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A Positive Psychology goal intervention using strengths and values to enhance goals and increase well -being

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A Positive Psychology goal intervention using strengths and values to enhance goals and increase well -being

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Content A POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY GOAL INTERVENTION USING STRENGTHS AND VALUES TO ENHANCE GOALS AND INCREASE WELL-BEING Copyright 2004 by Valerie Kim Aylett A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (EDUCATION - COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY) December 2004 Valerie Kim Aylett Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3155376 Copyright 2004 by Aylett, Valerie Kim All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3155376 Copyright 2005 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The culmination of this huge and long-term goal (earning a Ph.D.) was not accomplished alone; it took my entire “village” and I wish to give them thanks here. First, I wish to thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ with whom I talked daily; it was He who opened tremendous doors and who helped me get through the most trying times. He also placed the desire in my heart - my mission - to help people go after their dreams and their goals. Over the past several years there are many to whom I am gratefully indebted: my family - spread out though we are - provided much moral support, and in the recent years my husband, Ken Kaempffe - who has blessed me tremendously, and his parents, who have participated positively in this endeavor; as have my close friends: Lora Findlay, Tracie West, Russ Warner, David Mullen, Margie and Bob Harper, and Anna Gibbons-Hensley. I wish to thank Dr. Gerald Stone, my Dissertation Chair, who provided an encouraging and guiding voice. You have provided the mentoring I longed for and also the freedom I needed. Dallas Willard and Ruth Chung, my Dissertation Committee Members, have at different times provided needed encouragement and direction, for which I am truly grateful. I am eternally appreciative of my fellow students in EDCO: Mary Read, Fox Vernon, Neera Puri, Tracy Marsh; all PhDs now, who walked with me and ahead of me to make a difference in my life and to help show me the way. I now join you! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iii I am excited to join the ranks of Positive Psychology and the group of researchers working in that field to put the positives about being human back in psychology. May we accomplish a lot together! On this road to the Ph.D., doors opened that allowed me to get to know and work with a great group of people at USC’s Disability Services: Janet Eddy, Ph.D., Judith Bushnell, Mattie Grace, Ph.D., Althea Myrie, and Pat Tobey, Ph.D. Thank you so much! And lastly, I acknowledge Dianne Morris, Associate Director, Ph.D. Program, brought in last year to help advise students in the Rossier School of Education, which includes Counseling Psychology. She provided stability in an ever-changing environment and helped open several doors. There are many others, who over the period of time, have been supportive and encouraging - to them, I say, “thank you very much.” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ii List of Tables and Figures v Abstract vi 1. Introduction 1 2. Literature Review 8 2.1 Positive Psychology 9 2.2 Positive Psychology Interventions 11 2.3 Background 14 2.4 Sheldon’s Paradigm 17 2.5 Research Questions and Hypotheses 25 3. Methodology 27 3.1 Participants 27 3.2 Procedures 28 3.3 Measures 34 4. Results 43 4.1 Preliminary Analyses 43 4.2 Primary Analyses 51 4.3 Supplementary Analyses 53 5. Discussion 58 5.1 Limitations and Future Research 62 5.2 Conclusion 69 6. References 71 7. Appendices 95 Appendix A: Strengths to Change via Positive Psychology Interventions 95 Appendix B: Invitation to Participate 98 Appendix C: The On-line Instrument 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V List of Tables and Figures Table 1: Relevant Intervention Articles 13 Figure 1: The Self-Concordance Model (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999) 25 Table 2: Demographics for the Participants 29 Table 3: Layout of Materials to the Four Groups 32 Table 4: Intervention Variables 33 Table 5: Demographic Variables 35 Table 6: Pre- and Post-test Outcome Variables 36 Table 7: Goal Variables 39 Table 8: Demographic Comparison of Sample with University Population 44 Table 9: Demographics for the Completers Only 45 Table 10: Study Results 49 Table 11: Goal Content, Totals, and Rankings for All Participants 56 Table 12: Differential Goal Rankings Between Treatment & Control Groups 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vi ABSTRACT From the new field of Positive Psychology, based on human strengths and optimal human functioning, a brief goal intervention was developed. Based on Positive Psychology principles, the intervention was designed to help people to learn of their personal strengths and values, to assist them in setting better, more intrinsic personal goals, and to increase their hope and well-being. Participants completed a goal intervention consisting of Values in Action (VIA) Signature Strengths Survey (Peterson & Seligman, 2000) and the Personal Values-Card-Sort (Miller, C’de Baca, Matthews, & Wilboume, 2001). This goal intervention was designed to help participants to list more autonomous goals, goals that are assumed to better fulfill psychological needs, and thus lead to increased well-being. The intervention was based on the Self-Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving (for a review, see Sheldon, 2002), which is an extension of the Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Results suggest that interventions that help individuals to learn more about themselves (e.g., personal values and strengths) may take more time to enhance goals and increase well-being and hope than this short-term intervention allowed. Future research will need to address this question. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM AND ITS UNDERLYING FRAMEWORK Over the past several years, Positive Psychology has shed light on the way to help people live more fulfilling lives by focusing on human strengths. Positive Psychology is gaining a more prominent place in psychological research and education since traditional psychology, with its focus on pathology, has been unbalanced in its views and research; leaving off the positive side of being human and of helping people to thrive. Specifically, within the context of Positive Psychology intervention research, this study focused on goal-setting research and interventions designed to foster well-being. Further, this study was based on the goal research of Sheldon’s Self-Concordant Model of Healthy Goal Striving (see Sheldon, 2002 for a review). Briefly, the path model is narratively described as: the degree of self-concordance of participants’ goals predicted concurrent well-being and also predicted sustained effort in those goals, which in turn predicted goal attainment; goal attainment in turn led to increased well-being, and self-concordance again moderated the effects of attainment upon increased well-being. Research using this model suggests that self-concordant goals, goals that are made based on implicit values and interests and then pursued for autonomous reasons (intrinsic or identified) more so than for controlled reasons (external or introjected), result in higher life satisfaction (well-being). This theoretical material is covered in Chapter 2. Goal intervention research is important for several reasons. On a general level, goals help guide behavior toward meaningful outcomes. More specifically, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. appropriate goal setting guides one to fulfilling satisfaction, and furthermore, goals that are in line with one’s values and interests, defined here as self-concordant goals, increase one’s well-being. Finally, research has shown that it is both the content of goals and the reason for goal pursuit that matter to well-being. Thus, interventions that assist people to set and pursue self-concordant goals lead to increased well-being and continual self-concordant goal-setting in an ever-increasing upward spiral. Background of the Problem The focus of this dissertation concerned applying Positive Psychology goal interventions, and more specifically, an intervention based on Sheldon’s model, shown in previous research to enhance well-being. However, the problem with this model is that Sheldon’s self-concordant goals are based on implicit personal values, values that have not been directly measured or assessed. The problem is situated within the larger context of research on Positive Psychology, and particularly, research on goal setting and goal pursuit, which is thoroughly discussed in Chapter 2. The next immediate background of the problem consisted of two areas of research: self- and identity-development, and personality change. Research shows that goals help guide self- and identity-development, that one can be intentional in their self development by the goals set and pursued, that achieved goals help solidify identity, that one can guide the type of person they want to be or do not want to be. Goals can also be used toward personality change, long thought fixed and resistant to change. Again, the goals to be one kind of person and not another kind of person, can help change personality. Thus, the above research from Positive Psychology suggests that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. self-concordant goal setting and pursuit, can change personality, is involved with self- and identity-development, and specifically, that self-concordant goal setting and pursuit increase well-being in a continual upward spiral. As indicated above, Positive Psychology intervention was the context for this study. After the study was completed, it became apparent that yet another context, a context formed by a basic psychological perspective on learning was relevant. From a psychological perspective, several underlying cognitive learning factors (see Chapter 5), although not identified in the Positive Psychology tradition reviewed in Chapter 2, seem to be involved in Positive Psychology intervention research. Although a psychological perspective is discussed in Chapter 5, philosophically based factors including freedom, free will, choice, consciousness, awareness, and mindfulness are acknowledged. Statement of the Problem Although Sheldon’s research has shown that self-concordant goals (goals based on implicit values and interests) increase well-being in a continual upward spiral, no study has focused on an intervention to make personal values explicit, thus, adding to the front end of Sheldon’s path model. The present study attempted to address this gap in the literature by providing an intervention that focused on making the implicit, explicit. Quantitative methods were used to investigate the effect of a strengths and values intervention on hope, well-being, and various goal measures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of providing personal values and strength information (treatment) to participants on their hope, well-being, and quality goals. It was predicted that making values explicit, adding to the front end of Sheldon’s Self-Concordant Model of Healthy Goal Striving, will have beneficial results. Research Questions 1. Do participants in the Treatment group experience significantly greater increases in hope and well-being than participants in the Control group? 2. Do participants in the Treatment group endorse significantly greater intrinsic reasons for their goals and higher importance ratings than participants in the Control group? Hypotheses With regards to the first question, it was hypothesized that participants in the Treatment group, those provided the value and strengths information, would experience a significantly greater increase in hope and well-being than those in the Control group. With regards to the second question, it was hypothesized that participants in the Treatment group would experience a significantly greater score of autonomous goal reasons and goal importance than those in the Control group. Significance of the Problem This study attempted to add to the front end of Sheldon’s Self-Concordant Model of Healthy Goal Striving by making values explicit rather than, as in past Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 research, assumed and implicit. By providing an intervention that assesses personal values, theoretically, participants make better-fitting goals, resulting in increases to their well-being. It was hoped by making values explicit, values would guide goal setting and pursuit, and well-being would be increased. Research has shown that individuals have the ability to focus their thoughts and attention and to change their thoughts, actions, and even the biochemistry of their brains. This inquiry sought to develop and evaluate interventions that help increase well-being. Effective intervention models are needed to enhance the practice of Positive Psychology. Positive Psychology can not stand simply on theory, it must be applied and it must be connected to learning, memory, and other underlying processes. Methodology Approximately 4,500 students were recruited for this study via email solicitations or in-class solicitations. Participants completed a pre-and post-test measure of Hope and Well-being. In between the pre- and post-tests, the Treatment group completed the strengths and values intervention, then completed their goal listing and goal measures. Whereas, the Control group completed the pre-tests, their goal listing and goal measures, the post-tests, the strengths and values intervention and were then measured a third time on hope and well-being. Data analyses involved quantitative methods. Since Hope and Well-being measures were found to be correlated, a MANCOVA test was used to analyze responses on the pre- and post-test self-report measures in order to determine Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. whether hope, well-being, and goal listings and ratings were effected by the intervention. Assumptions There were several assumptions made. First, it was assumed that all participants responded honestly and accurately in the self-report measures. Second, it was assumed the methods used were reliable and valid for study population. Third, it was assumed if there was a significant change from pre- to post-test in the Treatment group, but not in the Control group, the change was associated with the effect of the intervention rather than with other factors. Limitations This study was limited by several factors. First, it was limited to participants who agreed to participate voluntarily and without extrinsic incentive. It was also limited to the number of participants who completed the assessment, the amount of time available to conduct the study, and the reliability of the measures used. Drop outs resulted in data loss. Delimitations This study was confined to one location, one university, one time period. This study focused on content- goals, hope, and well-being, but did not focus on the psychological processes of learning, memory, attention, and priming, and did not focus on the philosophical theories of consciousness/awareness, mindfulness, and freedom. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 There were several inclusion/exclusion criteria for eligible participants. They had to be 18 years of age or older. Participants had to be fluent in English in order to participate and must have had access to a computer with internet capabilities. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 of the study has presented the introduction, the background of the problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the research hypotheses, the significance of the study, a brief description of the methodology, and the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. Chapter 2 is a review of the relevant literature. It addresses the following topics related to the Self-Concordant Model of Healthy Goal Striving: its context within Positive Psychology, Positive Psychology interventions, and self- and identity-development. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the research design; population and sample procedure; and the instruments and their selection, together with information on validity and reliability. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for data collection and data analysis. Chapter 4 presents the results of the statistical analyses. Chapter 5 presents the discussion of the results, implications for future research and conclusions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW There is a good amount of research into goals, goal setting, goal pursuit, and goal attainment. During the time of September 5-9, 2003, a search of the literature was carried out on the on-line search engine databases PsycINFO and ERIC using the following search words: Positive Psychology, personal goals, life goals, optimal human functioning, identity development, self, personal strivings, personal projects, life tasks, current concerns, possible self (selves), goal setting, career goals, and a search for a few authors as well (e.g., Emmons, Little, Cantor, Klinger, Sheldon, Markus, Locke). Results were culled from 1985 to the present. Studies, which only peripherally touched upon these major topics, were excluded. An ancestry approach (Cooper, 1982) was also employed, wherein articles were gathered from more recent articles' list of references. Additionally, several of these authors were contacted for research they might have in press and in preparation. Research culled from 1985 to the present was critically reviewed for current conceptualizations, theories, operationalizations, and pertinent interventions. While comprehensive, the review is not exhaustive given the long history that some of these constructs (e.g., identity, self, and goals) have been a research topic. The field of Positive Psychology stands as the context for this study and will now be briefly introduced. In this section of the dissertation, the reader is given a brief introduction to the field of Positive Psychology, followed by evidence for the need of Positive Psychology interventions and brief background information on identity and goal- striving research. A brief goal-intervention study based on the personal goal research Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of Sheldon and colleagues, and more specifically, Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, and Share (2002) is outlined. Positive Psychology Positive Psychology stands as the context of the current study for a number of reasons. First, Positive Psychology is strengths focused rather than pathology focused. Second, Positive Psychology has a strong focus on intervention development. In the past couple of years, Positive Psychology (e.g., Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Sheldon & King, 2001; Snyder & Lopez, 2002b) has shed light on the way to help people live more fulfilling lives by focusing on human strengths. This field, rather than the past focus of psychology, is interested in what people do right, what is right with human beings, and is interested in building on those strengths. Positive Psychology does not focus so much on what is wrong, bad, or pathological about people and their ways of being, thinking, and acting. Positive Psychology’s guiding question is: “what strengths do people bring to deal effectively with their lives?” rather than a pathology focus (Snyder & McCullough, 2000). Several books are now available on the subject of Positive Psychology (e.g., Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2002; Keyes & Haidt, 2003; Linley & Joseph, 2004; Lopez & Snyder, 2003; McDermott & Snyder, 2000; Schmuck & Sheldon, 2001b; Snyder & Lopez, 2002a). These writings focus on empirical research about particular human strengths (e.g., McCullough & Snyder, 2000a; Seligman & Peterson, 2003) and in increasing strengths, such as those listed in Appendix A l, for optimal human functioning. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A brief history of the science of psychology and its negative focus along with psychology’s neglected former missions: making normal people stronger and more productive and making high human potential actual, was given by Seligman (2002b). Maddux (2002) states many psychologists and the public view psychology as a medical practice for people with sick souls or minds. He suggests this public perception needs to change and Positive Psychology provides an opportunity for making the change. Seligman (2002b) calls on us to develop and test interventions, and to put research dollars to build on human strengths, to build thriving individuals, families, and communities. Seligman (2002b), Maddux (2002), Keyes and Lopez (2002), and Snyder and McCullough (2000) agree that psychology has been unbalanced in its views and research; leaving off the positive side of being human. These authors argue for research and research moneys directed towards diagnosis and interventions that promote mental health. It is important for psychologists to develop and implement interventions based on Positive Psychology research, but it is also imperative to heed the warnings put forward by Aspinwall and Staudinger (2003). These warnings include using research findings to prescribe what people should do and how they should live and the dangers of linking values and prescribing universal ideals. On the other hand, Maddux (2002) argues that all of psychology is socially constructed and based on values (see also, Sheldon, Schmuck, & Kasser, 2000). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 Ryan and Deci (2000b) in their closing statement argue: If the charges are that SDT (Self-Determination Theory) takes its mission to be the explication of conditions that most optimally support human development and well-being, and that doing so is value laden, we plead guilty as charged. We invite more people in the field to commit such crimes (p.336). It is encouraging to join a group of researchers in the desire to research optimal human functioning, pursuit of life goals, or to implement interventions to increase the well-being and fulfillment of human individuals, their families, communities, and societies. To do so, not by prescribing, as warned by Aspinwall and Staudinger (2003), but by offering a buffet table of positive, growth enhancing, and well-being increasing possibilities. Positive Psychology Interventions Interventions provide a means of helping others, and if we don’t, then others, perhaps without expertise and/or research-based knowledge, will. The following teams of researchers push for interventions in the area of Positive Psychology. Three teams of researchers are relevant to the current study. First, Diener, Lucas, and Oishi (2002) define subjective well-being (SWB) as a person’s cognitive and affective evaluations of his or her life. It includes experiencing pleasant emotions, low levels of negative moods, and high-life satisfaction. The authors give a brief review and include their Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). These authors suggest, “it is not just who we are that matters to happiness, but how we think about our lives” (p.67). They continue, “it appears that the way people perceive the world is much more important to happiness than objective circumstances” (p.68). These Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. authors suggest that an intervention at the thought, attitude, and belief levels is required in helping people to change their lives and/or their outlook upon their life. Diener, Lucas, and Oishi (2002) state that few direct intervention efforts in this area have been implemented (p. 69). They list two (one is Seligman and colleagues’ optimism training). They conclude with, “We look to the day when effective interventions based on scientific findings will provide a readily available way to increase happiness” (Diener, Lucas, & Oishi, 2002, p. 70). Second, Snyder and McCullough (2000) also push for Positive Psychology interventions: “To truly understand a concept such as human virtues, one needs to be able to foster them via intervention-like processes. .. .One of the measures of the success of Positive Psychology will be its impartation to a wide range of people” (Snyder & McCullough, 2000, p. 155-156). Snyder and McCullough (2000) acknowledge that their edited, special journal issue on human strengths did not cover all of the virtues/strengths; they list several other virtues. Snyder and McCullough (2000) close with, “It not only is possible, but it is imperative to develop a science that focuses upon the strengths of people... - if you build it, they will come” (p. 160). Third, Lopez, Prosser, LaRue-Walton, Ulven, and Vehige (unpublished manuscript) propose that the new Positive Psychology science “already is being translated into practice and that clinicians and their clients value the shift in focus from decreasing pathology to increasing pre-existing strengths and discovering hidden talents” (p. 3). Lopez and colleagues state, “the term positive psychological Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 practice can be used to describe clinical work that is focused on the simultaneous identification of personal and environmental strengths and weaknesses, the accentuation of strengths and resources, and the curbing of maladaptive behavior and traits” (p. 3). Goal interventions. As can be seen by the comprehensive list of strengths (see Appendix Al), a Positive Psychology research base is established. From reading through Appendix A l, the reader can see the broadness of the strengths and can envision their value in a research focus on goal setting, pursuit, and fulfillment. The scholarly works on goals are listed near the end of Appendix A l. Even more succinctly, for the interested reader, Table 1 provides a list of relevant articles in which interventions were provided that helped people with their goals and their strengths. Although not reviewed separately here, this list provides a good start for pulling together relevant goal interventions to use in helping individuals pursue goals that enhance well-being and quality of life. Table 1: Relevant Intervention Articles Hope Therapy (Lopez, Floyd, Ulven, & Snyder, 2000) Hope-based Group Treatment (Klausner, Snyder, & Cheavens, 2000) Positive Psychotherapy: Effectiveness study (Peseschkian & Tritt, 1998) The Career Project (Cochran, 1992) Possibility Therapy (O’Hanlon, 1998) Well-being therapy (Fava et al., 1998; Rafanelli et al., 1998; Fava, 1999) Free Fantasies (Oettingen, 1996, 1999; Oettingen, Schnetter, & Pak, 2001) Going for the Goal: A Life Skills Program for Adolescents (Danish, 1997) Goal Training Program (Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, & Share, 2002) Spirit in Career Counseling (Savickas, 1997) Personal Strivings (Emmons, 1986, 1989; Sheldon & Emmons, 1995) The Impact of Life Coaching (Grant, 2003) Writing About Life Goals (King, 2001) Mental Simulations/Imagery (Ruvolo & Markus, 1992; Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 Background One central component of Positive Psychology interventions is a focus on goals for self-change. The following several paragraphs are intended to show the value of goals; how they help shape one’s self-concept, identity, and thus, ones’ reality, how they help change personality, and, how they help increase well-being and quality of life. Goals in this study are construed as short- and long-term objectives the person sets for him- or herself to obtain. It is human nature to pursue goals, (e.g., Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003, p. 836). Goals as long-term objectives the person sets for him- or herself emerge during adolescence (see Brandtstadter, 1998) and goal- setting and goal pursuing go on through people’s life (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Maier, 1999). In support of this, when asked about their thought processes, most people were found to be guided by goal thoughts (Snyder, 2000). Goals are related to a number of important psychological constructs: self- concept and identity development. Goals, their pursuit, fulfillment and even the lack of fulfillment (i.e., failure or postponement), lead to the emergent, constructed self and/or self-concept (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Some researchers believe that personal goals are one type of self-concept (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). In a related vein, the search for meaning is a significant and universal human motive: and, having a sense of personal meaning means having a purpose and striving towards a goal or goals (Reker, Peacock, & Wong, 1987). Self-concept development and identity development are modem human developmental life tasks, but this was not always the case as explained by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 Baumeister and others. The following two beliefs are modem beliefs: a belief that a person is separate from his or her place in society, and the belief that a person can find inside him or herself the basis for choosing an identity (Baumeister, 1997). Identity begins with an awareness of one’s body, but in an adult human being, identity is generally oriented toward goals (Baumeister, 1986). These goals include becoming a certain kind of person and not becoming another kind of person (Baumeister, 1997). At this time in history, each person is required to create and define his or her own identity, and the construction of the self is one of the major life tasks to confront the modern individual (Baumeister, 1997). Historically, per Baumeister, individuals did not have to think about their self, as their “lot in life” was already fixed (pre-1500 A.D.), but now, certainly in Western culture, there are opportunities and decisions to be made that are overwhelming in the amount of choice (e.g., 200,000 occupations to choose from, freedom to move around from city to city, freedom to choose a relationship partner). Baumeister and Vohs (2003) go a step further, stating, given such mobility is possible, “people not only have to establish their identities but may do so over and over again with each new setting” (p. 198). Identities are partially shaped by the life goals constructed. Life goals frequently reflect the developmental tasks individuals seek to master and the self-definitions they try to attain in various life phases (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Maier, 1999). Intentional self-development, identity goals, individual’s efforts over the life span to bring to fruition the representations they have of their actual, present, and future selves; these are seen as a basic motive of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 human activity and a driving force of development (Brandtstadter & Lemer, 1999; Brandtstadter, Wentura, & Rothermund, 1999). These previous paragraphs point to the importance of goals for this study because of their relevance in the continual task of developing one’s identity, and of being intentional regarding one’s self-development since pursued and achieved goals result in a changed self and a changed reality. Thus, goals are a focus of Positive Psychology interventions because achievement of goals is necessary for subjective well-being to be at its greatest (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Maier, 1999), goals increase optimal human functioning (e.g., well-being, physical functioning, physical environment), and are easier to change than stable personality traits (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a). Yet, helping someone to change their goals towards more intrinsic goals could also change their identity and self-concept, thus could be a vehicle for change to their personality. Precisely because of their malleability and self-motivational potential, idiographic personal goals may provide opportune targets for interventions (Wadsworth & Ford, 1983). In other words, one way to help people to better “pursue happiness” may be to help them to better identify and pursue personal goals (Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001). But for some reason, personal goal researchers and counselors have been slow to work together to develop a means of enhancing personal growth and well-being via goal interventions (Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, & Share, 2002). Goal interventions are important; goals as a means to personal growth not just trauma, stress, or role transitions (Sheldon, et al., 2002). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 The previous paragraphs showed the value of goals - goals help shape identity, goals help change personality, and goals help increase well-being and quality of life. The theoretical research most helpful in regards to the importance of goals, correct goal pursuit, and positive psychology goal interventions is Sheldon’s Self- Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving (Elliot & Sheldon, 1995; for a review, see Sheldon, 2002). Sheldon’s Paradigm The Self-Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving (e.g., Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001; Sheldon, 2002) is an extension of Self- Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000a & 2000b). Self- Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000, Ryan & Deci, 2000a & 2000b) has three pertinent components for Sheldon’s paradigm and therefore, for this study. First, it proposes that human beings have three basic psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The relative fulfillment of these needs leads to feelings of well-being and the relative lack of fulfillment of these basic human needs leads to ill-being (e.g., Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996). Second, Self- Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000a & 2000b) proposes that an individual’s self-regulated actions vary on a Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) action continuum ranging from controlled to autonomous reasons for actions. Controlled reasons, from PLOC, are 1) external - someone or culture is making a person do a project, and 2) introjected - the person would feel guilty, anxious, or ashamed if they did not do a project. The autonomous reasons include Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1) identified - where the person has taken in values as their own to do the project, and 2) intrinsic - the individual does the project because it is fun and enjoyable. Third, Self-Determination Theory (Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004) found that the content (the what of goal pursuit) and the motives (the why of goal pursuit) are independently important to well-being. Intrinsic goal pursuits and intrinsic goal motives lead to the most happiness and fulfillment. That is, well-being is not just controlled by personality or a genetic set-point. This finding gives greater hope for interventions that would increase well-being for the long-term; interventions that would help individuals to pursue the right goals (e.g., self- concordant goals), which lead to psychological well-being and fulfillment, and self- and social-improvement(s) (e.g., Carver & Baird, 1998; Lopez, Floyd, Ulven, & Snyder, 2000; Sheldon, 2002; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003). The Self-Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving (e.g., Sheldon, 2002; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001) is about appropriate goal striving. Self-concordant goals are defined as those that are inspired by a person’s lifelong evolving interest and deeply felt, implicit, core values and are assumed to represent the best of people proactively shaping themselves and their environments (Sheldon, 2002). Goals chosen for autonomous (identified or intrinsic) reasons are considered to be self-concordant with the individual’s basic psychological needs. Pursuit and attainment of the individual’s goal(s) fulfill these needs, leading to increased well-being. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 In support of Sheldon’s Model of Healthy Goal Striving, research shows that people have an innate, universal ability to know what is important to them, what is essential for a more fulfilling life, and, additionally, what will simultaneously forward others’ and societies’ interests (Sheldon, Arndt, and Houser-Marko, 2003). Results have shown that individuals learn from experience about how to choose self- concordant goals that foster maximal well-being (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a); and that an upward spiral exists such that goal attainment leads to even more goal attainment, increased self-development and adjustment, and happiness (Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001). Additionally, studies have shown that 1) a relatively strong focus on intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) values is associated with greater positive affect in daily life, greater overall happiness and life satisfaction, greater openness to new experiences, higher self-esteem, reduced narcissism, fewer physical health complaints, and less drug and alcohol abuse; and these basic findings with regard to well-being have been replicated in Germany, Russia, and South Korea; 2) interpersonal relationships are enhanced by people who hold intrinsic values (e.g., more empathy, more prosocial behavior, longer and more satisfying relationships, and more cooperation. Thus, people are better able to solve social dilemmas); and, 3) the need for optimal developmental environments that assist one in focusing on intrinsic values versus nonoptimal and/or contingency-based environments that lead people to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 become focused on extrinsic values (materialism, image, etc.) to gain love and acceptance (for a review, see Sheldon & Kasser, 2001b). Three skills are required for self-concordant goal selection: knowing one’s enduring values and interests from one’s superficial impulses, knowing what your values, interests, and goals are and not pursuing someone else’s goals for you, and choosing healthy content areas or intrinsic goal content (see Sheldon, 2002). Sheldon (2002) argues these skills can be taught and indeed needs to be taught, as self-concordant goal pursuit and attainment results in increased positive well-being. Across Sheldon and colleagues’ personal goal research, three sets of major variables have been used: measures of well-being, midlevel goal units, and value domains. These will be briefly described below. First, there have been several outcome measures used for well-being. Most often, it has been the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Pavot & Diener, 1993) used in tandem to compute an aggregate well-being score (i.e., participant’s score on Positive Affect was summed with the SWLS score and then the Negative Affect score was subtracted) (e.g., Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003). These scales will be described more fully in the Methods section. Second, there have been several midlevel goal units used in their research paradigm. Midlevel goal units are distinguished from more high-level, global, general goals and more low-level, specific goals. These midlevel goal units consisted Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 of Personal Strivings (Emmons, 1986,1989), Personal Projects (Little, 1993), Possible Selves (Markus & Ruvolo, 1989), and Possible Futures (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). For this study, Possible Futures was used and is fully described in the Methods section. Third, there have been three methods for measuring values used in Sheldon’s paradigm. The Self-Concordant Model of Healthy Goal Striving is founded on implicit values and interests, yet there have been no direct methods of ascertaining individual’s personal values. There have been a couple of methods for measuring values, all of them are indirect, “round-about” ways. The majority of the time, the participants’ values are measured via asking the participants to rate their reasons for pursuing the individual goal from a limited list of four reasons: external, introjected, identified, or intrinsic reasons, with the assumption being that such ratings reflect the degree to which the goals match the person’s implicit values and interests (Sheldon & Elliot, 1998, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001). Another method, used by Sheldon and colleagues, of measuring values is that of “value orientation” - asking people to rate how much each of their goals helps bring about different “possible futures” that represent intrinsic (e.g., personal growth, affiliation, and community feeling) and extrinsic (e.g., money, status, and image) outcomes (e.g., Sheldon, Kasser, Smith & Share, 2002). The more direct, but still, “round-about” way has been the Aspiration Index (Kasser & Ryan, 1993) in which participants are given a list of 30 possible goals/aspirations and asked to rate how important each goal is to them. This latter method is seen as indirect for several reasons: first, the goal list is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 not self-generated and consists of only 30 goals; second, the goal list is not independent of personal values; and third, the values are deduced from the overall way the participant responds - aggregate goal ratings are either more intrinsic or extrinsic. This study seeks to add to the literature by providing the participants with the Personal Values-Card-Sort (Miller, C’de Baca, Matthews, & Wilbourne, 2001) for them to sort their own most important personal values from a list of 83 personal values. Participants have more options to choose from, have the opportunity to compare them as they sort them, and have the opportunity to add more values if they choose. It seems more active and interactive than passively choosing from 11 goals/aspirations/value domains and not having the option to add more, as in the Aspiration Index. In this study, the Aspiration Index will be used to determine the value orientation the participant most prescribes as important to them: external, introjected, identified, or intrinsic. Oftentimes, these midlevel units and value domains were used together to measure their congruence (agreement) (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 1995, 1998, 2001a) and were used together in this study. What makes Sheldon and colleagues’ goal research strong is the variety of methodologies used across their work: personal goal methodologies, longitudinal studies, and causal modeling techniques (path analysis) (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a). However, there are still some problems: as yet, there is no measure to know how self-concordant one’s goals are to their needs (Sheldon, 2002) and although, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 values have been highlighted in his research, no direct method of assessing personal values has been researched. From the three Sheldon studies most pertinent to this study, a decision was made to provide a goal intervention. An on-line computer assessment/intervention, similar to Sheldon and colleagues’ pencil and paper versions and their computer methodology (Sheldon, Arndt, and Houser-Marko, 2003) was developed. It consisted of Personal Goal/Strivings and their Importance ratings, Possible Futures, PLOC, Aspiration Index, and a Well-being Aggregate, made up of the PANAS and SWLS, as a pre- and post-test (e.g., Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003). Sheldon and Houser-Marko (2001) used similar measures to what was conducted in this study and they measured ability via GPA scores. Sheldon, Arndt, and Houser-Marko (2003) used similar measures, two one-time, short-term interventions (Study 2 and 3; 20-minute goal interventions), and used computer methodology in Study 3 similar to what was conducted in this research. Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, and Share (2002) provided an academic-year-long goal intervention program with a treatment and control group and used similar measures to what was conducted in this study. For this study, the Strengths Survey and Values-Card-Sort were used, as interventions for the Treatment group, to make values more explicit and to provide more self-knowledge to the Treatment group for their use in preparing their goal listing and goal ratings. Sheldon (2002) says that to be self-concordant, goals must be linked to an individual’s enduring values and interests and states that that is a skill that could be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 taught and indeed needs to be taught, as self-concordant goal pursuit and attainment results in increased positive well-being. More specifically, Sheldon has stated that values drive the making of right goals (i.e., self-concordant, intrinsic goals) that lead to increased well-being, but he has not measured personal values per se (he has made assumptions and measured via the Aspiration Index) and has not provided information to participants about their personal values for them to carry with them into their future goal strivings. The question of how to help someone know their values is still unanswered after reviewing the literature, with little intervention to help individuals figure out their values and thus, self-concordant goals. This study moves toward filling in that gap by having participants complete assessments of their personal values and strengths and by providing the participants with self-knowledge of their personal strengths, values, and goals. In sum, in this study, hope and well-being measures were provided as pre- and post-test measures to all participants. The Treatment group completed assessments of their personal strengths and values as the intervention, then they generated a list of their goals and made goal ratings. The Control group received the same materials, but in a different order: they listed their goals and goal ratings before receiving the strengths and values intervention. Research assumes that knowing one’s strengths and values will lead to better goal choices and thus more fulfillment and happiness (for a review, see Sheldon, 2002). This study is designed to improve on past research by making the connection between explicit values and goals rather than implicit values as has been done by Sheldon. In other words, this study adds to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 the front-end of Sheldon and Elliot’s (1999) path model for the Self-Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving shown in Figure 1. This study, additionally, adds to the knowledge base by providing a values and strengths goal intervention, showing that knowledge of values and strengths does improve one’s goal-setting and well being. Figure 1: The Self-Concordance Model (LISREL Parameter Estimates, Sheldon & Elliot, 1999, p. 492). Copyright 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission; permission not for electronic transmission. Goal Self-Concordance X Goal- Attainment .2 1 * Need- Satisfying Experiences Changes in Well Being .29* Goal Self- Concordance Sustained Effort Goal- Attainment Research Question and Hypotheses The primary research question was: “What is the effect (of knowledge) of one’s strengths and values on one’s goals, goal ratings, hope, and well-being?” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 It was hypothesized that the quality of goals listed and their goal ratings would be affected by receiving the values and strengths intervention such that more autonomous (intrinsic and identified) goals would be listed than in the Control group and the goal importance would be rated higher than the Control group. Additionally, it was hypothesized that by making their values and strengths visible, those Treatment group participants who completed the Strengths and Values questionnaires prior to listing their goals and goal ratings would be significantly more hopeful and have significantly higher well-being scores than Control participants who became knowledgeable of their values and strengths after listing their goals, hope, and well-being scores. Given there have not been gender differences in related goal work (e.g., Sheldon & Emmons, 1995, p. 42, Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a, p. 495, McGregor & Little, 1998), they were not expected, but gender differences were certainly looked for in the results and reported. In past related studies, there has not been enough non-Caucasians to detect ethnicity differences within samples, and in projects that involved both an American sample and a sample from another country (e.g., Russia, Germany, or Singapore), there were no differences in intrinsic goals (Kasser & Ryan, 2001), giving evidence to the universality of Rogers’ Organismic Valuing Process (OVP, as cited in Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003). Given previous results, ethnicity/racial differences were not expected, however, given the University is more ethnically mixed than studies in the Midwest (e.g., Sheldon, Kasser), differences were certainly looked for and reported. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Participant Selection Study participants were college students recruited from an online student directory and solicited from 21 undergraduate classes from a large southwestern university. Table 2 displays the characteristics of the study participants. Participants were primarily of traditional college age (with 75% in the range of 18-22 years of age), female, Caucasian, and upper middle class. Participants, receiving above average grades in school, were evenly distributed across undergraduate (e.g., freshmen, sophomore) and graduate levels. While there may have been many other ways to invite a large number of students to participate in this study, these appeared to be the most efficient search options for the most widespread participation (across grade levels and majors). Participants were systematically selected from the 2003-2004 population of 32,160 university students (16,272 undergraduates and 15,888 graduate and professional students) using the online student directory. Using the “search” option, the first set of searches was completed using each letter of the alphabet. For example, the directory would return up to the first 100 students with the letter “A” as their middle initial, and so on (the names did not come up in alphabetical order by last name -but information on the search algorithm was not forthcoming from the university). Fifteen hundred and twenty-two students’ emails were captured using the middle initial search. A second set of searches, capturing 2,480 student email addresses, was completed by searching a particular major (e.g., Math, Biology). Search of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. particular majors also returned 100 students. The major email capture also was not in alphabetical order. Majors with more than 100 students were used. Majors known to have only graduate students (e.g., Medical School, Law School) were not selected. A manual cross-check was used to reduce the possibility of duplicates. The integrated email address list was completed by the method described below in the procedure section. For the in-class participants, 45 professors of the summer 2004 semester were solicited over email, phone, or in-person for a five-minute in-class participant solicitation. For those approving professors (21 classrooms across 10 majors), this author delivered the identical verbal and physical presentation. Procedure Participant assignment. Study participants were assigned via systematic selection from each 100 email addresses (e.g., 100 for letter A, 100 for letter B, and so on, and 100 for each major: Math, Biology,) with the first 25 to Treatment group 1, next 25 to Treatment 2, next 25 to Control 1, and last 25 to Control 2. See Appendix B for the email (and paper) invitation. For the classroom participants, paper invitations, identical to the emails, were handed out to each classroom member with each of the four online survey email addresses given in sequential order (e.g., 1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4, etc). Of 4,473 systematically selected university students invited to participate in this research study via email (n=4,002) or solicited in-class (n=471), 522 participants (12% response rate/4,473) began the assessment. Of the 522 participants who completed the anonymity/informed consent statements on the first page of the survey, 157 went no further. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2. Demographics For All Who Participated 29 Treatment Groups Control Groups 1 2 1 2 Total Percentage Gender Female 60 52 56 44 212 66% Male 32 20 30 29 111 Total n = 323 34% 100% Ethnicity African-Amer. 2 5 1 5 13 4% Asian 19 8 13 19 59 18% Hispanic 11 3 6 2 22 7% Caucasian 56 43 55 37 191 59% Amerindian 0 0 0 0 0 0% Other 4 13 12 11 40 Total n = 325 12% 100% University Grade Level Freshmen 18 17 14 20 69 22% Sophomore 19 8 14 14 55 17% Junior 12 11 23 15 61 19% Senior 16 21 20 11 68 21% Grad Student 22 14 13 11 60 19% Other 5 0 0 2 7 Total n = 320 2% 100% Age Mean 22.82 22.10 22.29 21.64 sd 6.61 4.79 5.34 4.98 Age Range 18-61 18-42 18-50 18-47 n 91 72 86 73 Total n = 322 HS GPA mean 3.67 3.74 3.62 3.70 sd 0.39 0.36 0.51 0.41 n 87 67 82 66 Total n = 302 University GPA mean 3.43 3.40 3.37 3.35 sd 0.39 0.37 0.37 0.42 n 83 68 79 66 Total n = 296 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 Of those remaining, 86 participants (17% response rate/522) completed the 90-120 minute-long study voluntarily and with no extrinsic incentive. The two response rates (initial and final, at 12% and 17%, respectively) are in line with the lower end of other Internet Web-based survey response rates, which range from 7% to 44% (see Schonlau, Fricker, & Elliot, 2001, for review). The email and in-class solicitations, although it did not provide a large response rate, did provide information from a more generalizable pool of university students than a study using only psychology undergraduate students. Subject recruitment via the internet does provide a modality for psychology to broaden its research base to other groups than simply the traditional, female psychology undergraduate student (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004; Kraut, Olson, Banaji, Bruckman, Cohen, & Couper, 2004). Although Web-based interventions are fairly new, research is showing that findings from such research samples are consistent with findings using traditional methods (Gosling, et al., 2004). Intervention procedure. Using the on-line survey company, www.surveymonkey.com, the email invitation went out the 12th week of the 16- week, spring semester of 2004, with a reminder email the 14th week. The subject header of the email read “(Name of University) Goal Intervention - Learn of your Strengths, Values, & Goals on-line.” The in-class invitations were made the 2n d, 4th , and 5th weeks of the summer session. Each of the four on-line surveys began with the introduction to the study on goals, strengths, and values. (See Appendix C for the on-line instrument.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Statements were provided for the participant to indicate they understood their participation to be voluntary, unpaid, confidential, and anonymous. Additionally, a statement was made that while the author was available to answer factual questions about the research, participants were referred to the University Counseling Center for counseling should they desire therapeutic discussion of their values, strengths, identity, and goals. Participants were strongly recommended that to receive the greatest impact from this assessment, they were to print out their values, strengths, and goals, and to post them in places they would see them daily. Participants were given the option to contact the author with their request to receive aggregated results upon completion of the study (10 participants responded). Treatment participants received the strengths and values intervention first, then completed a list of their personal goals and goal ratings; the Control participants received the intervention after listing their personal goals and goal ratings. The order of the strengths and values assessments was counterbalanced to control for order and fatigue effects, thus there were two Treatment groups and two Control groups. For clarification of the groups and materials, see Table 3 below. In the debriefing section, the participants were asked, “What was the purpose of the study? What evidence did you use to come to your conclusion?” None of the participants who gave a response to the purpose question (n = 75) correctly identified the purpose or hypotheses. Then, the participants were given a chance to make comments; 15 of the 41 responses were that the study was too long and 15 of the 41 responses said that it was very interesting. Finally, a debriefing statement stated they were not told the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 full reason for the study as this could have swayed their responses, and they could at this time mark whether they wanted their responses deleted from the study. No one requested his or her responses deleted. Table 3: Layout of Materials to the Four Groups Treatment -Group 1 Treatment-Group 2 Control-Group 1 Control-Group 2 Pre-tests - T1 Pre-tests - T1 Pre-tests - T1 Pre-tests - T1 Demographics Demographics Demographics Demographics Values Strengths Goal Listing Goal Listing Strengths Values Goal Ratings Goal Ratings Goal Listing Goal Listing Post-tests - T2 Post-tests - T2 Goal Ratings Goal Ratings Values Strengths Post-tests - T2 Post-tests - T2 Strengths Values Change goals Change goals Post-tests - T3 Post-tests - T3 Strength and values intervention. Personal values were the theoretically driven piece of implicit knowledge (assumed in the Self-Concordance Model), that this study was to make explicit, and it was also decided, because it was another piece of self-knowledge to provide participants, to have a second Positive Psychology intervention used in this study, that of strengths of character. See Table 4 for the Intervention Variables. Strengths were assessed using the VIA Inventory of Strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). The Inventory uses five-point, Likert-style items (1 = very much unlike me; 5 = very much like me) to measure the degree to which respondents endorse items reflecting the various 24 strengths of character that comprise the VIA Classification (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). An example strength is Curiosity/Interest and an example item Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 for that strength is “I find the world a very interesting place.” Reliability and validity information were provided by and permission to use this instrument was granted by the author (Peterson, personal communication 11/18/03, 1/14/04). “The internal consistencies (alphas) exceed .80 in all cases; scale scores converge modestly (rs = .20 - .30) with nominations by others; scales scores (especially hope, love, gratitude, zest, and curiosity) correlate (rs = .50) with subjective well-being” (Peterson, 1/14/04, personal communication). The website is: http://www.positivepsvchology.org/strengths Table 4. Intervention Variables Variable Definition Scoring Variable Type Strengths Survey 245 questions on 24 strengths of character; participant responds on 1 to 5 scale ranging from "very much unlike me" to "very much like me," resulting in the top five strengths being provided to the participant by the website: www. positivepsychology.org/strengths. For this study, scored 1 for completing the assessment; 0 for not completing it. categorical Values- List of 83 personal values to which For this study, categorical Card-Sort participant responds either "not important to me, "important to me," or "very important to me." scored 1 for completing the assessment; 0 for not completing it. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 Values were assessed using the Personal Values-Card-Sort from Miller, C’de Baca, Matthews, and Wilboume’s (2001) Motivational Interviewing Process. Participants sort 83 personal values into three categories: very important to me, important to me, not important to me. A sample value is “Acceptance - to be accepted as I am.” This instrument is in the public domain and may be used without permission. W.R. Miller was contacted for validity and reliability data on 1/22/04. Miller said there was no validity and reliability data available on this measure (1/23/04 personal communication). The assessment’s website is http://www.motivationalinterview.org/librarv/valuescardsort.pdf See Appendix C for these assessments. Measures Demographics. A demographic sheet requested, via either open-ended or forced-choice questions, the demographic variables of gender, age, race/ethnicity, parents’ income, high school GPA, university GPA, university major, and university level. Information from these demographic variables was requested to see if they had any relationship with the major variables of the study. See Table 5 for the Demographic Variables. As mentioned earlier, gender and race/ethnicity differences have not been found in previous studies, but ability (measured by GPA) was a factor in one of the studies (Sheldon and Houser-Marko, 2001). See Appendix C for these demographics. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 Table 5. Demographic Variables Variable Variable Type Categories/Range Gender categorical 2 categories: Female, Male Race/Ethnicity categorical 6 categories: African-American/Black, Asian, Hispanic, Caucasian/White, American Indian, Other (please specify) Age continuous range 18-61 years Parents' Income continuous range $500 - $1 Billion High School GPA continuous range 1.0 - 4.0 (4.0 = A, 3.0 = B, and so on) University GPA continuous range 1.0 - 4.0 (4.0 = A, 3.0 = B, and so on) University Major categorical 51 of 123 undergraduate majors University Grade Level categorical 8 categories: Freshmen, Sophomore, Junior, Senior, Grad Student, Staff, Faculty, Other (please specify) The hope and well-being measures. It was decided to have two outcome measures used as pre- and post-test measures, a measure of Hope and the Aggregate Well-being measure used repeatedly in the Sheldon and colleagues’ paradigm. See Table 6 for the Pre- and Post-test Outcome Variables. Hope was measured using the Adult Dispositional Hope Scale (Lopez, Snyder, Magyar-Moe, Edwards, Pedrotti, Janowski, et al., 2004; Snyder, 2000). It is a 12-item self-report measure of Hope, with each response given a rating of 1 to 8, with 1 being Definitely False to 8 being Definitely True. “Even when Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem,” is an exemplar from the scale. Hope is defined as the enduring disposition subjectively defined as people assess their agency (i.e., successful determination) and pathways (i.e., successful plans to meet goals) related to goals. In other words, hope is defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals, and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways (Snyder, 2002). The measure has good construct and discriminant validity and demonstrates both internal reliability (alphas ranging from .74-.88) and test-retest reliability (alphas ranging from .82-.85) (Snyder, Harris, Anderson, Holleran, Irving, Sigmon, Yoshinobu, Gibb, Langelle, & Harney, 1991). Snyder (2002) reports that a typical mean score is 49 (sd = 7). For more information on the Hope scale see Snyder, Harris, et al. (1991) and Snyder (2002). Lopez, et al. (2004) state, “The scale can be used for research or clinical purposes without contacting the author.” Table 6. Pre- and Post-test Outcome Variables (dependent variables) Variable Definition Scoring Variable Type Hope Pre and Post tests Using Adult Dispositional Hope Scale; 12 questions. Rate each question on 1 to 8 scale ranging from "Definitely False" to "Definitely True." Sum of items 1,2,4,6,8,9,10,12; Items 3,5,7, & 11 are distractors and not used for scoring Range +8 to +64. continuous Aggregate Well-being Pre- and Post-tests Using Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) and Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS); 25 questions. Sum 10 Positive Affect items and 5 SWLS items, then subtract 10 Negative Affect items Range -33 to +75. continuous Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 Well-being was measured using two measures, which have repeatedly been used together in past research. The two measures are the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Watson & Clark, 1999) and the Satisfaction With Life Scale, (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; for a review, see Pavot & Diener, 1993). The PANAS is a 20-item scale, using a 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely) scale. At times, the PANAS has been scored using a seven-point scale instead of the original, five-point scale (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a; Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, Share, 2002), but this study stayed with the original scale. Some exemplars include: excited and scared. It has been used in several of Sheldon and colleagues’ past studies (Elliot & Sheldon, 1998; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001, Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a, Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, Share, 2002, and more). The PANAS has been used often as a repeated within-subject measure or pre- and post-measure of mood. For example, Watson (2000) stated that 188 individuals rated their mood using PANAS seven times per day for a week. Permission to use the PANAS was granted from the American Psychological Association (APA) and Watson and Clark via personal communication 1/21/04. The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Pavot & Diener, 1993) is a seven-item, self-report measure using a 1 to 7 scale: 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example of an item is “I am satisfied with my life.” “The SWLS is designed to assess a person’s global judgment Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 of life satisfaction, which is theoretically predicted to depend on a comparison of life circumstances to one’s standards” (Pavot & Diener, 1993, p. 165). Scores on the SWLS can be interpreted in terms of absolute as well as relative life satisfaction. A score of 20 represents the neutral point on the scale, the point at which the respondent is about equally satisfied and dissatisfied. ... most groups fall in the range of 23 to 28, or the range of slightly satisfied to satisfied (Pavot & Diener, 1993, p. 165, (italics in the original). The measure has good construct and discriminant validity, strong internal reliability, and moderate temporal stability (Pavot & Diener, 1993). “The SWLS is a promising instrument in terms of measuring change in subjective well-being and intervention outcomes” (Pavot & Diener, 1993, p. 170). Diener, via personal communication 1/21/04, stated that the SWLS is in the public domain; that no permission was needed. This scale was used in Sheldon & Kasser, 1995, 1998, 2001a; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003, p. 844, and Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004; all of whom also used the PANAS as a measure of well-being, with the three measures (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction) separately then as an aggregate. For this study, as in previous research, the Well-being aggregate score was computed by summing the positive affect and life-satisfaction scores, and subtracting the negative affect score (for Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003, p. 844, the alpha = .86). See Appendix C for these assessments. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Goals Following Sheldon and colleagues’ paradigm, five goal measures were used. See Table 7 for the Goal Variables. See Appendix C for the on-line instrument. Table 7. Goal Variables Variable Definition Scoring Variable Type Goal Number self-generated list of 1-10 goals Sum of number of goals listed. Range 1 to 10. Contin uous Importance Rating Rate each goal listed on 1 to 5 scale ranging from "not at all important" to "very important." Sum of the 1-10 goal's ratings. Range 1 to 50. Contin uous Goal Self- Deter mination Using Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC), rate each goal 1-10 for each of 4 reasons on 1 to 9 scale ranging from "not at all for this reason" to "completely for this reason." Double intrinsic and external scores, then sum each of the four reasons. Sum intrinsic and identified, then subtract external and introjected. Range -24 to + 240. Contin uous Overall Coherence Using Possible Futures, rate each goal 1-10 as to how helpful it will be towards six possible futures (3 intrinsic and 3 extrinsic) on 1 to 9 scale ranging from "no help at all" to "very much help." Average each of the six possible futures, then subtract the three extrinsic futures from the sum of the three intrinsic futures. Range 6 to 540. Contin uous Intrinsic Value Orientation Using the Aspiration Index of 30 aspirations, rate each aspiration on 1 to 7 scale ranging from "not at all important" to "very important." Sum the 15 intrinsic items and subtract the 15 extrinsic items. Range -90 to +90. Contin uous Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 Goal number. Goals were ascertained by asking participants to generate a list of their current goals and then selecting their top 10 goals as in previous research (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 2001b, 2001a; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003). Number of goals generated was one goal measure in this study. Following Sheldon and colleagues, the instructions were purposefully minimal, thus the goals were unique to the participant and self-generated. Per Sheldon and Kasser (2001b), “This gives the methodology strong personological and social-ecological validity (Little, 1993), compared to typical inventory-based methods of personality assessment” (p. 38). Sheldon, in other studies (e.g., Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001), gave the participants a list of 32 goals to choose from, which could be limiting or restricting to get at meaningfulness or self-concordance. The four goal ratings. As in previous research, the four goal ratings consisted of Goal Importance, Goal Self-Determination, Overall Coherence, and Intrinsic Value Orientation. Goal importance (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001b; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003) was ascertained by asking the participant to rate each of their self-generated goals in terms of importance on a scale from 1 {not at all important) to 5 {very important). Those ratings were then summed for each participant for the Importance Rating. The Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) measure - the reasons for pursuit of a goal - provided external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic reasons (see Sheldon & Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Houser-Marko, 2001). Participants rated their separate goals as to how much they pursue them for each of four reasons, using a scale ranging from 1 (not at all because o f this reason) to 9 (completely because o f this reason). With external reasons defined as “because somebody else wants you to or because you’ll get something from somebody if you do.” Introjected reasons defined as “because you would feel ashamed, guilty, or anxious if you didn’t have this goal.” Identified reasons defined as “because you really believe it’s an important goal to have - you endorse it freely and wholeheartedly.” Intrinsic reasons defined as “purely because of the fun and enjoyment that goal provides you.” As in previous research (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 1995), a theoretically weighted Goal Self-Determination score was derived by first doubling the external and intrinsic scores (the two extremes of the continuum) and then subtracting the sum of the external and introjected scores from the sum of the identified and intrinsic scores. For Sheldon and Kasser (1995) study, the M= 87.0, sd = 67.9 and the internal consistency was alpha = .89. The Possible Futures ratings were assessed by having each participant rate each of their goals as to how much it will help them toward possible futures in six culturally endorsed value domains, using a scale ranging from 1 (no help at all) to 9 (very much help). Participants were presented with the following three intrinsic futures: (a) Self-acceptance and personal growth: Being happy and having a very meaningful life; (b) Intimacy and friendship: Having many close and caring relationships with others; and, (c) Societal contribution: Working to help make the world a better place. The other three futures involve extrinsic domains more likely Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 to be associated with external rewards or praise: (a) Financial success: Having a job that pays very well and having a lot of nice possessions; (b) Fame and recognition: Being known and admired by many people; and, (c) Physical appearance: Looking good and being attractive to others. Helpfulness ratings were averaged across all six content domains, then the three extrinsic average scores were subtracted from the sum of the three intrinsic average scores to derive the variable: Overall Coherence. Kasser gave this author permission to use the Possible Futures and the following Aspirations Index via personal communication, 2/10/04. The Aspirations Index was used as a measure of both intrinsic and extrinsic value preferences. It is a 30-item measure in which participants rate the importance of each of the 30-provided aspirations, using a 1 (not at all important) to 7 {very important) scale. Example items from the scale include, “I will be financially successful” and “I will have good friends I can count on.” The variable: Intrinsic Value Orientation was computed by summing the 15 intrinsic items and subtracting the 15 extrinsic items. For Sheldon, Arndt, and Houser-Marko (2003), the alpha was .88. These goal measures were, as in previous research, used together to provide a fuller, more robust view of healthy goal striving. For a review of these goal-based measures, see Sheldon and Kasser (1995). See Appendix C for the on-line instrument. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS Results are presented in a sequential format. Before examining the major research questions, a number of issues need to be addressed including representativeness of the sample, confounding variables, design, and analytic strategy. Preliminary Analyses Sample This sample is fairly representative of the university population from which it was selected, as can be seen in Table 8. The University mean GPA is 3.35 and the sample mean GPA is 3.39. The mean age of the University student is 24 and the mean age for this sample is 22 years of age. The undergraduates for both the University and the sample appear to be pretty evenly distributed. Gender, for the sample, is more female than for the University. Ethnicity for some groups seems to be representative, however, the sample seems to be substantially more Caucasian than the University. See Table 2 for the Demographics for all who participated in this study and Table 9 for the Demographics for just the 86 completers. The variable, Parents’ Income, was shown to consist of unreliable data as there were several outliers. Also, it appeared that some participants may have listed their own income or listed one parents’ income. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Table 8. Demographic Comparision of Sample with University Population Sample University Population Total Percentage Total Percentage Gender Female 212 66% 15,463 48% Male 111 34% 16,697 52% Total n 323 100% 32,160 100% Ethnicity African-Amer. 13 4% 1,709 5% Asian 59 18% 6,680 21% Hispanic 22 7% 3,357 11% Caucasian 191 59% 12,823 40% Amer.Indian 0 0% 194 0% Other 40 12% 7,397 23% Total n 325 100% 32,160 100% University Grade Level Freshmen 69 22% 3,498 11% Sophomore 55 17% 3,961 12% Junior 61 19% 4,186 13% Senior 68 21% 4,627 15% Grad Student 60 19% 14,877 46% Other 7 2% 1,011 3% Total n 320 100% 32,160 100% University GPA Mean 3.39 3.35 Total n 296 32,160 Age Under 21 = 153 47% 10,052 31% 21-25 = 125 39% 12,153 38% 26 & over = 44 14% 9,955 31% Total n 322 100% 32,160 100% Mean 22 24 Age Range 18-61 16-85 Total n 322 32,160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 9. Demographics For Completers Only Treatment Control_______ Total Percentage Gender Female 32 25 57 66% Male 11 18 29 Total n = 86 34% 100% Ethnicity African-Amer. 1 3 4 4% Asian 9 7 16 19% Hispanic 3 2 5 6% Caucasian 22 23 45 52% Amerindian 0 0 0 0% Other 8 8 16 Total n = 86 19% 100% University Grade Level Freshmen 10 8 18 21% Sophomore 5 8 13 15% Junior 8 10 18 21% Senior 9 11 20 23% Grad Student 10 6 16 19% Other 1 0 1 Total n = 86 1% 100% Age Mean 22.26 22.09 sd 5.27 5.76 Age Range 18-44 18-50 n 43 43 Total n = 86 HSGPA mean 3.73 3.68 sd 0.38 0.42 n 41 40 Total n = 81 University GPA mean 3.44 3.37 sd 0.38 0.45 n 40 42 Total n = 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 The sample demographics compare with 24 of 25 earlier research studies by Sheldon and colleagues in which the participants were student samples, mostly females, mostly Caucasian, however, most of the Sheldon and colleagues’ study participants were psychology undergraduate students. Although the pre-test score data on earlier research were not reported, scores in this study compare favorably to published norms, for example, for the Hope scale, Snyder (2002) reports that a typical mean score is 49 (sd = 7). Confounding Variables In order to address a number of potential contaminating variables, preliminary analyses were conducted. The first question was to assess whether any demographic variables interacted with the outcome variables. Preliminary analyses indicated that no significant group differences due to Gender, Ethnicity, University GPA, High School GPA, Age, or University Grade Level were found on any variables including Hope, Aggregate Well-being, and the five goal measures. For the completers, there were no significant pre-test differences for any demographic variable on Hope and Aggregate Well-being. Following the demographic check, the questions of potential differences of those who completed the study versus non-completers and those potential differences related to mode of participant selection and time for study completion were examined. For this study, there were no significant differences between the completers (n= 86) and the non-completers on the pretest for Hope (n=237) and Aggregate Well-being (n= 277). There were no significant differences between the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 groups who were emailed the invitation to participate (n = 341) and those who were invited from their classroom (n = 24) on their pretest for Hope and the Aggregate Well-being. There were no significant pre-test differences between the groups of those participants who completed the study in one sitting (n= 64) and those who completed it over a number of days (n = 24) for the Hope and Aggregate Well-being measures. Design The experimental design for this study was a 2 X 2 factorial design: Factor 1 - Group with two levels: Treatment and Control group, and Factor 2 - Order with two levels: Values intervention first or Values second. However, this second factor (Order) was an experimental manipulation not an actual design factor of interest. That is to say, the statistical design for this study was a one factor design — a traditional treatment/control design with pre- and post-test between and within subject measures. For clarity, the measures are listed in Table 3. To test whether the intervention had an effect on Hope and Well-being, Hope and Aggregate Well-being were the dependent variables, with the Intervention being the independent variable. Then to test whether the intervention had an affect on the goals, the Goal Self- Determination score was the dependent variable, with the Intervention being the independent variable. In other words, the research questions were addressed by a comparison between the Treatment and Control groups on T1 and T2 hope and well being, and a within-subjects analysis, for the Control group on T2 and T3 hope and well-being to see if the intervention made a difference for the Control group. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 Analytic Strategy The measure of well-being was measured, as in past research (e.g., Sheldon), using the SWLS and PANAS to produce an Aggregate Well-being score. Although this aggregate was used in several studies (e.g., Sheldon & Kasser, 1998, 2001a; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser-Marko, 2003), not one of these studies listed the means and standard deviation for the score. A correlation between the Hope and the Aggregate Well-being scores was unknown prior to this study. For the pre-test assessments, for all participants who completed these measures, the two measures were correlated (r = .64, p < .001) as were the posttest 1 (T2) scores (r = .69, p < .01) and the posttest 2 (T3) scores (r = .57, p < .01, in the Control group analysis), and when just the 86 completers were considered, the correlation on the pretest remained the same (r = .64) and for the posttest 1 (T2) scores rose to r = .72 (See Table 10). These correlations make sense conceptually; given higher hope, the more one would be satisfied with life and have more positive feelings than someone with low hope, as well as, those more satisfied with life and with more positive feelings would probably be more hopeful than those less satisfied with life and with more negative feelings. Given this association, a MANCOVA analytic strategy was chosen for the Hope/Well Being cluster using the posttest scores as the dependent variable and the pretest scores as covariates. Weinfurt (2000) recommends that when the groups are randomly assigned, ANCOVA is more powerful than repeated measures ANOVA or gain score analysis (p. 341) and this statement is parallel for multivariate analyses. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 Table 10. Study Results Variable Treatment Control Result Hope m = 49.70 sd = 7.78 n = 43 m = 48.21 sd= 8.68 n = 43 not significant Aggregate Well-being m = 39.12 sd= 15.38 n-43 m = 33.88 sd= 15.08 n = 43 not significant Goal Number m - 8.98 sd = 2.29 n = 42 m = 9.65 sd = 1.31 n = 43 not significant Importance Rating m = 38.98 sd = 9.42 n = 41 m = 39.91 sd = 7.75 n = 43 not significant Goal Self-Determination (using PLOC's 4 reasons) m = 112.67 sd = 72.55 n = 41 m = 102.70 sd = 62.56 n = 43 not significant Overall Coherence (using Possible Futures) m = 1.61 sd = 1.41 n = 41 m = .917 sd= 1.08 n = 42 significant using the .02 Bonferroni correction, p = .014. Intrinsic Value Orientation (using Aspiration Index) m = 17.50 sd = 8.82 n = 43 m = 18.11 sd = 11.23 n = 43 not significant Correlations Between the Variables Hope and Aggregate Well-being Hope and Goal Self-Determination Hope and Overall Coherence Hope and Importance Rating Aggregate Well-being and Goal Self-Determination Goal Self-Determination and Importance Rating Goal Self-Determination and Overall Coherence Overall Coherence and Intrinsic Value Orientation r = .64, p < .01 r = .33, p < .01 r = .18, p < .05 r = .26, p < .01 r = .21, p < .01 r = .46, p < .01 r = .26, p < .01 r = .46, p < .01 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 The five goal measures consisted of 1) Goal Number, 2) Importance Rating, 3) Goal Self-Determination (from the Aggregate PLOC), 4) Overall Coherence (from the Possible Futures), and 5) Intrinsic Value Orientation (from the Aspiration Index). See Table 7 for a succinct description of the five goal variables and their scoring instructions. See Table 10 for the results of this study. A comparison between the scores from previous studies (e.g., Sheldon) and the current study was difficult for several reasons: means and standard deviation information were not available in many studies, and in other studies, the name of the measure was different and the scoring of the measure was computed differently over Sheldon and colleagues’ decade of research. Correlations were found between the goal measures in Sheldon’s results, but again, since these measures were scored differently from this study, comparisons were not appropriate. In this study, there were some significant correlations between Hope and Aggregate Well-being and the goal measures (see Table 10). For example, Hope was correlated with Importance Rating (r = .26, p < .01), Goal Self-Determination (r = .33, p < .01), and Overall Coherence (r = .18, p < .05), and Aggregate Well being was correlated with Goal Self-Determination (r = .21, p < .01). The correlations, although significant, do not suggest a strong association. For conceptual, empirical (strength of association), and clarity reasons, the outcome measures (Hope and Aggregate Well-being) and the five goal measures were treated as different measure clusters. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 The goal measures, like in previous research, were correlated. Goal Self- Determination was correlated with Importance Rating (r = .46, p < .01) and with Overall Coherence (r = .26, p < .01). Overall Coherence was correlated with Intrinsic Value Orientation (r = .46, p < .01). See Table 10. Conceptually, these correlations make sense given they are all based on the same theoretical underpinnings (Self-Determination theory), however, since these correlations were moderate, they were treated separately in the analytic strategy (via ANOVA) and a Bonferroni correction (p < .02) was used to control for inflation of Type I error and probability pyramiding. Primary Analyses The major research question was: “What is the effect (of knowledge) of one’s strengths and values on one’s goals, goal ratings, hope, and Well-being?” First, as to the effect of the intervention on Hope and Well-being, it was hypothesized that by making their values and strengths explicit, the Treatment group participants, who completed the Strengths and Values intervention prior to listing their goals and goal ratings, would be significantly more hopeful and have significantly higher well-being scores than Control group participants, who became knowledgeable of their values and strengths after listing their goals, hope, and well being scores. There was no significant group difference for either Hope or Well-being. The Treatment group Hope posttest mean score of 49.70 (sd = 7.78, n = 43) was higher, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 but not statistically significantly higher than the Control Group mean score of 48.21 (sd= 8.68, n = 43). The Treatment group Aggregate Well-being posttest mean of 39.12 (sd = 15.38, n = 43) was higher, but not statistically significantly higher than the Control Group mean score of 33.88 (sd = 15.08, n = 43). See Table 10. Second, regarding the goal measures, it was hypothesized that by receiving the values and strengths intervention, the quality of goals listed and their goal importance ratings would be influenced. Specifically, the Treatment group, more so than the Control group, would list more autonomous (intrinsic and identified) goals and score higher on the Importance Rating. To measure the quality of goals (autonomous - intrinsic and identified), each participant rated each of their own self generated goals as to the reason for their pursuit by using the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) measure with its four reasons - external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic reasons, and from these ratings the Goal Self-Determination score was computed for each participant. The Importance Rating was measured via asking each participant to rate each of their self-generated goals on its importance to them. Using ANOVA statistical analyses to test these hypotheses, the results suggested that neither of these hypotheses were supported. The Treatment group Goal Self- Determination mean (112.67, sd = 72.55, n = 41) was higher, but not statistically significantly higher than the Control group mean (102.70, sd= 62.56, n - 43). There was no significant difference between the Treatment group Importance Rating mean (38.98, sd = 9.42, n = 41) and the Control group mean (39.91, sd= 7.74, n = 43). See Table 10. In a more precise analysis using average goal ratings (divided by number Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 of goals) instead of goal rating sums, differences remained non-significant. The Control group, who received the strengths and values intervention after the first posttests (T2) on Hope and Well-being, then completed a second posttest (T3) on these two measures upon completing the intervention (see Table 3 for clarification on the order of materials for each group). Results from Paired Samples T-test statistics showed there were no significant differences between the scores for Hope or Well-being. Supplementary Analyses Additional goal measures Although no hypotheses were made on the remaining three goal measures, there was one significant difference: for those who completed the entire assessment, the Treatment group Overall Coherence mean score was 1.61 (sd = 1.41, n= 41) and the Control group mean score was .917 (sd = 1.079, n= 42). These were significantly different, F(l,81) = 6.366, p = .014. Given the use of the Bonferroni correction (p = .02), this result is statistically significant at the more stringent p value, meaning that the Treatment group more so than the Control group were responding towards more intrinsic futures than extrinsic futures. The other two goal measures: Goal Number and Intrinsic Value Orientation were not statistically different for the Treatment and Control groups. Gender differences As in previous studies, there were no gender differences on Hope and Well being or the five goal measures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 Ethnicity differences For this analysis there were six ethnicity/racial groupings: African-American (n=13 or 4%), Asian (n=59 or 18%), Hispanic (n=22 or 7%), Caucasian (n=191 or 59%), American Indian (n =0), and those participants who self-identified as “Other” (n = 40 or 12%) who responded to this demographic variable of the assessment (n=325). The numbers decreased when those who completed the assessment were calculated. See Tables 2 and 9 for the Demographics of the participants and of the completers, respectively. While an analysis on ethnicity was planned, there was, like in previous research, insufficient cell size for appropriate statistical analyses. Goal content analysis Another supplementary analysis was conducted on the content of the self generated goals. The goal content analysis, conducted by the author, was an interesting sidebar. That is, to observe what goals this sample of college students are pursuing - perhaps a thumbnail sketch of what is important to this group. Overall (i.e., Treatment and Control group numbers combined for all who completed the measure), the largest ranking of the goals was for school in the present (e.g., “I want an A in my class”) and the future (e.g., “To go to graduate school”); school-related goals numbered 195 out of a total of 1,449 goals generated. There were three categories developed for relationship concerns: love relationship/marriage, family relationship, and other relationship. Alone, overall, Relationship (108) tied for second with Financial goals. When the three relationship categories were combined overall, the combination became the highest ranking with the largest number of goals Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 (265). Occupational goals were the fourth highest in number overall, with 99. See Table 11 for the breakdown and ranking of goals. Since the Control group participants received the goal measures prior to the strengths and values interventions, they generated substantially more goals than the Treatment group (almost twice as many goals). Given this wide difference, it is hard to judge the similarities and differences between the groups. However, it is very interesting to note the differences in the two groups’ rankings of goal categories. For example, the number one goal category for both groups was School-related goals. However, the number two goal category for the Control group was Financial (an extrinsic goal), whereas the number two goal category for the Treatment group was Self-growth (an intrinsic goal). And for number three, the Control group had a tie between Occupation and Relationship, whereas the Treatment group ranked Relationship third (with Occupation coming in seventh). As in the previous discussion, when the three Relationship-related categories were combined for each group, Relationship became the number one ranked goal category for both groups. See Table 12 for this comparison. Sheldon and Kasser (2001a) briefly stated the content of their participants’ goals included themes on career achievement, physical health and appearance, finances, self-regulation of emotions, interpersonal influence, and Erikson’s theory components of identity, intimacy, generativity, and ego-integrity. As the reader can see, there is some overlap between Sheldon and Kasser’s study and this study in the areas of career and finances. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Table 11. Goal Content, Totals, and Rankings Goal Categories ’ reatment Groups Control Groups Overall Overall Rank, 1 2 Sub-total 1 2 Sub-total Total 1 = larges Altruism 13 10 23 17 13 30 53 10 Career 5 5 10 9 4 13 23 17 tie Family Relationships 17 15 32 24 20 44 76 6 Financial 16 14 30 48 30 78 108 2 tie Fun 4 3 7 9 7 16 23 17 tie Hap py 13 3 16 10 18 28 44 13 Health 2 2 4 6 14 20 24 16 Hob ?ies 0 2 2 1 4 5 7 22 Identity 3 2 5 3 6 9 14 21 tie Independence 2 2 4 3 7 10 14 21 tie Job 9 8 17 15 14 29 46 12 Learn 6 1 7 3 7 10 17 19 Love relationship 15 16 31 32 18 50 81 5 Occupation 6 21 27 41 31 72 99 4 Organization 7 4 11 14 8 22 33 15 Politics 0 4 4 6 4 10 14 21 tie Power/Status/Fame 6 4 10 12 14 26 36 14 Relationship 28 8 36 37 35 72 108 2 tie Role 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 23 School 31 26 57 82 56 138 195 1 Self-acceptance 2 ■ . ' • 5 5 4 9 14 21 tie Self-care 6 o 6 6 3 9 15 20 Self-growth 25 16 41 26 35 61 102 3 Sex 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 24 Skill increase/gain 7 10 17 23 21 44 61 8 Spiritual 9 11 20 19 8 27 47 1 1 Success 5 2 7 8 5 13 20 18 Travel /Adventure 10 14 24 27 1 1 38 62 7 Weight 8 6 14 20 26 46 60 9 Other/Misc. 9 13 22 9 1 1 20 47 Goal Totals 265 226 491 518 435 953 1449 Possible Combinations /Care ,e VLov ol el > y New Total New Ranking Job/Profession/Occupation F inancial/Independence Self-growth/Self-acceptanc Spiritual/Altruism Health/W eight/Self-care Skill incr/gain/Leam Relationship/Family Relaf Scho Trav Hapj er 168 3 122 4 116 5 100 6 99 7 78 8 e Relat'p 265 1 2 9 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 12. Differential Goal Rankings Between Treatment and Control Groups Treatment Groups Control Groups Overall Overall Rank, Goal Categories Sub-total Rank Sub-total Rank Total 1 = largest Altruism 23 9 30 9 53 10 Career 10 15 tie 13 17 tie 23 17 tie Family Relationship 32 4 44 7 tie 76 6 Financial 30 6 78 2 108 2 tie Fun 7 16 tie 16 16 23 17 tie Flappy 16 12 28 11 44 13 Health 4 19 tie 20 15 24 16 Hobbies 2 20 tie 5 20 7 22 Identity 5 18 tie 9 19 tie 14 21 tie Independence 4 19 tie 10 18 tie 14 21 tie Job 17 11 tie 29 10 46 12 Learn 7 16 tie 10 18 tie 17 19 Love relationship 31 5 50 5 81 5 Occupation 27 7 72 3 tie 99 4 Organization 11 14 22 14 33 15 Politics 4 19 tie 10 18 tie 14 21 tie Power/Status/Fame 10 15 tie 26 13 36 14 Relationship 36 3 72 3 tie 108 2 tie Role 2 20 tie 2 21 tie 4 23 School 57 1 138 1 195 1 Self-acceptance 5 18 tie 9 19 tie 14 21 tie Self-care 6 17 9 19 tie 15 20 Self-growth 41 2 61 4 102 3 Sex 0 0 2 21 tie 2 24 Skill increase/gain 17 11 tie 44 7 tie 61 8 Spiritual 20 10 27 12 47 11 Success 7 16 tie 13 17 tie 20 18 Travel /Adventure 24 8 38 8 62 7 Weight 14 13 46 6 60 9 Other/Misc. 22 20 47 Goal Totals 491 953 1449 Lastly, as the reader can see from Table 11, for the most part, the majority of the goal categories has a positive valence and includes short- and long-term goals. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION For the primary research questions, the first major hypothesis was not supported: the Intervention did not have a significant effect on Hope or Well-being. Nor was the second major hypothesis supported: there was no significant difference between the Treatment and Control groups on their Goal Importance Rating and Goal Self Determination (or their reasons for pursuing their goals). These findings suggest that the intervention, knowing of one’s strengths and values, did not have a significant effect on the hope, well-being, content, importance, or reasons for pursuing the goals as theorized. Although, the intervention was short-term, Sheldon, Arndt, and Houser-Marko (2003) found significant results in their two short-term (e.g., 20 minutes) interventions. However, for this study, the information learned from the intervention, which focused on one’s strengths of character and personal values, may not have been fully processed by the participants at the time they were asked to generate a list of their goals and make their other goal ratings. Given the short-term intervention, with little time to put these goals into specific plans and achieve them, the participants hope and well-being may not have been affected. It appears as well that a ceiling effect may have limited some of the findings; several participants rated their Hope, for example, at the highest amount possible on the pretest, so there was no room for an increase in Hope to show up. This will be discussed further in the Limitations section. For the other three goal measures, hypotheses were not made, but one statistically significant difference was found among the completers, the difference Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 between the Treatment group Overall Coherence measure mean and the Control group mean was statistically significant. For those who completed the assessment, the Intervention was helpful in facilitating the Treatment group more so than the Control group towards intrinsic futures than extrinsic futures, which theoretically and in previous research, resulted in significantly higher well-being. It appears that by completing their values and strengths prior to listing their goals, Treatment group participants listed more goals that they rated as taking them towards intrinsic possible futures of (a) Self-acceptance and personal growth: Being happy and having a very meaningful life; (b) Intimacy and friendship: Having many close and caring relationships with others; and, (c) Societal contribution: Making the world a better place. Also, perhaps there is a difference in the time it takes to influence goals (perhaps shorter) than in the time it takes to influence hope and well-being. Perhaps this is due to goals behaving more like a state measure, while hope and well-being operating more like a trait measure. Future research could help clarify these results by using a longer-term intervention. As in previous studies, there were no gender differences, and unfortunately, like the previous studies, there were insufficient numbers to run the planned ethnicity analysis. The goal content analysis provided an interesting look into the goals of these college students, supporting their perceptions to make and pursue 1) short- and long term goals and aspirations (some goals could be fulfilled immediately, in hours or days into the future, others, years into the future. For example, the love relationship goal of being more kind to spouse versus the goal of marrying); 2) intrinsic and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 extrinsic goals (e.g., relationship goals versus financial goals); and 3) school- and relationship-focused goals were listed (as can be seen from Table 11). It was interesting to note the apparent salience to these students of both their school- and relationship-related goals (both for the immediate present and their future). For comparison, Astin (1998) found that 74% of freshmen students in the CIRP annual, national survey rated “being very well-off financially” as their number one valued goal and their reason for attending college being “to make more money” (75%) and these have continued to the present (2004). While relationship goals are in the rankings, its importance falls below that of being very financially well-off. For those interested readers, Astin and his colleagues have been gathering data on freshman students for over 30 years (Astin, 1998). Although, across all participants, the Control group listed many more goals, given it was their first assessment to complete, it was interesting to note the differences between the two groups in the rankings of their goal categories. More extrinsically related goal categories made it into the Control group’s top 10 ranked goals than into the Treatment group’s top 10: four extrinsically related goal categories of Financial, Occupation, Job, and Weight, whereas, the Treatment group had two: Financial and Occupation and these were further down the list on the top 10 (See Table 12). While the quantitative results for this study, were not the hypothesized results, they do add to the literature by showing that the Treatment group’s goals, significantly more so than the Control group’s goals, took them more towards Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. intrinsic than extrinsic futures. Additionally, the goal content analysis, revealed the content of goals college students may be pursuing and seemed to suggest that the intervention may have effected the goals listed by the Treatment group since six of their top 10 ranked goal categories were intrinsically related (whereas the Control group’s top 10 only involved four). The Treatment group seems to have been affected by the intervention, given these two measures pointing towards intrinsic goals, and given the more extrinsic orientation of both this study’s Control group and the general population of college students (see Astin, 1998). One other comparison is available, although, the age range was wider (ages 17-82) for their 108 study participants, Sheldon and Kasser (2001a) found the content of their participants’ goals included themes on career achievement, physical health and appearance, finances, self-regulation of emotions, interpersonal influence, and Erikson’s theory components of identity, intimacy, generativity, and ego-integrity, with more identity goals for their college cohort than their older adults. Overall, the results for this study suggest that different, perhaps longer-term, interventions may be necessary in tying values with goals. Perhaps there wasn’t enough time for information processing, of getting values into long-term memory or processed such that goals were tied to these explicit values. Also, a longer-term intervention may be necessary to provide time for goals to be pursued and achieved; to which research points that hope and well-being may be increased. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Limitations and Future Research Although, by conducting preliminary analyses, some confounds, including mode of solicitation, time, and various demographic variables and potential differences between completers and drop-outs were addressed, there were several limitations. First, the study used a relatively, small and convenient sample from a single geographical location. Future research, using a similar online survey methodology, could provide the intervention to several locations and with larger sample sizes. Second, the study covered a short-time period. If completed in one sitting, there may not have been enough time for learning (information processing) to take place regarding one’s personal values and strengths. A longer-term study (e.g., a semester-long course) could assist participants in knowing more about themselves. Since it was recommended to the participants to post their values, strengths, and goals in a prominent place to be viewed daily, future research could add a follow-up assessment of Hope, Aggregate Well-being, and some goal measures ascertaining pursuit towards and achievement of listed goals as function of awareness of values (e.g., location and time of posting values). Third, there was a large drop-out rate (83%), and of the 86 completers, 15 mentioned in the comments that the study was “too long.” The length of time to complete could have been the reason for the decrease in participation, as well as having repeated measures of Hope and Aggregate Well-being and of having many goal measures with numerous, and perhaps tedious ratings. Also, the lack of an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 external incentive could have reduced motivation to participate, although an external incentive could have unknown influences on participant scores. Fourth, participants were not told the full reason for the study as this could have swayed their responses, however, a debriefing statement stated they could mark whether they wanted their responses deleted from the study, and no one requested his or her responses deleted. Fifth, although over 4,000 emails were sent out, there were many reasons for the modest response rate: perhaps the email was not received; or perhaps they had graduated or were no longer at the university; or maybe their mailbox was full (so the email was not received). Given such limited space on their University email accounts, students could be inactive at this email account; or perhaps the email was refused because it came from an unknown sender. In addition, perhaps the subject matter was not of interest, or the receiver did not have the time, or perhaps the email was put aside and then it became time for finals so it was discarded. Sixth, although 522 started the intervention, only 86 completed it. Students may have stopped out for several reasons, including some of those given previously. Perhaps the participant wished to only answer portions of interest to them; or perhaps the participant could not get the same computer at the computer lab if their timed session ended before completing the intervention; or perhaps, as stated by Schonlau, Fricker, and Elliott (2001), the participants had relatively short attention spans and tended to browse the intervention much as they would browse any other Web site. Research shows that internet or web-based interventions do provide participants with Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 an easier out than face-to-face or phone contact and that response rates for online surveys are lower than comparable mail or telephone surveys (Kraut, et al., 2004). The email and in-class solicitations, although it did not provide a large response rate, did provide information from a more generalizable pool of university students than a study using only psychology undergraduate students. Subject recruitment via the internet does provide for psychology to enlarge its research base. Although Web- based interventions are fairly new, research is showing that findings from such research samples are consistent with findings using traditional methods (Gosling, et al., 2004). Seventh, possible ceiling effects on the Hope and Aggregate Well-being scores may have limited the findings. However, in looking at the scores, although a few participants started out with high scores (e.g., 9 of 86 completers scored 60-64, where 64 was the maximum score possible on the Hope pretest), ceiling effects do not appear to be the case in this study. Also, there appears to have been a large variance (scores vary a lot; high standard deviation) in the Aggregate Well-being score. Lastly, all measures involved a self-report methodology. Future research, when consisting of a longer-term intervention, could assess peer reports of participants’ hope and well-being and/or document behavioral acts that are congruent with generated goals. As can be seen, the limitations to this study, although numerous, are not impossible to overcome in future research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 While several suggestions were made for a longer-term intervention, it is not necessarily more time in itself, it is more engagement with and thus, more depth of processing of the information gained about values and strengths that seems to be the factor that would most enhance beneficial outcomes. In making future research better, although a university course would mean that the groups were self-selected by signing up for the course rather than randomly selected, this study may have faired better as a semester-long course. A university course may be seen as a more legitimate intervention than receiving an unsolicited email invitation to participate. An optimal course is where the treatment group is given assignments to more deeply process their values and strengths against a waitlist control group who would be participants in the following semester, but who would take some of the pretest/posttest measures at the same time as the treatment group (or following Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, and Share (2002), the control participants could complete unrelated assignments). Assignments could include readings portraying values or strengths followed by discussion or essay questions where the participant elaborated on the value or strength portrayed or were given assignments to assert their value or use their strength and then write about that experience. For example, to practice their value of Loving - to give love to others - participants would identify that value in some specific case illustrations and write about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and those of the recipient(s) in personal journals. Questions to be addressed include, “How did asserting the value of Loving affect me?” “What was the effect of giving love in the case illustration?” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 Another facet of this semester-long course could be the addition of other self- knowledge assessments of learning style, interests, motivation strategies, time management, and problem-solving methods (e.g., overcoming self-defeating behaviors such as procrastination or fear). Self-knowledge assignments including the writing of a life history from the perspective of retirement could also be made to foster personal involvement and engagement. While this study solicited all grade levels and most majors of college students, perhaps within this age group, there are factors that would make this class more developmentally interesting and valuable for some students than others. For example, a senior may be asking himself or herself, “Who am I? What do I want to do with my life?” whereas, first-year students may be so excited about being away from parental influence and may highly value their independence and be inquiring about “What do I think and own versus what my parents believe?” at this time in their development. These different perspectives may need to be considered in curriculum design. This research was important. It focused on meaningful and positive content- identity- and self-development, intrinsic motivation, values, goal setting, well-being, and quality of life. While other factors may be part of one’s identity development (e.g., the time and place in human history, family of origin, childhood pleasures and traumas), the thought of helping people intentionally form aspects of their identities by the goals they pursue as a location for Positive Psychology intervention inspired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 the present investigation. Positive goal intervention development is a challenge to those who wish to help shape the practice of Positive Psychology. After the experience of and reflection on this study, a few conceptual challenges emerged such that the following quote from Henry David Thoreau seemed apropos, “If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.” Thoreau’s statement is relevant to the Positive Psychology movement. For example, it appears that Positive Psychology interventions, like the ones by Sheldon and colleagues and the one used in the current study may be preoccupied with Positive Psychology themes rather than basic psychological processes. From such a foundational psychological perspective, these Positive Psychology interventions appear to be based on a number of basic psychological processes related to cognitive psychology and learning including attention, priming, recall, retention, and memory. Also, philosophically based theories for consciousness/awareness, “freedom,” and the making of the implicit, explicit are relevant to the work of Sheldon and others related to Positive Psychology interventions although most researchers in the area of Positive Psychology do not focus on these learning processes or philosophical theories. After reflection on the results and theoretical framework, some critical questions about intervention development need to be addressed from psychological theory. What is the role of priming, attention, and learning in these interventions based on Positive Psychology content? For example, since there was no statistical Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 difference between the Treatment and Control group on the goal measures for importance and their reasons for goal pursuit, it appears that the intervention did not prime the Treatment group participants more so than the Control group participants to make more intrinsically pursued goals or goals of more salience to them. And while attention may have been drawn to their strengths and values, there may not have been time for the Treatment group participants to process the information in a meaningful way in order to have it affect goals listed and the goal measures. Lastly, while many participants learned of their strengths and values, again, there may not have been enough time for that learning to be processed and applied. Future research could also try to delineate the effects of priming from the more long-lasting effects of learning of one’s values and strengths and their effects on goals. Research suggests that individual’s have tremendous strength/ability to focus their thoughts and attention and to thus, change their thoughts, actions, and even the biochemistry of their brain (Schwartz & Begley, 2002) and this ability could be part of future research that consisted of a longer-term intervention. Additionally, many questions are suggested from psychological perspectives- How to help people learn positive and existential content? How much time is needed to learn personally relevant material? How involved were participants in completing the content of the study? What types of interventions are needed for personally meaningful material to go from short-term to long-term memory? For an example, in a follow-up study, participants’ recall of their values and strengths could be tested and their strategies used for retaining the information could be ascertained with a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 comparison between those who recalled and those who did not on their Hope and Aggregate Well-being scores. The Self-Concordance theory is a high-level, complex theory, yet it appears that there may be simpler, more parsimonious explanations of the results seen in the Sheldon and colleagues’ research program. Although Sheldon and colleagues have ruled out many confounds in their research, it appears that future research using this paradigm, might include a study to delineate their Self-Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving from more basic psychological theories of learning such as those based on attention (priming), learning, and information processing. Since this study was within the context of Positive Psychology and specifically, Sheldon’s Self- Concordance Model of Healthy Goal Striving, and these additional underlying processes and theories were not reviewed separately here, they could be explicitly reviewed in future research. It appears that these underlying theories may inform future interventions and that researchers might test differently. Conclusion In conclusion, the study returns to the context for this study of Positive Psychology - of working with peoples’ strengths rather than their pathology, - and specifically, to make a call for interventions that could help individuals to make and pursue more appropriate, more fulfilling and satisfying goals, and hopefully, increase their well-being. There is a need for this type of intervention. Should psychologists decline to apply research in this area in their teaching and practice, then it is likely that others, with less expertise, may do so. One caveat goes out to Positive Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Psychologists, and that is to tie the Positive Psychology themes to the basic psychological processes of learning and memory in creating interventions to be most helpful to clients. At this time Positive Psychology interventions do not appear to focus on psychological science, but seems primarily focused on its positive themes. For Positive Psychology to escape becoming a passing fad, it needs to get over this serious flaw by tying into the cognitive psychological processes. Like Lazarus (2003) did for Positive Psychology in his article, “Does the Positive Psychology Movement have Legs?,” where he strongly cautioned Positive Psychology not to forsake traditional “negative” psychology, this author wishes to caution Positive Psychology not to forsake traditional learning and cognitive psychology. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life span. Developmental Psychology. 37141. 491-501. Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001b). Goals, congruence, and positive well-being: New empirical support for humanistic theories. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 41flj. 30-50. Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., Smith, K., & Share, T. (2002). Personal goals and psychological growth: Testing an intervention to enhance goal attainment and personality integration. Journal of Personality. 70(TJ. 5-31. Sheldon, K. M., & King, L. (2001). Why positive psychology is necessary. American Psychologist. 56. 216-217. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2004). The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It’s both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 30141. 475-486. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., & Reis, H. (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day, and in the person. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2 2 .1270-1279. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 Sheldon, K. M., Schmuck, P., & Kasser, T. (2000). Is value-free science possible? American Psychologist. 5 5 .1152-1153. Sheldon, K. M., & Schmuck, P. (2001). Suggestions for healthy goal striving. In P. Schmuck & K. M. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals and well-being: Towards a positive psychology of human striving (pp. 216-230). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber. Shorey, H. S., Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., Hockemeyer, J. R., & Feldman, D. B. (2002). Somewhere over the rainbow: Hope that weathers its first decade. Psychological Inquiry, 136 4 "). 322-331. Smith, D. C. (2003). Problem solving as an element of developmental well-being. In M. H. Bomstein, L. Davidson, et al. (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course: Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology (pp. 321-330). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Smith, J. (1999). Life planning: Anticipating future life goals and managing personal development. In J. Brandtstadter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self-development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 223-255). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Snyder, C. R. (1999, June). A psychological look at people who do not reach their goals: The low-hope blues. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Denver, CO. Snyder, C. R. (2000). The past and possible futures of hope. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 19. 11-28. Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry. 13(4), 249-275. Snyder, C. R., Feldman, D. B., Taylor, J. D., Schroeder, L. L., & Adams, V. (2000). The roles of hopeful thinking in preventing problems and enhancing strengths. Applied and Preventive Psychology: Current Scientific Perspectives. 15. 262- 295. Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C. & Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60141. 570-585. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (Eds.). (2002a). Handbook of positive psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. [with contributions from] Lisa Aspinwall, Barbara L. Fredrickson, Jon Haidt, Dacher Keltner, Christine Robitschek, Michael Wehmeyer, & Amy Wrzesniewski. (2002b). The future of positive psychology: A declaration of independence. In C. R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 751-767). New York: Oxford University Press. Snyder, C. R., & McCullough, M. E. (2000). A positive psychology field of dreams: "If you build it, they will come..." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 19. 151-160. Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., & Sigmon, D. R. (2002). Hope theory: A member of the positive psychology family. In C. R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 257-276). New York: Oxford University Press. Sommer, K. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The construction of meaning from life events: empirical studies of personal narratives. In P. T. P. Wong & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (pp. 143-161). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Steele, C. M. (1999). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 372-390). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Tangney, J. P. (2000). Humility: Theoretical perspectives, empirical findings and directions for future research. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 19. 70- 82. Tangney, J. P. (2002). Humility. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 411-419). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103. 193-210. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1994). Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact from fiction. Psychological Bulletin, 116. 21-27. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1999). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 43-66). Philadelphia: Psychology Press. Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Reed, G. M., Bower, J. E., & Gruenewald, T. L. (2000). Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health. American Psychologist. 55111, 99-109. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 Taylor, S. E., Pham, L. B., Rivkin, I. D., & Armor, D. A. (1998). Harnessing the imagination: Mental stimulation, self-regulation, and coping. American Psychologist. 53. 429-439. Tennen, H., Affleck, G., & Tennen, R. (2002). Clipped feathers: The theory and measurement of hope. Psychological Inquiry. 13(A), 311-317. Tice, D. M. (1999). Self-concept change and self-presentation: The looking glass self is also a magnifying glass. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 195-217). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Tubbs, M. E. (1986). Goal-setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology. 71131. 474-483. Watson, D. (2000). Mood and temperament: Emotions and social behavior. New York: Guilford. Watson, D. (2002). Positive affectivity: The disposition to experience pleasurable emotional states. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 106-119). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Watson, D., & Clark, L. (1999). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule - Expanded Form. Unpublished manuscript. Watson, D., Clark, L., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54. 1063-1070. Weinfurt, K. P. (2000). Repeated measures analyses: ANOYA, MANOVA, and HLM. In L. G. Grimm & P. R. Yamold (Eds.) Reading and Understanding More Multivariate Statistics (pp. 317-362). Washington, DC: APA. Wong, P. T. P. (1998). Implicit theories of meaningful life and the development of the personal meaning profile. In P. T. P. Wong & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (pp. 111-140). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates. Wong, P. T. P., & Fry, P. S. (1998). Introduction. In P. T. P. Wong & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (p. xvii-xxvi). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Schulz, R. (2003). The importance of goal disengagement in adaptive self-regulation: When giving up is beneficial. Self and Identity, 2(1). 1-20. Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: Peoples’ relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31,21-33. Wrzesniewski, A., Rozin, P., & Bennett, G. (2003). Working, playing, and eating: Making the most of most moments. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 185-204). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Wurf, E., & Markus, H. (1991). Possible selves and the psychology of personal growth. Perspectives in Personality. 3(A). 39-62. Zaff, J. F., & Hair, E. C. (2003). Positive development of the self: Self-concept, self esteem, and identity. In M. H. Bornstein, L. Davidson, et al. (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course: Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology (pp. 235-252). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zaff, J. F., Smith, D. C., Rogers, M. F., Leavitt, C. H., Halle, T. G., & Bornstein, M. H. (2003). Holistic well-being and the developing child. In M. H. Bornstein, L. Davidson, et al. (Eds.), Well-being: Positive development across the life course: Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology (pp. 23-32). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-regulation involves more than metacognition: A social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychologist. 30(41. 217-221. Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2315L 581-599. Zirkel, S., & Cantor, N. (1990). Personal construal of life tasks: Those who struggle for independence. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 58.172-185. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 APPENDIX A: STRENGTHS TO CHANGE VIA POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY INTERVENTIONS ■ Increasing Positive Emotions/Elevation (Fredrickson, 1998, 2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2002; Haidt, 2000, 2003; Watson, 2002) ■ Increasing Flow (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002, 2003) ■ Raising Optimism (Carver & Scheier, 2002; Peterson, 2000; Peterson & Steen, 2002; Schneider, 2001; Seligman & Peterson, 2003; Tennen, Affleck, & Tennen, 2002) ■ Raising Hope (Lopez, Floyd, Ulven, & Snyder, 2000; Klausner, Snyder, & Cheavens, 2000; McCullough, 2002; McDermott & Snyder, 2000; Shorey, Snyder, Rand, Hockemeyer, & Feldman, 2002; Snyder, 1999, 2000, 2002; Snyder, Feldman, Taylor, Schroeder, & Adams, 2000; Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002; Tennen, Affleck, & Tennen, 2002) ■ Increasing Forgiveness (McCullough, 2000; McCullough & Witvliet, 2002) ■ Increasing Gratitude (Emmons & Crumpler, 2000; Emmons & Shelton, 2002; McCullough, 2002) ■ Increasing Humility (Tangney, 2000, 2002) ■ Increasing Resiliency (Masten & Reed, 2002) ■ Increasing Wisdom (Baltes & Freund, 2003; Baltes, Glueck, & Kunzmann, 2002; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Kramer, 2000) ■ Providing Love (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2002; Levin, 2000) ■ Increasing Spiritual Beliefs (George, Larson, Koenig, & McCullough, 2000) ■ Increase the Sense of a Calling (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997; Wrzesniewski, Rozin, & Bennett, 2003) ■ Overcoming/Working-Out Childhood Issues (Savickas, 1997) ■ Increasing Free Fantasy/Mental Imagery (to increase goal commitment and action) (Oettingen, 1996, 1999, 2000; Oettingen, Schnetter, & Pak, 2001; Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998; Ruvolo & Markus, 1992) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 ■ Increasing Self-Esteem/Self-Worth (by increasing action and success) (Baumeister, 1997; Campbell, 1999; Hewitt, 2002; Zaff & Hair, 2003) ■ Increase the Sense of Purpose/Meaning (Baumeister & Vohs, 2002, 2003; Christiansen, 1999; Debats, 1998; Emmons, 2003; Emmons, Colby, & Kaiser, 1998; Josephs, Valsiner, & Surgan, 1999; Little, 1998; Maddi, 1998; McGregor & Little, 1998, Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003; Reker, Peacock, & Wong, 1987; Robak & Griffin, 2000; Ryff & Singer, 1998b; Sommer & Baumeister, 1998; Wong, 1998; Wong & Fry, 1998) ■ Working to increase one’s sense of identity (Baumeister, 1997, 1999; Brandtstadter, Wentura, & Rothermund, 1999; Christiansen, 2000; Gollwitzer, 1986a, 1986b; Gollwitzer, Bayer, Scherer, & Seifert, 1999; Gollwitzer & Kirchhof, 1998; Markus & Nurius, 1986a, 1986b; Markus & Ruvolo, 1989; Oyserman, 2001; Ross & Buehler, 2001; Schlenker & Weigold, 1989; Sedikides & Gaertner, 2001; Sedikides & Strube, 1997; Zaff & Hair, 2003) ■ Working to increase one’s sense of self (Baumeister 1987, 1997, 1999; Baumeister & Vohs, 2003; Campbell, 1999; Emmons & Kaiser, 1996; Higgins, 1999; Hooker, 1999; Hoskins & Lesoho, 1996; James, 1999; Jones & Beglas, 1999; Kanagawa, Cross, Markus, 2001; Keough & Markus, 1998; Keyes & Ryff, 2000; King, 1998; Markus & Kitayama, 1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986a, 1986b, 1989; Mascola, Fischer, &Neimeyer, 1999; McGregor & Little, 1998; Oyserman, 2001; Savickas, 1997; Schlenker & Weigold, 1989; Sedikides & Gaertner, 2001; Sedikides & Strube, 1997; Steele, 1999; Tice, 1999; Zaff & Hair, 2003) ■ Increasing Self-Regulation/Self-Control (Aspinwall, 2001; Baumeister, 1996; Baumeister & Exline, 2000; Baumeister & Vohs, 2003; Campbell, 1999; Cervone & Rafaeli-Mor, 1999; Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1999; Hewitt, 2002; Higgins, 1996; Higgins, Grant, & Shah, 1999; Higgins & Silberman, 1998; Higgins, Tykocinski, & Vookles, 1990; Oettingen, 2000; Oettingen, Schnetter, & Pak, 2001; Sansone & Harackiewicz, 1996; Sansone & Smith, 2000; Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998; Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003; Zimmerman, B. 1995) ■ Increasing Approach Goals (more so than avoidance goals) (Emmons, 2003; Emmons & Kaiser, 1996) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 ■ Increasing Psychological and/or Subjective Well-Being (Bridges, 2003a, 2003b; Brunstein, 1993; Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Maier, 1999; Christiansen, 2000; Diener, 2000; Diener & Fujita, 1995; Diener, Lucas, & Oishi, 2002; Diener & Suh, 1997; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Keough & Markus, 1998; McGregor & Little, 1998; Ruehlman & Wolchik, 1988; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 1998a, 1998b, 2000, 2002; Salmela-Aro, Pennanen, & Nurmi, 2001; Schmuck & Sheldon, 2001a, 2001b; Sheldon, & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001; Sheldon & Kasser, 2001a, 2001b; Smith, D. C., 2003; Taylor & Brown, 1988, 1994, 1999; Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower, & Gruenewald, 2000; Zaff, Smith, Rogers, Leavitt, Halle, & Bornstein, 2003) ■ Increasing Intrinsic Goals (more so than extrinsic goals) (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999) ■ Increasing Personal/Identity Goals and Goal-Setting (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001; Brandtstadter & Rothermund, 1994; Brandtstadter, Rothermund, & Schmitz, 1998; Brunstein, 1993; Brunstein & Gollwitzer, 1996; Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Maier, 1999; Cantor, 1990; Cantor & Blanton, 1996; Cantor & Fleeson, 1994; Cantor & Harlow, 1994; Cantor, Norem, Langston, Zirkel, Fleeson, & Cook-Flannagan, 1991; Cantor, Norem, Neidenthal, Langston, & Brower, 1987; Christiansen, Little, & Backman, 1998; Cross & Markus, 1991; Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1999; Deci & Ryan, 2000a; Dweck, 1996; Elliot & Sheldon, 1996; Emmons, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1997; Emmons, Colby, & Kaiser, 1998; Emmons & Kaiser, 1996; Gollwitzer, 1986a, 1986b; Gollwitzer, Bayer, Scherer, & Seifert, 1999; Gollwitzer & Brandtstadter, 1997; Gollwitzer & Kirchhof, 1998; Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998; Harlow & Cantor, 1994, 1996; Heatherton & Nichols, 1994; Heckhausen & Kuhl, 1985; Karoly, 1999; Kasser & Ryan, 1996, 2001; King, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001; King, Richards, & Stemmerich, 1998; Klausner, Snyder, & Cheavens 2000; Kruglanski, 1996; Little, 1989,1998,1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986a, 1986b; Markus & Ruvolo, 1989; McGregor & Little, 1998; Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2001, 2002; Oettingen, Schnetter, & Pak, 2001; Pohlmann, 2001; Ruehlman & Wolchik, 1988; Ruvolo & Markus, 1992; Salmela-Aro, Pennanen, & Nurmi, 2001; Sanderson & Cantor, 1999; Schlenker & Weigold, 1989; Schmuck & Sheldon, 2001a & 2001b; Sheldon, 2001,2002; Sheldon, Arndt, & Houser- Marko, 2003; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Emmons, 1995; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995, 1998, 2001; Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, & Share, 2002; Sheldon & Schmuck, 2001; Smith, J., 1999; Snyder, 1999; Tubbs, 1986; Wurf & Markus, 1991; Zirkel & Cantor, 1990) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 APPENDIX B: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE XXX Students - Learn your Strengths, Values, & Goals on-line Dear XXX Student, A Positive Psychology Goal Intervention Find out about your personal strengths, your personal values, and your goals by voluntarily participating in this goal intervention/research study being provided by Gerald Stone, Ph.D., Principal Investigator and Valerie Aylett, Co-Investigator of the University of Southern California. Don't wait! Your participation is private, confidential, and anonymous. Visit and/or participate in this study by going to this website: http://www.survevmonkev.com/s.asp?u: =40238447519 For more information contact: Valerie Aylett at daytime phone number 805/985-0742 or via email at avlett@usc.edu. This Goal Study Participant Recruitment message has been reviewed and approved by the University Park Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California. If you wish to view a copy of the stamped approved version, please contact the principal investigators of this study. Thank you for your participation! Enjoy! Valerie Aylett Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 APPENDIX C: THE ON-LINE INSTRUMENT Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » University of Southern California Rossier School of Education INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH This Information Sheet has been reviewed and approved by the University Park Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California. If you wish to view a copy of the stamped approved version, please contact the principal investigators of this study. A Positive Psychology Goal Intervention You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Gerald Stone, Ph.D. and Valerie Aylett, Ms.Ed. from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. The results of this study will contribute to Valerie Aylett’s dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a college student. A total of 175 subjects will be selected from the college student group to participate. Your participation is voluntary. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn more about goal setting. Completion and return of the questionnaire or response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project. PROCEDURES You will be asked to complete questionnaires regarding your personal goals (227 questions), personal strengths (245 questions), personal values (83 questions), well-being measures (74 questions), and demographic questions (6 questions), which will take approximately 90 minutes to 120 minutes to complete in the computer lab or at your personal computer. Types of questions asked include: “I am satisfied with my life.” “I can think of many ways to get out of a jam.” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS There are no potential risks or discomforts. POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY There are no direct benefits to you for participating in this study. Potential benefits include gaining self-knowledge of your personal values, personal strengths, and personal goals. Potential benefits to science or society may include a new protocol for setting goals. PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION You will not be paid for participating in this research study. CONFIDENTIALITY Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The research data/information will be stored on a password-protected computer to which only the Co-Investigator, Valerie Aylett, has access. Data will be kept for two (2) years and then destroyed. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity. PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so. IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Principal Investigator, Faculty Sponsor: Gerald Stone at daytime phone number 949/481-0746 or at RSOE Adjunct Office, 10th Floor, Waite Phillips Hall, USC. RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Building, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu. 1 .1 understand that I will not be paid for participating in this study. Yes. 2 .1 understand that the information I give in this study is voluntary, private, confidential, and anonymous (that nothing will be able to identify me). Yes. N ext» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 2. Introduction In this goal intervention, you will learn of your personal values, signature strengths, and your personal goals. We prefer you answer the material in the order presented. If you should click on the "Next" button before completing the questions and then later wish to return to an earlier section (which we hope you will do), you'll need to use the "Previous" button to return. It is preferable to complete the intervention in a one-time sitting; this takes 90 to 120 minutes. If you'd like to leave the intervention to take a break, just click "Exit this survey". Your answers will be saved and you may return to complete the intervention (from the same computer) at a later time. For this intervention to have the most benefit to you, you should print out three pages and post them where you'll see them everyday. These three pages are a) your Top 5 Signature Strengths, b) your Most Important to Me Values, and c) your list of 10 Goals/Strivings. Instructions for printing those pages are available on their page of the intervention. Please print at that time (before going on in the survey) as there is no "Back" button. Thank you for your participation! Enjoy! 3. To ensure your privacy and anonymity, please put in an identification code made up of your initials and last four (4) digits of your student identification number. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 4. Below are five statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree scale, indicate your agreement with each item by checking the appropriate button. Please be open and honest in your responding. Neither Strongly Djsaa Slightly Agree Slightly . Strongly Disagree 9 Disagree nor Agree 9 Agree Disagree 1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 2. The conditions of my life are excellent. 3 .1 am satisfied with my life. 4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. %s# « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 5. This scale consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions. Read each item and then mark the appropriate answer for that word. Indicate to what extent you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment. Very or^Nof A L'ttle Moderately 3 Extremely At All Interested .yf Distressed j y y J Excited j f J y y y Upset J J ..J y Strong y ■ J y j y Guilty ' J J J J y Scared Hostile y -J a wP Enthusiastic y J ,J ! S J y Proud y y . j y Irritable < J J -J Alert J! J! ,J J Ashamed y J . ^ J -J Inspired J J y J Nervous .J ' J ,J J i Determined ^ J J y J Attentive ' y , j ,j. Jittery y y y y ys Active J J a J Afraid y . j y y Measure from Watson, Clark, & Tellegen (1988). Copyright 1988 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 6. Goals Scale Read each item (1-12) carefully. Using the scale shown below, please select the one that best describes YOU for each item. Definitely False 1 .1 can think of many ways to get out of a jam. 2 .1 energetically pursue my goals. 3. I feel tired most of the time. 4. There are lots of ways around any problem. 5 .1 am easily downed in an argument. 6. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me. Mostly False Somewhat False Slightly False Slightly True Somewhat True Mostly True Definitely True Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 .1 worry about my health. 8. Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem. 9. My past experiences have prepared me well for my future. 10. I've been pretty successful in life. 11.1 usually find myself worrying about something. 12. I meet the goals that I set for myself. « Prev Next» 107 / Goal Intervention Study 7. Background Questions 7. What is your age? 8. What is your gender? Female J Male 9. What is your ethnic background? (Please check one.) Black Asian Hispanic , J Caucasian/White J i Amerindian Jf Other (please specify) « Prev Next» Exit this survey » Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 Goal Intervention Study 10. What is your estimate of your parents' income? 11. What was your cumulative High School GPA? 12. What is yourJHllniversity level? 13. What is y o u r f | | m a j o r ? 14. What is your current J H g p a? « Prev Next» Exit this survey » Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 8. Personal Values Worksheet You are to complete the Personal-Values-Card-Sort where you will be given a list of 83 personal values to sort into three (3) categories: Very Important to Me, Important to Me, and Not Important to Me. Be as honest as you can. There are no right or wrong answers. Trust your first response. When you have finished sorting the 83 values, then enter your "Very Important to Me" values in the spaces provided below so that you may have a concise list of your Most Important Personal Values. 12. Comfort - to have a pleasant and comfortable life. Important to lmP°rtant to important to Me Me Me 1. Acceptance - to be accepted as I ^ am. 2. Accuracy - to be accurate in my opinions and beliefs. 3. Achievement - to have important achievements. 4. Adventure - to have new and exciting experiences. 5. Attractiveness - to be physically j attractive. 6. Authority - to be in charge of and responsible for others. 7. Autonomy - to be self-determined and independent. 8. Beauty - to appreciate beauty j j around me. 9. Caring - to take care of others. j 10. Challenge - to take on difficult § j tasks and problems. ^ ^ 11. Change-to have a life full of js j change and variety. •mf a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13. Commitment - to make enduring, meaningful commitments. 14. Compassion - to feel and act on jp concern for others. 15. Contribution-to make a lasting ^ contribution in the world. 16. Cooperation - to work j j collaboratively with others. 17. Courtesy-to be considerate and j j ... , , ,, polite toward others. 18. Creativity - to have new and * j ......................................................................................................... 8 a# original ideas. 19. Dependability - to be reliable and . jp trustworthy. 20. Duty - to carry out my duties and yp j obligations. 21. Ecology - to live in harmony with ...ji the environment. 22. Excitement - to have a life full of ^ j thrills and stimulation. 23. Faithfulness - to be loyal and true in relationships. 24. Fame - to be known and j j . recognized. 25. Family - to have a happy, loving ^ ^ family. 26. Fitness - to be physically fit and * j strong. 27. Flexibility - to adjust to new j circumstances easily. 28. Forgiveness - to be forgiving of j others. 29. Friendship - to have close, js supportive friends. 30. Fun - to play and have fun. 31. Generosity - to give what I have to others. 32. Genuineness - to act in a manner that is true to who I am. 33. God's Will - to seek and obey the will of God. m i m i 'm i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34. Growth - to keep changing and growing. 35. Health - to be physically well and a healthy. 36. Helplfulness - to be helpful to others. 37. Honesty - to be honest and j truthful. 38. Hope - to maintain a positive and ^ optimistic outlook. 39. Humility - to be modest and j unassuming. 40. Humor - to see the humorous side of myself and the world. 41. Independence - to be free from dependence on others. 42. Industry - to work hard and well at my life tasks. 43. Inner Peace - to experience personal peace. 44. Intimacy - to share my innermost experiences with others. 45. Justice - to promote fair and equal treatment for all. 46. Knowledge - to learn and ^ contribute valuable knowledge. 47. Leisure - to take time to relax and ^ enjoy. 48. Loved - to be loved by those close to me. 49. Loving - to give love to others. 50. Mastery - to be competent in my ^ everyday experience. 51. Mindfulness - to live conscious and mindful of the present moment. 52. Moderation - to avoid excesses ^ jp and find a middle ground. 53. Monogamy - to have one close, loving relationship. 54. Non-Conformity - to question and j challenge authority and norms. ^ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55. Nurturance - to take care of and ^ nurture others. 56. Openness - to be open to new experiences, ideas, and options. 57. Order - to have a life that is well- ^ ordered and organized. 58. Passion - to have deep feelings about ideas, activities, or people. 59. Pleasure - to feel good. ^ 60. Popularity - to be well-liked by ^ many people. 61. Power - to have control over others. 62. Purpose - to have meaning and j direction in my life. 63. Rationality - to be guided by ^ reason and logic. 64. Realism - to see and act realistically and practically. 65. Responsibility - to make and carry ^ j j out responsible decisions. 66. Risk - to take risks and chances. 67. Romance - to have intense, j j ... . . ... exciting love in my life. 68. Safety - to be safe and secure. 69. Self-Acceptance - to accept myself as I am. 70. Self-Control - to be disciplined in ^ my own actions. 71. Self-Esteem - to feel good about j j myself. 72. Self-Knowledge - to have a deep and honest understanding of myself. 73. Service - to be of service to others. 74. Sexuality - to have an active and satisfying sex life. 75. Simplicity - to live life simply, with minimal needs. m J' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 76. Solitude - to have time and space where I can be apart from others. 77. Spirituality - to grow and mature spiritually. 78. Stability - to have a life that stays fairly consistent. 79. Tolerance - to accept and respect those who differ from me. 80. Tradition - to follow respected patterns of the past. 81. Virtue - to live a morally pure and excellent life. 82. Wealth - to have plenty of money 83. World Peace - to work to promote peace in the world. 16. Here is your chance to add personal values that may not have been part of the list. We'll assume these are Very Important to You. ^J Other (please specify) 17. Please list your Very-lmportant-to-Me Values from the Personal-Values Card-Sort here: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 More: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 To print out this page of your Most Important to Me Personal Values, use the "Print" button of your browser. Remember: for this intervention to be most helpful, you should print out your Top 5 Signature Strengths, your Most Important to Me Values (here), and your Top 10 Goals/Strivings and post them where you'll see them daily. « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 9. Strengths Survey You are to complete the VIA Signature Strengths Survey by visiting the website: http://www.positivepsychology.org/strengths 1) Please copy the above link and place it into your Browser's address to go to the website. 2) The Signature Strengths survey takes about 30 to 40 minutes and must be completed in one administration/sitting. 3) Once you have completed the Strengths Survey, please print out your results there (instructions are provided at their website). 4) When you have completed that survey and printed out your results, then click on the "Back" button to return to this survey. 5) Please list your top five (5) Signature Strengths, which you will receive from that site, in the place here for them. Thank you. 18. Please list your top five Signature Strengths from the Strengths Survey here: « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 10. Instructions for Goals/Strivings List 19. Generate a list of the current goals, strivings, aspirations, things you are working towards or plan to work towards. Then select your top 10 and write them in the appropriate blanks below. Afterwards, we will ask you more specific questions about these various goals/strivings that you report. 20. My Personal Goals/Strivings List 1. My goal is | 2. My goal is j 3. My goal is 4. My goal is | 5. My goal is I 6. My goal is j 7. My goal is 8. My goal is j 9. My goal is ! 10. My goal is | This is the third and final page for you to print out and post in a place where you'll see it daily. To print out this page of your Most Important Personal Goals/Strivings, use the "Print" button of your browser. It's very helpful with the next set of questions to have a list of your 10 goals at your side to refer to. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21. Importance Ratings Please rate each of your self-generated goals listed above as to its IMPORTANCE to you on a scale from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). Not at all Very Important Important Str'V in 9 1 J ^ ^ ^ Striving 2 J j ) Striving 3 j ^ . J | J Striving 4 J ) Striving 5 Striving 6 , J j J J Striving 7 J <J Striving 8 ^ s j Striving 9 ^ J J J ) Striving 10 J .J J j J « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 11. Reasons for Strivings Past research suggests that people may be motivated to do something for many different reasons. In this task, we would like you to rate each of your strivings in terms of each of the following four reasons, using the provided scale: 22. REASON I. You strive for this goal because somebody else wants you to, or because the situation seems to compel it. Stated differently, you probably wouldn't have this goal if you didn't get some kind of reward, praise, or approval for it, or if you didn't avoid something negative by pursuing it. For example, you might try to "go to church more regularly" because your parents would criticize you if you didn't. NOW: Please use the scale below to rate each of your 10 strivings on this reason, making sure to rate them in the same order that you wrote them before. Not at vnm nu/nar Completely because of this reason all because of this reason Somewhat because of this reason Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 -"j kJ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 23. REASON II. You strive for this goal because you would feel ashamed, guilty, or anxious if you didn't. Rather than having this goal because someone else thinks you ought to, you feel that you "ought" to strive for that something. For example, you might try to "go to church more regularly" because you would feel bad about yourself if you didn't. Not at all because of this reason Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 Somewhat because of this reason Completely because of this reason << Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 24. REASON III. You strive for this goal because you really believe that it's an important goal to have. Although this goal may once have been taught to you by others, now you endorse it freely and value it wholeheartedly. For example, you might try to "go to church more regularly" because you genuinely feel this is the right thing to do. Not at all because of this reason Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 Somewhat because of this reason Completely because of this reason « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 25. REASON IV- You strive for this goal because of the enjoyment or stimulation which that goal provides you. While there may be many good reasons for the goal, the primary "reason" is simply your interest in the experience itself. For example, you might try to "go to church more regularly" because the experience of being at church is inherently interesting and enjoyable to you. Not at all because of this reason Somewhat because of this reason Completely because of this reason Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 14. Striving/"Possible Futures" Linkages Below are descriptions of six "possible futures" which many people aspire to attain down the road. Please consider how success at each striving might affect each "possible future". Would success tend to take you closer to that future, further from it, or is it unrelated? For example, successfully completing the goal "lose 15 pounds" would probably have a strong relationship to being attractive in the future, but successfully "helping my roommate feel better about herself' would probably not help bring about the "physical attractiveness" possible future. 26. Possible Future I: Physical appearance: Looking good and being attractive to others. Very Somewhat M t Somewhat Very Harmful Harmful ° tTTeci Helpful Helpful Striving 1 j Striving 2 .J> J J Striving 3 ^ J Striving 4 J ,J Striving 5 .<J J i Striving 6 j y f . J Striving 7 J , J J J Striving 8 J ^ J J , Striving 9 striv'ng10 ' J J « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 27. Possible Future II. Self acceptance/Personal growth: Being happy and having a very meaningful life. Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 Very Harmful Somewhat Harmful No Effect Somewhat Helpful Very Helpful 28. Possible Future III. Intimacy/friendship: Having many close and caring relationships with others. Very Somewhat w Fff . Somewhat Very Harmful Harmful N0 tneci Helpful Helpful Striving 1 ! S s J J ^ J j Striving 2 Striving 3 j i J i( tjJ j ^ Striving 4 J ^ ^ j Striving 5 J ^ ^ Striving 6 J ^ Striving 7 j J . strivin9 8 . J ^ . J , J Striving 9 s j ,j , j ^ Striving 10 J ' J J J J Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 29. Possible Future IV. Popularity/fame/recognition: Being known and/or admired by many people. Very Somewhat M Pffo , Somewhat Very Harmful Harmful Helpful Helpful Striving 1 , J . J ^ Striving 2 J ,J . J ■J . J Striving 3 J ,J ■ JP Jl Striving 4 : J Striving 5 ,<J yp J J Striving 6 y i , tJ y y Striving 7 . J J J . J . J Striving 8 . y . j yp J Striving 9 y ■ . y y | J y l Striving 10 * J 30. Possible Future V. Societal contribution: Working to help make the world a better place. Very Somewhat .. Pffo„. Somewhat Very Harmful Harmful 0 tITeci Helpful Helpful Striving 1 .J Striving 2 y J , J y .Striving 3 ,J ,J J y Striving 4 j y y j Striving 5 . y j J y y Striving 6 jp y J . J J Striving 7 . J y J t . J ,J Striving 8 J J , j Striving 9 , J y y J y Striving 10 J y i J J Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 31. Possible Future VI. Financial success: Having a job that pays very well and having a lot of nice possessions. Very Somewhat Striving 1 Striving 2 Striving 3 Striving 4 Striving 5 Striving 6 Striving 7 Striving 8 Striving 9 Striving 10 Harmful Harmful No Effect Somewhat Helpful Very Helpful « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 18. The Aspirations Index Scale Aspirations Everyone has long-term Goals or Aspirations. These are the things that individuals hope to accomplish over the course of their lives. In this section, you will find a number of life goals, presented one at a time, and we ask you three questions about each goal, (a) How important is this goal to you? (b) How likely is it that you will attain this goal in your future? and (c) How much have you already achieved this goal thus far? Please use the following scale in answering each of the three questions about each life goal. 32. Life-goal: To be a very wealthy person. Not at .. . . . .. aU Moderately Very !^ o w . . % « # «*J -m J important is this to you? Ho^ . *,J < * £ - j likely is it that this will happen in your future? H o w ,, J J J ,J J a much have you already attained this goal? « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 33. Life-goal: To grow and learn new things. Not at all How y j y | Jp important is this to you? How .yp likely is it that this will happen in your future? How y j y much have you already attained this goal? Moderately Very 34. Life-goal: To have my name known by many people. Moderately Very H ovV , ■ J J ,J important is this to you? , H ™ . .. < J J a likely is it that this will happen in your future? H o w . J J , J J much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 35. Life-goal: To have good friends that I can count on. Moderately Very H ovv t -nj ^ a J important is this to you? likely is it ^ ^ ^ that this will happen in your future? How - J much have you already attained this goal? 36. Life-goal: To successfully hide the signs of aging Not at How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? all Moderately Very ■ J Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » Moderately 37. Life-goal: To work for the betterment of society. Not at all How ; J | important is this to you? How jp likely is it that this will happen in your future? How ^ much have you already attained this goal? Very 38. Life-goal: To be physically healthy. Not at all Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? • > * # Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 Moderately 39. Life-goal: To have many expensive possessions. Not at all How ^ ^ important is this to you? H o w <J J -Jt likely is it that this will happen in your future? How J j j • 'sss&r much have you already attained this goal? Very 40. Life-goal: At the end of my life, to be able to look back on my life as meaningful and complete. Not at | > ■ . , . all Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 41. Life-goal: To be admired by many people. Not at ail How _ji important is this to you? How ^ likely is it that this will happen in your future? Howu much have you already attained this goal? Moderately Very Moderately 42. Life-goal: To share my life with someone I love. Not at all H ovV , >J s j \ j important is this to you? . H ™ . .. -J - < J likely is it that this will happen in your future? How j | j much have you already attained this goal? Very Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 Moderately 43. Life-goal: To have people comment often about how attractive I look. Not at all How js ' ;j j .j important is this to you? How j s Jp likely is it that this will happen in your future? How ^ much have you already attained this goal? Very Moderately 44. Life-goal: To assist people who need it, asking nothing in return. Not at all H o w <J «J important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? HOW J . 3 . 4 , '-» m much have you already attained this goal? Very « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 45. Life-goal: To feel good about my level of physical fitness. Not at . , i all Moderately Very important ^ ^ j ■ « * $ is this to you? ISU i, J J J J J J that this will happen in your future? H ow u J J -J J - J much have you already attained this goal? 46. Life-goal: To be financially successful. Not at . aU Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 47. Life-goal: To choose what I do, instead of being pushed along by life. Not at . . - aH Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? 48. Life-goal: To be famous. Not at all How J . important is this to you? How -J> likely is it that this will happen in your future? Howh J J much have you already attained this goal? Moderately Very Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 49. Life-goal: To have committed, intimate relationships. Moderately n ™ t a iJ J -J important is this to you? How * J likely is it ’* that this will happen in your future? How J J J J much w have you already attained this goal? Very 50. Life-goal: To keep up with fashions in hair and clothing. Not at ,, , . - ail Moderately Very H0W, „ a J J J t important ^ is this to you? likely is it that this will happen in your future? j ^ h • J J have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 Moderately 51. Life-goal: To work to make the world a better place. Not at all How„ , a j important is this to you? How J i likely is it that this will happen in your future? How j . . | i . much have you already attained this goal? Very 52. Life-goal: To keep myself healthy and well. Not at all Moderately Very important j is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 53. Life-goal: To be rich. Not at all How important is this to you? How | likely is it m that this will happen in your future? How ^ much have you already attained this goal? Moderately Very 54. Life-goal: To know and accept who I really am. a* Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? all Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 Moderately Very % # 55. Life-goal: To have my name appear frequently in the media. Not at all H ow J j i important is this to you? How ,y§ yp i; j likely is it that this will happen In your future? How . j } ^ much have you already attained this goal? 56. Life-goal: To feel that there are people who really love me, and whom I love. Moderately Very . H 0 W . . -J J -yj ,J important is this to you? . k j «J -J* -J likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 57. Life-goal: To achieve the "look" I've been after. Moderately Very H ° w . j J *j: j a j important is this to you? [ j ™ . < J - J 1 J ■ ■ J -< J , J likely is it that this will happen in your future? H o w . much have you already attained this goal? Moderately 58. Life-goal: To help others improve their lives. Not at all How -ij important is this to you? H0W likely is it that this will happen in your future? How J much have you already attained this goal? Very Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 Moderately 59. Life-goal: To be relatively free from sickness. Not at all How J important is this to you? H O W ^ .Jjf i likely is it that this will happen in your future? Very How much have you already attained this goal? 60. Life-goal: To have enough money to buy everything I want. How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? Not at .. . . , all Moderately Very Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 61. Life-goal: To gain increasing insight into why I do the things I do. Moderately Very important ’ J J is this to you? . - « * J mi m3 k j likely is it that this will happen in your future? H °W U -J much have you already attained this goal? 62. Life-goal: To be admired by lots of different people. Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? ■ i i i # * « # Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V . - 142 63. Life-goal: To have deep enduring relationships Not at all Moderately Very How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? -J 64. Life-goal: To have an image that others find appealing. Moderately Very s j - J important is this to you? -J nJ likely is it that this will happen in your future? H ow u J J J J much have you already attained this goal? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 143 65. Life-goal: To help people in need. Not at all How jjf important is this to you? How 4 a j likely is it that this will happen in your future? How j much have you already attained this goal? Moderately Very 66. Life-goal: To have a physically healthy life style Not at How important is this to you? How likely is it that this will happen in your future? How much have you already attained this goal? all Moderately Very -J Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 67. Are there any goals/striving that you would like to add or change? Please do so here: « Prev N ext» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 68. Below are five statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree scale, indicate your agreement with each item by checking the appropriate button. Please be open and honest in your responding. Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree 1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 2. The conditions of my life are excellent. 3 .1 am satisfied with my life. 4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree « Prev N e xt» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 69. This scale consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions. Read each item and then mark the appropriate answer for that word. Indicate to what extent you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment. Very Slightly or A Little Moderately Quite a Bit Extremely Not At All Interested Distressed Excited Upset Strong Guilty Scared Hostile Enthusiastic Proud Irritable Alert Ashamed Inspired Nervous Determined Attentive Jittery Active Afraid Measure from Watson, Clark, & Tellegen (1988). Copyright 1988 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Goal intervention Study Exit this survey » 70. Goals Scale Read each item (1-12) carefully. Using the scale shown below, please select the one that best describes YOU for each item. 1 .1 can think of many ways to get out of a jam. 2 .1 energetically pursue my goals. 3 .1 feel tired most of the time. 4. There are lots of ways around any problem. 5. I am easily downed in an argument. 6 .1 can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me. 7. I worry about my health. 8. Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem. Definitely False Mostly False Somewhat Slightly False False Slightly Somewhat Mostly Definitely True True True True -J Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9. My past j experiences have prepared me well for my future. 10. I've been pretty j j - , . r , 'ts*r successful in life. 11.1 usually find j j l£ , , w myself worrying about something. 12 I meet the goals ^ ^ that I set for myself. « Prev N ext» 149 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 28. Debriefing 71. Thank you for participating in this goal intervention study. A final question: "What was the purpose of the study and what evidence did you use to come to your conclusion?" 72. Comments you'd like to make: Should you desire to pass this intervention on to another U s tu d e n t, a friend of yours, you may only do so with the Recruitment email attached. « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » If you should have any questions about this research, please email me at aylett@usc.edu with "Dissertation Question" in the subject header. Should you wish aggregated details about the results of this study, please send me an email with "Dissertation Results Requested" in the subject header. Realize that aggregated results will not be available for several months. If you should wish to speak to someone regarding yom^pecific values, strengths, goals, identity, please contact th e jp jfe tu d e n t Counseling Services by phone at___ Counseling Services office is located] L The Student Additionally, should VQtjDe seeking assistance with career or major decisions. th e fld C a re e r Center is locatec |and is available to you. With your Strengths and Personal Values material, you could add the Strong Interest Inventory and the COPS material, available there, to help you in selecting excellent career/major choices. Thank you for your participation! « Prev Next» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 Goal Intervention Study Exit this survey » 30. Debriefing Statement In order to ensure your honest and unbiased responses, the full title and full purpose of this study was kept from you until you had finished. The title given had been shortened to “A Positive Psychology Goal Intervention.” The full title is “A Positive Psychology Goal Intervention Using Strengths and Values to Enhance Goals and Increase Well-Being.” The purpose listed on the Information Sheet is “we are trying to learn more about goal setting.” The full purpose of the study is to ascertain if knowledge of personal strengths and values lead to the making of more intrinsic than extrinsic goals and if well-being is increased over the duration of the intervention. Given the explicitness of the true title and purpose, it was deemed “leading” to participants and their responding to the questions. This might have biased your responses and the information you found out about yourself. This way you responded more honestly. 73. Given this withholding of full disclosure, should you wish to have your data REMOVED from the study with no penalty, please check here and click on "DONE". J Please REMOVE my data from the research. You may KEEP my data (or no response to this question). « Prev Done » Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Aylett, Valerie Kim (author)

Core Title A Positive Psychology goal intervention using strengths and values to enhance goals and increase well -being

School Graduate School

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education - Counseling Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,psychology, personality

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Stone, Gerald (committee chair), Chung, Ruth H. (committee member), Willard, Dallas (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-563962

Unique identifier UC11335770

Identifier 3155376.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-563962 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3155376.pdf

Dmrecord 563962

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Aylett, Valerie Kim

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA