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A comparison of the perceptions of senior and junior enlisted Air Force personnel concerning deterrents to enrollment in and completion of adult education courses by junior personnel

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A comparison of the perceptions of senior and junior enlisted Air Force personnel concerning deterrents to enrollment in and completion of adult education courses by junior personnel

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A COMPARISON OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF SENIOR AND JUNIOR
ENLISTED AIR FORCE PERSONNEL CONCERNING DETERRENTS
TO ENROLLMENT IN AND COMPLETION OF ADULT
EDUCATION COURSES BY JUNIOR PERSONNEL
by
Matthew Kevin Cahlander
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2002
Copyright 2002 Matthew Kevin Cahlander
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UMI Number: 3073754
Copyright 2002 by
Cahlander, Matthew Kevin
All rights reserved.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
Matthew Kevin Cahlander
under the direction o fh is Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
o f Education in partialfulfillm ent o f the requirementsfor
the degree o f
D octor o f E d u c a t io n
September 12, 2001
Date
Deat
Dissertation Committee
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Matthew Kevin Cahlander William B Michael
ABSTRACT
A COMPARISON OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF SENIOR AND JUNIOR
ENLISTED AIR FORCE PERSONNEL CONCERNING DETERRENTS
TO ENROLLMENT IN AND COMPLETION OF ADULT
EDUCATION COURSES BY JUNIOR PERSONNEL
Background The Department of Defense provides a multitude of
educational opportunities to the enlisted force, and a significant amount of
research has indicated that voluntary education has a positive impact on
mission accomplishment. Participation and completion rates for enlisted
personnel fail to support the intentions of these individuals or the Air Force
organization.
Purposes. The purposes of this study were to (a) attempt to duplicate
factor constructs previously determined using the same self-report measuring
instrument administered to each of two samples comprising 1000 junior
enlisted personnel and 472 senior enlisted personnel so that to allow
appropriate comparisons between two sets of responses and (b) to examine
whether or not differences existed in perceptions towards deterrents to
participation in voluntary education programs between senior
noncommissioned officers and their subordinate junior noncommissioned
officers. A key assumption was that if differences in perceptions existed
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between the two groups regarding deterrents, this phenomenon in itself
would represent a potential deterrent.
Selected findings. (1) For both samples rotated factor solutions of
intercorrelations of scores on 34 items of the measuring instrument yielded
six common dimensions identified as constructs portraying (a) Lack of
Course Perceived as Appropriate, Useful, or Interesting (Factor A), (b) Time
and Scheduling Conflicts (Factor B), (c) Lack of Interest, Enjoyment, or
Commitment to Studying (Factor C), (d) Lack of Financial Resources (Factor
D), (e) Lack of Confidence in One’s Ability (Factor E), and (f) Interference of
Family Responsibilities (Factor F). These six factors represented what were
interpreted as the major deterrents preventing students from enrolling in adult
learning offerings. (2) For almost every item, the senior enlisted personnel
gave responses regarding what they perceived the responses of the junior
enlisted personnel would be regarding the level of importance of given stated
deterrents in enrolling in formalized educational offerings that were judged to
be at a higher level of intensity (more negative) than were the responses
representing the actual perceptions of the junior enlisted personnel
themselves.
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my sister Kerri and
father John. My fond memories of them are a constant reminder of how
meaningful and everlasting our lives can be when we treat others with
kindness and consideration.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people who are very important to me who provided
either moral or substantive support in this endeavor. The love, patience, and
understanding of my wife Liz and my son Jon made this experience very
enjoyable. They have faithfully supported me during these past years, while I
have worked towards the completion of this project.
I thank my mother Naomi for always believing in me and supporting
me through thick and thin. Also, to my brother Kent, his wife Cheryl, and my
niece Kelley, I want to thank you for being there for mother while my career
took, Liz, Jon and 1 to the four corners of the earth.
I am very privileged to have been under the tutelage of Dr. Bill
Michael, my dissertation committee chair, who is probably one of the most
brilliant, kind, and patient human beings I know. I remain in awe of his
abilities as a professor and his enormous capacity to provide so many
students with the necessary guidance to complete their dissertations.
During my tenure as a student in the Hawaii Cohort, I had the
opportunity to be influenced by the faculty from one of the top schools of
education in the nation. Many thanks to Dean Gib Hentschke who gave me
the first glimmer of hope early in the program that I just might be able to find
a topic that would help motivate me through the process. Also, for both he
and Dr. Dennis Hocevar, thanks for taking the time to sit on my dissertation
committee. In addition, I owe my gratitude to Dr. Bill Tierney, who epitomizes
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the meaning of academic discipline, and who took the time to listen and help
guide me towards my dissertation question. Many thanks to Dr. Melora
Sundt who provided an outstanding support system as the Dean of Student
Services and to Dr. Robert Rueda who graciously opened his home and
shared his wonderful family with us during our summer residency.
There are many key people in the Air Force who also made this
project possible. First of all, I had the opportunity to work for Mr. John
Malone, and Mr. Eddie Adams, two outstanding education services officers
who, along with the wonderful staff at the Hickam Education Center (Rich,
Hildegard, Rose, Debbie, Al, Kevin, Donna, George, Elizabeth, Kathy, Joe,
Agnes, Becky I, and II) supported and encouraged me throughout the
process. Gratitude is also due to Dr. Ed Peterson, Mr. Cole Hunter, Mr.
Wade Saunders, and Dr. James Larkin, who provided me invaluable advise.
I am thankful as well to the Air Force organization itself, and in particular Mr.
Hamilton from the Air Force Survey Office. Certainly, without the Air Force, I
would never have had the opportunities that I have enjoyed in my fruitful 21-
year career. I am proud to be part of an organization that gives all of its
members the latitude to explore problems, and is open minded enough to
consider constructive recommendations for change.
Finally, I have had the opportunity to be associated with some very
talented and motivated people in the Hawaii Cohort. I wish you all the best
and hope to stay in contact with many of you from the “USC Ohana Hawaii.”
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in
LIST OF TABLES VII
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND 1
Background
Purposes
Importance of the Study
Research Questions
Conceptual Assumptions
Delimitations
Organization of the Rest of the Dissertation
General Orientation to Military Off-Duty Education
Programs and Studies of Enlisted Participation
General Orientation to Adult Learning
Motivations for Adult Participation in Formalized
Learning Experiences
Deterrents to Adult Participation in Formalized
Learning Experiences
3. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES......................................... 36
Samples
Instrumentation
Procedures
Analysis of Data
Methodological Assumptions
Limitations
2. SELECTIVE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 10
\
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Chapter Page
4. ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, AND DISCUSSION OF
RESULTS................................................................................................ 45
Analysis of Findings
Discussion
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 59
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
REFERENCES................................................................................................... 71
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
1. Loadings on Matched Rotated Factor Dimensions
(Components) Across Two Samples of Junior and
Senior Air Force Enlisted Personnel on the Adult
Learning Questionnaire.................................................
2. Chi-square Tests of the Significance of Differences
in Frequencies to Three Categories of Response
Expressed as Percentages— Not Important/Slightly
Important (NI/SI), Somewhat Important (SI), Quite
ImportantA/ery Important (QIA/I) Associated With
Two Samples of Junior Personnel (N = 980) and
Senior Personnel (N = 462)..........................................
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CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Background
The Department of Defense, through its voluntary education program
provides a vast array of opportunities for its active duty, reserves, civilians,
and family members. “One of the largest post-secondary enterprises in
America is under the jurisdiction of the Pentagon and its constituent military
services. In size it must be compared to state [university] systems like those
of New York and California” (Bailey, 1979, p. 1). Although dated in 1979,
Bailey’s analogy still bears credence today. The Defense Activity for Non-
Traditional Education Support (DANTES) reported an average of
approximately 650,000 enrollments in postsecondary education each year
from 1995-2000 (Cola, 2001). It is a massive worldwide program
promulgated by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Force Management,
and implemented by the military services to deliver programs worldwide to
soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines.
Although the significant size of enrollments previously mentioned
appears to indicate a high level of participation, the enlisted completion rate
of off-duty degrees is mediocre at best. Since 1996, the rate of degrees held
by DoD enlisted personnel at the Associates level or higher has hovered at
approximately 20% of the total enlisted force. In 1999, The Congressional
Commission on Service Members and Veterans Transition Assistance
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conducted a study that reported health care, employment, and education
were foremost on service members’ minds (Kozaryn, 1999). In an Air Force
survey the same year, and consistent with results of similar surveys dating
back to 1989, enlisted personnel indicated education is one of the most
important reasons that they make the decision to stay in the Air Force
(Hamilton & Datko, 1999). By contrast, according to the most recent monthly
statistics published by the Air Force Personnel Center, only 14.2% has an
associate’s degree; 4.4%, a baccalaureate degree; and 0.7%, a graduate
degree (AFPC, 2001). There has been a broad differential between the
stated intentions and the actual degree completions of enlisted members in
the Air Force. This dichotomy indicates that at some point there has been a
significant “disconnection” between the educational expectations of enlisted
personnel and the reality of actual participation and completion.
The Air Force offers a plethora of educational benefits to enlisted
people such as, 75% tuition assistance, the Montgomery G.l. Bill, free
professional education counseling, and free college-level testing programs.
A convincing amount of support exists for enlisted personnel to pursue their
off-duty educational goals. With all of this support and other factors such as
convenience in proximity to work, class hours that fit with professional
schedules, and reduced contract rates for tuition, the question remains as to
why the participation and completion percentages have been so low. The
more specific question is concerned with potential causal factors.
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In the Air Force, there has been no doubt that there has been a
perception of strong leadership support that is apparent by the multitude of
programs and benefits for education of enlisted personnel. However, in a
recent evaluation report of voluntary education, the Military Installation
Voluntary Education Review (MIVER) team pointed to a commendation of
“strong verbal command support” and a concern of “lack of visible evidence
of command support” (Anderson, Meek & Swinerton, 1997, p. 5). It is
important to point out that this concern does not represent all installations, or
even the majority; however, it illuminates the dichotomy that can exist
between intentions and results.
There have been many potential causes that contribute to non
participation, and one of the most often cited reasons has been lack of time
and money. Time and money, however, are really only tangible results or
rewards of other influences such as hard work, good fortune, an education
goal, supportive parents, a rewarding job, and a supportive superior. The
complexities of the underlying influences, which afford many individuals time
and money, are evident, but for many working adults, the greatest
stakeholders in affording one time and money are those that directly
supervise one’s activities at the workplace. Accordingly, this study indicated
the differences in perceptions regarding obstacles (deterrents) to
participation in educational activities between a group of senior enlisted Air
Force personnel (the stakeholders) and a representative subordinate group
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of junior enlisted personnel (those directly influenced by stakeholder
behaviors). The study was designed to explore a known construct of
perceived deterrents to participation in adult education and to compare the
perceptions of senior enlisted personnel with the perceptions of subordinate
junior enlisted personnel to ascertain whether differences existed in the
perceptions of these deterrents between members of the two groups.
Purposes
Within the framework of known deterrent factors first revealed by
Darkenwald and Valentine (1985), the central purposes of this study were (a)
to attempt to duplicate factor constructs previously identified by using the
same measuring instrument, and (b) to examine the presence or absence of
differences in perceptions towards deterrents to participation in voluntary
education programs between senior noncommissioned officers and their
subordinate junior noncommissioned officers. The demonstration of
comparable factor structures of the intercorrelations of scores on items of the
inventory employed would afford a basis for meaningful comparisons of
responses of members of the two samples on individual items representing
essentially the same construct (associated with one of the deterrent factors).
An assumption of the study was that if differences in perceptions existed
between the two groups regarding deterrents, this phenomenon in itself
would represent a potential deterrent.
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Importance of the Study
There have been numerous studies and models developed that
examine the question of why adults participate in learning activities.
However, most are focused on motivations to adult participation in
educational activities rather than on deterrents. This study provided an
opportunity to test an identifiable deterrent factor construct and also
highlighted the dimension of leadership perceptions as a potential deterrent.
As decision makers and personnel managers, the senior non
commissioned officer (NCO) has a significant influence on decisions that his
or her junior enlisted personnel make regarding their career and personal
pursuits. In order to convince personnel in positions of leadership that the
issue of deterrents to enlisted participation in voluntary education is
worthwhile it is necessary to convince them that there are perceptual
leadership-induced barriers to participation by enlisted personnel in off-duty
education and that implementing policy to eliminate these barriers would
benefit the organization as a whole. Specifically, a focus on differences in
perceptions between senior enlisted personnel and junior enlisted personnel
regarding deterrents provided a glimpse at this phenomenon and afforded a
baseline for decision-making and further research.
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Research Questions
Consistent with the purposes of this investigation, the following three
research questions were posed:
1. To what extent was there comparability in the factor dimensions
(factorial validity of scores) in the following two sets of responses to the same
items in the Adult Learning Questionnaire (ALQ) regarding level of
importance assigned to reasons for not participating in some type of formally
presented educational activity: (a) the responses of senior enlisted Air Force
personnel representing their perceptions of why junior enlisted Air Force
personnel had not taken advantage of enrolling in an educational offering
and (b) the responses of junior enlisted Air Force personnel reflecting their
perceptions of why they themselves had not taken advantage of educational
opportunities being offered?
2. Which items in the ALQ yielded statistically significant differences
in the patterns of response on the part of members of the two samples
(senior personnel and junior enlisted personnel)?
3. Of the 34 items in the ALQ which 10 for each of the two sets of
responses provided the two highest designated levels of response on a 5-
point scale— either quite important or very important—as being the most
important reasons for not enrolling in some kind of formally presented
educational offering?
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Conceptual Assumptions
The following two conceptual assumptions were considered essential
to this study.
1. The work of Darkenwald and Valentine (1985) emphasizing
deterrents to participation in educational offerings furnished the conceptual
framework, the constructs of which provided the basis for the research
questions as well as for the design of their instrument, the Deterrents to
Participation Scale (DPS-G). The DPS-G employed in the current
investigation was identified as the Adult Learning Questionnaire (ALQ).
2. Many components of motivation were considered relevant to the
learning activities pursued by working adults.
Delimitations
The following delimitations were evident:
1. Only Air Force enlisted personnel were participants.
2. Only three bases participated.
3. Deterrent factor structures alone were examined.
4. Junior enlisted personnel were asked to give perceptions of
deterrents to themselves, and senior enlisted personnel were only asked for
their perceptions of the juniors enlisted personnel regarding the same
deterrent variables.
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5. Only those enlisted personnel that had e-mail addresses were
queried at each base.
Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation
In Chapter II the first section provides a general orientation to military
off-duty education programs and studies of enlisted participation. The
referenced studies recapitulate the importance and effectiveness of the
program in contrast to the reality of participation and degree completion. The
second section is a brief, selective general orientation to adult learning,
which outlines and introduces the discussion in the final two sections. The
first of the final two sections provides a brief review of selected studies on
motivations for adult participation in formalized learning experiences. This
emphasis leads to the final section and the focus of this investigation of
deterrents to adult participation in formalized learning experiences.
Chapter III sets forth a description of (a) characteristics of the sample,
(b) instrumentation employed including an example of the questions on each
instrument, (c) procedures regarding the preparation of the instrument,
deployment of the survey via the internet, and the compilation of data, (d)
methods of data analysis, (e) methodological assumptions, and (f) limitations.
In Chapter IV, the statistical outcomes are reported within the
framework of each of the three research questions posed in Chapter I.
Following is a brief discussion affording alternative interpretations of the
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findings of the current study, especially in relations to those in other studies.
Chapter V provides a summary, conclusions, and recommendations.
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CHAPTER II
SELECTIVE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter comprises four major areas: (a) General Orientation to
Military Off-Duty Education Programs and Studies of Enlisted Participation,
(b) General Orientation to Adult Learning, (c) Motivations for Adult
Participation in Formalized Learning experiences, (d) Deterrents to Adult
Participation in Formalized Learning Experiences. This chapter concludes
with a number of suggestions of needed research based on the current state
of knowledge.
General Orientation to Military Off-Duty Education
Programs and Studies of Enlisted Participation
Department of Defense (DoD)
Voluntary Education
There are four major growth points that have guided the development
of the DoD Voluntary Education program. First, was the recognition of the
influence and impact that the military would have in shaping the future of
adult education. Shortly after World War II, The American Council on
Education (ACE) appointed a commission to study the implications of Armed
Services educational programs. From the results of the study the
commission published an exhaustive list of implications for adult learning
(Houle, Burr, Hamilton, & Yale, 1947). Houle’s summary included
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implications for development of objectives, administration and organization,
methods, instructional materials, leaders and leader training, guidance and
guidance counseling, student recruitment, evaluation, finance, and physical
facilities. Anderson (1996) stated that “Houle designed his work to help
civilian adult educators become aware of the resemblances between adult
education programs conducted in the military with their own programs and to
speculate on whether such resemblances may help solve problems in the
greater adult education community” (p. 27). Of the implications outlined by
Houle et al. (1947) are still evident in current voluntary education
management practices.
The second major occurrence came in 1979 amidst concerns over the
quality of postsecondary education nationwide. Stephen K. Bailey, a
professor from Harvard University, visited a sample of 13 military installations
both in the United States and abroad. His sampling covered a wide range of
education services in all military branches. His study focused on the lack of
quality control in providing off-duty education. Bailey (1979) concluded, that
“so many positive values appear to be associated with the concept of off-duty
post secondary education in the military services that it is painful to report
that the present reality is shockingly uneven” (p. 2). His study further
recommended that “accretionary steps” be taken to establish a national
system for mandating policy, in setting standards, and for evaluating
education services throughout the military.
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In a third major development point in voluntary education, and as a
response to Bailey’s study, the DoD contracted with the Council on
Postsecondary Accreditation “ to identify and document the roles,
relationships, and responsibilities of all in making the whole educational
enterprise for military personnel academically acceptable and respectable
(Allen & Andrews, 1980, p. v). ’’The study revealed concerns similar to those
in Bailey’s study, and a major finding ...[was] the need for a single national
policy to provide for consistent delivery of high-quality, postsecondary
educational programs and courses on military installations” (p.78).
In a related context, Anderson (1996) made this statement:
The conclusion of the case study was that
servicemembers needed to share in the postsecondary
educational opportunities available to other citizens and
DoD should rely on appropriately accredited civilian
institutions to provide these programs. In addition, the
programs and procedures of these institutions must be
sufficiently flexible to offset servicemembers’ mobility,
isolation from campuses, and part-time student status.
During the 1980’s, the military services contracted
with regional accrediting associations for visits to
selected military installations. These individual service
contracts helped refine the questions about quality that
needed to be asked and set the stage for a more
systematic review process. In February 1991, DoD
awarded a contract to the American Council on
Education (ACE) to administer the military Installation
Voluntary Education Review (MIVER) Project, (p. 21)
The MIVER represents the fourth and most recent major step towards
improvement of the DoD Voluntary Education Program. As an evaluative
body, it has now been in existence for close to ten years and provides
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periodic comprehensive reviews of the quality and effectiveness of each
installation’s voluntary education program. Under direction of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Force Management, the M1VER “has two purposes:
1) to assess the quality of selected on-base Voluntary Education Programs,
and 2) to assist in the improvement of such education through appropriate
recommendations to institutions, installations, and the military services”
(Anderson et al., 1997, Section d, e; p. 6). The MIVER consists of teams of
highly qualified professionals from institutions of higher learning, accrediting
bodies, and other military services that evaluate education services delivery
of; postsecondary degree programs, servicemembers opportunity colleges,
military evaluations programs, independent study and external degree
programs, credit by examination, and high school diploma and academic
skills programs. The MIVER has recently concluded its second contract
period of three years culminating in a comprehensive report with specific
recommendations.
The voluntary education program has experienced a metamorphosis
driven by the need to improve the quality of the military “ workforce”, the need
to improve the quality of education services, and the need to stay in balance
with postsecondary education trends in society as a whole. If nothing else,
the literature indicates a concerted effort and an overwhelming consensus
that the undertaking to provide a viable education to military members is vital
and central to the health of the DoD and the nation. Further, to understand
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the magnitude of this undertaking is to understand the wisdom of Bailey’s
recommendation for accretionary steps in development of the system.
Much of the literature regarding the DoD Voluntary Education program
is in the form of reports, directives, and statistics from agencies internal to
the DoD. Some studies are also conducted by agencies on contract to the
DoD. Independent academic studies are usually the work of graduate
students within the voluntary education system, but in view of an increased
national focus on postsecondary education for adults, academic institutions
may be well served to consider the military voluntary education program as a
fertile population for academic research in adult education.
Participation in Voluntary Education
A significant amount of research has been conducted on participation
in military voluntary education programs (Alley, Mosley, Spivey, Bolton,
Mwambola, Thompson, Findley, Renehan & Weinstein, 1995; Anderson,
1991; Boesel & Johnson, 1988; Brauchle, 1997; Brown, 1993; Garcia, Joy &
Reese, 1998; Houle et al., 1947; Kato, 1993; Kraska & Larkins, 1999;
Martindale & Drake, 1989; Webb, 1988). Studies have consistently led to the
conclusion that there is a positive correlation between enlisted participation in
off-duty education and manpower concerns such as recruitment, retention,
promotion, and skill-level advancement. The general consensus has been
that encouraging participation in off-duty education benefits the individual,
the institution, as well as the larger society.
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Air Force Enlisted Participation
More than 70% of enlisted people surveyed cited education as the
number one reason that they joined the service. In a 1999 Air Force survey
yielding results consistent with those of similar surveys dating back to 1989,
enlisted personnel indicated that education was an important reason that
they had made the decision to stay in the Air Force (Hamilton & Datko,
1999). By contrast, according to the most recent monthly statistics published
by the Air Force Personnel Center, only 14.2% have an associate’s degree
or equivalent semester hours, 4.5% have a baccalaureate degree, and 0.7%
have a graduate degree (AFPC, 2000). These completion rates tend not to
support the perception that enrollment rates bear any significant correlation
to the level of participation of enlisted personnel in postsecondary education.
Instead, large enrollments appear to be simply a reflection of the sheer
magnitude of the program. In addition, there is a broad differential between
the stated intentions revealed by the 1999 survey data and the actual degree
completions of enlisted members in the Air Force. This dichotomy indicates
that there is a significant discrepancy between the educational expectations
of enlisted personnel and the reality of actual participation and completion.
The Air Force offers a plethora of educational benefits to enlisted
people such as, 75% tuition assistance, the Montgomery G.l. Bill, free
professional education counseling, and free college-level testing programs.
A convincing amount of support exists for enlisted personnel to pursue their
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off-duty educational goals. Every base in the Air Force is supported by an
Education Services Center staffed with professionals who provide everything
from student administrative services to certified professional education
counseling. All centers contract local colleges and universities to offer
programs on base and also to provide support for Air Force students
participating in education programs to include distance learning. The size of
the programs will vary from base to base and are generally in proportion to
the base population.
With all of this support and other factors such as convenience in
proximity to work, class hours that fit with professional schedules, and
reduced contract rates for tuition; the question remains why participation and
completion percentages were so low. The more specific question pertains to
what the cause is. It may be that there is simply a certain percentage of
enlistees that have no interest in pursuing a higher education. Or there may
be the problem more inherent to the value assigned to education programs
for the enlisted personnel. Although on the surface there appears to be
much support for enlisted education programs, what rewards are actually
paid for participation or completion? Do those that complete degrees have a
better chance for promotion? Are there any real tangible benefits, or only
subjective ones? Do Air Force leaders and supervisors support or impede
pursuance of postsecondary education? To answer some of these questions
one may categorized them into three groupings: (a) Individual Benefits and
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Incentives, (b) Value to the Organization, and (c) Leadership Perceptions.
Each category is examined in the following subsections:
Individual benefits and incentives. In the Air Force the program most
closely related to career progression is the Community College of the Air
Force (CCAF). The Air Force offers college credit for many of their formal
schools through CCAF. Accredited by the Southeastern Association of
Schools and Colleges, CCAF is an evaluative academic institution
established in 1972 designed to award Associates of Applied Science related
to enlisted vocational specialties. Most of the degree requirements can be
satisfied by successful completion of Air Force schools and training;
however, there are core academic requirements that must be fulfilled by
completion of college courses or successful completion of college level
examinations.
Although there is a direct link between career progression and other
types of Air Force education and training, the relationship with higher
education programs such as CCAF is only subjective. In his study of the
effect of CCAF on promotion to Master Sergeant, Webb (1988) concluded
that although there was a positive association with promotions it was a weak
one. Probabiy the most significant connection is a subjective belief that a
CCAF degree increases an individual’s chances to be promoted to Senior
Master Sergeant or Chief Master Sergeant (the top 3% of the enlisted force).
However, there is no specific regulatory guidance procedure making
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education a requirement for promotion to these grades, and with the lack of
specific guidance directions the only way to confirm a positive relationship
would be to know the value that each member of the promotion board placed
on the education levels of the eligible personnel. This system, as a result,
provides only limited subjective and almost non-existent substantive
incentives to enlisted personnel for completing a degree.
Value to the organization. There are countless studies that confirm
the value of participation by enlisted personnel in educational activities.
Monson (1995) indicated that CCAF participation and completion contributed
to accelerated attainment of the craftsman skill-level. Garcia et al. (1998)
concluded that for each dollar invested in Tuition Assistance and instructor
program designated as Program for After College Education (PACE), the
Navy receives $2 from improved retention. In Alley et al. (1995), a study was
reported as having been requested by the Air Force Director of Personnel to
assess the value of the Tuition Assistance program to the Air Force. The
concern of value was raised because of a potential significant shortfall in
education and training funds. Following is an excerpt from the cover letter to
the report signed by the Air Force director of education:
The research suggests that education obtained as a
result of the TA Program is extremely valuable to the individual
and the Air Force. Higher education promotes critical thinking,
enhances communication skills, and encourages open-
mindedness, to mention only a few positive outcomes. When
the academic program is directly related to the Air Force
member's work environment, the Air force gains substantially
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through the increased knowledge and specialization contributed
by the Air Force member. The report recommends the support
of senior leaders by making the program a top priority for
funding, and ensuring that Air Force members are aware of the
program and its benefits.
The USAF enlisted corps is particularly well educated.
As of September 1994, virtually 100 percent (340,751 out of
340,777) enlisted personnel possessed at least a high school
education. Seventy-eight percent (267,170) of enlisted
personnel have completed some college courses. The number
of personnel with associate, baccalaureate (or baccalaureates
plus) and master's (or master's plus) are 40,599, 13,342, and
1751 respectively, (p. 20)
Although the Alley study does promote support for enlisted education
programs, the enthusiasm in the way in which the enrollment figures are
reported may be misleading. The problem with these figures is that the
267,170 that have “completed some college courses” are skewed by the fact
that all Air Force enlisted personnel are automatically enrolled into CCAF
upon enlistment and given credit for their military training. Consequently, a
large percentage of them will never actually attend a college course— a
situation which is evidenced by the fact that there is only 20% of the enlisted
force that hold degrees. This phenomenon penetrates to the core of the
participation issue in the sense that it perpetuates the perception that a 20%
degree completion rate is favorable.
Another way to look at the issue is that if the same data were true for
officers the rate would be considered abysmal. The officer corps and the
enlisted corps can not be compared regarding degree attainment for obvious
reasons, but the fact that there is no substantial and tangible connection to
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enlisted Air Force career progression is inconsistent with the idea that
voluntary education supported by tuition assistance is of great value to the
organization. This statement is not to say that there is a conscious effort to
discourage participation; in fact, there is a rich history of support for voluntary
education that overwhelmingly confirms the opposite perception. What it
may suggest, however, is that there are certain underlying or even
unconscious expectations or lack of expectations regarding enlisted
personnel participation. This circumstance leads to the most important
influence on enlisted participation...the support of leadership for the program.
Leadership perceptions. There is no doubt that there is a perception
of strong leadership support that is apparent by the multitude of programs
and benefits for enlisted education. However, just as Alley et al. (1995)
subtly mischaracterized participation in their report, other leaders could
potentially misconceive the problem on an informal (albeit unconscious)
basis. In the recent MIVER report under the “Installation Principle 2.
Command Support,” the team points to a commendation of “strong verbal
command support” and a concern of “lack of visible evidence of command
support” (Anderson et al., 1997, p. 5). It is important to point out that this
situation does not represent all installations, or even the majority; however, it
illuminates the dichotomy that can exist between intentions and results. In
other cases, the inference is not so subtle. Following is an excerpt from the
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conclusions of a survey of Air Force Majors at the Air Command and Staff
College (ACSC) regarding their attitudes towards enlisted education:
ACSC majors believe the Air Force enlisted force has
enough civilian education to complete the AF mission.
However, ACSC majors believe additional education is valuable
in their own career field...Half of ACSC majors believe more
civilian education is necessary for the technical career fields.
However, an overwhelming majority believes college degrees
are not necessary for enlisted in technical career fields...ACSC
majors had high recognition of CCAF and its functions.
However, over one-third of the sampled supervisors or
commanders didn't know enough about the CCAF program to
encourage enrollment among their airmen. A majority of the
ACSC majors saw the mission of the CCAF as vital to the Air
Force...Of those ACSC majors who had worked with or
commanded CCAF graduates only 16 percent felt there was a
significant difference in their performance from non-graduates.
(Bailey, 1988, p. 28)
Although the survey was conducted in 1988, career patterns would indicate
that many of these officers either have just recently retired, or are still on
active duty in senior leadership positions. Granted, attitudes change over
time, but the survey certainly illustrates a poignant example of a certain
group of leaders’ perspectives towards enlisted personnel participation in off-
duty education.
Accordingly, the attitudes of leadership have a powerful effect on
subordinates in any organization. The influence that leadership has on
career decisions as well as on personal decisions is phenomenal. It is
important though to remember that leadership is a complex and challenging
process without taking into consideration the influences of latent unconscious
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attitudes. However, given the powerful and positive possibilities that raised
expectations bring forth, it is hard to ignore the potential of identifying and
addressing the issue. With a general understanding of the origins and
development of voluntary education, and with an overview of the issues
facing Air Force participation by enlisted personnel having been present, the
text is directed to a selective review of literature related to Adult learning.
General Orientation to Adult Learning
There have been numerous studies and models developed that
examine the question why adults participate in learning activities (Boshier &
Collins, 1985; Cookson, 1986; Cross 1981; Darkenwald & Valentine, 1985;
Houle, 1961). However, as Menriam and Caffarella (1999) made the
following statement:
As of this writing, there has been relatively little testing of the
models...partly because of the difficulty in operationalizing
complex variables such as personality traits, structural factors
in the environment, and learning press (the extent to which
one’s total current environment requires or encourages further
learning) and their interrelationships with each other, (p. 70)
Further, Cross (1981), outlined three major obstacles to developing
theory in adult education:
First, there is the marketplace orientation of most adult
educators. Adult education has grown up marketing its wares
to volunteer learners who can “take it or leave it...the market
mentality tends to preclude the search for explanations of
complex phenomena...The second obstacle to theory building
is that the field of adult education has produced few scholars.
Most of the people involved in adult education on college
campuses have been administrators and program planners in
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extension divisions, where the first obligation is to serve the
immediate needs of their publics...A third stumbling block to
theory building in adult education is the multidisciplinary,
applied nature of the field, (p. 110)
Given the complexity of the variables involved in determining why or
why not adults participate in learning, as well as the characteristic obstacles
pointed out by Cross (1981), it is understandable that to examine the
question can be quite challenging and often confusing. Therefore, to narrow
the focus of this review in the absence of established theory, attention is
given to certain themes that flow through much of the research. First, two
dichotomous yet interdependent concepts emerge in the research of adult
learning participation which are (a) the study of motivational factors and (b)
the question of which deterrents or barriers exist for adult learners. The first
concept is more prominently examined than is the second concept, as
barriers are considered an integral component to overcome in motivational
models. Moreover, there is strong evidence and agreement throughout the
literature that adult participation in learning is strongly related to employment
(Kim, Collins, Stowe, & Chandler, 1995). In the following excerpt Merriam
and Caffarella (1999) encapsulated the current state of adult learning:
First, dramatic changes are occurring in the demographic base
of our society. Adults outnumber those [less than] eighteen
years old for the first time ever. Moreover, the percentage of
the population over age sixty-five continues to grow,
commanding the attention of policymakers, businesspeople,
and educators like. Our population as a whole is also better
educated than ever before, and there is more cultural and
ethnic diversity. Therefore, there are simply more adults
seeking learning opportunities, as well as more groups of adults
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with special learning needs...The effect of the global economy
and technological advances on the nature of adult learning is
staggering. Adults find that they must continue their learning
past formal schooling in order to function at work, at home, and
in their communities. The need for new knowledge, for
updating old information, for retraining, has resulted in a
multibillion-dollar educational enterprise...
Estimates as to the percentage of adult population who
participate in learning have steadily risen over the past thirty
years, with the most current study suggesting that
approximately 40 percent of all adult Americans
participate...Finding out what motivates adults to participate
and what deters participation is important information,
especially for program developers, (p. 1)
The importance of adult learning in the United States is
indisputable, although the complexity of current models provides
difficulties in operationalizing their concepts. Therefore, in the next
section, a review is given of key points of studies that focus on
motivations and deterrents to adult participation in educational
activities.
Motivations for Adult Participation in
Formalized Learning Experiences
Houle (1961) decided to focus on what motivates individuals to
participate in adult learning activities. Through his research, he revealed
three separate learning orientations held by adults:
The first, or, as they will be called, the goal-oriented, are those
who use education as a means of accomplishing fairly clear-cut
objectives. The second, the activity-oriented, are those who
take part because they find in the circumstances of the learning
a meaning which has no necessary connection, and often no
connection at all, with the content or the announced purposes
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of the activity. The third, the learning-oriented, seek knowledge
for its own sake. These are not pure types; the best way to
represent them pictorially would be by the three circles, which
overlap at their edges. But the central emphasis of each
subgroup is clearly discernible, (p. 15)
Impelled by Houle’s typology, Boshier (1971) purported that “it is
almost impossible to study ‘reasons for participation’ in a manner amenable
to cross cultural and inter-institutional replication, without the development of
an appropriate measuring instrument” (p. 3). Therefore, he expanded on an
effort by Sheffield (1964) to develop an instrument to measure adult learner
motivation and to operationalize variables consistent with Houle’s typology.
His effort resulted in a 48-item Education Participation Scale (EPS), and his
analysis demonstrated in a third-order factor analysis factors that were
“loosely isomorphic” to Houle’s typology. Consequently, he concluded
“participation is shown to stem from motives more complex than those
originally identified by Houle” (Boshier 1971, p. 3). A more detailed
explanation of the study follows.
Boshier (1971) administered the EPS to 233 randomly selected adult
participants in courses ranging from cooking and car maintenance to
university extension courses in economics and foreign languages. The 48
items on the EPS outlined reasons that adults participate in educational
activities. The study yielded 14 first order factors which were then analyzed
for inter-correlations which identified 7 factors with eigenvalues greater than
1. These second order factors were then inter-correlated and factor
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analyzed. This procedure resulted in four third-order factors. Boshier (1971)
derived the following conclusion:
Third-order factor one could be labeled ‘other directed
advancement’ and identifies goal-oriented participants
responding to some, probably vocational, environmental press.
Third-order factor two is akin to Houle’s learning orientation
except that learning is undertaken not as an end in itself but to
prepare oneself for some future, probably educational activity.
Third order factor 3 could be described as a bipolar measure
of ‘self versus other-centeredness.’ Third-order factor 4 is
almost pure “social contact, (p. 19)
Further, he put forth the idea that,
Participants are predominantly ‘growth’ or ‘deficiency’
motivated. ‘Deficiency’ oriented participants seek to remedy
their particular deficiency and thus seek equilibrium or
homeostasis...and ‘growth’ motivated people...are seeking
heterostasis [disequilibriating forces, in order to move to higher
levels of homeostasis], (p.23)
Later, Boshier (1973) would test his growth versus deficiency theory
by using a congruency model where the focus is on the interaction between
personal factors and social factors...His model consisted of seven
interrelated factors of; social relationships, external expectations (participants
complying with the wishes or directives of someone else with authority),
social welfare (altruistic orientation), professional advancement (job
enrichment), escape/stimulation, and cognitive interest. He had success in
determining individuals likely to drop out, and Garrison (1987) was able to
predict persistence using the same model. No further testing of the model
has yet been undertaken.
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Morstain and Smart (1977) utilized Boshier’s EPS to categorize
participants based on their motivations. They wrote as follows:
As one examines the demographic data presented...some
differences in the distributions of these [demographic]
characteristics across groups were observed. Yet it may also
be advanced that none of the demographic variables were
uniquely descriptive (either by their presence or absence) for
any given adult learner type...each group of adult learners,
formed on the basis of similarity of motivations exhibited a fairly
wide range in the demographic characteristics of its
members...The implication of this is that if one is interested in
assessing the motivation of adult learners, it may be somewhat
confounding to group individuals on the basis of demographic
variables, (p.675)
Recently, Fujita-Starck (1996) validated Boshier’s construct in a study
of three separate curricula groups participating in (a) arts and leisure
programs, (b) personal development programs, and (c) professional
development programs. Indicating that the study confirmed Boshier’s seven-
factor typology, Fujita-Starck wrote as follows:
The findings revealed that each curricular group had a
distinctive set of student characteristics and that no single
variable adequately described any one group. Motivation in
terms of reasons for participation was a powerful discriminator
among groups, and the results showed variation between
different curricular groupings of learners. This is consistent
with the findings of Morstain and Smart (1977), and adds
support to their conclusion that grouping adult students on the
basis of demographic characteristics alone lacks precision and
may lead toward erroneous generalizations, (p.39)
Other motivational studies include one by Aslanian and Brickell (1980)
who reported that 83% of 1519 adults 25 years or older cited some past,
present or future change in their lives as reasons for learning. Rubenson’s
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(1977) Expectancy-Valence Model Rubenson centers on the individual and
emphasizes that everything depends on a person’s perception of the
environment and the value of participating in adult education. Cookson's
(1986) ISSTAL social participation model, which stands for interdisciplinary,
sequential specificity, time allocation, and life-span, asserts that social
participation is a lifelong pattern, and Darkenwald and Merriam (1982)
psychosocial interaction model suggests that an adult's socio economic
status is the direct result of pre-adulthood experiences.
The summary review of these models is by no means intended to
diminish their validity, but to punctuate the complex realm of studies related
to motivations for adult participation in education. Studies by Boshier (1971)
and Boshier and Collins (1985) are emphasized as the best attempt to
operationalize Houle’s typology. In fact, Boshier and Collins (1985) Large
Scale Empirical Test employed a cluster analysis of a consolidated data set
from EPS studies dating back to the original 1971 study. Data were collected
from ”13,442 learners in Africa, Asia, New Zealand, Canada and the United
States” for analysis.
The broad outlines of Houle’s typology were visible in the
results, but the cluster analysis shows the socially oriented
items to be so well-differentiated that it would be overly-
generous to say it fully taxonomizes the evidence. But Houle’s
intuition has been partly corroborated; two of the six clusters
were as he described them. Indeed the fact the central
emphasis of each orientation was discernible [from such a large
and diverse population]...attests both to Houle’s perspicacity in
proposing his orientations and to the soundness of the EPS in
operationalizing them. (p. 127)
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in summary, Houle’s (1961) study of motivations for participation in
adult education was antecedent to modern research on the topic. Although
many studies have failed empirically to support the typology in its entirety,
the models reviewed in this section have all in some way benefited from
forethought on the issue. Boshier’s (1971) development of the widely used
EPS instrument has resulted in the furthest advancement of Houle’s (1961)
work. It has served to provide a platform to confirm support for two of the
three assumptions, while pointing to an underlying complexity in social
influences not accounted for in Houle’s study. As Boshier (1976) pointed out
in a review of EPS studies, “science is a cumulative process; each new study
should improve on what went before” (p. 43).
In recent studies, many researchers have incorporated the concept of
deterrent as an integral piece of the Adult Education participation puzzle. In
some cases, studies have focused exclusively on deterrents. The following
section provides a review of some key studies that are pertinent to this
investigation.
Deterrents to Adult Participation in
Formalized Learning Experiences
Until recently, deterrents were a less studied phenomenon related to
participation in education. Instead, deterrents were considered as an
inherent factor to overcome in development of motivational models. Merriam
and Caffarella (1999) offered the following statement:
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The two most often cited reasons for nonparticipation are lack
of time and lack of money. These are socially acceptable
reasons for not doing something, of course, and probably very
legitimate reasons for adults who are busy people trying to
become or stay economically solvent and take care of their
families and themselves, (p. 56)
Cross (1981) proposed that there were three major barriers to
participation labeled as situational, institutional, and dispositional. He notes:
Situational barriers arise from one’s situation in life at a given
time, with lack of time and cost being the most often cited
reason for nonparticipation. Institutional barriers are practices
and procedures that exclude or discourage ‘working’ adults
from participating, such as; inconvenient schedules or
inappropriate courses. Dispositional barriers are related to
attitudes and self-perception about oneself as a learner, (p. 98)
These barriers were reported by Cross as an integral determinant in
her participation model.
Cross’ Chain of Response (COR) model assumes that participation in
a learning activity, whether in organized classes or self-directed, is not a
single act, but the result of a chain of responses, each based on an
evaluation of the position of the individual in his or her environment. Barriers
(or deterrents) occupy a position in her model between motivation and
participation. Although somewhat an oversimplification, the assumption is
that if there is a strong enough motivational force, then the barriers are
overcome and participation happens. Further, breaking through the barrier
reinforces the continuum and then perpetuates continued participation. The
model relies heavily on a strong motivational force to overcome deterrents
and barriers.
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Cross has not been alone in recognizing deterrents as an integral part
of participation models, but like others the COR model focuses on
motivational factors that influence participation. Recently, researchers have
shown interest in studying how deterrents operate or exist to discourage
adults from participating in educational activities. In a comprehensive
monograph, Scanlan (1986) concluded, “ Although it is clear from
the... analysis that our current knowledge of factors deterring adults from
participation is incomplete, there is sufficient support in both theory and
practice to substantiate inclusion of deterrents concept as a valid determinant
of adults’ educational behavior” (p. 55).
As Scanlan and Darkenwald (1984) demonstrated support for
incorporating the construct of deterrent into theories of participation in adult
education, Darkenwald and Valentine (1985) set forth to develop further the
Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS-G), to determine deterrent factors that
were suggested by Scanlan’s study to be more complex than previous
models. In addition, they paid particular attention to developing an
instrument that could be generalizable to the broad adult learning population.
The DPS-G “ was developed by assembling, in random order, a list of
deterrents to participation identified through...interviews [with a diverse group
of adults], an examination of the original DPS instrument, and an exhaustive
search of the literature” (Darkenwald & Valentine, 1985, p. 180). Their efforts
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resulted in a 34-item DPS-G, which was administered to 2000 households in
Somerset County, New Jersey.
“ The data were subjected to a principal components analysis and
factors retained for rotation were determined by the Kaiser criterion....
Orthogonal rotation using the Varimax procedure was utilized to reach a final
solution” (p. 180). As a result, the variables grouped into six factors that
were labeled Lack of Confidence, Lack of Course Relevance, Time
Constraints, Low Personal Priority, Cost, and personal problems. The study
suggested, “an individual’s decision not to participate in organized adult
education is typically due to the combined or synergistic effects of multiple
deterrents, rather than just one or two in isolation” (p.187).
The DPS-G has since been implemented and validated in many
studies. Most notably, in an Air Force study by Martindale and Drake (1989),
the DPS-G was validated on a population of enlisted adult learners at
Maxwell and Gunter Air Force Bases in Montgomery Alabama. In that study,
the research resulted in a solution yielding eight factors labeled Lack of
Course Relevance, Lack of Confidence, Cost, Time Constraints, Lack of
Convenience, Lack of Interest, Family Problems, and Lack of
Encouragement. Although differences in the study were explainable,
Martindale and Drake pointed out that dispositional barriers might not be
reported at high levels because of the social stigma of admitting to things
such as lack of self confidence or lack of encouragement. They made an
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interesting point that “dispositional deterrents to socially desirable behavior
such as education may well come at the end of a list of deterrent factors, and
respondents rate dispositional deterrents depending on how they reflect on
their self-concept” (p. 73). A better understanding of the dispositional
barriers important to the deterrent side of the participation model is also
needed. These are subtle demotivators closely tied to self-concept and
therefore hard to measure.
Like motivational models, deterrent typologies have not yet solidified
into a supportable theoretical distinction. However, the DPS-G has provided
a tool that deepens one’s knowledge of a significant operant in the
participation scheme. Although logically, motivational and deterrent factors
are not considered independent of each other in terms of how they affect
participation, the literature suggests that they be analyzed independently.
The assumption is that identifying and reducing barriers would clear the path
for motivational techniques, and conversely that powerful motivational
practices would help in diminishing deterrents. Just as Henry and Basile
(1994) concluded, “both motivational factors and deterrents to participation to
help explain adults' decision to participate in formal adult education...in some
cases, a strong motivation may be overcome by the lack of a specific course
offering, or by some negative impressions of the program or institution....”
The findings of their study confirmed the complexity involved in "a simple
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decision to participate in a course...that both motivations and deterrents
influence the decision to participate" (p. 80).
As mentioned earlier and illustrated by the cited literature, motivational
and deterrent research is interdependent. However, as phenomena, some
researchers have chosen to study factors related to each concept
independently. It occurs, as illustrated in the text, that motivational models
have been more exhaustively studied and that most researchers agree that
the factors involved in motivation are complex, varied, and highly contextual.
Conversely, deterrent factors (although suspected to be multidimensional)
appear to be more stable. In fact, extrapolating “deterrent” as its own entity
tends to beg the question whether motivation would be necessary without
deterrents. Logically, there really is no antonymic relationship. In other
words, it could be surmised that motivation is required because deterrents
exist; however the opposite is not true. Therefore, a vigorous effort to
identify deterrents serves better as a diagnostic approach, although
motivational research is helpful in determining the treatment.
In reference to the strong linkage between one’s work life and
participation in adult education, it seems that if employment-related motives
are so strongly associated with participation, would it not stand to reason that
employment related deterrents are just as strongly related to
nonparticipation? In this regard, although there is some reference to work-
related influences on nonparticipation, there is little reference to a key
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component of the work environment, which is leadership. The saying,
“everyone works for someone” is highly applicable to most working adults.
The influence that supervisors and leadership in the workplace have over
personal and professional decisions of subordinates is tremendous.
Therefore, the lack of emphasis on this aspect in deterrent studies is
noticeable. In view of this circumstance, this study explored this aspect in
correlation with other known deterrent factors.
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CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
This research involved the analysis of data related to Air Force
enlisted participation in voluntary education programs. This chapter provides
a description of the (a) sample of participants, (b) instruments employed, (c)
procedures followed in acquisition of the data from the survey forms, (d)
methods of data analysis, (e) for methodological assumptions, and (f) lists of
limitations.
Samples
The population for this study consisted of 4482 enlisted personnel at
Hickam AFB, Hawaii; Maxwell AFB, Alabama; and Gunter AFB, Alabama.
The total number of respondents was 1442, which comprised 980 junior
enlisted respondents, and 462 senior enlisted respondents for a response
rate of 32%. The respondents had a mean age of 33.04 years, with a
standard deviation of 7.31 years. Respondents were 69.2%, male; 30.8%,
female; 60.5%, white; 20.4%, African American; and 19.1%, other races.
The education level of respondents was much higher than that expected in
the population. Only .3% reported no high school diploma, 45.4% had at
least completed high school, 33.8% held associate degrees, 15.9%
possessed Bachelor’s degrees, and 4.5% had graduate degrees.
Participation status reported by respondents indicated that 76.1% had taken
part in voluntary education within the last two years. (Surveys were
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conducted on-line and delivered to members of each population by e-mail
with a hyperlink that took them directly to the survey applicable to their pay
grade.)
The general rule in quantitative research is to use the largest sample
possible. The larger a representative sample, the less likely the subjects’
scores on the measured variable will be subject to sampling error. The
sample for this study was judged to be sufficiently large yield representative
results.
Instrumentation
The Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS-G) survey (with minor
revisions) was targeted to junior grade and senior grade enlisted personnel.
Revisions included changing the pronoun in the stem of the senior enlisted
questionnaire to solicit their perceptions of junior enlisted personnel, as well
as revised demographic questions that were relevant to the population.
Additional demographic data were gathered such as age, gender, ethnicity,
and career status for descriptive purposes as well as for a comparison of the
obtained final random sample with the broader Air Force enlisted population.
Approval to conduct the survey at the desired locations was granted by the
Air Force Survey Branch, Randolph Air Force Base, Texas under survey
number: USAF SCN 01-003. In addition, local coordination was conducted
with appropriate representatives at each base.
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The Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS-G) developed by
Darkenwaid and Valentine (1985), has been used in varying forms to
determine deterrents as perceived by several student populations. In
particular, Martindale and Drake (1989) validated the instrument using a
sample of Air Force enlisted personnel at Maxwell AFB. The results of
Martindale’s study were also compared to the results derived from the
analysis in this study. Each item is expressed as a reason that the individual
decided not to take a course within the last year or two. Responses are
arranged in a Likert type scale spanning five steps from not important to very
important. For the purpose of this study, the instrument was named the Adult
Learning Questionnaire (ALQ). Below is an example of instructions for the
junior enlisted version of the instrument and a question followed by the
choices of response:
Example 1.
Directions: Every year, more and more adults participate in some kind of educational
activity. Examples include courses, workshops, seminars, and training programs offered by
schools, colleges, and other organizations or community groups. However, adults
sometimes find it hard to participate in these activities, even when they want to. Try to think
of something - anything at all - that you wanted to learn in the past year or two, but never
did. Then look at the reasons below and decide how important each one was in your
decision not to participate in an educational activity. (Please note: in the questions below,
the word “course” refers to any type of [voluntary] educational activity, including courses,
workshops, seminars, etc.)
How Important was each Reason in your Decision not to
Participate
Not Slightly Somewhat Quite Very
Reasons important Important Important Important Important
1. Because I felt I couldn’t
compete with younger . 0 _ . _
students..................................... 1 2 3 4 5
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There were 34 item questions on the instrument as indicated in Table
2, with several questions placed at the end of the questionnaire to solicit
demographic information. An example of the instrument used to gain
perceptions from senior grade enlisted regarding junior enlisted perceptions
of barriers to participation in adult learning experiences is given:
Example 2:
Directions: Every year, more and more adults participate in some kind of educational
activity. Examples include courses, workshops, seminars, and training programs offered by
schools, colleges, and other organizations or community groups. However, adults
sometimes find it hard to participate in these activities, even when they want to. Try to think
of something - anything at all - that an enlisted person in pay grade E6 or below that you
know wanted to learn in the past year or two, but never did. Then look at the reasons below
and decide how important each one was in their decision not to participate in an educational
activity. (Please note: in the questions below, the word "course" refers to any type of
[voluntary] educational activity, including courses, workshops, seminars etc)
How Important was each Reason in your Decision not to
Participate
Not Slightly Somewhat Quite Very
Reasons Important Important Important Important Important
1. Because they felt they
couldn’t compete with
younger 1 2 3 4 5
students..............................
It should be noted the use of the pronoun “ they'’ serves to generalize the
attitude of the respondent even though initially asking for his or her opinion
about a specific person that the respondent might know. This technique was
expected to have the effect of surfacing perceptions of the group as a whole,
rather than that of focusing too specifically on one particular individual who
might fall at either one extreme of the spectrum of participation or the other.
This approach is important with respect to gaining a perspective on attitudes
that might be more likely to be displayed non-verbally if beliefs of
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respondents are adverse to the attitude that the leader is bound
professionally to uphold. For instance, in providing an opinion related to self-
concept or lack of confidence, the senior enlisted respondent might truly
believe that junior grade enlisted individuals do lack the confidence to attend
courses. However, they may feel constrained to express this opinion without
anonymity because of the negative attitude it would display towards their
enlisted subordinates. Instead, the belief is withheld and most probably
transmitted non-verbally rather than verbally.
Questions on demographics pertinent to participant status, gender,
age, highest education credential, pay grade, base on when the individual
was located, category of enlistment, primary air force specialty code
(PAFSC), marital status, dependents in household other than spouse, years
of service, and additional comments. Demographic data were used for
descriptive and comparative purposes.
The DPS-G survey reliability coefficient (coefficient alpha) of total
scores was fairly high at .86 for samples in both the Darkenwald and
Valentine (1985) and the Martindale and Drake (1989) studies. For the
current samples of former enlisted personnel and senior enlisted personnel,
the respective interest-consistency estimate of the reliability of scores on the
late scale were .92 and .93. Previous studies yielded six to eight factor
solutions, and the current investigation afforded a six-factor solution.
Previous factors found in the Air Force study were labeled as follows: Lack of
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Course Relevance, Lack of Confidence, Cost, Time Constraints, Lack of
Convenience, Lack of Interest, Family Problems, and Lack of
Encouragement (Martindale & Drake, 1989)
Procedures
An electronic version of both the junior and senior enlisted version of
the DPS-G (comparing the same but differing in type of perceptive survey)
was targeted by e-mail to the military accounts of the specified population.
The e-mail explained the intent of the survey, and a hyperlink was embedded
in the e-mail that initiated the ALQ form. The form included a privacy act
statement and a Survey Control Number (SCN) issued by the Air Force
Survey Branch, Randolph Air Force Base, Texas.
The survey, which took ten to fifteen minutes to complete, included an
optional item for the respondents to make additional comments. The ALQ
was administered on-line between 15 and 25 January, 2001 at Hickam,
Maxwell, and Gunter Air Force Bases. Approval for administering the survey
within the Pacific Air Command and at Maxwell and Gunter Air Force Bases
was granted on 8 January 2001 (Hamilton, 2001).
Analysis of Data
For each of the two samples the intercorrelations of scores on all 34
items of the ALQ were determined and then subjected to a principal
components analysis (SPSS, 1999). For each correlation matrix, six, seven,
and eight principal components were extracted and rotated through the use
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of varimax procedure to yield orthogonal dimensions (SPSS, 1999). An
inspection of the rotated factors within each of the two samples led to what
was considered to be a successful matching of six principal components that
could be readily interpreted. This matching was achieved from a careful
examination of the seven-principal component rotated solution.
In addition, chi-square analyses were carried out to ascertain whether
there were statistically significant differences in the patterns of response of
the two samples to each of the 34 items of the ALQ. In the chi-square
analyses, the five-step scale was reduced to one of three steps identified as
Quite ImportantA/ery Important (QIA/I), Somewhat Important (SI), or Not
Important/Slightly Important (NI/SI). Although the alpha level had been set at
.05, it is interesting to note that 32 of the 34 items yielded probabilities less
than .001 in the significance level. Efforts were made to compare visually
differences in the percentages of the QIA/I responses in selected items.
Methodological Assumptions
Following were the methodological assumptions of the study:
1. The scores on the measures used were reasonably reliable and
valid indicators of the factors they were intended to represent as well as
appropriate to answering the research questions.
2. The samples drawn from the survey population were sufficiently
representative of Air Force enlisted personnel.
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3. The survey respondents were honest when asked about their
perceptions of deterrents to participation in voluntary education.
4. The reading level of the respondents was sufficiently high enough
to permit the respondent to understand the intended meaning of each
questionnaire item.
5. Any differences in the responses of members on the two samples
to any questionnaire item reflected an actual difference in their perceptions of
activity or event described by the item.
6. Assumptions underlying the statistical analyses employed in this
study were approximated with a sufficient degree of accuracy to permit valid
interpretations of and inferences from the findings in the study.
7. The data, as gathered, were analyzed and interpreted accurately
with a minimum of bias.
Limitations
The following limitations were evident in this investigation:
1. That several potential respondents might not have had access to
the e-mail through which the items of the questionnaire had been
communicated could have contributed to some bias in the results.
2. The possible lack of reliability in the scores furnished by certain
item statements could have compromised the pattern of the intercorrelations
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among the items and thus might have led to some degree of distortion in the
factor analytic results.
3. The extent to which any one of the methodological assumptions
was not met could have threatened the validity of the outcomes.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
In this chapter, the statistical outcomes are reported within the
framework of each of the three research questions posed in Chapter I. A
brief discussion follows in which the findings are interpreted and related to
the extent possible to the results of other investigations.
Analysis of Findings
Comparability of the Factor Dimensions of the
ALQ Scores Derived from the Two Samples
(Research Question 1
Inspection of the entries representing factor (component) loadings
reported in Table 1 reveals that six identifiable factor dimensions (designated
as A, B, C, D, E, and F) were quite similar in terms of both the presence of
virtually the same item variables and similar factor loadings. Only in the
instance of the Factor E was there some question concerning closeness of
the match. Within this table a verbal description or definition of each factor is
placed just under its letter designation. The two factor solutions presented
lent support to the comparability of the six constructs underlying the
respective forms of the ALQ that were administered with slightly different
directions to the members of the two samples completing the form.
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Table 1
Loadings on Matched Rotated Factor Dimensions (Components) Across Two Samples of Junior and Senior
Air Force Enlisted Personnel on the Adult Learning Questionnaire
Designation and Description Item Statement Rotated Factor
(Reason for Not Enrolling) Loadings
Personnel
Junior Senior
A 17. Courses available were of poor quality. .75 .71
Lack of courses perceived 23. Available courses did not seem useful or practical. .75 .72
as appropriate, useful, 32. I didn’t think the course would meet my needs. .75 .70
interesting or conveniently 29. The course was not on the right level for me. .70 .72
scheduled 8. The courses available did not seem interesting .70 .68
6. I wanted to learn something specific, but the course
was too general.
.68 .69
25. The course was offered in an unsafe area. .61 .52
9. The course was offered at an inconvenient location. .55 .62
26. Education would not help me in my job. .49 .50
7. I didn’t meet the requirements for the course. .48 .48
12. I didn’t know about courses available. .36 .44
B
Time and scheduling
33. I prefer to learn on my own. .45
13. The amount of time required to finish the course. .73 .71
conflicts 5. I didn’t have time for the studying required. .72 .69
30. I didn’t think I could attend regularly. .68 .67
< T >
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Designation and Description
C
Lack of interest, enjoyment,
or commitment to studying
D
Lack of financial resources
4 ^
~ n J
Table 1 (continued)
Item Statement Rotated Factor
(Reason for Not Enrolling) Loadings
Personnel
Junior Senior
4. I didn’t think I would be able to finish the course
14. The course was scheduled at an inconvenient time. .60 .57
9. The course was offered at an inconvenient location. .59 .54
21. Participation would take away from time with my .33 .25
family. .27 .41
2. I don’t enjoy studying.
24. I wasn’t willing to give up my leisure time. .70 .66
20. I’m not that interested in taking courses. .69 .81
33. I prefer to learn on my own. .69 .74
13. The amount of time required to finish the course. .48
■kick
27. I felt unprepared for the course. .40 .27
.40
•kick
10. I couldn’t afford the registration or course fees.
28. I couldn’t afford miscellaneous expenses like travel, .84 .84
books, etc.
.82 .77
31. My employer would not provide financial assistance .63 .61
or reimbursement.
16. Transportation problems. .41
***
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Table 1 (continued)
Designation and Description Item Statement
(Reason for Not Enrolling)
Rotated Factor
Loadings
Personnel
Junior
Senior
E
Lack of confidence in one’s 11. I felt I was too old to take the course. .78 .73
ability 7. I didn’t meet the requirements for the course. .77 .76
18. I was not confident of my learning ability. .54 .57
27. I felt unprepared for the course. .46 .46
12. I didn’t know about courses available.
F
Interference of family 22. I had trouble arranging for childcare. .77 ,49
responsibilities 21. Participation would take away from time with my .74 ***
family. .56 .66
19. Family problems. .34 ***
15. My Family did not encourage participation. *** .68
3. Personal health problem or handicap.
*** 4g
16. Transportation problems.
Note: ***Means no loading for the item
4 ^
o o
Statistically Significant Differences in Patterns
of Response of the Two Samples to the
ALQ Items (Research Question 2
As is indicated in Table 2, 32 of the 34 items in the ALQ yielded
patterns of responses of the two samples that were statistically significant
beyond the .001 level. The only two items that did not attain statistical
significance of the differences between the responses of the two samples
were Item 17 Q d = .289) and Item 25 (e = .152) that were respectively
concerned with the available courses being of poor quality and were the lack
of safety in the areas where courses were offered. For almost every item,
the senior enlisted personnel gave responses regarding what they perceived
the responses of the junior enlisted personnel would be regarding the level of
importance of given stated deterrents in enrolling in formalized educational
offerings that were judged to be at a higher level of intensity (more negative)
than were the responses representing the actual perceptions of the junior
enlisted personnel themselves.
Ten Items Receiving Highest Percentages of
Response in the QIA/I Category from the
Two Samples (Research Question 3)
Ten items can be identified that yielded for each sample the highest
percentage of QIA/I responses. In the listing of these ten items, the
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Table 2
Chi-square Tests of the Significance of Differences in Frequencies to Three Categories of Response
Expressed as Percentages— Not Important/Slightly Important (NI/SI), Somewhat Important (SI),
Quite Important/Very Important (QIA/I) Associated With Two Samples of
Junior Personnel (N = 980) and Senior Personnel (N = 462)
Item Statement Junior Personnel Senior Personnel
NI/SI SI QI/VI NI/SI SI QIA/I X2 P
1. I felt I couldn't compete with younger students. 93.4 4.7 1.9 88.3 9.5 2.2 13.00 .001
2. I don’t enjoy studying. 71.3 17.2 11.5 43.2 34.7 22.1 105.95 .000
3. Personal health problem or handicap. 93.1 3.8 3.2 86.3 8.0 5.6 17.66 .000
4. I didn’t think I would be able to finish the course. 68.1 16.7 15.2 36.4 31.5 32.1 129.42 .000
5. I didn’t have time for the studying required. 36.7 23.7 39.6 11.3 25.5 63.2 109.10 .000
6. I wanted to learn something specific, but the course
was too general.
71.3 15.5 13.2 65.2 25.4 9.3 22.05 .000
.000
7. I didn't meet the requirements for the course. 77.3 11.6 11.1 64.6 19.3 16.1 26.51 .000
8. The courses available did not seem interesting. 67.0 18.6 14.3 52.5 29.7 17.8 30.50 .000
9. The course was offered at an inconvenient location. 48.0 21.9 20.1 31.2 32.1 36.7 37.73 .000
10. I couldn’t afford the registration or course fees. 45.5 16.9 37.5 27.8 27.4 44.8 45.72 .000
11. I felt I was too old to take the course. 95.2 3.4 1.4 82.8 12.2 5.0 60.29 .000
12. I didn’t know about courses available. 79.0 11.1 9.9 59.2 22.9 17.9 62.51 .000
13. The amount of time required to finish the course. 52.9 23.4 23.6 18.1 32.3 49.6 165.38 .000
14. The course was scheduled at an inconvenient time. 36.4 21.3 42.2 20.7 30.0 49.3 38.27 .000
15. My family did not encourage participation 86.0 8.3 7.7 52.0 25.4 22.0 190.70 .000
16. Transportation problems. 82.8 8.0 9.2 61.6 26.2 12.1 96.47 .000
17. The courses available were of poor quality. 72.6 13.7 13.6 69.3 16.8 13.9 2.49 .289
Ol
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Table 2 (Continued)
Item Statement Junior Personnel Senior Personnel
NI/SI SI QIA/I NI/SI SI QIA/I X2 P
18. I was not confident of my learning ability, 80.7 9.5 9.7 51.7 27.0 21.3 130.98 .000
19. Family problems, 76.4 12.1 11.6 38.9 28.5 32.6 192.33 .000
20. I’m not that interested in taking courses. 81.4 9.7 8.9 30.0 28,3 41.7 370.43 .000
21. Participation would take away from time with family. 49.3 21.3 29.4 14.4 22.7 63.0 188.30 .000
22. I had trouble arranging for childcare. 69.4 9.7 20.9 22.2 22.0 55.9 282.29 .000
23. Available courses did not seem useful or practical. 76.3 13.4 10.3 50.1 29.0 20.9 98.42 .000
24. I wasn't willing to give up my leisure time. 73.8 17.0 9.2 25.0 28.3 46.7 365.55 .000
25. The course was offered in an unsafe area. 81.7 6.4 11.9 80.3 9.2 10.5 3.77 .152
26. Education would not help me in my job. 85.2 7.0 7.8 60.2 23.9 15.9 116.70 .000
27. I felt unprepared for the course. 76.5 13.5 10.1 51.5 33.0 15.4 96.96 .000
28. I couldn't afford miscellaneous expenses like travel,
books, etc.
52.6 18.5 28.9 31.2 24.8 44.0 58.42 .000
.000
29. The course was not on the right level for me. 75.7 14.4 9.8 55.8 29.1 15.1 60.26 .000
30. I didn't think I could attend regularly. 49.3 20.2 30.5 18.2 28.9 52.9 128.91 .000
31, My employer would not provide financial assistance
or reimbursement.
75.8 9.6 14.7 55.7 15.9 28.5 60.34 .000
.000
32. I didn’t think the course would meet my needs. 78.0 11.9 10.1 58.3 25.4 16.3 62.30 .000
33. I prefer to learn on my own. 87.7 7.7 4.6 77.5 17.1 5.5 29.64 .000
34. My friends did not encourage my participation. 94.2 3.9 2.0 69.4 17.1 13.6 163.16 .000
numerical designation of each one accompanied by the letter representing
the factor represented (set forth in Table 1) is given. For the senior enlisted
personnel, the ten items and the corresponding factors they represented
were as follows: 5 (B), 10 (D), 13 (C), 14 (B), 20 (C), 21 (F), 22 (F), 24 (C),
20 (D), and 30 (B). Similarly, for the junior enlisted personnel the numerical
designation of an item and its associated factor were as follows: 4 (B), 5 (B),
9 (A), 10 (D), 13 (C), 14 (B), 21 (F), 22 (F), 28 (D), and 30 (B). In these two
listings, eight of the items and their corresponding factors were the same.
These items carried the numerical designations of 5, 10, 13, 14, 21, 22, 28,
and 30. The only factor not common to the two lists was that identified in
Table 1 as E - Lack of Confidence in One’s Ability. The most frequently
represented factor reflecting a deterrent to taking courses was that
designated as B - Time and Scheduling Conflicts. It should be emphasized
that although statistically significant differences existed in the patterns of
responses representing the two sets of perceptions rendered by the senior
enlisted personnel and the junior enlisted personnel, eight of the most
frequently cited deterrent item statements were the same ones for the two
samples.
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Discussion
Interpretations of the Findings
of the Current Study
In relation to the first research question posed, the results quite clearly
indicated that the ALQ yielded scores that could be interpreted as
representing the same constructs irrespective of the difference in the type of
perception being investigated. Such a finding lent considerable support to
the factorial validity of the ALQ when administered to two groups receiving
different instructions. It should be pointed out that the Adult Learning
Questionnaire (ALQ) is actually an alternate name chosen for the Deterrents
to Participation Scale (DPS) constructed by Scanlan and Darkenwald (1984)
and subsequently validated by Darkenwald and Valentine (1985) and also by
Martindale and Drake (1989). It would appear that this instrument worked
quite well in identifying the deterrents to taking part in adult learning offerings
made available to the military.
In the instance of the second and third research questions, it was
evident that substantial differences could be inferred concerning the
perceptions that senior enlisted personnel held about the perceptions of
junior personnel and the actual perceptions of the junior personnel
themselves about deterrents to participation in formalized educational
offerings. In short, the senior enlisted personnel gave a considerably higher
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endorsement to the importance of the deterrents than did the junior enlisted
personnel.
One may speculate why this circumstance occurs. One alternative
explanation may be that senior enlisted personnel as a group place a lower
importance on education for enlisted personnel than the junior enlisted
personnel, because they have already themselves achieved a relatively high
status and recognized success in their own assignments by a self-perception
of hard work and devotion to duty. To achieve the elevation in rank that the
senior enlisted personnel hold leads them to perceive that the time and
energy simultaneously expended to achieve upward mobility in the enlisted
Air Force and to meet academic requirements would make the deterrents
relatively more important for the junior enlisted personnel.
Another reason that might contribute to exaggerating the importance
of deterrents was a feeling on the part of senior enlisted personnel that could
be stated colloquially as, “No one ever gave me time to go to school, why
should 1 make time for you.” Such a reaction could contribute to the
manifestation of a negative response set on the part of senior enlisted
personnel when providing responses to item statements that they would
attribute to junior enlisted personnel. Such a negative response set could
almost be an unconscious manifestation of jealousy or resentment of what
their subordinates are trying to achieve.
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The hypothesis at a negative attitude towards taking advantage of
educational offerings on the part of enlisted personnel was supported by the
emotional responses by enlisted personnel at the highest possible rank.
Comments from one of the leaders were:
Thank you but I do not wish to participate in the survey. I
reviewed the questions and find them to be repetitive and too
general. I personally feel more Air Force members are taking
advantage of education more than ever. For those who are
not, it is a personal choice or driven by circumstances. I cannot
speculate as to why or why not. My troops are all enrolled in
off-duty education, except those who possess degrees. We
seem to forget, with the exception of instructor positions;
enlisted personnel are not required to be degreed. Please take
me off of your mailing list and send no further requests for this
survey.
Although it is evident that this enlisted leader supports his
subordinates in their educational endeavors, it is important to point out that
the perception that he holds regarding enlisted Air Force members
participation reveals the heart and soul of this investigation in that he is not
alone in holding this view, when, in fact, the participation and completion
statistics simply do not support this assertion. Further, the reference to the
fact that enlisted personnel do not require an education (other than
instruction) is a perpetuation of this perception. This perception can be
expected, particularly, when considering that an enlisted leader probably has
significant influence over hundreds if not thousands of airmen who attend
their academies each year.
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To examine the effect of leadership perception on enlisted personnel
participation, it is helpful to reference the work of Robert Rosenthal in his
studies of the “Pygmalion Effect.” The following is extracted from the
abstract of his 1997 article, Interpersonal Expectancy Effects — A Forty-Year
Perspective:
Since 1969, there have been numerous studies on
“interpersonal expectancy effects—the unintentional
expectations that experimenters, teachers, and authority figures
bring to experiments, classrooms, and other situations— can
wield significant influence on individuals...In one classroom
study, children were administered a nonverbal test of
intelligence, which was disguised as a test that would predict
intellectual "blooming." Their teachers were then told that
certain children would show surprising gains in intellectual
competence during the next eight months of school. At the end
of the school year, the children from whom the teacher had
been led to expect the greater intellectual gain showed
significantly greater gains than did other children, although the
only difference was in the mind of the teacher...Research has
expanded to examine Pygmalion effects in management, in
courtrooms, and in nursing homes. In all cases, it appears that
much of the mediation in these studies of expectation is
occurring by means of unintended nonverbal behavior.
(Rosenthal, 1997, p. 11)
In an interview with Rosenthal, Rhem (1999) concluded, “Indeed, it
would appear that we communicate something vital and undisguisable about
our attitudes... in ways that transcend ordinary language. How we believe
the world is and what we honestly think it can become have powerful effects
on how things turn out “ (p. 5).
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Interpretations of the Current Findings
in Relation to Those in Other Studies
Only two studies could be identified in which efforts had been made to
determine the factorial validity of the Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS)
designated as the ALQ in the present investigation. One investigation by
Darkenwald and Valentine (1985) with a sample from a civilian population led
to the identification of six factors identified as A - Lack of Confidence, B -
Lack of Course Relevance, C - Time Constraints, D - Low Personal Priority,
E - Cost, and F - Personal Problems. The identification of these six factors
was quite close to that of the current investigation with samples of an Air
Force population. The outcome of the investigation by Darkenwald and
Valentine suggests a relatively high degree of factorial invariance across two
samples from quite different populations. Such a high degree of invariance
in scores would suggest that it could be used in a number of different
educational settings.
The second investigation by Martindale and Drake (1989) with a group
of Air Force personnel from two installations also identified quite similar
factors. These factors were defined as A - Lack of Course Relevance, B -
Lack of Confidence, C - Cost, D - Time Constraints, E - Lack of
Convenience, F - Lack of Interest, G - Family Problems, and H - Lack of
Encouragement. Hence the remarkably similar factor structure across
samples from three populations affords substantial evidence of the
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invariance of the factor structure of scores on the Deterrents to Participation
Scale (DPS). Thus one may conclude that this measure provides an
opportunity in a variety of educational settings concerning perceptions that
students have about deterrents in pursuing alternative educational
opportunities for adults. Counselors and academic advisors who gain access
to normative data might have an additional tool that they can use in
identifying those students who have perceptions that are either real or unreal
in an academic situation.
There have been no identifiable investigations that have provided a
comparison of the perceptions of senior enlisted and junior enlisted
personnel regarding their own situation or perceptions of one group of
another group in a similar work environment.
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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUS!ONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Background
The Department of Defense provides a multitude of educational
opportunities to the enlisted force, and a significant amount of research has
indicated that voluntary education has a positive impact on mission
accomplishment. Participation and completion rates for enlisted personnel
do not seem to support the intentions of these individuals or the Air Force
organization.
This dichotomy prompted the investigation of a representative sample
of Air Force enlisted personnel to explore specific potential barriers
contributing to such a low rate of degree completion in comparison to the
relatively high level of importance that enlisted members place on completing
their education. In particular, the study was designed to identify differences
between perceptions of junior enlisted personnel, and those of their
stakeholder senior enlisted supervisors regarding their attitudes toward
deterrents to participation in adult education.
The Deterrents to Participation scale first developed by Darkenwald
and Valentine (1985) and later validated by Martindale and Drake (1989)
turned out to be an effective tool in the design of this study. The factorial
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constructs remained consistent with those of previous studies. Moreover, the
design allowed for effective comparisons between the two groups
investigated. Accordingly, this study laid out a foundation of inquiry for future
more intensive study of the leadership perception phenomenon.
Purposes
The purposes of this study were to (a) attempt to duplicate factor
constructs previously determined using the same measuring instrument and
(b) to examine whether or not differences existed in perceptions towards
deterrents to participation in voluntary education programs between senior
noncommissioned officers and their subordinate junior noncommissioned
officers. The assumption of the study was that if differences in perceptions
existed between the two groups regarding deterrents, this phenomenon in
itself would represent a potential deterrent.
Importance of the Study
There have been numerous studies and models developed that
examine the question of why adults participate in learning activities.
However, most are focused on motivated components to adult participation in
educational activities rather than on deterrents. This study provided an
opportunity to explore deterrent factors (constructs) and also highlighted in
the interpretation of results of the dimension of leadership perceptions as a
potential deterrent.
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As decision makers and personnel managers, the senior non
commissioned officers (NCOs) have significant influence on decisions that
their junior enlisted subordinates make regarding their career and personal
pursuits. In order to convince leadership that the issue of deterrents to
participation by enlisted personnel in voluntary education is worthwhile they
must be convinced that there are perceptual leadership-induced barriers to
enlisted personnel participation in off-duty education and that implementing
policy to eliminate these barriers would benefit the organization as a whole.
Specifically, a focus on differences in perceptions between senior enlisted
personnel and junior enlisted personnel regarding deterrents provided a
glimpse at this phenomenon and afforded a baseline for decision-making and
further research.
Research Questions
Consistent with the purposes of this investigation, the following three
research questions were posed:
1. To what extent was there comparability in the factor dimensions
(factorial validity of scores) in the following two sets of responses to the same
items in the Adult Learning Questionnaire (ALQ) regarding level of
importance assigned to reasons for not participating in some type of formally
presented educational activity: (a) the responses of senior enlisted Air Force
personnel representing their perceptions of why junior enlisted Air Force
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personnel had not taken advantage of enrolling in an educational offering
and (b) the responses of junior enlisted Air Force personnel reflecting their
perceptions of why they themselves had not taken advantage of educational
opportunities being offered?
2. Which items in the ALQ yielded statistically significant differences
in the patterns of response on the part of members of the two samples
(senior enlisted personnel and junior enlisted personnel)?
3. Of the 34 items in the ALQ which 10 for each of the two sets of
responses provided the two highest designated levels of response on a five-
point scale— either quite important or very important— as being the most
important reasons for not enrolling in some kind of formally presented
educational offering?
Methodology
Samples. The initial population for this study consisted of 4482
enlisted personnel at Hickam AFB, Hawaii; Maxwell AFB, Alabama; and
Gunter AFB, Alabama. The total number of respondents was 1472, which
comprised two samples of 1000 junior enlisted respondents, and 472 senior
enlisted respondents for a response rate of 33 percent. The respondents
had a mean age of 33.04 years, with a standard deviation of 7.31 years.
Surveys were conducted on-line and delivered to each population by e-mail.
A hyperlink took them directly to the survey applicable to their pay grade.
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DPS-G. The Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS-G) survey (with
minor revisions) was targeted to junior grade and senior grade enlisted
personnel. Revisions included changing the pronoun in the stem of the
senior enlisted questionnaire to solicit their perceptions of junior enlisted
personnel, as well as modification in demographic questions that were
relevant to the population. Additional demographic data were gathered such
as age, gender, ethnicity, and career status for descriptive purposes as well
as for a comparison of the final sample with the broader Air Force enlisted
population. Approval to conduct the survey at the desired locations was
granted by the Air Force Survey Branch, Randolph Air Force Base, Texas
under survey number: USAF SCN 01-003. In addition, local coordination
was conducted with appropriate representatives at each base.
The Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS-G) developed by
Darkenwald and Valentine (1985), has been used in varying forms to
determine deterrents in several student populations. In particular, Martindale
and Drake (1989) validated scores on the instrument by using a sample of
Air Force enlisted personnel at Maxwell AFB. The results of Martindale’s
study were also compared those of the analysis in this study. Each item was
expressed as a reason that the individual decided not to take a course within
the last year or two. Responses were arranged in a five-step Likert type
scale format spanning from not important to very important. For the purpose
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of this study, the instrument was named the Adult Learning Questionnaire
(ALQ).
Items on demographic characteristics pertained to participant status,
gender, age, highest education credential, pay grade, base at which the
individual was located, category of enlistment, primary airforce specialty
code (PAFSC), marital status, dependents in household other than spouse,
years of service, and additional comments. Demographic data were used for
descriptive and comparative purposes.
The scores on the DPS-G survey yielded a reliability coefficient
(coefficient alpha) was fairly high at .86 for both the Darkenwald and
Valentine (1985) and the Martindale and Drake (1989) studies. Previous
studies yielded six to eight factor solutions, and the current investigation
afforded a six-factor solution. Previous factors found in the Air Force study
were labeled as follows: Lack of Course Relevance, Lack of Confidence,
Cost, Time Constraints, Lack of Convenience, Lack of Interest, Family
Problems, and Lack of Encouragement Martindale and Drake (1989)
Analysis of data. For each of the two samples the intercorrelations of
scores on all 34 items of the ALQ were determined and then subjected to a
principal components analysis (SPSS 1999). For each correlation matrix,
six, seven, and eight principal components were extracted and rotated
through the use of varimax procedure to yield orthogonal dimensions (SPSS
1999). An inspection of the loadings on the rotated factors within each of the
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two samples led to what was considered to be a successful matching of six
principal components that could be readily interpreted. This matching was
achieved from a careful examination of the seven-component rotated
solution.
In addition, chi-square analyses were carried out to ascertain whether
there were statistically significant differences in the patterns of response of
the two samples to each of the 34 items of the ALQ. In the chi-square
analyses, the five-step scale was reduced to one of three steps identified as
Quite ImportantA/ery Important (QIA/I), Somewhat Important (SI), or Not
Important/Slightly Important (NI/SI). Although the alpha level had been set at
.05, it is interesting to note that 32 of the 34 items yielded probabilities less
than .001 in the significance level. Efforts were made to compare visually
differences in the percentages of the QIA/I responses of the scores.
Selected findings. The following statistical outcomes were
noteworthy:
1. The intercorrelations of the responses to items in the ALQ provided
by the senior enlisted personnel and the junior enlisted personnel yielded two
comparable rotated factor solutions with six dimensions being identified as
constructs portraying (a) Lack of Course Perceived as Appropriate, Useful, or
Interesting (Factor A), (b) Time and Scheduling Conflicts (Factor B), (c) Lack
of Interest, Enjoyment, or Commitment to Studying (Factor C), (d) Lack of
Financial Resources (Factor D), (e) Lack of Confidence in One’s Ability
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(Factor E), and (f) Interference of Family Responsibilities (Factor F). These
six factors represented what were interpreted as the major deterrents
preventing students from enrolling in adult learning offerings.
2. Thirty-two of the 34 items in the ALQ yielded patterns of response
of the two samples that were statistically significant beyond the .001 level.
3. For almost every item, the senior enlisted personnel gave
responses regarding what they perceived the responses of the junior enlisted
personnel would be regarding the level of importance of given stated
deterrents in enrolling in formalized educational offerings that were judged to
be at a higher level of intensity (more negative) than were the responses
representing the actual perceptions of the junior enlisted personnel
themselves.
4. The most frequently represented factor reflecting a deterrent to
taking courses was that designated as Time and Scheduling Conflicts.
5. Although statistically significant differences existed in the patterns
of responses representing the two sets of perceptions rendered by the senior
enlisted personnel and the junior enlisted personnel, eight of the ten most
frequently cited deterrent item statements were the same ones for the two
samples.
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Conclusions
The following conclusions evolved from the statistical analysis of the
data:
1. For the two samples studied scores on the ALQ demonstrated
highly comparable factor structure and thus what could be judged as the
factorial validity scores on the ALQ.
2. The inference was made from the responses of the two samples to
the ALQ items that senior enlisted personnel perceived that the senior
enlisted personnel would provide a greater frequency of citation to the level
of importance of deterrents to enrolling in formalized adult learning offerings
than would the junior enlisted personnel in their own perceptions.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested:
1. This investigation should be replicated with other samples drawn
from both military and civilian populations.
2. Self-perceptions of both senior enlisted personnel and junior
enlisted personnel should be determined and compared.
3. Gender and ethnic differences in perceptions of deterrents should
be investigated.
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4. Studies emphasizing qualitative research involving both interviews
and observations should be initiated to ascertain whether comparable
outcomes regarding the degree of importance of deterrents would be
realized.
5. Ongoing research regarding both positive and negative factors
contributing to enrollment in educational offerings on the part of enlisted
personnel should be encouraged and supported.
6. Qualitative responses received in this survey should be analyzed
further to determine whereas they support the quantitative findings.
7. Further studies should be made to ascertain whether policy
changes are warranted to promote better attitudes from senior enlisted
towards voluntary education programs.
Reflections: Alternative Interpretation
and Contemplations
Appropriately, it would be unfair to consider that this negative
leadership perception is a causative factor in decisions not to participate in
educational activities without also considering the possibility that the senior
enlisted personnel more nearly accurately assessed the junior enlisted
personnel than did the junior enlisted personnel assessed themselves. This
analysis would partially support Martindale and Drake’s (1989) observation
that respondents are not likely to score themselves high on dispositional
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deterrents to socially desirable behavior such as education. More broadly, it
could be stated that his negative response set represented the general
feeling of the unimportance of education to the enlisted force because of the
lack of practical rewards or recognition that comes with completion of a
degree. However, isolated from these speculations, this study has
highlighted that there are significant differences in perceptions of these two
groups. Following are three broadly stated contemplations to consider
relevant to these differences.
First and foremost, does the Air Force organization need to educate
more enlisted personnel? It may be that the current levels of college
educated enlisted personnel are suitable for this type of organization.
However, this conclusion seems impractical given the positive effect that
educating the enlisted force has on the entire organization.
Second, if the assumption is that a more educated force is a more
quality force, then serious consideration needs to be given to making
significant changes in the value of pursuing a degree. For instance, more
weight towards promotion, bonuses and other pay incentives, programs other
than CCAF that offer specific undergraduate and advanced degrees over the
path of an enlisted career, or consideration for special duties and
assignments.
Finally, care should be taken to develop programs that benefit all
career fields by offering specific support for distance learning, and course
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offerings that coincide with both night and day shift workers. This particular
issue is not new to Air Force educators, and historically, the Air Force has
been on the leading edge in development of creative and accommodating
education programs. However, recent privatizing efforts of Air Force
education offices have led to significant reductions in staff with the Air Force
tying to maintain the same level of services. This effort is too new to be
evaluated as to its success, although it has the potential to be inconsistent
with the notion that the education program is important in contribution to the
overall quality of the Air Force.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Cahlander, Matthew Kevin (author)

Core Title A comparison of the perceptions of senior and junior enlisted Air Force personnel concerning deterrents to enrollment in and completion of adult education courses by junior personnel

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, adult and continuing,Education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Michael, William B. (committee chair), Hentschke, Guilbert (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-219611

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Identifier 3073754.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-219611 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3073754.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cahlander, Matthew Kevin

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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