to the results of the thinking from 1889 to 1946• 15 Shotwell, op. cit.* p# 184, p, 189. CHAPTER II PAN AMERICAN UNION Alberto Mane of Uruguay expressed ” the hope and fears of all the years *" when be wrote: It has been said that "America is not a chance event of M s tory, but the incarnation of human hope," and when universal society is convulsively shaken in the confusion of the fundamental doctrines of law, and when the Nations that gave birth to occidental civilization cannot succeed in directing nor defining, in accordance with the demands of humanity, economic ideas, political formulas, or the Juridical structure, that profound hbpé seeks anew a chan nel in the promised land of our hemisphere. . # .^ Hoping to make flesh and blood of Bolivar’s plans. United States Secretary of State Blaine, succeeded in getting Congress to pass an act in May, 1888, authorizing the calling of a Conference of American States. The first meeting of this body took place in Washington, D. G., October, 1889, through April, 1890. It may be stated that the Fan American Union as a regional plan of intemational cooperation has had the advan tage of a common political system (constitutional republican) ; and historical and traditional factors, as well as geography, have militated in its favor. Consultations have taken place in Fan American inter national conferences, which dealt with such subjects as the ^Bulletin of the Fan American Union, 68:187 (March, 1934). 8 promotion of the sciences, the codification of the interna tional law of the Americas, child welfare, health, and comnerclal aviation, hut the main stress has been the "special attention# . ♦ devoted by the Union to cementing and develop ing the cultural and intellectual community of the American 2 Republicsv” The cultural relations between the two Americas "are something infinitely greater than a mere weapon in a dis turbed world# The American hemisphere, taken together, now combines within Itself most of the elements which made European culture great." The following ten general conferences have taken place in the Western Hemisphere between the United States and the Latin American ooimtries, viz : , D. C., 1889 Santiago, 1923 Mexico City, 1901 Havana, 1928 Rio de Janiero, 1906 Montevideo, 1933 Buenos Aires, 1910 Buenos Aires, 1936 Lima, 1938 Mexico City, 1946 The burden of this chapter will be a discussion of the accomplishments of these conferences towards the development of closer Intellectual and cultural relations. 2 J. Eugene Harley, International Understanding (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1931>, p* 129. ^A. A. Berle, New Directions in the New World (New York; Harper Bros., 1940), p. 45. 9 One feature of all the agencies for international intellectual cooperation has been the promotion of student and professsor exchange. This idea was initiated in 1816, when Luis and Mateo Blanco, Chileans, enrolled at West Point, being the first forelgo students to be accorded the honor. The second opportunity for a foreign student came, when Valdes y Carrera entered the United States Navy for training, as Annapolis had not been established In that year of 1819. The year 1827, saw two more Latin Americans accorded the opportunity to study in thm United States, when Simon Boliver’s nephew entered the University of Virginia, and another young man enrolled in the School of Dentistry of the University of Pennsylvania. When the First International Conference of American States convened in Washington, D. C i n October, 1889, Saenz Pena made a statement that is still pertinent: "The truth is, 4 that our knowledge of each other Is limited.” Until we make such institutions, as are discussed In this paper, work, this statement will rmaain true. The Conference, at first, was only intended for coordina tion of commercial and statistical information, but it was soon seen, that all relations are based on intelligence, so we see as one of the Conference’s first acts, the projected ^Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 74:326 (April, 1940). 10 creation, ty resolution, of the Columbus Memorial Library. In 1896, the Executive Committee met to prepare the agenda for the Second International Conference of American States at Mexico City in 1901. This second meeting a^eed upon the exchange of official, scientific, literary, and industrial publications. The Third International Conference of American States, whose publication was called the Bulletin of International Bureau of the Americah States » which added the word Interna tional to the earlier Bulletin’s title, met J.h Rio de Janiero in 1906. A resolution was passed to supply information on educational matters to all members. This was sanctioned by the Fourth Conference at Buenos Aires in 1910, and by the First and Second Scientific Congresses. The Governing Board of the International Bureau bf the American Republics, in January, 1907, announced a new and enlarged program to develop closer intellectual and educa tional relations with Latin America. Professor W. E. Shepherd ‘ of Columbia University was sent to Latin America to cultivate personal relations, and acquaint them with United States colleges and universities. At Buenos Aires in July, 1910, the Fourth Internabional Conference of the American States signed conventions relating to literary and artistic copyright, American international scientific congresses, the interchange of professors and 11 students, and national bibliographical bureaus. Also, in June, 1910, the Second International Congress of American Students voted to create an International Bureau of jWerican Students at Montevideo to facilitate the recip rocal exchange of ideas and stimulate international intel- lectual cooperation# Urging the use of intelligence, instead of force, in world affairs. President Wilson appeared before the Second Fan American Scientific Congress in Washington, D. G., December, 1915, and pleaded for arbitration in international A Chilean motion was passed unanimously providing for %h& appointment of a committee to carry out the following resolution of this Second Pan American Scientific Congress. "This resolution," says the Bulletin, "recommends the organi zation of a department of education in connection with the Fan American Union, and confirms previous resolution of a similar tenor adopted at the First Pan American Scientific 5 Congress of 1908-09#" The proïx>sed department would publish In Spanish, Portuguese, and English, the most important works in the field of education* Infomation concerning new pedagogical 1916) Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 43:319 (March, 12 methods would be distributed* and the interchange of ideas and teachers would be furthered. The year 1915 saw a spurt in intelleotual activity and Pan American cooperation. Ninety-one United States schools offered scholarships to Venezuelan students # The Carnegie Institute supported scientific expeditions to South America. Paraguay purchased school desks from the tkiited States* American universities conferred honorary degrees upon South American dignitaries. Congresses of science, medicine, bibliography, and history took place# San Diego’s Panama- California Exposition and San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific Exposition were events affording opportunity for the practice of intellectual cooperation. The year 1917 marks the beginning of a special division of the Pan American Union devoted to intellectual coopera tion, which was approved in February, 1918, by the Governing Board. Because the correspondence with educators, students, and educational institutions became so heavy, the Division of Education of the Pan American Union was established* The new division urged the study of Spanish and Portu guese, along with Latin American history, in the schools of the United States. Publication of educational articles, assistance to Latin American students in the United States, and cooperation with educational, cultural, and scientific institutions throughout the Americas also came within the 15 purview of the division# The preparation of studies on eduoatima In the Western Hemisphere was to be undértaken. The Division of Edueation became a separate section in 1924, and in 1929, its name was changed to the Division of Intelleotual Cooperation, dealing with education, science, literature, and the arts of the Fan American Union# The year 1917 saw the incubation and spread of the idea for a Pan American University, which was to bear fpult eleven years later at Havana. The American Association of Teachers of Spanish was created also. In 1918 the American Association of University Profes sors recommended action upon recommendations of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress. These may be summarized as follows; the study of the life and achieveirients of the founders and statesmen of all the American Continents ; the United States universities would provide chairs of the growdz and ideals of the Latin American nations ; the Latin American universities would have chairs of United States history; the teaching of Spanish in the United States schools, and Eng lish in the Latîà American schools; and the constitutions of ft all American Republics were to be studied in all schools. The Gamegi© Endowment for International Peace assisted in the establishment in 1918, of the Institute of International 6 Bulletin of the Pan American Union* 46:792-25 (June, 1918). 14 Education for the development, ©ncouragment, and creation of Intematloml understanding, the cooperation between educa tional institutions, and the arranging for fellowships. The Rockefeller and Guggenheim Memorial Fo\mdations also help in scholar exchange and publications * The year 1920 saw the creation of the Fan American Student League in New York City, which was the inspiration for the one in Dallas, Texas in 1927. The International Congress of American History had its first meeting at Rio de Janiero in 1921, and its second in Buenos Aires in 1927. Santiago was the scene of the Fifth International Con ference of American States in March, 1923. Resolutions concerning a Pan American university conference, student organizations. Pan American libraries, cooperation between universities, and the exchange of professors and students were In the sam year. Doctor W, J. Mayo led a contingent of 200 doctors on a tour of South America, and in San Francisco the National Education Association fornmd the World Federation of Education Associations. At the Third Pan American Scientific Congress, a Pan American Institute of Geography and History was suggested to coordinate and publish results of American geographic and historical research. Its headquarters were to be established 15 in Mexico City in 1929* Professer Antonio Anstregeslto presented a plan for a Pan American Institute of Culture to the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies'"in 1926 # The idea was thoroughly discussed and debated by South American lawyers. This idea was presented to the Sixth Conference of American States at Havana in 1928, and the campaign to bring it to fruition was led by Oliveira# Senor Callorda, Uruguay, proposed establishing the Institute, and Senor Arias, Argentina, reported it from committee* A resolution was passed establishing ma Inter-American Institute of Intellec tual Cooperation* The functions of the proposed Institute would be the interchange of teachers in secondary and superior schools of all signatory countries for history, geography, literature, sociology, hygiene, and law* The official languages of the Institute were to be Spanish, English, Portuguese, and French* The proposed Central Council would study proposals from the National Councils, and submit them to the Governing Board of the Pah American Union; disseminate information; aid Scientific Congresses in program preparation so they would act as forums on intellectual problems; aid other congresses; and facilitate meetings of National Cowcils* The Conference nominated a Congress of Hectors, Deans, 16 and Educators to draft the convention for the proposed insti tute# Its results were approved by the Seventh Conference of American States at Montevideo in 1953* A convention adopted at Havana stated" tlmt "the American Republics. . . desirous of . • ♦ coordination of their . * . intellectual activities* * * agree to continue their joint 7 action of cooperation. . . ! - K : ' f ; Article Six of the seme Convention calls upon the Pan Americma Union "to compile and distribute information and reports concerning the . . . educational development. . . of the American Republics. * • .To assist in the development of . . . cultural relations, . » . and the furtherance of a more intimate mutual acquaintance between the Agmrican $ Republics Article Three, Section One, Paragraph Four of the Regulations of the Pan American Union as adopted at Washings ton, D. 0., May, 1928, provides for a committee for "the developrient of intellectual cooperation, with special refer - ©nee to cooperation between universities Resolutions were passed creating a Commission of V ' L ' Export Biblio^aphers to compile a continental bibliography 7 Harley, Docmaentary Textbook on International Rela tions , p. 272. Ô Ibia.. p. 875. %bld.. p. 281, 17 as a means for the promotion of closer relations of intel lectual cooperation between the American Republics through authentic data of each Pan American country, and a Pan American Pedagogical Congress to convene in Chile in 1932. The first meeting of the Inter-American Federation of Education, suggested by the Second Pan American Scientific Congress in 1915, met in Atlanta, Georgia, at the Natioml Education Association Convention in 1929. The Inter-Aiasrlean Congress of Hectors, Deans, and Educators met at Havana In 1930 to draft the Convention for the Inter-American Institute of Intellectual Cooperation. The Convention provided that each country would have a National Council, and delegates fr<m these would cmiprise an Inter-American Central Council of Intellectual Cooperation situated at Havana. It would serve as the coordinating center for the National Councils. The National Councils would study problems coopera tively, promote understanding, and act as liaison between the intellectual elements of the Hemisphere. The Pan American Student Club at Monroe High, New York City, and the Fan American Student league were founded in the year 1930. The year 1933 saw an attempt by Brazil and Argentina to alleviate ill feelings toward other nations through text book revision. 18 In addressing the First Inter-American Conference on Education at Santiago in September, 1934, the President of the Conference, Senor Ague tin Edwards, remarked that: We are confident that the exchange of ideas, experi ences, and practices among such ezalnent educators should give rise to a continental conception of education, one better adapted to the needs of this age, in which materi al and mechanical progress has apparently outstripped political, philosophical, economic, cultural, and social concepts, threatening to imprison the human soul in the dark, narrow, and airless cell of pure materialism. # . # This Conference has for its purpose an increase of the educational capital of the new American generations # This is a treasure more precious than any other which we could bequeath them, for it is the only one of which the vicis situdes of life and the wiles of men can never deprive them* 10 The Conference on Education recommended more emphasis on perfecting spiritual qualities in students, guidance toward mutual understanding, improvement in the teaching of history and geography, closer understanding between the teachers of different nations, textbook revision as to ac curacy and impartiality, vocational education, guidance, and use of the radio and educational films# During 1934 the Central American countries organized to make their educational systems uniform# The Seventh Conference of American States at Montevideo in December, 1933, passed many important resolutions# liographieal cooperation was provided for through the 10 Bulletin of the Fan American Union, 68:307 (April, 19 appointment of a committee by the Governing Board to prepare a critical and classified blbllograpby of works published in all languages that have to do with America; the use of the Bulletin of the Pan American Union as an organ of inter- American bibliographic information; the organization by the Union of a special service for establishing a directory of American Libraries, authors, and specialists; the establish ment of an obligatory service of exchange between the official libraries of the American Republics, the distribution in this service to be made by the Union; the promotion ly the Union of the interchange of scientific and literary publications, and of newspapers, magazines, and other means of technical intel lectual improvement ; the convening of the Inter-American Bibliographic Conference; and the action of the Library of the Union as a center of coordination and cooperation in the work 11 of inter-American biography. Other resolutions concerned the creation of a commission to draft a convention for the protection of intellectual property, the Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institu tions and Historical Monuments (Treaty signed on Fan American Day, April, 16, 1956), the preparation of studies on the social and economic conditions of intellectual workers ; and the maintenance of the Fan American Institute of Geography and Histozy, 11 Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 68:78-79 {February, 1955). — ---- 2 0 A resoliatloa from the CoBgress of Eectors^ Beans ^ and Edncafeors reeoHBnénding that an Inter-American Institute of Scientific Research be established was adopted# In this same year of 1935^ Ia.tin American Fellowships were established the Association of Bnivarsity Women; scholarship and fellowships for Latin Americans were admin- ] Istered by the Ins titute Of International Educat ion ; the Latin American Institute for Racé and Culture Studies which would coordinate and organize research activities in the aboriginal peoples and the culture of Latin America was estab lished, along with the Fan American Student Forum. An investigation made by the Bivislon of Intellectual Coopratibn of the Fan-Amérlcan Union shows that ^ the academic year 1955-56, 199 college or university courses on I^tin American literature were offered in the United States, almost double the number offered five years before.” Othfr events of the year included the opening of the Fanamanian Center for the Study of Education and Spnish- Americah Af fairs ; the second meeting of the Pan American Institute of Ceograp^ and History in Washington, B* C., which recomiendèd that a laboratory devoted to the scientific study of Fan &erïcâh population be established and maintained. 12 Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 72:252 (April, 1938). 21 During 1935, Secretary of State Hull appointed the National Commission on Inter-American Intellectual Coopera tion with John Studehaker, as chairman. Prominent members of the Commission included Aydalotte of Swarthmore, Bowman of John Hopkins, Hayes of Columbia, and Sproul of California. The Seventh Pan American Scientific Congress meeting in 1935, passed resolutions recommending that : American nations should appoint Rational Commissions of Intellectual Cooperation; interchange of students and teachers should be furthered ; inter-American recognition of professional degrees should be standardized; a one year course in general American history should be established in the high schools; President Cardenas of Mexico should be congratulated on his idea that scientific investigation is a functional part of government; various 13 foreign textbooks be translated into Spanish. This Congress had sections on the Economic, Social, and Educational Sciences. The Horth and Central American Conference of the Raw Education Fellowship meeting at Mexico City in August, 1935, acted upon a suggestion by Venezuela, that as an anniversary gift to Peru for her 400 years of existence, a library composed of works of the outstanding authors of the donor countries be presented# The United States gift was 200 volumes on litera ture, music, biography, history, law, medicine, science. 13 Ibid.. 68:307 (April, 1935). 22 archeology, and religion* A grant from the Carnegie Endow ment for International Peace was arranged for the Institute of International Education, by Stephen Duggan, its Director. The first South American Regional Radio Conference was held at Buenos Aires in March, 1935 • Provisions were mad© for the adoption of necessary measures to prevent broadcasts which might be injurious to international relations among the signatory nations; these provisions conformed to the General Radio Regulations contained in the International Telecommuni cation Convention of Madrid, 1932* The InterWWerlcmi Conference for the Maintenance of Peace held at Buenos Aires in December, 1936, signed a convention for the Promotion of Inter-American Cultural Rela tions , which provided for the annual exchange of one professor and two teachers or graduate students between the ratifying states* A Peimtanent CoBanltte© on Arts and Letters was also established at this Conference » In order to coordinate inter-American bibliography and aid American liberies, a Center of Inter-American Bibliog raphy was established in the Columbus Memorial Library of the Fan American Union in October, 1936. The Fan American Medical Association has made plans for a Pan American PostrGraduate Medical School and Hospital for Row York City. This hospital would be a non-profit organization, having research laboratories, an amphitheater 23 for lectures and teaching, and living accomodations. Knowledge and research results would be interchanged, and scholarships granted for a yearns study in the United 3tates given. At Mexico City in 1937, the Seeoj^ Inter-American Conference on Education provided an opportunity for promoting fellowship among the educators of the American nations. It encouraged education as the means toward American solidarity and cooperation. It stressed the need for the exchange of information on education in each country, and studied the means of improving the profession and advancing relations between the universities and colleges* It favored the exchange of ideas on practices, techniques, and scientific 14 research. The Conference had sections on nursery and pre-school, primary, secondary, technical, university, workers, and rural education. The Bragil-United States Institute, a cultural organi zation, was established in January, 1937, and in Buenos Aires the Second International Congress of American History met to discuss historical interpretation, bibliographical and archival techniques, and revision of textbooks and methods. The Eighth International Conference of Aimrican States 14 Ibid., 71:472 (June, 1937}. 24 at Lism in 1938, urged aid to Fan Ataorioan Union in compiling information on the scientific and technical institutions of each American Republic, and recommended the establishment of an Inter -American Geography Institute. During the Summer of 1938, the State Department of the Ihiited States created the Division of Cultural Relations to encourage and strengthen cultuzml and intellectual relations, and encourage student and professor exchange. The First Rational Convention of iâxm Inter-American Bibliographical and Library Association met in Washington, Di 0*, in 1938, to encourage collaboration with the existing institutions of teaching and research In the social sciences in Latin America, to study copyright protection in American States I and to facilitate the inter-library loans of material. In the same year the International Conference on the Teaching of Latin American Literature was held in Mexico City to discuss problems of teacher exchange, new courses, special libraries, and cooperative publication of reference books. The First American Congress of Friends of Education met at Buenos Aires in 1938, discussing teacher problems, and the exchange of high school graduates as intellectual tourists. " " In January, 1939, at Santiago the First Conference of African Rational Commissions on Intellectual Cooperation met on the initiative of Chile. The Institute of Intellectual Cooperatirni at Paris contributed 60,000 pesos, and helped prepare the program. All Amerioah countries were represented except El Salvador and Honduras* The Conference passed fifty* two resolutions, mot tons j and recommendations • Among other things the resolutions were concerned with impartial textbooks on the Americas, the study of economic, demographic, and ethnic problems, annual art exhibitions, the promotion of correspondence between university students, the need to permit the entry of intellectmls persecuted for political, religious, or racial motives into all American countries, and the exchange of archaeologists. The Corxference laid the basis for the establishment of the Inter^ Amerlean Review. a Pan-American School in Santiago, and a Pan American Bureau of Education. The /Hispanic Foundation, a collection of Latin American works, was established in the Library of Confess in 1930. The Interdepartmental Gonmittee on Cultural and Sci entific Cooperation was organized under the supervision of the Under Secretary of State for the purpose of exchanging persons, information, scientific and technical projects. In 1940 the Office of Inter-American Affairs developed closer educational relations among the Americas. By improv ing educational opportunities and raising living standards, the basis for better understanding is laid. The Second American Gonference of Rational Gommissions on Intellectual Cooperation met at Havana in 1941, and appointed a opmmltte© for the study of the establishment in the Americas, of the International Center of Intellectual Coopération to insure peace through educati<m In the post war world# The Oomaittee met in Washington, D. G,, 1943, and decided to take over a part of the interrupted work of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation at Paris# The First Conference of Ministers of Education of the American Republics met at Panama in 1943, to discuss educa tional problems, of the American educational systems and standards for the orientation and coordination of education.; At this Gonference the Inter#Awrlean University Convention was signed.. Panama donated the land. Rational Museum, library, laboratories, and the facilities of the Rational University of Panama# Other American governments were to contribute to its support. Scholarships were to be given in proportion to each co%mtry*s support. The Third and Eighth Scientific Congresses had recommended the organ izing of such university, and in March, 1943, the Governing Board of the Pan toteriean Union had approved the idea, in time for the September meeting of the Conference to act upon There are privately endowed Colleges in Latin America Also an Inter-American Schools Service, with a grant from the State Department, supplies information for 200 schools. The Inter-American Society of Anthropol ogy and m Gsograpîiy was started in 1943 to peomote international coopération among students of oulture* Beoaus© aeronaut leal charts were needed. Fan American consnitation on geography and cartograpî^ took place in Washington in 1943, and Eio de Janiero in 1944. The First Inter -American Academy of Comparât Iv© and International Law was opened in Havana in the year 1945. Beside these official agencies working for peace through the medixsa of intellectual coopeamtion, there are many more doing their hit* The Fan American Student Cluhs, Intemationml Relations Gluhs, Gosimpolitan Oluhs, Interna tional Houses, and Universities may he mentioned in this connection* % Executive order in August, 1945, the Office of International Information and Chaltural Affairs was created. The Office of Inter-Amsrican Affairs, the Office of War Information in the Old World, the Division of Cultural Co operation, and the Division of International Information of the State Department were combined in the new office# It had for its purpose the promotion of better under standing of the United States, the coordination of the United States program for inter-cultural relations, the use of all available media for United States information abroad, the freedom of information everywhere, the exchange of persons, skills, and knowledge, and the integration of all United 28 States agencies with foreign policies. Assistant Secretary of State Benton heads the new Office which has divisions on International Press and Publication, Broadcasting, Motion Pictures, Exchange of persons. Libraries and Institutes, and Regions. Another help is. the Inter-Arnerlean Book Exchange In Washington, D. 0., which pregmres and distributes periodically lists of recent books with bibllographieal notes, prices, and information. The Library of Congress; the Rational Gallery of Art, the American Library Association, and the Museum of Modem Art maintain an exchange service of music, art, and books through the State Department. The Pan American League was established in 1931, to promote fellowship and cultural appreciation between Latin American Women. It has sponsored Student Pan American Clubs and radioIbroadcasts, preated scholarships, and furthered the teaching of language and history of Latin America. Various countries have sponsored intellectual institutes, as for example the Argentine-Brazilian, Peruvian-Argentine, Feruvlan-American, Argentine ^mer lean, Argentine-Bolivian, Argentine -Uruguayan, Argent Ine-Par Aguayan, Brazil-United States, and the Chile-United States, institutes. The United States maintains the Benjamin Franklin Libraiy in Mexico City, the Art9g&s-Washington Library in 29 Montevideo, and the American Library in Managua, Sao Paulo, Brazil, established in 1941 a Center of Inter "American Studies to promote cultural interchange with other similar institutions. The Inter-American Educational Foundation furnished experts in vocational training, English teaching, primary and secondary teacher instruction, and rural school organization# The Miami, Florida, Junior Chamber of Commerce adopted a resolution originated by the Birmingham, Alabama Chamber , that natimml organizations should undertake an educational program within the United States aimed at building through her young people a foundation of knowledge mid understanding of the cultural, social, and economic background of the Latin American countries. The Chamber urged the building up of a library of books on Latin America in all public schools and for all ages, high school history and language courses on Latin America, travel to Latin America by teachers, parents, and young people, and the awarding of travel awards to scholarship and orator ical winners, C The Pan American Clubs In the elementary schools of Brazil are instruments of peace (as they call it, moral dis armament). At the monthly meetings the histwy, customs, and activities of the twenty-one American Republics are given ttoough plays, songs, dances, and games. The members are 50 divided into twenty-one Gommitteea, each taking a separate oonntry, and thus emphasizing the contributions of each coimtry to the cause of peace # The radio and film are used, and exchanges of albums, pictures, magazines, stamps, music, and flags with children of other republics take place, A smmai^ of the functions of the Inter-American Insti tute of Intellectuai Cooperation includes the collection and distribution of information on the various aspects of the cultural movement in the twenty-one American Republics; the encouraging of the translatif and publication of articles and books on cultural progress in the Americas; promoting Inter-American travel; sponsoring exchange of art exhibitions; publishing tec3mical pamphlets on educational topics in English, Spahish, and Portuguese ; mimeographing reviews on cultural activities throughout the continent (called Panorama) ; publishing in mimeographed form items of Interest to Latin American teachers ; and cooperating with the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation at Paris, while it was still function ing* The Inter-American Conferences of Education urged pre marital education; adult child study clinics; scientific methods for educating backward children; the use of the project method; school lunches; medical attention; clothing for the needy; equal pay for equal work; the teaching of the history of America in all secondary schools; teclmical 31 education; rural life problem study; and schools for workers supported by government and employers. The United States Office of Education aided Brazil I in its illiteracy campaign through consultations and volunteer teachers, A progressive program was instituted, with poultry raising the center of interest^ with the three R^s taught through problems arising in connection with that activity# During the war the Pan American Union Building was the scene of language classes, and lectures on phases of Latin American life and culture. The wofk was under the auspices of the Washington Inter-American Training Center, The University of Pennsylvania had a similar center. The United States State Department maintains inde pendent and branch cultural centers in Latin America. They are meeting places for the Americans and natives to become acquainted with each other* s language and culture. The State Deî^rtment aids the centers with materials^ cash grants, and a few leaders# The activities of the centers comprise the teaching of English, lectures, art exhibi tions, concerts, social events, and the use of the libraries. The words of Henry Clay, United States Secretary of State, concerning the Congress of Panama, called by Bolivar in 1826, seem to epitomize the accomplishments of the Pan 5 2 American Union in the realm of cultural relations todays The assembling of a congress at Panama composed of diplomatic representatives frcmi independent Amer ican nations will form a new epoch in human affairs « The fact itself, whatever may he the issue of the oonferences of such congress, cannot fail to chal lenge the attention of the present generation of the civilized world, and to command that of posterity, 15 Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 67:769 (Octo* her, 1955T7 CHAPTER III IRTEHHATIOHAL INSTITUTE OF IRTELLEGTUAL COOPERATION The idea that the Cevemant of the League of Reticma should provide for intelleetual relations in the interna tional sphere was presented to the Paris Feaee Conference by %mans of Belgiim# hut it was rejeoted# The delegation representing the General Education Board, the National Education Association, and the National Union of Teachers of England and Wales^ urging an International Education Office, was granted a thirty minute interview with the Committee drafting the Covenant of the Leagw at the Hotel Grillon in April, 1919♦ Two Belgians, Otlet and Lafontaine had proposed a Le ague section on thought, and at the First Assembly in 1920, Lafontaiim advocated arrsngeimnts for cooperation among the intellectual workers. Bourgeois of France worked for t W idea in the Council, while Lafontaine advocated it in the In December, 1920, the First Assembly approved the Council’s efforts towaidl Intellectual coopération. The 30ccmd Assembly in September, 1921, adopted a resolution that the Council should nominate a committee to examine interna tional questions regarding intellectual coopmraticn. This resolution was also approved by the Coimcil. 34 The CoiiBCil In January, 1902, appointed the first International Cmmittee on Intellectual Coopération to act in an advisory capacity to the Assembly* The Committee met on August 1, 1920, at Geneva with Henri Bergson as chairman. At various times, Gilbert Murray of Oxford, Mme* Marie Curie, Robert Miilikan, Albert Einstein, 0* B* Hale of Mount Wilson, and James T# Shotwell have been associate with the Committee. Broblems studied were : 1* Institution of a general inquiry into the condi tions of intellectual life; 0* Examination of the problem of assiBtance to nations whose intellectual life is especially endangered. 5* 3tudy of questions of scientific property and of other questions of intellectual property. 4* Study of university cooperation. 6. Stu^ of international coordination of biblio graphical research . 2 . Such details as the condition of the European Univer sities; the imemployment of professions ; the plight of students I mid th# resources in books , publications and instru*' ments ware investi ^ted. The chairmen of the departaaents represented fifteen different countries and were appointed ty the Commit tea. % e Secretariat of the League carried out the Committee’s recom- Biendatiims until 1926. ^ 1*1ey, Internati<mal Understanding $ p. 149 36 The Geamlttee was to coordinate work im international tmderstanding in the various ooimtries through the coopera tion of about forty National Gommittees on Intellectual Cooperation* The expenses of the Gommittee were a part of the League budget* Russia, the Baltic States, and Eastern Europe were aided by the Gommittee* In 19S2 an appeal on the behalf of Austria and Hungary met with a generous response* The Committee also obtained books for the University of Tokyo, which had been destroyed ty the earthquakes of 1933* It is interesting to note that Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Cuba, Czechoslo vakia, Demmrk, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Creeee, Etmgary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Hetherlends, Norway, Banama, Poland, Portugal, Rmmnia, Salvador, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, and Yugoslavia were concerned enough about intermtionai intellectual coopémtion to form National Committees# Regions represented by the Hational Committees include the Bsltic, Low Countries, Baltons, Scandanavian, Central European, Asiatic, South Pacific, and six eoimtries from the Western Hemisphere* Kandel summarizes the work of the United States Hational Committee as follows: 36 în the United State», the Natiomal Committee prtmoted a study of the relations of education and International understanding. It played an important role in stimulating the use of the radio and moving pictures as media for international cmmmmication. It sponsored a study of copyright and the rights of intellectual workers in gen eral. And finally it encouraged the eatablishment by specialist organizations of technical committees to study the part they play in the field of intemational educa- tion.2 Because the Gommittee on Intellectual Cooperation had no sï^cial meeting times, there was no continuity of progress France saw the need for a pemanent organisât ion, so through the Ministry of Public Instruction, on July 24, 1024, she offered the Palais-Hoyal as peimianent headquarters for the Intemational Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, as it was called later, where scholars have ”spent mny pleasant „ 3 hours of research. France also offered an annual fund of two million francs. The League Council accepted the offer of the build ing and appropriation. The Bari# Institute began operations in November, 1025, and was formally inaugurated in January, 1026. It TOs largely supported by the French Covemment, but not controlled thereby, as a total of 100,000 francs was collected from Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Ozecho- 2 S* B. Wilson^ ”Education As an Implement of Interna tional Cooperation, International Conciliation, Ho. 415 November, 1045. ^J. Eugene Harley, ”UHB8C0,” World Affairs Interpreter, 17:53 (Spring, 1046). 37 Slovakia, Denmark, Dominican. Republic^ Egypt, Ecuador, Hungary, Italy, Luxemburg, Monaco, Poleuid, Portugal, Romania, Switzerland, and Venezuela# This time we have five countries from the Western Hemisphere supporting the Paris Institute, with only one being a member of the group of six, which had appointed Hational Commit tees to work with the League’s Oommittee on Although the Paris Institute is not provided for in the League’s budget, the League’s Committee on Inteliectual Cooperation, which advises the Council, acts as the Govern ing Board for the Institute. ”The Institute has directed its efforts along certain well-defined channels: Documentation, Inquiries, Aids to Organizations, International Conventions, Co-ordination, and #4 The Institute prepared work for the Coimdttee on Intellectual Cooperation, saw that decisions and recommenda tions were carried out in countries, and promoted intellec tual cooperation* There wore sections on Artistic, Literary, Scientific, and University Relations, Information and Reference, Legal 4 Harley, Xnternational Understanding* op* cit., p# 154 38 mid General Affairs, and Administration. A publieation entitled La CoopérâtIon intelleetualle was issued by the Institute and published until the German invasion of 1940# In October, 1945, publication was resumed after a five year interval* The section on University Relations studied the problems of intemational recognition of degrees and diplomas, comparative study of curricula, the interchange of students and property, relations between universities, teaching for eign languages, international relations courses, cooperation in research, and teachers conferences# Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Elea, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Demmrk, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, E^pt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, ,!Witi, Himgary, Irish Free State, Italy, Luxemburg, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Salvador, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia sent delegates or representatives to the Paris Institute# There were six new countries from the Western Hemis0i©re that had not cooperated in the League’s Committee on Intel lectual Cooperation or supported the Paris Institute finan cially, that attended the meetings of the latter# The section on Arts and Letters coordinated information concerning museums, and promoted the exchange, sale, and 39 exhibition of prints for Chaléogràphioal Institutes# Thé subcommittee on Intelleotuai Relations studied the problems of the protection of soient ifio^ literary, and n of The Intemational Institute of Intelleetual Oooperation has published a volume entitled University Exchanges in Europe # Whloh carries accurate, detailed information as to European scholarship^ and fellowships, and a brief explaim- tlon of the work of certain orgahizatlone # In Septemberj^ 1905, the Gom^btee Intellectual Oooperation urged, and the Council appointed, a Subcommittee of Experts for the Instruction of Youth in the Aims of the League of Nations # It recommended the creation of a League of Waticms Bducatitmal Inf02mmtion Center to outline aims and methods to be published for use* This recommendation was approved the Assembly# This Subcommittee endorsed the Casares proposal adopted by the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League# Said one writer: ”The Gommittee on Intellectual Cooperation, considering that one of the most effective meth€»is of bringing about the intellectual rapprochement of peoples would be to 5 Ibid## p# 43# 40 delete or modify passages In school textbooks of a mture to convey to the young, wrong impressions leading to an as sen- 6 tial misunderstanding of other countries# # . The Paris headquarters seemed to be the clearing-house for such or^Lnisations as the International Acadeijy of Comparative Law, the International Committee on Historical Science, the International Confederation of Intellectual Workers, International Federation of National Associations of Primary and Secondary Teachers, the Entente Committee of Major Intemational Associations, and the Jhtematlonal Com- mi'tte© of Cinematographic Instruction and Social Educatioh# The Institute sponsored conferences on the study and teaching of intemational relations* Fox example, such a conference on the University Teaching of International Relations was held at Prague, May 2S-27, 1038* This was the Eleventh Session of the Pemanent Conference on Higher Inter- 8 national Studies, the first being held in Berlin in 1008. In 1938, the Assembly of the League passed the Inter national Act, which was designed to make the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation an autonomous body, supported by the National Committees and financed ty the cooperating governments* 6 Ibid* , p "^Ibld** p* 154* % ♦ J* Brown, C* Hodges, J* S* Roucek, Contemporary World Politics (Hew York: Wiley and Sons, 193ÿ),"'"p# 41 The Act became effective in January, 1940; after having been ratified by ten eountriea* The United States National Gommittee was financed by private funds, and Its chaiman was a member of the Go#nittee on Intellectual Cooperation# The Germans tried to use the Institute for their purposes in French and Spanish speaking countries# It was ironical that the *only part of the League of Nations #iich Hitler annexed was that which had been established to combat ^ 9 ignorance and prejudice among nations#"^ Meeting at Havana in 1941, the Latin American mid United States Hational Committees met to set up a committee to reorganize intellectual cooperation in the Americas, as the Western Hemisphere seemed to be the only place where the lights were still on * The Joint Committee met In November ; 1943, and accepted Cuba’s invitation to locate its provisional center In Havana# In a letter to the League Se ere taty-General, the Ikiited States State Department paid this tribute : ”The League of Nations has been responsible for the development of mutual exchange and discussion of ideas and methods to a greater extent, and in more fields of humanitarian and acientific ^James T* Shotwell, cit., p. 188 42 10 endeavor, than any other organisa tlon In hie tory.” The work of the Faria Institute was restricted, because world statesmen did not have the conviction of the need to build defenses In the minds of men, but its tech nical work has proved useful and has Justified Its existence. 10 J. K* Johnson, Ihtemational Federation of Democracies (New York: H. W. ■ Wilson" and è’ oSpânÿy'"ï9^ïy,r''p’ ’ ; ' CHAFTER IV iNTmmATiomL ikstitotb OF EDUGATIomi CINEMATO0HAFHY Man has ever been trying to find the most efficient method of education in order to make the process more palatable # Visual education seems to be the solution, according to many authorities, especially those conceited with teaching world citizenship and intemational affairs* In this connection it has been observed that ”in no field of human relationship Is the film of more Importance than in the field of intemational relations If one agrees with Plate, that ideas comprise reality, then we see that the medium of exchange of these ideas, is tremendously Important in our generation* To portray phases of the life, problems, and the culture of the various peoples will make the cinema a school room of tolerance, where millions of persons of all races will be acquainted with the ideals of other races* The acquisition of this knowledge of world affairs is salutary in bringing to the people increased understanding of and friendship for all nati<ms* Eugene Harley, World-Wide Influences of the Cinema* (liOs Angeles : University of Southern California Press, 1940), p. 1* 44 All aroimd us we can see the influence of the cinema in morals and modes, and so much more does it affect the national mentalities of those abroad# Fihns aid In the destruction of preconceived ideas and cliches, help us in our attempt to ’beat shears into pruning forks, and swords into ploughshares,* and could help estab lish one of our present languages as a universal one, or be used in the instruction of a new universal language# Professor Gilbert Murray, in a speech before the Insti tute of World Affairs at Riverside, stated that "an entirely free and unencumbered circulation on the largest possible scale of educational films from one country to another remains one of the best means to reach the goal of intemational ami ty and under s tending # " . ^ In September, 1926, the Intemational Gonference on the Cinema held at Paris, discussed the idea that there should be created an international bureau relating to educational motion pictures# Exactly a year later, the League Gomcil accepted the offer of the Italian Government, made in the Eighth Assembly, to found and maintain an Intemational Educational Cine matographic Institute# 2 Ibid♦, p# 234# 45 Committee Imte%leot%%el Cooperetlea of the heegtie set ap the Ihtepîiational Institute of Edueetioaal Glamsatography Rosm In Hovemhof 19^* It heoeme one of the most motive o f international institutions^ p ih lis h liig m>nthl^# the International Review of Muoational raphgr in English# Fhenoh# Gemmn# Italian# and Spanish* TOs title msM later shortened to Xntoimine* and puhlioation m s suspended in January# 1936* Denys Myers thus states the purpose of the Institute: **Xhe ohje^ of the Institute m s to enoot3^^ the production# distrihuti#:# and exchange hetweem the various countries of educational films concerning instruction in art# industry# .. . apiculture# coma»srce# health# social education# etc*# hy «ur^ 4' means which the Oovemihg Board ato consider necessary * * * m A|u*il# 1^4# the Home Institute s^nsored; an Inter"» naticmal Oo%ress on Wueational and Instructional Films 1 % $ ^ r epresenta tives from forty^fiv# nations * fhe Gongreas endorsed t W Oonrontion to Facilitate t W Inte%%a*' tional Girculaticui of Mucatioiml B'ilma- si#ced at Oeneve in 1%3# and ratifiW hy twenty^seTOh s^tates providing for duty-» 3 Denys %ers# Handbook of the league of Hâtions Since 1020 (Boston: World Peace F o u n 3 a ï'ï5 n '''PubïïcaEions»"Ï§3Î)’) ' p. i i j g s n : 4 Ibid*, p* 158. 46 free cl roula tien of eduoatioiial filme# The League had disoueeed the us© of films# showing aspeots of the work of the League itself# Inoludlng news- reels as well as special documentary films # The Pr eamble to the Geneva Convent Ion reads : Convinced that it is highly desirable to facilitate the international circulation of educational films of every kind# which contribute towards the amtual under standing of copies# in conformity with the aims of the League of Rations and consequently encourage moral dis armament of Which constitute especially effective means#, of ensuring pî^sical# intellectual# and moral progress $ ^ The Convention applied to f ilms which had aims along the line of international education and were used for supply ing infotmiation concerning all recognized Internaticmal organizations# education in every grade# guidance and voca tional work# disseminating scientific information# answering questions of social welfare# health# and physical training* In 1034# Denmark and Rorway signed a reciprocal treaty providing for duty-free specimen films to be submitted to prospective purchasers and censors# Spain and San Salvador concluded an agreement in 1036# prohibiting the making and circulation of disparaging films of each other or any Hispanic-American country# Spain signed the same kind of agreements with Nicaragua and Guatemala in 6 Hwley# World-Wide Influences of the Cinema* p# 255< 47 the sam© year, and with Peru and Chile In 1936* France and Germany had a reciprocal film agreement in 1936 also* The Inter-âmerican Peace Conference at Buenos Aires in 1936, signed a convention providing for duty-free films on the Pan American Union, League of Rations, Permanent, Court of Justice, and the International Labor Organization * The country of origin would certify the film. The Pan American Union has a film library and loan service. At the Sixth Conference of American States at Havana in January, 1928, a resolution on films was passed, recommend ing : To each one of the American Covemments that they exercise, in the greatest measure possible, vigilance over the product on and exhibition of moving-pioture films in order to obviate the offering to the public or the distribution of fil^ which, because of lack of voracity in repr es eh t in& the national character or customs of any American cototry, or through a prejudi cial tendency or any other motive, may be susceptible of offending the public sentiment of said copntry# Germany had film treaties with Italy and Japan for the exchange of films in 1937. All teachers in Geimiany were required to pass an ©semination in the use of a motion pic ture projector and the use of films in the schools. During 1937, Chile and Costa Rica signed an agreement providing that no harmful films would be allowed in each eotmtry, and this was reciprocal with the Latin American countries. 48 The Rome, Institute was closed in 1937, when Italy with drew from the League # The power to certify educational fiime, so they could circulate duty-free was transferred to thé International Conmlttee on Intellectual Cooperation of the Leagu# hy the Assembly of the League in September, 1938. A British proposal for the international exchange of children % films through national film libraries was presented to thé Child Welfare Commission of the Leagu# in May, 1938* The American Film Center end the Rational Committee of the United States of America on Istollectual Cooperation woik through the ifoint Committee on the international Interchange of Films, under the direction of James T* Shotwell, chairman. The American Institute of Cinématograpîy' has a Committee on International Relations of which J. Eugene Harley is ehairaani this Committee cooperated with the International Institute of Educational Cinemato^aphy* The International Film Center, located in the American Film Conteras headquarters, is maintained by the Rockefeller Foundation through the Rational Committee of the United States on Intellectual Cooperation* The United States did not ratify the Geneva Convention, so wq pay film tariffs on educational films* This International Center hopes to facil— i y . ; ' itate the distribution of educational films* In November, 1938, the Interdepartmental Committee of the United States Government recommended that we cooperate 49 with Latin America in presenting and distributing educatiozml films# and Maintain a film exchange and library. Peru has censorship eonventions with Chile and Argen tina. France exchanged documenta^ bj^ educational films Fith Hungary, Belgium# and Switzerland» While in existence the International Institute of Educational Cinematography collected Infoimmtion regarding educational films, developed apparatus, appraised the world^s needs for films, and abolished customs barriers and censor ship, with respect to educational films* OHAFTER V m i T m BATIORS EBUCATIOmL, SGIBRTIFIG# A m GxjumnAh or0ahi2atior As illustrated ty the Acîmeem League of 368 B. 0», Debois In the Fourteenth Oentury, Gomenlus* Seventeenth Cen tury proposal of a Fansophic College for aeholars from all lands, Jullien^s Nineteenth Century efforts for interna tional éducation# and Fern Andrews< work in September, 1914# in inducing govenments to send delegates to an International Conference of Education at The Hague, and Woodrow Wilson’s magnificent attempt to settle interna tional disputes through intellectual cooperation, man has devised multifarious international organizations to inculcate mutual tinderstanding# the intelleetuai salvation for an effective society of na tions. Out of the world’s latest revolution, has come the United Rations Organization# perhaps man’s last chance to escape annihilation. Even though Einstein believes there would be enough people left after an atom war to start civilization, no one wants to have such a terrible experience# The year 1918 saw movements for interna tional committees on education# but as there was a lack of cooperation# little was accomplished. Handel observes that ”th© establishment of the United Rations Educational# Scientific# and Cultural 51 Organization marks the culmination of a movement for the creation of an international agency for education which began with Comenius*’ * A new attitude toward international intellectual organizations was expressed by a delegate at the London Conference of 1945 : In the past, we scientists have gone into the labora tory to find the truth. And as we entered, we closed the door behind us to shut out the world of man* Never again will we do that* If we are to find truth, that door must be open# There is no truth in a laboratory which has cuh itself off from communication with the human being# Althou#! the United States was not a member# it cooper ated with the Allied Ministers of Education# who met in London during World War 11* We were represented by Grayson N* Kefauver# ^to whom much credit must go tm* laying UNESCO S foundations • * ’ The London Conference of Allied Ministers met in î^ndon from 1942-1945» The participating governments were Great Britain# Belgium# Czechoslovakia# Greece# Luxembourg, th# Ketherlands# Norway# Poland# Yugoslavia# and Fiance# ^1. L. Handel# ‘ ‘ National Education in an International WorldRational Education Association Journal# 35:175 (April# 1946* ' ^ ■ %* Bl* Cherrington# ‘ ^All Things Are Ready if Our Minds Be So#“ The Rotarian# 69:15 (October# 1946) * s Mrs. H. B. Wilson, "Maison W ^ G O Scholastic.^ 49 :ST (KovsBiber 11, 1946 J. 52 They were joined by the United States, Russia, China, the British Dominions, and India* The United States Joined the group in its ninth session in April, 1044* Our dele gates were James Fulhright, Arehibald MaoLelah, John Stud©- baker, Mildred Thompson, Grayson Kefauver, and Ralph Turner* The Ministers considered the issues of post-war reconstruction; replacing school buildings, supplies, books, scientific equipment; the recruiting, training, and support of teachers; the rounding up of children; the re-training of adults; curriculum revision; investigation of educational problems in liberated areas; reciprocal cultural exchanges; writing objective textbooks; improving the international copyright situation; proposed and international history of European civilization; an international film pool; a commission on Teacher Education; s tudent exchange ; and summer courses, They drew up a proposal for an Educational and Cultural ' Organization of the United Nations, and on July 51, 1945, suWittéd it to the member states, and also to the London Conference of November, 1945* Prime Minister Clement R* Attlee, at London Conference in November, 1945, remarked that “today the peoples of the world are ’islands shooting at each other over seas of mis- 4 understanding* ’ “ 4 Cherrington, op. cit.* p* 15* 63 Cherrington feels that “the victorious countries are rapidly demohilizlng their soldiers, hut they are slow in demobilizing minds* It is easy to scrap the materials of war, but difficult to drain off the emotions of war.“ UNESCO is “potentially the most powerful instrument for eradicating war ever conceived* * . * Fear and suspicion— 6 those perennial breeders of war— will wane*“ The Liaison Committee for International Education, with Kefauver (deceased) of Stanford as c ha liman, proposed a plan for an International Organization for Education and Cultural Development. The plan stressed organizing internationally, the rebuilding of educational programs in war-torn countries, educational reconstruction in Axis countries, and education for world citizenship* The International Education Assembly meeting at Harpers Ferry in 1943-45 urged an international educational organiza tion, the rebuilding of the educational systems in war-torn and Axis countries, education for world Gitizenship, the exchange of teachers and professors, and the use of mass media for education* 5 Loc« c it* 6 Ibid#, p # 16 * 54 The next step toward UNESCO was the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, which enunciated several proposals on October 7, 1944. Chapter One, Article Three states that the purpose of the proposed Tkiited Nations Organization is “to achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other husmnitarian problems." Chapter IX, Section A. Paragraph One states that “the Organization should facilitate solutions of international economic, social, and other huimnitarIan problems, and 8 promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms •“ Paragraph Two provides that specialized agencies would be related to the Organization through the Economic and Social Gouncil and approved by the General Assembly. Section C provides that the proposed Economic and Social Council would carry out the recomnmndatione of the General Assembly if possible, make Its own recommendations, receive and give recommendations to specialized agencies, and assist the Security Council upon request* Section D provided for eco nomic, social, and other commissions to be set up, which would be composed of experts. The United Nations, as finally set up, used both experts and laymen* Paragraph Two 7 L. M. Goodrich and E* Hambro, Charter of the United Nations (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 104FT, p. SÏ6. 8 Loc* cit* 55 of the same section, provided that the representatives of the specialized agencies, could partiei;mte in the délibéra- 9 tions of the Economic and Social Council, but could not vote. The idea that the Economic and Social Council would perform services at the request of members and agencies was not included In the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals; nor was there any specific reference to educational and cultural relations. On April 25# 1945, the first proposal to the United Nations Conference which included a mention of education was made when the Chinese delegation proposed an ameWment to the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals to the effect that “the Economic and Social Council should specifically provide for the pro motion of educational and other forms of cultural co-opera- 10 tion*“ By a Pour Power agreement, amendments were submitted using the word cultural, but not education, The Committee on Social and Economic Co-operation of the Conference approved them, maintaining that;the word cultural included educational The American delegation submitted a proposal to the Committee dealing with the Economic and Social Gouncil to 9 hoc. cit* ^^The School He view, “Education and the United Nations Charter ,’ ’ ^"§3:378 (September , 1945) * 66 Chang© the word “cultural” to “cultural and educational* Tie Committee unanimously endorsed it. The following provisions are found in the Charter of the United Nations Organization pertaining to international intellectual cooperation: Chapter IV, Article 13.— The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recoiamendations for the pur poses of : promoting international co-operation in ♦ ♦ • educational. . . problems. * . . Chapter IX, Article 55.— With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being. . . the United Nations shall promote ; . . . solutions of international . . . cultural and educational co-operation. . . . Chapter IX, Article 57.— The various specialized agen cies established by intergovernmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities In. . . edu- cational. . • and related fields, shall be brought into relationship with the Uhited Nations. . . . Chapter IX, Article 60.— Responsibility for the dis charge of the junctions. . . shall be vested in the General Assembly and under the authority of the General Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council. Chapter X, Article 62.— The Economic and Social, Gouncil may make or initiate studies and reports with respect to . . . educational. * . and related matters, and may make recommendations with respect to any such matters to the General Assembly, to the members of the United Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned. . . . Chapter XII, Article 76, Paragraph b. — to promote the edtîcational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories. . . . UNESCO is a specialized agency, and the Economic and Social Council is empowered to Enter into agreements with specialized agencies, defining the terms on which each agency shall be brought into relationship with the Organization, subject to ap proval by the General Assembly; 57 Coordinate the activities of the specialized agen cies through consultation with and on the recommendations to such agencies and through recoimendations to the General Assembly and to the members of the United Na tions Î Take appropriate stops to obtain reports from the specialized agencies and communicate its observations on these reports to the General Assembly; Perform services at the request of* * • specialized agencies, subject to the approval of the General Assem- bly* Contribute to peace and security by promoting col laboration among the nations through education, science, and culture. Under the League of Nations, the Council handled the problems now given exclusively to the Economic and Social Council* As the Council of the League was a political body dominated by the large powers, the Bruce Committee, which reviewed the nature and extent of the economic and social work of the League, 1936-39, recommended a Central Committee for Economic and Social Questions appointed by the Assembly, but it was never adopted. This experience influenced the decision for a separate'economic and social council in the new world organization. At the instigation of the British Government, the United Nations Oonference on International Educational and Cultural Organization met in London, November 1-16, 1945. The Conference was called to order by Ellen Wilkinson, British Minister of Education, with the following United 58 Nations in attendance at the Institute of Civil Engineers, where the Conference met: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Egypt, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, The Nether lands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Peru, The Philippines, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Union of South Africa, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela (observer), and Yugoslavia* 3.1 All the United Nations except Ethiopia, Honduras, Costa Rica, and the Soviet Union were in attendance, The United States was represented by Archibald Macleish, former Librarian of Congress and Assistant Secretary of State, who felt that the "United Nations would be incomplete without an organization to promote the flow of knowledge 12 among the peoples of the earth”; William Benton, formerly vice president of the University of Chicago, and then Assistant Secretary of State; Arthur Compton, Chancellor, Washington University, St. Louis; Harlow Shapely, Director, Harvard Observatory; Chester Merrow, member of the House Foreign Affairs CoTrmiittee; James Murray, chairman of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, who, with Merrow, introduced the Joint Résolution in Congress providing for the United States to join UNESCO; George Stoddard, president of ^^Sohool Life# “UNESCO,” 28:1-6 (February, 1946). Kuhn, “Letting the Whole World Know,” Survey Graphic, 35:497 (December, 1946). m the University of Illinois ; and Mildred Thompson, dean, Vassar College, as delegates. Advisers included John W« Studehaker, United States Commissioner of Education; Luther Evans, Lihrarian of Congress; Grayson Kefauver, dean. School of Education, Stanford Uni versity; Alexander Meiklejohn^ former president of Amherst; Prank Schlagle, president, National Education Association; Herbert Emmerich, Waldo Leland, and George Shuster. The well- known educators Paul Monroe, Stephen Duggan, and I* L# Kandel were not included in our delegation, which was a distinct loss for the cause* William Carr of the National Education Asso ciation, acted as deputy Secretary-General of the Conference* Leon Blum, Associate-President of the Conference, was accorded a tremendous ovation, but the highlight of the opening session was the speech of Prime Minister Clement Attlee of Great Britain* The phrase he coined will rank in modern history with his predecessor’s ’Blood, Sweat, and Tears,’ and Franklin Roosevelt’s ’Day of Infamy.’ The words were later incorporated in the constitution of UNESCO, and provide the piece de resistance for contemporary periodical writing on UNESCO. Said Attlee, “The field of educational and cultural relationships ia surely one of the richest and most significant in the international life of the world. # . . Do not wars, after all, begin in the minds of men. . . . Educate so that the minds of the people shall be attuned to 60 13 peace•” The Marxist contention is that Capitalism and Commun- ism cannot live side by side, for one must prevail. Some of our young college men cracked up as officers, because of the conflict caused in their minds by years of teaching of peace in the schools and the wartime situation in which they found themselves * Until we reach a time when the minds of men have been reformed, is it not well to keep our defenses in good repair, and our young people aware of all the national philosophies? The Constitution, adopted in London on November 16, 1946, contains a preamble which, as one writer puts it “in its prose, and its political thinking is more eloquent than the 14 San Francisco Charter itself#” The preamble urges : the building of defenses for peace in men’s minds ; and states that ignorance and pre judice cause wars; urges equal educational opportunity for all and the free exchange of ideas; the development of communication; and the furtherance of mutual understanding. Article One states that: 13 J. E. Morgan, “The Teacher and World Government,” National Education Association Journal. 35:1 (January, 1946) 14 Kuhn, cit#. p. 497. 61 The purpose of the Organization Is to contribut© to peace and security by promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect of Justice, for the rule of law, and for the humn rights and fundamental freedoms T#iich are affirmed for the peoples of the world without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion by the Charter of the United Nations. Membership in UNESCO is provided for in Article Two. All members of the United Nations may belong, and any outside nation may be admitted by a two-thirds majority vote of the General Conference upon recommendation of the Executive Board. Any member may be expelled or suspended by the United Nations Organization. Article IV deals with the General Conference which is composed of the representatives of the member states. The five representatives from each member nation are selected with the agreement of its National Commission. The General Conference makes decisions on the program of the Executive Board, summons international conferences, advises the United Nations Organization on educational# scientific, and cultural matters, and appoints the birectof-General. Each member state is allowed one vote, decisions being made by a simple majority of members present and voting, except where a two- thirds majority is required. The Conference will meet annually and on the call of the Executive Board. Special and 16 Morgan, op. cit., p. 49. 62 techiîleal committees will be set up by the General Confer ence. Article V provides for the Executive Board of eighteen members elected by the General Conference from its dele gates, bearing in mind diverse cultures, and a balanced geographical distribution. With the exception of the office of President of the Conference, no State may have two members on the Board. Members serve three-year terms, with only two terms allowed in a row, and vacancies are filled by the Board until the next General Conference. The Board executes the Conference program, prepares the agenda, recommends new members, meets twice a year, and in special session on call of the chairman, or if six Board members so request. The Board’s powers are exercised on behalf of the Conference, not as Government representatives. Article Six describes the Director-General as the main administrative officer of the organization, having a six- year term, with his duties of an international nature, having no national influence. National Commissions are discussed in Article Seven, and the budget in Article Nine. The member States are financially responsible for UNESCO, and the Executive Board must approve gifts from otîmr sources. Article X deals with Specialized Agencies of the United Nations Organization, the Charter of which (Article Sixty- 63 three provides for such an agency as UNESCO. UNESCO is to consult, and cooperate with, inter governmental organizations and non-governmental agencies w$th reciprocal representation* UNESCO’s legal status, privileges, and iammnities under Articles 104 and 106 of the Charter are discussed in Article Twelve # The English and French texts of the Constitution are authoritative, with any legal interpretation to he referred to the International Court of Justice or to an Arbitral Tribunal determined by the General Conference. The Constitution was signed November 16, 1945* The Instruments of Acceptance were to be deposited with the United Kingdom, with twenty signatories needed for ratifica tion* According to Macleish, “A budget of two billion dollars would not be too much for an organization doing work 16 such as UNESCO is planning.” There are two Associate Director-Generals, who are responsible for the sections on Libraries, Museums, Cul tural Centers, Education, Mass Media, Natural Science, Social Science, Creative Arts, and the Humanistic Studies* ^^I* L. Kandel, “Salvation Through Literacy,” School and Society, 64:396 (December 7, 1946). 64 The Deputy«Director-General has the Legal Counsellor, External Relations Section, and an Associate Director- General under him. The last named is responsible for sections on Public Information, Conference and Teolmlcal Services, the Budget Bureau, Internal Administration, and Relief* As one authority observes, an “underlying purpose of 17 UNESCO is to help peoples speak to peoples. . . ♦” Another objective of UNESCO is to prevent war “by direct attack on the causes of war and by the up-building of the 18 kind of society that makes conflict unnecessary.” Carr directs attention to UNESCO’s aim by asking, “How can the nations best direct their respective educational systems to the inculcation of the knowledge, attitudes, and 19 skills which contribute to peace and security?” Five Commissions were established by this London Conference of 1945, under the titles of Interim Commission, Relations With the United Nations Organization and Other International Organizations, The Executive Board and Secre tariat, The General Structure of the Organization, and the Title, Preamble, Purposes and Principal Functions* Mrs» H. E. Wilson, "Maison WKESCO," Scholastic. 48: 6T (Hovember 11, 1946). ^®School and Society « "Events,” 64:215 (September 28, 1946). IGlbid.. ''Priorities for UNESCO,” 64:266. 65 The chairmen of the Commissions were from Canada, Norway, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and the Union of South Africa. Wallace pf Canada persuaded Commleaion Number One to add the word “Scientific” to the Organization’s title to make it read, "The United Nations Educati<mal, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.” He also urged the international exchange of scientific instruments and knowledge. The proposed activities of UNESCO included the creation of a central information office regarding exchanges ; copy right law agreement I teaching mutual understanding in the schools; cooperating in press, radio, cinema; a world univer sity; scientific cooperation; adult education; and hook and material exchange. The 1946 London Conference decided to : include scientific problems within the scope of UNESCO; promote inter national peace as well as the exchange of ideas, information, materials, and personnel ; follow a policy of non-interference on domestic Jurisdiction, but to be concerned about anti democratic teachings; make the Paris headquarters of the institute of Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO’s headquarters; schedule the General Conferences in various places throu#iout the world; relate the budget to that of the United Nations Organization; allow the General Conference to determine the policies and program of UNESCO. 66 Th© liberated countries felt that UNESCO# as its first task, should help them in educational reconstruction. The United States was more concerned with mass media of information and education# and preventing UNESCO from becoming a publicity agency and concerning itself only with scholarship. Some of the French and European scholars feel that UNESCO merely continues the Institute of Intellectual Coopération. As Mr# Kuhn expressed it, the United States feels that UNESCO should concern itself with “the preservation of - men’s knowledge of themselves, their world, and each other,” and also with a world-wide radio network costing #250,000,000; “thus out of the most destructive war in history,” continues Mr# Kuhn, “has come the most constructive effort ever con- « 20 eeived to spread truth and understanding among men# Out of the London Conference of 1946, #iose agenda had been prepared by a committee headed by Sommerfelt of Norway, came an adopted Constitution, chosen from two drafts prepared by the United States and France* The United States draft had been revised and approved by the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education in London# The French proposal urged the Paris Institute of Intellectual Coopera tion as the organization’s headquarters# Even though the 2 0 Kuhn, o£# cit #, p. 512. United States draft was adopted, the wishes of France were acceded to* The Conference adopted an ’ Instrument Establishing a Preparatory Commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,’ which was to pre pare the agenda for and convoke the first General Conference, prepare studies and recomaendations for the program and budget, and publicize educational heeds in devastated areas. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, end Cul tural Organization became a reality through the instrument signed by forty-four United Nations on NovenA)0r 16, 1945* The question remains, will this latest effort on behalf of mankind suffer the inglorious fate of another magnificent Instrument — the Eellogg-Brland Pact? The Hiterlm Commission met to appoint the Executive Commission, the Technical Subcommission, which would help devastated countries restore cultural, educational, and scientific facilities, the Executive Secretary, and to draft the rules of procedure. Julien Huxley was appointed Execu tive Secretary, when illness forced Alfred Zlmmem’s retirement. There were so many proposals for the new organization, that seven expert commissions were established to deal with Education, Natural Science, Libraries, Social Science, Mass Media, Arts and Letters, and Philoso^îi^. 68 In May, 1946, a draft agreement eetabllehl% UNESCO was negotiated with the Economic and Social Couheil of the United Nations Organization* Thirty-six nations sent representatives to the London Conference of July 5-12, 1946, which reviewed the Progress Heport prepared by the Secretariat* Ths Conference was to prei^re the program, mate recommendat ions concerning the future organization, the budget, educational relief, and reconstruction in war-torn countries. The Conference discussed the exchange of films; the stimulation of #ie educational use of films on scientific, educational, and cultural subjects ; anthologies of World Literature; the establishment of an International Theater Institute; and the translation of literature and books for children* Proposals were considered on mass communication, educational surveys, of natioiml systems, primary and popular education, youth clubs, equivalence of degrees, a committee on educational statistics, teacher training in International Relations, natural and social sciences, fine arts, letters, philosoj^, huBmnltles, libraries, museums, working with International bodies and specialized agencies, international conference of experts, and publications. Projects were proposed for young people’s work camps in devastated countries to help In reconstruction, the needs 69 of scientific workers in war-torn countries, library losses, and the collection of works written in prisons, concentra tion camps, and in the underground. To build an anthology of suffering and resistance, was the reason for the last proposal. Grayson Kefauver was the United States representative to the Preparatory Commission Conferences with the rank of Minister until his death, when Esther Brunauer of the Division of International Organization Affairs, United States State Department, succeeded him# Harold Benjamin, Director of the Division of Interna tional Educational Relations, United States Office of Educa tion, attended the preliminary meeting of the experts on Education• “Unite or Perish” was Leon Blum’s theme at the London Preparatory Gommisslon in November, 1946, where 175 educators representing thirty-seven United Nations prepared the agenda for the first meeting of the General Oonference in Paris. Accosting to MacLeish, “The two alternatives of modern man are • . • inescapable * . . of which one or the other must be chosen and chosen now. . . . We must choose to live PI together, or we must choose, quite literally, not to live.* 21 H. Raymond King, “UNESCO Is Bom,” Rotarian. 68:21 (February, 1946). 70 The Preparatory Commission ot OTES00 has drafted agenda containing ahont 150 items| none, however, according to Kandel, ^oan transcend in importance a consideration of the moral and splritml foundation #iich should give a 2E sense of direction to the work of the conference The Commission approved the Educational Section*s projects planning a publication of a yearbook, a committee on statistics, an adult education conference, the place of international relations in teacher training, a 1947 Baris summer school, guidance problems that affect all nations, children's clubs, and OTESGG clubs at the secondary level, OTIS00^a first book la on fundamental education, and outlines a work program on illiteracy for the next two years The improvement of textbooks in the field of international imderstanding is also to be furthered* On November 19, 1946, representatives of twenty-one nations gathered in the Grand Amphitheatre of the 8 or bonne, amid statues of Bascal, Descartes, Richelieu, and Voltaire, to open the first General Conference of the Dnited Hat ions most important specialised agency — the ünited Hâtions Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation* The next day OTESCO moved to the Hotel Majestic, now called ^^"Respcmsibility of OTESCO,** School and Society* 64î340 (Hovember 16, 1946)* 71 Maison OTESCO, where **bars, standard fixtures at all inter- 23 national meetings, serve delegates* * # This poison serves to inflame their minds and passions* Is it possible that suooess will crown an organisation that refuses to mention Cod»s name and ask His guidance in the most important decisions man is going to be called upon to umke, when they try to do It with liquored minds? Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, the Domiidcan Republic, Egypt, Prance, India, Iran, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Union of South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America ratified the OTESCO constitution before the Paris Conference# The voting delegates from the United States included Chairman William Benton, Deputy-Chairman Archibald MacLeish, Arthur Compton, Anne O^Hare McCormick, and George Stoddard* Milton Eisenhower, president of Kansas State College| Chester Bowles, former 0. F* A. administrator ; Charles Johnson, president of Fisk Universityi Mrs. Anna Rosenberg; and George Shuster, pi^sident of Hunter College wore the non-voting members of the United States delegation * The Conference approved over one hundred projects* Special attention was paid to mass media, especially for countries which never had these means of interchange of ideas ; ^%ewsweekj 28:No* 13 (October 7, 1946)* 72 promoting fundamental education and combating illiteracy; the revision of textbooks to promote international under standing with the Secretariat reviewing them and reporting violations; the study of pressures and tensions conducive to war, advertising ameliorating them; the eventual establishment of an Kqmtorial Survey Institute, vhich is now an international investigation of tropical life in the Amazon Valley (a sample of international cooperation on a scientific level); the setting up of international stu<^ centers in 1947; and the calling of a conference of philosophers• OTESCO has proposed the establishment of a Center of Applied Mathematics by the Natural Science Section; an International Reconstruction Camp by the Educational Sec tion; a World Bibliographical and Library Center by the Cultural Institute Section; an International Rome and Community Planning Center by the Social Science Section; an International Theatre Institute by the Creative Arts Section; and an internationally conceived films and radio program by the Mass Media Section* United States representation at Baris was made possi ble because Senators Pulbrlght ami Taft sponsored Senate Resolution 122, calling for a permanent International organ ization for educational and cultural affairs, and in the House, Karl Mundt sponsored the House Resolution 215, urging 73 the same thing, both of which passed unanimously in May, 1946* During the Spring, 1946, Senator Murmy of Montana introduced the Senate Joint Resolution 135, authorizing full United States participation in OTESCO, while in the House, Chester Morrow of New Hampshire introduced the House Joint Resolution 306* When signing the Joint Concessional Resolution on July 30, 1946, President Truman promised that: The government of the United States will work with and through OTESCO to the end that the minds of all people may be freed from ignorance, prejudice, suspi cion, and fear, and that man may be educated for Justice, liberty, and peace* If peace is to endure, education must establish the moral unity of manklnd*^^ According to Wilson, the United States National Com mission is the **collective brain to the whole nervous system of American culture, science, education, and means of com- 25 munication * * * It advises our State Department and delegation to the General Conference, and acts as the agency of liaison between the people of the United States and OTESCO* The formation of the National Commission **is an important and a distinctive event in the intellectual and social life of 26 America,** stated William Benton, Assistant Secretary of State* 24 See National Education Association Joumal, 35:356 (September, Ï9Ï¥) * o< 5 ---- ^ Op * ci t « , p* 6T * ^b**Our Uni’ fed HaFions,” National Education Association Journal, 35:516 (November, ?3a Before going Into more detail about the National Commies ion 3 let ue again barken to tb© words of William Benton eonceming OTBSCO’s channels of operation! First, we have the traditional role of formal education; seoo^ly, the emerging role of scientifio and cultural exchanges, in which the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation bravely pioneered, and thirdly, the new and relatively unexplored field of mass education at the adult level. Through these three channels we can perhaps best integrate the efforts of the specialists and focus them upon the common cause ~ the cause of peace through under- standing*86à Apropos of Benton^s remarks on cultural exchanges, it is noteworthy that on August 1, 1946, President Truman signed an Act of Congress, Introduced by Senator Fulbright of Arkansas. The Act authorized the State Departanent to use some of the proceeds from surplus-property sales abroad for the exchange of students and other educational activities. Up to twenty million dollars could be earmarked for educational exchanges with any country which buys surplus property, and up to one million can be spent each year in each country where such an agreement is made. An agreement has been made with Great Britain, and ^ others are pending with Australia, New Zealand, China, the Philippines, Burma, India, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, The Department of State Bulletin, Volume 15, 387:996 (Deoemtier Ï, 194677 75b Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Austria, France, Holland, 26b Belgium, and the Scandinavian countries* The Fulbright Bill authorized the following types of educational activities : 1, American students can be given grants of for eign currencies to be used to pay the cost of higher education or research in foreign countries* B* American professors can be given grants to give lectures in foreign institutions of higher learning. 5* Foreign students can be given scholarships to study at American non-denominational institutions abroad, such as the American University at Beirut, Syria, and Robert College at Istanbul, Turkey. 4. Foreign students c&n be given funds to pay for their transportation to the United States to attend American institutions of higher learning The aims and objectives of the United States Na tional Commission may well be served by this example of the way in which the United States is trying to help international understandii%g . 26b Ibid.. Volume 15, 571:262 (August 11, 1946) 26c hoc. cit. 74 The National Commission represents the educational, scientific, cultural, and governmental bodies in the country, and advises on the selection of delegates to the General Conference # Of the 100 member United States Commission, sixty are organizations interested in educational, scientific, and cultural matters* The Secretary of State is authorized to name fifty of the sixty, and ten are selected by the Com mission itself* The Secretary of State selects the remain ing forty individuals, only ten of whom can be on the Federal payroll, fifteen to represent the educational, scientific, and cultural interests of the State, and the remaining fif teen are chosen at large. The fifty national organizations invited to become members of the United States National Gommlssion follows: American Association for Adult Education * * * * " for the Advancement of Science ” * * ” " of Museums " of University Professors " * * * * " of University Women Book Publishers Coupe 11 Committee for the International Union of Local Authorities Council of Learned Societies * * on Education Farm Bureau Federation Federation of Arts ~ Federation of Labor Federation of Teachers Institute of Architects Library Association Philosophical Society . Society for Engineering Education I * n n of Newspaper Editors tt n tt tt It 1 1 n It » n A It 1 1 1 1 « , « it 1 1 « 1 1 n It It V ft » W 1 1 « It II « It II tt tt It tt It It tt I t It ! t 1 1 II n . tt It 75 American Teachers Association Association of American Law Schools Association of American Medical Colleges Association for Education by Radio Association of American Colleges Associated Youth Serving Organizations, Inc. Glmmber of Commerce of the OTited States Cmmittee for Economic Development Congress for Industrial Organization Cooperative League of the United States of America Educational Film Library Association Farmers Mucational and Cooperative Union of America Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America General Federation of Women*s Clubs Motion Picture Association of America, Inc. National Academy of Sciences National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples National Association of Broadcasters National Catholic Educational Association National Catholic Welfare Conference National Congress of Parents and Teachers National Editorial Association National Education Association National Grange Association National League of Women Voters Rational Music Council Rational Publishers Association, Inc. Rational Research Council Rational Social Welfare Assembly Social Science Research Council Society of Independent MotiongPicture Producers Synagogue Council of America ^ The list will be reviewed periodically. The first meeting of the Rational Commission con vened in Washington, D# C o n September 23, 1946, with Milton Eisenhower, president, Kansas State College of Agri* culture and Applied Science, as chairman. 27 The Department of State Bulletin, Volume 15. 573:356 (August 25, 194677 76 The following recoismendatlons for the guidance of the United States delegation at Paris , were approved : the fostering of intarnatlonal understanding in the jriinary and secondary school©} adult education conferences} conferences on the teaching of international relations on the university level} summer international educational seminars; textbook and teaching materials conferences ; health education; a world university at Geneva ; international teacher-training institutions; and teacher and student exchange. The National Oommissim meets at least once annually* Members hold three year terms; they.are allowed only two terms in succession, and receive no salary* The Government * s representatives on the National Commission are Omar Bradley, luther Evans, and John Studebaker Members at large ares Chester Bowles, Ben Charring ton, Arthur Compton, Archibald MacLeish, Aildred McAffee Horton, Edward Mur row, Anna Rosenberg, Beardsley Ruml, and John Hay 'Sghitney # Julien Huxley feels that * * the participation of the U.S.S.R* in UNESCO would be a mutual benefit in facilitating the reconciliation of the conflicting ideologies which now threaten to divide the world. . . . According to Represen tative Muhdt: 28 Huxley, **ld©alogies,** Time Magazine, 48:27 (December 2, 1946). 78 If we can bring Russia into UNESCO, then we will have made a distinct achievement toward peace* I hope the educators of the world can make UNESCO so signif icant that the Russians will find that they dare not keep out and that once Russia is in, we can contribute our full share toward creating that mutuality of under standing between systems which is essential if we are to have peace in the world On the other hand, "the Russians look on UNESCO as a vast propaganda agency for the capitalist powers and give 30 few signs of joining in the measurable future.** The Russians felt the London Conference of 1945 should have been called bÿ the Economic and Social Council rather than an individual state* Russia stayed out of the League Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, even though she was helped by the-League Committee. She is also staying out of UNESCO* V* Ribnikar, Yugoslav official observer, intimates the absence of Russian cooperation while Western philosophy is the dominating influence in UNESCO, because **No one can contest that in the history of humanity all progress has been tied to materialist thought, and that only dialectical materi^ alism has succeeded in confirming, by the experience of everyday life, the scientific principles.** 29 K. E* Mundt, **The United States and Russia,” National Education Journal, 35:391 (October, 1946). 30 Newsweek, 28:No. 22 (November 25, 1946), p. 42. 31 Time Magazine, op* clt*, p. 20. 79 TIKES0O offers Russia and the United States a chance to find a common ground, but Carr believes ”their chances of doing so will be seriously impaired, if either party 32 practices educational and cultural isolation.” A Consultation Committee set up by a Joint TORHA- UNESCO Committee studied and reported on the needs of devested countries, prepared assistance programs, and estabr lished a trust fund for the administration of donations* UNÉSCO has already published Looking at the World Through Textbooks, a history of textbook revision; The Teacher and the Post-War Child in War-DevastatedrCo'untrles, a discussion of twenty-three crucial issues; and Reports on the progress of UNESCO’s projects. According to Johnson the ”recognition of the menace of psychopathic nationalism and advanced military technolo^ is the major force which brought UNESCO into existence. * . • The Pa sc is ts showed what can be done with education, 30 a new approach is being used to stop wars. Plato main tained timt ideas were reality, so how we finally accept this truism, and prepare to eradicate wars where they have their 32 ?/. G. Carr, ”Our United Nations,” National Education Association Journal, 35;261 (May, 1946). 33 Richard Johnson, ”Learning and Peace,” International Conciliation, Ko. 124 (October, 1946), p. 441. 80 inception, in the minds of men* OTESCO is a peoples organization, so the United Nations will ”on behalf of their peoples* # # develop and increase the means of communloation between their peoples and employ these means for the purposes of mutual under standing and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each 34 other’s lives*” UNESCO will promote: the study of what schools are doing to give understanding of international organization; an International conference of textbook writers; the free exchange of discoveries, as the proposed astronomy institute would have observatories in the Northern and Southern Hemis pheres; a food institute ; a world library; free flow of news, radio programs, and pictures among all member states; and the exchange of musicians, artists, authors, and works of art* The first modem international institution of higher learning was the UNRHÂ University located in the Deutsches 35 Museum, Munich, Germany* UNESCO was a product of the mind and spirit, but its 34 Ibid., p. 468. 35 ' W* W* Brickman of the School of Education, New York University, brings out this point in the following quotation: ”* . . the desire for a world university based in part on the experience of the UHRRA University; the first modern in ternational institution of higher learning, located at Deutsches Museum in Munich.” School and Society, 64:391 (Novem^ her 30, 1946)* 81 t succes3 depends upon the willful cooperation 'of all con cerned# Kandel believes that ”the employment of mass media for the dissemination of information without a moral- spiritual basis may increase man’s knowledge about his neighbors, but will fail in the great purpose that the 36 Constitution of UNESCO... , defined for a distraught world*” "Eradicating from the minds of men the desire to make war. . . is probably the most important one j^bjectiv©^ to be associated with. ... UNESCO,” is the considered opinion of J. Eugene Harley. Morgan is of the opinicm that , .*. the greatest single challenge facing teachers today, is to see that the United Mations Organizations are made to work. The alternative is chaos beyond the power of imagination to conceive. And no matter what the paper charters may be, organization can be made to work only as it is built into the hearts and purposes of men; only as they are trained for the specific kinds of lead ership needed to make organizations effective.^® Kandel, op. cit., p. 340. 37 Harley, "UMESGO," World Affairs Interpreter, 17:53 (Spring), 1940. 38 Morgan, "The Teacher and World Government,” National Education Association Journal, 36:1 (January, 1946), p. 1. OHâPTEB VI CONCLUSION Where there is no vision, the people perish — Proverbs 29:18 The writer agrees with Kandel that "more emphasis needs to be placed on the development of moral and spiritual values than has yet appeared in the program. . . # Formulas, however beautifully phrased, may become slogans, end slogans 1 a substitute for thinking.” Again the writer’s own conclusions coincide with those quoted in the following paragraphs# Man’s dream of "an organization of the world community in which the different forms of culture would no longer be subject to the influence of diplomacy or politics, and natloml barriers would no 2 longer obstruct the intellectual development of mankind,” nears fruition as the "trend toward government recognition of International cultural relations has possibilities beyond ■ ■ S. the range of our imagination today.” " ? President Truman said, "I can conceive of no more 1 I. L. Kandel, "Salvation Through Literacy,” School ancnsociety, 64:396 (December 7, 1946)# 2 Bulletin of the Fan American Union, 74:336 (April, 1940). / “ 3james Shotwell, The Great Decision (New York: Mac millan, 1944), p. 191. 83 important endeavor than to make the mind of man a construc tive force for peace#” ^ Paul Mantoux of France feels the "builder of this new world must he education* Education alone can lay the founds- 6 tions on which It is to rest,” and Shotwe11 agrees that The only adequate remedy lies in the schooling of intelligenoe to appreciate the variant achievements of peoples, who have to work out their destiny under diverse conditions of history and physical environment. The greatest asset of a nation, is not its imterial wealth, but its intelligence, and the future of civilization depends upon the way in which that intelligence will be used • ° The editor of the National Education Association Journal, J# S. Morgan, feels that: If we are to have world order and justice, we shall have free Intelligence# We shall have to place our main reliance upon the development of better people through universal education# We shall have to find ways of persuading men everywhere to lead out for free educa tion, for all the people# This is a long, difficult, and hard road, but the alternative is chaos and destruc tion. Mankind cannot survive half slave and half free #^ Madame Curie, in her report to the League Committee on Intellectual Cooperation in 1926, said "never doubt but that 4 George Zook, "Progress in International Cultural, and Educational HeXations,” School and Society, 63:19 (January 12, 1946), p# 19. ^Quoted in J# Eugene Harley, Intemationa 1 Understand- iag, p. IX. I ? - Bhotwell, op# Pit., p. 192# rt Morgan, "The Foundation of World Order,” School end Society, 62:85 (August 11, 1945)* 84 8 knowledge and peace will triumph over ignorance and war.” The thrilling words of Alberto Man© of Uruguay may again be appropriately quoted as benedictory thoughts to the present study: Despite everything, the tree of confraternity is growing in propitious soil; and it is our duty to stand watch over its fruits, which are to mature slowly but surely under the sun of cordiality in these lands of mountains and gems, where nature rises as high as human thought, where love and creative will become one, while the mighty symphony of the imtlohal anthems merges majestically Into the rhythm of a single heart. ^ One word seems to perogate all our attempts at inter national conciliation — understanding. As long as the people who have to give their ’blood, sweat, and tears,’ fail, or make no effort to understand their brothers, they will adhere to the dictum, ’my coimtry, right or wrong,’ and all the efforts to\mrd international intellectual cooperation will rest,in peace in university archives. 8 Harley, "UNESCO," World Affairs Interpreter, (Spring, 1946), p. 55. 9 - - , Bulletin of. the. Fan American Union, 68:187 (March, 1934 ) . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A# BOOKS Barle, A. A., Hew Blractions In the Hew World* Hew York: m r p e r Bros:% Ï5S5;---------------------------- &*own, F# J*, Hodges G *, Roucek, J# S., Contemporary World Poll tip a# Hew York: John Wiley and Sons ,'1939 V " Carr, W* G*, One World in the Making. San Francisco: Ginn and Company, 1946 ♦ Goodrich, L. M*, and Hambro, E., CWrter of the United Nations. Boston: World Feace"Tmmdation, 1946. Harley, J# Eugene, Documentary Textbook on InternatIona1 Relations. Los Angeles : Suttonhouse , 1934. , International Understandlng. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1931. , World-Wide Influences of the Cinema. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 1940. Johnsen, J. E», International Federation of Democracies. Hew York: H. W. Wilson and Company, 1941. Myers, D. P., Handbook of League of Hâtions Since 1920. Boston: World Peace Foundation, ÎW5I Shotwell, James T., The Great Decision. Hew York: Macmillan, 1944. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Brickman, W. W., "International Mucational Cooperation,” School and Society, 64:390, Hovember 30, 1946. Cherrington, B. M. , "All Things Are Ready If Our Minds So, Ho tari an, :13, October, 1946. Editors, "Education and the United Nations Charter," School Review, 53:S7S, September, 1945. Editors, "Events," School and Society, 64:215, September 28, 1946. 86 Hadley, Paul "Cultural Cooperation: Essential of Diplo macy in Latin America," World Affairs Interpreter, 17;74, Spring, 1946* Harley, J. Eugene, "OTESCO," World Affairs Interpreter, 17:52, Spring, 1946* Johnson, Richard, "Learning and Peace," International Ooncil- iation, No; 124:441, October, 1946. Kandel, I, L», "National Education in an International World," National Education Association Journal, 35:175, April,1946, , "Besponsibility of OTESCO," School and Society, 64: 330, Hovember 16, 1946, ~ # "Salvation Thrbugh Literacy," School and Society, 6$:396,,Dec#nber 7, 1946, King, H* Raymond, "OTESCO Is Bom," Rotarian, 68:21, February, 1946, Kuhn » F., "Letting the Whole World Know," Survey Graphic, 35:497, December, 1946, Morgan, J* E., "The Foundation of World Order," School and Society, 62:86, August 11, 1945. , "The Teacher and World Government," National Educa tion Association Journal, 35:1, January, 1946. Mundt, K. E., "The United States and Russia," National Educa- tion Association Journal# 35:391, October, 1946. National Education Association Journal, 35:356, September, 1 ' 1935. Newsweek, 28:No. 15, October 7, 1946. ■ , 28:42, Hovember 25, 1946. "Our United Nations," National Education Association Journal 35:356, September, iMBl "Priorities for OTESCO," School and Society. 64:266. "OTESCO," School Life, 28:1-6, February, 1946. 87 Wilson, H# E., "Education As an Implement of International Cooperation,” Internat1onal Conciliation, No. 415, November, 1945» Wilson, Mrs. H. E., "Maison OTESCO,” Seholastic. 49s5T, November 11, 1946. Zook, George, "Progress in International Cultural and Educational Relations,” School and Society. 63:19, January 12, 1946» Bulletin of the Pan American Union. Washington, D. G» ^/:769, October, 193L, 68:187, March, 1934. 68:78-79, February, 1935» 68:307, April, 1935» 71:472, June, 1937. 72:252, April, 1938. 74:325-26, April, 1940. Dlvisicm of Intellectual Cooperation, Inter -African Con gress of Rectors » Deans. and Educators. Washington, D. C.: Fan American Union, 19SÜT"’ " The De$mrtment of State Bulletin, Washington, D. C. Volume 15, 371:262, August 11, 1946. Volume 15, 387:996, December 1, 1946* BULLETINS REVIEWED Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington, D. C., January l893-December, 1901» Bulletin of International Bureau of the American Republics. Washington, D. C.% January, 1902-June, 19iO. Bulletin of the Fan American Union. Washington, D. C . : July ,^9lÜ-DecemBer, Ï W 6 » 88 The Department of State Bulletin, Washington, D. G January 1945- January, 1947. PBR10DÎ0AI5 REVIEWED BUT NOT CITED Free World, October, November, and December, 1946* National Education Associât ion Journal, October and Decern ber, 1946, January, 1947* School Life, October, 1945, October, 1946* School Review. January, 1944. School and Society* July 7, 1945, October 27, 1945, DoceSSer ' ' 1@^4B, December 22, 1945 , May 4, 1946, September 14, 1946, November 30, 1946, January 11, 1947* Survey Graphic, October, 1944* The Saturday Review of Literature, September 15, 1945. United Nations News, II, No* 1*

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Asset Metadata

Creator Thornton, Floyd Weaver (author)

Core Title Study of international intellectual cooperation

School Department of Political Science

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Political Science

Degree Conferral Date 1947-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Harley, J. Eugene (committee chair), Hadley, Paul E. (committee member), Rodee, Carlton C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-15786

Unique identifier UC11309434

Identifier EP63746.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-15786 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP63746.pdf

Dmrecord 15786

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Thornton, F. W.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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