A causal, dispositional model of common personal characteristics associated with teacher job satisfaction

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Content A CAUSAL, DISPOSITIONAL MODEL OF COMMON PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION by Jon Kirk Rice A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2003 Copyright 2003 Jon K. Rice Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3103962 Copyright 2003 by Rice, Jon Kirk All rights reserved. ® UMI UMI Microform 3103962 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA School of Education Los Angeles, California 90089-0031 This dissertation, written by Jon K ir k R ic e under the direction ofh^JLDissertation Committee, and approved by all members o f the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School o f Education in partialfulfillment o f the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education May 1 6 , 2003 Dissertation Committee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements A project such as this cannot be completed without the assistance of many people. I want to take this opportunity to extend my most profound gratitude to those who supported me during this process. First and foremost, my greatest thank you goes to my wife, Lydia, for recommending that I seek my doctorate, while knowing full well the privations she was to endure for my pursuit of such an endeavor. I thank her for providing unconditional love and support despite the countless lost weekends and late nights that accompany the production of a dissertation. I extend my thanks to my in-laws, Ernest and Rose Manderson, whose understanding and insight helped guide the project. To my brother, Lowie, and sisters Ms and Rose, I appreciate their strong encouragement along the way. Dr. Robert Baker, my committee chairperson, has provided a guiding hand and was a vocal advocate for me, for all his students, for education, and to whom I am greatly indebted. His strength of conviction, dedication to his profession, wisdom, statistical guidance, and unique suggestions have made their imprint throughout this project. He has shown immeasurable patience, shown deep knowledge of the field, and has provided insight, when it was needed most. Furthermore, I am thankful to Dr. Stuart Gothold and Dr. Dennis Hocevar for agreeing to serve as members of my dissertation committee. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iii l am grateful to the San Luis Coastal Unified School District and its Superintendent, Dr. Edwin Denton, for his vision for the administrators of his district. Through their auspices, I became a part of the University of Southern California School of Education satellite program and had the chance to commute from Los Angeles through the incomparable coastal terrain and towns to San Luis Obispo every two weeks for two years. While there, I made lasting friendships with Hugo Lara and James Scoolis with whom I have shared the challenges and successes of the doctoral process. They provided valuable commentary on an earlier version and helped make this dissertation feasible. I wish to thank my Los Angeles Unified School District administrators, Ronni Ephraim, Margaret Nelson, and Elisabeth Douglass who demonstrated full support and flexibility, while I worked towards my goal. To the staffs and administrators at all the elementary schools who permitted me to assist in the understanding of contributory factors towards teacher job satisfaction, I offer my deepest appreciation. By enhancing all we know about the support and retention of capable educators, we will hopefully be able to provide them a better work environment and a better learning environment for our students. Finally, I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my friends, Mark Dodge and Kam Myers. They have shown boundless support and ongoing commentary regarding the possibility that such a task would ever end. I thank all others who assisted and hope the outcome reflects their input. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table o f Contents Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................ii List of Tables.................................................................................................................vii List of Figures...............................................................................................................viii Abstract........................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1. Introduction.....................................................................................1 Background of the Problem..................................................... 3 Statement of the Problem..........................................................6 Purpose of the Study............................................................... 11 Significance of the Study. .................................................12 Research Questions................................................................. 14 Critical Variables and Their Measurement........................... 15 Sample................................................................................. 16 Assumptions.................................................... *................. 17 Definitions...........................................................................17 Theoretical Rationale.............................................................. 18 2. Review of the Literature.............................................................. 23 Teacher Demographics...........................................................26 Job Satisfaction Research and Educators............................. 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter Teacher Alienation, Hardiness and Job Satisfaction........... 31 Organizational Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction.............. 36 Personality Factors and Teacher Job Satisfaction............... 44 Conclusion...............................................................................56 3. Methodology................................................................................59 Development of the Instrument..............................................60 Sample................................................................................60 Scale Measures.................................................................. 61 Procedures .................................................................. 67 Data Analysis...........................................................................68 Summary ........................................................................ 69 4. Results...........................................................................................71 Descriptive Data............... 72 Measure..............................................................................75 Inter-Item Correlations...................................................... 77 Inter-Scale Correlations................................. 83 Additional Comparative Analysis.....................................88 Path Analysis..................................................................... 95 Summary...........................................................................103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vi Chapter 5. Discussion ............................. 107 Summary and Explanation of Findings............................109 General Implications of Findings..................................... 120 General Study Limitations.................................................122 Recommendations..................... ....................................... 125 Future Directions...............................................................129 Bibliography............................................................................................................... 134 Appendices................................................................................... 149 A. Center for Teacher Selection and Development: Teacher Survey, Form Sp99....................................................................... 150 B. Empirical and Logical Scales.....................................................................157 C. Reliability Analysis - Scale Alpha............................................................... 162 D. Overall Initial Self-Assessment Results........................................................181 E. Inter-Scale Correlation Matrix For Elementary Teacher Sample.................................................................185 F. Analysis of Variance ....................................................................... 188 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vii List of Tables Table 1. Combined Survey Criteria.................................... 64 2. Demographics of Teacher Sample.................................................................. 73 3. Factor Reliability Estimates for the Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99................................................................................79 4. Alpha Comparison - Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 and Previous Studies...........................................82 5. Significant Liter-Scale Correlations for Elementary Teacher Sample.............84 6. Relationship Between Predictors and General Job Satisfaction.....................99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. v iii List of Figures and Diagrams Figures 1. Judge et al. (2000) Core Self-Evaluations and Relationships Mediating Upon Job Satisfaction.................................. 97 2. Path Analysis: Causal Model Measure Effects Upon General Teacher Job Satisfaction.......................................................101 Diagram 1. Hypothetical Path of S cale Measures..........................................................98 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ix Abstract This study's primary purpose was to test a model of the influences of teacher core self-evaluations, perceived teacher competencies, perceived school effectiveness, professional relations upon teacher job satisfaction. Based upon factor-derived scales generated from several previous studies, the current work sought to determine the scales’ predictive value of the direct and indirect effects of selected teacher personal characteristics on job satisfaction. A statistical analysis of the combined results was presented. Following a previous path analysis model designed to study job and life satisfaction, the current dispositional model revealed significant modifying indirect links between teacher core self-evaluations and teacher satisfaction. A markedly homogeneous group of schools produced three broad core self-evaluations factor scales. The scales Collaborative/Supportive and Conscientious/ Responsible had a noticeable inter relationship and linked significantly to supervisory and fellow teacher relationships. Meanwhile, Efficacious/Confident had a very strong relationship with Conscientious/Responsible and Collaborative/Supportive and significantly influenced the Teaching Competency scales. The scales Relationship with the Supervisor and Perceived School Effectiveness directly influenced Job Satisfaction, with School Effectiveness demonstrating the strongest ties. This reinforces the need for strong school leadership and for the careful design of ongoing, specific professional in-service. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The development of the measurement instrument and the findings of this study will be helpful towards the recruitment, induction, specially-designed professional support, and retention of new and experienced teachers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Our national education system faces the daunting task of readying pupils to participate as a knowledgeable, responsible citizenry and engage in an increasingly technological worldwide economy. Will future students have the qualified instructors they need to assume such a daunting task? The charm that teacher education held earlier in this century as the common person's route to the professions has become its flaw. Teacher education is now too easily accessible in every sense. It is geographically desirable, easily entered, of short duration, seldom interferes with the rest of a student's college program, soon completed, costs little and permits exit to other career options (Clark, 1984). Unlike education in the professions such as law, dentistry and medicine, teacher education’s parameters are poorly defined. There often is no definite point of entry for students (Goodlad, 1991). Thus springs the drives for dramatic reform of pre-service teacher education programs (Clark, 1984), for state licensing to guarantee teacher quality (Edelfelt & Raths, 1992), and for national teacher certification (Johnson, 2001) to achieve the goals of professionalization and accountability. Will schools retain qualified, motivated teachers? Changes in job opportunities and adjustments in career choices have affected the flow of talent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. into teaching and the responses of institutions of higher education. Teaching appears to attract and retain a disproportionately high percentage of those undergraduates with low measured academic ability and fails to attract and retain those with high ability (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], 2000). The general pattern of data indicates that those most likely to enter and be committed to teaching are drawn from those most likely to score lower on the SAT (Schlechty & Vance, 1982). The proportion of people wanting to be teachers has sharply decreased over twenty-five years (Yee, 1990). Already, shortages of math, science, and bilingual teachers exist in many parts of the country (USDE, 2000). The situation will only worsen, as one third of those in the teaching force are likely to leave the classroom in the future. Twenty-two percent of new public school teachers leave the profession in the first three years (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], 1994). Furthermore, graduates with scores in the upper quarter on college entrance exams were almost twice as inclined to depart the profession (Langdon & Vesper, 2000). Well qualified teachers are essential if school districts are to succeed in their efforts to improve the quality of education. Research suggests that urban districts persist in having difficulty in attracting and keeping teachers (Chester & Beaudin, 1996). Additionally, an attrition rate of 30-50 percent in the inner city, and high teacher turnover in urban schools contribute to this scarcity of teachers (American Agenda, 1996; Holland, 1999). Currently the nation's largest districts Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 must choose between having insufficient numbers of new teachers and hiring uncertified or under-qualified applicants. Teachers in urban districts tend to be younger, inexperienced and less exposed to university level courses than districts outside urban areas (Darling-Hammond, 1990). Efforts to improve educational quality will likely be hamstrung if less desirable candidates replace the experienced educators leaving our schools. Retaining a novice beyond the induction phase is critical, since experience is one teacher characteristic linked with pedagogical effectiveness. New teacher experiences during induction quite often determine career directions (Mumame & Olsen, 1990). Background of the Research Problem A set of tasks to be accomplished is not the only component of what is known as a job, it also involves the manner in which an individual chooses to do those tasks. This includes the mental framework, the mental exertion, and creative applications that one brings. A job is an integration of the work to be done and how the individual gets it done, even augmenting it (Judge, Locke, & Durham, 1997). The literature has shown that organizational culture plus feelings of either adequacy or inadequacy are good predictors of and have an effect on job satisfaction. Among the reasons that teachers leave their jobs are a lack of satisfaction, failure to succeed in the classroom, and workplace constraints that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 hinder effectiveness. Ironically, teachers can experience success in the classroom, yet consider themselves profound failures because the process of teaching is frustrating, unrewarding and intolerably difficult (McLaughlin, Pfeifer, Swanson - Owens, & Yee, 1986). What Gifford (1984) referred to as chronic prestige deprivation permeates every component of teacher education and the profession. The view of teaching as an extended form of parenting may be the insurmountable barrier which confronts pre-service teachers who value pedagogy courses and bear professional attitudes (Book, Byers, & Freeman, 1983; Johnson, 2001). Educational administrations need to identify the makeup of teachers who stay, and why they remain committed. However, the dynamic between teacher quality and turnover remains largely unexplored. What is known is that high rates of teacher turnover carry serious implications for the quality of education. Research highlights the importance of staff stability and continuity in effective schools (Hawley & Rosenholtz, 1984). However, authorities have made no serious long-term attempts to influence school characteristics relevant to the retention of highly qualified teachers. Educational problems may partly be improved by focusing on faculty continuity and its effects over time. Professional involvement is an indicator of teacher effectiveness and allows for examination of the relationship of teacher quality to career choices (Yee, 1990). Workplace factors contribute to involvement, and subsequently to decisions to stay Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 or leave a job, by offering organizational inducements or rewards. Frequent turnover inhibits the formation of a productive, involved and cohesive school culture (Purkey & Smith, 1983), thus obstructing the development of shared norms for academic achievement - a crucial element for successful schools. The introduction of new personnel can have a significant influence on the culture of the workplace. Regular turnover requires the infusion of new personnel who may originate from a quite different work or training environment. A major thrust of the education reform movement has been the selection of individuals with a high potential for success in teaching (Young, 1989). Until recently, creative teachers continued to leave the profession, and schools of education were hard-pressed to attract top students (Henley, 1987). Between 1988 and 1994, there was a shift in the source of newly hired teachers as both public and private schools hired larger proportions of beginning teachers and smaller proportions of transfers and reentrants. In 1994, forty-six percent of new hires in public schools were first-time teachers, thirty-one percent transfers, and twenty- three percent were reentrants. That same year, substitute teaching was an entry route into teaching for substantial proportions of both new and reentrant teachers (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], 1996). Carefully planned introduction to the profession can have a positive impact, with the influx of fresh ideas and new techniques. Since the 1996 school year, which required substantially more personnel to implement class size reduction, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. California has seen the number of emergency credentialed teachers skyrocket in order to satisfy this additional demand for instructors. The push to institute an end to social promotion in California has exacerbated the need for additional teachers. Unfortunately, prior to legislation aimed at lending support to new teachers, the California New Teacher Project found that less than half of the school districts in the state gave new educators the material support and professional development necessary to improve and remain satisfied in the profession (California Department of Education, 1992). Teacher satisfaction and mobility are of considerable consequence to school managers and policy makers. Poor relations with supervisors were a recurring influence upon the sources of teacher dissatisfaction in a Yale University study (Turk & Litt, 1982). Mattox (1974) uncovered evidence that if stressful causes were not brought under control, less stressful professions with the likelihood of increased income would attract more teachers from education. Statement of the Problem It is incumbent upon schools to attract, induct, retain and renew quality people. Individual motivation is important, because the brightest teachers do not always find incentives to stay. An in-depth look at the problems associated with the induction of committed teacher trainees and their retention over time can provide insight into the issue. There needs to be a correlation and examination of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 factors among veteran and new teachers that identify early on those who will remain and those at risk of leaving the profession. Extensive teacher job satisfaction research has been conducted among established teachers allowing for the determination of factors that describe employees destined for long-term service and high performance. The difficulty has been in pinpointing those same exemplary characteristics and abilities among teacher candidates and novice teachers. Induction into training has been an issue of importance for several decades and is no less important today. There is recognition that to choose the most qualified and talented legal, medical, and educational candidates for entry into professional school and eventually into professions is highly desirable, yet extremely difficult. Few educators and fewer researchers seem prepared or knowledgeable enough to engage in such a process. As the teaching force ages and other demographic and economic factors come into play, demand for new teachers persists. Meanwhile, various teacher education programs are inundated with applicants vying for limited programs thus necessitating a process selecting the best beginners (Allison, 1983). Savings in emotional and economic costs could be realized, if it was possible to identify and dissuade from professional service those candidates showing characteristics of future unhappiness, lack of commitment, or ineffectiveness as teachers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 Generally, teacher-training institutions continue to do little to recruit desirable candidates for entry into teacher education. A survey of 147 representative teacher-training institutions in this country indicated that exclusion of applicants is a rarity (Laman & Reeves, 1983). Due to the lack of entry and exit requirements, a national report (Feistritzer, 1984) suggested that up to half of the teacher education programs in the U.S. ought to be closed. At the same time, a similar report was issued about Canadian teacher education schools (Nidiforuk, 1984). Additional staffing problems for public schools are expected over the next several years as enrollments increase, the number of traditionally trained instructors decreases and the demand for new teachers rises (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1994). In recent years, public attention in the United States has begun to focus upon the induction of qualified teachers into the profession. At a Texas university, seventy-four percent of the education majors could not find the value of an algebraic expression or equate numbers written in figures with the same numbers written in text (Denton, 1983). In 1998, Massachusetts administered a simple statewide math and science test to college graduates who planned to teach in public schools. Only thirty-seven percent of the applicants passed the mathematics section, and nearly sixty percent failed the whole exam (Fisher, 1998). The push for stricter criteria is rooted in such events as the revelation that of 136 bilingual teachers in New Mexico, none received a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 passing score on a fourth grade Spanish examination (Shield & Danielle, 1982). This becomes more problematic when considering that a particularly high attrition rate exists among certified bilingual education teachers (Gonzales & Sosa, 1993). Although intellectual prowess is a vital quality, other elements related to beliefs, personality and attitude remain elusive. Hawley (1986) wondered how intelligent an effective teacher must be. Pratt (1986) wrote that research had failed to isolate robust predictors of professional performance. "Taken as a whole, the evidence on the relationship of academic achievement, aptitude or personality to teacher survival and success is highly inconsistent" (p.28). A primary source of frustration is that to determine any future teacher shortage requires that we know what qualities are desirable in the workforce of the future. To improve, our country's schools certainly need to prepare and retain high quality teachers. But little attention has been given to the identification of individuals who have teaching potential (Applegate, 1987). Such concerns highlight the debate over which objective measures best delineate characteristics of a successful teacher and identify potential candidates. This has remained an elusive goal. Cross (1987) asserted that being unable to discern the qualities of excellent teachers from those of mediocre or weak teachers was a harmful and incorrect myth. When Meek (1988) queried Linda Darling- Hammond she replied that she would "start with a theory that the caliber of people Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 is the most important thing you have to work with" (p. 501) as opposed to procedures, teacher handbooks, rules or courses of study. A great number of those who are predicted to be potentially successful never enter the profession (USDE, 2000). Pigge (1985) found that in terms of academics and achievement, the best teachers do not choose to enter the teaching profession despite having graduated, trained, and received teacher certification. The implication is that the teaching profession may be developing academically talented candidates only to find that the less academically inclined are those who eventually teach. It is possible that academic talent, as quantitatively measured, could be misleading as a primary factor of teacher success. Grissmer and Kirby (1987) indicated that individuals may leave early in their careers "because of a mismatch between original expectations and actual experiences as teachers, arising because individuals enter employment commitments with incomplete information" (p. xii). Buckley, Fedor, Veres, Wiese and Carraher (1998) proposed the application of realistic job previews which are designed to provide the positive and negative aspects of a particular job situation. The previews are job specific, job content laden, and work to lower newcomer expectations. Buckley et al.’s research suggest the use of the realistic job previews in conjunction with an expectation lowering procedure, which is not job specific and relatively content-free. Providing insights that will reduce the gap between expectations and experience, and isolating more complete information in regards to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 which characteristics more clearly define those best suited for careers in education may effectively reduce attrition rates of new teachers. Purpose of the Study Cranny, Smith and Stone (1992) estimated that more than 5,000 studies of job satisfaction have been published since Hoppock's (1935) pioneering work. The purpose of the current study was to develop a clearer understanding of the personal factors that support satisfaction, heightened commitment and ultimately a desire to remain in teaching. This study proposed to examine the retention potential of beginning and veteran teachers through the identification of precise attributes common among teachers displaying individual persistence and job satisfaction. Specifically, it focused on personal characteristics and perceptions of teachers to establish congruence between novices and seasoned instructors. While the emphasis on the importance of intellectual capabilities persists, the dearth of research related to personality factors continues to be of importance. Young (1989) concluded that intellectual capability, in and of itself, is insufficient as a primary predictor guaranteeing teacher success. Other personality factors may be equally significant, but such traits appear well embedded within the individual so that direct involvement, intervention, or support may have limited impact in mediating characteristics leading to success in teaching. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 The comparisons within the present study attempted to identify those characteristics considered desirable and undesirable among teachers in an effort to discern and maintain an acceptable zone for all teachers. It also related trainees' personal composition, outlook, and views on the profession and long-term goals to those held by seasoned teachers who demonstrate effectiveness and longevity in their positions. Beyond a professional comfort zone there looms the bleak territory of dissatisfaction, disillusionment, and eventual departure from the profession. Significance of the Study How might we stem the exodus from the profession? Today's teachers face a variety of challenging classroom conditions, including large classes, multilingual populations and inclusion of students with special needs in the regular classroom (Marlow, Inman, & Betancourt-Smith, 1997). Many people who enter teaching do not hold the expectation that teaching will be their lifelong career. Up to forty percent of new teachers leave during their first two years of teaching (Haselkom, 1994). Schlechty and Vance (1981) estimated that fifty percent of all teachers leave by the seventh to ninth year. Gonzales and Sosa (1993) noted thirty percent of new teachers leave the profession during their first two years, while fifty percent in urban school districts leave within five years. Teacher turnover accounts for 66- 75 percent of new hires (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], 1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 In a seven-year longitudinal study, Marso and Pigge (1997) found that about one half of the teacher candidates were not teaching approximately five years after graduation. Their findings are similar to a study of Michigan teacher candidates in which 46 percent were not teaching six years after graduation (Mumame, 1987), and also to that of the National Longitudinal Survey of the high school class of 1972 (NCES, 1994). Marso and Pigge provided evidence that teacher attrition through teacher preparation and the early years of teaching does not lower the quality of the remaining teacher pool. They also added to the limited evidence (Chapman & Green, 1986) that teacher candidates' initial degree of certainty about the decision to become a teacher might be used as a predictor of persistence in the profession. The distinction between characteristics that are part of the occupation and those unique to the individual teacher allowed inspection of the interaction between the two factors (Yee, 1990). It may be assumed that organizational influences affect personal decisions. But in general, attrition studies of teachers neither captured individual viewpoints nor integrated into their analyses individual aspirations and goals or, more enduringly, orientation toward the occupation. A series of studies (Judge et al., 1997; Judge, Bono & Locke, 2000; Judge, Locke, Durham & Kluger, 1998) tested a model of the relationship between core self- evaluations, intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction. Core self-evaluations were assumed to be broad personality concepts demonstrated by four discrete Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 traits. The researchers hypothesized that both subjective job characteristics and job complexity mediate the relationship between core evaluations and satisfaction. Equipped with valid and appropriate information, school administrators may be better able to discourage turnover associated with dissatisfaction or feelings of inadequacy, by influencing teacher characteristics, which promote commitment, persistence, and general job satisfaction. Mentor teachers can utilize knowledge of commitment or dissatisfaction factors to better monitor new mentees and assist veteran peers. To remain in teaching, informed teachers can self- regulate, adjust, or seek help from knowledgeable counterparts within the profession. Research Questions General research questions to which answers will be sought are as follows: 1. Do levels of teacher commitment and job satisfaction change significantly according to variations in demographic characteristics? 2. Are attitudinal and behavioral measures of commitment significant predictors of job satisfaction? 3. Do core self-evaluations display significant direct or indirect influences upon core self-evaluations and teacher job satisfaction? 4. How important are a teacher’s relationships with colleagues and supervisors? 5. Does the perception of school effectiveness and organization play a significant contributory role towards teacher satisfaction? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Critical Variables and Their Measurement 15 Numerous, important variables were utilized to describe, measure, and analyze the research problem. The initial, basic categorical variables of interest included age, gender and ethnicity. From the broad class of teacher background characteristics came work environment, level of education, at what point in life the candidate decided to teach, type of teaching credential, second language ability, and previous work experience. Teacher satisfaction, an equally broad class of variable, provided the continuous variables of professional contentment, job involvement, individual coping, teacher stress, teacher anxiety, and leadership support. A measurement instrument was developed. It arose from an adaptation of a teacher education graduate questionnaire as well as another pre-professional teacher characteristics survey that was originally designed to describe characteristics that predict beginning teacher success and professional satisfaction. Furthermore, items dealing with school improvement and planning came from a study derived from the California Distinguished Schools Quality Criteria (Matakovich, 1999). Finally, there were elements of Yee's (1990) teacher career I commitment survey, which she used with experienced teachers. A self-report questionnaire was constructed with an item-sampling framework to include all of the critical design attributes pertinent to this study. Utilizing this instrument with its Likert-style scale, this researcher obtained responses from sample teachers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 A factorial analysis of variance provided information about the effect of selected independent variables upon elements in several factor scales. While correlational relationships attempted to establish links between measure scales, analysis of variance sought to compare characteristics among different teacher groups. Path analysis incorporated the elements of regression, a useful method for studying the separate and collective contributions of one or more predictor variables to the variation in a criterion variable. Moreover, the path analysis sought to establish causal relationships. Sample The sampling frame was drawn from multiple elementary schools displaying different school cultures within the high school clusters of a major Los Angeles County school district. Each cluster or family of schools consisted of the several elementary and middle schools feeding into each high school. The number of teaching years floated to allow for a range of participant teaching experience. Ideally, comparisons with responses from inner city schools and smaller districts would have lent themselves to further understanding but were beyond the scope of this study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Assumptions 17 1. It is assumed that teachers answered the surveys honestly and candidly. 2. There is the assumption that teacher responses displayed a minimum of social conditioning. 3. This study also assumed that a positive professional experience enhanced the likelihood of teachers remaining in the profession. Definitions The following definitions are included for the purpose of clarity: Job: the integration of tasks to be done and how a person goes about performing them. Job Satisfaction: professional interest and enthusiasm that a person displays toward the achievement of individual and group goals in a given job situation. Stress: a subjective, negative reaction to aspects of the job that threatens a teacher’s self-esteem or well being. Commitment: the state or instance of being obligated or emotionally impelled including a belief in and acceptance of organizational goals and values, a willingness to pursue those goals and a desire to remain in the organization. Core Self-evaluations: basic subconscious conclusions pertaining to fundamental personal and environmental areas of everyone’s life. Dispositional: pertaining to the tendency to act in a certain manner under given circumstances. The dominant qualities distinguishing a person or group. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 Theoretical Rationale It is evident that the interaction between personal background and workplace conditions play an important role in teacher morale and subsequent retention of teachers. Workplace and individual factors are both theoretically relevant to career construction, although much of the empirical work does not examine these dimensions together. In a review of job satisfaction studies covered in the Educational Administration Quarterly. Thompson, McNamara and Hoyle (1997) suggested that job task characteristics such as role ambiguity and role conflict contribute more to the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of teachers and administrators than organizational or individual characteristics. Professional and organizational commitment have been studied across various occupational groups (Reyes, 1990) and are of interest because of the association with enhanced productivity and involvement. Singh and Billingsley (1998) used both background variables and teachers' perceptions of principal and peer support to construct and test a model of teachers' commitment. Voluntary commitment was especially important in schools (Firestone & Pennell, 1993), not only given the difficulty of inspecting and controlling teachers' work, but also because teachers' commitment was related to student achievement. Additionally, Singh and Billingsley (1996) showed an indirect effect through employability in the relationship between intellectual capabilities and commitment. In their 1998 study, Singh and Billingsley indicated the need for further research to include the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 study and comparison of characteristics between discrete teacher groups such as early and late-career teachers. Since most turnover studies considered organizational rather than occupational attrition, they failed to distinguish between job site factors and occupational factors. This was pertinent to why teachers may leave the profession and not merely transfer to another school or district. The concept of satisfaction and the turnover models that rely on it are of limited usefulness for understanding the dynamic between teacher quality and retention. We need to know what factors are likely to explain why teachers are committed and why do they remain teachers. Gehrke (1991) proposed looking beyond education studies to the social sciences to draw attention to the ideas from a few relevant works on beginners and beginnings in general, with the hope of encountering better ways of bringing people into teaching. Approaching the problem from a socio-cultural analytical framework, Lortie (1975) stated that the teaching profession lacked a codified body of knowledge and skills that further complicated a beginning teacher's sudden transition into a complex and demanding profession. For new teachers, the reality shock experienced in the initial year of teaching has been analyzed from several theoretical perspectives. Phillips (1932) concluded that breakdowns among young teachers probably do not arise from any single cause, but from the concentration of a number of adjustment problems in a single personality. Fuller (Fuller, 1969; Fuller and Bown 1975) addressed this Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 phenomenon through an empirically constructed theory of teacher development wherein teachers evolved through sequential and accumulative concern phases beginning with self-survival. Later on, field experiences led to actual performance or task concerns. Finally, with successful teaching experiences, the more mature teachers focused on having a meaningful and beneficial influence upon their students. However, seasoned teachers have noted a lack of professional stages through which one might expect to progress. Johnson (2001) offered that veterans and policymakers look beyond localized career ladders to explore the possibilities of a staged progression in the form of the National Board for Teaching Standards. In 1987, Marso and Pigge validated Fuller's conception of stages in pre service concern, when they published two separate studies based upon Fuller which dealt with working conditions and changes in student teacher responses to their chosen profession. In 1997, Marso and Pigge presented three separate longitudinal studies, which utilized personal characteristics as associated with teacher commitment. They examined the relationship between teacher concerns and capabilities, noted the relationship between personal characteristics and changes in attitude towards the profession, and developed generalizations about teacher attrition. Bandura (1989) espoused that the most powerful predictors of human motivation and behavior were self-efficacy beliefs, which make up "people's beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over events that affect their lives" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 (p. 1) and self-evaluation of their competence to complete specific tasks (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy beliefs influenced selection of tasks and environments. As such, efficacy beliefs were crucial in the self-regulation of motivation. The commitment to pursue an activity or challenge came from the individual's internalized goals, needs, and aspirations, which were dependent on the self- efficacy mechanism (Gagne, 1985). Limited research has been conducted to examine the factors that contribute to changes in the efficacy beliefs of teachers in urban assignments. The results of one study suggested that individual characteristics predispose beginning teachers to particular changes in their beliefs about teaching in urban schools (Chester & Beaudin, 1996). While Bandura (1997) treated self-efficacy as task specific, Judge et al. (1997) expanded the concept to a universal level. Judge et al. defined generalized self-efficacy as a person’s ability to estimate their own capability to access cognitive resources, plans of action, and the motivation necessary to gain control over personal life events. What transpires during one’s life affects the conclusions made about job and life happiness. With this is mind, Judge et al. (1997) derived the notion of core evaluations which refer to basic assessments people make regarding themselves, others, and the surrounding environment. Extending the study of core evaluations, Judge et al. (1998) hypothesized that such evaluations would directly affect job and life satisfaction and indirectly affect job satisfaction. Judge et al. (2000) used two Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 studies to test a model of the relationship between core self-evaluation, intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction. Meanwhile, Judge and Bono (2000) sought to establish links between the Five-Factor model of personality and positive leadership outcomes. The generalizability of any results herein rests on the fact that, like their counterparts elsewhere, teachers in Southern California's urban schools work with student and community populations that are largely poor and minority. Armed with a framework for maintenance of vigorous personnel and the recognition of indicators of teaching mortality, teacher educators, administrators, and teachers themselves will be better able to rectify conditions and behaviors that, unchecked, promise to further diminish the pool of capable, committed educators. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The retention of qualified, motivated teachers who display characteristics, which contribute to and sustain their job satisfaction, is an ongoing task for schools and school districts. For the past several decades, public schools have been increasingly under assault. The demands upon school systems today are far different from those thirty years ago. Demographic, financial, viability, and safety issues weigh heavily upon the schoolhouse. Social, economic and demographic changes in communities have been ongoing phenomena since the 1970's. Previous school district consolidations, coupled with a dramatic increase in large urban districts, make it difficult for districts of any size to adequately maintain comprehensive instructional programs and services (American Association of School Administrators, 1993). Pundits have likened certain districts to a terminal patient with faint hope of revival. The ills of society now manifest themselves in the sites where children gather to be educated. Because the school is ostensibly the work site for teachers, the responsibility for any shortcomings falls upon their shoulders. The failure of any school implies educators’ own shortcomings. Such serious charges cause educational professionals to question their abilities to cope with the job and their commitment to the teaching profession. This in turn affects student outcomes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 Since the publication of A Nation At Risk, (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) a report which focused on the problems facing American public schools, there have been increasing calls for school reform and pedagogical restructuring. Its arrival altered the educational environment for the next two decades and promised to affect education thereafter (Langdon & Vesper, 2000). Although considerable changes were instituted in many school districts by 1990, it is contended that U.S. pupils still lag behind their counterparts in the industrialized world in important cognitive and problem-solving skills (Fisher, 1998). Moreover, the composition of communities is far more heterogeneous than in past decades. Fifteen percent of the American population was bom in another country. In California, 55 percent of the population is foreign bom. Aside from a diverse population, other factors such as group average age, group birth rates, family composition, education attained, mobility and economic productivity present themselves as elements to be reckoned with (California Department of Education, 1994). New student populations come from groups historically more difficult to educate because of their social and economic backgrounds. Add to this mix the movement to alter schooling to reflect the demands of the evolving society and marketplace. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 In Future Shock (1970), Alvin and Heidi Toffler called attention to the acceleration of change that was threatening to overwhelm people everywhere and the way in which it often disoriented individuals, businesses, communities and governments. The Third Wave (Toffler & Toffler, 1995) placed the information revolution in historical perspective, comparing it with two other great transformations, the agricultural revolution and the industrial revolution. The latter Toffler book stated that the development and distribution of information has now become the central productivity and power activity of the human race. Peter Drucker (1994) called the newly emerging dominant group knowledge workers, the majority of whom will require formal education and the ability to acquire and to apply theoretical and analytical knowledge. These jobs demand a different approach to work and a different mind-set (Magaziner and Clinton, 1992). Above all, they require a habit of continuous learning. Education will become the center of the knowledge society, and the school its key institution. Former President George H. W. Bush and the nation's Governors, headed by Bill Clinton, issued national educational performance goals in 1990 to emphasize education as the key to international competitiveness. Concurrently, the U. S. Department of Labor (Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills [SCANS], 1991) concluded that students must develop a new set of competencies and foundation skills. As well, it is imperative that high Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 performance becomes the standard for all U. S. companies and that the nation's schools transform into high performance organizations in their own right. Thus, today's teachers are faced with the daunting task of maintaining resilience in and commitment to a profession that has mounting demands placed upon it. That so many individuals remain involved in teaching is part of the focus of this study. This leads to the examination of who chooses teaching as a career in this day and age, who might be successful as a teacher, which people remain as educators, and finally what personal factors contribute to a sustained commitment to the profession. Teacher Demographics As has been mentioned, American students are increasingly different in background from one another and from their instructors. While the teacher population remains predominantly Caucasian and female, pupils derive from ethnic and religious minorities at a quickening, staggering pace (National Education Association, 1997). The demographic background of the teaching force is unlikely to change significantly, even under the most optimistic scenario for efforts to increase the percentage of teachers of color (Banks, 1991) or men. However, it cannot be assumed that teachers of color are culturally aligned with their students (Gay, 1993) or that they can necessarily translate their cultural knowledge into culturally relevant pedagogy and success for pupils (Montecinos, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 1994). The focus in socializing teachers for cultural diversity must remain on the preparation of all teachers to teach a wide variety of students. Studies of college students who desired to teach supported the traditional stereotype of the teaching workforce. Only six percent were non-White while three-fourths of all entry-level education students were female. About two-thirds of these stated their preference for elementary school teaching. Conversely, two- thirds of male education students sought to teach in high school (Book, Byers & Freeman, 1983). A large majority of these teacher education students came from suburban or rural backgrounds. Rarely did they have any past experience in urban school and almost none stated that they would seek to teach in an urban district. Just over half of the respondents said that they would teach for more than ten years. A little more than twenty percent of the future teachers indicated that they were not leaders in school, took vocational classes, and did not take mostly advanced academic classes. Most were inspired into teaching by watching their own instructors. The greater number were successful in school and enjoyed all their school years attending in the same community (Haberman, 1996). Do these individuals also display characteris-tics that indicate long-term commitment to the profession and satisfaction within a teaching career? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 Job Satisfaction Research and Educators Job satisfaction is undoubtedly the most assessed factor among teachers. Education professionals are constant in their fascination with satisfaction. It is usually depicted as an affective response to work, to a specific career, or its components. Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as the "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (p. 1300). Rather than relate it to attitude or affect, other theorists look at it as more behavioral in nature. Belasco and Alutto (1972) defined it as the "willingness to remain in a current school organization despite inducements to leave" (p. 44), while Lortie (1975) said, that given the opportunity, the teacher would choose the profession again. Many educators today tend to adhere to the assumption that job satisfaction influences the quality of job performance. But, some literature reviews questioned the causation theory by showing that there is neither a direct, simple (Brayfield & Crockett, 1955) nor a low correlation relationship between attitude and performance (Vroom, 1964). Still others proposed a reversed hypothesis that high job performance causes job satisfaction (Judge et al., 1997). Two different models posed by Brief (1998) state that job satisfaction is derived either from environmental interpretations or positive work experiences. From these arguments has sprung the notion that job satisfaction is a dependent variable. So, subsequent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 research, including the current study, has concentrated on personal, occupational, organizational, or a combination of components that precede satisfaction. When measuring job satisfaction as an attitude, two separate relationships arose. On the one hand, facet measures searched for a specific reaction to specific elements of the job, while global or overall measures sought a generalized affective response to the job. The most widely employed approach to satisfaction research was the global measure. But, aside from the overall affective response, it rarely provided any useful information. In direct study, facet measures utilized the word "satisfaction" in the inquiry, whereas an indirect measure sought an affective response without mentioning the term (Kottkamp, 1990). Direct overall measures have often been used because they are clear and conserve space on surveys. Hoy and Miskel (1987) contended that the low rate of teacher job dissatisfaction derived from direct overall questions in surveys over a twenty-year period could be socially conditioned responses. Although Miskel, Glasnapp, and Hatley’s (1975) more indirect measure used the term’s "satisfaction" and "dissatisfaction”, they found a higher rate of dissatisfaction. The most frequently used indirect facet satisfaction instrument in general organizational and educational research has been the Job Descriptive Index or JDI (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969) which contained the following subscales: (1) work on present job, (2) supervision, (3) present pay, (4) co-workers and (5) promotion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 opportunities. It addressed the issue of socially conditioned responses and is considered a valid and reliable instrument. However, detractors such as Lortie (1975) questioned the usefulness of a scale designed for industry and psychology to assess teacher job satisfaction. Holdaway (1978) developed a forty-eight item direct measure, which was separated into seven facets conceptually meaningful to the study of teacher satisfaction. With solid psychometric properties the facets include: (1) status, (2) students, (3) resources, (4) teaching assignment, (5) administrative interaction, (6) workload and (7) salary and benefits. Despite its careful construction, this survey has apparently been underutilized. This may have to do with the greater number of items required to gather important facets of satisfaction. In a study of employee commitment, it is important to examine the empirical research that relates job satisfaction to commitment, performance and productivity. To make such a move is to enter the contentious territory of satisfaction and causal relations. Some (Hoy & Miskel, 1987; Locke, 1976) researchers have contended that an indicator of organizational effectiveness has been job satisfaction and that was enough to know. Employing different measures, studies of satisfaction and commitment with educator samples from various regions (Reyes, 1989; Reyes & Keller, 1986) shared variances that indicated the concepts were related but not repetitive. Two studies (Knoop & O'Reilly, 1978; Miskel, Fevurly & Stewart, 1979) pointed to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 relationships between perceived organizational effectiveness and job satisfaction. Measurement independence did not show up in either study. Studies of satisfaction and performance indicated some positive relationship between them. Moreover, the studies presented little if any theoretical formulation for understanding the relationship between commitment, satisfaction, and behavioral outcomes. Teacher Alienation, Hardiness and Job Satisfaction Variables within an organization such as climate and culture, social, and professional support related to the organizational perspective might explain a propensity for burnout. Freudenberger (1974) first defined burnout as symbolizing feelings of failure resulting from an overload placed on energy, on personal resources, or on the spiritual strength of the worker. Studies dealing with burnout have focused on the aspects of personality and organization. Personality related to profiling the worker with a greater inclination towards burnout and to the identification of background variables or personality factors that point to a possibility of burnout. Friedman (1991) conducted a study to identify school factors associated with burnout. He compared the organizational characteristics of elementary schools demonstrating levels of high and low teacher bumout. This researcher confined the study to organizational factors because he assumed that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 environmental and organizational variables had a stronger influence upon the origins of bumout than those derived from personality did. Further, he thought it easier to influence the occurrence of bumout at an organizational rather than individual level. Results of the study indicated that pedagogical, administrative and physical environments differentiated high and low bumout schools. Among teacher background and demographic characteristics, age, sex, level of education and experience in teaching were distinguishable between the high and low bumout groups. Counter to the findings of other studies, Friedman (1991) contended that clear organizational goals, a discrete hierarchy and orderly administrative communications, which normally are associated with a supportive work environment, put pressure on teachers and administrators to perform at a consistently high level. If these parameters are viewed as forever unattainable, they contribute to the bumout of high performance employees. Additionally, in an environment which has seen a duration of high standards and success through constancy, new teaching approaches threaten to disrupt the pattern of success and are viewed as unacceptable, however promising they may be. Such a notion conflicts with the enhancement of job satisfaction through a fostered climate for professional development in the form of creativity and responsibility (Miskel, Glassnap & Hatley, 1975). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 In a comparison of high and low bumout groups made on biographic, psychological, and work variables, Pierce and Molloy (1990) conducted a study in Australia among public and private school teachers from schools of varying socio economic status. Their questionnaire was designed to examine the aspects of bumout among secondary teachers. Multiple regression analyses assessed the relative importance of these in the variance in each of three bumout subscales. Socio-economic status of the community in which the school was located was associated with levels of stress and bumout. Higher levels of bumout were related to poorer physical health, lower self-confidence, and absenteeism. Teachers who displayed a higher degree of bumout more frequently used regressive coping strategies, which were essentially an ineffective means of avoiding stressful situations or denying the presence of stress. High bumout teachers blamed most of the stress in their lives on their career and demonstrated low levels of commitment and satisfaction. Additionally, these teachers possessed lower levels of hardiness, less social support, and more role stress. Finally, psychological factors were found to be of more significance in predicting bumout than biographical factors. In Israel, Friedman and Farber (1992) performed a study among elementary teachers regarding professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher bumout. Their initial concern was the examination of bumout, its relationship to teachers’ self-view, and how teachers felt they were perceived by other education professionals. Results indicated that professional satisfaction, or the gratification Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 teachers got from their profession, carried the highest negative correlation to bumout. Confident teachers felt their ability would translate into student achievement and personal gratification. The discrepancy between teachers' view of themselves as professionally competent and satisfied carried the strongest correlation to bumout. There was a stronger correlation between bumout and how teachers perceived themselves than how they felt others perceived them (Friedman & Farber, 1992). But self-perception was rarely pure and uninfluenced by outside stimuli. From the point of view of the teachers, the principal and community members had a skewed sense of teacher satisfaction. This discrepancy, too, bore a significant correlation with bumout. Moreover, when a teacher perceived themselves as ineffective, students sensed it, which in turn fed the teacher's sense of diminished worth. Students, more than administrators or parents were the most important clientele in regards to potential impact upon teacher self-concept. Gold, Roth, Wright, Michael and Chen (1992) used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to assess teacher bumout in each of three scales representing constructs of personal accomplishment, depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. They concluded that their multidimensional instrument held considerable potential validity in identifying those beginning teachers who might bear substantial risk for bumout, thus prompting early intervention and support. The hardiness theory proposed that people with higher levels of hardiness have a greater sense of involvement, influence, and incentive in their lives (Maddi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 & Kobasa, 1984). Higher levels of hardiness tended to diminish the likelihood of teacher bumout. Participants in the Pierce and Molloy hardiness study (1990) were teacher trainees in the final stage of their student teacher internship. The researchers assumed that such a sample would not have been contaminated for either hardiness or alienation by previous exposure to school climate. Multivariate analysis of variance was conducted on sample measures of alienation, hardiness, age, and gender collected prior to student teaching and eight weeks into teaching. Procedures revealed no significant differences between groups on any of the variables. The brevity of the study’s time span may have had an effect on the outcome. As Kobasa (1979) originally conceptualized, the hardy personality construct involved commitment, control and challenge. Because of the assumptions of the hardiness theory, Thomson and Wendt (1995) used hardiness, school climate, and the interaction of those variables in multiple regression analyses. They studied teacher alienation as it related to job satisfaction, student learning, and bumout, basing their research on the assumption that the hardiness personality trait could moderate against the negative effects of work conditions that lead to alienation. Alienation was regressed on both hardiness and climate to determine the added effect of school climate. Thomson and Wendt (1995) found that hardiness apparently has more influence on alienation than school climate does. As expected, when climate Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 became more supportive, high hardiness student teachers experienced significantly lower alienation. This is congruent with Zielinski's and Hoy's (1983) findings among elementary school teachers. What was not expected was that, in an equally supportive climate, low hardiness student teachers showed significantly higher levels of alienation. Maddi and Kobasa (1984) contend that hardiness can be taught. Given the results of Thomson and Wendt’s study, it is incumbent upon teacher education programs to enhance student teacher hardiness. By identifying low hardiness teacher trainees, teacher educators can attempt to alter their susceptibility to alienation. Organizational Factors Affecting Teacher Job Satisfaction Factors such as how well a school is run or at least the perception of how well things are going will likely have an effect upon job satisfaction. Additionally, the manner in which teachers perceive themselves being treated by peers, administrators, students, and community members will have a lasting effect upon how positively teachers feel about the school as a workplace and their own place in the particular teaching job environment. Truch (1988) defined school climate as the "fundamental feeling or attitude that pervades a school. It is a composite of teacher, administrator, student, parent and community attitudes. The climate can be healthy or unhealthy." (p.74) For a healthy climate to develop, a school must provide for all the basic needs of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 organization's hierarchy (Maslow, 1954). Higher order needs on the hierarchy cannot be changed directly. They are met when discrete operations such as program, process and material determinants are altered. Variation in certain elements of school structure is systematically related to teacher job satisfaction. Stratification of authority is negatively related to work satisfaction (Grassie & Carss, 1973) as is a combination of the bureaucratic elements of stratification of authority, impersonality and formalization (Benson, 1983). Unclear roles and standard procedures are both related to teacher career dissatisfaction at all school levels (Conley, Bacharach & Bauer, 1989). Further, perception of a higher level of the principal's supervisory behavior was related to lower dissatisfaction. There was higher satisfaction when teachers felt there was fostering of a climate for personal development in the form of creativity and responsibility (Miskel, Glassnap & Hatley, 1975). Higher levels of participation in school decisions and delegation of decision-making authority from the principal was related to job satisfaction (Belasco & Alutto, 1972; Hoy & Sousa, 1984). In the last of four articles, Bentzen, Williams and Heckman (1980), research associates of John Goodlad, described some of their findings about the people who work in schools. They chose to study a large number of variables existing and interacting within the context of a small number of schools at the elementary, middle and high school levels. In designing the questionnaire based upon a six-point scale, the researchers attempted to avoid preconceptions about Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 what ought to be a part of adult interactions in school life or about the interaction of variables. The results of Bentzen et al.’s (1980) preliminary analysis showed that more than three-fourths of the teachers agreed with statements that were indicative of job satisfaction. However, only 12 percent of the respondents strongly agreed. There was a somewhat higher job satisfaction among teachers who worked in suburban or higher income communities. The most profound differences were found when teacher responses were separated by school level. Where 57 percent of elementary teachers moderately or strongly agreed with job satisfaction items, less than half of middle and senior high school teachers demonstrated such a response. When responding to the question of whether they would choose teaching as a career again, the average tendency was for elementary teachers to answer much more positively than their secondary school colleagues did. As might be expected, Bentzen et al. (1980) found that dissatisfied teachers felt administration and staff relations to be more of a problem at their schools. What distinguished the school levels was that secondary teachers focused more on administration, while elementary teachers concentrated more on staff relations. Such responses may well be a result of the elementary teacher's self-contained work environment in a single classroom with one group of children and the secondary teacher's more complex organization. Therefore, these findings indicate Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 a need to differentiate leadership and organizational patterns to meet the needs of different school levels. Lee, Dedrick and Smith (1991) used hierarchical linear modeling techniques to look at possible connections between school organization, self- efficacy and job satisfaction of secondary teachers. They also examined the relationship between a teacher's sense of self-efficacy and classroom management. The authors identified loosely coupled and integrated structures as typical of the interactions that take place around the core of school organizations. Weick's (1976) loosely coupled tasks pertained to educational activities that are thinly connected to the school's authority system personified by the principal and superintendent. An integrated organization operated in a more consensual arrangement regarding the school's mission and the associated social intercourse. If the intrinsic sources of information involving the classroom and the extrinsic sources of salary and external recognition are narrowly defined, then Lee et al.’s (1991) findings show that a major source of efficacy, thus satisfaction, is intrinsic. Student ability and teacher classroom management were both strongly associated with efficacy. Salary, however, was unrelated. But, with a more sociological definition of extrinsic sources such as teacher perception of their fit in the hierarchy of school power, then a relation arises. The study’s teachers in the more structurally integrated Catholic schools felt more efficacious than did their counterparts in more loosely coupled, bureaucratic public schools. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 In response to the need for more practitioner-oriented and highly collegial programs within a school arose the model for a less traditional approach to professional development in the form of critical friends groups (Dunne, Nave & Lewis, 2000; McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993; Newmann, 1994). Focusing on the teacher, critical friends groups engage practitioners in determining student learning goals, reflectively examining practices intended to achieve the goals, and collaboratively evaluating students and teachers to attain the goals. The program trained peer coaches to establish a collaborative culture within groups. Coaches use a variety of procedures, including work and product evaluation, text discussions, peer observations, teambuilding, goalsetting, and portfolio compilation to foster a collegial environment. Dunne et al. (2000) found that critical friend group members displayed a higher degree of professional engagement, collaboration, adaptability, and higher expectations for students than did teachers who did not participate. Their study showed that the school principal was actively involved with the groups and individual group members in schools where teachers modified their behavior and thought. Lee et al. (1991) determined that principal leadership was positively associated with both efficacy and teacher management. Bums (1978) contrasted transformational leaders, who obtain support through inspiration beyond personal self-interest, with transactional leaders, who obtain cooperation by establishing exchanges with followers and then monitoring the exchange relationship. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 Although Bums saw the two types of leaders as opposites, Bass (1985) posed that leaders could be a combination or neither. In schools where teachers sense strong leadership there is a concurrent strength in teacher efficacy and their classroom management and control. This relationship may have to do with the notion that strong leaders tend to support innovations and delegate authority to others with the aim of generating a more positive school environment. Interpreted data (Lee et al., 1991) revealed that individual teachers perceived a higher sense of efficacy in such an environment rather than teachers taken as a whole. As expected, the strongest predictor of teacher efficacy was community. Unfortunately, too few teachers neither found a supportive environment nor shared values with their colleagues about the school's purpose. Surprisingly, teachers in larger schools were more satisfied with the greater amount of resources available, once social, organizational and demographic characteristics were taken into account. This is contrary to the arguments that smaller class size and higher teacher salaries will attract and retain quality teachers. Lee et al.’s (1991) results show that the allowance of authority to teachers over their classroom practices and a cooperative environment more readily contribute to efficacy, job satisfaction, and commitment. Similarly, a study by Newmann, Rutter and Smith (1989) proposed that positive changes in high school organization would have the impact of reducing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 teacher and student alienation. The authors expressed the phenomenon of alienation as referring to an individual's relationships of estrangement from other individuals, things, and processes such as work, groups and organizations, or supernatural beings. The study employed the 1984 Administrator Teacher Survey of over 10,000 high school teachers in about 450 schools. Sense of efficacy and sense of community were treated as dependent variables. When background factors were considered alone, expectations for students appeared to be dependent almost entirely on students' academic ability upon entry to the school (Newman et al., 1989). However, when organizational factors were added, maintaining order in the school became consistently significant. Orderly student behavior was crucial for instructors to work with confidence. Teacher cooperation enhanced expectations somewhat, while time spent in meetings reduced expectations. A stable teaching environment afforded faculty members to perceive a collegial cohesion in their work. Controlling for school consensus on expectations had no influence on the coefficients or on variance explained. But, when other variables were held constant, there were higher expectations in non- White schools. Using teacher interviews, administrator interviews, and a teacher career commitment survey, Yee (1990) derived her results in a comparison study of high school teachers in urban inner city, working class suburbs, and wealthy suburbs. As might be expected, teachers in the wealthy school felt more effective than their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 counterparts in getting students to learn. In the urban, Northeastern school, interviews uncovered a sense of powerlessness and alienation from the district administration. Teachers drew the distinction between their dissatisfaction with the district offices and limitations placed upon their school site administration. One theme emerging from Yee’s (1990) diverse cases focused on the views regarding professional discretion and hierarchical, bureaucratic control. Teachers at all three schools wanted more input into organizational and instructional decisions, a collegial atmosphere and greater administrative support. The interviews and survey data, combined by workplace, showed discrete patterns of career attitudes and choice at each site. Though variations occurred at each school, the same conditions in each workplace were uniquely experienced. In contrast to the predominant career pattern at each school, teachers in the wealthy suburb wanted to leave, teachers in the inner city were satisfied, and the working class suburb displayed both extremes. The personal accounts of teachers' careers illustrated the interaction between personal factors, workplace factors, and the individual processes of career development. The interviews provided examples of how induction arrangements exert a strong influence on the development of professional bonding and involvement. The nature of novice teachers' assignments, coupled with the level of support given during the induction period, affected the pace with which professional self-efficacy were achieved (Yee, 1990). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Personality Factors and Teacher Job Satisfaction The world of academia was shaken when Thurstone (1927, 1928) proposed that attitude was measurable. He began the tradition of investigating attitudes quantitatively through his use of interval scales. Educational researchers have since embraced the examination and measure of attitudinal problems. Still, there is no real agreement on what comprises an attitude or upon what constitutes appropriate measurement. Cooper and McGaugh (1966) attempted to distinguish between terms like attitude, opinion, value and belief. They sought clarity in the definition and consistency in the research of attitudes. What is certain for the researcher in the realm of attitudes is that there is uncertainty. Understandable results depend upon the justification that arises from measurement and facility with the elements comprising that measurement. In addition to being examined as a contributory factor towards teacher bumout, personality has also been looked at when considering an individual teacher’s perception of the workplace and job attributes, self-efficacy, core self- evaluations, idealism, emotional composition, attitude and confidence. The ability to determine personal characteristics predisposed to satisfaction and then to support teachers displaying such characteristics through professional development is at the heart of the current study. In Psychological Types, Jung (1923/1971) reviewed the history of psychological typologies. His central distinction was between introverted and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 extraverted attitudes, which represent fundamental orientations to either the objective or the subjective world. Further, he postulated that individuals relate to the world through two sets of opposing functions: the rational (or judging) functions of thinking and feeling, and the irrational (or perceiving) functions of sensing and intuition. Finally one of the four functions was seen as the dominant, and a second as the auxiliary function. Although it provided rich insights into some aspects of individual differences, Jung’s theory also created formidable obstacles to the development of an inventory for assessing types. Much of his description concerned the unconscious life of the individual, which is not directly accessible to self-report. Faced with these difficulties, Myers and Briggs (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) created an instrument, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. They did so by elaborating on the most easily assessed and distinctive traits suggested by Jung’s (1923/1971) writings, by relying heavily on traditional psychometric procedures (principally item-scale correlations), and by observation of individuals they considered exemplars of different types. Their work produced a set of internally consistent and relatively uncorrelated indices measuring Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition, and Thinking-Feeling. They also added a Judgment-Perception index that indicated, in conjunction with the Extraversion-Introversion preference, whether the rational or irrational function was dominant. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is offered on the assumption that it can classify individuals into 1 of 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 qualitatively different types, formed by combination of the four dichotomous preferences. In some respects, the validity of this typology is the central question in the evaluation of the instrument. The acceptance of a taxonomic structure of personality has taken place only within the past two decades. The categorization known as the five-factor model or the Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 1985) has had a revolutionizing effect upon personality research. The Big Five traits are broad personality constructs manifested in more discrete factors. Individuals who display the trait of Extraversion are strongly disposed to the experience of positive emotions. Agreeableness possesses tendencies to be kind, gentle, trusting, trustworthy, and warm. The trait Conscientiousness is that which best correlates with job performance. Emotional adjustment, frequently identified by its converse, Neuroticism, is the principal factor that leads to life satisfaction and freedom from mental ailments. Openness to Experience is the sole trait that displays appreciable correlation with intelligence. Using “The Five Factor Model of Personality” (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Fiske, 1949; John, 1990), Salgado (1997) conducted a meta-analysis in Europe to indicate that the personal characteristics of conscientiousness and emotional stability were valid predictors across job criteria and occupational groups. The current study utilized items from three empirically derived factor-based scales found in The Teacher Characteristics Survey (Baker, Grayson, Colyar, & Guarino, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 1998), which were consistent with the Five Factor Model and were created to ensure that the general characteristics sampled were embedded in an education context. In the realm of teacher personality research, Raudenbush, Rowan and Cheong (1992) hypothesized that if the self-efficacy of high school teachers were situated with the individual teacher rather than a global basis, it would vary within the teacher across several assigned classes as well as among teachers. If self- efficacy is not universal, then some teaching situations would require greater skill, would require more exhausting performances, and carry greater risk of unappealing consequences than others. The researchers suspected that teachers who believed they taught well also believed that their students could learn well. Raudenbush et al.’s (1992) analysis of survey data from academic teachers in sixteen high schools confirmed the existence of substantial variation within a teacher. The sense of self-efficacy varied according to track assignment, but practically vanished once student engagement was controlled. Teacher self- efficacy and student engagement therefore acted reciprocally, emerging as the offshoot of ongoing interaction. Teachers reported lower self-efficacy when teaching younger students. This runs counter to the positive self-efficacy that elementary school teachers reported. An unexpected result came from the relationship between self-efficacy and class size. Larger classes contributed to a greater sense of efficacy. This is contrary to the current trend in California toward Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 class size reduction. However, thus far, the reduction program has taken place in elementary classes, where students are much less mature than in high school. As a rule, a teacher's personal background had little impact upon self- efficacy, though women reported higher levels than men did. Disciplinary background was of little importance except that track effects did vary across disciplines. The most telling information came from organizational environments. Teachers who told of higher levels of staff collaboration and higher levels of control of instructional delivery also reported higher mean levels of efficacy (Raudenbush et al, 1992). This bodes well for school districts that have embarked upon restructuring to allow for more teacher participation, decision-making, and peer collaboration. Researchers analyzed two separate longitudinal teacher cohorts to examine the dropout rates by teachers considered idealists (Miech and Elder, 1996). Of all occupations, idealists were most likely to enter teaching. The two groups of American teachers came from the period from 1960-64, the era of heightened public service, and the more egocentric period from 1972-86. They found that among those who entered teaching for altruistic or service to humanity reasons, they were more likely to leave the profession within a few years. This study investigated the effect of motivation for service on persistence or hardiness in teaching. The authors found that men in both cohorts departed the profession and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 women in the latter group left. Women in the 1960’ s did not leave, probably because they had fewer work options at the time. Miech and Elder (1996) hypothesized that there would be dissonance between idealists and their chosen profession. Their results bore this out. The possibility of higher salaries in other professions was not a draw away from teaching nor was the desire to become an administrator. Although poor working conditions and low pay contributed to stress, Miech and Elder contended that idealists were eventually frustrated by a career that offered them few tangible goals or means of evaluation of their job. Uncertain feedback on the outcome of work was an ongoing element in teaching. This endemic uncertainty as described by Lortie (1975) is the most compelling argument. Related research could look at idealists who entered other professions to determine what work factors affect the health and psychology of service-oriented individuals. It may be that no type of work fully satisfies their idealistic tendencies. Cross-validated regression among general and special education teachers by Billingsley and Cross (1992) suggested that work-related variables such as leadership support, role conflict, role ambiguity and stress were better predictors of commitment and job satisfaction than were demographic variables. Meanwhile, George, George, Gersten and Grosenick (July, 1995) found that, among teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders, those who might leave teaching and those who might stay were not differentiated by personal characteristics such Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 as experience, training, or competency. They were more differentiated by variables involving the organizational structure of the school site such as time available for working on curricula and paperwork, level of support, and the type of service delivery. Reyes (1990) used multivariate procedures to analyze the relationship between work orientation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment among public school teachers. Personal and organizational attributes such as age, tenure, school size and gender were examined to assess their contribution in explaining satisfaction and commitment. He surveyed 150 teachers from a Midwestern state. Results of the study indicated that work orientation was related to the degree of job satisfaction among teachers. Apparently, organizational commitment was not related to the type of work orientation that teachers held. These findings have substantive and theoretical implications. This study showed that those teachers who held a utilitarian work orientation experienced greater dissatisfaction and were less committed to the school. Should administrators use only non-utilitarian work incentives to motivate teachers? For school administrators, Reyes’ (1990) results may provide information on how different value orientations affect teachers' productivity. They suggest that job satisfaction and organizational commitment should be carefully analyzed using other variables such as school climate and administrative style. However, Chapman (1984) found that the factors most within an administrator’s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 realm of influence (e.g., professional integration variables) show the least relationship to attrition. Moreover, among those who entered teaching, the quality of first teaching experience was more strongly related to subsequent attrition than was either their academic performance or the perceived adequacy of their educational performance. This bolsters arguments supporting student teaching preparation prior to the first year in the profession. Finally, the single strongest predictor of retention for Chapman was initial commitment to teaching. Ellen Moir (1996) worked with teacher education colleagues to support the efforts of first year teachers. In daily interaction with new teachers, Moir noted various developmental phases. Beginning with anticipation during the student teaching portion of pre-service preparation, new teachers focused and became consumed with the day-to-day survival routines. After six to eight weeks of constant work, novices entered a period of self-doubt and disillusionment in which classroom management was a major source of distress. Following winter break, a rejuvenation phase found new teachers with renewed hope and a broader perspective. Near the end of the school year, first year teachers began to reflect upon their successes, shortcomings and challenges for the next year. As a result of her empirically constructed theory of teacher development, Frances F. Fuller (Fuller, 1969; Fuller and Bown, 1975) found that teachers move through a sequence of accumulative concern phases. Beginning with self-survival, they continue into a performance stage and, after a period of success, into a stage Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 of concentration on student benefit and understanding. Thus, in early pre-service preparation, prospective teachers display the characteristic of being more concerned about their own progress as students than about teaching (self concerns). More mature teachers focus upon fostering meaningful, positive influences upon their pupils (input concerns). Later, their focus shifts to actual teacher performance (task concerns). The Fuller model (Fuller, 1969; Fuller and Bown, 1975) stipulated that correctly addressing the three stages of concern during pre-service and early in- service training would reduce the feelings of anxiety experienced by beginning teachers, while increasing their feelings of adequacy. Appropriate experiences are essential to teachers’ successful passage through the concern phases. Fuller further implied in her study that, "no one seems to have had the temerity to survey the concerns of experienced, inferior teachers. Even if concerns are not related to outcome, controlling for concerns may help untangle conflicting results about teacher personality and teaching behavior" (p.223). This research brought into question the method and sequence of new teacher preparation. It was proposed that education students teach briefly before enrolling in education courses. Procedures that resolve early concerns and hasten student teacher and new teacher career enthusiasm and maturity were seen as desirable. But only forty-four percent of teachers state having participated in formal first-year mentoring programs, even though participation in such a program is known to reduce the attrition rate by up Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 to two-thirds (Darling-Hammond, 1997). Furthermore, Lortie (1975) first propounded the phenomenon of teaching as a career that possesses no sense of progression through stages of advancement. Relying upon Fuller’s evidence, Marso and Pigge undertook a series of studies. The first (Marso and Pigge, 1987) examined the extent to which twenty- four working conditions impacted upon the self-perceived reality shock of four groups of beginning teachers in three types of schools. The second (Pigge and Marso, 1987) was a longitudinal investigation of changes in students' anxiety, attitude, concerns and confidence about becoming a teacher during teacher training and whether these changes were related to selected student characteristics. Their analysis suggested that prospective teachers have different beliefs and feelings upon entrance to teacher training, that training had differing effects upon various classifications of individuals, and that those wishing to make meaningful assessments of the impact of teacher training must consider characteristics of the prospective teachers. In 1997, Pigge and Marso presented three separate longitudinal studies, which utilized personal characteristics as associated with teacher commitment. Their seven-year study published in Teaching and Teacher Education indicated that relationships existed between changes in teaching concerns and the teachers' capabilities and feelings. In a paper presented to the American Educational Research Association, Pigge and Marso (1997) investigated whether or not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 selected academic ability indices and personal characteristics were associated with changes in attitude toward teaching as a career measured at three stages over a five year period. The results of another seven-year study published in The Journal of Experimental Education (Marso and Pigge, 1997) lent support to several generalizations about teacher attrition. Among those were that the rate of teacher candidate attrition through teacher preparation and the early years of teaching was approximately fifty percent. Those teacher candidates almost certain or very certain about becoming teachers upon the commencement of teacher preparation were almost twice as likely to actually become teachers than are those uncertain about their decision to become teachers. In the past few years, more attention has been paid to the hypothesis that dispositions within the individual, unrelated to job attributes, have an effect on job satisfaction. Theoretical recognition of the possible dispositional influences upon job satisfaction preceded by many decades (Fisher and Hanna, 1931) the empirical evidence generated to support the dispositional hypothesis (Staw, Bell and Clausen, 1986; Staw and Ross, 1985). Brief, Butcher and Roberson (1995) demonstrated the underlying psychological processes for the dispositional source of job satisfaction. Here, the research showed a person interprets task attributes through the filter of their individual dispositional inclinations. Attempting to illuminate the relationship between disposition and job satisfaction, Judge et al. (1997) presented a theory that directly connected core self Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 evaluations with job satisfaction. At that time, core self-evaluations were defined as basic evaluations that people made about themselves and their own value. The model offered that core self-evaluations affect job satisfaction through the emotional generalizations which state that a person’s positive self-impressions tend to positively impact work. Judge et al. (1998) continued to focus their hypothesis on the concept of core self-evaluation that consisted of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and non-neuroticism. They further theorized that core self-evaluations had direct and indirect influence on job satisfaction and directly influenced life satisfaction. Judge, et al. (1998), found that, independent of the job’s attributes, such self-evaluations have a consistent impact on job satisfaction. Their factor analysis displayed that self-esteem and self-efficacy had the most influence on core self- evaluation. The more positive a person’s self-evaluation, the more likely the individual holds a highly positive view of the job than do people with more negative self-evaluations. Indirectly, their findings suggested that core evaluations influence the actual perceptions of work attributes, which are known to affect one’s job appraisal. Agreeing with Rand’s (1993) assertion that “self-esteem is reliance on one’s power to think” (p. 181), Judge et al. professed that, if a person’s satisfaction with work has its basis in delusional thinking, such self-deception will not translate into efficacy over time. Rand further theorized that high self-esteem and self-efficacy partially caused high ability. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Judge et al. (2000) conducted two studies that produced similar results. In all the studies’ cases, core self-evaluations were significantly related to both a job’s complexity and the respondents’ job satisfaction. Later in 2000, Judge and Bono linked Big Five traits to transformational leadership behavior. They found certain traits positively predicted leadership, which in turn predicted several outcomes reflecting leadership effectiveness. Conclusion As the nation's population evolves, so must its teacher core reflect those changes and adapt to the requirements of a rapidly changing workplace and marketplace. In order to attract and retain professional educators, the educational establishment must recognize an environment to which teachers and administrators will remain committed. This literature review examined the body of research of the many factors that diminish or contribute to teacher commitment. The most studied phenomenon has been job satisfaction. Research involving job satisfaction generally uses either global or specific measures to derive the relationship of factors to the individual's level of satisfaction. The various facets that comprise job satisfaction warrant examination. Many researchers established job satisfaction as the basis for a sense of efficacy in the teaching occupation and a sense of community within the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 organization. Intrinsic and extrinsic organizational factors emerged which add or detract from the sense of efficacy and indirectly, career commitment. Though commitment depends on a number of individual personality factors, teachers frequently derived efficacy from the intrinsic rewards generated in their classrooms. Factors that repeatedly came out were administrative leadership and administrative interaction with teachers that had the effect of supporting or hindering a teacher's feeling of success with students. One study found that the personality component of hardiness rather than school climate had a greater impact upon levels of alienation. Others have sought to establish the various preparation and professional stages through which teachers pass. Some researchers have focused on the psychological composition, perceptions, and personality of teachers. Recent studies have examined dispositional factors and their effect upon perceived self-efficacy and associated job satisfaction. Additional studies have taken note of peer collaboration and mentor assistance as a means of helping novice and veteran teachers. New teachers often come to the profession excited and idealistic, but their job satisfaction is soon worn away. Once trainees attain a position, myriad issues confront them with limited collegial or administrative support. Isolated and frustrated, these educators begin to doubt their efficacy in the classroom and their own worth within the profession. Their alienation and burnout complete, these teachers make the painful decision to leave the profession. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Previous research has examined the commitment among veteran teachers. It is important to look at all teachers, their potential for commitment and inclination towards heightened, sustained job satisfaction. The purpose of this study is to assist educators and administrators in identifying in veterans and teacher trainees those factors that contribute to long-term commitment, focus support, and nurture those individuals. This is necessary in order to retain seasoned professionals and teacher candidates who display personal characteristics of commitment, pedagogical prowess, and positive outlook over the long term. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY The general purpose of this study was to examine the commitment and retention of teachers. It sought to develop a clearer understanding of the personal factors that support satisfaction, heightened commitment and ultimately a desire to remain in teaching. The study has its theoretical basis in the work of Judge et al. (1997, 1998, 2000) which professes that individuals hold core self-evaluation concepts which appear to be determinants of job satisfaction and professional outlook. Specifically, the current study focused on comparing the perceptions and personal characteristics of all teacher participants, on establishing congruence between novices and experts, and attempting to note early warning signs of impending departure from the profession. Thus, its primary objective became to use survey data to measure the effects of teacher personal characteristics upon job satisfaction. This quantitative, non-experimental research design study analyzed demographic factors against efficacy and job satisfaction scales to compare outlook, views on the profession, and long-term goals among new and veteran teachers. Results of this study attempted to identify whether the self-efficacy and satisfaction of long-term professionals in this school district coincided with that of its newcomers. Further, a relationship between factor scales and job satisfaction Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 was sought. A sample of all teachers in the school district in 1999 was given a survey to complete and return to the researcher during a faculty meeting at their own school sites. These meetings were held in a classroom, school library or auditorium, which allowed for setting generalizability. Development of the Instrument Sample A large urban school district in Los Angeles County, California has had an average of 32,600 teachers since the 1996 school year (LAUSD Personnel Division, 2000). For administrative purposes, the district at the time had been divided into high school clusters. Each cluster or school family consisted of one high school, one or more middle or junior high schools and several elementary schools. To obtain a sampling of the entire school district, one or more elementary schools in five of the clusters were selected to represent the elementary schools in the district. The sampling reflects the ethnic and socio-economic composition of the teachers in the entire district. This sample consisted of 310 teachers in kindergarten through fifth grade from eight schools. Student populations for the schools ranged from about 600 to 1350 pupils. As a result of the school site reform movement in the district, the schools and their faculties were in varying reform stages, which ranged from transitional to static. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Scale Measures The survey contained a total of eighty-six statements (Appendix A: Center for Teacher Selection and Development, Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99, p. 150). Eleven of the statements were adapted from the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999), seventeen statements were adapted from the University of Southern California (USC) Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker, & Grayson, 1998), twenty-three statements came from the USC Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker, Grayson, Colyor, & Guarino, 1998), and twenty-one statements were derived from the Teacher Career Commitment Survey (Yee, 1990). The first three surveys were selected because they bore known characteristics and alpha reliability within their scales. The scales developed for the current study used familiar techniques within logical structure based upon factor analysis. Additionally, teacher demographic information was requested so scale items might be studied in relation to teacher personal characteristics. The full survey began with demographic data obtained through fourteen questions with two to five choices. The information requested included: gender, ethnicity, years of employment, years teaching, current grade level assignment, subject area, percentage of students reading below grade level, employment status, graduate credits, marital status, children at home, Spanish fluency, second job employment, and means of entry to the teaching profession. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 The School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich,1999) was based upon the California Distinguished Schools Criteria and Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) Standards. Its purpose was to examine teacher responses in order to provide for school improvement and planning by looking at overall school effectiveness. In the current study, the scale factors based on the School Status Survey included teaching environment, overall school program performance, and program effectiveness, items which comprised some of the major facets of commitment and efficacy. The USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998) was developed by the USC School of Education faculty in an effort to provide services to its graduates. The scale factors in the USC survey were designed to elaborate on how student perspectives and experiences contributed to their professional development. Its elements included teaching higher order mental skills, instructional processes, and assessing individual differences and managing instruction. A longer experimental survey form of the USC Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker, et al., 1998) was originally designed, in partnership with the American Educational Research Association, to provide college students and their academic advisors insight into those student characteristics that might be useful when making professional choices and instructional decisions. That study sought to describe personal characteristics that predict beginning teacher success and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 professional satisfaction. The abbreviated USC Teacher Characteristic Survey used three scales, Efficacious/ Confident, Conscientious/Responsible and Collaborative/ Supportive, which were derived empirically using factor analytic techniques. The sample used to derive these scales included students who had just completed student teaching and were scheduled to graduate and enter their first year of teaching. Yee’s Teacher Career Commitment Survey (1990) looked at teacher job satisfaction, professional involvement, job retention, job attrition, and teacher attitudes towards the workplace. It examined career outcomes from the perspectives of teachers in three comprehensive high schools in which variation in workplace conditions might be expected. The instrument used a variety of rating scales, fill in the blank items, and open-ended questions. The current study modified any items based upon the Yee survey to align them within a uniform format. Table 1 shows the criteria areas of the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999), USC Teacher Characteristics Survey (Baker, et al, 1998), Teacher Career Commitment Survey (Yee, 1990), and the USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Survey (Baker & Grayson, 1998) aligned to the item numbers of this study’s survey. Empirical organization required development of a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Table 1. Combined Surveys Criteria Criteria Areas and Categories Item Numbers Job Satisfaction 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30, School Effectiveness 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 Vision and Leadership 41, 46 Teacher Professionalism 45 Curricular Content and Linkage 42 Instructional Practices 37, 39 Assessment 36, 37, 40, 42 Personalized Academic Growth 44 Collaborative and Supportive 47, 50, 54, 56, 63, 67, 68 Conscientious and Responsible Efficacious and Confident 66 Instructional Processes Assessing Individual Differences/ Managing Instruction T each in g H igh er O rder T hinking 7 2 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 82, 86 * Criteria areas and item numbers correspond to the empirical and logical scales found in Appendix B. 52, 55, 58, 59, 61, 62, 69 48, 49,51, 53, 57, 60, 64, 65, 70, 74, 75, 83, 84 71, 73, 78, 80, 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 comprehensive model that reflected the four source surveys (Appendix B: Empirical and Logical Scales, p. 157). Apart lfom the fourteen demographic items, the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999), USC Teacher Characteristics Survey (Baker et al„ 1998), and Teacher Career Commitment Survey (Yee, 1990) elements used a five-item Likert scale. Teachers marked spaces corresponding with the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement. The USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Survey (Baker & Grayson, 1998) respondents marked their perceived level of preparedness on the five-item Likert scale with answers ranging from one as “low” to five as “high” for teaching higher order mental skills, instructional processes, and assessing individual differences and managing instruction. In the current survey instrument, all items were grouped by scale, yet randomized. The scale items in this database were organized through numeric expression to derive a relative intensity for the discrete scales. This derived figure served as a constant for each scale and allowed for subsequent factor analysis of the various scales. Single classification Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was the procedure utilized to determine if any of the ten scales were associated with any of the demographic background data. This permitted a further reduction of variables from the previous analyses. A second order factor analysis confirmed the previous logical and empirical work. This exercise pointed towards a further collapse of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 scales as minimal interaction arose between some members of the scale model with background and experience. Without any real form of external criteria, there came a great deal of data manipulation within this correlational study. Factor loading established distinct scales. Factor analysis yielded ten reliable factors. Scale factor reliability analysis (Appendix C: Reliability Analysis - Scale Alpha, p. 162) indicated seven viable scales with the following results: Overall School Effectiveness, alpha = .88 Collaborative/Supportive, alpha = .82 Conscientious/Responsible, alpha = .82 Efficacious/Confident, alpha = .85 Instructional Processes, alpha = .83 Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction, alpha = .81 Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, alpha = .86 There came a high degree of collinearity among the first three scales and the final three scales. Analysis of job satisfaction scales proved unproductive, when considered as a whole. However, one scale described as General Satisfaction with the Teaching Profession produced an alpha of .66, while two individual items from that initial scale, Relationship with Fellow Teachers and Relationship with Supervisor, demonstrated strength and thus were used as single item scales to be examined empirically. Once the scales had been determined, the central research questions were again addressed in the process of arriving at answers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 Procedures The Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 (TS) was a teacher self- report questionnaire (Appendix A, p. 150). Permission was sought from the district and obtained from each site principal prior to distribution of surveys. Arrangements were made to conduct the survey with the entire faculty at each school, during a regular faculty or professional development meeting. At these meetings, the researcher gave explicit verbal and written explicit instructions towards a candid and unbiased teacher response to the survey. Participants were informed that the survey should not take longer than 25 minutes to finish. Each completed, submitted survey afforded the respondent the chance to participate in a post-survey opportunity drawing. Winners in this raffle chose from a wide selection of educational materials. All completed questionnaires were collected prior to the researcher’s departure from the school site. Individual teacher responses served as the basis for analysis of the results (see Appendix D: Overall Initial Teacher Self-Assessment Results, p. 181). In order to obtain reliable and subsequently valid data, and to protect the subjects from undue risks, all responses remained strictly confidential. Still, respondents may have given socially desirable responses. Teachers received an assurance of anonymity as well as the opportunity to receive the results of the study. All surveys were coded to ensure complete confidentiality. Absolutely no names of the school, the principal, or any teacher were written on any survey, or referred to in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 the completed study. Each answer document was examined to ascertain that only one response for each item had been marked and that all questions had been answered. The scoring procedure for the Teacher Survey assigned the Likert numerical scale (1-5) to each item response so that the item became a single variable coded in an SPSS data file consistent with its item number on the survey. Data Analysis Since the Teacher Survey was to be used to design professional development and educational improvements, it was necessary to yield measures that had value for users. The resultant quantity of factors was dependent on the researcher’s attempt to maximize items and clusters of items that appeared to sustain independence from other item-clusters across the factor analysis. Inter-scale correlations were run to examine the factor scales’ uniqueness. The ten factor scales were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA to determine if there were overall relationships between the background variables and the job satisfaction, teaching environment, efficacy, and perceived preparedness scales. To test the factor scales’ uniqueness and significant associations, inter-scale correlations were evaluated. Within the scope of a path analysis, linear regression was performed to see if there was any relationship between the ten scales. The path analysis specifically sought to establish if there were significant direct, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 indirect, and modifying effects upon general job satisfaction by the remaining nine scale measures. Summary This non-experimental research design analyzed job satisfaction, relationships with teachers and supervisors, collaboration and support, conscientiousness and responsibility, efficacy and confidence, instructional processes, assessment of individuals and instruction, and teaching higher order mental skills against personal characteristics. The sample was a random selection of all teachers who were teaching during the 1998-1999 school year in a large urban school district in Los Angeles County, California. These teachers completed a four-page survey comprised of eighty-six statements to assess their satisfaction with their career selection, their sense of efficacy in the profession, and the likelihood of their remaining in the profession. First, demographic information was attained in the initial page of the study. Then, teachers were assessed utilizing questions drawn from Yee’s Teacher Career Commitment Survey (1990), the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999), the University of Southern California’s Metropolitan Teacher Education Program (Baker & Grayson, 1998) and the University of Southern California Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker et al., 1998). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 This study eventually used seventeen of the twenty-one items based upon Yee’s Teacher Career Commitment Survey (1990) to look at teacher job satisfaction and professional relationships. The School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999) scale contained eleven factors covering teaching environment, overall school program performance, and overall effectiveness. The USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998) provided three scales with seventeen scale factors designed to elaborate on teaching higher order mental skills, instructional processes, and assessing individual differences and managing instruction. The USC Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker et al., 1998) used twenty-three items in three scales dealing with efficaciousness and confidence, conscientiousness and responsibility, and collaboration and support. Of the 316 surveys distributed to teachers, a total of 310 surveys were returned and scored with a resultant response rate of ninety-eight percent. One way Analysis of Variance sought to find relationships among personal background variables and measure scales. Inter-scale correlations measured the relationship between factor scales. Utilizing linear regression, a path analysis was performed to reveal whether there were any significant relationships between the scale factors and general job satisfaction. The path analysis looked at the revised seven measures’ direct and modifying effects upon teacher job satisfaction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Chapter 4 RESULTS The purpose of this study was to establish a model to determine if there were personal characteristics, which are related to commitment, retention, and teacher job satisfaction. This chapter presents the results of the statistical analysis of the Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 (TS), which was derived from questions contained in the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999), the USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998), the USC Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker et al., 1998), and the Teacher Career Commitment Survey (Yee, 1990). The study largely has its theoretical basis in the path analysis model (Judge et al., 2000) that professes individuals hold core self-evaluation concepts, which appear to be determinants of job satisfaction. Judge et al. (1997) proposed that dispositional factors served as a basis for situational appraisals. Judge et al. (1998) focused on core self-evaluations that the researchers surmised to have direct effects on job satisfaction. Judge et al. (2000) hypothesized the mediating indirect role of perceived job characteristics and job complexity upon the relationship between core evaluations and job satisfaction. Judge and Bono (2000) linked certain traits from the five-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1985) to transformational leadership behaviors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The current study sought to develop a clearer understanding of the personal factors that support satisfaction, heightened commitment, and ultimately a desire to remain in teaching. Specifically, it focused on the comparison of perceptions and personal characteristics. First, descriptive data on the teacher sample are presented. Then, the remainder of the Teacher Survey is described, the inter-item and inter-factor scale correlations are discussed, and results of the statistical analyses are given. Descriptive Data The descriptive data in this section were compiled from the initial fourteen questions of the current survey with two to five possible choices. The requested information included: gender, ethnicity, years of employment, years in teaching, current grade level assignment, primary subject area for upper level teachers, percent of students three years below grade level in reading, employment status, graduate level credits, marital status, number of children living at home, Spanish proficiency, second job during teaching, and means of entry into the profession. Table 2 is limited to a depiction of gender, ethnicity, years employed, years in teaching, Spanish proficiency, graduate level credits, marital status, and employment status. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Table 2 Demographics of Teacher Sample (N = 310) Teacher Responses Frequency Percent (n) (% ) Gender Male 56 18.1 Female 253 81.6 Ethnicity African-American 14 4.5 Hispanic/Latino 77 24.8 Caucasian 179 58.3 Asian 22 7.1 Other 15 4.8 Years Employed I-5 42 13.5 6-10 41 13.2 II-15 60 19.4 16-20 35 11.3 21 or more 132 42.6 Years Teaching I-5 132 42.6 6-10 50 16.1 II-15 35 11.3 16-20 27 8.7 21 or more 66 21.3 Spanish Proficiency (speak, read and write) Yes 126 40.6 No 183 59.0 Graduate Credits 0-15 55 17.9 16-30 37 12.1 31-45 68 22.1 46-60 140 45.6 61 or more 7 2.3 Marital Status Married 180 59.0 Single 125 40.3 Employment Status Substitute/Other 7 2.3 Emergency Contract 57 18.5 Probationary Status 54 17.5 Intern 14 4.5 Permanent 176 57.1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 The eighty-six item survey (Appendix A, p. 150) was given to 316 teachers from eight elementary schools. Of these, 310 surveys were scored by computer. This was a response rate of ninety-eight percent. Overall, the stratified sampling of teachers was somewhat similar to the entire district’s demographics for teacher ethnicity and gender. The district had 15.2 percent African-American teachers, 23.6 percent Hispanic/Latinoteachers, 50.8 percent Caucasian teachers, 7.8 percent Asian teachers, and 2.6 percent teachers from other ethnic groups (LAUSD Personnel Division, 2000). The sample for the current study had 4.5 percent African-American teachers, 25.1 percent Hispanic/Latino teachers, 58.3 percent Caucasian teachers, 7.2 percent Asian teachers, and 4.9 percent teachers from other ethnic groups. Additionally, the district employed 69.4 percent female teachers while this sample had 81.9 percent female and 18.1 male teachers. By far, the greater number of teachers, 42.6 percent, had been employed twenty-one or more years. Any disparity in a comparison of the district and sample percentages may in part be due to the fact that the district figures included teachers from secondary schools. Of those with the most work experience, exactly half, or 21.3 percent, had taught for twenty-one years or more. The largest category of those with teaching experience fell into the one to five year range with 42.6 percent. The remaining groups showed 16.1 percent with six to ten years in teaching, 11.3 percent with Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. eleven to fifteen years as teachers, and 8.7 percent with between sixteen and twenty years in the classroom. A large group of respondents, 40.6 percent, were fluent in the Spanish language. Also, 59.0 percent of all teachers were married. A clear majority, 57.1 percent, held permanent certification. There were only 2.3 percent serving as substitutes. Teachers without permanent status and who were not substitutes made up a total of 40.5 percent. A plurality of 45.6 percent had from forty-six to sixty graduate credits. 22.1 percent had from thirty-one to forty-five credits, 12.1 percent held from sixteen to thirty credits, 17.9 had fifteen or fewer graduate credits and only 2.3 percent possessed sixty-one or more credits. Measure The Teacher Survey was designed to provide a measure of teacher commitment, satisfaction, and persistence. Subsequent to the initial fourteen demographic questions, the remaining seventy-two questions used a Likert scale with one to five possible choices. Teachers responded to questions fifteen through sixty-nine by marking the extent to which they strongly disagreed (1), disagreed (2), were not sure (3), agreed (4), or strongly agreed (5) with each statement. For questions seventy through eighty-six, educators marked their perceived level of preparedness with answers ranging from low (1) to high (5). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 Questions fifteen through thirty-five in section II dealt with teacher satisfaction derived from Yee’s Teacher Career Commitment Survey (1990). The third section contained questions thirty-six through forty-six which had been adapted from the School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich, 1999). This section was designed to examine teacher responses as they pertained to school improvement and planning. The lead-in question asked how strongly teachers agreed that the section questions were evident in their own school. In section IV, the lead-in question sought to find to what extent statements forty-seven through sixty-nine described the respondent. Questions from this part of the survey came from the USC Teacher Characteristic Survey (Baker et al., 1998). Finally, section V asked teachers to indicate their perceived level of preparedness for the instructional tasks stated in questions seventy to eighty-six. This final portion of the survey had its basis in the USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998). Prior to analysis, the initial demographic questions were assigned an alphabetic letter to facilitate later comparison with the remaining factor statements. For coding purposes, value labels were altered, so that question number fifteen on the survey, the first question in Job Satisfaction section II, became question one. The remaining statements were renumbered sequentially through seventy-two. A preliminary psychometric workup created ten apparent factor scales from all the items contained in each of sections II through V. To show relative intensity, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. variable statements for each of the scales were added and divided by the constant number of items in each particular scale, thus providing a constant for discussion of normative characteristics within an interpretable framework. Eventually all questions were grouped into eight multi-factor scales and two single factor scales. Inter-item Correlations An inter-item correlation was computed to examine the magnitude of the correlations between items and the factor to which they belonged. In most instances, each item contributed to its factor. Reliability seeks to establish the consistency of scores between measurements in a series. It refers to the dependability of a measurement provided by independent but comparable measures of the same trait. This indicates the extent to which there is cohesiveness or an interrelationship among the items within each factor (Shavelson, 1996). Reliability estimates in the form of Cronbach’s (1951) alphas are depicted along with scale factor means and standard deviations in Table 3 (see also: Appendix C, p. 162). Since Relationship with Fellow Teachers and Relationship with the Supervisor were single factor scales, they did not bear any statistics. The remaining scales demonstrated acceptable alpha reliability, with General Satisfaction showing the lowest alpha of .66 as well as the lowest mean at 1.30. The six scales that were to become either the Teaching Competencies scale components or Core Self-Evaluations had respectable alphas, which ranged Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 between .82 and .87. The highest mean score came from Overall School Effectiveness (3.61), which also had the largest alpha value of .88. Overall School Effectiveness demonstrated a standard deviation of 7.75, the highest for all the scales. Efficacious/Confident showed a high mean (3.50) and a standard deviation of 5.46. The remaining factor scales had means of less than 30. Initial factor analysis sought to determine what characteristics pointed to a person’s staying in the profession. For ease of identification, the initial fourteen demographic items were labeled with alphabetic letters from b through o. Items f, g, and h were excluded from further evaluation. Consequently, questions originally numbered fifteen through eighty-six were re-labeled Question 1 (Ql) through Question 72 (Q72). Yee (1990) provided the items in Section II (Questions 1-21) which focused specifically on job satisfaction. Taken all together, the job satisfaction items did not scale well and items 1, 8, 9, 11,12, and 18 were dropped outright. Questions 8 and 12 dealt with motherhood and the others eliminated were loaded on factors that were strong enough without them. In order to have them function properly, Questions 14 and 17 were recoded prior to creating scales from the job satisfaction items, because the two questions were negatively stated and, therefore, negatively loaded. Three useful scales appeared to come out of the initial factor analysis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 Table 3 Factor Reliability Estimates for the Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 Factor # ofltems Mean Standard Deviation Aloha Relationship with Fellow Teachers 1 _____ ___ _____ Relationship with Supervisor 1 ---- ---- -------- General Satisfaction 5 1.30 3.88 .6 6 Efficacious/Confident 9 3.50 5.46 .85 Conscientious/Responsible 7 2.87 4.52 .82 Collaborative/Supportive 7 2.87 4.33 .82 Instructional Processes 5 2.09 3.03 .83 Assessing Individual Differences/ Managing Instruction 6 2.44 3.75 .83 Teaching Higher Order Thinking 6 2.48 3.57 .87 Overall School Effectiveness 11 3.61 7.75 .8 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 First, a scale labeled Perceived Professional Effectiveness that included Questions 2, 4, 5, 7, and 21 in Section n. However, the reliability analysis for these items yielded an alpha value of only .50. A second job satisfaction scale, named Professional Ambition, had a slightly better alpha of .5644. It included Questions 3, 6,13, 17 (recoded), and 19. Finally, a scale called General Satisfaction with the Teaching Profession contained items 10, 14 (recoded), 15, 16, and 20. This scale had an alpha value of .6630. Based upon later evaluation of other scale reliability analyses, this latter scale was the only one of the three included in the overall analysis. It had the lowest of the ten Cronbach alphas, as well as the lowest mean, shown in Table 3. Furthermore, Question 5, which dealt with teacher camaraderie, and Question 7, which sought to establish a connection between teachers and their site administrator, were non-homogeneous and became the single item scales of Relationship with Fellow Teachers and Relationship with the Supervisor. Since all items in section IH (Questions 22-32) were derived from the Baker/Matakovich survey (1999), they were grouped into the School Effectiveness scale and derived an alpha of .88, the highest included in Table 3. The USC study (Baker et al., 1998) provided items for three empirical scales from Section IV (Questions 33-55). The scales were called Efficacious/Confident, Conscientious/Responsible and Collaborative/Supportive, which were later to become the Core Self-evaluations utilized in path analysis. Alpha values for the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 Baker et al. study were consistent with those for the current study. Table 4 compares the results from previous studies with the current findings. Section V (Questions 56-72) was comprised of questions from the USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998). Factors were grouped into the three scales Instructional Processes, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, that would later all be collapsed into a single scale called Teaching Competencies during the path analysis. The resultant alpha values for the current study were again consistent with the Baker and Grayson study. That study derived Instructional Processes that had an alpha of .82, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction showed an alpha value of .86, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills bore an alpha of .89. The current study carried the following alpha values: Instructional Processes alpha = .83, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction alpha = .83, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills had an alpha of .87. Although there was a great deal of collinearity between the three USC (1998) and the three Metropolitan (1998) scales, it was decided not to further collapse the items into fewer scales. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4 Alpha Comparison - Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 (TS) and Previous Studies Factor Alpha Previous Study Alpha TCS Name Previous Study Efficacious/Confident .85 USC (Baker et al.) .83 Conscientious/Responsible .82 USC (Baker et al.) .80 Collaborative/Supportive .82 USC (Baker et al.) .81 Instructional Processes .83 Metropolitan Teacher Survey (Baker & Grayson) .82 Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction .83 Metropolitan Teacher Survey (Baker & Grayson) .8 6 Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills .87 Metropolitan Teacher Survey (Baker & Grayson) .89 Overal School Effectiveness .8 8 School Status Survey (Baker & Matakovich) .84 83 Inter-Scale Correlations Inter-factor scale correlations were performed to test the factor scales’ uniqueness. The results indicated that there were a number of instances in which scales demonstrated a significant correlation as shown in Table 5. The combined factor scale for Teaching Competencies is also included in the data. The scales were correlated using a Pearson product-moment correlation, r, to measure the strength of a linear association between two variables (Shavelson, 1996). There were several relationships that could be predicted. Chief among them, Collaborative/Supportive, Conscientious/Responsible, and Efficacious/ Confident should have interacted significantly. Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills should have related significantly among themselves. The teacher colleague and supervisor relational scales also could be expected to inter-relate. Among the eleven scales, there were fifty-five pairs, thus fifty-five correlation coefficients. Thirty-five pairings proved significant at the 0.01, two-tailed level and there was one significant pairing at the 0.05, two-tailed level. As noted herein, several of the coefficients displayed significantly substantial associations. The scale Collaborative/Supportive (COLSUP on the correlation matrix) had a strong association with Conscientious/Responsible (CONRES) with a Pearson correlation coefficient of .688 and a probability of .000 (see Appendix E: Correlation Matrix, p.185). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 5 Significant Inter-Scale Correlations for Elementary Teacher Sample GENSAT RELTCH RELSUP COLSUP CONRES EFFCON INSPRO AIDM THO TCHCOM SCHEFF General Satisfaction Relationship with . 170** Fellow Teachers Relationship with .227** Supervisor 392** Collaborative/ Supportive .246** 2 7 9 ** Conscientious/ Responsible .189** .6 8 8 ** Efficacious/Confident .137* .797** .779** Instructional Processes .360** .407** .438** Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction .373** .4 5 4 ** 4 5 9 ** .823** Teaching Higher Order Thinking .383** .432** .464** .799** .816** Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 5 (continued) Significant Inter-Scale Correlations for Elementary Teacher Sample GENSAT RELTCH RELSUP COLSUP CONRES EFFCON INSPRO A1DM THO TCHCOM SCHEFF Overall Teaching Competencies .3 9 6 * * .4 63** .4 92** .9 3 4 * * .9 4 2 * * .9 3 1 * * Overall School Effectiveness .3 1 4 * * .1 8 6 * * .3 5 9 * * .1 6 7 * * .1 6 1 * * . 190** .1 5 8 * * .175** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 0 0 86 Again, Collaborative/Supportive showed a strong association, when correlated with Efficacious/Confident (EFFCON). These scales had a coefficient of .797. The probability linked with this correlation was also -000. In addition to this relation, Efficacious/Confident correlated with Conscientious/Responsible (.779), Instructional Processes (INSPRO), .438, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction (AIDM), .459, Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills (THO), .464, and Teaching Competencies (TCHCOM), .492, all at .000. The latter scale reflects the combination of the three preceding scales. Collaborative/Supportive also correlated with both Relationship with Fellow Teachers (RELTCH), .246, and Relationship with Supervisor (RELSUP), .279. Conscientious/Responsible also correlated well with Instructional Processes (.407), Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction (.454), Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills (.432), Teaching Competencies (.463), and, as noted earlier, with Collaborative Supportive (.688), all at a significance of .000. Relationship with the Supervisor correlated with what were to become the Core Self-Evaluations: Efficacious/Confident, (.137, the only significant correlation at the .05 level), Conscientious/Responsible (.189), and Collaborative/Supportive (.279). This relational scale also correlated strongly with Perceived Overall School Effectiveness (SCHEFF), .359. Relationships with Fellow Teachers proved significantly correlated with Relationship with the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 Supervisor (.392), Collaborative/ Supportive (.246), and Perceived Overall School Effectiveness (.191). In fact, Perceived Overall School Effectiveness proved significantly correlated with all other scales, with the exception of Conscientious/Responsible and Efficacious/ Confident. A high correlation of .823 occurred when Instructional Processes (INSPRO) was correlated with Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction (AIDM) displaying a probability of .000. Instructional Processes proved highly associated with Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills with a Pearson coefficient of .799 at .000 significance. Another significantly high correlation of .816 took place when Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills was correlated with Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction at .000 significance. The correlations between the Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies indicated significance at the two-tailed 0.01 level. When paired up with Overall School Effectiveness (SCHEFF), General Job Satisfaction (GENSAT) had a correlation of .314. General Job Satisfaction did not show a particularly strong association with any of the other scales. Several of the previously discussed scale relations would be further indicated during the path analysis regressions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 Additional Comparative Analysis Each pertinent demographic variable described previously was compared as a criterion variable against all ten primary factor scales. Included in the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) data was descriptive information including mean, standard deviation, standard error, degrees of freedom, F value, and significance level (Appendix F: Analysis of Variance, p.l 88). When gender was matched against the scales, readily apparent were the low means for the General Job Satisfaction scale. With ten as the minimum score and fifty as the maximum, men showed a mean of 27.04 (SD = 7.35) and women had a lower mean of 25.84 (SD = 7.86). Both men and women had higher than average means in all areas, with the exception of Job Satisfaction. Males had higher means than females only on the factors of Relationship with the Supervisor (Mm a le s = 40.36, SD = 10.44) and Job Satisfaction. However, the gender ANOVA proved significant for Collaborative/ Supportive, Fi!304 = 5.181, p = .024, Conscientious/Responsible, Fij3 o 4 = 6.746, p = .010, Efficacious/Confident, FUOi = 4.903, p = .028, Instructional Processes, Fi,304 = 7.154, p = .008, and Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction, Fj,305 = 7.980, p = .005. The first three of these scales are the Core Self- evaluations and the latter two are included in the path analysis’ Teaching Competencies. Thus, it might be concluded that although sample teachers of both Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 genders were relatively unsatisfied, they still felt strongly positive about their competence and pedagogical ability. The one-way ANOVA for ethnicity showed relatively high means for all factor scales again, except for General Satisfaction. The thirteen African-American teachers in the study had the lowest mean (M A fnC a n _ A m e ric a n = 24.92, SD = 7.05) for satisfaction. Asian-Americans (N =22) had the next lowest mean (MA sia n _ A m e ric a n = 25.36, SD = 7.47). Ethnicity did not appear to be significant for any of the ten scales. Teachers indicating years of total overall employment showed similarly high means for the remaining nine scales, aside from General Satisfaction. When looking at General Satisfaction, persons working between eleven and twenty years had higher mean scores than the rest. Those employed from eleven to fifteen years showed a mean of 27.15 (SD = 7.84) and those employed between sixteen and twenty years had the highest mean score of 27.24 (SD = 7.83). Those individuals also had the highest mean Relationships with Fellow Teachers (Me m p io y ed l6 _ 20y rs = 42.35, SD = 7.81) and Relationship with Supervisors (Me m p io y e di6- 20y rs = 42.57, SD = 7.80). Teachers with over twenty-one years of employment generally had higher or the highest means in nearly all areas. But they had the lowest Job Satisfaction (A/e m p io y e d > 2iy rs = 25.29, SD = 7.62). For this demographic category, only Instructional Processes, F4, 302 = 4.390, p = .002, and Assessing Individual Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 Differences/Managing Instruction, F4 j 303 = 4.295, p = .002, showed significant relationships. When the variable “Years Teaching” was measured against the factor scales, teachers with one to five years experience had a higher mean satisfaction (M i^yrsteaching = 27.29, SD = 7.63) and those with sixteen to twenty years teaching experience displayed the lowest mean (Mi6_ 2iy rste a c h in g = 22.30, SD = 8.10). Longtime veteran teachers once again had the highest or high means not only in Relationship with Teachers, Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies, but also had low Perceived School Effectiveness and Relationships with the Supervisor. For General Job Satisfaction, the ANOVA for Years Teaching was significant, F4 ) 302 = 2.833, p = .025, and highly significant for Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, F4 > 303= 5.371,/? = .000, Instructional Processes, F4, 302 = 6.726, p = .000, and Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction, F4, 303 = 9.844, p = .000 (Appendix F4, p. 197). The employment status variable was recoded to correct for those few substitute teachers who participated in the survey. Substitutes were removed entirely. Consequently, emergency contract personnel, interns and any others were grouped together while probationary and permanent employees remained discrete categories. Although all groups had means lower than 30, emergency credentialed teachers and interns had the highest mean General Job Satisfaction (Me m e rg e n c y /in te rn = 27.32, SD = 7.24). Here, probationary personnel came out on top in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 Relationship with Fellow Teachers (Mp ro b a tio n a ry = 42.22, SD = 8.39), Relationship with the Supervisor ( M p r 0 b atio n a r y = 41.66, SD = 6.37) and Overall School Effectiveness (Mp ro b a tio n a ry = 34.11, SD = 6.06). Permanent employees scored higher means in Collaborative/Supportive (A fperim n e n / = 41.20, SD = 6.42), Conscientious/Responsible (A /p erm an en t = 41.67, SD = 6.74), Efficacious/Confident (A fp e rm a n e n t = 39.73, SD = 6.40), Instructional Processes (Mvenm ntnt = 43.64, SD = 5.26), Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction (Mvem aneB i = 42.60, SD = 5.52) and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills (Mr m ,a„ p m = 42.89, SD = 5.60). Employment status was significant during the ANOVA when looking at the factor scales of Conscientious/Responsible, F2,296 = 2.989, p = .052 and Efficacious/ Confident, F2 j 293 = 3.781, p = .024. Employment Status was highly significant in the areas of Instructional Processes, F2 ? 2 9 5 = 22.019, p = .000, Assessing Individual Difference/Managing Instruction, F2 ,2 9 6 = 21.775, p = .000, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, F2 ,296= 17.001, p = .000. When measuring for the number of graduate credits that teachers possess, descriptive statistics showed that those with fifteen or fewer credits had a higher mean (Af0 -i5c re d its = 27.60, SD = 7.18) General Job Satisfaction score than their colleagues. The next tier of teachers with sixteen to thirty credits had a mean of 42.66 (SD = 4.27) for the scale Collaborative/Supportive. Teachers with forty-six or more credits had the highest mean (M46 o r> c re d its = 43.22, SD = 5.38) in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 Instructional Processes, showed mean strength in all Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies, and demonstrated lower School Effectiveness, Relationships with the Supervisor, and Job Satisfaction. The ANOVA for graduate credits proved significant for five scales: Conscientious/Responsible, F4 ; 299 = 3.508, p = .008, Efficacious/Confident, F4;296 = 3.229, p = .013, Instructional Processes, F4 , 2 9 9 = 5.656, p = .000, Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction, F4 j 30o = 5.741, p = .000, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, F4 , 300 = 4.283, p = .002. Married educators had higher means for all the factor scales. They showed a slightly higher mean (Mn ia iT ie d = 26.44, SD = 7.42) for General Satisfaction than their single peers. The mean for married teachers was notably higher for Instructional Processes (Mm a rrie d = 42.21, SD = 5.69) as well as for Relationship with the Supervisor (Mm a rrie d = 41.44, SD = 9.98). Marital status was significant in the analysis of variance for Relationship with the Supervisor, Fi, 303 = 5.892, p = .016. Teachers with one to three children had higher means for Relationship with Fellow Teachers and the Teaching Competencies. Teachers who had four or more children had higher means for Relationship with the Supervisor, Collaborative/ Supportive, and Conscientious/Responsible. Although the descriptive data for those teachers who had four or more children showed that their mean for Job Satisfaction was significantly higher (M4 o rm o re k id s = 32.00, SD = 8.64) than that of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 other teachers, there was no significant association with this variable and any of the ten factor scales. Meanwhile, Spanish proficient teachers surpassed their non-proficient peers in the mean scores of Relationship with the Supervisor, Instructional Processes, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills. However, teachers fluent in the Spanish language showed no significant outcome during analysis of variance. Teachers who never held a second job showed a higher General Job Satisfaction mean (Mn e v e r 2n d jo b = 27.17, SD = 7.21) and Perceived School Effectiveness (Mn e v e r 2n d jo b = 33.31, SD = 6.90) than those who sometimes or usually worked second jobs. But, those who said they usually worked another job showed a greater inclination towards a positive self-evaluation while displaying strength in the Teaching Competencies. They had higher means for Collaborative/Supportive (34iis u a iiy 2iuijob= 42.22, SD — 6.93), Conscientious/ Responsible (4/u su a iiy 2iidjob= 42.86, SD = 5.91), Instructional Processes ( M u s u a lly 2 n d jo b = 43.50, SD = 5.78), Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction (Mu s lia ily 2n d jo b = 42.08, SD = 6.94), and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills ( M u s u a ily 2 n d jo b = 42.92, SD = 6.22). Second job status demonstrated significance in the ANOVA values for Relationship with Fellow Teachers, Fx 305 = 3.422, p = .018, General Satisfaction, F3 > 303 = 5.432, p = .001, and Efficacious/Confident, F3 ) 30o = 3.738, p = .012. Persons who began their teaching career by coming from an outside profession showed a slightly higher mean (Mo th e rp ro fe ssio n a i = 40.63, SD = 9.14) than Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 teacher education graduates (Mtc h r e d g ra d = 40.54, SD = 10.82) in their Relationship with the Supervisor. People who entered the profession with non-education degrees were somewhat more generally satisfied (Mn o n .e dg ra d = 26.63, SD = 8.54) than their colleagues. Interns showed a measure of greater Collaboration and Support (M intem = 41.94, SD = 5.26). However, teacher education graduates displayed a higher sense of self and professional competency in education, when it came to Conscientious/ Responsible self-evaluation (Mtchredgrad = 41.84, SD = 5.48), Instructional Processes (Mtchredgrad = 42.78, SD = 5.68), Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction (Mtchredgrad = 41.84, SD = 5.85), and Teaching Higher Order Thinking (Mtc h r ed g rad = 42.16, SD = 5.76). The ANOVA for the manner of entry into teaching demonstrated significance for all the Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies. This included Collaborative/ Supportive, F3 ,3 0 i = 4.155, p = .007, Conscientious/Responsible, F3 > 3 oi = 5.958, p = .001, Efficacious/Confident, F 3, 298 = 3.081, p = .028, Instructional Processes, F3 i 301 = 5.615, p = .001, Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction, F3 > 302 = 6.503, p = .000, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, F3 > 302 = 3.970, p = .008 (Appendix FI 1, p.209). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 Path Analysis A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Without more information, the single correlation coefficient says little regarding the association between those same variables. But, correlations carry the possibility of revealing causal relationships among a group of variables. Citing Wright’s (1921) quantitative aid, Weinberg (1982) defined path analysis as a “strategy for understanding causal processes through the analysis of correlational data” (p.1382). Path analytic strategy provides a means to estimate the magnitude of the causal relationships that are assumed to work between variables and for making causal inferences from correlations. Such analysis allows for the estimation of not only direct but also indirect effects upon a variable. Though causality cannot be empirically proven, support for causal influences can be inferred from the current study. A path diagram easily illustrates the direct and indirect modifying relationships set out in a causal model. In the context of the causal model, the linear regression equation, or structural equation, represents a causal link rather than only an empirical association. Herein, the model context regression coefficients are known as path coefficients. The entire association between variables must take into account effects, which might not be expressed causally due to their basis in the association between two variables, as well as the direct and indirect effects. Therefore the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 measure of the total association between variables is not necessarily or always entirely summative. Judge et al.’s (1997) theory of core self-evaluation offered that there are direct and indirect paths from core self-evaluation through job attribute perceptions and indirectly through demonstrated job activities to job satisfaction. Later, Judge et al. (2000) found job complexity to be important and long lasting in the relationship between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction. Judge et al. (2000) enhanced their general model to demonstrate the proposition that both job characteristics and job complexity mediate the relationship between core self- evaluations and job satisfaction. Figure 1 shows the relational model of Judge et al.’s (2000) study. Utilizing the scale measures from the present study, a path analysis was computed to determine the most influential direct and indirect effects on General Job Satisfaction. A reliability analysis combining the three measure scales Instructional Processes, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills produced the construct “Perceived Teaching Competencies” (TCHCOM) with a resultant alpha of .93 (Appendix C9: Reliability Analysis - Scale Alpha, p.179). These three scales, which drive instruction, originate from The USC Metropolitan Teacher Education Program Graduate Questionnaire (Baker & Grayson, 1998). They essentially serve as surrogates for Judge et al’s (2000) job complexities. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Self-Esteem Perceived Job Characteristics Job Satisfaction Job Complexity Neuroticism Generalized Self-Efficacy Locus of Control Core Self Evaluations Figure 1. Judge et al. (2000) core self-evaluations and relationships mediating upon job satisfaction. 98 Diagram 1. Hypothetical Path of Scale Measures 1. Perceived Efficacy/Confidence Perceived Overall Collaborative/Supportive Teaching Effectiveness Satisfaction Conscientious/Responsible Competencies 2. Relationships: With Teachers With Supervisors Diagram 1 establishes the hypothetical path of the seven scale measures. The path begins with Efficacy/Confidence, Collaborative/Supportive and Conscientious/ Responsible operating as the core self-evaluations. These scales replace self esteem, general self-efficacy and locus of control in the Judge et al. (2000) model. Neuroticism, the tendency to display negative personality characteristics, was not measured in the current study and, therefore, was not included. The path continues through the newly developed scale, Perceived Teaching Competencies, then to Overall School Effectiveness, depicted as job characteristics in the Judge et al model. Concurrently, the path passes through Relationships with Teachers and Supervisors to reach General Job Satisfaction. Table 6 summarizes the outcome of regressions pertinent to the path analysis for the current study. The two factors which demonstrated a relatively strong, direct relationship with General Job Satisfaction were Perceived Overall School Effectiveness (P = .234), which was significant at the .01 level and Relationship with the Supervisor (P = .104), significant at .05. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 Table 6 Relationship Between Predictors and General Job Satisfaction Predictors r P Perceived Overall School Effectiveness .314** .235** Relationship with Supervisor .234** .104* Relationship with Fellow Teachers 170** .098 Perceived Overall Teaching Competence -.006 - .0 1 2 Efficacious/Confident -.068 -.091 Conscientious/Responsible -.025 .0 2 0 Collaborative/Supportive .003 -.018 R .329** R2 .108** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 A model of the current study’s path analysis conforms to what Judge et al. (2000) presented. Figure 2 provides a representation of this current model. As an outcome of simultaneous multivariate regression analysis, the numbers in Figure 2 are standardized beta weights that allow for comparison. Each of these standardized path coefficients expresses the strength of the causal relationship between the variables joined by an arrow. Since the coefficients are standardized, they all used the same method to quantify the causal relationship. They also showed that the same variable could be both causally prior as well as causally dependent to other variables, as depicted between the Relationship with Fellow Teachers and Relationship with the Supervisor. Note the six paths showing the indirect and modifying effects on General Job Satisfaction. In this model, Efficacy and Confidence, Collaborative and Supportive, and Conscientious and Responsible served as the Core Self-evaluations for teachers. Free correlations between the core evaluation scales produced high r values. With General Job Satisfaction as the dependent variable, only two antecedent variables, Perceived Overall School Effectiveness and Relationship with the Supervisor, had a significant estimated direct effect. Collaborative/ Supportive also directly influenced School Effectiveness, Relationship with the Supervisor, and Relationship with Fellow Teachers. Teaching Competencies directly associated with School Effectiveness. Efficacy and confidence had a negative path coefficient, when Relationship with Fellow Teachers served as the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. .132* Perceived Overall School Effectiveness Conscientious & Responsible .200* .201 * r = .78 Instructional Processes .348** Teaching Competencies Efficacy & Confidence .306** r = .69 Assessing/Managing Instruction General Job Satisfaction r = .80 -.291** Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills .104* Collaborative & Supportive 207** With Supervisor .413** Relationships Core Evaluations .276** With Teachers Figure 2. Path Analysis: Causal model measure effects upon General Teacher Job Satisfaction. * = p < .01, ** = p < .05. 102 dependent variable. Both Conscientious/Responsible and Efficacy/Confidence directly associated with Teaching Competencies, when Teaching Competencies became the dependent measure. Relationship with Teachers and Relationship with the Supervisor demonstrated direct reciprocal causation. The strongest indirect path was the general collaborative/social path showing Collaborative/Supportive -> Relationship with Teachers (.413) -> Relationship with Supervisor (.276) -> Overall School Effectiveness (.306) -> General Job Satisfaction (.235) = 1.23. A second collaborative/social path expressed Collaborative/Supportive -> Relationship with Teachers (.413) Relationship with Supervisor (.276) -> General Job Satisfaction (.104) = .793. A third path shows Collaborative/Supportive -> Relationship with Supervisor (.207) -> Overall School Effectiveness (.306) -> General Job Satisfaction (.235) = .748. As might be expected, the pro-active core evaluation Collaborative/ Supportive can be seen as strongly and directly affecting collegial peer relations as well as those with the supervisor. The efficacy/intellective path showed Efficacy and Confidence Teaching Competencies (.348) -> Overall School Effectiveness (.200) -> General Job Satisfaction (.235) = .783. A conscientious/intellective path demonstrated Conscientious/Responsible -> Teaching Competencies (.201) -> School Effectiveness (.200) -> General Job Satisfaction (.235) = .636. A second conscientious/social path established Conscientious/Responsible -> Relationship Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 with Supervisor (.132) -> School Effectiveness (.306) -> General Job Satisfaction (.235) = .673. Thus, Efficacy/Confidence and Conscientious/ Responsible associated directly with Teaching Competencies to influence the perception of how well the school operates and in turn influences job satisfaction. Concurrently, Conscientious/Responsible related to supervisors and school operations to affect General Job Satisfaction. Summary Demographics for the sample were comparable to the district teacher population. The Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99 assembled scale variables from previous studies. Items within the scales correlated well together, with the lowest correlation being for job satisfaction variables. Inter-scale correlations produced several significant interactions. The Analysis of Variance between demographic variables and factor scales proved highly significant for the items of gender, employment status, graduate credits, and entry path into teaching. ANOVA scales that showed high significance with these discrete variables were core evaluations and teaching competencies. The direct relationship between School Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction lends itself to the notion of causation. How well teachers perceive the school to be operating can be interpreted to show a direct affect upon job satisfaction. Those elements which comprise School Effectiveness such as emphasis on student Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 learning, accountability, clear school vision and goals, flow of information, teacher input to decision-making, and alignment of instruction with current research all help rule out any alternative interpretations to the assertion that School Effectiveness causes a change in General Job Satisfaction. Also, how well one relates to supervisors directly linked to General Job Satisfaction. Studies have shown that a key factor in the perceived well-being of a school strongly hinges on the leadership provided by supervisors. Bass (1997) asserted that transformational leadership is positively related to subordinate satisfaction. Judge and Bono’s (2000) research supported their hypothesis that effective leadership behavior is somewhat positively linked to not only subordinate satisfaction with the leader but also to subordinate overall job satisfaction. Similarly, the battery of instructional tasks that indicated a perceived level of preparedness make up the factor, Overall Teaching Competencies. This scale in turn demonstrated a strong impact upon Overall School Effectiveness and therefore, indirectly affected job satisfaction. In turn, two of the three factors making up the Core Evaluations directly associated with Overall Teaching Competencies. As teachers consider themselves Conscientious and Responsible and/or Effective and Confident, such self-evaluations directly relate to the contributory Overall Teaching Competencies: Instructional Processes, Assessment and Management of Instruction, and the ability to Teach Higher Order Thinking skills. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 Although Efficacy/Confidence strongly linked with Overall Teaching Competencies, it showed a strong negative link to the Relationship with Fellow Teachers. Such teachers demonstrate pedagogical ability, yet have difficulty sharing effective practices and collegial interactions. This sort of teacher may well prove more critical, individualistic and less social than their peers. Collaborative and Supportive, displayed a strong relationship with the supervisor and an even stronger relationship with teaching colleagues. Those teachers who strive to get along display strong job satisfaction, when they have positive interactions with co workers and administrators. Even though none of the Core Self-evaluations showed a direct link to General Job Satisfaction, all three positively linked to variables that did have a direct link. Efficacious/Confident linked with Teaching Competencies, Collaborative/Supportive with Relationships, and Conscientious/Responsible with Teaching Competencies and Relations with the Supervisor. This has real implications for professional development, how schools organize, and how socialization occurs in the school environment. If teachers can be identified to hold the necessary Core Self-evaluations and be trained in the Teaching Competencies, there is a greater likelihood that they will favor instructional leadership and high expectations embedded in Overall School Effectiveness, the factor which contributes directly to their General Job Satisfaction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Furthermore, when specifically efficacious and confident teachers are recognized and supported through the Teaching Competencies, they too could display indirect beliefs in overall school effectiveness and maintain a sense of job satisfaction. If fellow teachers and supervisors foster relations with collaborative and supportive individuals, there is a greater possibility of enhanced job satisfaction. Indeed, transformational leadership involves satisfying unfulfilled needs on the part of followers (Bums, 1978) and inspires followers to pursue transcendental goals and identify with elements beyond their own interests (Bass, 1985). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 Chapter 5 DISCUSSION This study utilized the database generated from teacher surveys to determine the effects of teacher personal characteristics upon their job satisfaction. Many definitions of job satisfaction focus on an individual’s strong psychological ties to work. Research suggests that job satisfaction is an effective experience formed through a process of evaluation (Judge et al., 1997). In this study, job satisfaction was a dependent variable measured by items related to disposition, job complexity, perceived job effectiveness, and professional interactions. The results both confirm previous research findings and extend the literature on job satisfaction. The principal contribution of the present study was to reveal the indirect links between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction, the influence of teaching competencies upon school effectiveness, the direct affect of school effectiveness on job satisfaction and the consistent need for strong, focused leadership. It supports Yee’s (1990) findings, where teachers wanted more say in organizational and instructional decisions, a collegial atmosphere, and greater administrative support. It has elements of the top-down model proposed by researchers (Brief, 1998; Judge et al., 1998) where satisfaction stems from the individual’s interpretation of the environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 It also resembles the bottom-up model (Brief, 1998; Judge et al., 2000) where satisfaction is based upon the individual’s experience of more positive job conditions. The study relied upon Judge et al.’s (2000) path analysis that found core self-evaluations have a direct relationship with job complexities and have a significant total indirect influence upon job satisfaction. The Core Self-evaluations also related indirectly with professional relationships and perceived job characteristics. This chapter presents a summary and integration of the study’s results. It provides an explanation for the findings based upon the research questions. Part of this explanation is a description of how these findings converge or diverge with the relevant findings in past literature and other research. Limitations related to the findings will be examined, as well as specific research needed to clarify or extend these outcomes. A subsequent view of general implications as related to theory, research, and application is included, as well as any general limitations not included under specific findings. Recommendations for teacher professional development, professional support, and administrative growth are made. Finally, suggestions for future research related to this study and its findings will be discussed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Summary and Explanation of Findings The initial research question was Do levels o f teacher commitment and jo b satisfaction change according to variations in demographic characteristics? This study did not demonstrate a correspondent change but was able to show differentiated effects. Commitment was indirectly measured, when factor scales examined discrete items, which do partially comprise what researchers have determined to be job or life satisfaction (Judge et al., 1998). What became the Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies can be construed to be a part of the committed individual as described by Singh and Billingsley (1998). These characteristics also coincide with Judge et al.’s (1997, 1998, 2000) notion of core self-evaluations. Job satisfaction was one of the ten factor scales, thus lending itself to analysis. The ANOVA showed that gender proved significant in all the Core Self- evaluations and the Teaching Competencies of Instructional Processes and Assessing Individual Differences/ Managing Instruction. Neither males nor females, however, showed a strong relationship with Teaching Higher Order Thinking or Overall School Effectiveness. Males were more satisfied than females with their profession, yet both groups generally felt confident about their teaching competence and pedagogical ability. As with gender, all ethnic groups in the study demonstrated higher than average means in all scale categories other than General Job Satisfaction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 However, no ethnic group proved to have significant ANOVA statistics for any of the ten original factor scales. Interestingly, respondents of Asian background had the highest mean for peer relations, while Latinos had the best mean Relationship with the Supervisor. African-American teachers had the highest means in Core Self-evaluations, Teaching Competencies and Perceived School Effectiveness, but the lowest Job Satisfaction. In a Metropolitan Life study (1988), minority teachers at all levels of job satisfaction described themselves more likely to depart the profession than did non-minority colleagues. It appeared that newcomers to teaching were not new to the world of work. Still, Years of Total Employment was significantly noteworthy only when it came to the two of the three scales comprising Teaching Competencies. Instructional Processes and Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction were the same two factors for which gender displayed significance. Meanwhile, for the demographic variable Years in Teaching, educators showed significant statistics in all three of the Teaching Competencies, this time including Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills, as well as in General Job Satisfaction itself. This information supports the contention (Fuller 1969; Fuller and Bown, 1975) that veteran teachers have more concerns regarding teaching tasks. It reinforces Pigge and Marso’s (1997) indications of a connection between changes in teaching concerns and teacher capabilities over time. This strength in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l Teaching Competencies, therefore, influenced Job Satisfaction, as revealed in the path analysis, reflecting Judge et al.’s (2000) previous work. Employment Status was highly significant, when measured against all the competency scales during the Analysis of Variance. Graduate credits were significant when measured for the Core Self-evaluations of Conscientious/ Responsible and Efficacious/Confident, and all the Teaching Competencies. Marital status proved statistically significant only for Relationships with the Supervisor. Neither the number of children teachers had nor their facility with Spanish had any significant bearing on any of the factor scales. Second job status was significantly important, when it came to Peer Relations, Efficacy/Confidence and General Satisfaction. Teacher education graduates displayed a higher mean sense of self and professional competency in education. This is manifested in the ANOVA findings that stated the manner in which teachers began their work careers was of significant importance for all the Core Self-evaluations and all Teaching Competencies. In summarizing the ANOVA findings, one observes that all the Core Self- evaluations proved statistically significant, when measured against the demographic variables of gender and the entry route into teaching. The Core Self- evaluations were partially significant when looking at employment status, the number of graduate credits held and working at a second job. All the Teaching Competencies were statistically significant, when examining the number of years Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 in teaching, employment status, graduate credits, and the entry route into teaching. Teacher Competencies were partially significant for gender and total years of employment. Relationship with Teachers was only significant for second job workers. General Job Satisfaction was also statistically significant for second job holders. These findings are consistent with Friedman (1991), which showed gender, level of education, and experience in teaching to be distinguishable between high and low burnout teacher groups. Conclusions to be drawn are that demographic variables considered highly significant are gender, employment status, level of graduate education, and the means of job entry. Certificated teacher education graduates scored higher in the Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies but probationary teachers appeared to have better relations and a better opinion of school operations. Interns got along better with their teaching peers. Marital status proved statistically significant only for Relationships with the Supervisor. Variations in the significant demographic characteristics are, therefore, like to have an impact on the level of teacher commitment. All this information becomes important when looking at the results of the path analysis. The path analysis portrayed indirect influences by the Core Self-evaluations and Teaching Competencies, and the direct association of Relationship with the Supervisor and Perceived School Effectiveness upon General Job Satisfaction. It emphasizes the need for specific interventions for discrete types of teachers. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 impression is that administrators need to design initial interview processes and profiling that look at teacher education graduates who are either collaborative and hardy or technically educated and individually effective. Also, interns and probationary teachers can be questioned similarly with additional query towards their plans to pursue graduate and post-graduate units and degrees. These overall results contradict Raudenbush et al.’s (1992) findings that teacher demographics have little impact upon self-efficacy. The results also run counter to research that suggested work-related variables were better predictors of commitment and job satisfaction than were solely demographic variables (Billingsley and Cross, 1992). The Analysis of Variance herein only pointed to significance but not to any influencing relationships. This was better demonstrated through the correlations and path analysis. The second question read: Are attitudinal and behavioral measure o f commitment significant predictors o f jo b satisfaction? Theorists differ on the role of job satisfaction for teachers. The influence of attitude and behavior does impact job satisfaction, when personal characteristics are measured through psychometric procedures. The current study extends research literature on this question. Teacher behavior and attitude must be known and considered, when designing support or intervention. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients demonstrated strong associations between intellective and social measures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 These inter-scale correlations were also instrumental towards understanding the associated third research question: Do core self-evaluations display significant direct or indirect influences upon core self-evaluations and teacher jo b satisfaction ? The teacher Core Self-evaluations consisted of the combined factor scales of Efficacy/Confidence, Collaborative/ Supportive, and Conscientious/ Responsible. These self-evaluations had a strong correlation with each other. However, in the path analysis (Figure 2, p.101) there were no direct associations between the Core Self-Evaluations and General Teacher Job Satisfaction. It is evident, though, that there exist several indirect relationships between those factors and teacher job satisfaction. The inter-scale correlations were replete with significant associations. Based upon previous research (Baker et al„ 1998; Judge et al., 1998; Judge et al., 2000), one could readily predict relationships within the Core Self-evaluations and within Teaching Competencies. The correlations supported those relationships but there was also strong interaction between the Core Self-evaluations and the Teaching Competencies. The highest correlations occurred among the factors comprising the Teaching Competencies: Instructional Processes, Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction, and Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills. Further, Collaborative/Supportive could be predicted to correlate with Relationships with the Supervisor and Relationships with Fellow Teachers. These Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 two relationship factors could also be predicted to correlate one with the other. The scale correlations supported all of these predicted interactions. Relationship with the Supervisor related significantly to Collaborative/Supportive, Conscientious/ Responsible, and with Perceived Overall School Effectiveness. Relationship with Fellow Teachers correlated with Collaborative/Supportive and Perceived Overall School Effectiveness. Teaching Competencies did not, however, correlate with General Job Satisfaction. Thus, the majority of predicted correlations were confirmed. Moreover, the supervisory relationship factor correlation with Perceived Overall School Effectiveness set up the interaction demonstrated in the path analysis. Taken separately, attitudinal and behavioral measures of commitment are of limited usefulness. But, they are significant measures, particularly when commitment correlational outcomes are combined with the results of the ANOVA, serving as necessary precursors to the development of linear regression. In the path analysis, Collaborative/Supportive had positive interactions with both relationship factors. It can be expressed then that those teachers who worked to establish and maintain positive relations with their peers and administrators would more likely achieve job satisfaction. Because Relationship with the Supervisor influenced General Job Satisfaction not only indirectly through Perceived Overall School Effectiveness but also directly with Relationship with Fellow Teachers and Job Satisfaction, administrators should certainly be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 encouraged to identify collaborative and supportive teachers, who are ideally in abundance at any given school. Administrators ought to seek to foster strong relations with those educators and support their efforts in the classroom and school governance. Since it is not the case that there is an abundance of such individuals at every schools, what else might an administrator or other teachers do to support colleagues, assist them in socialization, and as a result, boost overall job satisfaction? Although Efficacious/Confident teachers had a strong, positive association with the Teaching Competencies, they demonstrated a negative link to Relationship with Fellow Teachers. What was remarkable about this negative effect was the significant strength of the link. There was no significant linkage to the supervisor. Apparently, efficacious and confident instructors hold peer relations in very low regard and do not find relations with administrators at all important. Bandura (1989) proposed self-efficacy beliefs to be the strongest predictors of human motivation. It can be assumed then that those teachers who look upon themselves as Efficacious/Confident are more individualistic, do not prize strong relationships, and believe more in the insularity and sanctity of the teacher’s role in the self- contained classroom. Hinders (1988) suggested that isolation is an effective strategy to conserve scarce occupational resources and to protect against distractions that diminish professional time and energy. Efficacious/Confident Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 candidates who show promise need a different form of professional development that appeals to their notion of self-worth, self-interest, and their quest for personal growth through expanding knowledge. As do Efficacious/Confident educators, Conscientious/Responsible teachers indirectly tie Perceived Teaching Competencies to Perceived Overall School Effectiveness, which affects General Job Satisfaction. Similarly, through their direct association with supervisors, Conscientious/Responsible teachers either link directly from supervisors or indirectly through School Effectiveness to General Job Satisfaction. Teachers who saw themselves as Conscientious/Responsible demonstrated a direct link to Teaching Competencies, though not as strongly as did those who perceived themselves to be efficacious and confident. Further, Conscientious/ Responsible teachers linked significantly in their relationship with their supervisor. Thus, administrators on the one hand have the opportunity to identify and support such teachers. On the other hand, supervisors have the obligation to provide instructional support and exemplary leadership. The fourth research question was How important are teachers’ relationships with colleagues and supervisors? Leadership matters, as has been found in previous research. This inquiry stemmed partly from the work of Singh and Billingsley (1998). The question addressed findings (Miskel et al., 1975; Turk and Litt, 1982) that poor teacher relations with the supervisor adversely affected Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 teacher satisfaction. The response that leadership is important was indicated in the path analysis of Chapter 4 and the discussion of the previous two research questions in this chapter. Despite the result that self-perceived efficacious and confident educators linked negatively to Relationship with Fellow Teachers and did not link at all with supervisors, the other two Core Self-Evaluations produced significant ties to Relationship with Supervisors. Conscientious/Responsible instructors connected favorably with the supervisor. Self-evaluated Collaborative/Supportive teachers linked directly and strongly with supervisors and quite strongly with their colleagues, which in turn linked significantly to relations with the supervisor. Teachers, in turn, linked significantly to relations with the supervisor. The study reinforced Kottkamp’s (1990) association of lower career dissatisfaction with the greater amount of supervisory contact that elementary teachers have. It also bolstered Lee et al.’s (1991) assertion that principal leadership was positively associated with efficacy and teacher management. So, it is incumbent upon school administrators to establish and maintain vigorous, enduring ties with these types of teachers. In contrast, supervisors should be aware of teachers who see themselves as more efficacious and confident so that they might be supported throughout the Perceived Teaching Competencies, which influence Perceived Overall School Effectiveness and eventually satisfaction with their work as a teacher. Kottkamp (1990) found greater potential for professional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 development, reciprocated trust, and increased teacher involvement in decision making as positively related to job satisfaction. Administrators must concurrently foster close relations with teaching staff and a sense of competent school management in the school community. By recruiting those who closely fit the organizational vision and culture and are willing to build upon their basic skill sets in an increasingly spiral rather than linear manner, supervisors can encourage open interactions and acknowledge project-minded individuals with new and exciting projects which contribute to the school’s effectiveness. The fifth and final research question was Does the perception o f school effectiveness and organization play a significant contributory role in teacher Satisfaction ? Of the factor scales utilized in this study, only two directly influenced General Job Satisfaction. This finding is in keeping with Judge et al.’s (2000) representation of perceived job characteristics and job complexity influencing job satisfaction as illustrated in Figure 1 (p.97). In the present study, Perceived Overall School Effectiveness proved more significantly, directly linked than the second factor, teacher Relationships with the Supervisor. Also, School Effectiveness is itself directly affected by the measures Relationship with the Supervisor and the Teaching Competencies. Lee et al. (1991) showed that a cooperative environment contributed to efficacy, job satisfaction and commitment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Therefore Perceived Overall School Effectiveness, as either a direct antecedent to General Job Satisfaction or as a recipient factor has a crucial position and role in affecting teacher job satisfaction. Through some avenue, every factor scale has bearing on General Job Satisfaction through their impact on Perceived Overall School Effectiveness. So, effectiveness is a linchpin in the structuring of professional development, professional support, and social relationships. It is the gateway through which each preceding factor affects General Job Satisfaction. General Implications of Findings As a continuation of the theoretical developments underlying dispositional sources of job satisfaction, Judge et al. (1997) proposed the theory linking core self-evaluations to job satisfaction. Their research defined core self-evaluations as the basic assessments that one makes about oneself. Testing this theory, Judge et al. (1998) showed that individuals with favorable self-evaluations had a greater likelihood of holding favorable impressions of their work. Additionally, Judge et al. (1998) revealed that the connection between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction was affected by moderating perceptions of job characteristics. In 2000, Judge et al. tested a model of this connection and the intervening effects that job characteristics and job complexity might pose. The study suggested that alternative models lit the data. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Results of the current study are consistent with Judge et al.’s (2000) model and the overarching theory. The present study adapted Judge et al.’s (1997, 1998, 2000) theoretical structure and model to be applied to teachers and job satisfaction. In this alternative form, the path analysis supports the primary role of core self- evaluations and job satisfaction. It further emphasizes the mediating role of Perceived Teaching Competencies, Perceived Overall School Effectiveness, Relationship with the Supervisor, and Relationship with Fellow Teachers. Modifications of the Judge et al. (2000) model to measure direct and indirect dispositional effect on job satisfaction in other industrial and organizational venues are applicable. For educators, the data from this study can be used to make informed decisions regarding professional development that will have not only the greatest impact on pedagogical competence and organizational effectiveness, but also can bring value to supervisor and teacher interactions. Questions from this survey or questions designed to suit the specific school site can be introduced into the interviewing process to better delineate teacher characteristics. By fashioning interview questions, the administrator, personnel director, or human resources committee can get a clearer view of the dispositional construct of the teacher candidate and at least reduce the possibility of a poor fit between the individual and organization. Longitudinal studies based on this application could test such a speculation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 General Study Limitations The limitations encountered during the current study did not adversely affect the outcome, but do warrant discussion to assist future researchers. Problems that came up during the conducting of the study are covered herein. Also any decisions about criteria for subject inclusion, procedures, measures, and design that may carry limitations are recounted. Certain advantages and disadvantages result from the differences in controlled laboratory and field experimental procedures. The controlled format typically has the advantage of greater internal validity because of the greater control it grants. There was a trade-off in not determining an established control group with which to compare the experimental field group. But, since this research could not realistically be conducted in the environment of a laboratory where all factors threatening internal validity could be controlled, the field study made every attempt to control for threats in a natural, realistic environment in as carefully controlled conditions as the situation permitted. Only a random sample of educators was employed. There was no random assignment of subjects to groups. No pre-tests were conducted in order to address interpretations counter to the study’s findings. Groups in the study differed only by chance on all possible individual difference variables prior to the initiation of the study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 The external validity of this study built upon the valid and reliable results established in the Baker/Matakovich (1999), Baker and Grayson (1998), and Baker et al. (1998) surveys that were blended into the current study. The data demonstrate that observed changes in the criterion variable, job satisfaction, were a result of changes in the predictor variables and can be expected to occur elsewhere. The findings can be generalized to people, situations, or variations other than those observed here. While the organizational structures may be representative of the real world, the conclusions drawn are open to conflicting interpretation due to threats of internal validity. It remains whether core self-evaluations for other professional fields are the same as for teachers. Core evaluations can be only slightly altered, or entirely revamped to measure the job under evaluation. The district teacher population varied slightly in some demographic instances from the sample. Logistics prohibited school faculties from meeting and responding at the same time in the same location. Moreover, the schools from which the sample was derived were geographically close. It does not appear, however, to have had a significant effect upon the study’s outcome. Different results might occur, if a similar study were to be conducted upon a teacher population markedly different in demographic composition. The twenty-one questions in the job satisfaction portion of the survey came from Yee (1990) whose questions underwent serious reworking prior to being included in the survey. During factor analysis, the job satisfaction questions did Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 not scale well initially. The alpha level for all scales was set at .60 and excluded two of the three job satisfaction scales outright. The factor scale that was included was comprised of five items. Two other discrete, non-homogeneous items became the study’s relationship scales. Finer distinctions of the relationship with the supervisor might have proven more informative. Conley et al. (1989) stated that the perception of a higher level of the principal’s supervisory behavior was related to lower dissatisfaction. A low rate of dissatisfaction could be a result of socially conditioned responses (Hoy and Miskel, 1987). But, the results for this study showed that, all demographic groups had a low mean satisfaction, which was less than the median of thirty. Their low satisfaction could have stemmed from choices available among the limited job satisfaction questions. The remaining scales were effective for the purposes of this study. This does not eliminate the possibility that there were socially conditioned responses for the remaining factor scales. The success of pre tests and post-tests is unlikely, because there could be a noticeable change of attitude from pre-test to post-test, particularly if a long period of time transpired between the two measures. The present study did not taxonomically note early warning signs of impending departure from the profession. It did not discern who leaves and who stays, but hopefully will help supervisors support those becoming teachers through Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 realistic job previews as well as those teachers deciding to remain. The study does not address how to recruit and prepare quality teachers for the classroom. Statistical analytic choices seemed to be the best available for this study. Type I error was controlled through the limited number of statistical tests performed and setting the alpha level to control for the number of tests. Analysis of Variance comparisons might have benefited from larger numbers for each demographic category, particularly males and some ethnic groups. The data met the assumptions of the statistics that were not overly liberal or conservative. The sufficient sample size did not limit the power of the statistics to detect effects. Recommendations Administrators can capitalize on the direct positive relationship that the Core Self-evaluation of Efficacious/Confident has with the Teaching Competencies. Induction arrangements exert a strong influence on the development of professional bonding and involvement (Yee, 1990). As these instructors pass through to the level of professional task concern as described by Fuller (1969) and Moir (1996), it becomes crucial to shepherd them along, support hardiness (Thomson & Wendt, 1995), and provide professional development upon their arrival into task concern so that their instructional strengths in the Teaching Competencies are established. This will in turn have direct bearing on these educators’ perception of how well the school operates and eventually, indirectly Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 with job satisfaction (Raudenbush, et al., 1992). As a transactional leader, the supervisor can serve as gatekeeper to maintain high-achieving teachers by removing instructional barriers and providing the education bureaucracy what it requires with minimal disruptions for teachers. Enhancing quality of work demands a proactive spirit. Effective/Confident personnel can develop trust in the organization and supervisor, if the administrator consistently facilitates communications and displays competence. Since attitudinal and behavioral measures significantly predict job satisfaction and there is a significant relationship between Core Self-evaluations and General Job Satisfaction, it is incumbent upon the supervisor to make the most of such information. Taking into consideration the initial core self-analysis, the administrator must focus on the enhancement of teaching competence factors to positively influence Perceived Overall School Effectiveness and General Job Satisfaction. As a transformational leader, the supervisor needs to foster community and commitment through the development of human capital as well as areas of technical expertise and knowledge, which are consistent with a consensual school plan. The ability to identify a teacher as displaying particular traits and characteristics will allow the administrator to tailor professional development and support to the specific needs of groups of teachers sharing similar characteristics. This is consistent with Parker’s (1998) longitudinal analysis that showed increases Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 in job enrichment and quality of communication predicted the development of greater self-efficacy. Alternative methods of formal teacher evaluation in the form of portfolio- based assessment and peer evaluations will foster collaboration among educators. Other devices like professional development schools, mentoring, and peer coaching promise to promote best teaching practices, if properly monitored. Mentoring for newcomers has been shown as an effective step towards forestalling departure from the profession (Holland, 1999; Meckel and Rolland, 2000). Coupled with support for novices must be an effort to shore up veteran teachers. Peer review and intervention allows seasoned teachers to receive intensive support from fellow veteran mentors. Though only nineteen percent of teachers said they had been formally mentored by another teacher, seventy percent said mentoring at lease once a week helped their teaching considerably (NCES, 1999). Mentors frequently benefit from their mentees who often bring fresh practices to a static environment. If only one in five teachers feels well prepared to work in a modem classroom, then it follows that schools should dedicate time for teachers to engage in peer collaboration, team teaching, and common planning periods to replace inadequate opportunities for professional development as noted by Former U.S. Secretary of Education Riley (NCES, 1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Teacher participation with trained coaches in critical friend groups has been shown to lead to greater reflection about teaching practices aimed at improving student learning (Dunne, Nane and Lewis, 2000). This enables teachers to gain greater insight through the feedback of peer observations. Teachers in critical friend groups agreed that they were encouraged to experiment with their teaching, that administration encouraged all staff, and that the principal was interested in innovation and new ideas. The concept of critical friend groups lends itself to the development of a staged career for teachers (Johnson, 2001). The first observation that teaching was an unstaged career came from Lortie (1975) who wrote of the lack of progressive stages for advancement in teaching. Other than the traditional view of the predominantly female composition of the teaching ranks, and an accompanying diminished value of educators, the high turnover rate works against a staged profession. Critical friend groups work against the standard argument of a culture that suppresses individual educator recognition and that discourages collaborative innovation. Such intervention and staged career goals could be attractive to the idealists and others who would otherwise leave the profession. All this will support the organizational leadership that Lawler (2001) states must be diffused throughout the school, if it is to become a truly organizational trait. There is a need for better, stronger instructional leadership from principals. But paradoxically, the strength of an organization ties in its capacity for broad, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 participatory leadership. Schmoker (1999) stressed that change has a better chance of progressing when administration teams up with teachers who help translate and negotiate new practices with the rest of the faculty. Shared understanding sustains innovation. Future Directions This study shows that Judge et al.’s (2000) path analysis model is potentially adaptable for study in a variety of professional fields including education, after appropriate measure items and factor scales are fashioned for the analysis. With modification, later education researcher will find use for the present study. It has left the way open for adaptations focusing on aspects of teacher characteristics and job satisfaction. Of interest are additional specific questions examining the relationships among teachers and interaction between teachers and their supervisor. What is the nature of the relationship? Research could look at the range and quality of interaction among characteristics that support or diminish job satisfaction for teachers displaying any combination of core self-evaluations and perceived teaching competencies. Is any single factor or combination of factors more conducive to satisfaction than others? Although this study found no significant impact of ethnicity upon job satisfaction, further study with substantially larger and varied teacher ethnic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 populations might prove otherwise. Additional examination of the demographic variables of gender, employment status, level of graduate education, and means of entry into the field of teaching could bear out further information about any effect that demographics have upon teacher commitment. The results of professional relationship and demographic studies would be useful in fine tuning professional development and targeting discrete groups for specially designed training which impacts commitment. Job satisfaction should be examined through analysis of administrative style, too. Since this study took place at the elementary level in the more mature suburbs of a large urban school district, another study can compare elementary job satisfaction with satisfaction at middle and senior high schools in the same district. An overall study of job satisfaction at all school levels can be utilized in urban, suburban, or rural districts. Other comparison studies can examine satisfaction at the same school level in different types of districts. This would lead to study of satisfaction between entire districts. Study of results within individual schools can help administrators design professional support. Study of the effect of brief teaching stints and evaluation upon prospective teacher education students prior to their enrollment in teacher programs could lead to beneficial results. The viability of professional development schools needs to be seriously investigated. Based upon the example at medical teaching hospitals, a professional development school, in which the school allies itself with a university teacher Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 education program (Book, 1996), would provide assistance to new and certificated teachers and administrators. University faculty can augment the real world relevance of their work with school personnel through collaborative research, cooperative supervision of potential administrators and instructors, shared teaching at the school and university levels, and dialogue on common student learning situations and acceptable solutions. Systematic research about such efforts is crucial. Possible research might be directed towards understanding and comparing commitment for veteran teachers, new teacher graduates, or persons entirely new to the field of education. Researchers with time and resources could undertake a longitudinal study of groups of teachers. For instance, the literature (Miech & Elder, 1996) states that idealists become disenchanted with education because of its ever-evolving goals or a paucity of attainable, definite goals. Of interest would be the duration of employment in fields that idealists choose upon leaving education. Yet another study could identify factors among teachers at risk of leaving the profession. Future researchers need to ensure, through the plans and procedures of instrument construction, that there is an adequately sampled domain of the construct and that there is internal consistency among the domain items. Cogent and pertinent questions will contribute to design improvements for the job satisfaction factor scale. An improved measure should help in strengthening Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 internal consistency and boost the alpha reliability from the .66 level in the current study. Yee’s (1990) survey contained far more items than the twenty-one adapted here. However, the construct and content validity of most of her items were questionable, so there were serious modifications prior to inclusion in the instrument. The remaining scale factors produced highly acceptable reliability alphas for the Teacher Survey, Experimental Form Sp99. A methodological innovation in the conduct of the survey would be the attempt to deliver the survey to larger gatherings of teachers. Although, smaller groups appear to help in the management of instrument delivery such as instruction coverage, the management of survey copies for respondents, and the monitoring of appropriate answer sheet completion. How might future study approach an examination of core self-evaluation characteristics? A study could be constructed to determine whether the observed number of Efficacious/Confident teachers in a district differs from school to school. The expected frequencies can be determined by assuming that the number of Efficacious/Confident teachers is unrelated to school site. Analysis could test whether the observed and expected frequencies differed signficantly. There is an obvious need to conduct the present study within other school districts and organizations to ascertain the generalizability of the findings. There would also be value in continuing to develop the measure by comparing the current results with those in schools after a period of intervention such as mentoring and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 critical friends groups. At a conceptual level, it is important to investigate the mechanisms by which changes in independent variables affect job satisfaction. For example, does an increase in Perceived Teaching Competencies increase Perceived Overall School Effectiveness, which in turn enhances job satisfaction? Investigating the latter question will not be straightforward until an appropriate measure of the increase is developed. That thousands of studies regarding job satisfaction have been undertaken emphasizes the crucial and elusive nature of this area of study. From the Teacher Survey database evolved a study that examined the effects of teacher personal characteristics upon teacher job satisfaction. It is important that not only educational professionals but also students, school community stakeholders, and policy makers fully understand satisfaction’s components and influential antecedents. The many links the study revealed between personal characteristics, professional competencies, professional relationships, and job satisfaction broadens the investigation. The Teacher Survey improves upon the theoretical basis and with further research ought to positively impact administrative practices, enabling the selection, support, and retention of capable teaching professionals. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 Bibliography Allison, D J. 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U.S. Department of Education. (1999, January 28). Teachers report need for preparation. National Center for Education Statistics. U.S. Department of Education. (2000, November). Eliminating the barriers to improving teaching. National Center for Education Statistics. U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Vroom, V.H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley. Weick, K.E. (1976). Educational organizations as loosely coupled systems. Administrative Science Quarterly. 21. 1-19. Weinberg, S.L. (1982). Path Analysis. In H.E. Mitzel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. 3. 5th edition. 1382-1387. New York: Free Press. Wise, A.E. (1991, November). We need more than a redesign. Educational Leadership. 49(31. 7. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 Wright. S. (1921). Correlation and causation. Journal of Agricultural Research. 20. 557-585. Yee, S.M. (1990). Careers in the Classroom: When Teaching is More Than a Job. New York: Teachers College Press. Young, M.W. (1989-90, Winter). Characteristics of high potential and at risk teachers. Action in Teacher Education. 11(4). 35-40. Zielinski, A.E., & Hoy, W.K. (1983, Spring). Isolation and alienation in elementary schools. Educational Administration Quarterly. 19(2). 27-45. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendices Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A Center for Teacher Selection and Development Teacher Survey Experimental Form Sp99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 Center for Teacher Selection and Development University of Southern California School of Education Teacher Survey Experimental Form Sp99 Developed by Robert Baker University of Southern California Jon Rice Los Angeles Unified School District This survey contains 8 6 statements that are based on the Baker-Matakovich School Status Survey, the USC Teacher Characteristics Survey (797st), and Yee's Teacher Commitment Survey. The present study is designed to describe characteristics that predict new teacher commitment and persistence. It is aimed at identifying differential characteristics of teachers with less than five years experience and teachers who have successfully completed over five years in the profession. Completing this survey constitutes a critical step in your school's continuous educational improvement process. Please read each item carefully and select the one answer that best corresponds to your agreement or disagreement. There are no correct or incorrect answers and are confidential. Be as open and candid as possible. Your honest and thoughtful self-perceptions will help us gain a better understanding of how we might strengthen beginning teachers' personal and professional development. Answer every item and be sure to fill in the circles completely. Note that the answers are numbered down the columns on the answer sheet please make sure that your answer is marked in the correctly numbered space. If you make a mistake or change your mind, erase your first answer thoroughly. Then completely fill in your new response. Completion of this survey should not take longer than 25 minutes. Individual background items are items 1-14. The scale for responding to items 15 - 69 is as follows: A = Strongly Disagree B = Disagree C = Not Sure D = Agree E = Strongly Agree Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 Please mark your answers on the answer sheet provided. Your teacher ID Number is your Social Security Number. Do not hesitate to ask any questions, if there is something about the survey that you do not understand. L 1. What is your gender? A. Male B. Female 2. What is your ethnicity? A. African-American B. Hispanic/Latino C. Caucasian D. Asian E. Other 3. How many years have you been employed? A. 1-5 B. 6-10 C. 11-15 D. 16-20 E. 21 or more 4. How many years have you been teaching? A. 1-5 B. 6-10 C. 11-15 D. 16-20 E. 21 or more 5. What is your current grade level assignment? A. Elementary K-2 B. Elementary 3-5 C. Middle School D. High School E. Adult 6 . If middle or high school, what is your primary subject area? A. Social Sciences B. English C. Science D. Mathematics E. Other 7. Percentage of your students this semester who are three years below grade level in reading. A. 0-15% B. 16-30% C. 31-45% D. 46-60% E. 61% or more 8 . Please indicate your employment status: A. Substitute/Other B. Emergency Contract C. Probationary Status D. Intern E. Permanent 9. How may total credits (units) have you completed at the graduate level? A. 0-15 B. 16-30 C. 31-45 D. 46 or more 10. Marital status: A. Married B. Single 11. How many children are still living at home with you? A. 0 B. 1-3 C. 4 or more 12. I speak, read and write Spanish. A. Yes B. No 13. During your teaching career, how often do you work at another job during the school year for pay? A. Never worked a second job B. Sometimes worked a second job C. Usually worked a second job 14. I entered the teaching profession as: A. Intern B. Teacher Education Graduate C. Non- Education Graduate D. Other Professional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 n. For each of the following statements, mark the space that corresponds with the extent to which you agree or disagree with the statement. A = Strongly Disagree B = Disagree C = Not Sure D = Agree E = Strongly Agree 15. I would get a job outside of education, if I were to leave teaching. 16. I feel that I was quite successful in getting students to learn this year. 17. I would attend school, if I were to leave teaching. 18. I will very likely still be in public school teaching five years from now. 19. I enjoy working with my fellow teachers. 20. I would go into school administration, if I were to leave teaching in five years. 21. I have a good relationship with my supervisor. 22. When I first started teaching, I intended to stay in teaching for a long time. 23. If I were to leave public school teaching, I would get a job in a private school. 24. I believe that the teaching profession has achieved a higher status among the general public. 25. When it comes right down to it, I really can't do much because most of a student's motivation and performance depends on his or her home environment. 26. If I were to leave teaching, it would be to raise my children and spend time with m y family. 27. I am looking for promotion opportunities within the teaching field. 28. There have been times recently that I have seriously considered leaving teaching. 29. I am totally satisfied with being in the teaching profession. 30. I feel the recognition/appreciation that I receive as a teacher is sufficient. 31. If I were to leave teaching in five years, I would probably retire. 32. I feel that I have been under a lot of school-related stress this year. 33. If I were to leave teaching, it would be to teach at the college level. 34. The financial rewards of teaching are adequate. 35. I can usually get through to even the most difficult or unmotivated students. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 III. How strongly do you agree that the following are evident at your school? A = Strongly Disagree B = Disagree C = Not Sure D = Agree E = Strongly Agree 36. A wide range of procedures for assessing student learning outcomes is clearly described and accompanied by well-defined performance standards. 37. Student learning, as opposed to teaching convenience, is the cornerstone of the school's instructional accountability policy. 38. Emphasis is placed on ensuring that students and staff accept joint responsibility for student and school performance. 39. Students are expected to be responsible and productive and to hold high expectations for themselves. 40. Classroom assessment procedures are clearly aligned with the district-adopted curriculum. 41. The entire school community including teachers, parents, staff and students actively supports the school in achieving its vision and goals. 42. In general, students receive instruction based on current research and exemplary practice. 43. Information exchanges are ongoing and feedback is collected continuously to help staff ensure that student and program results are achieved. 44. A high level core curriculum is provided to all students. 45. Teachers contribute to the decisions made about all aspects of their school's operations including the teaching and learning process. 46. The school's vision of what all students should know and be capable of upon graduation is clearly understood by all segments of the school community. IV. To what extent do each of the following describe you? 47. I enjoy sharing my knowledge and ideas with others. 48. I consider myself a leader with my students, co-workers or friends. 49. Overall, I consider myself very reliable. 50. I often seek feedback from those I am teaching or with whom I am working. 51. I consider myself able to "energize" or motivate others. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 A = Strongly Disagree B = Disagree C = Not Sure D = Agree E = Strongly Agree 52. For most assignments, I do very good follow-up work. 53. I believe that I am highly effective in running a meeting. 54. I consider myself very sociable. 55. I am a very disciplined person. 56. I function well in cooperative or team activities. 57. When people seek me out for advice, I am usually able to provide a solution. 58. During the past year, I have missed very few days o f work. 59. I enjoy experiencing different cultural and ethnic activities. 60. I have the ability to be socially charming, when I want to be. 61. I am a well organized person at work. 62. My previous employers or teachers would describe me as energetic and persistent. 63. Compared to most adults, I get along very well with young people. 64. I have a greater thirst for learning than most of my colleagues. 65. At work, I am typically more productive than others. 6 6 . In most situations, I am most resourceful. 67. I have helped excite someone to develop a passion for learning. 6 8 . I usually do more than my share of work in group projects. 69. I am task oriented and like to get the job finished. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 The scale for responding to items 70 - 8 6 is as follows: A = Low B = Need Improvement C = Average D = Good E = High V. For each of the following instructional tasks, please indicate your perceived level of preparedness. 70. Teach varied ability levels. 71. Use teacher manuals and texts. 72. Teach factual information. 73. Teach culturally diverse groups. 74. Use appropriate questioning techniques. 75. Use a variety of discussion techniques. 76. Teach problem-solving skills. 77. Teach concepts. 78. Use appropriate classroom management techniques. 79. Engage students in inquiry. 80. Grade/Evaluate student performance. 81. Effectively group students with special needs. 82. Teach specific skills. 83. Create a positive classroom environment. 84. Use appropriate techniques for motivation. 85. Diagnose student errors and prescribe instruction. 8 6 . Teach critical thinking skills. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix B Empirical and Logical Scales Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 Empirical and Logical Scales Empirical Scale (Baker et al., 1998): Collaborative and Supportive 47. I enjoy sharing my knowledge and ideas with others. 50. I often seek feedback from those I am teaching or with whom I am working. 54. I consider myself very sociable. 56. I function well in cooperative or team activities. 63. Compared to most adults, I get along very well with young people. 67. I have helped excite someone to develop a passion for learning. 6 8 . I usually do more than my share of work in group projects. Empirical Scale (Baker et al., 1998): Conscientious and Responsible 52. For most assignments, I do veiy good follow-up work. 55. I am a very disciplined person. 58. During the past year, I have missed very few days of work. 59. I enjoy experiencing different cultural and ethnic activities. 61. I am a well organized person at work. 62. My previous employers or teachers would describe me as energetic and persistent. 69. I am task oriented and like to get the job finished. Empirical Scale (Baker et al., 1998): Efficacious and Confident 48. I consider myself a leader with my students, co-workers or friends. 49. Overall, I consider myself very reliable. 51. I consider myself able to "energize" or motivate others. 53. I believe that I am highly effective in running a meeting. 57. When people seek me out for advice, I am usually able to provide a solution. 60. I have the ability to be socially charming, when I want to be. 64. I have a greater thirst for learning than most of my colleagues. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 Empirical Scale (Baker et al., 1998): Efficacious and Confident (continued) 65. At work, I am typically more productive than others. 6 6 . In most situations, I am most resourceful. Empirical Scale (Baker & Grayson., 1998): Instructional Processes 70. Teach varied ability levels. 74. Use appropriate questioning techniques. 75. Use a variety of discussion techniques. 83. Create a positive classroom environment. 84. Use appropriate techniques for motivation. Empirical Scale (Baker & Grayson., 1998): Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction 71. Use teacher manuals and texts. 73. Teach culturally diverse groups. 78. Use appropriate classroom management techniques. 80. Grade/Evaluate student performance. 85. Diagnose student errors and prescribe instruction. Empirical Scale (Baker & Grayson., 1998): Teaching Higher Order Thinking 72. Teach factual information. 76. Teach problem-solving skills. 77. Teach concepts. 79. Engage students in inquiry. 81. Effectively group students with special needs. 82. Teach specific skills. 8 6 . Teach critical thinking skills. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 Logical Scale: Job Satisfaction 15. I would get a job outside of education, if I were to leave teaching. 16. I feel that I was quite successful in getting students to learn this year. 17. I would attend school, if I were to leave teaching. 18. I will very likely still be in public school teaching five years from now. 19. I enjoy working with my fellow teachers. 20. I would go into school administration, if I were to leave teaching in five years. 21. I have a good relationship with my supervisor. 22. When I first started teaching, I intended to stay in teaching for a long time. 23. If I were to leave public school teaching, I would get a job in a private school. 24. I believe that the teaching profession has achieved a higher status among the general public. 25. When it comes right down to it, I really can't do much because most of a student's motivation and performance depends on his or her home environment. 26. If I were to leave teaching, it would be to raise my children and spend more time with my family. 27. I am looking for promotion opportunities within the teaching field. 27. There have been times recently that I have seriously considered leaving the teaching profession. 29. I am totally satisfied with being in the teaching profession. 30. I feel the recognition/appreciation that I receive as a teacher is sufficient. 31. If I were to leave teaching in five years, I would probably retire. 32. I feel that I have been under a lot of school-related stress this year. 33. If I were to leave teaching, it would be to teach at the college level. 34. The financial rewards o f teaching are adequate. 35. I can usually get through to even the most difficult or unmotivated students. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 Logical Scale (Matakovich, 1999): School Effectiveness Vision, Leadership, and Culture - Vision and Leadership 41. The entire school community including teachers, parents, staff and students actively supports the school in achieving its vision and goals. 46. The school's vision of what all students should know and be capable o f upon graduation is clearly understood by all segments of the school community. Vision, Leadership, and Culture - Teacher Professionalism 45. Teachers contribute to the decisions made about all aspects of their school's operations including the teaching and learning process. Curricular Paths - Curricular Content and Linkage 42. In general, students receive instruction based on current research and exemplary practice. Powerful Learning and Teaching - Instructional Practices 37. Student learning, as opposed to teaching convenience, is the cornerstone of the school's instructional accountability policy. 38. Students are expected to be responsible and productive and to hold high expectations for themselves. Assessment and Accountability - Assessment 36. A wide range of procedures for assessing student learning outcomes is clearly described and accompanied by well-defined performance standards. 37. Emphasis is placed on ensuring that students and staff accept joint responsibility for student and school performance. 40. Classroom assessment procedures are clearly aligned with the district-adopted curriculum. Assessment and Accountability - Standards and Accountability 42. Information exchanges are ongoing and feedback is collected continuously to help staff ensure that student and program results are achieved. Support for Students’ Personal and Academic Growth - Personalized Academic Growth 44. A high level core curriculum is provided to all students. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix C Reliability Analysis - Scale Alpha Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Cl - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Overall School Effectiveness 163 CS O' O ts rt m -i m O N « o h- » o » o o 10 m v o © cs o n T t in m © < N O' o o o o h o n O I s O H O N M O 0 0 H ON ^ H o h N n 't t n ■ ' t vs O N o ©^vst-'vs^co© ©t-tf^cs*— iO n© 0 © ovoioNO«n^(SNO O ’t 't M n - t n c n T f* CS a © © © 00 © V O © t} - co vs OS VO © 00 © Os OS Os VO 00 Os vs OS vs © © © V) r-H © © Tt* 00 vs co © CS co O- CS co CO co cs O' © Tj- co < s a © © © © O n cs co vs Tf VO cs vs r- © vo vs » —( VO vs 00 © co 00 vs os © VO VI vs co vs © 00 © © © r- cs © cs © co co co CO co co co O' © V) vs Tf cs CS a © t*' f ^ IA O -V OS SO O © < 0 h m o n © Tt n r> 6 (SW^tVN'Ot^OOONOwN tSMNNfSfSMnnnm O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'Q O 'O ' i —i© © V) © r - CO •s- r - r - v s r - o o © cs < —4V) MO © CS Os CO © © cs © r- cs vs VO co CO Tf T#- CO CO a © vs CO CO © © © © © * * t © co © Os © co oo on © ^ cs cs cs co co co O'O'O'O'O' "8 * 8 £ > Q * T 3 vs o o r- S 03 I © O s co © ©‘ © os V S c o so co c S U C/2 0 •© V i 1 C / 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Cl - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) 164 c/i c/5 S > O W o o -a o C O u , > O 8 § I i n CS 00 o s O O s vq o n C c d o e C D O 5 C / Q 3 0 H 1 * T 3 2 6 8 a 8 ^ £ < « *3 < ! .'s Q g * 8 1 M I * 1^ *s o o o 2 U 1 3 ^ ® sis i s S U ^ u — O > s S 3 S 8 C O U ri * 0 k p N M < D ^ 4 ) - * 3 + 5 (U ■iSg o w C O oo^ininoo^^^MONh r^r^oooTtwn^^i-Hvooo sosoc-'Nososof-'Nosososo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o fSOO^trHl^fHf^^^OJCT) ^O'or-fSTj-iDooSmn nnnn^-'tmTtTj-'tr) 'O'OONSO'tOs'O'OnMH * — <unr-oossooorsr-r^r- t-r^cs'o^HOovovoooun «r»ws»nws'0'ows'>o'o»n'0 f H t }- • n o i n r - T f i n 0 0 CS c s 0 0 * n c s i n CO r - T f CO CO SO r - Os 1 — H ^ o 0 0 0 0 o i n c s o © CO s o r - 0 0 vq O N c s ©* T — 1 r-< © o ’ 00* i-H O n 00* O N * o * i n i n in in i n i n rj* m 0 0 o i n i n CO CO CO 0 0 s o F "* ^ c s CO c s r** o r-* i n i n s o c s CO 0 0 0 0 c s i n 0 0 s o o t j * u n t— « o o© © r~~ 0 0 o e o o C O * CS* cs* cs* c s C O * cs* c s cs* CS C O * CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO cNonTfinor-ooovo^cN tSNfSfNfSMMoimrin O 'O 'O O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O 'O Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Alpha = .8775 Standardized it e m alpha = .8779 N o f Cases = 309 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C2 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) General Satisfaction (Q14 Recoded) Correlation Matrix Item Q10 Q14 Q15 016 0 2 0 Q 10 1.0000 Q14 .2753 1 .0 0 0 0 Q15 .2954 .5236 1.0000 Q16 .3407 .2673 .3139 1 .0 0 0 0 Q20 .2226 .0944 .0857 .3852 1 .0 0 0 0 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 13.0195 15.0715 3.8822 5 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance 2.6039 1.7427 3.4235 1.6808 1.9645 .5713 ON U \ Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C2 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) General Satisfaction (Q14 Recoded) Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean Scale Variance Corrected Squared Alpha If Item If Item Item-Total Multiple if Item _________________ Deleted__________________ Deleted_____________ Correlation Correlation Deleted Q10 10.8925 10.8871 .4181 .1786 .6115 Q14 9.5961 9.4572 .4369 .2961 .6041 Q15 9.6515 10.1102 .4783 .3210 .5825 Q16 10.6612 9.8195 .4816 .2692 .5794 0 20______________11.2769__________________ 12.0179________________ .2737 .1613________ .6680 Alpha = .6630 Standardized item alpha = .6608 N of Cases = 307 o\ C T \ Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C3 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Collaborative and Supportive Correlation Matrix Item 033 Q36 Q40 042 Q49 Q53 Q33 1.0000 Q36 .5802 1 .0 0 0 0 Q40 .3436 .4039 1.0000 Q42 .4395 .4599 .4746 1 .0 0 0 0 Q49 .4130 .4376 .3976 .4457 1 .0 0 0 0 Q53 .3644 .4026 .3545 .2991 .5107 1 .0 0 0 0 Q54 .3463 .3910 .3628 .3348 .3979 .4576 Item Q54 Q54 1.0000 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 28.6971 18.7739 4.3329 7 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 4.0996 3.7752 4.3257 .5505 1.1458 .0433 ON ^ 4 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C3 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Collaborative and Supportive Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean If Item Deleted Scale Variance If Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Squared Multiple Correlation Alpha if Item Deleted Q33 24.3713 14.0316 .5773 .3980 .7994 Q36 24.5277 13.9821 .6322 .4416 .7906 Q40 24.833 9 13.4070 .5413 .3169 .8090 Q42 24.5928 14.3860 .5765 .3702 .7998 Q49 24.4007 14.8291 .6094 .3968 .7973 Q53 24.5342 14.5960 .5519 .3647 .8037 Q54 24.9218 14.1442 .5282 .3006 .8081 Alpha = .8245 Standardized item alpha = .8297 N of Cases = 307 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C4 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Conscientious and Responsible Correlation Matrix Item Q38 Q41 0 4 4 Q45 047 Q48 Q38 1.0000 Q41 .5128 1 .0 0 0 0 Q44 .3316 .2400 1.0000 Q45 .3920 .2615 .3055 1 .0 0 0 0 Q47 .5101 .6738 .2814 .3093 1 .0 0 0 0 Q48 .5324 .4183 .3143 .4911 .4670 1 .0 0 0 0 Q55 .5091 .5142 .2927 .4581 .4838 .4965 Item Q55 Q55 1 .0000 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 28.6645 20.3871 4.5152 7 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 4.0949 3.9088 4.3876 .4788 1.1225 .0314 O n 'O Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C4 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Conscientious and Responsible Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean Scale Variance Corrected Squared If Item If Item Item-Total Multiple Deleted__________________Deleted_____________ Correlation______Correlation Q38 24.6417 15.7470 .6543 .4416 Q41 24.7557 14.6493 .6140 .5201 Q44 24.5961 15.6664 .3895 .1658 Q45 24.2769 16.4231 .4968 .3241 Q47 24.7557 14.2375 .6423 .5171 Q48 24.5570 15.5744 .6282 .4318 Q55 24.4039 15.6206 .6412 .4356 Alpha = .8243 Standardized item alpha = .8346 N of Cases = 307 Alpha if Item Deleted .7901 .7927 .8382 .8118 .7876 .7923 .7909 o Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C5 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Efficacious and Confident Correlation Matrix Item Q34 Q35 Q37 Q39 Q43 Q46 Q34 1.0000 Q35 .4653 1 .0 0 0 0 Q37 .5061 .4864 1 .0 0 0 0 Q39 .4681 .3422 .4243 1.0 0 0 0 Q43 .4463 .4853 .5035 .3501 1 .0 0 0 0 Q46 .4335 .3558 .4649 .2614 .4999 1 .0 0 0 0 Q50 .2872 .2406 .3258 .2994 .3523 .4437 Q51 .3806 .3229 .3844 3800 .3723 .3852 Q52 .3864 .3819 .4405 .3987 .3812 .3462 Item 050 Q51 0 5 2 Q50 1 .0000 Q51 .5983 1 .0 0 0 0 Q52 .3104 .4313 1 .0 0 0 0 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 35.0197 29.8148 5.4603 9 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 3.8911 3.4178 4.4441 1.0263 1.3003 .1211 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C5 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Efficacious and Confident Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean If Item Deleted Scale Variance If Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Squared Multiple Correlation Alpha if Item Deleta Q34 31.1217 23.0445 .6163 .4178 .8340 Q35 30.5757 24.3441 .5527 .3626 .8404 Q37 31.0625 23.6033 .6469 .4460 .8312 Q39 31.6020 23.6859 .5282 .3232 .8429 Q43 30.9539 24.8362 .6176 .4181 .8360 Q46 30.8586 23.9964 .5747 .3951 .8383 Q50 31.4803 24.2768 .5160 .4177 .8443 Q51 31.5493 23.4365 .5949 .4573 .8362 Q52 30.9539 24.6711 .5579 .3274 .8401 Alpha = .8536 Standardized item alpha = .8563 N of Cases = 304 to Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C6 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Instructional Processes Correlation Matrix Item 056 Q60 Q61 Q69 070 Q56 1 .0 0 0 0 Q60 .3963 1 .0 0 0 0 Q61 .4337 .7833 1.0000 Q69 .4040 .4479 .4375 1 .0 0 0 0 Q70 .5542 .4647 .4976 .7472 1 .0 0 0 0 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 20.8958 9.1721 3.0285 5 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 4.1792 3.8958 4.4951 .5993 1.1538 .0569 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C6 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Instructional Processes Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean If Item Deleted Scale Variance If Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Squared Multiple Correlation Alpha if Item Deleted Q56 17.0000 5.7778 .5448 .3434 .8362 Q60 16.7427 6.1787 .6585 .6283 .7931 Q61 16.8730 5.8760 .6771 .6418 .7868 Q69 16.4007 6.6396 .6250 .5724 .8050 Q70 16.5668 6.1026 .7136 .6463 .7792 Alpha = .8332 Standardized item alpha = .8424 N of Cases = 307 4 ^ Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C7 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction Correlation Matrix Item Q57 059 0 6 4 066 Q67 071 Q57 1 .0 0 0 0 Q59 .3298 1 .0 0 0 0 Q64 .3500 .3071 1.0000 Q6 6 .4459 .3906 .4965 1 .0 0 0 0 Q67 .3360 .3875 .4517 .5572 1 .0 0 0 0 - Q71 .3296 .4078 .5168 .6315 .6499 1 .0 0 0 0 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 24.4058 14.0660 3.7505 6 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 4.0676 3.9675 4.3247 .3571 1.0900 .0 2 0 1 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C7 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Assessing Individual Differences and Managing Instruction Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean If Item Deleted Scale Variance If Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Squared Multiple Correlation Alpha if Item Delete* Q57 20.4188 10.6677 .4686 .2460 .8227 Q59 20.2597 10.6750 .4794 .2341 .8201 Q64 20.0812 10.5830 .5691 .3401 .8022 Q6 6 20.4156 9.4815 .6964 .5051 .7739 Q67 20.4383 9.6998 .6515 .4768 .7841 Q71 20.4156 9.5531 .7014 .5581 .7733 Alpha = .8250 Standardized item alpha = .8245 N of Cases = 308 -o O v Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C8 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Teaching Higher Order Thinking Correlation Matrix Item Q58 Q62 Q63 065 0 6 8 072 Q58 1 .0 0 0 0 Q62 .4298 1 .0 0 0 0 Q63 .4773 .6451 1.0000 Q65 .3203 .5473 .5572 1 .0 0 0 0 Q6 8 .5410 .4800 .5891 .4291 1 .0 0 0 0 Q72 .4376 .6934 .5812 .6098 .5447 1.0000 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N of Variables 24.7825 12.7506 3.5708 6 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance 4.1304 3.9481 4.2857 .3377 1.0855 .0205 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C8 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Teaching Higher Order Thinking Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean If Item Deleted Scale Variance If Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Squared Multiple Correlation Alpha if Item Deleted Q58 20.5130 9.9966 .5418 .3474 .8674 Q62 20.7662 8.7139 .7231 .5769 .8374 Q63 20.5714 9.0731 .7340 .5576 .8368 Q65 20.7305 9.1030 .6260 .4410 .8551 Q6 8 20.4968 9.2931 .6483 .4703 .8508 Q72 20.8344 8.3341 .7448 .5935 .8333 Alpha = .8695 Standardized item alpha = .8692 N of Cases = 308 O O Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C9 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Teaching Competencies Correlation Matrix Item Instructional Processes Assessing Individual Differences/Managing Instruction Teaching Higher Order Thinking INSPRO AIDM THO 1.0 0 0 0 .8241 .7996 1 .0 0 0 0 .8180 1 .0 0 0 0 Statistics for Scale Mean Variance Std Dev. N o f Variables 123.7134 290.9655 17.0577 3 Item Means Mean Minimum Maximum Ranee Max/Min Variance 41.302 40.7389 41.8467 1.1078 1.0272 .3071 V O Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. C9 - Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Teaching Competencies Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean Scale Variance Corrected Squared Alpha If Item If Item Item-Total Multiple if Item _________________ Deleted__________________Deleted______________Correlation Correlation Deleted INSPRO 82.0611 136.2337 .8517 .7267 .8995 AIDM 83.1689 131.7506 .8656 .7492 .8 8 8 6 THO 82.5856 139.0075 .8470 .7181 .9034 Alpha = .9291 Standardized item alpha = .9292 N of Cases = 300 Appendix D Overall Initial Self-Assessment Results Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 Overal Initial Self-Assessment Results Frequency of Responses Number Responding Question Number A B C D E Mean S.D. 1 56 253 0 0 0 1.82 .39 2 14 77 179 22 15 2.83 .82 3 42 41 60 35 132 3.56 1.47 4 132 50 ' 35 27 66 2.50 1.60 - 5 188 116 0 1 4 1.40 .55 6 6 7 2 0 230 4.80 .80 7 190 44 25 17 27 1.83 1.31 8 7 57 54 14 176 3.96 1.30 9 55 37 68 140 7 3.02 1.18 10 180 125 0 0 0 1.41 .49 11 166 135 4 0 1 1.48 .56 12 126 183 1 0 0 1.60 .50 13 181 92 36 1 0 1.54 .71 14 50 185 41 32 0 2.18 .82 15 60 51 90 49 60 2.99 1.37 16 14 7 33 135 118 4.09 .99 17 51 50 81 73 55 3.10 1.32 18 30 19 53 77 131 3.84 1.30 19 12 14 21 153 109 4.08 .97 20 151 64 59 18 17 1.98 1.19 21 20 8 3 145 106 4.00 1.06 22 21 23 26 78 162 4.09 1.23 23 128 68 67 28 19 2.17 1.23 24 106 108 54 32 9 2.13 1.09 25 66 147 45 41 10 2.29 1.05 26 69 65 43 63 66 2.97 1.48 27 52 66 69 83 40 2.98 1.29 28 84 99 29 60 38 2.58 1.38 29 22 60 58 118 51 3.38 1.17 30 97 90 51 57 15 2.36 1.23 31 128 64 32 27 59 2.44 1.55 32 21 57 21 103 108 3.71 1.29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Overal Initial Self-Assessment Results Frequency of Responses Number Responding Question Number A B C D E Mean S.D. 33 118 71 65 37 19 2.25 1.25 34 170 90 16 26 7 1.74 1.04 35 8 52 72 144 33 3.46 .98 36 25 94 72 101 18 2.98 1.09 37 11 29 76 145 48 3.61 .97 38 13 53 70 145 29 3.40 1.01 39 13 46 49 159 42 3.55 1.03 40 13 58 99 117 23 3.25 .98 41 33 68 70 110 29 3.11 1.17 42 14 47 79 147 23 3.38 .98 43 11 72 73 134 20 3.26 1.00 44 18 60 84 115 33 3.27 1.07 45 29 51 49 150 31 3.33 1.15 46 29 71 103 87 20 2.99 1.07 47 11 5 11 128 155 4.33 .90 48 5 32 38 148 86 3.90 .98 49 9 6 4 108 183 4.45 .86 50 4 17 16 157 115 4.17 .86 51 4 16 49 157 83 3.97 .87 52 3 11 39 180 77 4.02 .78 53 10 44 101 115 40 3.42 .99 54 7 39 39 127 97 3.87 1.06 55 6 33 35 144 92 3.91 1.00 56 2 19 25 162 102 4.11 .84 57 1 9 37 183 80 4.07 .72 58 13 30 18 111 137 4.06 1.12 59 5 7 15 119 164 4.39 .81 60 5 14 28 139 123 4.17 .89 61 9 34 26 145 94 3.91 1.04 62 3 12 37 153 103 4.11 .83 63 2 6 19 152 130 4.30 .73 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 Overal Initial Self-Assessment Results Frequency of Responses Number Responding Question Number A B C D E Mean S.D. 64 3 31 123 101 51 3.54 .92 65 4 37 127 90 50 3.47 .94 66 4 10 36 169 89 4.07 .80 67 5 8 30 154 112 4.17 .83 68 4 29 67 139 69 3.78 .94 69 6 6 17 153 127 4.26 .81 70 4 27 55 128 85 3.88 .97 71 1 19 54 143 91 3.99 .86 72 0 3 30 156 119 4.27 .67 73 2 9 53 122 122 4.15 .85 74 0 7 44 151 106 4.16 .74 75 0 11 63 140 93 4.03 .81 76 0 13 56 152 87 4.02 .80 77 0 3 44 146 115 4.21 .71 78 1 8 29 122 148 4.32 .78 79 0 12 54 148 94 4.05 .80 80 2 18 56 137 95 3.99 .88 81 1 15 75 121 97 3.96 .88 82 0 4 40 128 137 4.29 .74 83 0 2 21 107 179 4.50 .65 84 0 3 37 123 146 4.33 .72 85 1 18 60 136 94 3.98 .87 86 0 21 58 139 84 3.95 .86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix E Inter-Scale Correlation Matrix For Elementary Teacher Sample Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Inter-Scale Correlation Matrix for Elementary Teacher Sample RELTCH RELSUP GENSAT COLSUP CONRES EFFCON INSPRO AIDM THO TCHCOM SCHEFF RELTCH Corr. 1 .0 0 0 Sig. — N 309 Corr. .392** 1.000 Sig. .0 0 0 — N 309 310 Corr. .170** .227** 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .006 .0 0 0 — N 306 307 307 Corr. .246** .279** .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .998 — N 306 307 304 307 Corr. .096 .189** - .0 2 0 .6 8 8 ** Sig. .092 .0 0 1 .726 .0 0 0 N 306 307 304 306 307 EFFCON Corr. .057 .137* -.067 7 9 7 ** 7 7 9 ** 1.000 Sig. .322 .019 .248 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 — N 303 304 301 303 304 304 O O Os Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Inter-Scale Correlation Matrix for Elementary Teacher Sample RELTCH RELSUP GENSAT COLSUP CONRES EFFCON INSPRO AIDM THO TCHCOM SCHEFF INSPRO Corr. -.008 .030 -.043 .360** .407** .438** 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .8 8 8 .605 .454 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 — N 306 307 304 305 305 302 307 AIDM Corr. .005 .066 .018 .373** .454** .459** .823** 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .931 .250 .756 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 — N 307 308 305 306 306 303 307 308 THO Corr. .004 .064 .017 .383** .432** .464** 7 9 9 ** .816** 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .940 .262 .774 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 — N 307 308 305 306 306 303 307 308 308 TCHCOM Corr. -.006 .052 -.006 .396** .463** .492** .9 3 4 ** .942** .931** 1.000 Sig. .923 .639 .921 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 — N 299 300 297 298 298 295 300 300 300 300 SCHEFF Corr. .186** .359** .314** .167** .1 0 2 .061 .161** .190** .158** 175** 1 .0 0 0 Sig. .001 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .003 .075 .287 .005 .0 0 1 .006 .0 0 2 — N 308 309 306 307 307 304 306 307 307 309 302 Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). O O Appendix F Analysis of Variance Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. < u I > •2 O >> c t J P i n 1 o ^ w C/3 O n OS c n 00 o t j * »n o © c n c o V O © 1 - H p H t * * * " " t 0 0 OS OS T t T t r- © oo •n o oo c o S in © oo © r-‘ 2 so CN ^ CN c n 00 CN s o r - © © CO CO in pH 0 0 o s 0 0 v o in O s in o s CN v o in CO pH p H Os vo. T t- 0 0 © 0 0 • n 0 0 OS v o © in v o p H 0 0 • n c n 0 0 o r - r - r - o Os* Os* O s 2 cn r- £ os •n m ° ® h © 2 © T t ^ 5 H i 00 pH 00 c o •n © r» oo © © CO CO r- r- cs r- T t o s * t 00 © vo CO T t © r f in < n © © © H O ( v r~ ® -s- © V O to °. © o ' 2 © Tt T f 1 73 £ CN © 00 p H in o- in © © CO CO O S vo cn r- © V O m © cn cn pH o s CN t j* O s CN 0 0 pH pH OS in 0 0 pH S in v d < N O s r - * » <N ^ . 0 0 o m P " ! © o< ^ -4 c o ■ * t 0 1 a £ CO u Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CONRES Male 38.9796 7.6989 1.0288 1 6.746 .010 Female 41.4286 6.0474 .3825 304 Total 40.9804 6.4377 .3680 305 O § *5 > t f H 0 cn 'cn a % 1 P p < D •O c O 1 1 & <Z J § 'S 1 « £ 00 00 in C N © © © © © cn © © N O 00 os ov T f r * K r - ’ H H N ^ in r - H © © © © cn cn cn cn *o Ti- f - H © © 00 On C S On V O i-t vo Os © r - r f 00 00 r f m cv cn cn r " cn cn r - H M Is O On h cn V O C N V O C N C N V O © © «n r * * oo cn vo 00 00 00 © 00 © © vq vd «n v o * in vd vd in * vo £> © H O ^ Tf ^ S ^ t- " t> i — 1 o 2S ^ un ^ c s r - c n ov oo < N in r - ’ 25 ° °* Cv ^ ^ 0 0 * cn ^ cn cn ^ rj* cn | 1 | - a l l o *3 s £ O u ip H 1 £ £ Q jw s < » n © o o cn cn rfr cn r- r- i n V O V O o » n ^ ^Sg 00 c s 0 > V O H n V O o © cn cn © O V * “ H r * ' « - h © fO 0 0 T f r* cn cn © © v o m o v o o h » n V> © Os in v o * » n * ^ o o w o !> < n co 2S • “* in ^ m O ^ i-J T l- ^ 'U - < 1 0 1 1 < u .o P h H Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SCHEFF M ale 31.8994 6.0184 .8042 1 1.314 .252 Female 33.0916 7.2438 .4563 306 Total 32.8749 7.0429 .4013 307 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F2 - Analysis of Variance Ethnicity Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT Af/Amer 24.9231 7.0529 1.9561 4 .141 .967 Hisp/Latino 26.2632 8.0289 .9210 299 Causasian 26.0335 7.5772 .5663 Asian 25.3636 7.4677 1.5921 Other 26.5714 9.1628 2.4488 Total 26.0197 7.6964 .4414 303 RELTCH Af/Amer 40.7143 11.4114 3.0498 4 1.182 .319 Hisp/Latino 39.7403 9.5936 1.0933 301 Causasian 41.2849 9.8313 .7348 Asian 43.3333 5.7735 1.2599 Other 37.3333 10.9978 2.8396 Total 40.8170 9.6997 .5545 305 RELSUP Af/Amer 39.2857 12.0667 3.2250 4 .439 .781 Hisp/Latino 41.2987 8.9370 1.0185 302 Causasian 39.7207 10.9355 .8174 Asian 40.9091 9.2113 1.9639 Other 38.6667 11.2546 2.9059 Total 40.1303 10.3839 .5926 306 COLSUP Af/Amer 41.9388 7.0568 1.8860 4 .660 .620 Hisp/Latino 41.6165 5.8010 .6654 299 Causasian 41.0193 5.6965 .4270 Asian 40.3896 4.3684 .9313 Other 39.1837 9.9562 2.6609 Total 41.0808 5.9419 .3408 303 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F2 - Analysis of Variance Ethnicity Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance CONRES Af/Amer 42.2449 6.9017 1.8446 4 .567 .687 Hisp/Latino 40.7429 5.8022 .6700 299 Causasian 41.3328 5.8991 .4409 Asian 40.0000 6.0609 1.2922 Other 39.7959 10.6589 2.8487 Total 41.0620 6.1983 .3555 303 EFFCON Af/Amer 42.5397 5.6392 1.5071 4 2.030 .090 Hisp/Latino 38.8138 5.3377 .6205 296 Causasian 39.0709 5.6769 .4267 Asian 37.1212 4.7964 1.0226 Other 37.9365 9.8888 2.6429 Total 38.9738 5.8286 .3360 300 INSPRO Af/Amer 43.7143 5.1951 1.3884 4 2.098 .081 Hisp/Latino 41.3158 5.8200 .6676 299 Causasian 42.1130 5.9762 .4492 Asian 38.7273 7.1326 1.5207 Other 42.6667 6.7047 1.7311 Total 41.7697 6.0743 .3484 303 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F2 - Analysis of Variance Ethnicity Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance AIDM Af/Amer 42.3810 4.9231 1.3158 4 2.319 .057 Hisp/Latino 39.7588 6.2046 .7117 300 Causasian 41.2360 5.9213 .4438 Asian 37.8030 7.5310 1.6056 Other 41.5556 7.7272 1.9951 Total 40.6885 6.2273 .3566 304 THO Af/Amer 42.3810 6.2605 1.6732 4 1.094 .360 Hisp/Latino 41.1184 5.5737 .6393 300 Causasian 41.6105 5.8193 .4362 Asian 39.0152 6.8169 1.4534 Other 40.7778 7.6342 1.9711 Total 41.2951 5.9549 .3410 304 SCHEFF Af/Amer 34.4805 7.6099 2.0338 4 .471 .757 Hisp/Latino 32.9988 6.8936 .7856 301 Causasian 32.4581 7.2058 .5386 Asian 33.9256 5.5503 1.1833 Other 33.2468 7.6619 2.0477 Total 32.8283 7.0388 .4024 305 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F3 - Analysis of Variance Years of Total Employment Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT 1-5 years 25.7561 8.1755 1.2768 4 .828 .508 6 -1 0 years 26.1463 7.7252 1.2065 302 11-15 years 27.1525 7.8363 1 .0 2 0 2 16-20 years 27.2353 7.8318 1.3431 2 1 < years 25.2879 7.6173 .6630 Total 26.0391 7.7644 .4431 306 RELTCH 1-5 years 39.2857 9.7262 1.5008 4 .780 .539 6 -1 0 years 40.0000 10.9545 1.7108 304 11-15 years 40.0000 9.5669 1.2351 16-20 years 42.3529 7.8079 1.3390 2 1 < years 41.4394 9.8951 .8613 Total 40.7767 9.7391 .5540 308 RELSUP 1-5 years 40.4762 8.5404 1.3178 4 1.085 .364 6 -1 0 years 38.7805 10.2944 1.6077 305 11-15 years 41.0000 8.3767 1.0814 16-20 years 42.5714 7.8000 1.3184 2 1< years 39.0152 12.6527 1.1013 Total 39.9677 10.6275 .6036 309 COLSUP 1-5 years 41.0884 5.4541 .8416 4 .309 .872 6 -1 0 years 40.0000 7.2983 1.1398 302 11-15 years 41.0654 6.1336 .7985 16-20 years 41.1837 4.1503 .7015 2 1< years 41.1978 6.5642 .5757 Total 40.9958 6.1898 .3533 306 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F3 - Analysis of Variance Years of Total Employment Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance CONRES 1-5 years 41.0801 5.8273 .9101 4 .418 .796 6 -1 0 years 40.1394 6.5450 1 .0 2 2 2 302 11-15 years 40.8232 5.9744 .7778 16-20 years 40.2857 3.9322 .6647 2 1 < years 41.3959 7.3347 .6408 Total 40.9493 6.4503 .3681 306 EFFCON 1-5 years 38.4167 5.6538 .8939 4 .605 .659 6 -1 0 years 37.9444 6.8009 1.0753 299 11-15 years 39.1149 5.0950 .6633 16-20 years 38.3987 4.1860 .7179 2 1< years 39.3978 6.7534 .5900 Total 38.9108 6.0670 .3480 303 INSPRO 1-5 years 39.0952 6.5400 1.0091 4 4.390 .0 0 2 6 -1 0 years 41.7073 6.4740 1 .0 1 1 1 302 11-15 years 41.7333 5.6505 .7295 16-20 years 40.2857 5.8640 .9912 2 1< years 43.1318 5.6781 .4999 Total 41.7915 6.0571 .3457 306 \o 0 c < n 1 < + H o cn . . c o cn < 4 - > > > O « s H I 'S 1 I P o P H S 3 I I b vo cn 1 H cn vo C N P v n V O v > vo £ O v vo on CN «n W O H © pH V O On in cn cn o o rf m o cn O cn O rf cn ■^t cn 00 h r - CN CN o ON CN cn 00 O n «o o 00 CN 00 ON CN r-‘ vd «o v i v i vd cn CN o p H r- o r- «r> VO ph o •Ti pH r- CN lO 00 v o 00* © o 00 CN o cn cn ■n- i/i i/3 b CA CA 3 c C b § < L > ?n NT) ? n | >> wn o pH I pH 1 H o V H 3 i pH VO *H VO H CN o H v o o o 00 CN cn cn o cn C - * o cn 00 On *T i On cn H 00 o (S o i 1 os os on oo <r> o cn on O'* vo o *o cn o o « — < r - ^ ^ c n m « n ^ o h h o o h -<t i n c n CN CN C^- CN vo v o * * c i vd « r > *o O h fcl 00 H V O V O vo S o — . ^ i- H f — t vo cn o (S q ^ ^ m ^ 3 " » * » g § § B a V "rt ' ^ H S ^ f 2 o ; > > o « o ^ p H vo > n _ pH O i cn r* o n r- H »n T t * T t o cn 00 o cn vo pH CN r- CN r* cn o ON r- cn o vo rf »n cn 00 o o pH c- 00 pH pH VO o »H VO © cn ON O n pH ON O n cn On cn -rt 00 r- * n r- 00 © vd rt* vd vd r * * ' H O N h H M 0 0 oo «n vo oo ^ o Tf ^ oo t j- cn ^ on c n c n ov p ©o H ^ H C O p - o cn cn cn cn cn ^ CA „ 2 S § M 8 2 w 9 ? $ b O ^ 2 \/ * 5 J C O r t J O (S ^ i c/a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F4 - Analysis of Variance Years in Teaching Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT 1-5 years 27.2923 7.6305 .6692 4 2.833 .025 6-10 years 25.7200 7.0452 .9963 302 11-15 years 26.6471 8.8451 1.5169 16-20 years 22.2963 8.0900 1.3431 21< years 25.0303 7.3943 .6630 Total 26.0391 7.7644 ;4431 306 RELTCH 1-5 years 40.9091 9.4469 .8222 4 .135 .970 6-10 years 40.8000 8.0407 1.1371 304 11-15 years 40.0000 11.8818 2.0084 16-20 years 40.0000 9.3808 1.8397 21< years 41.2121 10.5997 1.3047 Total 40.7767 9.7391 .5540 308 RELSUP 1-5 years 40.2273 9.3667 .8153 4 1.171 .324 6-10 years 42.2000 7.8999 1.1172 305 11-15 years 38.0000 11.8322 2.0000 16-20 years 37.7778 12.5064 2.4069 21< years 39.6970 13.0053 1.6008 Total 39.9677 10.6275 .6036 309 COLSUP 1-5 years 41.1688 5.6203 .4892 4 .451 .772 6-10 years 40.7289 6.8021 .9717 302 11-15 years 40.0420 7.8678 1.3493 16-20 years 40.4233 6.8719 1.3225 21< years 41.5824 5.6250 .6977 Total 40.9958 6.1898 .3533 306 198 < D I I > ' M ^ O U - i c t f 0 U w a H 1 3 i £ 2 T ? ja ( h * S o c f c S w cN o C O V O o cn h ro o n rt ro h o 't oo m oo ON «n cn Tf rj- vo rt oo in rj* r * * * cn h h (s h h m on © cn © t-» © o oo c s h i n sq on cn «n © rf «n m* on r-’ so so* a O N O N _ _ O <N • —» oo 1 -h cn co cn J5 oo o ± 2 on oo cn 5 o ^ 2 « S § - + « ^ * ® C / 3 S Vh C / 3 c3 o c3 <D > \ <5 & C S £ © in © 1 CN V 1 SO VO i-H CN i ■^t O N O N CN cn O cn r* »n cn r- cn © cn o o cn oo vo O cc m *n 't r f on m r s C" c n o o ts in Is o o v o c n o o in o h VO O Tf ON CN SO < N c n © c n i - H © m so o o * s o * so s o * § © S Jp § 0 0 S S £ S ® 2 • . h o a \ 8 8 8 ® j ® » y > £ S 2 s « c 3 § | a 2 o > > — 1 ? n © u p - H V O § o % w n* v _ i so O i H CN H ^ CN © cn so o cn *n <n on in ^ cn so in in © *n *n cn cn oo «n •n ts on h so cn cn in r- cn cn ^h O n M S O O h (s «n © m so T f - *n c n ^ <n h cn © so *n »n so < n so’ S 3 3 W c n T J - rt 5 C « { 2 £ 2 « S « S 2 tnO ^ O > > -h '? < ? v a i iA SO H O H ^ S N H 1 p + in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F4 - Analysis of Variance Years in Teaching Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance AIDM 1-5 years 38.3207 6.4484 .5613 4 9.844 .0 0 0 6 -1 0 years 41.4236 5.1570 .7443 303 11-15 years 42.0952 5.8346 .9862 16-20 years 43.3951 5.6327 1.0840 2 1 < years 42.9798 5.4578 .6718 Total 40.6764 6.2508 .3562 307 THO 1-5 years 39.5960 6.0676 .5281 4 5.371 .0 0 0 6 -1 0 years 42.0139 5.1337 .7410 303 11-15 years 42.3333 6.1861 1.0456 16-20 years 43.5802 5.7309 1.1029 2 1< years 42.7273 5.4588 .6719 Total 41.3041 5.9513 .3391 307 SCHEFF 1-5 years 32.8444 6.8753 .5984 4 .894 .468 6 -1 0 years 33.4727 6.8047 .9623 304 11-15 years 31.1765 6.6335 1.1376 16-20 years 34.3434 5.9310 1.1414 2 1< years 32.6446 8.1119 .9985 Total 32.8508 7.0441 .4007 308 v© Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F5 - Analysis of Variance Employment Status Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT emerg/intem 27.3239 7.2423 .8595 2 2.741 .066 probation 27.2692 7.2925 1.0113 295 permanent 25.1657 8.0723 .6102 Total 26.0470 7.7961 .4516 297 RELTCH emerg/intem 39.0141 9.5849 1.1375 2 2.184 .114 probation 42.2222 8.3929 1.1421 297 permanent 41.4286 9.7506 .7371 Total 41.0000 9.5203 .5497 299 RELSUP emerg/intem 41.2676 7.9156 .9394 2 1.524 .2 2 0 probation 41.6667 6.3691 .8667 298 permanent 39.3182 12.2167 .9209 Total 40.1993 10.4862 .6044 300 COLSUP emerg/intem probation permanent Total 40.7243 40.8625 41.2000 41.0272 5.6055 6.5486 6.4249 6.2459 .6652 .8995 .4857 .3612 2 296 298 .168 .846 F5 - Analysis of Variance Employment Status Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance CONRES emerg/intem 39.5714 6.1305 .7327 2 2.989 .052 probation 40.2426 6.0267 .8278 296 permanent 41.6721 6.7413 .5081 Total 40.9269 6.5246 .3773 298 EFFCON emerg/intem probation permanent Total 37.6006 37.9874 39.7254 38.9189 5.4720 5.7034 6.4004 6.1323 .6588 .7834 .4852 .3564 2 293 295 3.781 .024 INSPRO emerg/intem 38.5634 6.6434 .7884 2 22.019 .0 0 0 probation 40.4151 5.7827 .7943 295 permanent 43.6437 5.2619 .3989 Total 41.8591 6.1007 .3534 297 AIDM emerg/intem 37.3944 6.7479 .8008 2 21.775 .0 0 0 probation 39.3711 5.7198 .7857 296 permanent 42.6000 5.5178 .4171 Total 40.7915 6.2619 .3621 298 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F5 - Analysis of Variance Employment Status Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance THO emerg/intem 38.2864 6.2104 .7370 2 17.001 .0 0 0 probation 40.5975 5.3817 .7392 296 permanent 42.8857 5.5943 .4229 Total 41.3880 6.0090 .3475 298 SCHEFF emerg/intem 32.8553 6.2368 .7402 2 1 .1 2 2 .327 probation 34.1077 6.0554 .8240 298 permanent 32.4587 7.6539 .5769 Total 32.8481 7.0782 .4080 300 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F6 - Analysis of Variance Graduate Credits Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT 0-15 27.6000 7.1843 .9687 4 .922 .451 16-30 26.4444 8.5271 1.4212 299 31-45 26.1212 7.0678 .8700 46 or more 25.2714 8.0902 .6837 Total 26.0461 7.8019 .4475 303 RELTCH 0-15 41.4815 9.3984 1.2790 4 1.114 .350 16-30 39.4595 9.9850 1.6415 301 31-45 42.2059 7.6968 .9334 46 or more 40.4286 10.3792 .8772 Total 40.7843 9.7865 .5595 305 RELSUP 0-15 40.7273 8.5753 1.1563 4 .930 .447 16-30 42.4324 6.8335 1.1234 302 31-45 40.4412 9.3735 1.1367 46 or more 39.0000 12.1915 1.0304 Total 40.0977 10.5250 .6007 306 COLSUP 0-15 40.7532 4.8551 .6547 4 1.156 .330 16-30 42.6641 4.2746 .7027 299 31-45 40.2101 6.8679 .8329 46 or more 41.1053 6.7341 .5753 Total 40.9821 6.2142 .3564 303 N J O u > < u J- § - M < u c m r F ; 0 U o o < D '« « e 3 1 * i P M O P M 3 H 45 o a ti B W m "a a ^ « I ’ g Os ON CN C O O CO r- C O r H r - C N C O C N in OO N C N N O r - 0 0 r - • nC O C O C N r - N O C N 0 0i nN O 0 0O O N C N i n C O 0 0 0 00 0O N N O i n * t C • nN O * N O * o m co ^ .i I N O i - H o • n o C N 0 0 O N C " C O O N o • n N O C O C N C O O N • n O N o n C O p H N O O N p H in O N * C N N O * o’0 0 * C O o ’ C O r f r C O 2 o S o H NO ON C N O o co O t* ' CN ON i n ^ <N NO O tC co ^ in in no r-* i n c o on oo oo on in in oo on in oo ON VO f-H oo oo no rt i —j o tc no no no Z ! ^ CO r-< o ON ON 00* CO CO 2 o 5 s v o 3 £ I % w Tt* O n O n CN CO O CO O O 00 ON h C O C N H t * - * C * » o * - 4 no in -*t O n O n c * ^ co o «n r*^ r- in NO h 00 CN co so no NO in CN CO p no in no’ in no* C5 Os 00 Jn «n oo v o T f in ON ON' O oo zl CO ^ o in co «n t C O T f r p H «> CN * " 3 ^ CN 00 CO* »-4 2 I U O I ^ o o CO o CO ON O n C'* CO NO r- in co no oo oo —4 in oo in on oo r^* rf co H CS 00 ^ NO CO in CN CN CN NO h pH VO CO ON CN t-*# CN r- tc no* in no 00 CO o in O in c o c o 2 o rf 2 I I N O O ^ C O Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F6 - Analysis of Variance Graduate Credits Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance THO 0-15 39.1212 6.4856 .8745 4 4.283 .0 0 2 16-30 40.8108 5.7551 .9461 300 31-45 40.5147 5.9032 .7159 46 or more 42.6812 5.5201 .4699 Total 41.3224 5.9589 .3412 304 SCHEFF 0-15 32.8264 6.7797 .9142 4 .527 .716 16-30 33.7101 5.9666 .9809 301 31-45 33.5428 7.0280 .8523 46 or more 32.2760 7.5968 .6444 Total 32.8402 7.0693 .4041 305 206 < D O § I o c n cn I C O 1 3 t'5 ^ 2 t" P m P m •g s * 5 g W CO *3 S to o l i a S w Q O » “ H o o c n cn r j1 w i O r f O N cn • n cn T f in r- . s i i/i H CN 00 O N T f O cn cn o o cn cn c n i n vo i n vo on T f O T f h oo i n r - © cn 00 cn vo O n O N © C N O N ON O N 00 00 T f © V O O N O N in 00* r-*' O N 00* O N 00 C N vo V O i n O n r f © i n CN O N in vo cn T f © cn i n in © i n rf* N O i n © © 00 O N in vo in VO © © i-H 00 CN CN CN cn a s’! S S H 0 H i vo o CN O N 00 cn r f o o cn cn oo in — i n h on T f T t 0 0 t-* on «n CN 00 T f 00 vo 00 t"** CN 0 0 O n i n CN on © © cn CN N O CN © s 1! c o H C/3 *n © cn rf in © C N © © cn cn © on i n 0 0 CN C - o o T t tj- m © r- r-H i n 00 VO vo CN ^ O N vo i n i n rf 2 0 0 ^ “ S..8 ^ 2 *H * ^ n 3 '£ C / 3 < 3 O Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CONRES M arried 41.1878 6.5218 .4888 1 .108 .742 Single 40.9486 5.7800 .5170 301 Total 41.0891 6.2177 .3572 302 <D O § •S > cm O cn CO I C / 3 * c 3 ll r~ Ph f t i (ZJ T 3 C S l - s "2 W I'g r- o o r - cn r- o oo on ON Os cn cn r - i n in v o o n * n o m ■*t i n cn O 0 0 v o v o O n c n rf cn c- O v© 00 v d •n in VO 0© -* j: n . 'T o S | 8 £ £ •c ^ - 5 § u w Tf vo O n O o o cn cn o o ^ © vo r- on C N 0 0 T t in cn v o in «s © in ON T t V O v o in © in so vd m ®g on cn JQ £ H ^ © < N ^ ® 0 ( N rj zi rf ^ *© 1 f 3 iS .5 o I PH C / 3 O vo cn SJ On CN © © cn cn © vo h vo © O s in oo in T f i n cn •n h vo © in - i —♦ © v© vo • — « CN © v © v d (N V© © r* * in 0 0 © © © © © * - H © © t ^ T f 0 < i n oo cn © *-i CN © © cn cn ON © CN cn r-* cn cn in rf ■*t in cn on cn in h on © on © m . r- cn on in © ‘ in » § £ t~ - « " > if! n n S ^ ^ _< Tf TT Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SCHEFF M arried 33.2727 7.0251 .5236 1 1.717 .191 Single 32.1964 7.0995 .6350 303 Total 32.8316 7.0639 .4045 304 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F8 - Analysis of Variance Children Living at Home Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT 0 26.0366 7.9522 .6210 3 2.602 .052 1-3 25.9104 7.3979 .6391 299 4 or more 32.0000 8.6410 4.3205 Total 26.1188 7.7792 .4469 302 RELTCH 0 40.7273 9.3420 .7273 3 2.234 .084 1-3 41.4074 9.6323 .8290 301 4 or more 35.0000 17.3205 8.6603 Total 40.8852 9.6418 .5521 304 RELSUP 0 39.5181 10.2577 .7962 3 .714 .544 1-3 40.7407 10.6945 .9204 302 4 or more 42.5000 5.0000 2.5000 Total 40.1307 10.4009 .5946 305 COLSUP 0 40.9610 6.4953 .5057 3 .031 .993 1-3 40.9915 5.9387 .5130 300 4 or more 41.0714 5.1343 2.5671 Total 40.9821 6 .2 1 2 0 .3563 303 c d > « * H O < D a o Id & D C .22 03 .15 * “I cd £ ^ 8 ^ ” 1 3 P H P h t) rt l - s 1 3 8 i'g w Q O n in o n cn o o cn cn O cn O r > «n rf- r- p . vo t> «n in in cn c n vo © cn r * * H 0 0 T t 0 0 vo vo cn »n vq c n * - * T t - vo vo in vo •n c n o 0 © C N 0 ^ in o < n o oo «n oo H O (S ^ ^ ^ 2 o S u o On as O n cn r- CN < N O o cn c n c- o cn h cj cn h oo c n rf in in vq cn cn on on o cn h r- vo in vo CN 00 On i-i O CN O V O * vo r-‘ V O * r * * c n _ in n* at on r t cn J o o o r j - o o o o o o n • fr) cn cn o o ' 1 cn O H § u $ w I o 3 O H in C N 00 o o cn cn on on C N C N O cn V O o o n *CN O N 0 0 ON in in cn cn •n o in o o in V O v oo 0 0 0 0 cn 0 0r - » O N o •n l> V O r- o O N o V O in o . 0 0 Om O CN ON 0 0 rf* cn T — H r f o > t - o f= cn G u O 1 H I % a > Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 0 40.7475 6.2154 .4839 3 .623 .600 1 -3 40.6716 6.3329 .5471 300 4 o r m ore 38.7500 7.8617 3.9308 Total 40.7127 6.2745 .3599 303 210 P * H © ai a I .§ ° Sffi > 3 ■ s g > •I :s J2' I — 1 C d rj 1 3 0 0 P 5 P P u 1 -a 00 § I C O o 00 CO CO © © CO CO © CO ^ io cs h v) es C * 1 * © CO T f Tt; vo vo| co C O * C O ^ o . rr > 0 0 ^ CO vo © co ^ ° 2 f - H •-» © • ^ ^ 3 I s 3 CO © vo CN 00 v o co cN © CO v o © CO H H CO © t-* On co CN -d* 00 © V O © © T t CN t- vo 00 © CN CO O S © rS CN 00 rf vo r- © © cN r * * vo © 00 © O s r- VO CO. © v o vo’ vo* © ' vo r-' 00 ^ © © VO © ^ c * * * © co fs 0 0 o ^ <N CN vo CO CO co CN C O S 3 *e2 fe § c / 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F 9 - Analysis o f Variance 211 >-> 0 c < D J3 E .. 0 0 1 cx C / 3 * 2 I S c b | w c ft *rt s s o v o o H t rf 00 c n C N tJ- vo o o cn cn 00 O H 1-H 1-H cn H V O ' t r - * v n r f* © nf 00 00 ^ n- v o ov w r - * r-‘ K r * * * © r - * _ h a » s h H C w i 2 v c i < N « N ^ £ < 1 C Q a v > o cn C N < N V O 00 O O cn cn 00 © o r- oo Tt ^ N « n oo r> «o vo ^ V O ^ Os h cN m v > oo O V O s © v f - H * " ■ ° ° . ® ® 3 £ 0 I 00 00 w < N cn v > r- a v © © cn cn cn O v vo vo cn cn « — • v> o 00 00 vo o t* - «n cn h r*' vo in cn 1 - H un vo OV f-H © t " 4 0 ® fv 00 p cn £ N vo < n n a\ o ' £ O N m n K) I 00 »-H O v v > 00 © CN r f . V O o © cn cn rf cn cn h c n cn CO pH IO vo rf cn C N © 00 O v t-- O V V O r j* 0 0 © v v K V J vo vo oo cn vo r- o o © © rt T t £ C O § o 00 C N r - r- C N r- w V O r- vo H t cn O O C N O H t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. N o 41.4364 5.7251 .4244 304 Total 40.9493 6.4503 .3681 306 212 < D O g ’ S > tw & § 3 a 1 8 O v PH cn r- oo vo c n i —I CO O O C O C O V O ov o 0 0C N 0 0 o i “H v oTf cn cn 0 0o r - O V r - r - cn v o r - i n o vd i n vd ov vo 2 p p s 0 0 O V o o w W 8 0 o g 5? (2 g o w r- o V O o o in TJ- VO o o C O C O nf in C ' - ' o oo in h vo't >n Hf co O iH h O h o o m h C O O in v o * v d o o o ^ 0 0 CN 2 © © S <s«nS CN *h T j * H f I I P h CO r- Ht in in r * ' c n i n r - o o C O C O 00 ^ C N H f C N V O cn oo in m ^ cn C\ fH oo h 00 o vo o in oo in c n in vd vd J2 ^ ^ 2 r- v o ^ r - * f - - p s s 2 © o ^ r t - o V O Hf 00 r- r- c n in h o o co co O V C N H in h ov O V v o C O T f ’ T f C O 0 0 O C O C O C N 1 - H Tt c n in in c n o v m v d in © © O Tf Tf ^ ^ © S O © C O H r -i f - H ■ " t T t C A i2 £ 5 5 f2 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SCHEFF Yes 32.5036 6.6553 .5929 2 1.031 .358 N o 33.0420 7.2994 .5411 306 Total 32.8508 7.0441 .4007 308 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F10 - Analysis of Variance Second Job Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT never 27.1667 7.2061 .5371 3 5.432 .0 0 1 sometimes 24.3778 8.0777 .8515 303 usually 24.0556 8.2875 1.3812 Total 26.0391 7.7644 .4431 306 RELTCH never 40.9444 9.3173 .6945 3 3.422 .018 sometimes 41.9565 9.2865 .9682 305 usually 37.5000 11.8019 1.9670 Total 40.7767 9.7391 .5540 308 RELSUP never 40.7735 9.8578 .7327 3 2.049 .107 sometimes 39.6739 10.9395 1.1405 306 usually 36.3889 12.9069 2.1511 Total 39.9677 10.6275 .6036 309 COLSUP never 40.9048 5.4381 .4053 3 .597 .618 sometimes 40.6667 7.2534 .7646 303 usually 42.2222 6.9269 1.1545 Total 40.9958 6.1898 .3533 306 213 F10 - Analysis of Variance Second Job Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance CONRES never 41.1444 5.4365 .4041 3 2.090 .1 0 2 sometimes 39.7937 8.1619 .8603 303 usually 42.8571 5.9148 .9858 Total 40.9493 6.4503 .3681 306 EFFCON never sometimes usually Total 38.8395 37.8662 41.8210 38.9108 5.0732 7.3669 6.3754 6.0670 .3781 .7853 1.0626 .3480 3 300 303 3.738 .0 1 2 INSPRO never 41.1173 6.0821 .4546 3 2.063 .105 sometimes 42.4396 6.0059 .6296 303 usually 43.5000 5.7842 .9640 Total 41.7915 6.0571 .3457 306 ATOM never 40.1389 6.0872 .4537 3 1.702 .167 sometimes 41.0989 6.2174 .6518 304 usually 42.0833 6.9394 1.1566 Total 40.6764 6.2508 .3562 307 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F10 - Analysis of Variance Second Job Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance THO never 40.7685 5.7042 .4252 3 1.763 .154 sometimes 41.6667 6.2460 .6548 304 usually 42.9167 6.2154 1.0359 Total 41.3041 5.9513 .3391 307 SCHEFF never 33.3099 6.8967 .5126 3 1.302 .274 sometimes 31.9680 7.0134 .7352 305 usually 32.5253 7.7478 1.2913 Total 32.8508 7.0441 .4007 308 215 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FI 1 - Analysis of Variance Entry into Teaching Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance GENSAT intern 26.4082 7.9580 1.1369 3 .365 .778 tchr ed grad. 25.9674 7.5891 .5595 301 non-ed grad. 26.6341 8.5374 1.3333 other profess. 24.8387 7.7936 1.3998 Total 26.0131 7.7765 .4453 304 RELTCH intern 41.6000 9.3372 1.3205 3 .858 .463 tchr ed grad. 41.1413 10.2056 .7524 303 non-ed grad. 39.2683 8.4824 1.3247 other profess. 39.0625 9.2838 1.6412 Total 40.7492 9.7565 .5568 306 RELSUP intern 38.4000 11.6689 1.6502 3 .746 .525 tchr ed grad. 40.5405 10.8212 .7956 304 non-ed grad. 38.7805 9.7967 1.5300 other profess. 40.6250 9.1361 1.6150 Total 39.9675 10.6621 .6075 307 COLSUP intern 41.9429 5.2569 .7434 3 4.155 .007 tchr ed grad. 41.5144 5.6812 .4200 301 non-ed grad. 38.1882 9.2307 1.4416 other profess. 39.7696 4.3031 .7729 Total 40.9602 6.1920 .3546 304 216 Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FI 1 - Analysis of Variance Entry into Teaching CONRES intern 40.6571 7.1061 1.0050 3 5.958 .0 0 1 tchr ed grad. 41.8401 5.4769 .4038 301 non-ed grad. 37.2474 9.1995 1.4367 other profess. 40.8571 4.7246 .8626 Total 40.9321 6.4656 .3702 304 EFFCON intern 39.0249 6.1724 .8818 3 3.081 .028 tchr ed grad. 39.4750 5.6265 .4171 298 non-ed grad. 36.3686 8.0738 1.2609 other profess. 38.3704 4.2759 .7807 Total 38.8705 6.0530 .3483 301 INSPRO intern 40.8800 6.3137 .8929 3 5.615 .0 0 1 tchr ed grad. 42.7760 5.6752 .4195 301 non-ed grad. 38.8780 6.9000 1.0776 other profess. 40.9032 5.2874 .9497 Total 41.7508 6.0560 .3468 304 AIDM intern 38.8667 6.3571 .8990 3 6.503 .0 0 0 tchr ed grad. 41.8388 5.8480 .4311 302 non-ed grad. 38.1301 6.9641 1.0876 other profess. 39.5161 5.6305 1.0113 Total 40.6209 6.2328 .3563 305 FI 1 - Analysis of Variance Entry into Teaching Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error df F Significance THO intern 39.9333 6.9249 .9793 3 3.970 .008 tchr ed grad. 42.1649 5.7558 .4243 302 non-ed grad. 39.3089 5.9275 .9257 other profess. 40.5914 4.2502 .7634 Total 41.2582 5.9419 .3397 305 SCHEFF intern 31.0182 6.9104 .9773 3 2.113 .099 tchr ed grad. 33.5030 7.1218 .5250 303 non-ed grad. 31.6851 7.1972 1.1240 other profess. 33.4375 6.3897 1.1296 Total 32.8487 7.0647 .4032 306

Asset Metadata

Creator Rice, Jon Kirk (author)

Core Title A causal, dispositional model of common personal characteristics associated with teacher job satisfaction

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, administration,Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, industrial

Language English

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-377580

Unique identifier UC11334847

Identifier 3103962.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-377580 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3103962.pdf

Dmrecord 377580

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rice, Jon Kirk

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA