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The impact of globalization and multinational companies on the development of educational policy and 21st century skills in the Costa Rican educational system

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The impact of globalization and multinational companies on the development of educational policy and 21st century skills in the Costa Rican educational system

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Content Running head: GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND 21
ST
CENTURY SKILLS IN THE
COSTA RICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

by

Richard Licciardello

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2015

Copyright 2015 Richard Licciardello
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Dr. Paul P. Licciardello, who showed me
unconditional love and support during his lifetime. My father who lived by the mantra, “I shall
overcome,” never let me forget the importance of an education, as well as the meaning of being
an inspiring educator. Thank you, father, for everything that you taught and gave to me.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 3
Acknowledgements
The list of people who supported me throughout these past three years is endless, and I am
grateful to all of you.
To my family: My mom, Michele, Mike, Louie, Kay, Marisa, Francesca, Vinnie, and Alexa.
Thank you for your love, encouragement, and support during the past three years. I could not
have persevered without your help. I am eternally grateful to all of you.
To Teresa Fleschner, my girlfriend and the editor of every paper that I turned in during these past
three years. Thank you, Hunney, for your love, support, and patience during this process. You
are now stuck with me since there are no more classes, group meetings on Sundays, and talks
about Costa Rica.
To Dr. Lee Strauss who gave me my first opportunity in education. I am eternally grateful for
your confidence in me and the support that you gave me during the early years of my career.
To Principal Emeritus Pat Corwin who has been a friend and mentor.
To Dr. Nick Stephany who provided support and friendship.
To Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft for her friendship, help, and support in completing this dissertation.
To Dr. Michael Escalante for saving me and allowing me to be a part of this dissertation group. I
appreciate your undying support and encouragement. Dr. E and I would have not made it
without you.
Lastly, to my dissertation group. You welcomed and supported me throughout this process by
making data collection, unforgettable. I would not have completed this dissertation without your
friendship and support. PURA VIDA.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 10
Challenges Associated with FDI, MNCs, and 21st Century Skills 12
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 15
Significance of the Study 16
Limitations 17
Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Study 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
Costa Rican History, Economy, and Education 22
Globalization 26
Globalization and Education 29
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Multinational Corporations (MNCs) 35
Intel in Costa Rica 38
21st Century Skills 41
Wagner Framework 42
P21 Framework 46
Discussion of 21st Century Skills 51
STEM Programs 52
Project-Based Learning (PBL) and STEM 52
Science Fairs 58
Conclusion 60
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 61
Research Design 63
Population 64
Sample 64
Educational Policy Makers and Leaders 65
Multinational Executives 66
Intel International Science and Technology Fair (ISEF) Participants 66
Instrumentation 66
Interview Protocols for Business Leaders of Multinational Corporations,
Educational Policy Makers, School Leaders, and Students 67
Observation Protocol 69
Survey Protocol 71
Data Collection 73
Data Analysis 74
Chapter Four: Results 76
Participant Overview 77
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 5
Results Research Question One 79
The Importance of Government Policy and Globalization 80
Multi-National Corporations 87
Strong Relationship between Economic Growth and STEM 92
Discussion Research Question One 96
Results Research Question Two 98
A Shift in Curriculum Focusing on STEM Project-Based Learning 98
STEM-Related Fields and Students’ Future 104
Discussion Research Question Two 109
Results Research Question Three 110
Student’s Career Opportunities and a Future 111
Increased Motivation and a Fair Culture 116
Discussion Research Question Three 122
Summary 123
Chapter Five: Findings and Recommendations 126
Summary of Findings 128
Implications for Practice 131
A National STEM Curriculum 131
Increased Teacher Training, Education, and Preparation in STEM 132
Future Research 132
Conclusion 133
References 135
Appendix A: Recruitment/Consent Letter 141
Appendix B: Policy/Government Agency Interview Protocol 143
Appendix C: Business Leaders Interview Protocol 146
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 149
Appendix E: Student Interview Protocol 152
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Teachers and Administrators 154
Appendix G: Survey Protocol for Students 156
Appendix H: Classroom Observation Protocol 157
Appendix I: Science and Technology Fair Observation Protocol 162

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 6
List of Tables
Table 1 Participants 65
Table 2 Alignment of Interview Protocol to Research Questions and Theoretical Frameworks 69
Table 3 Survey Protocols 72

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. Partnership for 21st Century Skills Framework 48
Figure 2. Science Fair Participation 82
Figure 3. Science Classes 83
Figure 4. Partnerships 88
Figure 5. Intel/MNC Influence 89
Figure 6. STEM Education, Science Fair Participation, and the Economic Future 93
Figure 7. STEM Education, Science Fair Participation, and the Future 93
Figure 8. Science Fairs Impact on Science Curriculum 100
Figure 9. Science Fair Impact on Science Instruction 100
Figure 10. Science Fair Beneficial in Preparing Students 105
Figure 11. Interest in Studying STEM Subjects 106
Figure 12. STEM Education has been Important 112
Figure 13. Science Fair’s Positive Impact 113
Figure 14. STEM Education is Important 117
Figure 15. Increase in Teachers’ Knowledge of STEM Education 118

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 8
Abstract
This qualitative study sought to understand how Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math
(STEM) Project-Based Learning (PBL) can be used to help Costa Rican students gain and
participate in the global knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. The purpose was to
examine the influence that globalization, foreign direct investment, and multinational corporate
responsibility have on the curriculum and practices in schools and on economic growth. This
study also examined how the mandated national science and technology fair influences the use of
STEM PBL. In order to grow the economy, the government must implement policies like the
science fair mandate that foster the implementation of STEM programs. The major gains in
curriculum and instruction lead to 21st Century Skills. Students value STEM education and
incorporate it into their everyday lives. As a result, two implications for practice surfaced in this
study. The first is the need for a national STEM curriculum and increased teacher training. The
second is the need for education and preparation in STEM-related curriculum.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization in
2003, the changes brought about by globalization called for new technology, as well as an
increase to the level of complexity in work-related activity. In turn, this complexity made
training workers essential in order for them to fill a substantial number of positions. These
findings illustrated the necessity for a well-trained and highly skilled workforce to take
advantage of new technologies in a globalized world. This was the challenge that countries
encountered in regards to training a workforce that utilized 21st Century Skills in which to
compete in globalized markets and to promote economic development. As a result, more
demands were placed on workers as changes occurred in the world’s economies. The
manufacturing-based industrial economy that dominated the economic landscape changed to a
service-based economy that relied on knowledge, information, creativity, and innovation (P21,
2008).
Costa Rica encountered the same challenge since its workforce was recognized for high
educational standards and outstanding productivity level (CINDE, 2012). While the country has
been successful in educating a well-skilled labor force, it still encountered the challenge of
developing new educational practices that allowed sustainability within the economic global
marketplace. For instance,
Latin America’s ability to compete successfully in global markets depends significantly
on the quality of its labor force, which in turn depends on the quality of its schools. Good
education improves workers’ skills, promotes growth, reduces poverty and provides an
important foundation for building the institutions, transparency, and good governance
that enable production to happen. (Puryear & Goodspeed, 2008, p. 1)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 10
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence that globalization, foreign
direct investment, and multinational corporate responsibility have on the curriculum and
practices in Costa Rican schools as they adopt policy and practices to prepare their students for
21st century employment. These skills are manifested in classrooms as the educational system
has embraced Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math courses (STEM), Project-Based
Learning (PBL), and mandated science fair student participation.
Background of the Problem
Over the past three decades, Costa Rica transformed from agrarian exports to a
knowledge-intensive economy that primarily focused on service industries (Larrain, Lopez-
Calva, & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000). To achieve this, Costa Rica had to transform its economy.
Former President Jose Figueres believed that in order for the nation to expand economically and
to be a part of a global economy, it would have to expand economic activity beyond exporting
bananas and coffee. As a result, the former president saw technology as a means for
transformation (Nelson, 2005). Globalization made the world appear smaller due to the
advancement of technology with more people communicating and competing for jobs, which
allowed the people of Costa Rica to compete for these jobs. Due to Costa Rica’s commitment to
education and health, it has an outstanding position in fostering human development and capital
(Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). With a well-educated labor force, Costa Rica
can grow and diversify its economy through attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) via the
means of multinational corporations (MNCs). Figueres believed that MNCs would see Costa
Rica as a viable home for high technology investment. Therefore, “Multinational corporations
may play an important role in strengthening a country’s human resources. This process may be
carried out through training offered directly to workers in the business place, supporting formal
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 11
education, or through direct collaboration with local universities” (Monge-Gonzalez& Gonzalez-
Alvarado, 2007, p. 10).
The Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE) was created to aid in the
creation and suitability of FDI through MNCs. Originally created in 1982, the mission of
CINDE was to give a stagnant economy a much-needed boost. CINDE was created by Costa
Rican business with the support of the government and by the United States through a grant from
US-AID program (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001). Originally, a nonprofit organization, the purpose of
CINDE was simply to develop the country’s economy. However, the attraction of FDI in
specific sectors was always one of its top priorities with the promotion of FDI (Rodriguez-Claire,
2001). The creation of CINDE sought much deeper change than solely that of the economy; it
sought to improve the living conditions of the citizenry (CINDE, 2012). CINDE focused on the
electrical, electronic, and technical industries and, over time, had a great deal of success in
capturing industry giants such as Intel.
Essentially, the relationship among FDI, MNCs, and a nation’s educational system was a
cyclical relationship. Nations desired FDI through MNCs to promote economic growth.
However, in order to sustain the FDI, a nation needed to have a skilled set of workers to attract
the MNCs. Over time, MNCs contributed to the host nation’s educational system to promote the
continued training of the workers and the pulse of their investment. However, factors such as
changing demands in the workplace may disrupt the cycle. In order for the nation to maintain
the presence and influence of MNCs, it must ensure that workers are capable of keeping up with
the changing and increasing demands of the work, which has been accomplished by Costa Rica.
As previously stated, the nation maintained a strong commitment to education for over 100 years
(Rodriguez-Claire, 2001). However, the demands of globalization and influence of technology
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 12
changed the required skills for workers to be successful in the workplace, thereby presenting a
challenge to economic growth for the worker, the MNC, and the country. To meet the demand
for new skills, Cost Rica implemented pedagogical practices in their schools that reinforced 21st
Century Skills using STEM PBL and mandated science fair participation. STEM PBL provided
students in Costa Rica the opportunity to learn the necessary skills for survival in the knowledge-
based economies of the 21st century. Mandated science fair participation reinforces the
commitment to developing 21st Century Skills.
Challenges Associated with FDI, MNCs, and 21st Century Skills
The relationships and outcomes described above seem rational and stable. However,
when a country invests so heavily in FDI and MNCs, more consideration needs to be given when
challenges and risks arise. In order to attract the MNCs, a country must be willing to give certain
financial considerations. Many times, these considerations come in the form of various tax
exemptions. These exemptions make investment for the MNC more attractive and profitable.
However, over time, they may become detrimental to the host nation, as, they may present a
barrier to raising future tax revenues. Decreasing tax ratios may prevent governments from
raising the revenue needed to sustain needed commitments in education and infrastructure, yet
these commitments initially attracted the host nation to the MNCs. Improved education and
infrastructure need to be continually developed to sustain the MNCs investment, as well as
attract other FDI to continue economic growth (Cordero & Paus, 2008). If a host nation can no
longer provide the benefit of a high quality education, the students and work force also suffer the
consequences.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 13
Statement of the Problem
With the utilization of technology, people are connected more than ever. The process of
globalization allowed for the integration of technology, marketplaces, and communities of
people at a faster pace (Friedman, 2007). This means that, through advances in computer and
information technology, new countries, new companies, and new people formed new knowledge-
based economies. Through globalization, it is now possible for more people to take part in the
economies of the world. This has allowed for countries like Costa Rica to transform their
economies and promote economic growth by developing human capital. This was achieved by
increasing the quality of education since a well-educated labor force increases productivity and
opportunity for knowledge-based employment (Cordero & Paus, 2008).
Before the mid-1980s, Costa Rica barely exported $1 billion dollars annually (Trejos,
2013). These exports consisted primarily of agriculture, coffee, bananas, and sugar. Since this
time, the country went through a radical transformation wherein more, as well as a variety of
shipments were exported. The transformation of globalization, different kinds of workers made
an economic impact due to the effect of FDI and MNCs with a commitment towards teaching
21st Century Skills in schools and innovative educational practices.
Globalization provided both an economic and educational benefit. Economically,
globalization offered the opportunity for countries to expand through technology. From an
educational standpoint, there has been a strong connection between the two, as nations all over
the world focus on their schools in order to prepare students to meet the demands of a global
economy (Spring, 2008). As globalization made information more accessible, it allowed for
educational discourses, practices, and agendas that called for developing human capital: better
workers to promote economic growth (Spring, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 14
Having a well-educated work force was a major component of attracting FDI and MNCs
(Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Countries adopted new educational policies
and mandates aimed at improving educational systems and human capital development. A
strong educational system and commitment to an educated workforce will bring MNCs to
countries. Often, it was the case that in doing so, MNCs provided knowledge, training, and
resources to further the systems of education in their host countries (Monge-Gonzalez &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Due to continuous innovations and changes in technology, countries
seek improvement in their educational systems to keep up with change and innovation.
These sought-after improvements can come in the form of educational policies and
mandates aimed at improving the quality of their schools to produce better workers. This was
the case in Costa Rica when the government implemented National Decree #3900 (Valencia-
Chacon, 2009), mandating participation of all students in the country’s national science fair,
which provided a form of project-based learning. According to Darling-Hammond et al. (2010),
PBL was a teaching method that allowed learners to acquire knowledge and skills through an
extended inquiry process structured around complex, relevant questions, carefully designed
products and authentic tasks. With the emergence of new trends and demands in the global
economy, there was an increasing need for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM)
classes. Utilizing STEM PBL was a way to enhance student’s skills necessary for success in the
21st century and to reinforce the curriculum they would also need to be successful (Slough &
Milam, 2013). These new skills required of students have been labeled 21st Century Skills.
These skills required students to think critically, problem solve, and effectively communicate
(Wagner, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 15
Globalization, FDI, the presence and influence of MNCs, the development of 21st
Century Skills, as manifested through STEM PBL and the mandated science fair policy, have
each had a significant role developing and sustaining Costa Rica’s economy.
Since the early 1980s, Costa Rica has experienced many changes due to economic,
political, and educational factors. In order to compete in an evolving global market, a new
economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high tech foreign direct investment. These
multinational corporations brought new job opportunities that required educational institutions to
produce more knowledge-ready workers. Schools now encounter the challenge of helping
students develop 21st Century Skills in science, technology, engineering, and math in order to
prepare the next generation of workers.
Purpose of the Study
This research study took a qualitative approach at answering three research questions.
Data was collected by individual researchers and by the research team as a whole. Data was
collected and triangulated among three different data points: interviews, observations, and
surveys. The sample populations for data collection were carefully chosen in an attempt to
capture data that was the most relevant and significant to answering the research questions.
Protocols were developed and aligned to the research question to ensure that data collected was
relevant and focused to the research questions. Government officials, policy makers, and
business executives of multinational corporations provided information pertaining to
globalization, FDI, and MNCs. Educational policy makers, school leaders, teachers, students,
and science fair participants provided information on 21st Century Skills, STEM PBL, and
national science fair policy mandates. Together, these individuals provided a corpus of data to
answer the three research questions of this study:
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 16
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices back to
the influence of policy, globalization, and multinational corporations? To what extent is
the economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation influenced
implementation of 21
st
Century Skills through the use of project-based learning and the
use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted
curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM
education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
The theoretical frameworks that provided the lens for analyzing the data were from Friedman
(2007) on globalization and Spring (2008) on education. The importance of 21st Century Skills
was examined through the work of Wagner (2008), and the significance of application of STEM
PBL was analyzed through the framework of Slough and Milan (2013) and the Partnership for
21st Century Learning (2008).
Significance of the Study
It is important that a nation adapt and engage in innovative educational practice to better
prepare students with skills necessary to compete in a global knowledge-based economy. For
instance,
A country’s ability to absorb new technologies, to produce goods and services that can
reach standards of quality and performance acceptable in international markets, to engage
with the rest of the world in ways that are value-creating is intimately linked to the
quality of its schools. (Puryear & Goodspeed, 2008 p. 1)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 17
The findings of this study affect all stakeholders, including government’s leaders, policy makers,
educational leaders, multinational executives, and teachers with students utilizing 21st Century
Skills through STEM PBL and mandated participation in national science and technology. As a
result, these practices will meet the demands of evolving and globalizing economy countries that
are challenged by improving their human capital. This study also has an impact on school
districts, school leaders, and teachers pertaining to the critical need for improved practices that
motivate real learning for students (Wagner, 2008).
Limitations
The major limitations to this research study were time and distance. The research team
traveled to Costa Rica to collect most of the data necessary to answer three research questions.
Therefore, the research team did not have access to participants beyond the trip. The research
team spent six days in Costa Rica collecting data, which was a short time for data collection,
especially in a foreign nation. While the team tried to mitigate the circumstances of location and
time by setting appointments with participants, there were still location and logistical factors that
adversely affected data collection. While language was considered a limitation to the study, the
research team mitigated this by pairing with monolingual team members with bilingual
members.
Subjective responses were also a limitation to the study. While the research team aligned
protocols to research questions in which to focus, participants’ responses could not be controlled.
These responses may have contained personal opinion or be the result of factors out of the
research team’s control.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 18
Delimitations
The major delimitation of this study was time, as the research team was in country
collecting data for six days. This was an abbreviated period in order to meet the demands of the
research team, as well as the availability of the research participants. Geography was also
delimitation, as the research team visited schools in close proximity to the metropolitan area
closest to the capital city of San Jose in order to maximize the amount of data collected, as well
as minimize the amount of time spent in transit. Since Intel was a major contributor to Costa
Rica’s economic and educational system, the schools identified for observation received support
from Intel. While this did allow generalizability to all schools, the data collected from Intel
schools provided information specifically aimed at answering the research questions for this
study.
Definition of Terms
The following key terms were used in this research study.
Central American Federation. Political confederation of the republics of Central
America: Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Salvador (Biesanz, Biesanz, &
Biesanz, 1999)
Center for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI). Provides the world with a
large body of research, case studies, statistics, and country surveys regarding educational
practices (Spring, 2008).
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE). A nonprofit organization with the
purpose of simply developing the country’s economy (CINDE, 2012).
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Investment made in a country from an outside source.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 19
Globalization. Changes in global economies affecting production, consumption, and
investment (Spring, 2008).
The Program on Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE). The IMHE
supports the global marketing of higher education (Spring, 2008).
Knowledge-based Economy. The trends in advanced economies towards greater
dependence on knowledge, information and high skill levels, and the increasing need for ready
access to all of these by the business and public sectors (OECD, 2005).
Multinational Corporations (MNCs). A large corporation operating in more than one
country.
Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The OECD provides expertise and exchanges ideas with more than 100 other countries (Spring,
2008).
Program on Educational Building (PEB). The PEB promotes the international sharing of
ideas relating to the analysis of policy, research, and experience in all matters relating to
educational building (Spring, 2008)
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). The PISA is the standard of
international student assessment (Spring, 2008).
Project-Based Learning (PBL). PBL is a systematic teaching method that engages
learners in acquiring knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around
complex, relevant questions, carefully designed products and authentic tasks (Darling-Hammond
et al., 2005).
Twenty First Century Skills. The skills that are now necessary for all students to increase
their marketability, employability, and readiness for citizenship include thinking critically and
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 20
making judgments, solving complex, multidisciplinary, open-ended problems, creativity and
entrepreneurial thinking, communicating and collaborating, making innovative use of
knowledge, information, and opportunities, and taking charge of financial, health, and civic
responsibilities (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Study
This research study was divided into three chapters. Chapter One provides an
introduction and the background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
significance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, definition of terms, and
organization of the study. Chapter Two provides a review of literature. This chapter includes a
foundation of knowledge to be drawn from in conducting this research study. It includes a
discussion of globalization and education using the framework of Spring (2008), the influence of
FDI, the influence and presence of MNCs, the need for 21st Century Skills using the framework
of Wagner (2008), STEM PBL using the framework of Slough and Milam (2013), and mandated
national science and technology fair participation. Chapter Three describes the research
methodology and design for this study. It includes research protocols aligned to the research
questions. Chapter Four presents the findings of the study, and Chapter Five provides analysis,
discussion, and recommendations for researchers and practitioners.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a synthesis of literature used for this research study. The purpose
of this study was to examine the influence that globalization, foreign direct investment and
multinational corporate responsibility have on the curriculum and educational practices in
schools in Costa Rica. This literature review begins with a discussion of significant events that
shaped the history of the nation, as well as markers that laid the foundation for it being one of the
most advanced economies in Latin America through a system of education developed with
human capita through the implementation of 21st Century Skills.
This chapter also reviews globalization and discusses in terms of its history and the ways
in which it led to a connected world. This connectedness allowed countries to participate in a
new global knowledge-based economy. The globalization of education is also discussed in an
analysis of its effect on education. Globalization means countries need to focus on educating
their populations to work in the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century.
In addition, globalization paved the way for countries to participate in the new global
marketplace because of FDI and the presence of MNCs. Both FDI and MNCs have a significant
impact on Costa Rica as they provide the resources and motivation to create a better-educated
population. In particular, this review looks at how the presence of Intel in Costa Rica affected
the educational system. This review critically looks at the need for 21st Century Skills in
education for the new knowledge-based economy, as well as how nations meet new skills. In
doing so, this chapter presents a critical look at STEM PBL programs, science fairs, and the
impact they have on enhancing educational programs and promoting 21st Century Skills.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 22
Costa Rican History, Economy, and Education
Costa Rica has a rich history based on the cornerstones of progressivism, democracy, and
political stability established since being discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1502. It is
known for being one of the most peaceful and oldest democracies in the Americas (Biesanz,
Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). The early history of the nation was marked by significant markers
that led to the development of an economy based on the exportation coffee, fruit, and the
development of an infrastructure that would shape its history for the next two hundred years
(Watkins, 2012).
For three hundred years, Costa Rica was under Spanish Colonial rule. During the early
years of the colony, the nation struggled as settlers did not have adequate supplies or resources
and, as a result, many died. A difficult, stagnant economy existed for many years until traders
from Cuba introduced coffee during the latter part of the 18
th
century. The development of
coffee as a staple plantation crop was a significant event, as it was the foundation of an agrarian
economy. Coffee’s influence expanded beyond crops; it led to the formation of an aristocracy
and the creation of different social classes. This continued until the country was liberated in
1821 when Spain declared all Central American colonies independent. Costa Rica then joined
the Central American Federation (CAF) along with Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El
Salvador (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). While a part of the CAF, Costa Rica elected its
first president, Juan Mora Fernandez, which during his leadership, the nation began a long
history of social programs with the construction of houses, schools, and the distribution of land
for any Costa Rican who pledged to cultivate and grow coffee. During this time, the nation
drafted and approved its first national constitution, Ley Fundamental del Estado Libre de Costa
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 23
Rica, which translates into Fundamental Law of the Free State of Costa Rica (Ordonez et al.,
2008).
The cultivation and growth of the coffee industry in Costa Rica provided for the
foundation of economic development and stability (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Daling,
2002). The developments in society and the economy grew with the cultivation of coffee in
Costa Rica that created a boom to major economic development. The abolition of slavery in
1821 created a major demand for labor resulting in Costa Ricans earning higher wages. The
need for labor and high wages also attracted new workers from neighboring countries in Latin
America. The boom in the coffee industry led to the expansion of the government, as it
increased regulations on both imports and exports to protect the economy and spur on economic
growth. This economic growth also fostered a rise in economic inequality, as some large,
wealthy plantation owners bought up many of the smaller coffee farms, which led to a “Coffee
Aristocracy.” This group of powerful elite plantation owners gained an abundance of power in
both the economy and politics. The power of the coffee elite continued to grow as Juan Mora
Porras, a champion of the Coffee Aristocracy, was elected president in 1848. As president,
Porras instituted a state bank in Costa Rica to provide credit for small farmers. While this idea
was not popular with the coffee aristocracy, it does provide an example of the progressivism
within Costa Rica’s history.
The growth of the coffee industry led to significant changes to Costa Rica; it led to an
increase in social diversity, urbanization, and linked Costa Rica to the outside world through new
markets for coffee exportation. As the production and exportation of coffee grew, it became
evident that Costa Rica would need infrastructure to support a trade route to the Atlantic to take
advantage of new emerging coffee markets in Europe. To provide for the transportation of
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 24
coffee across the country and secure Atlantic markets, construction on a transcontinental railroad
linking San Jose to El Limon began in 1871 under Chief of State Thomas Guardia. Guardia led a
progressive term in office that continued from 1870 to 1882. Under Guardia, the country began
its commitment to public education with the first government mandate to make education free
and mandatory (Watkins, 2013). General Guardia also brought an era of republican and liberal
ideas. During Guardia’s term, reforms took place with laws introduced to separate the church
and state, the abolishment of capital punishment, and the establishment of political parties.
Guardia planned to expand the country’s wealth and economy; he saw great potential with the
construction of a railroad that would link plantations from the Central flatlands to the Caribbean
coast in Puerto Limon (Daling, 2002).
Construction of the railroad was a major financial burden for the young country.
Through creative financing in the name of bartering land for construction and the sale of public
bonds, construction began. This was significant, as it demonstrated the willingness of the
government to make sacrifices necessary to develop a railroad that would lead to a prosperous
future. As railroad construction continued, it was eventually contracted from a British company
to an American company led by Chief Officer M. Keith. Keith’s American company would be
responsible for construction until completion. The railroad led to increased diversity of the
citizenry, as workers were brought from China, Europe, and the Caribbean to complete
construction that provided for the modernization of coffee exportation. By 1890, coffee
accounted for 90% of exports from Costa Rica (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999).
Aside from the increased diversity and modernization of coffee exportation, the
construction had an unintended, yet significant, result: the birth of the banana industry. As the
railroad was being built, in an effort to endure completion of the project, the government granted
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 25
Keith’s company a 99-year lease on the land along the railroad tracks. As costs were mounting,
Keith decided to plant bananas along the track as it was being built. This began the banana
industry in Costa Rica. The growth of the industry could not have come at a better time, as
coffee exportation had slowed down. The banana industry not only gave an ailing economy a
boost, but it also brought advances and improvement in the transportation and
telecommunication industries, and increased social diversity as workers from the West Indies
were brought in to cultivate the crop. The industry also helped to revive foreign investment, as it
was controlled by an American company, which eventually became the conglomerate United
Fruit Company. To capture and sustain foreign investment, Costa Rica provided for lenient tax
policies that favored the United Fruit Company. In all, the nation has a long history of
encouraging foreign investment and of a willingness to work with foreign investors to help the
economy.
An agrarian economy brought Costa Rica into the 20th century, but events stemming
from the beginning of World War I brought economic crisis to exports. During the era between
1913 and 1915, coffee and banana exports fell by more than 50% due to World War I. The war
brought financial crisis, as it essentially removed European markets from the country (Biesanz,
Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Watkins, 2012). European markets were essential to coffee
exportation, as Germany had been the best market for Costa Rica (Watkins, 2012). Increased
property taxes and an income tax became necessary to fund the government in an era of
worldwide inflation.
The decades of the 1920s and 1930s brought marginal economic growth and social
reform. Coming out of World War I, Costa Rica revived both coffee and banana exportation. As
exports increased, so did the power of wealthy plantation owners. Until the 1950s, banana
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 26
exportation accounted for 53% of total exports, and coffee accounted for 25% (CINDE, 2013),
and, up to this point, the exportation of various forms of agriculture had sustained Costa Rica for
many decades. This model worked well, as there were markets in Latin America that sustained
the country’s exports. However, Latin American markets, in particular, proved to be too small
and had limited potential for the growth necessary for sustainability and growth.
Costa Rica enjoyed this export economy for many years, even into the 20th century. The
exportation of various forms of agriculture sustained the nation for many decades. Up until the
1980s, the country sustained itself on agricultural exports. However, the international debt crisis
of the 1980s led to the transformation of the economy and the Costa Rican way of life. The
global economic crisis of the 1980s hit the nation hard, as it faced economic challenges that laid
the groundwork for it to make drastic and sweeping change to the economy. The nation’s
leaders faced a decrease in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), increased levels of unemployment,
currency problems, a decrease in private investment, and external public debt.
Globalization
Globalization has been happening all over the world for thousands of years. This
literature review uses the work of Thomas Friedman (2007) as the primary theoretical framework
for the history of globalization. While others are referenced, Friedman provides the foundation
for describing how globalization evolved over time. Friedman traced the beginnings of
globalization and analyzed significant markers that both shaped and flattened the world. It is
critical to understand how globalization brought the world closer together. Globalization
allowed Costa Rica to take the first steps toward achieving Direct Foreign Investment and
transforming the economy, schools, and way of life.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 27
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among people. It is also an
ongoing process of economic, social, and cultural exchanges and about collaboration and
connectivity, (Friedman, 2007). It is a process that began during the late Ice Age when a small
group of settlers left Africa in search of food and security (Chandra, 2007). Throughout the past
50,000 years, globalization shaped our lives. A chain of events starting with Columbus’s
voyages into the New World and more events that are recent had a direct impact on how people
across the world live, learn, and work. Friedman (2007) says that globalization occurred over
three distinct periods. The first occurred from 1492 to 1800, and was an era wherein
globalization happened as a result of countries’ desiring imperial conquests. Countries, or nation
states, explored and conquered in search of trader routes; they sought God, gold, or glory. This
was an era marked by innovations in navigation that led explorers across seas where monsoon
winds carried them down the coasts of continents, caravans crossed deserts, trade occurred along
the Silk Road (Chandra, 2007). This was the beginning of the world’s shrinking and becoming
flattened through globalization.
The second era of globalization occurred from 1800 to 2000. Globalization during this
era was inspired not by countries in search of conquest, but by companies in search of new
markets and labor forces. Advances in transportation brought both consumers and distributors
together as both railroads and steamships traversed across bodies of water and continents.
During the second half of this era, in the 20th century, political and historical events like the fall
of the Berlin Wall in 1989 brought the world closer. The Berlin Wall was not just a political
statement that prevented people from traveling across Europe; it also prevented a global
perspective of the world, as it had divided it into East versus West. Its fall represented the
opening up of boundaries and markets that had previously divided the world.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 28
During this era of globalization, especially in the latter half of the 20th century, there
were significant advances in computer technology that made the world smaller. According to
Friedman (2007), the day the computer browser company Netscape went public was a day that
changed the world forever. With the creation of Netscape, the Internet came alive. This was the
beginning of people’s having the connectivity to share documents, ideas, and data. This also
began the boom of the dot-com era, which led to the over investment of billions of dollars of
fiber optic telecommunication cable and advances in email capacity and search engine
technology that truly brought people closer together. People had the ability to communicate,
share ideas, and establish commerce across the world in a matter of seconds.
The third era of globalization, from 2000 to the present, builds upon the technological
advances of the first and second eras and puts companies and people closer than ever before.
European and American countries and companies (Friedman, 2007) primarily drove the first and
second eras of globalization. The third era is now dominated and driven by a more diverse
population: one that is predominately non-Western and non-white. Now, globally, people cannot
only communicate, but they can also compete for jobs. What this means is that through advances
in computer and information technology, new countries, new companies, and new people formed
new knowledge-based economies all over the world. Globalization in this era can provide
people with economic benefit through technologies and jobs. It can also provide once isolated
people with ideals of democracy and methods of political change (Banks et al., 2005), as well as
increased opportunities in schools. As the world became closer through increased connectedness
via technology and globalization, the prospect for advancement for students and workers also
increased.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 29
Globalization and Education
The process of globalization had a dramatic effect on schools in many countries.
Globalization brought education to the forefront of discussions as to how schools can better
educate a country’s population to better meet the new and changing demands of a knowledge
economy (Spring, 2008). This section of the literature review examines the work of Spring
(2008) as a theoretical framework for globalization and education. According to Spring (2008),
globalization and education involve the study of intertwined worldwide discourses, processes,
and institutions affecting local educational practices and policies (p. 330). For educational
discourse, this means that countries will focus attention on developing educational agendas that
call for investing in education to develop human capital to promote economic growth.
The idea of using education as a means of promoting economic growth and development
is one discussed often throughout this research study. Spring discusses four major interpretations
of the process of educational globalization: world culture, world systems, postcolonialists, and
culturists. For purposes of this study, these interpretations are defined and discussed according
to Spring (2008) to demonstrate the varying views of how globalization shapes education and for
whom. In addition to these overlapping views of globalization and education, various aspects of
the field are discussed as they relate to process of globalization and education. These aspects
include a global curriculum, the knowledge economy and technology, lifelong learning, and
intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations.
The World Culture view holds that education around the world is based on a Western
model, resulting in common structures and themes. The basic premise of this model is that all
people have the right to be educated, can be educated, and that an education is critical in
maintaining economic and democratic rights (Spring, 2008). The world culture view holds that
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 30
Western ideas around education are the best, and nations tend to draw from the best-developed
models they can find (Spring, 2008). Missing from this explanation from Spring are further
discussions as to what these developed models look like or what they advocate as best practices.
The common curriculum remains unclear for nations, the practices adopted, and their influence
on education.
The World Systems view holds that more developed countries legitimize their power by
using various kinds of aid agencies to support education in lesser-developed countries. This is
accomplished through supporting education to teach capitalist theories of thought and power
(Spring, 2008). According to some critics, the concept of education in this view was transformed
into a political and economic tool. This view is similar to the Postcolonial view.
The Postcolonial view of the globalization of education holds that Western education
philosophy and principles spread throughout the world after World War II, with the break-up of
many colonial empires. This led to new colonial empires being formed and spread throughout
the world through the work of intergovernmental organizations, nongovernmental agencies,
MNCs, and trade agreements (Spring, 2008). Essentially, colonialism and MNCs were allowed
to gain influence in many lesser-developed nations. As a result, postcolonial powers promoted
the spread of human capital educational reform and many neoliberal educational reforms. As
mentioned above, the postcolonial view of the globalization of education was to benefit more
wealthy nations and powerful MNCs, as education would be the means of educating a skilled
labor force that would provide a supply for the MNCs. Critics of the postcolonial view hold that
this would lead to further colonialism with issues of race relations, slavery, and resistance of
indigenous peoples happening as a result. Once again, education can be a powerful economic
and political tool.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 31
The postcolonial viewpoint of the globalization of education closely resembles what took
place in Costa Rica. The country opened its doors to the influences of MNCs since the latter part
of the 20th century. As a result, the nation enjoyed many benefits coming in the form of
economic growth and increased educational opportunities for its people through FDI and the
presence of MNCs.
The Culturalist view of the globalization of education relies on the belief that ideas can
be shared and borrowed between people. Since schooling happens at a local level, this allows for
ideas and educational practices to be shared and for new construction (more local in context) of
knowledge. This also allows for a more localized approach and implementation of school
models (Spring, 2008). The Culturalist view could provide for a happy medium between critics
of globalization who believe it imposes capitalism and more powerful nations on lesser
developed countries and empowers local leaders to decide which practices and models to
implement in their society. This implementation now takes shape in countries like Costa Rica
where there is a bridge between capitalistic thought and implementation of innovative
educational practices, which are discussed further later within this review.
Found within Spring’s viewpoints are different components of the globalization of
education. These components allow for a deeper understanding of globalization and how ideas
and knowledge spread. The components discussed in this review from Spring are The
Knowledge Economy and Technology; Lifelong Education; and the World Bank and the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These components are
discussed below. Each component plays a critical role in shaping the economic development of
Costa Rica as the changes and advancements in the educational system that took place.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 32
According to Spring (2008), the ability of a society to produce and use knowledge is
critical for sustained economic growth and an improved standard of living; knowledge becomes
the most important factor in economic development. If true, then a critical factor in economic
development lies in a country’s system of education. As people invest in themselves via an
education, they increase their opportunity to improve their lives through better employment.
This, in turn, fosters economic development and growth for their host country. Economic
growth is dependent on the knowledge, information, ideas, skills, and health of the workforce.
Investments in human capital (increased education) could improve human capital and economic
growth; this is essentially the foundation of a knowledge economy is; the idea that wealth lies not
in capital, but in knowledge. The knowledge-based economy relies more on ideas and how
technology is utilized rather than on physical abilities (Spring, 2008).
The globalization of education provided for lesser-developed countries to be a part of a
global knowledge-economy through increased educational opportunities. Through education,
countries transform their workforce to allow them to participate in the global knowledge-
economy. This kind of participation allows benefits to be reaped by both the better-educated
worker through more skilled employment and the country through sustained economic growth.
The more invested in human capital, the more growth is sustained. In order for a country and its
well-educated citizenry to sustain itself in the knowledge economy, its citizens must keep up
with the constantly changing technology and be lifelong learners (Spring, 2008). This is the
rationale behind the efforts of Costa Rica to keep up with innovative educational practices.
These practices will improve workers’ ability to perform highly skilled labor and, thereby,
increase the economic growth of Costa Rica.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 33
Lifelong learner refers to one’s ability to “adapt to new living conditions, technology,
and work requirements. In order to achieve this, the worker must have the capacity to learn the
skills necessary to keep up with an ever changing world” (Spring, 2008). The foundation of
lifelong learning begins in primary school and continues into secondary school with learning
skills in mathematics, literacy, foreign language, the ability to use information, technology, and
communicating ideas to others, work well in teams, question and innovate (Spring, 2008). These
new sets of skills are necessary to participate in the 21st century and are very different from the
reading, writing, and arithmetic (3 Rs) that were the standard in schools for many generations.
The focus of education now transcends those skills that were previously required, and students
are now challenged to do more than learn concepts. They must learn and maintain habits and
behaviors consistent with the changing demands of the knowledge economy. While lifelong
learning posits greater opportunity for workers and nations, it does bring challenges. It is
difficult for countries to provide the fiscal and educational resources necessary to train their
population. Without outside influence of resources, lesser-developed countries cannot provide
the educational infrastructure to meet the demands of a lifelong education.
In order to fund educational improvements, many lesser-developed countries need the
assistance of nongovernmental organizations like the World Bank and the OECD. Both of these
organizations contribute significantly to the development of lesser-developed countries in that
they provide loans to them enhance their educational systems (Spring, 2008). The World Bank
was founded in 1946 and provided loans to developing nations in an effort to boost human
capital. According to its president, Robert McNamara, in 1968, “Our aim will be to provide
assistance where it will contribute is to economic development. This will mean emphasis on
educational planning, the starting point for the whole process of educational improvement”
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 34
(Spring, 2008, p. 30). The World Bank is committed to improving educational systems in
countries all over the world through developing human capital within populations of lesser-
developed countries. The primary vehicle for this comes in the form of developing educational
systems that will provide “lifelong learning from early childhood to retirement and to adapt
populations in developing countries to the changing needs of the global economy and
technology” (Spring, 2008). In countries where the government cannot support this innovative
change through public education, the World Bank invests and subsidizes private educational
institutions.
In addition to the World Bank, the OECD is also a very influential contributor to the
world’s educational systems. The OECD was founded in 1961 through the Marshall Plan in an
effort to rebuild and reestablish schools throughout the war-torn world. The OECD is made up
of the world’s 30 most economically developed nations and is known for taking a human capital
approach to its educational mission (Spring, 2008). The mission of the OECD is simple, “both
individuals and countries benefit from education. Individuals benefit from the quality of life
sustained through employment, an outcome of an education. Countries benefit from the
economic growth of a well-educated citizenry and increased employment” (Spring, 2008). The
OECD is a major contributor to the world culture of education through its testing programs,
educational research, and higher education programs. The difference between the World Bank
and OECD lies in the fact that the World Bank aims to assist developing nations in terms of
advancing a global educational agenda (Spring, 2008) whereas the OECD provides for the
collection and dissemination of data including statistics about education. The OECD develops
and reviews educational policies and provides member nations with meaningful data and the
sharing of ideas (Spring, 2008). Given this data, member nations can track growth and have a
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 35
wealth of data supported by practices that they may implement in their nations to keep
educational practices innovative and their workers educated.
The OECD operates four educational programs: the Center for Educational Research and
Innovation (CERI), The Program on Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE), the
Program on Educational Building (PEB), and the Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA), (Spring, 2008). Together, the four programs of the OECD had an influence on the
educational practices of countries throughout the world. CERI provides the world with a large
body of research, case studies, statistics, and country surveys regarding educational practices.
The IMHE supports the global marketing of higher education. The PEB promotes the
international sharing of ideas relating to the analysis of policy, research, and experience in all
matters relating to educational building. The PISA is the standard of international student
assessment. The PISA can affect the standardization of education practices through its
assessment. As a result, the PISA affects the curriculum content areas of many countries,
leading to a standardization of education in many countries throughout the world (Spring, 2008).
While the World Bank and OECD have different missions, they share the same value of
the potential benefit of an education. As a result, they constitute a major contributor to the
globalization of education through their contributions and research data on education.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
The process of globalization greatly influenced FDI in Costa Rica and provided for the
presence and influence of MNCs. Costa Rica is referred to as the “Silicon Valley of Latin
America,” a reflection of the nation’s reputation for attracting investment from high technology
corporations. As stated by the WTO (1996), FDI is the prime motor of globalization. Both FDI
and MNCs had a profound effect on society, the economy, and schools. The influences of both
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 36
provided tremendous economic growth and changed the landscape of schools. FDI allows
countries to diversify their economies, provide better employment options for their workforce,
and possibly establish a place for their country to take part in an increasingly globalized
economy (Nelson, 2005). Globalization and FDI go hand-in-hand in the development of national
policy that created a knowledge-based economy. This development had a significant impact on
the economy of Costa Rica (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2002, 2013; WTO, 1996). FDI can prove to
be a meaningful source of economic development modernization, income growth, and
employment for the host country (OECD, 2002).
Costa Rica’s history is lined with FDI, from opening itself up to foreign investment in the
creation of a national railroad project in the mid-19th century to the creation of the Costa Rican
Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE) in 1982 to promote the development of the economy
during the economic crisis of the early 1980s. In an effort to give a stagnant economy a much-
needed boost, CINDE was created by business, with the support of the government and the
United States through a grant via its US-AID program (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001). Originally, a
nonprofit organization, the purpose of CINDE was simply to develop the country’s economy;
however, the attraction of FDI was always one of its top priorities, particularly the promotion of
FDI in specific sectors. The creation of CINDE sought much deeper change than just in the
economy; it sought to improve the living conditions of the people of Costa Rica, to facilitate the
improvement of the investment environment, and encourage an attitude change of citizens
toward globalization (CINDE, 2012). The purpose of CINDE was to change the nature of the
economy through focusing on FDI of MNCs.
According to Larrain, Lopez-Calva, and Rodriguez-Clare (2000), the attraction of FDI
constitutes a fundamental element to support strategies aimed at achieving sustained economic
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 37
growth in developing countries. This is because globalization and the attendant opening of the
economies to competition require increased financial resources and technology, which would be
impossible under a policy of autarky. During the mid-1970s and through the decade of the
1980s, Costa Rica faced increasing debt as worldwide oil prices rose, and banana, coffee, and
sugar prices plummeted. The economy faced a drop in its GDP of 11% and a rise in
unemployment to 10% per capita. Buying power declined by 40% as annual inflation rose from
18% to 82%, and public debt tripled (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). Because of economic
crisis, Costa Rica was forced to suspend debt payment to most of its creditors. This crisis
continued and, by 1989, with foreign debt reaching five billion dollars, Costa Rica became the
world’s largest per capita debtor (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999) leaving the country
essentially bankrupt. Costa Rica’s economic problems continued into the 1990s.
Due to the dire economic conditions, the nation’s leaders knew that dramatic changes to
their economy were necessary. This change would come in the form of a new direction for
economic growth. Responding to the call for economic growth, change, and to capitalize on the
benefits of globalization, CINDE focused its attention on attracting FDI from large U.S.-based
electronic firms (Nelson, 2005). With a high level of technical workers, low labor costs, and a
bilingual work force, Costa Rica positioned itself to enter the emerging market of the growing
global electronics industry. Instead of spreading limited resources over many industries, this was
a concentrated effort by CINDE to specifically target electronics and focus all of its resources on
one sector (FIAS, 1998). Specifically, this was the beginning of CINDE’s targeting the MNC of
Intel.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 38
Intel in Costa Rica
In 1999, under the direction of President Jose Maria Figueres, Costa Rica began a
campaign to bring Intel into the country and transform its economy. President Figueres had a
vision. Economic conditions that led to the crisis of the 1980s painted a clear picture that the
country could no longer rely on the production and exportation of coffee, fruit, and sugar or the
low tech, low wage industries that had comprised its economy until then. In 1996, the economy
was stagnant; there was a realization that FDI and exports would have to play a larger role in the
economy if the country was to rebound economically (Intel, 2006). President Figueres
envisioned the country as a haven for high technology investment. He wanted the nation to
develop and have a higher value-added role in the global economy. He saw attracting high FDI
in technology as a way to accomplish this (Nelson, 2005).
CINDE had some early success in attracting FDI from the electronics and
telecommunications industries. By 1995, the nation had multiple MNCs already in the country
and was gaining a deeper understanding of how those industries worked and gaining an
advantage over other countries in the pursuit of FDI (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). Around this same
time, leaders learned of Intel’s interest in developing a new location for a plant where microchips
would be created and tested. Unfortunately, Costa Rica had not been on Intel’s radar for
locations. Armed with a strong knowledge of the industry, CINDE, with the support of the
government sought to have Costa Rica included on the list of possible locations for Intel. The
selection process for Intel was neither an easy one nor a quick one.
The process took over a year and included four phases: prequalification, site research,
contingent announcement and delivery, and start-up. During this selection process, the job of
CINDE was to make the country as attractive to Intel as possible. This included making Intel
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 39
executives aware of the skilled labor force, wide knowledge of the English language, and
favorable economic concessions that the country already had in place to entice MNCs
(Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). After much deliberation, Intel announced in November of 1996 that
Costa Rica would be the new home for its micro-processing plant. According to Rodriguez-
Clare (2001), Intel executives cited four factors that separated the country from the rest of the
countries they considered:
1. General country characteristic - political and social stability, high quality of life, a “pro-
business environment,” high levels of educated population with a working knowledge of
English, a good package of incentives that had clearly defined procedures and conditions
and was not subject to arbitrary negation.
2. The country’s growing emphasis and success in attracting high tech FDI.
3. The existence of an aggressive, effective, and knowledgeable foreign investment
promotion agency like CINDE.
4. A government that quickly understood the importance of an Intel investment in the
country.
These four reasons and the presence of a well-educated labor force is what eventually led Intel to
decide on Costa Rica as the home for their new micro-processing plant in 1996. As a result, Intel
had a profound impact on schools.
The idea that shapes Intel’s investment into schools centers on the basic principle of
developing human capital. According to Eide and Showalter (2010), human capital theory
assumes that individuals take actions that will likely increase their future earnings and overall
wellbeing. Using this idea as a framework for Intel, it is apparent that these investments will
produce future benefits. Essentially, Intel sees education as a prime means for increasing the
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 40
labor force through increased education, capabilities, on the job training, and health (Eide &
Showalter, 2010). Human capital theory can also be utilized to secure a future benefit for
students as they see their schooling and training as an increased investment in their future
earning potential. As explained by Puryear and Goodspeed, (2008), Latin America’s success
increasingly depends on developing a large pool of highly skilled labor, both because the global
economy is becoming more knowledge intensive and because huge numbers of lower-wage,
unskilled, Chinese and Indian workers drive down demand for low-skilled workers elsewhere.
Education may also be used by students as a signal to the world economy that they have the
skills necessary to be successful in a growing knowledge-based economy as their innate
productivity levels are identified by their increased years of schooling (Page, 1997). It is
important to note that, whether a worker’s productivity levels are signaled by their years of
schooling or enhanced by them, the fact remains that both are influenced a great deal in Costa
Rica by the investments that Intel made in schools there.
Therefore, the question remains as to what exactly Intel did to improve the educational
system. According to Intel’s 2012 Corporate Responsibility Report, Intel has an ambitious
vision: create and extend computing technology to connect and enrich the life of every person
on Earth. Intel believes that, in order to be successful in today’s innovation economy, access to
technology and a quality education are critical (Intel Corporate Responsibility Report, 2012).
Intel annually invests more than one million US dollars to promote 21st Century Skills in Costa
Rican schools. This includes building student’s abilities in math, science, and engineering
(CINDE, 2013; Intel, 2012). In addition to providing extensive technology to schools, Intel also
began a program to teach educators how to integrate technology into their curricula through the
Intel Teach Program (Intel, 2002). This program will benefit teachers a great deal, as 74% of
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 41
them stated that they had a computer in their classroom and 80% of them said they did not know
how to use it (Intel, 2002). The Intel Teach Program will enhance teaching and learning through
integrating technology into classrooms and promoting 21st Century Skills such as digital
literacy, problem solving, critical thinking, and collaboration. More than 30% of teachers went
through the Intel Teach Program. The Ministry of Education has plans underway to offer civil
service credits to teachers who participate in this program, and these credits may be used toward
increases in salary. Plans are also underway to enroll the nation’s remaining 70% of teachers in
the program (Intel, 2002). The effect that Intel had on the education system benefitted students,
schools, teachers, and the future of the nation.
21st Century Skills
This section discusses the advent of 21st Century Skills and explains the critical need for
students to learn theses skills in order to be successful in a knowledge-based economy.
According to Dede (2009), the 21st century is quite different from the 20th century. The skills
and abilities people need now to be successful are different from those of before. This is due
primarily to the emergence of very sophisticated information and communications technologies.
Globalization of the economy, increasingly diverse, and interconnected populations, and rapid
technological change pose new and demanding challenges to individuals and societies alike
(Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Essentially, today’s labor force must acquire a new form of skills
and competencies suited to the knowledge economy of the 21st century (Ananiadou & Claro,
2009). This being the case, leaders of schools systems need to rethink the knowledge and skills
students will need and the educational practices and policies that educational systems around the
world must adapt to meet the new demands.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 42
The knowledge and skills students now need transcend the mere memorizing and
regurgitation of facts and require students to think critically, analyze new forms of information,
solve new and innovative problems, work with others, communicate effectively (both orally and
in writing), and defend their opinions with clear and concise arguments and rationale (Silva,
2008). Using the work of Wagner (2008) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2008) as a
framework, this review examines what 21st Century Skills are and the critical need for students
to obtain them to be successful in the new knowledge economy of the 21st century.
Wagner Framework
“Yesterday’s solution does not solve tomorrow’s problem” (Wagner, 2008, p. 17). This
quote from Wagner exemplifies the critical need for a new and innovative approach to educating
students to prepare them for the future. As Wagner (2008) states, “Thus work, learning, and
citizenship in the twenty-first century demand that we all know how to think-to reason, analyze,
weigh evidence, problem solve-and to communicate effectively” (p. xxiii). Wagner presents a
case for what he calls the Seven Survival Skills, the skills that matter most for work, learning,
and citizenship in today’s global “knowledge-economy” (Wagner, 2008). It is necessary to
understand three significant changes in society and the world that drive the impetus for curricular
change in schools.
1. The rapid evolution of the new global “knowledge economy,” with profound effects on
the world of work - all work.
2. The sudden and dramatic shift from information that is limited in terms of amount and
availability to information characterized by flux and glut.
3. The increasing impact of media and technology on how young people learn and relate to
the world and to each other (Wagner, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 43
The changes that Wagner writes about are centered on the rapidly changing technologies
and skills being developed by workers all over the world, as well as the economic growth of
countries like China, India, Thailand, and the Philippines. To deal with these changes we need to
ensure that students are educated differently to meet these needs (Wagner, 2008). While Wagner
writes this with the intention of informing practice in American schools, the intent is the same in
relation to schools in all nations as the global economy is now open to students and well-
educated laborers from all corners of the world. Wagner arrived at the seven survival skills
through interviewing different chief executive officers of many MNCs from all over the world.
The skills were developed from the skills workers lacked, according to these executives.
1. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: According to Wagner, the ability to ask good
questions is an important skill that goes hand-in-hand with critical thinking and problem
solving. Companies of the past were structured in a very hierarchical way, from the top
down. However, the companies of the knowledge economy were flattened, with work
being organized in cross-functional teams that work together. Work in not defined by
your specialty, but rather by the task or problem that your team is responsible for solving.
Teams of workers need to work together and figure out the best way to manage and solve
problems (Wagner, 2008). Critical thinking and problem solving involve the ability of
applying abstract knowledge to solve a problem and to develop and execute a solution. It
means using a framework for problem identification, assumptions, and facts, acquiring
information, viewing alternate solutions and surrounding yourself with people who have
differing opinions who can help you come to the best solution: team-based leadership
(Wagner, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 44
2. Collaboration Across Networks and Leading by Influence: As technology shrinks the
world, the ability to communicate and collaborate is skills that are more critical now than
ever. Workers now work with individuals across countries and the world, across
boundaries and cultures as the global marketplace continues to grow. The need to
understand and appreciate diverse cultures is important. According to Global Awareness,
in its 21st Century Skills Framework, students need to:
 Use 21st Century Skills [such as critical thinking and problem solving] to understand
and address global issues.
 Learn from and work collaboratively with individuals representing diverse cultures,
religions, and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open dialogue in personal,
work, and community contexts.
 Understand other nations and cultures, including the use of non-English languages
(Wagner, 2008).
3. Agility and Adaptability: Due to the amount of new information created at high rates, the
complexity of problems, and the overall rate of change that large organizations have to
manage daily, agility and adaptability are critical. Workers have to be flexible, adapt to
new challenges and adopt new tools in coming up with solutions to this problems
(Wagner, 2008). Workers in the knowledge economy need to be comfortable with
unpredictability. As information is changed and newly created, so is the data that is used
for old solutions. This is a dramatic departure from what students previously learned in
school: the idea of a right and wrong answer. In the economy and workplace of today,
there may be many answers to a problem and, if there is only one answer, it will only last
for a nanosecond.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 45
4. Initiative and Entrepreneurialism: There is a need for individuals to seek new
opportunities, ideas, and strategies for improvement (Wagner, 2008). With the amount of
new data and information created using technology, individuals must not become
complacent with the status quo. Workers need to stretch goals and be comfortable with
the risks that coincide with new and changing demands.
5. Oral and Written Communication: As the world shrunk, the opportunities for
communication with a wide variety of people increased, and so has the need to be an
effective communicator. In both schools and in the workplace, the idea of collaboration
is an important tool for solving problems. Being an effective communicator is essential
in collaboration (Wagner, 2008).
6. Accessing and Analyzing Information: Using technology and information communication
systems, students, and workers have to manage newly created information on a daily
basis. The importance of how a student, and worker, accesses and interprets that new
information and chooses to use it are often more important than the information itself
(Wagner, 2008). This skill involves more than just being able to read a newspaper or
access a webpage. The need goes beyond and includes critical thinking skills in terms of
what is the most current and best information available. Making connections and the
ability to synthesize newly created information is critical in solving the problems of
today.
7. Curiosity and Imagination: The ability to be creative is essential in not only solving
problems, but also creating new and innovative products and services that meet the needs
of an ever-changing economy. The workers of today need to think in disciplined ways,
but also use their curiosity and imagination to “think outside of the box” in their day-to-
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 46
day activities. Curiosity also plays a role in what workers are challenged with doing.
Workers simply can no longer take things at face value. They need to have the
imagination to look at problems and solutions and ask, “Is there a better way of doing
this?” Workers cannot fear the idea of failure, but embrace it as an inevitable outcome of
finding new and innovative solutions.
Wagner’s Seven Skills for Survival are more than just recommendations for the workplace.
They are in essence what the 3 Rs were to educators a generation ago. As it is the responsibility
of schools to prepare students for the working world and obligation to make them responsible
citizens these skills are critical. They are the fundamental life skills that students need to know
to become successful members of the knowledge economy and citizens of the 21st century
(Wagner, 2008).
P21 Framework
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P 21) serve as another theoretical framework for
examining the critical need for 21st Century skills. The 21st century partnership is an advocacy
group that brings the business community, educational leaders, and policy leaders together to
define and help implement a vision of 21st century education to ensure every child’s success as
both citizens and workers in the 21st century (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2008). For
students in the 21st century there is a critical need to master knowledge beyond the traditional
core subjects of knowledge. As stated above, there is a need for students to learn more than the 3
Rs of reading, writing, and arithmetic and how to regurgitate memorized information (Wagner,
2008). The need for 21st Century Skills focuses on education and competitiveness. Students
face the challenge of competition with other students from all over the world in the global
marketplace. They compete for jobs and the skill set required for success changed. Thus,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 47
schools need to change as well if they are to prepare students. The need for a new skill set for
students goes beyond the scope of education and into the importance of a well-educated labor
force that a country needs for economic sustainability. The economic imperative of 21st Century
Skills is critical not just to students, but also to the economics of nations themselves (Partnership
for 21st Century Skills, 2008; Wagner, 2008). As P21 (2008) states, “Our ability to compete as a
nation and for states, regions, and communities to attract growth industries and create jobs
demands a fresh approach to public education” (p. 14). In order for the economies of nations to
be competitive in the global knowledge economy, schools must adopt 21st Century Skills and
impart them on students. The importance of new skills in the workforce can be described by the
New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce (2007).
The best employers will be looking for the most competent, most creative, and most
innovative people and will be willing to pay them top dollar for their services. This will be true,
not just for top professionals and managers, but also up and down the length and breadth of the
workforce. Those countries that produce the most important new products and services can
capture a premium in world markets that will enable them to pay high wages to their citizens (p.
7).
The 21st Century Skills that are now necessary for all students to increase their
marketability, employability, and readiness for citizenship:
 Thinking critically and making judgments
 Solving complex, multidisciplinary, open-ended problems
 Creativity and entrepreneurial thinking
 Communicating and collaborating
 Making innovative use of knowledge, information, and opportunities
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 48
 Taking charge of financial, health, and civic responsibilities
These skills closely resemble the same skills that Wagner discussed in his Seven Survival
Skills. The skills outlined by P21 are discussed below. Figure 1 below outlines the skills and
presents them in a visual framework to see how they intertwine with one another as well as the
education support system utilized.

Figure 1. Partnership for 21st Century Skills Framework
The 21st Century Skills curriculum extends beyond the teaching of skills to students. It
also imparts knowledge and skill sets that students need to master in order to be successful (P21,
2008). These skills begin with mastery of core academic subject knowledge and understanding.
These subjects include English, world language, arts, mathematics, economics, science,
geography, history, government, and civics (P21, 2008). While these subjects are not new to
curriculum in schools, what is new is the interweaving of interdisciplinary themes of the 21st
century: Global Awareness, Financial, Economic, Business, and Entrepreneurial Literacy (P21,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 49
2008). Surrounding the core academic subjects are the skill sets that students will be required to
know.
Life and Career Skills - Life and work requirements go far beyond thinking skills and
content knowledge (P21, 2008). The skills that are necessary to be successful in a competitive,
information-driven, changing global knowledge economy are Flexibility and Adaptability,
Initiative and Self-Direction, Social and Cross Cultural Skills, Productivity and Accountability,
and Leadership and Responsibility (P21, 2008).
Learning and Innovation Skills - These are the skills that will separate students who are
prepared for the increasingly complex life and work environments of the global knowledge
economy (P21, 2008). These skills are Creativity and Innovation, Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving, and Communication and Collaboration (P21, 2008).
Information, Media, and Technology Skills - Today’s society is a media rich one with
new information being created and disseminated faster than ever (Wagner, 2008). Technology
also allowed for people to connect with one another across the world in seconds. Students must
effectively examine information and utilize media and technology to collaborate with citizens all
over the world. The skills that are essential for students to do this are Information Literacy,
Media Literacy, and Information, Communications, and Technology Literacy (P21, 2008).
The support systems that are in place for students to master the 21st Century Skills are
critical. They, essentially, are the blueprint for learning environments to implement and deliver
21st Century Skills to students. The 21st Century Support Systems are 21st Century Standards
Assessments of 21st Century Skills, 21st Century Curriculum and Instruction, 21st Century
Professional Development, and 21st Century Learning Environments (P21, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 50
The 21st Century Standards focus on content knowledge and expertise (P21, 2008).
These standards will guide what is taught in the core academic subjects and in the disciplinary
themes associated with them. They emphasize a deeper understanding of content as opposed to a
shallow understanding. They engage students using real world data to solve real life, meaningful
problems (P21, 2008).
The assessment of 21st Century Skills will include both classroom formative and
summative assessments, as well as school-wide standardized achievement tests. Timely
feedback is essential in monitoring student performance and guiding instruction. Technology
will be infused into the assessment process to enhance student’s mastery of technology. Students
will develop rich portfolios to help measure the systems effectiveness in reaching students high
level of mastery (P21, 2008).
The 21st Century Curriculum and Instruction model will look to infuse content of core
subjects across interdisciplinary themes. The goal of this is to provide a balance between content
core knowledge and interdisciplinary themes across subject matter. The object of the exercise
here is to infuse content knowledge with learning methods that incorporate supportive
technology, inquiry and problem-based approaches, and higher order thinking skills (P21, 2008).
In order to facilitate these practices, 21st Century Professional Development is required
to provide educators with the skills necessary to bring the 21st century model to life.
Professional development practices include giving teachers the skills, tools, and strategies to
implement the 21st Century Curriculum. Teachers will be asked to balance their approach to
instruction between direct instructions and project-oriented methods. Teachers will be asked to
identify students’ particular learning styles, intelligences, strengths, and weaknesses and provide
students with opportunities to build on their strengths. The 21st Century Professional
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 51
Development model also builds in continuous evaluation of students’ skills to enhance and guide
instruction. Teachers need to know how to develop and use these assessments. Lastly, teachers
will be asked to collaborate and share amongst their peers in the professional learning
community.
The 21st Century Learning Environment that supports the practices includes changes in
both the physical and philosophical approach to educating students. Educators are asked to
develop curricula that support student’s engagement in relevant, real world problems. They are
asked to provide equity in access to learning tools, technologies, and resources, and to provide
the architectural and interior designs that will facilitate group, team, and individual learning
(P21, 2008).
Discussion of 21st Century Skills
The need for 21st Century Skills is evident, as discussed above. Both Wagner (2008) and
the Partnership for 21st Century Skills both outline critical changes that need to take place in
schools to prepare students with the skills necessary for success in the changing knowledge-
based economy of the 21st century (P 21, 2008). The skills are necessary both for student
success and for the economic sustainability of nations (Wagner, 2008). What is consistent
between both frameworks is the need for students to better develop critical thinking and problem
solving skills, collaboration, effective communication skills, initiative, creativity, and the ability
to access new forms of information. Just as the global workplace changed, so are the schools
that educate our students. Students need to be equipped with the tools to solve the problems of
tomorrow in order to be successful.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 52
STEM Programs
This section discusses the advent of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math
(STEM) courses and the educational and economic benefit they can produce in students. STEM
courses became a pivotal topic in education over the last decade (Sahin, 2013). The importance
of STEM classes became a vital contributor to a country’s economic wellbeing (Sahin, 2013).
STEM classes gained popularity recently in schools all across the globe, as they provide students
with the opportunity to learn, collaborate, lead one another, and engage in informal yet authentic
science activities. The basic premise of STEM classes has roots in social learning theory, as
students are usually grouped together and allowed to learn and test new ideas without the threat
or fear of a right or wrong answer (Sahin, 2013). The teacher takes the role of a facilitator of
knowledge during STEM activities and students are allowed to engage and take responsibility for
their own learning and outcomes. STEM classes were traditionally taught as four discrete
subjects. STEM subjects became more important, as they provide students with essential core
subject knowledge necessary to compete globally. STEM education is a direct link to future
prosperity for both students and national economy. “STEM is an economic imperative as
technological innovation accounted for almost half of the United States’ economic growth over
the past 50 years and almost all of the 30 fastest growing occupations in the next decade will
require at least some background in STEM” (Sahin, 2013, p. 13). The need for STEM programs
is critical for both students and nations as it will provide both with the opportunity for a future in
the 21
st
century.
Project-Based Learning (PBL) and STEM
PBL has a long tradition in America’s public schools. Like STEM, PBL has its roots in
social learning theory (Burlbaw, Ortwein, & Williams, 2013). Project-based learning provides
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 53
authentic and contextual learning experiences for students. According to Darling-Hammond et
al. (2008), “PBL is a systematic teaching method that engages learners in acquiring knowledge
and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, relevant questions,
carefully designed products and authentic tasks” (p. 43 ). STEM PBL provides students with
skills that will be needed for success both inside the classroom and out. Using Capraro and
Slough’s (2006) definition, STEM PBL is an ill-defined task within a well-defined outcome
situated within a contextually rich task requiring students to solve several problems which when
considered in their entire showcase student mastery of several concepts of various STEM
subjects. STEM PBL is both challenging and motivating, as it requires students to think
critically and analytically, and enhances higher-order thinking skills. STEM PBL “requires
collaboration, peer communication, problem-solving, and self-directed learning while
incorporating rigor for all students” (Capraro & Slough, 2006, p. 3). STEM PBL is the perfect
marriage between the skills necessary for students to master as defined by Wagner and the
Partnership for 21st Century Skills and the future workplace needs of the 21st century. This
review looks at STEM and PBL, and references the work of Slough and Milam (2013) as a
theoretical framework.
In order to implement a successful STEM PBL program, careful consideration must be
given to the learning environments in which it exists as well as the learning sciences (Slough &
Milam, 2013). There are four design principles that are critical for the successful
implementation of STEM PBL, as they are the blueprints for educators to consider when
designing and implementing a STEM PBL program: making content accessible, making thinking
visible, helping students learn from others, and providing autonomy and lifelong learning
(Slough & Milam, 2013).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 54
Making content accessible allows students to engage in problems, examples, and
contexts, which connect new ideas to personally relevant prior knowledge. There are three
pedagogical dimensions to making content accessible: building on student ideas, use of
personally relevant problems, and scaffolding inquiry (Slough & Milam, 2013). This means that,
in the classroom, teachers need to provide an environment for students to ask questions and can
refine those questions through the process of design and conducting investigations that are
relevant to them; evaluate data and scientific evidence according to their own understandings,
and verbalize their findings (Slough & Milan, 2013). Furthermore, scaffolding provides learners
the chance to gain insight and knowledge from more experienced and knowledgeable peers,
while timely feedback will provide further guidance and direction to the students as they work
more independently from the teacher.
Making thinking visible refers to how ideas are connected (Slough & Milam, 2013). This
principle allows students to get a deeper understanding of what they are studying and doing.
There are three pedagogical dimensions to making thinking visible: modeling scientific thinking,
scaffolding students to make their thinking more visible, and providing multiple representations
(Slough & Milam, 2013). Modeling scientific thinking allows students to take in new
information and change their previous notions about what they thought; they can interpret
feedback from peers and reconsider new information after experiments take place. Scaffolding
students to make their thinking more visible allows students to monitor their own learning and
develop reflection, which will allow a deeper understanding of their own practices and the
scientific process (Slough & Milam, 2013). Providing multiple representations is important
because it allows students to participate more actively in the scientific process. Taken together,
making thinking more visible to the students allows for scientific thought to become more visible
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 55
to the learner and therefore, more accessible thus bridging the world of science and learning
together (Slough & Milam, 2013).
Helping students learn from others is the foundation of social constructivism and
cooperative learning theory (Slough & Milam, 2013), which is a building block of project-based
learning. There are four pedagogical dimensions to helping students learn from others:
encourage listening to others, design discussions, highlighting the cultural norms, and employing
multiple social structures (Slough & Milam, 2013). Listening to others is a key component, as it
reinforces the idea that students should listen and think before responding. Listening and
reflecting will allow students time to interpret, understand, and respond to new information. The
principle of design is critical to helping students learn from others in that students are forced into
active conversations with one another while in the process of design. During this process,
students will take in new information, reflect on it, and compose responses based on the
contributions of others (Slough & Milam, 2013). Highlighting cultural norms is essential in
project-based learning, as it establishes the norms by which learners hear the ideas and words of
their peers, experts, and others from diverse cultures. It also outlines the process by which
learners establish their own criteria for scientific explanations, the evaluation of their own
progress, the progress of others, describe the connections of ideas, and the critique of others
(Slough & Milam, 2013).
Promoting autonomy and lifelong learning are crucial to the process of metacognition
(Slough & Milam, 2013). Metacognition allows students to reflect on their own learning
experiences. There are four pedagogical principles to promoting autonomy and lifelong
learning: encouraging monitoring, providing complex projects, revisiting and generalizing the
inquiry process, and scaffolding critique (Slough & Milam, 2013). PBL calls for an appropriate
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 56
amount of monitoring and feedback between the teacher and student. This balance is important
because it allows students to evaluate their ideas and progress (Slough & Milam, 2013).
Providing complex projects allows students to set their own goals and monitor their progress
while working through the process of inquiry. Through this process, students have to set goals,
seek feedback, work in collaboration with others, interpret comments, and adjust behavior to
meet the changing demands of their projects. In light of new developments within the process,
students need to revisit and adapt new schema accordingly. It is the job of the teacher to develop
scaffolding opportunities to assist students in developing new arguments and conclusions based
on new information (Slough & Milam, 2013).
The foundations of learning and design principles set forth the blueprint for implementing
PBL in classrooms. They offer the essentials for teachers in making content accessible, making
thinking visible, helping students learn from others, and providing autonomy and lifelong
learning (Slough & Milam, 2013) that are essential for a PBL program to be successful.
Along with the design of the learning environment, it is important to understand the importance
of four foundations of learning sciences: pre-existing knowledge, teaching for understanding,
feedback, reflection, and metacognition as vital components of a successful STEM PBL program
(Slough & Milam, 2013). These foundations are central for educators to understand, as they will
promote a better understanding of what students know and how better to help students meet the
needs of a STEM PBL program.
Pre-existing knowledge refers to the ideas, skills, beliefs, and concepts that students
develop on their own based on information they received beginning at birth (Slough & Milam,
2013). This knowledge is significant, as it shapes and directs students’ thoughts based on their
previous knowledge and experiences. Often, it is the case that previous knowledge may be
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 57
flawed that acts as a barrier to new learning for students. It is crucial for teachers to be aware of
a student’s prior knowledge and work to change misconceptions, as students often will use their
prior knowledge in forming connections to new knowledge.
Teaching for understanding emphasizes the importance to understand how factual
knowledge and conceptual knowledge are intertwined and help students learn with
understanding. As Slough and Milam (2013) discuss, “In order for students to learn with
understanding, factual knowledge must be balanced within a conceptual framework” (p. 19).
Factual knowledge is key in developing new ideas and understanding concepts, but a large body
of disconnected facts is not sufficient for students. Students need to place factual knowledge
within a conceptual framework in order to truly understand what they are learning (Sough &
Milam, 2013).
Metacognition is important, as it allows students to determine when they truly understand
something or when they need more information. According to Sough and Milam (2013),
“Metacognition is a person’s own knowledge and skills to be aware of one’s own thinking” (p.
20). Students must actively engage in the learning process and must determine for themselves
how new information is connected to current understandings. Students need to be aware of their
own thinking, taught how to evaluate understanding, and given the opportunity to correct or
modify concepts based upon their own understandings (Slough & Milam, 2013).
Feedback, revision, and reflection are necessary. In order for students to utilize
metacognition, they must be allowed to reflect upon their own thinking, incorporate the feedback
from others, and revise their previous thoughts in light of new information presented to them.
Using feedback, revision, and reflection will help students regulate their own learning. Once
students reflect upon their own learning, they can make their thinking visible to others in their
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 58
group. This provides them with feedback that will further enhance their learning as they
incorporate new information into their own knowledge.
The work of Slough and Milam (2013) provides a theoretical foundation of STEM PBL.
They outlined both the design principles and foundations in learning sciences necessary for a
successful STEM PBL program.
Science Fairs
Science fairs “stimulate student’s creativity, investigative spirit, scientific thinking and
abilities and skills in the fields of science and technology” (Title IV of the Science and
Technology Development Promotion Act No. 7169, 1990). Science fairs began in the United
States in the 1920s (Wilson, Cordry, & Uline, 2004). Since then they have grown in popularity
in schools all over the world. Science fairs are an example of a constructivist approach to
learning, as science fair practices often include allowing student questions to guide student
pursuit of knowledge, placing value on primary sources of information, looking at students as
thinkers and teachers as mediators, and assessment based on portfolios, observations, and
exhibits (Grote, 1995). Science fairs allow students to conduct scientific research, extending
their own knowledge through the value of experience and gaining important exposure to 21st
Century Skills, such as: inquiry, investigation, collaboration and communication (Wilson,
Cordry, & Uline, 2004). Science fairs provide a good example of blending the critical needs
demanded by the 21st century within the context of PBL in the classroom.
As mentioned above, a vital component of this study is centered on the use of science
fairs in Costa Rica and how the fairs increase human capital in students and expose them to 21st
Century Skills as they take part in the fairs. According to national policy, “The overall objective
of this program [science fair participation] is to promote a science and technology culture,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 59
starting with the development of scientific knowledge, as a stimulus to new generations of Costa
Ricans, through the demonstration and discussion of research projects designed by students”
(Valencia-Chacon, 2009, p. 4). Science fairs have been in Costa Rica since the 1960s as
extracurricular activities that lacked formal structure. During the decades of the 1970s, The
University of Costa Rica began organizing science fairs, and, in 1983, the first National Science
Fair was organized by teaching interns, using high school students projects (Valencia-Chacon,
2008). Since 1983, the prominence of science fairs increased in Costa Rica with support from
both the national government and MNCs like Intel. In 1990, science fairs in Costa Rica became
formally organized under Law 7169, the Science and Technology Development Promotion Act
(Valencia-Chacon, 2009). Law 7169 expanded the science fairs into primary schools and
expanded into other regions of the country, allowing over 300 schools to participate (Vanencia-
Chacon, 2009). In 1999, Costa Rica affiliated their National Science Fair with the Intel
International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF). This event is especially important as the
country can send participants onto the international stage.
By the year 2000, the national science fairs had expanded in both number and structure,
as more than 700 schools participated, and the fairs were structured to include 20 Regional
Science Fairs that would eventually feed into the Intel ISEF (Valencia-Chacon, 2009). Science
fair participation increased at this time and officials saw the potential benefit for increased
participation, not just for the students, but also in the name of further developing human capital
and instituted National Decree #3900. National Decree #3900 made institutional fairs
mandatory, and these were incorporated into the National School Calendar (Valencia-Chacon,
2009). Since then, the presence of science fairs only increased in schools. Over this time, Costa
Rica developed regulations that put science fairs into Kindergarten classrooms, science research
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 60
was adopted into national curriculum, and a new engineering fair was adopted. Due to the
policies adopted and the commitment to science fairs students have enjoyed much success.
According to Intel, since 1998, 68 Costa Rican students represented Costa Rica at ISEF, winning
a number of awards and honors (Intel, 2012).
Conclusion
This literature review takes a critical look at literature centered on globalization, FDI and
MNC responsibility and the effects they had on the curriculum and educational practices in Costa
Rican schools. In doing so, it examined and defined the need for 21st Century Skills, STEM
PBL, and science fairs and their presence in Costa Rican schools. This body of research
provides the foundational knowledge necessary to carry out a qualitative study.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 61
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section describes the research methodology that this study used for data collection.
Costa Rica is a small nation in Latin America that made remarkable advancements and growth
both economically and as a source of highly skilled workers. Currently, the country has the
highest literacy rate in Latin America at over 96% and an education system that is ranked
number 21 in the world and the highest in Latin America (CINDE, 2012). These achievements
did not happen overnight. Rather, they are the product of a long history of commitment to
education. In 2011, the government invested 7% of the country’s GDP and will continue to do
so through a constitutional mandate that dictates this investment will grow to 8% by 2014 (NEC,
2013). In addition, in September of 2012, the government and the World Bank announced a
joint program to expand science and technology programs at four of the country’s public
universities. This program will be financed by a US 200 million dollar loan from the World
Bank and will build new infrastructure, training, laboratories, and education for academic staff
(NEC, 2013). The success that Costa Rica has is the result of outside influences on the country
in the form of FDI and MNCs, as well as the result of their strong commitment to education.
While the presence of both FDI and MNCs are beneficial, the country now is tasked with
maintaining their presence and preparing students to become highly skilled workers in the new
knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. In order to do this, Costa Rica will have to adopt
new forms of curricula that will enhance student’s skills in STEM-related fields. This study
focused on the educational practice and curriculum of the educational system. In particular, this
study focused attention on the mandated participation in national science fairs and the presence
of 21st Century Skills in classrooms that utilize STEM PBL curriculum.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 62
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence that globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility have on the curriculum and practices in schools.
Furthermore, the relationship between STEM education and economic growth has been studied.
This study examined how the mandated national science fair influences the use of PBL to build
human capital and prepares students for 21st century jobs, particularly in the fields of science,
technology, engineering, and math.
The three research questions that this study addressed are:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculums trace their practices back to
the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the economic
growth of Costa Rica and STEM related?
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation influenced
implementation of 21
st
Century Skills through the use of project-based learning and the
use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted
curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM
education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
A 14-person doctoral dissertation team from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, conducted the research for this study. Dr. Michael Escalante
chaired this team with the assistance of Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The research team was composed of
second-year doctoral candidates chosen in June 2013 to be a part of this study. Beginning in
July, the team met on a bi-monthly basis. These meetings focused on the relevant research
needed and studied the literature review, followed by construction and revision of the purpose of
the study, formulation of the problem statement, as well as the research questions that this study
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 63
intended to answer. In answering these questions, the research team provided more clarity to
educators, school leaders, and government officials as to how better to prepare students and
develop programs in schools to meet the needs of a knowledge-based economy and 21st century
learning skills through science fair participation and utilizing STEM PBL.
This chapter presents the following: Research Design, Population, Sample,
Instrumentation, Data Collection, and Data Analysis. This section used the work of Creswell
(2008) and Merriam (2009) as the framework for research methodology.
Research Design
Research design refers to the overall plan of data collection, measurement, and analysis
during the research study (Creswell, 2009). This study was qualitative in nature as it aimed at
describing and understanding a human or social problem from the perspectives of humans or
groups of people (Creswell, 2009). Since the focus of this study was to understand how
globalization and MNCs influenced the implementation of STEM education in classrooms and
how this implementation influenced the development of 21st Century Skills in students, the
design for data collection was qualitative. The strategy for this study was a case study. A case
study allowed the research team to “explore in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one
or more individuals. Case studies are bound by time and activity and researches collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection procedures over s sustained period of time”
(Creswell, 2008 p. 13). The study was bound by time since the team only had 11 days in Costa
Rica to observe both classroom activities, as well as an international science fair participation
including educators and students.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 64
Population
The population for this study included students, educators, policy makers of MNCs, and
government officials in Costa Rica. In particular, it included schools across the country with
students who participated in the National Science Fair and schools where STEM practices are
being implemented. This population best served the study, as the aim of the study was to
observe how national science fair participation policy shaped curriculum and practice in STEM-
related classes as a means of imparting 21st Century Skills on the population for participation in
a knowledge-based economy. The sampling design for this population can be considered multi-
staged. Multi-staged population sampling identifies significant groups or organizations, obtains
the names of individuals, and samples within the group (Merriam, 2009). This population
allowed for a firsthand, deeper understanding of the effect of national policy and practices being
implemented by developing 21st Century Skills.
Sample
The population sample for this study was selected through a nonprobabilistic, purposeful
sampling. Nonprobabilistic sampling allowed the research team to understand and gain insight
from a population and learn the most that can be learned (Merriam, 2009). The sample for this
qualitative study included students, educational leaders, current and past political leaders, as well
as executives from MNCs. Data collection from these groups allowed for a collection of data
that is of “central importance to the purpose of the inquiry” (Merriam, 2009, p. 77). The table
below lists the interview participants.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 65
Table 1
Participants
Name of Interviewee Title
2014 Intel ISEF Students
Maria Luisa Ortiz Current Student
Maria Fernanda Ramirez Current Student
Former ISEF Students
Mariana Quesada Morera
Rolando A. Retana Badilla
Policy/Government Officials
Silas Martinez Sancho Former National Science Director and Current UCR
Faculty Coordinator of National Technology Fair
Nathalie Valencia Chacon Coordinator for the NSTF Program at MICIT
Silvia Arguello Director of Human Capital at MICIT
Paula Cespedes Sandi Regional Assessor
Jose Sanchez Vargas Regional Assessor
Sylvia Ugalde Consul General of CR in LA
Jonathan Monge Former National Science Director and Current UCR
Faculty Coordinator of National Science and
Technology Fair
Luis Loria Calderon General National Science Director and Current UCR
Faculty Coordinator of NSTF
Teachers/School Leaders
Christian Jimenez Fonseca Don Bosco Director
Fabrizio Mendez Gomez Academic Coordinator Don Bosco
Alejandro Loria Jimenez Don Bosco Teacher and ISEF Electronics Mentor
Jose Fabian Garro Don Bosco Teacher
J. Emilio Fonseca C. Don Bosco Teacher
Business Leaders
Vanessa Gibson Director of Post-Establishment at CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Former Director of Educational Outreach for Intel CR
Franklin Chang Diaz Astronaut, National Hero, and Leader of 21
st
Century
Initiative in Costa Rica

Educational Policy Makers and Leaders
The research team met with educational policy makers and leaders to gain an
understanding of how national policy mandates of science fair participation changed curriculum
and instruction. This group aided in shedding light on how globalization and the presence of
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 66
MNCs changed educational practices. In particular, the influence that it made on students and
their decisions for them to pursue careers in STEM-related fields.
Multinational Executives
Meeting with executives of MNCs allowed the research team to gain a better
understanding of how national science fair policy mandates benefitted students in gaining the
skills necessary to participate in a global knowledge-based economy. Conversations provided
insight as to what the role of MNCs has been in promoting and influencing participation in
science fairs and about the benefits gained. This research study focused on schools that were
associated with Intel Corporation. Discussions with Intel executives centered on the role Intel
had in the integration of technology in schools throughout Costa Rica and participation in
programs, such as the Intel Teach the Future Program.
Intel International Science and Technology Fair (ISEF) Participants
In an effort to gain firsthand knowledge of what the experience of science fair
participation is like, the research team met with both current and past Intel International Science
and Technology Fair participants, their teachers, and the educational directors of their schools.
These meetings took place in Los Angeles, California, as the research team volunteered at the
Intel International Science Fair in May of 2014. Further research took place in Costa Rica as the
team met with past participants who discussed their experience and described how that
experience affected them in terms of providing opportunities for continued education or
employment.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation for this research study was carried out using semi-structured interviews,
observations, and surveys. Instruments were aligned to research questions to ensure that they
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 67
targeted the research questions and maintained the focus of the study. The research team
members acted as the primary tool for data collection (Merriam, 2009). This qualitative study
used two observation protocols, four interview protocols, and two survey protocols as the means
of collecting data. The research protocols were given to the target audience to ensure appropriate
data collection and alignment. Three data sources, observations, interviews, and surveys, were
utilized to collect data that was triangulated to ensure internal validity (Merriam, 2009).
Triangulation refers to using multiple sources of data and comparing, and crosschecking them
(Merriam, 2009). All protocol questions were aligned to this study’s research questions,
(Appendices B, C, D, and E).
Interview Protocols for Business Leaders of Multinational Corporations, Educational
Policy Makers, School Leaders, and Students
Interview protocols helped guide the interview and allowed the researcher to keep
questions focused and write down notes as the interview transpired. The protocol also allows for
important background information of the study, demographic information to be recorded, as well
as consent for the interview, and knowledge that a tape recording device was used. Protocols
were aligned to research question and the theoretical framework used to analyze data (Table 2).
The interview protocols were created with the ultimate goal of gaining appropriate data to
answer the three research questions of this study. Questions 1 through 5 specifically address
research question 1, “To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their
practices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related.” There is an overlap of
frameworks being used because the questions include important information regarding
globalization, education, 21st Century Skills, and STEM PBL.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 68
The second group of questions focused on curriculum and instruction. These questions
were designed to provide information to answer research question 2, How has mandating the
national science and technology fair participation influenced implementation of 21
st
Century
Skills through the use of project-based learning and the use of technology by teachers across all
curricular areas? How has it impacted curriculum and instruction? In particular, these
questions focused on the classroom with the intention to prepare students for science fairs, as
well as the skill sets necessary for developing them for science fair participation and life in the
knowledge-based economy. The second group of questions relied primarily on the frameworks
of Wagner and Slough and Milam as they describe 21st Century Skills and STEM PBL.
The third group of questions focused on the influence of policy, globalization, MNCs,
and on STEM education. These questions were designed to answer research question 3, “How
has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM education for
students, teachers, and educational leaders?” These questions look at science and technology fair
participation and the role that policy, globalization, and MNCs have on student participation, as
well as what their influence has been on promoting STEM ideology in the classroom and the
anticipated benefits. The overlap among the frameworks used was a result of the comprehensive
nature of the third research question. The research question combined the components of
globalization, 21st Century Skills, MNCs, and STEM. Protocols were also designed for a
specific population: Business Leaders of MNCs, Educational policymakers, School Leaders, and
Students. The interview questions were constructed using Patton’s (2002) six types of questions
to stimulate responses that would provide more in-depth information than yes or no questions
(Table 2).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 69
Table 2
Alignment of Interview Protocol to Research Questions and Theoretical Frameworks
Policy/Government
Agency Interview Slough &
Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman Spring Wagner Milam
Section I
1 X X
2 X X X
3 X X X X X
4 X X X

Section II
1 X X X
2 X X X
3 X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X X
6 X X X X X

Section III
1 X X X
2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X

Observation Protocol
Observations protocols were developed to assist in data collection. The protocols were
intended to guide observations. As Merriam (2009) states, “Observation makes it possible to
record behavior as it is happening” (p. 119); additionally with observations, the “participant
observer sees things firsthand and uses his or her knowledge and expertise in interpreting what is
observed” (Merriam, 2009, p. 119). Observations for this research study took place during the
Intel International Science and Engineering Fair in Los Angeles, California, and in Costa Rica
while the research team visited classrooms. The literature review for this study provided the
foundation of knowledge or expertise that the researcher used to interpret events and meaning
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 70
from the observations. During observations, researchers acted solely as observers, meaning they
did not take part in activities, as observations took place in public settings and there was no need
or desire to conceal the observer or that the observation was taking place (Merriam, 2009). To
record events during the observations, researchers used protocols to jot down notes. Observation
protocols were created for both events, Intel ISEF, and for classroom observations (Appendices I
and H). The protocol for the ISEF was created with demographic information at the top to be
completed, an area to draw the science fair project facilities setup and the research questions
below to help keep the researcher focused during the observation. At the bottom of the protocol
was a table where the researcher could describe what 21st Century Skills and STEM PBL
activities were observed. The classroom protocol was very similar to the science fair protocol.
However, in the area set aside for facilities of the science fair, it was labeled “classroom” for the
researcher to draw how the classroom is setup (Appendix H).
After the observation, it was imperative that the researcher go back, review field notes,
and add full notes of the observation in narrative form (Merriam, 2009). The observation
protocols for both the science fair and the classroom were broken down to allow the researcher to
take notes on actions observed and conversations that were happening, as well as the frameworks
(Slough & Milam, 2013; Wagner, 208) through which they were analyzed. Furthermore, these
protocols break down the components of the frameworks with space provided for the researcher
to observe individual critical components: Wagner (2008) - Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving, Collaborating across Networks, Agility and Adaptability, Initiative and
Entrepreneurialism, Effective Written and Oral Communication, Accessing and Analyzing
Information, Curiosity and Imagination, and Other Observations. The STEM PBL framework is
broken down into its components: Making Content Accessible, Making Thinking Visible,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 71
Helping Students Learn from Others, and Promoting Autonomy and Lifelong Learning. At the
bottom of the protocols, the research team included additional questions specific to the event
being observed (science fair and classroom observations). These questions were designed to
collect additional information answering one of the three research questions.
Survey Protocol
Quantitative surveys were created and given to members of participant groups. The
purpose of the survey was to represent “a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes,
or opinions of a population” (Creswell, 2009, p. 145). Using a survey to collect data was
beneficial, as it allowed researchers to tap into a larger body of data points to allow the team to
capture the data of participants who were not willing to be interviewed. The surveys were
created with each question containing specific information targeting the population they were
given to. Responses were generated using a 5-point Likert Scale with responses of 1
representing N/A and responses of 5 representing Strongly Agree. The surveys were aligned to
the research questions and the top of each group survey listed the research questions and the
framework to be used when analyzing the resulting data. Table 3 below presents the breakdown
of the survey questions, the research question they correspond to, and the framework through
which they were examined. Questions 1 through 6 focus on answering research question 1, To
what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices back to the
influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the economic growth of Costa
Rica and STEM education related? Specifically, questions 1 through 6 focus on STEM
education. The questions discussed participation in the science fair, 21st Century Skills, and
how MNCs influenced STEM education in Costa Rica.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 72
Questions 7 through 14 focus on research question 2, How has adapting the national
science and technology fair participation influenced implementation of 21
st
Century Skills
through the use of project-based learning and the use of technology by teachers across all
curricular areas? How has it impacted curriculum and instruction? These questions focused on
the science and technology fair. Included within the question was the influence of project-based
learning and the 21st Century Skills that are reinforced by project-based learning. Questions 15
through 22 focus on research question 3, How has the national science and technology fair
policy changed the value for STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leader?
These questions discussed STEM education, science and technology fair participation, and the
influence on students’ participation.
Table 3
Survey Protocols
Teacher/Administrator Survey Slough &
Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman Spring Wagner Milam
1 X X
2 X X X
3 X X
4 X X X X X
5 X X X X X
6 X X X
7 X X
8 X X
9 X X X
10 X X X
11 X X
12 X X
13 X X X X
14 X X X X X
15 X X
16 X X X

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 73
Table 3, continued
Teacher/Administrator Survey Slough &
Question RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman Spring Wagner Milam
17 X X
18 X X
19 X X X X X
20 X X X X
21 X X X
22 X X

Data Collection
Data collection for this research study was performed collectively (by the research team),
as well as by individual team members. The collection took place both in the United States and
in Costa Rica. The process began with the research team’s meeting with Intel ISEF
representatives for a dinner/interview in January 2014. In addition, the team met with the same
Intel ISEF members for logistical planning in April 2014, to outline the team’s volunteering at
the Intel ISEF held in Los Angeles, California, in May 2014. In March 2014, the research team
also interviewed the Consul General for Costa Rica in Los Angeles, California. In May 2014,
the research team met, interviewed, and surveyed the Intel ISEF participants from Costa Rica.
This meeting was held at the University of Southern California (USC). That same week, the
Intel ISEF was held, and members of the research team served as translators and volunteers for
the fair. As previously stated, data collection procedures included interviews, observations, and
surveys to target populations that were triangulated between the sources to ensure that data
collected aimed at guiding our research and focused on answering the three research questions.
The majority of the data collection took take place during an 11-day trip to Costa Rica. The
team collected data from education leaders and policy makers, leaders from MNCs, Intel ISEF
participants and their teachers, along with representatives from Intel ISEF, and representatives
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 74
from government agencies. Once data was collected from the trip, the research team returned to
USC to begin data analysis.
Data Analysis
Guiding data analysis was Creswell’s (2009) six-step process. The research team began
meeting again on a bi-monthly basis to analyze data.
1. Organize and Prepare the Data - This process includes organizing the data, transcribing
interviews and typing field notes, and arranging data by the different types depending on the
sources. Field notes should be typed up in narrative form as soon as it is captured.
Interviews were transcribed using a data transcription service as soon as the team returned to
the United States from the research trip.
2. Read Through all the Data - Data was collected and reflected upon by individual team
members, as well as by the entire research team. The team looked for the overall meaning of
the data. Of critical importance at this time was noting who said what and asking, “Is the
data credible?”
3. Coding the Data - This is the process by which the data is grouped together by theme from
interviews and observations. These themes were be reflected in the research questions.
4. Coding Themes - Themes emerged during the coding process. The themes further directed
analysis and appeared as major findings in the research study.
5. Themes Represented through the Narrative - This is the process by which the coded themes
are represented within the study. The findings are discussed within the narrative; however.
6. Interpret the Data - The final step is actually making meaning of the data. At this point, it is
critical to use the literature review to guide findings and meanings of the data. The finding
and meanings are supported through research in the literature review.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 75
The research team returned from Costa Rica on June 24, 2014. Upon returning, the team met as
a group to evaluate the corpus of data collected and began the process of drawing conclusions
and answering the study’s research questions. In addition, at this time the research team began to
see areas that needed further research.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 76
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Since the second half of the 20th century, Costa Rica has advanced and grown
dramatically as it transformed its economy from an agrarian one to a knowledge-based one
focused on information and technology. In this pursuit, Costa Rica implemented a strategic
approach of attracting foreign direct investment and multinational corporations (CINDE, 2012).
The success the country enjoys is the result of outside influences in the form of FDI and MNCs,
as well as the result of a strong commitment to education. Historically, Costa Ricans have
demonstrated a high level of commitment to education, which in the nation is enjoying the
highest literacy rate, as well as one of the highest standards of living in Central America
(CINDE, 2012). These achievements did not happen overnight; they are the product of a long
history of commitment to education. The challenge that schools now face is to create and sustain
educational programs that foster the 21st Century Skills necessary for students to be successful in
an evolving global knowledge-based economy.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence that globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility have on the curriculum and practices in schools in Costa
Rica. Furthermore, the relationship between STEM education and economic growth was
studied. This study examined how the mandated national science fair policies influence the use
of PBL to build human capital and prepare students for 21st century jobs, particularly in the
STEM fields.
The following three research questions guided this study:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices back to
the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the economic
growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 77
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation influenced the
implementation of 21st Century Skills through the use of project-based learning and the
use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted
curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM
education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
This chapter is organized into two sections: a review of the study’s participants and
presentation of the findings. The theoretical frameworks used in this study are Friedman’s
(2007) and Spring’s (2008) framework of globalization, Wagner’s (2008) and the Partnership for
21st Century Learning’s (P21) framework for 21st Century Learning, and Slough and Milam’s
(2013) Framework for Design of STEM Project-Based Learning The findings are correlated to
the individual research question and fully detail the themes represented within the responses.
Participant Overview
The participants for this study were government leaders, MNC business leaders, school
leaders, and students. The participants were chosen based upon their experience and expertise.
Nonprobabilistic, purposeful sampling was used. Nonprobabilistic sampling refers to the use of
sample groups that allow the researcher to discover, understand, and gain the insight of a group
of experts from which the most can be learned (Merriam, 2009). Nonprobabilistic sampling
allowed the research team to understand and gain insight from a population and learn the most
that can be learned (Merriam, 2009). Data collected from these groups was of central
importance to the purpose of this inquiry.
The participant group consisted of 30 teachers/administrators and 168 current students
from CEDES Don Bosco school. In addition, the research team conducted interviews with six
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 78
current Intel ISEF students, seven former ISEF students, as well as 12 policy/government
officials, six teachers and school leaders from Don Bosco, and five business leaders. While there
were 36 interviews conducted, 20 are reported in this dissertation. Participant groups are further
grouped into those who are school-based (students, former and current, teachers, as well as
school leaders) and those who are not school-based but have an effect on pedagogy, practice, and
curriculum through their work with government policy, educational policy and multinational
corporations. The policy and government participant group consists of people who have an
effect on policy pertaining to what type of education students receive. Many of the participants
have strong ties to individual schools, as well as the science fair in various capacities. Their
responses provide a perspective of education that transcends what goes on in classrooms and
looks at practice and policy in a more global sense. The business leader group provides insight
into the world beyond Costa Rica. While their responses are in reference to what is taking place
within their country, they provide the perspective of a group that understands what skills and
abilities students will need to be successful in the new global knowledge-based economy of the
21st century. The school-based group will provide the perspective of participants at the school
level. This group will be of prime importance as it consists of students, teachers, and educational
leaders. Those that have enacted and informed policy and pedagogy that reinforces STEM, as
well as the recipients of those policies and pedagogy. Table 1 lists those interviewed of this
study.
Research for this study was conducted by 14 doctoral candidates from the University of
Southern California. Dr. Michael Escalante led the research team with the assistance of Dr.
Oryla Wiedoeft. The team was divided into three groups with each group focusing on a different
school. The following three groups of doctoral students; the Don Bosco group, The San Carlos
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 79
Group, and the Sixaola Group conducted research. Research for all three groups took place at
schools ranging from grade 7 to grade 12. However, the focus of this study was on Cedes Don
Bosco, a school located in San Jose, Costa Rica.
Cedes Don Bosco was created in 1996 with a land grant from Castro Ortega’s family to
the Association of Salesian Don Bosco Orator. Don Bosco is situated in one of the most
impoverished parts of San Jose, Costa Rica. This semi-private institution educates students from
grades 7 through 12. Students’ education at Don Bosco consists of two different components: a
general core curriculum and a second based in technical classes, including drafting, computer
science, and engineering (STEM fields). Don Bosco ranks 38 out of 906 high schools in the
nation. The student population at Don Bosco primarily consists of impoverished youth. Don
Bosco is also one of the schools that gained many valuable resources from the Intel Corporation.
Intel has provided Don Bosco with many computers and other forms of technology that reinforce
STEM curriculum and their participation in science fairs. In 2002, the Intel Computer
Clubhouse, a non-formal education center, was opened (Cedes Don Bosco, 2014) and employed
new technologies for young people. The Intel Clubhouse provided after-school instruction on
computer skills provided by an adult mentor (Intel, 2014). In 2005, the Don Bosco Technical
College was added on the campus in San Jose. The presence of a technical high school, strongly
committed to STEM education and science fair participation, as well as the strong presence of
Intel provided this study with a perfect research location.
Results Research Question One
Research question 1 asked, To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum
trace their practices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is
the economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related? The aim of this question was
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 80
to examine how government policy and globalization influenced the curriculum currently taught
in the classroom, as well as how, if at all, the nation’s future financial health is reliant upon the
emphasis of science and technology in its educational system.
Over the past four decades, the country’s economy built on exports and on providing
knowledge-ready workers for the service industry. This process involved aspects of government
policy, the attraction of FDI and the presence of MNCs, as well as changes in what and how
schools teach. An educated population will make the country more attractive to FDI and the
presence of MNCs will follow. The nation’s longstanding commitment to education was
reflected with National Decree #3900 (Valencia-Chacon, 2009), mandating participation of all
students in the national science fair, thus ushering the implementation of a STEM curriculum.
Through mandated science fair participation, classroom pedagogy will change and human capital
will increase through education. In this research, three major themes emerged: 1) government
policy influenced implementation of STEM curriculum, 2) globalization and MNCs provide the
impetus for STEM, and 3) STEM education is a critical factor in terms of the future and
economic growth of Costa Rica.
The Importance of Government Policy and Globalization
The first emerging theme pertaining to question one is that the process of globalization
and government policy mandating science fair participation led to a major shift in curriculum.
To support the policy, educators implemented the study of STEM fields to better prepare
students for participation and success in the science fairs. The importance of STEM programs is
what fostered the government policy mandating national science fair participation, which
recognizes the importance of science fair participation and, as a result, the critical need for
STEM education.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 81
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among people. It is also an
ongoing process of economic, social, and cultural exchanges and about collaboration and
connectivity (Friedman, 2007). This study uses the frameworks of Friedman (2007) and Spring
(2008) to explain globalization and the effect it had on education in Costa Rican schools.
Globalization allowed the world to shrink through advances in technology, especially
information technology (Friedman, 2007). With technology, people can communicate,
collaborate, and exchange ideas quickly. This era of connectedness provided many countries
with opportunities for economic growth through technologies and jobs. As technologies
improved, the opportunity for students to gain access to knowledge increased, and, as a result,
the prospect for employment increased, as well.
According to Spring (2008), globalization and education involve the study of intertwined
worldwide discourses, processes, and institutions affecting local educational practices and
policies (p. 330). This means that countries will focus attention on developing educational
agendas that call for investing in education to develop human capital to promote economic
growth. This theory allowed Costa Rica to transform its economy. In order to meet the growing
demands of the knowledge-based economy, Costa Rican schools had to transform their practices
to better prepare their students to take their place in the workforce during the 21st century.
The role that the mandated science fair policy played in the implementation of STEM
curriculum was critical to support the necessary changes to educational pedagogy. Through the
influence of globalization and the policy mandating science fair participation, a major shift in the
curriculum occurred, and to support the policy, educators implemented the study of STEM fields
to better prepare their students for participation and success in the science fairs. This theme is
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 82
reflected not only in survey results from teachers and students but also in interviews conducted
with all participant groups.
Teachers at Don Bosco believe that their curriculum evolved because of government
policy. The data draws a connection among the important process of globalization, the effects it
had on policy, and, thereby, the effect the policy had on both fair participation and STEM
education. A combined teacher group overwhelmingly agreed that participation in the science
fair influenced their participation in STEM education. The total number of Don Bosco teachers
surveyed was 30, with 9 strongly agreeing, 15 agreeing, 0 disagreeing, 1 strongly disagreeing,
and 5 who stated, “I do not know.” Responses of “I do not know” were omitted from the figure
below.

Figure 2. Science Fair Participation
There is an important connection between the influence of government policy and the
implementation of the STEM curriculum through science fair participation. Don Bosco students
note their science classes improved because of national science fair policy. The data show the
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Science fair participation influences participation in STEM
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Don Bosco teacher responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 83
importance of the science fair policy and its effect on curriculum. Most importantly, it shows
how science classes improved because of the fair policy and the implementation of a STEM
curriculum. Students at Don Bosco overwhelmingly supported the belief that science classes
improved because of the mandate. There were 168 Don Bosco students surveyed: 22 strongly
agree, 80 agree, 31 disagree, 3 strongly disagree, and 32 responded, “I do not know.” Responses
of “I do not know” were omitted from the chart below.

Figure 3. Science Classes
The importance of government policy was reflected by a government official
(Coordinator of National Science and Technology Fair). Current UCR faculty member Jonathan
Monge Sandoval points out, prior to the government policy, very little was happening in the
classrooms as it relates to developing student interest in science and technology:
Before 1986, the growth of science, technology, engineering, and even mathematics level
was of little growth. The population of scientists, technologists, and engineers was a
restricted population; very scarce. Ever since the law of promotion of scientific and
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Science classes at the school I attended have improved as a
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Combined Student Survey
Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 84
technology development, around 1990 up until today, in which the fairs make up a part of
the process, there has been a significant increase in new student interest in scientific
careers in general. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
Another government official, Nathalie Chacon, who explained the importance of the mandate
and science fair policy, and that, without the mandate, echoed this premise and resulting
responsibility placed upon the schools. Therefore, it is probable that the nation would have
never made the necessary curriculum changes that allowed it to grow and improve:
In Costa Rica, nothing is done in this country or some people do not do things without a
public policy and a directive to implement these processes. So, ministries and mainly in
the case of the Ministry of Science and Technology that is coordinated by the
commission which manages the science and technology fairs and MEP, they have the
responsibility because that’s a responsibility to implement improvements in the process.
(Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
Chacon explained that the curriculum changes over her tenure have been very positive, and
allowed the educational system to grow and evolve:
They are extraordinary. I began to participate beginning more than 25 years ago. I have
seen the changes in, for example, the projects at that time were from 5th grade to 11
th

grade. Now, I see them in first grade and second grade. That is to say, what they did
before, that is what would have happened if that system had not existed, right? What
would have happened, we probably would have become a bit stagnant. (Personal
communication, June 16, 2014)
A current student at Don Bosco, Maria Fernando Ramos, also refers to the legislation and the
resulting emphasis on the fair project work in the science and technology program in the school:
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 85
I think the schools have gotten more involved in this as compared to when I was younger.
When I was in my early years of school, the fairs were not as relevant a subject, but, now,
it is. Now, it is something very important. In fact, almost all schools do projects for the
fairs. I think that participation in the fairs has increased in the public and private
institutions. (Personal communication, May 10, 2014)
Rolando A. Retana Badilla, a former student at Don Bosco and current Intel employee, repeats
this sentiment and details the extent to which the mandated science fairs policy affected his life
and career:
It was helpful to establish a basis to choose my area of learning and also in the working
field. For example, thanks to the fair process, I went through I was able to get several
opportunities to work in different areas and, from that, I had the opportunity to be
accepted in Intel where I’m working now, and that helps you a lot to develop the skills
with the help of those process. For example, I learned how to speak in front of an
audience in the correct way. I also learned how to support a work idea, and I feel that is
very valuable. (Personal communication, June 18, 2014)
The policy mandate led to changes in STEM curriculum, which, in turn, changed the students
who participate. Carlos Acosta, a teacher at Don Bosco, agrees. He describes the STEM-related
changes to students because of the policy for science and technology fairs:
After participating in a fair and things like that, young people change completely. They
learn to present better, they speak better, they relate to others better, they are happier. I
feel they gain a great enthusiasm for life, all things like that. When they are very small,
they have their presentation. It causes a lot of stress for them here at school. After that
presentation, a student who was timid and serious, who didn’t know how to express
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 86
himself, has the ability to change. I feel that, at least here in Don Bosco, it’s something
that marks young people. When they begin to work as technicians, the companies notice
them. (Personal communication, June 18, 2014)
Business leader Vanessa Gibson confirms the importance of STEM programs. She states,
For a country like Costa Rica [STEM is very important], based on the fact that we are
able to survive based on the talent of people. With the trends of the global economy,
developing education is important and developing a system that is clear in STEM.
(Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
Business leader Dr. Franklin Chang Diaz shares the same sentiment regarding the importance of
STEM in Costa Rican Schools:
I think it is extremely important to have that background [STEM] whether you choose to
follow a career in science or not because we live in a very scientific and technological
world. To be able to make decisions that could be either policy decisions or business
decisions. Even if you are not really doing science or technology, having the knowledge
is something that would be good. I am very much in favor of STEM. (Personal
communication, July 10, 2014)
Overall, respondents expressed that the process of globalization and the development of
government policy mandating a national science fair had a significant impact on the
implementation of STEM education. Globalization provided the need for fair participation, and
the policy mandating fair participation promoted the implementation of STEM education. This
point was reflected using frameworks to define it and state the importance of it. Combined
survey responses from both teachers and students from Don Bosco state that science classes
improved because of national science fair policy. This finding was corroborated by interview
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 87
responses from government, educational leaders, students, and school administrators who stated
that STEM educational practices were implemented and improved because of the national
science fair policy.
Multi-National Corporations
The second theme that emerged was that the presence of MNCs provided the impetus for
STEM education. As globalization made information more accessible, it allowed for educational
discourses, practices, and agendas that call for developing human capital: better workers to
promote economic growth (Spring, 2008). Having a well-educated workforce is a major
component of attracting MNCs (Monge-Sandoval & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Countries need
to better their educational system and pedagogy to enhance curriculum in developing a well-
educated workforce to attract MNCs. Because of the commitment, that Costa Rica displayed
toward having a well-educated citizenry, globalization and the presence of MNCs made the
educational system a leader among Latin American countries, which was the nation’s goal for
decades. The development of human capital will secure a future benefit for students as they see
their schooling and training as an investment in their future earning potential. This development
of human capital is what will draw MNCs (CINDE, 2013). The presence of one MNC in
particular, Intel, is extremely significant to this study. As previously mentioned, Intel is a major
contributor to Don Bosco. As such, Don Bosco is the recipient of technology, services, and
training of faculty. As the nation moves into the 21st century, STEM education will provide the
vehicle for schools to better educate students and allow Costa Rica to participate in the
knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. This will provide a home for MNCs looking for
a well-educated citizenry.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 88
The presence of MNCs/Intel provided a platform for STEM/Science Fair participation.
MNCs/Intel are attracted to countries with a well-educated citizenry, and STEM and science fair
participation is a means to maintaining the well-educated citizenry for students to have the skills
and abilities necessary for the global marketplace of the 21st century. Teacher responses
indicate a positive relationship between partnerships with MNCs and Intel in promoting science
fair participation with 82.2% either strongly agreeing or agreeing that partnership promotes fair
participation. In addition, surveys show that 20 out of 30 teachers either strongly agree or agree
that Intel/MNCs positively influenced STEM curriculum. Responses of “I Do Not Know” were
omitted.

Figure 4. Partnerships
0.0%
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15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
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45.0%
Stongly
agree
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disagree
Partnerships with Intel/MNC's promote STEM/Science Fair
participation
Combined Teacher Survey
Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 89

Figure 5. Intel/MNC Influence
Interviews conducted with business leaders, government and policy leaders, as well as
with school leaders, all confirm the important impact that globalization and the presence of
MNCs had on the educational system. Not only did both play a major role in transforming the
economy, but they also developed schools and pedagogical practice to enhance human capital
and to eventually allow students to participate in the knowledge-based economy of the 21st
century. As Mary Helen Bialas, a leader of a MNC, explains:
Costa Rica’s gone through a process of being a very agricultural based country. It’s
moved into having tourism and services being at the next economic level. To be
competitive now, it really has to use knowledge, this knowledge that it has, and be able to
sell their knowledge. To be able to sell knowledge, you have to have researchers. You
have to have scientists, you have to have engineers that are applying this information and
moving forward, and investing in research. (Personal communication, June 23, 2014)
Another business, leader, Vanessa Gibson, Director of Post-Establishment at CINDE further
explained how STEM education played a critical role in attracting MNCs, “It [STEM education]
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Intel/MNC's have positively influenced STEM education
Combined Don Bosco
Teachers
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 90
is the fuel of Costa Rican development because we are targeting and working hard as a country
to attract more hi-tech companies. This means that we need more engineers and scientists to
meet their needs” (Personal communication, June 16, 2014).
Sylvia Arguello, a government official further explains,
I can tell you Costa Rica is an example in the Latin American level in relation to human
talent. The area of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, too, are very
important for us because we not only want an economy based in knowledge and in that
order we need a good base in these areas but because this allows people to develop
analytical thinking in every work or profession, critical thinking, how to face a problem
and how to give solutions to it. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
This sentiment is shared, as government official Nathalie Chacon shares,
I think it is essential [STEM Education] in Costa Rica with the influx of multinationals,
in a lot of industrial companies coming in, it is more and more required that people go
into these fields. People should prepare themselves better, so I think it is very important
to strengthen our students in these areas. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
The relationship among STEM education, globalization and the presence of multinational
corporations is further enhanced, as educational leader Alejandro Loria explains,
Ever since 1997 when it [Intel Corporation] came into Costa Rica, 17 years ago, it has
been an important stage to them, the support that they can give the educational field. So,
Intel, as a multinational leader, has had an important role in this process because they
have helped us to generate better resources to be able to take these kids to a new level.
Promoting the quality of work being done in the country in a process like the
International Fair, Intel has developed policies along with ministries in the scientific and
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 91
technology field, as well as the educational field to have projects in this STEM field.
(Personal communication, June 19, 2014).
The importance of a STEM education in a globalized age and with the presence of multinational
corporations is further explained by school leader Christian Jimenez:
Well, let’s say that giving that part [STEM education] to the kids, mathematics,
engineering, and science is very important because that is what the industry needs today,
and let’s say the country, due to foreign investments are being brought here and
companies that settle down here to generate more job positions and the positions that will
be required are focused on these types of skills that kids have to learn. (Personal
communication, June 16, 2014)
As former student and ISEF participant, Rolando Retana Badilla, explains that Intel and other
multinational companies also see opportunity for the growth of Costa Rica’s economy:
So, Intel and a lot of companies come to Costa Rica to start their companies and they see
the great potential that Costa Rica has in its education level, so we are recognized as a
very good country. For me, that is essential. It is so important for the economy of a
country because that creates new jobs, that creates new opportunities to work, to study, to
get experience, to get skills. (Personal communication, June 18, 2014)
Responses overwhelmingly show that globalization and the presence of MNCs provided
the necessity for implementing a STEM curriculum. Interviewees believe that, in order to keep
attracting MNC’S, there is a need for the country to further enhance education, as this will be the
platform to continue successfully attracting MNCs into Costa Rica.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 92
Strong Relationship between Economic Growth and STEM
The third theme that emerged was that the need for STEM programs is critical for both
students and nations, as the programs will provide each the opportunity for a future in the 21st
century. STEM education is a direct link to future prosperity for students in the global
knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. “STEM is an economic imperative as
technological innovation accounted for almost half of the United States’ economic growth over
the past 50 years and almost all of the 30 fastest growing occupations in the next decade will
require at least some background in STEM” (Sahin, 2013, p. 13). The importance of STEM
education as a vehicle for not only student opportunity, but for economic growth within Costa
Rica is acknowledged throughout the government, in schools, and in the corporate sector. The
development of human capital and innovative capacity through education are the primary factors
in the economic competitiveness of a nation. Simply put, STEM will provide a future for
students, Costa Rica, and its economy. Data pertaining to this question reinforces the importance
of STEM education to the nation’s economic future. This point is reinforced by survey results
from Don Bosco teachers and students. Interviews with business leaders, government leaders,
school leaders, and students further describe the critical need for STEM education.
STEM education is important to the economic future, as it will provide students with the
necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to meet the changing demands of the new global
knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. A STEM education will allow students to be a
part of the economic future through the creation of new knowledge and jobs. The importance of
STEM to the economic future is widely supported through survey information from teachers and
students at Don Bosco. Out of the 30 Don Bosco teachers surveyed, 16 teachers responded
strongly agree, 9 agree, 1 disagree, and 2 strongly disagree. Responses of “I Do Not Know”
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 93
were omitted. The critical importance of STEM education to the economic future of Costa Rica
is further represented in student survey responses. There were 168 students surveyed at Don
Bosco. From their responses, 127 strongly agree, 33 agree, 1 disagree, and 0 strongly disagree.
Responses of “I Do Not Know” were omitted.

Figure 6. STEM Education, Science Fair Participation, and the Economic Future

Figure 7. STEM Education, Science Fair Participation, and the Future
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STEM education and science fair participation is important to
the economic future of Costa Rica
Combined Don Bosco
Teachers
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STEM education and science fair participation are important to
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Combined Don Bosco Student
Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 94
Interviews conducted with business, government, and school leaders all confirm the
importance of STEM education to the future of Costa Rica. As a multinational business leader
expressed, “It’s extremely important, because it’s part of our future. I think we need to have
scientists and we need to have people who can use science to help improve the quality of life”
(Personal communication, June 23, 2014). The prospect of development and generating
solutions was further explained by Jonathan Monge Sandoval, a former National Science
Director:
I think that the development of sciences and technology in a country is important to help
it develop. A lot of areas are important to develop, but on a level of creating knowledge,
generating solutions to every day issues, search and formulate new concerns, to go to new
levels - I think that STEM fulfills that need to take us further. (Personal communication,
June 19, 2014)
Jonathon Monge Sandoval continued,
Well, there are different ways a country can develop. One can be providing manpower so
then a lot of companies can come over because there is a lot of manpower here. That
could be a way, correct? But another could be that we generate job opportunities here
and maybe promoting the STEM areas the university graduates could generate their own
companies, and the resources could remain here in the country. So, then, there should be
a more adequate development according to the national reality because, if I study
something that has to do with STEM and I generate a company, it has to solve a Costa
Rican issue. So, then, I generate development because I am providing jobs for other
people because I am generating new knowledge or other products parting from the
knowledge I am generating. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 95
Regional assessor, Paula Cespedes further explains the critical importance of STEM to Costa
Rica:
The importance of STEM is in the development of the person, as well as the development
of the country. We want to create people who have skills and abilities that will allow
them to participate in society. They will develop as a result of their participation in the
science fairs and, through the fair process, will apply the skills they have learned directly
to their lives and in their work. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
While STEM will provide jobs for economic growth, the benefits go beyond that. As Alejandro
Loria Jimenez, a teacher at Don Bosco high school expressed,
Yes, of course, it [STEM] can prepare a future of professionals in these areas and will
give them the ability to innovate and develop projects. They can become innovators,
scientists, or entrepreneurs, right? They can create their own companies, which maybe
will develop technology applying that knowledge, the knowledge gained from their
STEM education. So, I feel it is very important for the development of any country,
these tools and skills. We should try and encourage more young people and also
university students because that could make the country better able to create more
technology. That would allow Costa Rica to create technology and be able to give good
support to foreign companies and this investment is able to grow in creating a qualified
workforce who has knowledge of everything. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
Another member of the Don Bosco faculty, Jorge Fonseca, the Technical Director, further
explains the importance of a STEM curriculum. He expressed,
Definitely, STEM is important to us because our country has been making the change
from an agricultural economy to an economy where we produce. Due to the resources,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 96
due to the small amount of people that Costa Rica has, and due to the small size of our
country, we can’t compete with big countries that produce a lot, but we can work on
quality and we can work a lot on services. For this, we need well-trained people, so we
must make a turn to support engineering careers to be able to be competitive and get
ahead. Participation in science fairs help promote engineering careers. (Personal
communication, June 19, 2014)
The proposition of economic growth and STEM was well documented by interviews with
all participants. Respondents stated that STEM education is the key to economic development
and the necessary link to produce students with the capabilities to grow the economy. It [STEM]
will allow students to become economically competitive, creating new jobs and knowledge to
pursue in the 21st century. According to the data, not only will STEM create jobs for students,
but it will also provide economic sustainability and opportunity for Costa Rica.
Discussion Research Question One
There is one major finding that emerged from data pertaining to this question: in order for
the nation to grow economically, there is a need for government policies like the science fair
mandate that foster the implementation of STEM programs. There is collaboration needed
between policy makers and educational leaders to implement the policies and STEM pedagogical
practices in order to educate their students, maintain FDI and the presence of MNCs, and
continue to grow the economy. Costa Rica recognized the need to increase the human capital of
its students and workers. In doing so, leaders created government policy that reflects the
changes needed to promote a better-educated workforce. This change came in the form of
government policy mandating national science fair participation. Through this policy,
government officials worked with educational leaders, MNCs and school leaders to adopt a
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 97
curriculum that would prepare students to participate in the global knowledge-based economy of
the 21st century. Government leaders, school leaders and teachers worked together to emphasize
the importance of STEM to students and to the country has continued success. This continued
success results in the attraction of FDI and MNCs, which will lead to increased resources for
schools and job opportunities for students. There is a strong relationship between STEM
education and economic growth. STEM curriculum provided students with the skills and
knowledge necessary to participate in the knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. The
opportunities that STEM brought the nation are endless, including the creation of new
knowledge, technology, a new generation of entrepreneurs, as well as skilled workers prepared to
help grow the emerging national economy.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 98
Results Research Question Two
Research question 2 asked, How has mandating the national science and technology fair
participation influenced implementation of 21
st
Century Skills through the use of project-based
learning and the use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted
curriculum and instruction? This question was intended to find out how pedagogy and
instruction changed because of mandating national science fair participation. Through mandated
science fair participation, schools recognized the need for students to learn 21st Century Skills.
This recognition fostered a shift in both curriculum and instruction. As a result of these changes
and a shift endorsing 21st Century Skills and project-based learning, the educational system are
better preparing students for success in their post-secondary education and beyond. In order to
succeed in the 21st century, students need to have the ability to think to reason, analyze, weigh
evidence, problem solve, and communicate effectively (Wagner, 2008). The need for these
abilities requires schools to adopt a new and innovative approach to curriculum and instruction,
one that will prepare them for future in a knowledge-based economy (Wagner, 2008).
There were two themes, which emerged in response to the research question. First,
mandating participation in the national science fair had an impact and changed curriculum. The
second theme was that the mandate influenced the implementation of STEM programs, which
will better prepare students for a future in a STEM-related field of study or profession.
A Shift in Curriculum Focusing on STEM Project-Based Learning
Mandating national science and technology fair participation provided for a shift in
pedagogical practice. National science fair policy promoted the implementation of 21st Century
Skills in practice and, thus, had an impact on curriculum and instruction. The implementation of
21st Century Skills endorsed the use of project-based learning in classrooms. A curriculum rich
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 99
in STEM PBL will provide students with the knowledge and skills necessary to survive in the
knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. STEM PBL is both challenging and motivating,
as it requires students to think critically and analytically and enhances higher-order thinking
skills. STEM PBL “requires collaboration, peer communication, problem-solving, and self-
directed learning while incorporating rigor for all students” (Capraro & Slough, 2006, p. 3).
Wagner (2008) highlighted the critical importance of 21st Century Skills needed to prepare
students for participation in a knowledge-based economy: critical thinking and problem solving;
collaboration and leadership; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurship; effective
oral and written communication; and accessing and analyzing information. These skills, coupled
with STEM PBL, will give students the skills and abilities necessary to become a part of the
global knowledge-based economy.
The importance of STEM programs is revealed in two ways. First, participation in
science fairs provided students with the confidence to pursue a possible career in a STEM-related
field. Second, fairs have an impact on and change the curriculum.
Both curriculum and instruction of STEM programs led to students succeeding in the
science fairs, allowing them to feel confident in their ability to pursue STEM studies, as well as a
possible career in a STEM-related field. The changes in both the curriculum and instruction
demonstrate the prominence of STEM PBL. Results from both teachers and students surveyed at
Don Bosco confirm the important role of instruction (the curriculum and pedagogy) that led to
students feeling better prepared for participation in the science fair.
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 100

Figure 8. Science Fairs Impact on Science Curriculum

Figure 9. Science Fair Impact on Science Instruction
The science fair itself is a process developed over time in classrooms and integrated into
the National School Calendar. As Paula Cespedes, a Science Fair Regional Assessor explains,
The fair is not a product, the fair has to be integrated not as a fair, but as the investigative
processes and development of abilities and skills, must be within [the curriculum], not
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Combined Don Bosco
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Combined Don Bosco
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GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 101
just science and math lessons, but within the institutions curriculum. (Personal
communication, June 19, 2014)
The integration of the fair into the curriculum and instruction in schools had an impact on the
way teachers teach and students learn. Jose Garro, a teacher at Don Bosco, explains the shift in
pedagogy:
Because it [the science and technology fairs] has made the sciences leave the classroom,
to leave those four walls and to seek outside of them the educational experiences. It has
led to us to research and proof. It has led us to experimentation. It has led us to defend
an idea and carry out a project, to compete with that project, to be competitive. They also
to try and improve the processes from these experiences. (Personal communication, June
16, 2014)
The sciences left the classroom, and the result is positive change that reverberates back into the
curriculum. As Christian Jimenez Fonseca, the Director at Don Bosco explains,
All of the fair restructuring has brought an expansive wave that has reached the
academic curriculum and the way teachers teach in their workshops and laboratories. So,
then, we can say that there have been changes in terms of curriculum, to the pedagogical
methodology applied in the teaching learning process inside the classrooms and
workshops. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
Changes in instruction resulted in a more constructivist approach to teaching and learning.
Because of the science fair mandate and the influence of STEM PBL, teaching became more
than one-dimensional. This new pedagogy fosters independence, reason, critical thinking, and
evaluation. As Jonathan Monge Sandoval explains,
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 102
The teaching of sciences before the science and technology fair was very linear in content
and was transmitted in one direction. The most important thing was memory, concept
retention and the development of abilities to be able to understand concepts. So, there
have been changes overall to improve the teaching process because they want to have a
change in the teaching by memory, a teaching of one-directional transmission of
knowledge to a process in which other skills are developed. New skills are now taught so
that people can have the capability to develop abilities in reasoning, the capacity to think
and resolve issues, pose questions, and eventually formulate projects from these types of
solutions, or some type of product. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
Specifically, teaching these new skills means that there is more of a concentrated focus
on students’ performing tasks and projects in classes. Mandating fair participation promoted a
shift in curriculum and instruction. Included within this shift is the promotion of the use of PBL.
PBL engages learners in acquiring knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process.
With the implementation of PBL, schools provide students opportunities for collaboration, peer
communication, problem-solving, and self-directed learning. Through the integration of science
and technology fair participation into classrooms, curriculum, and instruction changed to include
implementation of PBL strategies, as national science and technology fair policy promotes its
use.
The use of PBL not only allowed students to gain critical knowledge in creating science
fair projects, but it also gave them critical skills necessary to be successful in the 21st century.
As expressed by Regional Assessor Paula Cespedes, “What is needed for 21
st
Century Skills is
that a person doesn’t just learn by memorization but rather has the skill to face his problems and
find positive solutions” (Personal communication, June 19, 2014). What science fair
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 103
participation has done is transform pedagogical practice. As expressed by former National Fairs
Assessor Jonathan Monge Sandoval, “the change going from an education based on memory, to
an education based on developing projects, encouraging discovery, we call it inquiry teaching,
and eventually the development of projects” (Personal communication, June 19, 2014). A
government official further explains the change in instruction that has taken place:
I would say that, definitely, participating in a fair enables the students to learn better with
the projects, obviously. I think that you learn more by doing than by studying a textbook
or listening to a teacher give a lecture. When you are doing, you have to know what you
are doing or go look it up, and then come back and put it into what you are doing, so I
think that project-based learning enables students to learn more on their own and,
sometimes, that is more beneficial because, when you have to look up information that
you need to put your project to work. I think it makes the student more independent,
more self-sufficient, and better. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
Since mandating national science fair participation, changes took place throughout
schools. Science fair participation changed the way teachers teach and students learn. Teaching
is no longer one-dimensional, one direction. Mandating national science fair participation
fostered the creation of laboratories and workshops. The implementation of STEM PBL allowed
students to gain necessary skills beyond those of the 3 R’s and fostered a generation of critical
thinkers. Students now have better ability to think and reason for themselves, as they worked
within classrooms that reinforce the skills necessary for the 21st century. Since mandating
national science fair participation, effective changes took place in in the way teachers teach and
the way students learn.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 104
STEM-Related Fields and Students’ Future
Mandating National Science and Technology Fair participation provided students with
the skills necessary to pursue STEM-related fields in college and post-secondary pursuits. The
second theme that emerged from data collected reflects the opportunity for students to study
STEM-related fields and possibly pursue STEM-related careers because of their participation in
the National Science and Technology Fair. The necessity for STEM-related fields of study is
well chronicled by the work of Slough and Milam (2013) and Wagner (2008). STEM classes
gained critical importance, as they will prepare students to compete and hold jobs that require a
different skill set. STEM classes gained popularity recently in schools all across the globe, as
they provide students with the opportunity to learn, collaborate, lead one another, and engage in
informal, yet authentic, science activities. With a background in STEM, students will be able to
better develop critical thinking and problem solving skills, collaboration, effective
communication skills, initiative, creativity, and the ability to access new forms of information.
Just as the global workplace changed, so do the schools that educate our students (P21, 2006;
Wagner, 2008). Students need to be equipped with the tools to solve the problems of tomorrow
in order to be successful.
Survey data collected from students, teachers, and educational leaders at Don Bosco
confirm the importance of science fair participation as a means to continuing STEM education in
college. Science fair participation will give students the skills necessary to be successful after
college as they pursue STEM-related fields of study. With the implementation of STEM PBL,
students at Don Bosco are developing the important skills necessary for students to be successful
in the 21st century. At Don Bosco, 26 out of 30 teachers surveyed either strongly agreed or
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 105
agreed that the science fair has been beneficial in preparing students for post-secondary
education. The table below presents survey results of students and teachers.

Figure 10. Science Fair Beneficial in Preparing Students
Don Bosco demonstrated a serious commitment to science fair participation. Both
students and teachers see it as an important learning experience that instills the skills and
knowledge necessary for students to be successful in school and in a possible STEM-related
field. At Don Bosco, 119 out of 168 students surveyed either strongly agreed or agreed that they
had an interest in studying STEM in college after having participated in the science fair.
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Stongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
The science fair has been beneficial in prpeparing student for
post‐secondary education.
Combined Don Bosco Student
Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 106

Figure 11. Interest in Studying STEM Subjects
The responses suggest that teachers feel participation in the science fair prepared students
for success in college, and students report that their interest in studying STEM-related field in
college increased due to science fair participation. This means that students who participated in
the science fair will have demonstrated the skills necessary to be successful in college while
studying a STEM-related field.
Interviews of school leaders, teachers, college professors, business leaders, and
government officials provide further insight to the benefits of science fair participation and
students studying STEM related fields in college. As Christian Jimenez Fonseca, an educational
leader at Don Bosco explains,
In the end, the science fairs impact students a lot because it motivates them. They see all
the things they can do and all of the research they have developed within their field and
where they can continue to develop. Then the student’s research and fair participation
motivates them to go into that field in their superior studies. (Personal communication,
June 16, 2014)
0
20
40
60
80
Stongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
My interest in studying STEMsubjects in college
increased as a result due to my participation in the
science fairs
Combined Don Bosco
Student Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 107
Not only does fair participation lead to potential further studies for students in college, but it also
acts as a kind of vocational guidance program at Don Bosco. As Alejandro Jimenez, a teacher
and ISEF Mentor at Don Bosco explains,
So, then, one of our main goals is that a high percentage of our students find jobs once
they graduate from here, but, from that percentage, we also want them to find jobs. We
also want them to continue their studies. So, then, we have a high percentage of students
that work during the day and study at the universities at night. This has impacted in an
indirect manner as avocational guidance program because it helps students age 17 or 18
years old that are not clear as to what they want to study or what career they are going to
choose and what university they want to attend, so then the fairs and all of the student’s
research help the students with vocational guidance. (Personal communication, June 19,
2014)
Teachers at Don Bosco also share the sentiment of the importance and potential that comes from
science fair participation and the future of students. The fairs open doors for students to explore
their future and the possibilities that can exist for them, as Emilio Fonseca explains:
Yes, when we have kids looking for consultants and tutors to work with. They go to
universities, they go to companies, and this changes their perspectives. They realize the
world that exists out there. They start to see the links between what they are doing now,
with their current studies and what they can do in the future, both in universities and in
the job market. So, the fairs allow them to explore their vocational futures. (Personal
communication, June 19, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 108
The importance of science fair participation for students in high school also translates into
opportunity and success in college. As Silas Martinez Sancho, a University of Costa Rica
professor explained,
At the university level, these kids know that they have to develop theses and a graduate
thesis or investigate projects or participate in seminars. Students have already
accumulated knowledge in the processes of science and technology from their projects.
Most of that knowledge is still used in some way in careers, so they can say, “Okay, it is
like what I did at the fair, but a little more profound, so now I know I have to ask better
questions, be a part of better processes, more foundation, generate processes and a
methodology to investigate. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
The skills and abilities that students gain through science fair participation are not only skills that
will aide then in a classroom or laboratory; they are in many cases life-long skills that will
benefit students over the course of their lives. As a multinational executive explains,
Ok, the biggest part [of science fair participation] is giving them the independence, they
take initiative. They have come from a very sheltered environment in primary and
secondary school high school. When they go into the university, they are thrown into
huge classes and have to stand out. If they are going to stand out, they have to have the
skills. I think that having participated in the science fair has given them the opportunity
to look at how they can take the initiative and solve problems. It has given them
communication and teamwork skills. It has helped them believe in themselves and I
think that for a lot of students the science fair has helped to increase their self-esteem.
(Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 109
As previously mentioned, national policy mandates participation in some type of science fair.
While this does not mean that every student will enjoy the process or go on to study a STEM-
related field as a career, it does mean that the fair experience may turn students on to science and
provide them with an experience that will change their future. As Paula Cespedes, a former
teacher and now Regional Science Fair Assessor explains,
As I mentioned just a moment ago, the main repercussion, the oasis that allows the
professors and the students to do sciences. Not just talk about it, to do it. So, it has been
significant in the change in the mentality. Many professors that used to follow the one
directional teaching, one boring way for students, now they see it differently. The
sciences can be fun, very practical, and they see how a student that was maybe
uninterested or low-performing changes his or her attitude and that is really great. Many
times we have geniuses, but they are sleeping and this type of activity [science fair] can
wake them up. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
In particular, science fair participation provided many students’ skills and opportunities both in
high school and beyond into post-secondary options and into STEM-related careers. Science fair
participation provided students with life-long skills and lessons that will provide benefits beyond
the classroom. Science fair participation, coupled with STEM, benefitted students, and gave
them valuable skills and experiences. Students at Don Bosco seek out their own opportunities
and create their own futures based upon the exposure they receive by participating in the science
fairs and creating a path for their futures.
Discussion Research Question Two
Changes in curriculum and instruction from participation in the science fair resulted in
the creation of new knowledge for students. Students pursue problems and solutions outside the
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 110
classroom. Within this, teaching is no longer one-directional. Students create solutions through
the development of projects. Learning is now more authentic for students. Pedagogy fosters
critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leadership, and effective oral and written
communication. Because of these changes, students perceive themselves as more ready and
equipped with the necessary skills to pursue further STEM-related fields of study. The result of
this is a population of students who have the knowledge and skills required to participate in the
global economy of the 21st century. The major finding that emerged from data pertaining to
Research Question Two is that Costa Rica sought and achieved major gains in implementing
change in curriculum and instruction that implement the necessary 21st Century Skills through
mandating national science fair participation.
Results: Research Question Three
Research question 3 asked, How has the national science and technology fair policy
changed the value for STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders? This
research question was created to examine how the national policy of science fair participation
changed the value, meaning how it has changed the importance, of STEM education. STEM
education (via national policy and science fair participation) has an impact on the attitudes,
beliefs, and practices of students, teachers, and educational leaders. The two major themes that
emerged from this research question are that STEM education provided students with an
opportunity at a future course of study and a possible career. The second theme is that teachers
at Cedes Don Bosco drove changes in curriculum and pedagogical practice to support STEM
education. Because of student success, teachers also reported motivation towards STEM
education and a burgeoning “fair culture” within the school.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 111
Student’s Career Opportunities and a Future
The first emerging theme of the third question is that, because of participating in STEM
education and in the science fairs, students realize career opportunities available to them and
related talents within. STEM education made these areas of education essential to their learning
and future career opportunities. Emerging themes from data collected via surveys reflect that
students who participate in the national science fair show an interest in STEM-related fields and,
as a result, chose to pursue a STEM-related course of study as well as a STEM-related career.
Students at Don Bosco also believe that the STEM education they received was an important part
of their education.
STEM programs are a vital contributor to a country’s economic prosperity and,
incumbent within that, the futures of their students (Sahin, 2013). These students will provide
the educated workforce that will promote sustained economic growth. As stated by STEM EDU
(2013), the 30 fastest growing occupation in the decade will require some background in STEM
education. Costa Rica provides students the necessary skills through STEM education, and these
are reinforced through science fair participation because students gain important skills with a
foundation in STEM education while developing human capital for their own and their country’s
future.
Students see the value provided to them through STEM. STEM has been an important
part of students’ education in that it exposed them to new and exciting subjects that provide
knowledge and possible vocational guidance. Students now pursue careers in STEM studies and
possible futures in STEM careers. The figure below presents answers to survey questions; there
were 168 Don Bosco students surveyed. From this group, 78 students strongly agree, 58 students
agree, five disagree, and zero strongly disagree that STEM instruction was important part of their
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 112
education and that participation in the science fair has a positive impact on their lives.
Responses of “I Do Not Know” were omitted.

Figure 12. STEM Education has been Important
Participation in the science fairs has a positive impact on the lives of students. Students
gained critical knowledge, as well as experiences that will help shape their futures. These
experiences guide their studies in school and provide vocational guidance for careers to follow.
The figure below presents responses from 168 students surveyed. Of these students, 76 strongly
agreed, 82 students agreed, 2 students disagreed, and 0 students strongly disagreed that
participation in the science fair had a positive impact their lives. The overwhelming majority of
students agreed that the science fair had a positive impact on their lives. Responses of “I Do Not
Know” were omitted.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Stongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
STEM education has been an important part of my
education
Combined Don Bosco
Student Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 113

Figure 13. Science Fair’s Positive Impact
The importance of a STEM education is further exemplified through interviews of
students (both former graduates of Cedes Don Bosco and current college students) of Colegio
Tecnico Don Bosco. Rolando Retana Badilla, a graduate of Don Bosco and former ISEF
participant, was interviewed. When asked how important STEM education is, he responded,
A lot, because, in the first place, it was helpful to establish a basis to choose my area of
learning and also in the working field. For example, thanks to the fair process I went
through, I was able to get several opportunities to work in different areas and, from that, I
had an opportunity to be accepted at Intel where I’m working now, and that helps you a
lot to develop skills from the processes for example how to speak in front of an audience
in a correct way, how to support an idea, that’s very valuable. (Personal communication,
June 18, 2014)
Mariana Quesada Morera, a former ISEF participant and Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco graduate,
also described the importance of STEM:
0
20
40
60
80
100
Stongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Participation in the science fairs has had a positive
impact on my life
Combined Don Bosco
Student Responses
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 114
Well, I consider that these branches of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
are quite essential to the life of the students, since they define a vocational future, right?
I had excellent teachers in school, which gave me the necessary foundations to see if I
wanted to study such things. At the beginning, I wanted to study medicine because my
family was telling me about it, but, then, when I had the experience of participating in a
computing workshop and the workshop was from Cisco and it was related to such things
as science, technology, engineering and mathematics, I decided to pursue a future in
STEM. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
Rolando continued to describe the importance of STEM as it related to the career he chose to
pursue because of his STEM education and participation in the International Science and
Technology Fair:
As I mentioned before, when I decided what type of career I wanted to follow, I really
took that [STEM education] into account because I had the experience of participating for
many years in these fairs and had the opportunity to go to ISEF and know the
environment within the other global powers which were represented there. That gave me
a wide outlook about what I wanted, what area I wanted to focus on and what area I had
the strength in. From there, I took that decision of working in those areas in my career. I
mean working in my engineering career. I mean, right now, I want to finish my career in
engineering and in electronics. After that, I would like to have a master’s degree in
engineering and telecommunications and data transmissions or mechanics. (Personal
communication, June 18, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 115
Mariana had a very similar experience to Rolando’s, “Then, I wanted to study industrial
engineering. A door was opened for me as a result of my participation in the Intel international
science and technology fair.” (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
The importance of STEM education not only provided Don Bosco graduates with a future
of opportunities, but also provided current students the same opportunities for career success.
This is the case with current students Mary Luisa Ortiz and Mary Fernanda Ramirez. Both
students feel their education is enriched by STEM and that their participation in the science fairs
gave them direction and a future. Mary Luisa saw a dramatic change in her course of study
because of STEM, as she states,
Well they have had a large effect, because it changes the vision of what one wants to be
or wants to study. Months ago I didn’t know what I wanted or wanted to be and all of
this helped me choose to be an engineer. (Personal communication, May 10, 2014)
Mary Luisa further states that she hopes to use her education and career choice as an engineer to
bring about change in the World, “I have the capability to make change. I want to be an engineer
because I feel I can change the lives of people, I can make their lives simpler and easier with
technology” (Personal communication, May 10, 2014).
Mary Fernanda Ramirez mirrors her colleague’s comments regarding the importance of STEM
education:
I think it [STEM] is very important because it is something that is used every day. With
all of these things [STEM education] together, we can accomplish many things and
solutions to many of our problems can be solved through them, and, for me, it was very
exciting and made a difference in my life. I never thought I could be a technology girl.
(Personal communication, May 10, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 116
Overall, the first emerging theme to question three is that, because of participating in
STEM education and in the science fairs, students realize career opportunities available to them
and related talents within STEM fields that they will continue to pursue. Students value STEM
education and see how it can affect their future and the benefits of it. Students understand the
increased opportunity that STEM brings them, as it gives them possible careers as well as
direction.
Increased Motivation and a Fair Culture
The second theme to emerge is that teachers at Cedes Don Bosco drove changes in
curriculum and pedagogical practice to support STEM education. Because of student success,
teachers also reported motivation towards STEM education and a burgeoning “fair culture”
within the school. This point was seen in the responses of business leaders, school leaders, and
teachers alike. Teachers describe a culture of fairs and creating projects as well as a blossoming
of the entrepreneurial spirit in their students. Business leaders, school leaders and teachers all
referred to the motivation to change their curriculum and approach to implement STEM
education and how those changes actually resulted in changes in the way teachers teach and
students learn.
Teachers and educational leaders feel that STEM education is important, educational
leaders benefit by promoting participation in science fairs, and because of the national science
fair mandate, there is an increase in teacher knowledge of STEM education. Surveys results
below also lend themselves to support the overarching theme of the importance of STEM
education, as well as of the effects that STEM education has on educational leaders and teachers,
specifically at Don Bosco. Because of that belief and increase in knowledge, there is increased
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 117
motivation to implement STEM in the classrooms and a general “fair culture” awakened in
students and teachers.
Teachers value STEM education, as they see the importance of it and acknowledge the
benefits that it presents for students and for their school. In the chart below, of a total of 30
teachers and administrators, 16 responded strongly agree, 9 responded agree, 0 disagreed, and 1
strongly disagreed. Responses of “I Do Not Know” were omitted. The figure below presents
responses as to the importance of STEM education:

Figure 14. STEM Education is Important
Teachers believe that, because of science fair participation, there is an increase in their STEM
knowledge. In this study, evidence speaks to the changes in classroom pedagogy that resulted
from science fair participation and from implementing a STEM curriculum. These changes
fostered new relationships between teachers and students, and teachers have the opportunity to
become refreshed as educators and to adapt to new methods. Although not in as overwhelming
fashion, results show that the majority of teachers and administrators do still believe that,
because of the national science fair mandate, there has been an increase in teachers’ knowledge
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Stongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
STEM education is important
Combined Don Bosco
Teachers
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 118
of STEM education. As the figure below represents, of the 30 teachers surveyed, 4 teachers
strongly agree, 8 agree, 5 disagree, and 1 strongly disagrees.

Figure 15. Increase in Teachers’ Knowledge of STEM Education
Overall, nearly all teachers and administrators feel that STEM education is important; the
majority feels that teachers’ STEM knowledge increased as a result of the national science fair
mandate, and this was supported by educational leaders who believe they benefitted by
promoting participation in science fairs. These core thoughts and beliefs of individuals at Don
Bosco are further supported and developed in the thoughts and comments of others who were
interviewed.
Business leader, astronaut, and national hero, Dr. Franklin Chang Diaz discusses the need
and motivation for teachers to, first, change their approach to education in order to be able to
help students acquire 21st Century Skills. Dr. Chang Diaz feels that mandating science fair
participation has an impact:
[on] their way of teaching because, if a teacher, at least in Costa Rica, stays pretty much
stagnant, or always doing things the same way, when the environment changes, the
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Stongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
As a result of the national science fair mandate, there has been
an increase in teachers' knowledge of STEM edcuation
Combined Don Bosco
Teachers
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 119
teacher becomes essentially obsolete. I think that teachers, just like students, also have to
change. In fact, they probably have to change first. (Personal communication, July 10,
2014)
This idea is supported and expounded upon in a conversation with Jorge Fonseca, the technical
coordinator at Don Bosco. Jorge states that, because of STEM education and the science fair
mandate,
Teachers are not simply focused on giving their classes, but in addition, start giving
consultancies. They start receiving the kids, following up with the projects, knowing the
projects and boosting them. This makes the system less of “I’m teacher, you’re student,”
but more a system where teacher supports student and student supports teacher.
(Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
Fonseca says that STEM education obligates teachers to be updated and focus their subjects
toward clear objectives. It requires them to not just say “It’s done like this. I don’t know why
it’s done like this, it just is,” but, instead, to show students why a subject is important, and how
best to study it. It is important to know that the change in approach and focus creates a new
dynamic in the classroom, also described by several other educational and government leaders.
Sylvia Arguello, a former teacher and government official describes the importance of
the change in the student-teacher relationship, and how that change motivates the teaching
community to change perspective and pedagogy:
That’s a very important thing because that provides us with a different way of teaching
science and that makes us more conscious about the necessity of being more prepared and
refreshed as a teacher and the pretty thing about this is to see, the traditional perspective
is that the teacher is the recipient of all the information and knowledge and kids are
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 120
learning from him or her. In this case, this is a two-channel learning. I think that’s a very
important point. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
School official E. Christian Jimenez, who states, further illustrates this point;
The teacher is no longer the keeper of the one and only truth but he is there along with his
students investigating as a team. So then, the teacher becomes a certain type of tutor that
is guiding the student. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
Another governmental leader, G. Jose Vargas, who not only acknowledges the shift in
pedagogical approach but also discusses how that shift created more motivation in teachers to
increase their knowledge and skills, also describes this two-channel learning approach:
In general, the students and teachers involved in the process live it in their hearts.
Equally, the professors are very interested in training themselves on how to do
investigative projects with their students. They trained themselves a lot in the new
technologies, teaching with internet 2.0, for example, and this obviously has brought
great improvements in the teaching of these sciences. (Personal communication, June 18,
2014)
The importance of STEM education, the motivation for teachers to change and evolve to
support it, and the resulting shift in pedagogical approach were well documented by the group.
In addition to the above, there was a passion ignited in the teaching community, passed onto the
students, and manifested in the science fairs. Former national science director and government
leader, Jonathan Monge Sandoval, who states, best describes this passion:
There are teachers that don’t just understand the importance of this process, but also live
the teachings of this field passionately. With the way they convey that emotion, they are
able to transmit it to the students, and can continually repeat the processes. They are the
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 121
ones that show up annually and are like part of the family. Every year, you see them.
They come to the fairs, show up with a lot of devotion, and with a positive availability.
And their students are a reflection of them because they live it in the same way. They
receive that passion, the desire to explore those areas, and, eventually, they’re students
that are really motivated to continue in an area of science, technology, or engineering.
(Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
What this begins to describe is a generalized “fair culture” that continues to grow. Two teachers
described this culture. One, Alejandro Loria, mentioned that the mandate of science fairs
motivates teacher:
I’m very motivated. I always like it when a fair is coming up. I like the fairs a lot. To
prepare the kids to participate, it motivates me. And in our institution here, I always see
there’s a good motivation and desire to participate in the fairs. (Personal communication,
June 19, 2014)
Loria also discusses how the mandate caused project work to gain momentum in the schools. He
states,
A long time ago with only the science and technology fair, they only had to present one
project, and it was done with only a couple of groups. Now, teachers and students are
required to make a project in every class, and that project is judged in fairs on multiple
levels. This has created a culture of fairs and creating projects. It has been a very
positive change from a long time ago where it was difficult to get people to participate
and create projects. (Personal communication, June 19, 2014)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 122
Agreeing with that concept and taking it a step further, teacher Fabian Garro discusses how the
fair culture resonated beyond the classroom and into the economy as well as into the younger
generation’s interpersonal relationships:
This has generated an entrepreneurial situation. Because of participation in a fair or the
development of an idea, many young people decide to form or found a small company
and, parting from that product that was once just a project, grow as entrepreneurs… due
to the passion they feel, they are always eager to collaborate with others. There have also
been cases where these kids have tutored other kids and have motivated them through
their testimonies, young people discussing science in their own language, in their own
terms. (Personal communication, June 16, 2014)
National Science and Technology Fair mandates changed the value of STEM education
for teachers and educational leaders, both in and out of the classroom. National Science and
Technology Fair mandates are the perfect vehicle for STEM pedagogical practice. They also
increase teacher and educational leader motivation towards STEM programs and enhance
science fair participation for teachers, students, and education leaders alike.
Discussion Research Question Three
The major finding from data pertaining to research question three is that students value
STEM education and see it and science fair participation as a means to critical knowledge and
valuable experience. STEM allows students to use new knowledge and incorporate it into their
everyday lives, not simply for the purposes of a fair or project. As mentioned by the
respondents, this knowledge and experience provide students with opportunities. These
opportunities can go beyond the classroom and into a career for these students. According to
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 123
interview data, STEM education empowered students into creating new futures for themselves,
and these futures are centered on STEM related subjects and fields.
Summary
Conclusions that can be drawn from this study are that Costa Rica has a strong
commitment towards education and, through education, will provide students the skills and
abilities to create a future for themselves as well as strengthen the economic sustainability of
their country. Through education, coupled with FDI, partnerships with MNCs, and government
policy that mandates science fair participation, the nation is positioned to create a well-educated
workforce with the 21st Century Skills necessary to compete in the global knowledge-based
economy of the 21st century. Collaboration among government policy makers, educational
leaders, teachers, and students have led Costa Rica to creating knowledge-ready students with
21st Century Skills, reinforced in STEM subjects to take their place in the workforce. An
analysis of data collected revealed the themes discussed below.
The first research question asked, To what extent do teachers implementing STEM trace
their practices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and multinational corporations? To
what extent I the economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related? Three themes
emerged from the data: (1) government policy influenced implementation of STEM curriculum,
(2) globalization and MNCs provide the impetus for STEM, and (3) STEM education is a critical
factor to the nation’s future and economic growth. Through collaboration from government
leaders, policy makers, school leaders, and teachers, the country implemented policies that foster
STEM curriculum through science fair participation. Leaders strategically partnered with MNCs
through FDI to enhance pedagogy and resources and focused attention to a STEM curriculum
that will lead to future economic growth for students and economy. One major finding emerged
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 124
from the data pertaining to this question. In order to grow economically, there is a need for
government policies like the science fair mandate that foster the implementation of STEM
programs.
The second research question asked, How has mandating the national science and
technology fair influenced the implementation of 21st Century Skills through the use of project-
based learning and the use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it
impacted curriculum and instruction? There were two themes, which emerged in response.
First, mandating participation in the national science fair has an impact on and changes
curriculum. The second theme was that the mandate influenced the implementation of STEM
programs, which will better prepare students for a future in a STEM-related field of study or
profession. Changes in curriculum and instruction that focus on STEM and 21st Century Skills
will better prepare students to pursue post-secondary options and careers in STEM-related fields.
The major finding that emerged from question two is that Costa Rica, through mandating
national science fair participation, sought and achieved major gains in curriculum and instruction
that implement the necessary 21st Century Skills.
The third research question asked, How has the national science and technology fair
policy changed the value for STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
The two major themes that emerged from this research question are that STEM education
provided students with an opportunity at a future course of study and a possible career. The
second theme is that teachers at Cedes Don Bosco drive changes in curriculum and pedagogical
practice to support STEM education. Because of student success, teachers also reported
motivation towards STEM education and a burgeoning “fair culture” within the school. Simply
put, STEM education leads students to opportunities that relate to post-secondary options and
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 125
careers in STEM related fields. The major finding from research question three is that students
value STEM education and see both it and science fair participation as a means to gain critical
knowledge and valuable experience.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 126
CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the mid-1990s, Costa Rica sought to increase FDI and the presence of MNCs in
country. In order to achieve this, national leaders sought changes in curriculum and instruction
that would better prepare students to be knowledge-ready workers. This is the beginning of a
cyclical relationship that starts with countries looking to attract FDI and the presence of MNCs.
In order to do so, they need to have knowledge-ready workers. This means that the host country
must have an educational system that supports the training and education these workers need. As
the system of education supports students in acquiring these skills, the host country is better able
to attract further FDI and MNCs, and the cycle perpetuates itself. In the case of Costa Rica, this
cycle is represented through collaborative effort among the government, Ministry of Education,
educational leaders, schools, and teachers. The impetus for this change came in the form of a
policy mandating a national science fair. This policy promoted science fair participation for all
students. In order to support participation, schools implemented STEM classes and curriculum.
The by-product of science fair participation in STEM-related fields is a generation of workers
able to participate in the global, knowledge-ready economy of the 21st Century. This chapter
presents the findings of this research study and provides recommendations for practice and future
research. This chapter is divided into four sections: (1) summary of findings; (2) implications of
findings and recommendations for practice; (3) areas for future research; and (4) conclusion.
This research study answered the following three research questions:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices back to
the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the economic
growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 127
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation influenced
implementation of 21
st
Century skills through the use of project-based learning and the
use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted
curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM
education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
The purpose of this case study was to examine the influence that globalization, FDI, and
MNC responsibility had on the curriculum and practices in schools. Furthermore, the
relationship between STEM education and economic growth was studied. As the nation sought
continued FDI and the presence of MNC’s, a key component is its ability to provide a well-
educated workforce to meet the demands of the 21st century, knowledge-based economy. In an
effort to meet these demands, educational leaders implemented policy and pedagogical practice
in schools across the nation to help students acquire the skills necessary for them to be
successful. This study also examined how the mandated national science and technology fair
influences the use of PBL to build human capital and prepare students for 21st century jobs,
particularly in the STEM fields. This preparation will not only benefit students but will provide
the Costa Rican economy with the educated workforce that 21st century global economy
demands.
Several theories provide the framework for analyzing the data gathered for this study:
Globalization from the work of Spring, (2008), Friedman, (2007), Chanda, (2008), and Clifton,
(2012); 21st Century Skills from the work of Wagner (2008) and the Partnership for 21st
Century Learning (2010); literature pertaining to MNC’s, CINDE (2012, 2013), and Intel; and
STEM PBL using the work of Slough and Milam (2013). The frameworks used within this study
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 128
provided rationale, reason, and definition to explain different phenomena this study addressed.
The primary collection of data was collected over a 10-day research trip to Costa Rica. While
there, the research team conducted interviews of students, teachers, school administrators,
educational and government policy makers as well as multinational business leaders. Prior to the
research trip, the team interviewed current Intel/ISEF students while at the Intel International
Science Fair held in Los Angeles during May 2014. Interviews of one government official from
and one multinational business leader also took place before the team headed to Costa Rica.
Summary of Findings
This research study presented three emerging findings resulting from the three research
questions addressed. The first finding is that, in order for to grow the economy; the government
must implement policies like the science fair mandate that foster the implementation of STEM
programs. The second finding from this study was the major gains in curriculum and instruction
that lead to 21st century skills. The last finding is that students value STEM education and see
STEM education and science fair participation as a means to gain critical knowledge and
valuable experience. STEM instruction allowed students to use new knowledge and incorporate
it into their everyday lives, not just simply for the purposes of a fair or project.
The first finding regarding the need for governmental policies like the science fair
mandate is important because it constitutes acknowledgement of the need for changes in order to
continue to attract FDI and MNCs. The science fair mandate no longer made science fair
participation voluntary. Teachers, educational leaders, and students agree that the policy helped
the implementation of the STEM curriculum. The science fair policy and the STEM PBL
curriculum was the result of a collaborative effort among all stakeholders, government officials,
MNC’s, school leaders, and teachers. This finding is similar to Sahin’s (2013) highlighting of
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 129
STEM classes as a vital contributor to a country’s economic wellbeing. Additionally, as found
by Spring (2008), globalization requires schools to better educate a population to meet the new
and changing demands of a knowledge-based economy, as knowledge becomes the most
important factor in economic development. In this regard, national leaders recognized the need
to change the educational system and pursued pedagogical practice to support the science fair
mandate. From the mandate, STEM PBL programs aided in the creation of practice that supports
policy in schools.
The second finding reveals educational leaders sought and achieved major gains in
implementing change in curriculum and instruction toward 21st Century skills. They developed
better educational systems and pedagogy to enhance curriculum. In order to continue
development and to attract MNCs, schools seek to better prepare students to take their place in
the global economy of the 21st century. This finding aligns with Wagner (2008) in emphasizing
the skills necessary for students to be successful now are different from those required in the
past. He states, “Thus work, learning, and citizenship in the twenty-first century demand that we
all know how to think-to reason, analyze, weigh evidence, problem solve-and to communicate
effectively” (p. xxiii). Various stakeholders, from government officials to teachers working
collaboratively to change, support these 21st Century skills. For students in the 21st century,
there is a critical need to master knowledge beyond the traditional core subjects of knowledge.
The need for 21st Century Skills focuses on education and competitiveness, as students face the
challenge of competition with other students from all over the world in the global marketplace.
The economic imperative of 21st Century Skills is critical not just to students, but also to the
economics of nations themselves (Wagner, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 130
The third finding that emerged from this research study is that students value STEM
education. STEM education and science fair participation allow them to gain critical knowledge
and valuable experience. STEM education allowed students to use new knowledge and
incorporate it into their everyday lives, beyond the fair or their individual projects. As
highlighted by Sahin (2013), the 30 fastest growing occupations in the decade will require some
background in STEM education. The educational system provides students STEM education
reinforced through science fair participation. Through the science fair, students gain important
skills while developing human capital. As people invest in themselves via an education, they
increase their opportunity to improve their lives through better employment. This, in turn,
fosters economic development and growth for their host country.
The limitations presented in this study were the result of time, distance, culture, and
unplanned events that could not be prepared for. While limitations occurred, the team mitigated
circumstances and managed to collect data used within this study. Data collection occurred over
an abbreviated time of six days. This means that the team was only able to observe classroom
pedagogy for short periods and was restricted to only what was happening at that time. During
data collection, the team was at the mercy of school personnel scheduling, an unplanned
shortened school day that was eventually cancelled, and school-wide testing. Time and data was
lost due to a personal family emergency of a school leader at Don Bosco in addition to school-
wide testing and the World Cup, which closed school for four hours during a Costa Rican soccer
match. The majority of data collected was from Cedes Don Bosco School, a technical high
school that receives tremendous support from Intel. As a result, many responses were favorable
toward the science fairs and the multinational presence of Intel in Costa Rica. While limitations
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 131
existed, the team worked within the confines of circumstances and collected significant data to
perform this study.
Implications for Practice
There were two implications for practice that surfaced because of this study. The first is
the need for a national STEM curriculum and increased teacher training. The second is the need
for education and preparation in STEM-related curriculum. Both support the enhancement of
curriculum and instruction and will allow Costa Rica to further cultivate FDI and keep attracting
MNCs. The nation can continue producing a well-educated workforce with STEM skills and
abilities to provide both country and student with opportunities to grow and participate in the
global knowledge-based economy of the 21st century.
A National STEM Curriculum
A national STEM curriculum will improve science fair participation and student-
generated projects. Currently, teachers lack resources and time within the school day to
implement a curriculum. Many of the teachers perceive the fair as an outside responsibility and
as something that requires many hours for which they are not compensated. In addition, they do
not have the necessary resources or tools, from a curricular standpoint, to better prepare students.
A national STEM curriculum will allow teachers to educate students better with consistency
across schools. Without a STEM curriculum, there is a risk of STEM subjects being taught in
isolation without a well-developed course of action for teachers.
A national STEM curriculum will also give teachers the guidance, resources, and time to
dedicate to students, the fairs, and their projects. Currently, policy mandates fair participation.
However, there is no unified STEM curriculum to support participation of either teachers or
students. The STEM curriculum in classrooms currently is an accidental benefit resulting from
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 132
the science fair mandate. What is needed now is a dedicated effort to implement STEM
education with greater fidelity, support to teachers in order to foster it, and grow the use of it in
schools. Overall, a national STEM curriculum would provide teachers with the curricular and
logistical support to enhance and improve teaching and fair participation. A national STEM
curriculum requires the collaboration and support of all key stakeholders, government leaders,
policy makers, school leaders, and teachers to develop human capital and increase students’
potential.
Increased Teacher Training, Education, and Preparation in STEM
Currently, there is a segment of the teacher population that may not know or understand
the benefit of STEM and the potential that it can bring to students. Teacher beliefs and practices
with regard to STEM would be improved with greater knowledge and preparation. Increased
teacher training, education, and preparation in STEM fields would encourage teacher buy-in
toward STEM education and lead to increased fair participation. While government policy
mandates participation, there is very little support for teachers in regards to training and
preparation to use a STEM curriculum. If teachers have adequate training to better implement
STEM education, then both STEM education and fair participation will increase. Increased
resources will lead to increased motivation for teachers to participate. In turn, this will help
develop students who are better prepared with the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in
the global economy of the 21st century.
Future Research
There are two recommendations for research. The first is the development of a system of
tracking students who have been successful in the fairs and to observe over time how their
development was fostered. The second is further exploration of the impact of the science fair on
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 133
student college choice and career opportunities. Both of these considerations for future research
would give officials and schools critical information to better the educational system. It would
also allow more students to participate in science fairs and increase their human capital, thus
benefiting themselves and the economy.
If a country were in the process of developing human capital, it would make sense that
this process would begin with students as early as possible. Costa Rica would benefit if students,
beginning in elementary schools, were tracked by interest and talent. Those interests and talents
could be fostered and developed over time at institutions that specialize in those areas. This
includes the early onset of STEM programs in elementary schools to give students an
opportunity to develop interests early on. The point of this system would be to see, which
schools they attended and which programs were successful in promoting and developing these
students. This would allow the Ministry of Education to help all schools develop programs and
support more students in STEM fields.
The second consideration for future research is more formalized research on science fairs.
More dedicated research on how science fairs affect students and on how science fairs can be
better developed would be beneficial. Having this information would allow educational officials
to have a better understanding of how to improve the science fairs, the process behind them, and
how to expand government and institutional support as well as curricular support for teachers.
This would formalize systems to support the fairs as well as allow schools to learn from one
another and improve their fair process.
Conclusion
This study sought to investigate the impact of globalization, FDI, and MNCs on the
development of educational policy and 21st Century Learning in Costa Rica. Although the
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 134
nation achieved major gains in education over the past 40 years, due to globalization and the
changing demands of a knowledge-based global economy, the nation faces the challenge of
educating students with 21st Century Skills. In order to continue developing knowledge-ready
workers for the 21st century and to meet the changing demands of the global economy, the
nation implemented STEM programs and embraced participation in national science and
technology fairs. Through STEM and science fair participation, students develop critical skills,
abilities, and knowledge that will allow them to participate in STEM-related fields of study.
This will not only enhance their own futures, but will also help develop and grow the Costa
Rican economy.

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 135
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Appendix A
Recruitment/Consent Letter

Dear XXX,

On June 16, 2014, a group of 14 doctoral students from the University of Southern California Rossier
School of Education will be traveling to Costa Rica as part of a research team lead by Dr. Michael
Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of
globalization and multinational corporations on the schools of Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested
in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) education and the country’s national science and
technology fair as a means of producing knowledge ready workers for 21
st
century jobs.

As part of our study, the following questions will guide our research:

1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices back to the
influence of policy, globalization, and multinational corporations? To what extent is the economic
growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?

2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation influenced
implementation of 21
st
century skills through the use of project-based learning and use of
technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted curriculum and
instruction?

3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for STEM education
for students, teachers, and educational leaders?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education, and
educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys, interviews, and
observations to gather the data necessary to answer our research questions. Your input will be invaluable
to our study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you anytime between June 16
th
and
June 23
rd
. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 142
(Spanish Translation)

Estimado(a) XXX,

Por este medio me permito presentar a nuestro grupo de 14 estudiantes de Doctorado en Educación de la
escuela Rossier, de la Universidad del Sur de California, conocida como USC. Nosotros integramos un
grupo de estudio, bajo la dirección de los Dr. Michael Escalante y Dra. Oryla Wiedoeft, que viajará a
Costa Rica el día 13 de junio, con el propósito de investigar los efectos de la globalización e inversiones
de corporaciones multinacionales en el sistema educativo de Costa Rica. La razón de la investigación,
presta atención a las siguientes materias académicas: ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería, y matemáticas
(materias conocidas como STEM en inglés) de igual interés, nuestro estudio es el programa de Ferias
Nacionales de Ciencia y Tecnología, el cual es utilizado como un vehículo para promover una fuerza
laboral capacitada con el conocimiento y destrezas necesarias para los empleos del siglo 21.

Las siguientes preguntas nos guiarán en la investigación:

1. ¿En qué medida docentes que implementan el currículo STEM pueden trazar sus prácticas de
enseñanza en la influencia de corporaciones multinacionales, globalización, y política
nacional? ¿Hasta qué punto está relacionado el desarrollo económico de Costa Rica con la
educación basada en STEM?
2. ¿Cuál ha sido el impacto del decreto nacional, del que se requiere la participación de escuelas
en las ferias nacionales de ciencia y tecnología, para promover las destrezas para el siglo 21,
a través del aprendizaje basado en proyectos y el uso de la tecnología por los docentes, sin
importar el área de estudio? ¿Cuál ha sido el impacto en el currículo y la enseñanza?
3. ¿Cuánto ha cambiado el valor de la educación STEM para los estudiantes, docentes, y lideres
educativos basado en la política nacional de las ferias nacionales de ciencia y tecnología?

Como parte de la investigación, nos gustaría tener la oportunidad de entrevistar a miembros del ministerio
de educación, y/o líderes en el área de la educación a nivel regional, local, y/o a nivel de planteles
educativos. El propósito de nuestra visita será recopilar valiosa información a través de encuestas,
observaciones y entrevistas; dicha información será de insumo en la investigación.

De ante mano, le extendemos nuestro mas sincero agradecimiento por considerar nuestra propuesta.
Estaremos a su disposición para una reunión entre las fechas de junio 16 a junio 23. Para cualquier
pregunta o inquietud, usted puede contactar a cualquier miembro de nuestro grupo investigativo.

Atentamente,

Los estudiantes de doctorado
Universidad de el Sur de California (USC)
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 143
Appendix B
Policy/Government Agency Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: ________________________
Length in your position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences with
regards to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s ultimate goal is to better
understand how schools are helping students develop 21
st
century skills, particularly in the fields of
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous? We would like
to record this interview in order to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we have your consent?

This interview will be approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM).
1. What is your opinion on the importance of science, technology, engineering, and math
education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who participate in
science and technology fairs?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 144
3. Could you describe science, technology, engineering, and math related changes and interests
that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science and technology fair policy?
4. For those students that participate in science and technology fairs, what changes have you
noticed in their interests in science, technology, engineering, and math related fields? How
about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational system in Costa
Rica? If so, how?
II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How do you feel the science and technology fair has affected science instruction?
3. How do you feel the science and technology fair has affected curriculum?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for the science and technology fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of Project Based Learning
(PBL)?
6. How is technology utilized to prepare students for the science and technology fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for post-secondary
instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) on Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in the science and technology fair? If so,
how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in science,
technology, engineering, and math education?
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates with 21
st
century
skills particularly those from science, technology, engineering, and math fields?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 145
5. What should be the role of Intel/MNCs in promoting science, technology, engineering, and
math as well as science and technology fair participation?
6. Do you believe science, technology, engineering, and math education is important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 146
Appendix C
Business Leaders Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Length in current position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences with
regards to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s ultimate goal is to better
understand how schools are helping students develop 21
st
century skills, particularly in the fields of
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous? We would like
to record this interview in order to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we have your consent?

This interview will be approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM).
1. What is your opinion on the importance of science, technology, engineering, and math
education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who participate
in science and technology fairs?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 147
3. Could you describe science, technology, engineering, and math education related changes
and interests that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science and technology fair
policy?
4. For those students that participate in science and technology fairs, what changes have you
noticed in their interests in science, technology, engineering, and math education related
fields? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational system in
Costa Rica? If so, how?
II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How does the involvement in science and technology fairs affect the labor force?
3. Has the science and technology fair affected curriculum in schools?
4. Do you think schools are preparing students adequately for the science and technology
fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of Project Based
Learning (PBL)?
6. How has technology prepared students for the science and technology fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for post-
secondary instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) on Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in the science and technology fair? If
so, how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in science,
technology, engineering, and math education?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 148
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates with 21
st

century skills particularly those from science, technology, engineering, and math
education fields?
5. What should be the role of Intel/MNCs in promoting science, technology, engineering,
and math as well as science and technology fair participation?
6. Do you believe science, technology, engineering, and math education is important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 149
Appendix D
School Leader Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Length in current position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences with
regards to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s ultimate goal is to better
understand how schools are helping students develop 21
st
century skills, particularly in the fields of
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous? We would like
to record this interview in order to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we have your consent?

This interview will be approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. National Science and technology fair Policy and Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM).
1. What is your opinion on the importance of science, technology, engineering, and math
education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who participate
in science and technology fairs?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 150
3. Could you describe science, technology, engineering, and math related changes and
interests that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science and technology fair
policy?
4. For those students that participate in science and technology fairs, what changes have you
noticed in their interests in science, technology, engineering, and math related fields?
How about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational system in
Costa Rica? If so, how?
II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How do you feel the science and technology fair has affected science instruction?
3. How do you feel the science and technology fair has affected curriculum?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for the science and technology fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of Project Based
Learning (PBL)?
6. How is technology utilized to prepare students for the science and technology fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for post-
secondary instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) on Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in science and technology fairs? If so,
how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in science,
technology, engineering, and math education?
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates with 21
st

century skills particularly those from science, technology, engineering, and math fields?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 151
5. What should be the role of Intel/MNCs in promoting science, technology, engineering,
and math as well as science and technology fair participation?
6. Do you believe science, technology, engineering, and math education is important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 152
Appendix E
Student Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Grade/Level: _____________________Contact Information: ________________________
Number of Science and Technology Fairs Participated:________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences with
regards to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s ultimate goal is to better
understand how schools are helping students develop 21
st
century skills, particularly in the fields of
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous? We would like
to record this interview in order to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we have your consent?

This interview will be approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?

I. National Science and technology fair Policy and Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM).
1. What is your opinion on the importance of science, technology, engineering and math
education?
2. What effect have the science and technology fairs had on your life; and academic career?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 153
3. As a result of the mandate for all schools to participate in the science and technology
fairs, do you notice any changes in the science and technology programs at schools that
you have attended?
4. Have your interests in science, technology, engineering and math related fields changed
as a result of your participation in the science and technology fairs?
II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fairs?
2. How do you feel the education that you have received prepared you for the science and
technology fairs?
3. What did your teachers do in class that prepared you for the science and technology fairs?
4. What did you do in class that prepared you for the science and technology fairs?
5. How is technology utilized to prepare you for the science and technology fairs?
6. Do you feel that your participation in the science and technology fairs has encouraged
you to study a science, technology, engineering and math related major in college?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) on Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) Education
1. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
2. Are you aware of any type of programs or support Intel has provided for your school to
improve science, technology, and education?
3. Do you believe science, technology, engineering and math education is important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 154
Appendix F
Survey Protocol for Teachers and Administrators

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 155

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 156
Appendix G
Survey Protocol for Students

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 157
Appendix H
Classroom Observation Protocol

Date _____________________________ Time _______________________________
No. of Students ____________________ Males __________ Females __________
Class Title and Grade Level _________________________________________________
Class Topic ______________________________________________________________
Classroom Set-Up

Overview of Lesson (Objective for the Day):

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 158

Materials in Use:

Additional Classroom Information:

21
st
Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM / PBL
(Slough & Milam,
2013)
Actions Observed Conversations Observer Comments
Critical Thinking
and Problem
Solving
Making Content
Accessible

Collaborating
Across Networks
Making Thinking
Visible

Agility and
Adaptability
Helping Students
Learn from Others

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 159
Initiative and
Entrepreneurialism
Promoting
Autonomy and
Lifelong Learning

Effective Oral and
Written
Communication

Accessing and
Analyzing
Information

Curiosity and
Imagination

Other Observations

RQ1: Does the teacher utilize elements of the national science fair/STEM curriculum?

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 160
RQ1: Does the curriculum, subject areas, labs, and assessments align across classrooms/schools?

RQ2: What is the teacher’s role in the learning process?

RQ2: How does student lead conversation influence participation in the class?

RQ2: How is technology used in the classroom?

RQ3: Does the teacher and/or student appear to be engaged in the STEM curriculum?

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 161

Are there additional questions for the teacher?

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 162
Appendix I
Science and Technology Fair Observation Protocol

Date _____________________________ Time _______________________________
No. of Students ____________________ Males __________ Females __________
Grade Level of Student(s) __________________________________________________
Project Topic/ Theme _____________________________________________________
Facilities Set-Up

Overview of Events/Themes:

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 163

Materials in Use:

Additional Classroom Information:

21
st
Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM / PBL
(Slough & Milam,
2013)
Actions Observed Conversations Observer Comments
Critical Thinking
and Problem
Solving
Making Content
Accessible

Collaborating
Across Networks
Making Thinking
Visible

Agility and
Adaptability
Helping Students
Learn from Others

Initiative and
Entrepreneurialism
Promoting
Autonomy and
Lifelong Learning

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 164
Effective Oral and
Written
Communication

Accessing and
Analyzing
Information

Curiosity and
Imagination

Other Observations

RQ1: Are there any commonalities between the Costa Rican students’ science fair projects (e.g. process,
procedures, subject areas of study)?

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 165
RQ2: Do students exhibit confidence in describing their project?

RQ2: Is the presentation of the project clearly articulated?

RQ2: Do students express thoughtful ideas and answers?

RQ2: Do the students relate their project to authentic application?

RQ3: Do the students appear to be engaged in the science fair process?

GLOBALIZATION, MNCs, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY 166

Are there additional questions for the students or teacher?

Filename: DISSERTATION‐FINAL‐ March 18.docx
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study sought to understand how Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Project‐Based Learning (PBL) can be used to help Costa Rican students gain and participate in the global knowledge‐based economy of the 21st century. The purpose was to examine the influence that globalization, foreign direct investment, and multinational corporate responsibility have on the curriculum and practices in schools and on economic growth. This study also examined how the mandated national science and technology fair influences the use of STEM PBL. In order to grow the economy, the government must implement policies like the science fair mandate that foster the implementation of STEM programs. The major gains in curriculum and instruction lead to 21st Century Skills. Students value STEM education and incorporate it into their everyday lives. As a result, two implications for practice surfaced in this study. The first is the need for a national STEM curriculum and increased teacher training. The second is the need for education and preparation in STEM‐related curriculum.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Licciardello, Richard D. (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational companies on the development of educational policy and 21st century skills in the Costa Rican educational system

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/15/2015

Defense Date 03/17/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Costa Rica,Globalization,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair)

Creator Email licciard@usc.edu,licciardello@pvpusd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-548865

Unique identifier UC11298729

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Legacy Identifier etd-Licciardel-3297.pdf

Dmrecord 548865

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Licciardello, Richard D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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