University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A mixed method examination of available supports for secondary school students’ college and military aspirations

(USC Thesis Other)

A mixed method examination of available supports for secondary school students’ college and military aspirations

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

A Mixed Method Examination of Available Supports for Secondary School Students’ College
and Military Aspirations

By

Monica Christina Esqueda
______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(EDUCATION)

May 2015

Copyright © 2015 Monica Christina Esqueda
2
Abstract
Background/Context
The demands of military family life are great, especially within the context of war. Yet,
because less than 1 percent of the population serves, the unique needs and circumstances facing
the more than two million children from military families are often absent from our collective
consciousness. In the past decade, public schools have increasingly been called upon to serve
children from military families. Educational research, however, has not kept pace making it
difficult for educators to adequately address the needs of this unique student population.
Purpose
Despite the field’s ongoing commitment to understanding the educational experiences of
students from underserved, first-generation, low-income, and/or minority backgrounds, research
examining the educational experiences of children from military families, a group that is largely
comprised of first generation, minority, and often times low income families who are
underserved, is largely absent from the research literature. Consequently, educators know very
little empirically about the experiences of children from military families within K-12 settings,
and even less about their plans and aspirations beyond high school. The current study addresses
this gap in the research literature and provides valuable insight into how practitioners, scholars,
and policymakers can promote research and practice that empower military-connected children
and families to realize their goals.
Research Design
This multi-study, mixed-method study examines the relationship between students’ post-
secondary aspirations, military service, socio-ecological support, deployment, and mobility. The
3
current study also examines the college and career supports military-connected public schools
provide students and families.
Sample/Participants
In Study 1, I compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected
1

and nonmilitary connected children (n=2,811) using data from the California Healthy Kids
Survey (CHKS), a statewide survey of risk and resiliency. In Study 2, I examine the socio-
ecological factors associated with said plans and aspirations for both military-connected and
nonmilitary connected children (n=2,811), using data from the CHKS once again. In Study 3, I
examine the college and career supports military-connected public schools
2
provide students and
families using a qualitative database comprised of interviews with district leaders (n=3), field
memos, questionnaire responses (n=26), and school/district documents.
Main Findings
The current study finds that children from military families are as likely as children from
nonmilitary families to want to attend college. Deployment and school mobility also do not
appear to be related to students’ college plans, a finding that suggests students are getting the
deployment and transition support they need to maintain high aspirations. Students with a sibling
currently serving in the military are the most likely to want to join the military, as are those who
have experienced two or more deployments and/or two or more moves. These respondents are
also more likely to report dual plans and aspirations. Higher levels of parental support and school

1
While definitions of the term vary, the current study uses the term military-connected to refer to
children with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military
2
While definitions of the term vary, the current study defines a military-connected public school
as a public school residing in a district that has applied for federal impact aid with “an average
daily attendance (ADA) of military-connected students” that exceeds 400 or with “an ADA of
whom 10 [percent] or more [are] military-connected,” (Kitmitto et al., 2011, p. iii; Yin et al.,
2011).
4
support are related to students’ likelihood of reporting plans to attend college. There is, however,
no significant relationship between parental and/or school support and students’ desire to join the
military or likelihood of reporting dual plans and aspirations. In terms of college and career
advising, the current study finds that approaches to college and career advising is similar for the
military-connected school districts included in this study, yet organizational structures vary
based on the composition and size of the student body being served. Expectations for students
are high overall in the military-connected schools included in the current study, they are,
however, slightly lower for children from military families. Caseload size, a limited history of
college participation, deployment, and residential mobility are mentioned as barriers to college
and career advising, outreach, and participation for children from military and nonmilitary
families. In response to these challenges and barriers, district leaders and school staff members
collectively stressed the importance of early outreach, targeted advising, and consistency.
Districts are also increasing their capacity to provide college and career advising by assigning
college and career advising duties to additional staff members.
Recommendations
Overall findings from this dissertation study suggest that practitioners who work with
students from military families cannot make assumptions about the post-secondary plans and
aspirations of students based on military-connectedness. Findings further suggest that
practitioners must continue to make a concentrated effort to support students who are
experiencing or have experienced a deployment and/or a school move and to communicate high
expectations for children. At the district/school level, while the districts and schools in this study
are doing their best to address this barrier to college and career advising, outreach, and
participation, by including additional staff members in the college and career advising process,
5
not enough is known about whether and/or how these staff members are being trained to
participate in these activities which is troubling given that access to high quality counseling and
advising is critical to students’ plans to enroll in college. As such, districts and schools must to
provide professional development opportunities for staff members that are assigned college and
career advising duties. Efforts must also be made to investigate and evaluate the quality and
success of these professional development opportunities.
Concluding Thoughts
This dissertation study uses quantitative and qualitative data to answer critical questions
about the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students attending military-connected public
schools. The current study also provides information about the college and career support(s)
military-connected public schools provide students and families. Conceptually and theoretically,
one of the main contributions of this study is that it is one of the first to describe children from
military families as a unique and distinct cultural group, one that is invisible in the education
literature. The current study also differs conceptually from prior studies in that it is one of the
first to examine the notion of students having dual plans or aspirations. Aside from these
conceptual and theoretical contributions, the current study addresses a notable gap in the higher
education research literature, a literature base that has largely ignored the pre-college and post-
secondary experiences of children from military families.

6
Table of Contents
Abstract ...…………………………………………………………………………………...
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………….
List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………
Dedication …………………………………………………………………………………..
Acknowledgements ...……………………………………………………………………….
Chapter 1: Introduction, Rationale, and Overview of Studies ……..…………………..
Children from Military Families ...…………………………………………………........
Deployment …………………………………………………………………………..
Residential Mobility …………………………………………………………………
Efforts to Support Children from Military Families …………………………………
Overall Approach and Rationale ………………………………………………………...
Data and Methods ………………………………………………………………………
The California Healthy Kids Survey ………………………………………………...
Qualitative Data ……………………………………………………………………...
Overview of Studies ……………………………………………………………………..
Study 1: Comparing the Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-
Connected and Nonmilitary Connected Students Attending Military-Connected
Public Schools …..........................................................................................................
Study 2: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend
College, Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students
Attending Military-Connected Public Schools ………………………………………

2
12
14
15
16
18
20
21
22
24
25
28
28
29
29

30

33

7
Study 3: A Qualitative Approach to Understanding College and Career Support in
Military-Connected Public Schools ………………………………………………….
Scholarly Significance …………………………………………………………………..
Concluding Thoughts…………………………………………………………………….
Chapter 2: Comparing the Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-
Connected and Nonmilitary Connected Children Attending Military-Connected
Public Schools ……………………………………………………………………………...
Children from Military Families ………………………………………………………...
Effects of Deployment on Children from Military Families ………………………...
Effects of Residential Mobility on Children from Military Families ………………..
Methods …………………………………………………………………………………
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………
Dependent Variables …………………………………………………………………
Independent Variables ……………………………………………………………….
Statistical Analyses …………………………………………………………………..
Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………………...
Findings …………………………………………………………………………………
Overall Sample Characteristics ………………………………………………………
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Military-Connectedness …………………
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Number of Deployments ………………...
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Number of School Moves ……………….
Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………….
Plans to Attend College ……………………………………………………………...

37
38
39

41
41
46
48
51
51
52
53
53
54
55
55
58
60
63
65
65
8
Desire to Join the Military …………………………………………………………...
Students with Dual Plans and Aspirations …………………………………………...
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………….
Future Research ……………………………………………………………………...
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………
Chapter 3: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend
College, Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students
Attending Military-Connected Public Schools …………………………………………..
Student College Choice …………………………………………………………………
Perna’s Conceptual Model of Student College Choice ……………………………...
Tierney and Venegas’ Cultural Ecology ……………………………………………..
Military Enlistment ……………………………………………………………………...
Methods …………………………………………………………………………………
Dependent Variables …………………………………………………………………
Independent Variables ……………………………………………………………….
Statistical Analyses …………………………………………………………………..
Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………………...
Findings …………………………………………………………………………………
Overall Sample Characteristics ………………………………………………………
Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support ………………………..
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Parental Support, School Support, and
Community Support ………………………………………………………………….
Factors Influencing College Plans …………………………………………………...
66
67
68
69
69

71
73
74
75
76
77
78
78
80
81
81
82
84

85
88
9
Factors Influencing Desire to Join the Military ……………………………………...
Factors Influencing Dual Plans and Aspirations ……………………………………..
Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………….
College Plans ………………………………………………………………………...
Desire to Join the Military and Likelihood to Report Dual Aspirations ……………..
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………….
Future Research ……………………………………………………………………...
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………
Chapter 4: Understanding the College and Career Supports Military-Connected
Schools Provide Students and Families ………………………………………………….
Prior Research …………………………………………………………………………...
Overall Approach and Rationale ………………………………………………………...
Rationale ……………………………………………………………………………..
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………….
Informational Interviews ……………………………………………………………..
Site Visits, Participant Observations, and Field Memos …………………………….
Qualitative Questionnaires …………………………………………………………...
District and School Documents ……………………………………………………...
Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………
Findings …………………………………………………………………………………
Approach to College and Career Advising …………………………………………..
Expectations for Students ……………………………………………………………
Application and Enrollment Trends ………………………………………………….
91
92
93
97
98
99
100
100

102
105
106
107
108
108
109
109
115
115
116
117
118
120
10
Barriers and Challenges ……………………………………………………………...
Recommendations for Increasing Access ……………………………………………
Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………….
Concluding Thoughts ……………………………………………………………………
Chapter 5: Final Summaries and Recommendations …………………………………...
Study 1: Comparing the Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-Connected
and Nonmilitary Connected Students Attending Military-Connected Public
Schools ...............................................................................................................
Study 2: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend
College, Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students
Attending Military-Connected Public Schools ………………………………...
Study 3: A Qualitative Approach to Understanding College and Career Support in
Military-Connected Public Schools ……………………………………………
Discussion of Main Findings ……………………………………………………………
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………
Future Research ……………………………………………………………………...
Concluding Thoughts ……………………………………………………………………
Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………….
Appendices …………………………………………………………………………………
Appendix A: Questionnaire Protocols for School Counselors, College and Career Staff,
and JROTC Instructors (Northern Valley Unified High School District &
South Bay Unified School District) ………………………………………

122
124
126
129
130

131

133

134
136
138
139
140
142
155

155

11
Appendix B: Questionnaire Protocols for School Counselors, College and Career Staff,
Parent Liaisons, Bilingual Coordinators, and DELAC/ELAC (West Oak
Union High School District) ……………………………………………...
Appendix C: Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years) by Military-Connectedness
(Current) …..................................................................................................
Appendix D: School Moves (Past 5 Years) by Military-Connectedness (Current) ……..
Appendix E: Interview Protocols ………………………………………………………..
Appendix F: Sample Field Memo (Jefferson High School) …………………………….
Appendix G: School Characteristics (2012-2013) ………………………………………

167

181
182
183
184
188

12
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Independent and Dependent Variables Used in Study 1 (n=2,811) ………………
Table 1.2 Dependent Variables Used in Study 2 ………………………………....................
Table 1.3 Independent Variables Used in Study 2 …………………………………………..
Table 2.1 Overall Sample Characteristics (n=2,811) ………………………………………..
Table 2.2 College Plans by Military-Connectedness (Current) ……………………………..
Table 2.3 Desire to Join Military by Military-Connectedness (Current) ……………………
Table 2.4 Dual Plans and Aspirations by Military-Connectedness (Current) ……………….
Table 2.5 College Plans by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years) ……………………...
Table 2.6 Desire to Join Military by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years) …………….
Table 2.7 Dual Plans and Aspirations by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years) ………..
Table 2.8 College Plans by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years) ……………………...
Table 2.9 Desire to Join Military by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years) …………….
Table 2.10 Dual Plans and Aspirations by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years) ………
Table 3.1 Overall Sample Characteristics (n=2,811) ………………………………………..
Table 3.2 Descriptive Statistics and Internal Reliability for Multi-Item Scales …………….
Table 3.3 College Plans by Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support ….
Table 3.4 Desire to Join Military by Parental Support, School Support, and Community
Support ……………………………………………………………………………
Table 3.5 Dual Plans and Aspirations by Parental Support, School Support, and
Community Support ………………………………………………………………
Table 3.6 Logistic Regression for College Plans ……………………………………………
Table 3.7 Logistic Regression for Desire to Join Military …………………………………..
32
34
35
56
58
59
60
61
62
62
64
64
64
82
85
87

87

87
89
93
13
Table 3.8 Logistic Regression for Dual Plans and Aspirations ……………………………..
Table 4.1 Response Rates …………………………………………………………………...
Table 4.2 Respondent Characteristics (n=26) ……………………………………………….
Table 4.3 College Expectations (School) ……………………………………………………
Table 4.4 College Expectations (Respondent) ………………………………………………
Table 4.5 Reason and/or Reasons Some or Few Military-Connected Students Enroll within
Sixteen Months ……………………………………………………………………
Table 4.6 Application and Enrollment Trends ………………………………………………
Table 4.7 Reason and/or Reasons for Enrolling in Two-Year College ……………………...
96
111
112
119
119

120
121
121

14
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Objectives, Data Sources and Analytic Techniques for Study ………………
Figure 4.1 Approach to Data Collection ………………………………………………...
Figure 4.2 Approach to Data Analysis ………………………………………………….

27
107
116

15
Dedication

To my family, close friends, and mentors, I couldn’t have done it without you.

16
Acknowledgements

This dissertation would not have been possible with the encouragement and support of
my family, close friends, and mentors. I want to thank my faculty mentors for helping shape my
development as a scholar. I especially want to thank Dr. Jim Antony, Dr. Frances Contreras, and
Dr. Estela Bensimon for their early mentorship and support, Dr. Julie Cederbaum and Dr. Kristan
Venegas for serving on my quals committee, Dr. Darnell Cole, Dr. Ron Avi Astor, Dr. Adrianna
Kezar, and Dr. Tamika Gilreath for serving on my dissertation committee, Dr. Rami Benbenishty
for his kindness, wisdom, and wicked sense of humor, and Dr. Hazel Atuel for being a jack of all
trades depending on what I needed on a given day. I also want to thank the districts, schools,
military families, and veterans I have worked with. Your service and commitment inspires me
daily and I am truly grateful for the support you have shown me.
I want to thank my research team for an incredible five years. I especially want to thank
Ron, Hazel, Kris, Joey, Christian, Berenice, Stephani, Linda, and Ruth for their patience,
support, and good humor. It was a joy coming to work every day.
I want to thank my parents for their unconditional support and faith in me as a person and
scholar. For encouraging my curiosity, for reminding me everyday that it was okay to be smart,
and for continuing to smile politely every time someone asked if I was done with school yet. To
my grandparents, for that first set of encyclopedias and for always making me feel like there
wasn’t anything I couldn’t do or accomplish. To my tias, tios, aunts, uncles, cousins, second
cousins… thank you for embracing my many eccentricities and for continuing to think fondly of
me even on the days I fell asleep at, or missed, important family functions. To my baby brother,
thank you for always making me laugh and sorry for torturing you through the years. Finally, to
the sweetest little boy in the world, Lucky, because of you, even my worst days didn’t feel so
17
bad because unless I forgot to feed you or take you for a walk, you loved me unconditionally and
could be counted on to keep me company into all hours of the night.
Last but not least, I am grateful for the continued friendship and support of my close
friends and colleagues, but especially Jen, Laney, Neeti, Geet, Kristen, Daisy (and Flo Jo), Kat,
Andrea, Tiffany, Kris, Jonathan, Araceli, Cecilia, Patty, Maggie, Balle, Christina, Joey, and
Nicole. We’ve shared some great memories, many of which helped get me through my toughest
days. I also want to thank you all for reminding me of the importance of staying true to myself
even when that meant fighting an uphill battle.
In closing, I am excited to be embarking on my next adventure and look forward to
making new memories.

18
Chapter 1: Introduction, Rationale, and Overview of Studies
This multiple manuscript dissertation study utilizes a multi-phase, mixed-method design.
While all phases (heretofore referred to as Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3) are related, they are
also standalone studies that are being submitted as part of a multiple manuscript dissertation. In
Study 1, I compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected
3
and
nonmilitary connected children using data from the California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS), a
statewide survey of risk and resiliency. In Study 2, I examine the socio-ecological factors
associated with said plans and aspirations for both military-connected and nonmilitary connected
children, using data from the CHKS once again. In Study 3, I examine the college and career
supports military-connected public schools
4
provide students and families using a qualitative
database comprised of interviews with district leaders, field memos, questionnaire data, and
school/district documents.
Conceptually and theoretically, one of the main contributions of this multiple manuscript
dissertation study is that it is one of the first studies to conceptualize children from military
families as a unique and distinct cultural group, one that is largely invisible in the education
literature despite the current/most recent wars. Military service is often described as an
occupation rather than an all-encompassing culture whose members comprise an invisible
minority that is not generally recognized as a unique diversity group. The current study also
differs conceptually in that it is one of the first to explore the idea of students having dual plans

3
While definitions of the term vary, the current study uses the term military-connected to refer to
children with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military
4
While definitions of the term vary, the current study defines a military-connected public school
as a public school residing in a district that has applied for federal impact aid with “an average
daily attendance (ADA) of military-connected students” that exceeds 400 or with “an ADA of
whom 10 [percent] or more [are] military-connected,” (Kitmitto et al., 2011, p. iii; Yin et al.,
2011).
19
or aspirations. Quantitative research examining the student college choice process has
traditionally conceptualized outcomes in more narrow terms with students either choosing to
attend college or choosing not to attend college. This conceptualization, however, is no longer
aligned with the economic realities facing students. While students have always been able to
choose to pursue a multitude of paths after graduating high school (e.g., attending college,
entering the workface, joining the military), they are increasingly choosing to pursue multiple
paths, consecutively or simultaneously, as the cost of attending college continues to increase.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014) approximately “34.1 percent of recent high
school graduates who were enrolled in college participated in the labor force—that is, they were
working or looking for work,” (n.p.).
5
Alternatively, some college-bound students may be
choosing to defer college and enlist in the military after graduating high school as a way of
paying for college (Bachman, Freedman-Doan, and O’Malley, 2001; Kleykamp, 2004; Mavor &
Sackett, 2003).
While the current study addresses a handful of conceptual and theoretical gaps, the
current study also addresses gaps in the higher education research literature. Despite the field’s
ongoing commitment to understanding the educational experiences of students from
underserved, first-generation, low-income, and/or minority backgrounds, research examining the
educational experiences of children from military families, a group that is largely comprised of
underserved first-generation, minority, and often times low-income families, is largely absent
from the higher education research literature. In this study, approximately 75 percent of children
with a parent currently serving in the military and 80 percent of children with a sibling currently

5
“The labor force participation rate was 31.0 percent for full-time students… and 73.8 percent
for part-time students,” (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014, n.p.).
20
serving in the military identify as racial or ethnic minorities. Approximately 60 percent of
children in two of my three sample districts qualified for free or reduced-priced lunch during the
2012-2013 school year. The current study is also one of the first to examine the relationship
between children’s post-secondary plans and aspirations, the deployment of a family member,
and residential mobility.
Children from Military Families
Recent estimates suggest that military service impacts approximately two million youth, a
figure that includes the children of active duty military personnel, reservists, and members of the
National Guard, but does not include the children of military veterans. When the children of
post-9/11 military veterans are included, estimates increase to four to five million children
(Military Child Education Coalition, 2013). Of the two million children with a parent or parents
currently serving on active duty, approximately 1.3 million are school-aged (between the ages of
five and eighteen). More than 80 percent attend locally controlled, public schools (Department of
Defense Education Activity, n.d.a). Nationwide, more than 600 public school districts serve
children with a parent or parents currently serving in active duty. Thousands of school districts,
however, are thought to enroll children from military families when the children of military
veterans are taken into consideration (Kitmitto et al., 2011). Given their invisibility as a group,
district and/or school staff may or may not be aware that children from military families are
enrolled in their district and/or school. They may also have a limited understanding of these
children’s needs and experiences given that less than 1 percent of the population serves in the
military (Segal & Segal, 2004).
Children from military families are part of a distinct cultural group with shared norms,
values, and traditions. Like all children, children from military families possess unique strengths.
21
They also face unique challenges. The demands of military family life extend beyond the service
member, affecting not only those serving in uniform, but those closest to them: their children and
families. In times of war, the demands placed on the service member, their children, and
families, are even greater as the current/most recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have shown.
Nevertheless, prior studies often overlook the relationship between a given war context and the
demands of military family life. Prior studies have instead applied deficit-oriented frameworks in
their discussions of children from military families and the demands associated with military
family life. The current study differs in that I have chosen to examine how issues of deployment
and mobility influence children’s post-secondary plans and aspirations within the context of the
current/most recent war.
Deployment
More than two million children have experienced at least one deployment since the start
of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan (White House, 2011). While a number of children cope well
with a deployment, a growing body of research suggests that children from military families are
not immune to the effects of a deployment. Reports of pediatric anxiety, behavioral disorders,
and stress disorders are higher among children whose parents are deployed (Gorman et al.,
2010). Young children in particular appear to be profoundly affected by a parental deployment
(Barker & Berry, 2009; Chartrand et al., 2008). The length of the deployment, age of the child,
temperament, and number of residential relocations are also associated with increased behavioral
problems and poor attachment (Barker & Berry, 2009). Studies have also shown that the length
and number of deployment(s) are associated with poor behavioral health, anxiety, depression,
suicidal ideation, victimization, and poor well-being in children and adolescents (Cederbaum et
al., 2014; Chandra et al., 2009; Cozza et al., 2010; Gilreath et al., 2014; Lincoln, Swift, &
22
Shorteno-Fraser, 2008). Academic difficulties and lower test scores are also associated with
deployment, though the effects of deployment on the latter are modest (Lyle, 2006; Medway et
al., 1995; Richardson et al., 2011). Deployments also place a significant strain on the non-
deployed parent who often assumes the roles and responsibilities of the deployed parent
(Huebner & Mancini, 2005; Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2012; Mansfield et al., 2010).
While the results summarized appear bleak, researchers have found that supportive
relationships with caring adults, positive peer relationships, and supportive school environments
can promote resiliency among children experiencing a deployment (Astor et al., 2013; DePedro
et al., 2011; Huebner & Mancini, 2005; MacDermid et al., 2008; Mmari et al., 2009). Moreover,
not all children are adversely affected by a deployment. Some children even experience growth
during or after a deployment. Huebner and Mancini (2005) found that adolescent children who
took on additional roles and responsibilities at home during a parental deployment matured
during this time while Mmari and colleagues (2009) found that adolescent children felt a sense of
pride in response to their new roles and responsibilities. These same adolescents, however,
struggled to return to their previous roles when their parent returned from deployment (Mmari,
2009). School staff members have also expressed concern that increased responsibilities at home,
deployment-related anxiety, and the overall mental health of the non-deployed parent may be
affecting some students’ ability to function well in school. Concerns about deployment-related
reductions in academic support at home due to the absence of a parent have also been reported
(Chandra et al., 2010; Garner, Arnold & Nunnery, 2014).
Residential Mobility
As the studies summarized above highlight, deployments can be challenging for children
and families. Moving frequently, however, is also challenging, and for some children, frequent
23
moves are one of the most challenging aspects of military family life (Ender, 2006). They are
also among the most consistent and enduring (Jagger & Lederer, 2014). Approximately every
three years, active duty military personnel are issued permanent change of station (PCS) orders.
Per these orders, the service member and his or her family are assigned to a new duty station or
military installation. Given the frequency with which these orders are issued, children from
military families can expect to attend between six and nine different schools prior to graduating,
a figure that is three times that of the average nonmilitary child (Buddin et al., 2001; Kitmitto et
al., 2011; Military Child Education Coalition, 2012) and that can pose significant challenges in
terms of students’ ability to connect with the school and local community.
For students who attend public schools, each school transition is often compounded by
differences in school capacity to serve children from military families, academic standards, and
school climate (Esqueda et al., 2013). Research has also shown that public school educators
struggle to connect and maintain relationships with children from military families, perhaps due
in part to their high mobility. Anweiler (2008), Bradshaw and colleagues (2010) also found that
as perpetual newcomers, children from military families might not be receiving the resources and
supports they need to formulate and/or realize their post-secondary plans and/or aspirations. The
mobility of military families may also affect their ability to develop and maintain relationships
within the local community, both within the local military community and outside of the military
community as dynamics may vary from place to place.
More than 600 public school districts serve children with a parent or parents currently
serving on active duty—or thousands of school districts enroll children from military families
when the children of military veterans are taken into consideration (Kitmitto et al., 2011).
District and/or school staff, however, may not be aware that these children are enrolled given
24
their invisibility (as a group). District and/or school staff may also have a limited understanding
of these children’s needs and experiences given that less than 1 percent of the population serves
in the nation’s armed forces (Segal & Segal, 2004). As such, the majority of public school
educators, including those working in schools that serve a high concentration of children from
military families, are not fully prepared to address the challenges facing children from military
families, especially during times of war. Given these gaps in awareness, understanding, and more
importantly, support services, military families have organized to spearhead a variety of
initiatives in partnership with the Department of Defense, Department of Education, and a
number of military advocacy groups to ensure that their children’s needs are being met.
Efforts to Support Children from Military Families
The Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) Partnership Grant Program,
Operation Educate the Educators, the Interstate Compact on Educational Opportunity for
Military Children (heretofore referred to as the Interstate Compact or Compact), are recent
examples of programmatic and policy-level efforts to support children from military families.
The DoDEA Partnership Grant Program “supports research-based programs that aim to increase
student achievement and ease the challenges” facing children from military families (Department
of Defense Education Activity, n.d.b).
6
Operation Educate the Educators, “addresses an
important, and sometimes overlooked, need for educator preparation programs to make certain
[that] their graduates can successfully navigate the unique learning obstacles that many military-
connected students face,” (White House, 2012).
7
Finally, the Interstate Compact addresses the

6
Since 2008, the program has awarded more than $180 million in grant money to local education
agencies serving students from military families (Department of Defense Education Activity, n.d.b).
7
To date, “more than 100 college and universities have commit[ed] to prepar[ing] [future]
educators for the unique challenges facing military children,” (White House, 2012, n.p.).
25
inequities facing children from military families as they transition between public schools and
across state lines (Military Interstate Children’s Compact Commission, 2013a). While each of
these initiatives have made substantive contributions to the creation, development, and
implementation of supports and services for children from military families, the Compact
highlights some of the most pressing and problematic issues children from military families face
in schools.
Prior to the Interstate Compact, issues related to enrollment, placement, and eligibility
were impeding students’ progress. For example, delays in the transfer of education records left
some students in limbo. Students were not receiving credit for courses they took because there
was no equivalent in their new school or had to repeat classes to graduate. Worse yet, some
students who transferred late into their senior year, were unable to graduate because there wasn’t
enough time to meet their new school’s graduation requirements. Placement in certain programs
like Advanced Placement courses weren’t always being honored. Students who moved mid-
semester were sometimes prevented from participating in extracurricular activities because they
missed a sign-up deadline or tryout. These are just some examples of the challenges children
from military families faced prior to states adopting the Compact, challenges that when left
unaddressed, have very real consequences for students, particularly those who are college bound
and seeking admission into selective institutions. As of January 2015, all 50 states and the
District of Columbia have endorsed the Compact (Military Interstate Children’s Compact
Commission, 2013b). Implementation challenges, however, remain.
Overall Approach and Rationale
Given the conceptual, theoretical, and empirical gaps described, and the issues
summarized up until this point, a number of questions remain unanswered. For example, given
26
the obstacles they face, and their invisibility in civilian schools, will students from military
families even want to attend college? Does war effect one’s desire to join the military or have
children from military families embraced the warrior culture associated with military service
and, therefore, are more likely to want to join the military? Similar questions can be asked for
civilian children who attend school alongside children from military families. They too may have
embraced the warrior culture associated with military service and/or have seen the negative
effects of war on their peers and thus may or may not want to join the military. While the
primary focus of my study is on children from military families, the reality is that both groups
will need to make decisions regarding college, and moreover, the military is recruiting from both
groups. Money for college is a central recruitment incentive, which leads me to ask another
series of questions related to students who may want to join the military to pay for college and
the factors associated with having dual plans and aspirations. The current study attempts to
answer many of these questions.
Understanding students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations within the context of war is
a critical task, not just for the field of higher education, and the primary and secondary schools
that are called upon to prepare and provide post-secondary supports to students, but for the
military as well, an entity that needs to sustain a healthy and vibrant force. This multiple
manuscript dissertation study utilizes a multi-phase (study), mixed-method design to facilitate
said understanding. Consistent with this approach, data were collected both sequentially and
concurrently, with equal emphasis placed on the various forms of data collected (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2011). Data collection for this multiple manuscript dissertation study began in April
2011 and continued through June of 2013. Data for Study 1 and Study 2 were collected in April
2011, while data for Study 3 were collected during the 2012-2013 academic year. The data
27
analysis process took an additional year to complete. Objectives, data sources, and analytic
techniques for each study are summarized in Figure 1.1 and described in greater detail later in
the chapter.
Figure 1.1
Objectives, Data Sources and Analytic Techniques for Study

The amount of time required to conduct a multi-phase, mixed-method research project
was considered in advance, as the issue of time is one of the more notable challenges associated
with conducting mixed-method research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Mixed-method
research, however, allows the researcher to answer different research questions and provides a
more comprehensive/elaborate account of a phenomenon. Mixed-method research also allows
the researcher to triangulate data points and findings, which can help enhance the integrity of
findings and offset some of the weakness associated with a specific method (Bryman, 2006;
Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Greene, Caracelli & Graham, 1989).
28
This dissertation study is guided by multiple research questions. Data for this study was
collected using a variety of techniques, each of which has both strengths and weaknesses. By
collecting and analyzing multiple forms of data, this dissertation study is able to offset some of
these weaknesses. The current study is also able to enhance the integrity of its findings, and their
utility for practitioners and scholars alike, by triangulating data points. For these reasons, a
mixed-method approach was justified.
Data and Methods
This multiple manuscript dissertation study utilizes two databases. Data obtained from
the 2010-2011 California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS) are used to compare the post-secondary
plans and aspirations of students (n=2,811) attending military-connected public schools. Data
from the CHKS is also used to examine the socio-ecological factors associated with these post-
secondary plans and aspirations. Interviews with district leaders, site visits, participant
observations, field memos, qualitative questionnaires, and school/district documents were
conducted/collected during the 2012-2013 school year and compiled into a qualitative database
that was then used to describe the college and career support(s) military-connected public
schools provide students and families, expectations for students, barriers and/or challenges to
advising, outreach, and college participation, and recommendations for overcoming these
barriers and/or challenges.
The California Healthy Kids Survey
The California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS) is a statewide survey of risk and resiliency
that is comprised of a core module and seventeen supplemental modules. Schools receiving
federal funds are required to complete the core module as part of No Child Left Behind. A
subsample of 2,811 secondary school respondents were selected for this study based on their
29
completion of the core module and two supplemental modules: the military-connected school
module and the resilience and youth development module. Data from the CHKS are analyzed
using a variety of analytic techniques including χ
2
analyses, factor analyses, and logistic
regressions.
Qualitative Data
As previously mentioned, qualitative data were collected during the 2012-2013 academic
years via informational interviews with district leaders, site visits, participant observations, field
memos, qualitative questionnaires, and school/district documents. Questionnaire protocols were
developed by researchers at the University of Southern California and piloted with graduate
students (see Appendix A and B for a copy of the protocols used). Links to the qualitative
questionnaire were sent to school staff members in three military-connected school districts. A
total of 26 questionnaires were returned.
Overview of Studies
In Study 1, I compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected and
nonmilitary connected children using data from the CHKS. In Study 2, I examine the socio-
ecological factors associated with the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected
and nonmilitary connected children, once again using data from the CHKS. While Study 1 and
Study 2 would typically be presented as a single study, given the dearth of research examining
the relationship between students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, military service, the
deployment of a family member, and residential mobility within the context of war, the two
studies are presented as standalone studies. Study 1 is used to provide an epidemiological
overview of the phenomenon of interest that then serves as a foundation for Study 2. In Study 3,
30
I examine the college and career supports military-connected public schools
8
provide students
and families using a qualitative database I complied. I will now describe the objectives, data
sources, and analytic techniques used for each phase of this study. Hypotheses are provided for
Study 1 and Study 2.
Study 1: Comparing the Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-Connected and
Nonmilitary Connected Students Attending Military-Connected Public Schools
Decades of research have focused on the college student choice process (Bergerson,
2009). Shifting demographics and anticipated workforce needs, however, have necessitated a
need for research on students from historically underserved communities including low-income
students, racial ethnic minorities, and first generation college students (Bergerson, 2009; Perna,
2006). While these efforts are notable, and reflect the field of higher education’s ongoing
commitment to understanding the experiences of students from diverse backgrounds, a critical
gap remains, research examining the experiences and aspirations of children from military
families. Study 1 addresses this gap in the research literature using data from the CHKS to
compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of children from military families with
children from civilian families attending the same military-connected public schools. Study 1
also examines whether the deployment of a family member and/or residential relocations
resulting in a school move are related to students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations.
Data and methods. Data for Study 1 were collected during the 2010-2011 school year as
part of the CHKS. For the purpose of this study, a subsample of 2,811 secondary school

8
While definitions of the term vary, the current study defines a military-connected public school
as a public school residing in a district that has applied for federal impact aid with “an average
daily attendance (ADA) of military-connected students” that exceeds 400 or with “an ADA of
whom 10 [percent] or more [are] military-connected,” (Kitmitto et al., 2011, p. iii; Yin et al.,
2011).
31
respondents was selected based on their completion of the core module, the military-connected
school module, and the resilience and youth development module. Frequency distributions and
cross-classification tables ( 
2
analyses) were used to compare the post-secondary plans and
aspirations of: (1) respondents with a parent currently serving in the military, students with a
sibling currently serving in the military, and students with neither a parent or a sibling currently
serving in the military; (2) respondents who have experienced the deployment of a family
member in the past 10 years, respondents who have experienced multiple family deployments in
the past 10 years, and respondents who have not experienced a family deployment in the past 10
years, and (3) respondents who have changed schools once in the past five years due to a change
in residence, respondents who have changed school two or more times in the past five years, and
respondents who have not changed schools. See Table 1.1 for a list of independent and
dependent variables used in Study 1.
Hypotheses. Research has consistently shown that adolescents with a family history of
military participation are more likely to join the military (Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn & Klerman,
1999; Kleykamp, 2004; Segal & Segal, 2004). It was therefore hypothesized that respondents
with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military would report a greater desire to join the
military when compared to those with neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the
military. Plans to attend college were also expected to differ such that respondents with a parent
currently serving in the military would report higher college aspirations than students with
neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military, a hypothesis based on data
obtained for students attending DoDEA schools (Embler, 2010).

32
Table 1.1
Independent and Dependent Variables Used in Study 1 (n=2,811)
Variable Frequency Percent
Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or sibling is not currently serving in the military
Parent is currently serving in the military
Sibling is currently serving in the military

2358
323
130

83.9
11.5
4.6
Deployments (Past 10 Years)
None
One
Two or More

1439
198
398

70.7
9.7
19.6
School Moves (Past 5 Years)
Did Not Change Schools
One
Two or More

1397
424
508

60.0
18.2
21.8
College Plans: I plan to go to college or some other school after high school
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

276
2041

11.9
88.1
Join Military (When I grow up I would like to join the military)
a
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

1888
383

83.1
16.9
Dual Plans/Aspirations
No
Yes

1783
289

86.1
13.9

a. Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, National Guard, Reserves
33
In terms of deployment, a growing body of research suggests that children from military
families are not immune to the effects of a deployment (e.g., Barker & Berry, 2009; Cederbaum
et al., 2014; Chartrand et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2009; Cozza et al., 2010; Gilreath et al., 2014;
Gorman et al., 2010; Lincoln, Swift, & Shorteno-Fraser, 2008) but that relationships with caring
adults, positive peer relationships, and supportive school environments can facilitate resiliency
(Astor et al., 2013; DePedro et al., 2011; Huebner & Mancini, 2005; MacDermid et al., 2008;
Mmari et al., 2009). Experiencing a family deployment was therefore expected to influence plans
to attend college, desire to join the military, and dual aspirations, albeit minimally. Changing
schools was also expected to influence plans to attend college, desire to join the military, and
dual aspirations.
Study 2: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend College,
Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students Attending Military-
Connected Public Schools
While Study 1 answers critical questions about the post-secondary plans and aspirations
of children attending military-connected public schools, Study 2 focuses on the factors
associated with plans to attend college, desire to join the military, and plans/aspirations to attend
college and join the military. Research has consistently shown that parental expectations and
support are critical to students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations. Expectations and support
from school staff, including teachers and counselors, are also vital to students’ college choice
decisions, particularly among students from “at-risk” or disadvantaged backgrounds (Hossler,
Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Hossler & Stage, 1992; McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney
& Venegas, 2007, 2009). Emerging theories of college student choice, and prior research
examining the factors associated with military enlistment, further stress the importance of
34
community influence on students’ post-secondary plans (Kleykamp, 2004; Perna, 2006; Tierney
& Venegas, 2007, 2009). Study 2 therefore examines whether caring and supportive
relationships with adults in the home, at school, and in the community are related to students’
plans and aspirations.
Data and methods. Data for Study 2 were collected during the 2010-2011 school year as
part of the CHKS. For the purpose of this study, a subsample of 2,811 secondary school
respondents was selected based on their completion of the core module and two supplemental
modules: the military-connected school module and the resilience and youth development
module. Frequency distributions were used to describe the sample. A series of bivariate analyses
were then conducted to examine the relationship between parental support, school support, and
community support and respondents’ post-secondary plans and aspirations. Logistic regressions
(LRs) were then utilized to predict the likelihood of reporting high aspirations to attend college, a
strong desire to join the military, and dual aspirations to attend college and join the military,
controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, military connectedness, grades, and school type, number of
deployments, number of school moves, parental support, school support, and community
support. See Table 1.2 and 1.3 for a list of dependent and independent variables used in Study 2.
Table 1.2

Dependent Variables Used in Study 2

Variable
Survey
Item
College Plans: I plan to go to college or some other school after high school CHKS R3
Join Military: Would like to join the military CHKS G12
Dual Plans and Aspirations CHKS R3/G12
35
Table 1.3

Independent Variables Used in Study 2

Variable
Survey
Item
Demographic characteristics
Sex
Race Ethnicity
Grade Level
Military-Connectedness (Current)

CHKS A4
CHKS A6/A7
CHKS A5
CHKS G2
Deployments CHKS G31
School Moves G33
Academic achievement: AverageGrades CHKS A125_107
Scale: Adult Support at the Home
Parent/adult in home believes student will be success
Parent/adult in home wants student to do their best

CHKS R27
CHKS R29
Scale: Adult Support in School
At my school there is a teacher or some other adult who really cares about me
At my school there is a teacher or some other adult who tells me when I do a good job
At my school there is a teacher or some other adult who wants me to do my best
At my school there is a teacher or some other adult who believe I will be a success

CHKS A16_15
CHKS A17_16
CHKS A19_18
CHKS A21_20
36
Table 1.3

Independent Variables Used in Study 2 (continued)

Variable
Survey
Item
Scale: Adult Support in the Community
Outside of my home and school there is an adult who really cares about me
Outside of my home and school there is an adult who tells me when I do a good job
Outside of my home and school there is an adult who believes that I will be a success
Outside of my home and school there is an adult who always wants me to do my best

CHKS A25_24
CHKS A26_25
CHKS A28_27
CHKS A29_28
37
Hypotheses. Prior research has consistently shown that parental expectations and support
are critical to students’ post-secondary plans. The expectations of and support from school staff,
including teachers and counselors, have also been shown to be vital to students’ college choice
decisions, particularly for students from “at-risk” or disadvantaged backgrounds (Hossler,
Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Hossler & Stage, 1992; McDonough, 1997, 2005; McDonough, 1997,
2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). Emerging theories of college student
choice and prior research examining the factors associated with military enlistment further stress
the importance of community influence on students’ post-secondary plans (Kleykamp, 2004;
Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). It was therefore hypothesized that levels of
support would be significantly related to students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations.
Study 3: A Qualitative Approach to Understanding College and Career Support in
Military-Connected Public Schools
While Study 1 and Study 2 give voice to the experiences of children attending military-
connected schools, their post-secondary plans and aspirations, and the socio-ecological supports
undergirding these plans and aspirations, Study 3 offers a different viewpoint, that of college and
career advising staff. Research has consistently shown that access to high quality resources and
information about college are critical to students’ post-secondary choices. Access to counselors,
financial aid information, academic preparation, opportunities to participate in college
preparation programs, and exposure to university life are critical to students’ plans to enroll in
college (McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). Expanding on
Study 1 and Study 2, Study 3 provides an in-depth examination of the college and career
support(s) provided to students and families in three military-connected public school districts.
38
Data and methods. Data for Study 3 were collected during the 2012-2013 academic
years via informational interviews with district leaders, site visits, participant observations, field
memos, questionnaires, and documents. Questionnaire protocols were developed by researchers
at the University of Southern California and piloted with graduate students (see Appendix A and
B for a copy of the protocols used). Links to the questionnaire were sent to staff members in
three military-connected school districts. A total of 26 questionnaires were returned. Responses
were analyzed using qualitative description and categorical aggregation (Sandelowski, 2000).
Scholarly Significance
As previously mentioned, this dissertation study adds to both the theoretical and
empirical research literatures. While military service is often viewed as an occupation, this
dissertation study frames military service and the demands of military family life as an all
encompassing culture whose members comprise an invisible minority, one that is not recognized
as a distinct cultural group (DePedro et al., 2011). The current study also differs conceptually in
that it takes into consideration the relationship between war contexts, family deployments, and
residential mobility in its discussion of military family life, and is one of the first to explore the
idea of students’ having dual plans or aspirations. Empirically, while prior studies have
examined the relationship between a parent’s military service, college plans, and military
enlistment, this dissertation study explores the relationship between a sibling’s military service,
college plans, and military enlistment. The current study also examines how a parent’s military
service and sibling’s military service are related to students reporting dual plans and aspirations,
and is also one of the first to examine the direct relationship between deployment, mobility, and
post-secondary plans and aspirations. Aside from these relationships, this dissertation study also
examines whether factors associated with the college choice process, specifically parental
39
support, school support, and community support, are significantly related to choosing a
competing or alternative path (Manski & Wise, 1983). Finally, the current study provides an in-
depth look at the college and career support(s) military-connected schools provide students and
families.
Given the prior gaps in the literature, the current study expects to answer a number of
unanswered questions related to the post-secondary plans and aspirations of children from
military and nonmilitary families that can be used to inform theory, practice, and future research
(see Overall Approach and Rationale for summary of questions). While findings from this
dissertation study are also expected to have relevance for the field of higher education and the
primary and secondary schools that are called upon to provide post-secondary supports to
students, findings may also be relevant to the military, as it seeks to maintain a healthy and
vibrant force.
Concluding Thoughts
The similarities, or lack of, between children from military families and their civilian
peers are a source of debate among scholars across multiple fields (e.g., education, social work,
psychology). Empirical findings from studies comparing children from military families and
civilian children on a variety of measures have done little to suppress this debate. While some
studies have found that children from military families are similar to the children from civilian
families in terms of their educational achievement (e.g., Yin et al., 2011), other studies have
found that children from military families differ from their civilian peers in ways that are both
positive and negative (e.g., Cederbaum et al., 2013; Gilreath et al., 2013a, Gilreath et al., 2013b;
Richardson et al., 2011). Differences between these two groups, however, are most often linked to
parental deployments and/or high levels of mobility. In light of these findings, three
40
philosophical perspectives, and corresponding approaches to practice have emerged among
scholars and practitioners who work with children from military families. The first group of
scholars and practitioners posits that not only are children from military families different from
civilian children but as a result of their high mobility, and the deployments of the last decade,
children from military families are worse off and would benefit from additional supports that are
tailored to their unique needs and life circumstances. Alternatively, a second group of scholars
and practitioners posits that children from military families are not all that different from civilian
children and thus their needs can be addressed by existing supports that target civilian children as
well. Finally, a third group posits that despite their high mobility, and the deployments of the
past decade, children from military families are not only receiving the support that they need to
be successful, but they have also developed a level of resilience that exceeds that of their civilian
peers and thus should serve as an example for overcoming hardships.
While it is important to understand the consequences associated with the demands of
military life, it is equally critical that research focus on the strengths and future life goals of
children from military families. This dissertation study does this by focusing on the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of children from military and nonmilitary families as well as the
supports military-connected public schools provide these children and families. Findings from
the current study will contribute to the ongoing discussion of children from military families and
provide valuable insight into how practitioners, scholars, and policymakers can promote research
and practice that empower military-connected children and families to realize their goals.

41
Chapter 2: Comparing the Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-Connected
and Nonmilitary Connected Children Attending Military-Connected Public Schools
Decades of higher education research have focused on the college student choice process
(Bergerson, 2009). Shifting demographics and anticipated workforce needs, however, have
necessitated a need for research on students from historically underserved communities including
low-income students, racial ethnic minorities, and first-generation college students (Bergerson,
2009; Perna, 2006). While these efforts are notable, and reflect the field’s ongoing commitment
to understanding the experiences of students from diverse backgrounds, a critical gap remains—
research examining the experiences and aspirations of students from military families, a group
that is largely comprised of first-generation, minority, and often times low-income families who
are underserved and invisible given that less than 1 percent of the population serves. The current
study addresses this gap in the research literature using data from the CHKS to compare the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of students from military families with students from civilian
families attending the same military-connected public schools.
9
The current study also examines
whether the deployment of a family member and/or residential relocations resulting in a school
move influence post-secondary plans and aspirations within the context of war.
Children from Military Families
Recent estimates suggest that military service impacts more than two million youth, a
figure that includes the children of active duty military personnel, reservists, and members of the
National Guard but does not include the children of military veterans. When the children of post-

9
A public school district is designated as military-connected if it resides in a district that has
applied for federal impact aid and with “an average daily attendance (ADA) of military-
connected students greater than 400 or [with] an ADA of whom 10% or more were military-
connected students” (Kitmitto et al., 2011, p. iii; Yin, et al., 2011).
42
9/11 military veterans are included, estimates increase to four to five million children (Military
Child Education Coalition, 2013). Of these two million, approximately 1.3 million are school-
aged, between the ages of five and 18. More than 80 percent attend locally controlled, public
schools (Department of Defense Education Activity, n.d.a). Nationwide, more than 600 public
school districts serve children with a parent or parents currently serving on active duty.
Thousands of school districts, however, are thought to enroll children from military families
when the children of military veterans are taken into consideration (Kitmitto et al., 2011).
Nevertheless, district and/or school staff members are not always aware that these children are
enrolled in their schools. Research also suggest that they may have a limited understanding of
these children’s needs and experiences, (Garner, Arnold, & Nunnery, 2014; Mmari et al., 2009;
Richardson et al., 2011; Segal & Segal, 2004).
In recent years, a growing body of research has focused on the educational experiences of
children from military families attending public schools. The bulk of this work, however, has
focused primarily on funding (Buddin, Gill, & Zimmer, 2001), educational opportunities
(Kitmitto et al., 2011; Military Child Education Coalition, 2001; Military Child Education
Coalition 2012), and standardized test scores (Richardson et al., 2011; Lyle, 2006).
Overall, findings suggest that students who attend DoDEA schools
10
experience more
positive outcomes when compared to students attending public schools. Students attending
DoDEA schools consistently score above the national average on both the National Assessment
of Educational Progress (NAEP) – math and reading subtests – and the Terra Nova Achievement
Test. Black and Latino students who attend DoDEA schools also consistently score higher than

10
DoDEA schools are located on select military bases in the United States and abroad. The
entire school system is comprised of 178 schools (Department of Defense Education Activity
Data Center, 2014a).
43
their civilian peers on the TerraNova, NAEP, and SAT I. Moreover, the achievement gap
between white, Black, and Latino students on the SAT I is less pronounced in DoDEA schools
(Smrekar et al., 2001; Department of Defense Education Activity Data Center, 2009; Department
of Defense Education Activity Data Center, 2013; Department of Defense Education Activity
Data Center, 2014b). Data further suggest that the post-secondary aspirations of high school
seniors attending DoDEA schools are also high. Approximately 79 percent of seniors enrolled in
a DoDEA school planned to attend college according to 2010 estimates, with approximately 65
percent planning to attend a four-year college or university, a figure that was greater than the
national average for that same time period (Embler, 2010).
Despite prolonged and repeated exposure to military-specific stressors (e.g., multiple
moves, parental separation, and war), students who attend DoDEA schools appear to be thriving.
Research on military dependents who attend public schools, however, has yielded mixed results.
Lyle (2006), Richardson and colleagues (2011), found that standardized test scores are lower
during a deployment for elementary school students and middle school students. Multiple school
transitions have also been found to have a negative effect on the educational experiences and
outcomes of students from military families attending public schools as public school personnel
often struggle to understand, support, and initiate meaningful relationships with military-
connected youth and families. Gaps in knowledge have also been reported (Garner et al, 2014;
Mmari et al., 2009; Richardson et al., 2011). Alternatively, Yin and colleagues (2011) found that
as a group, military dependents that attend public schools perform comparably to their civilian
peers on standardized measures of achievement.
Educators have learned a lot in the past decade about the educational experiences and
outcomes of children from military families. Efforts to support these children and families have
44
also been amplified in recent years due in large part to the organization of military families
advocating on behalf of their children to ensure that their needs are being met. The DoDEA
Partnership Grant Program, Operation Educate the Educators, and the Interstate Compact on
Educational Opportunity for Military Children are examples of these efforts. The DoDEA
Partnership Grant Program “supports research-based programs that aim to increase student
achievement and ease the challenges” of children from military families (Department of Defense
Education Activity, n.d.b).
11
Operation Educate the Educators, “addresses an important, and
sometimes overlooked, need for educator preparation programs to make certain [that] their
graduates can successfully navigate the unique learning obstacles that many military connected
students face,” (White House, 2012).
12
The Compact addresses some of the inequities facing
children from military families as they transition between public schools and across state lines,
including, but not limited to, issues related to enrollment, program placement, and graduation
(Military Interstate Children’s Compact Commission, 2013a).
13

Colleges and universities have also amplified their efforts to support military families, as
well as active duty personnel and military veterans who enroll in college while and/or after
serving in the military. A handful of colleges and universities have added certificate programs
and/or concentrations related to serving military families in recent years. For example, Old
Dominion University offers a graduate certificate in military child and families education.
14
The

11
Since 2008, the program has awarded more than $180 million in grant money to local
education agencies serving students from military families (Department of Defense Education
Activity, n.d.b).
12
To date, “more than 100 college and universities have commit[ed] to prepar[ing] [future]
educators for the unique challenges facing military children,” (White House, 2012, n.p.).
13
As of January 2015, all 50 states and the District of Columbia will have endorsed and began to
implement the MIC3 (Military Interstate Children’s Compact Commission, 2013b).
14
Program provides “educators with specialized expertise in meeting the academic, social and
emotional needs of military connected P-12 students,” (Old Dominion University, 2014, n.p.).
45
University of South Carolina offers a graduate certificate for social work with military members,
veterans, and military families.
15
Similarly, the University of Southern California offers a sub
concentration in military social work.
16
Colleges and universities have also partnered with the
Veterans Administration (VA) to provide additional financial support to military veterans and
eligible dependents via the Yellow Ribbon program. The Yellow Ribbon Program “allows
approved institutions of higher learning and the VA to partially or fully fund tuition and fee
expenses that exceed the established thresholds under the Post-9/11 GI Bill,”
17
(U.S. Department
of Veterans Affairs, 2014b, n.p.) Research on the post-secondary experiences of military
veterans, and the success of programs and initiatives that support military veterans and families,
has also been amplified in recent years and collectively suggests that much work remains to be
done (e.g., American Council on Education, 2008; DiRamio, Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2008;
Radford, 2009; Steele, Salcedo, & Coley, 2010).
The initiatives summarized above are a step in the right direction and reflect a series of
overarching goals, including but not limited to: preparing students for success inside and outside
of the classroom; minimizing the effects of war; deployment and mobility; preparing students for

15
Program “provides MSW students with specific knowledge and skills necessary to interact in a
military setting and in community settings where the needs of veterans and their families are
met,” (University of South Carolina, n.d., n.p.).
16
Program prepares students to “care for service members, veterans and their families who are
dealing with a range of physical, mental and psychosocial issues; better understand military
culture, learn about the systems of care in place for military personnel before and during
deployments and the transition back home, assist returning service members with finding health
and employment services, [and] work with local agencies to identify and serve military
populations in their communities,” (University of Southern California, 2014, n.p.).
17
The Post-9/11 GI Bill “provides financial support for education and housing to individuals
with at least 90 days of aggregate service after September 10, 2001, or individuals discharged
with a service-connected disability after 30 days. You must have received an honorable
discharge to be eligible for the Post-9/11 GI Bill.” (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2014a,
n.p.).
46
the future, and keeping military families strong. Despite these goals, educators know very little
empirically about how children from military families define success and/or their aspirations for
the future. Are they planning to attend college? Do they want to join the military? Are they
planning to do both? Do aspirations vary based on who is currently serving in the military, a
sibling or a parent? Does experiencing a family deployment and/or a changing schools influence
students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations? Similar questions can also be asked of children
from nonmilitary families attending schools alongside children from military families who may
have a unique perspective on military service and the demands of military family life within the
context of war. The current study addresses these gaps, a critical task, not just for the field of
higher education, and the primary and secondary schools that called upon to provide post-
secondary supports to students, but for the military itself, an entity that needs to recruit students
from both military and nonmilitary families to sustain a healthy and vibrant force.
Effects of Deployment on Children from Military Families
More than two million children have experienced at least one deployment since the start
of the wars of Iraq and Afghanistan (White House, 2011). While a number of children cope well
with a deployment, a growing body of research suggests that children from military families are
not immune to the effects of a deployment. Reports of pediatric anxiety, behavioral disorders,
and stress disorders are higher among children whose parents are deployed (Gorman et al.,
2010). Young children in particular appear to be profoundly affected by a parental deployment
(Chartrand et al., 2008). Families with young children report increased behavioral problems
during a deployment, and poor attachment, when the deployed parent returns. The length of the
deployment, number of residential relocations, age of the child, and temperament, were also
found to be associated with increased behavioral problems and poor attachment (Barker & Berry,
47
2009). Studies have also shown that the length and number of deployment(s) are associated with
poor behavioral health, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, victimization, and well-being in
children and adolescents (Cederbaum et al., 2014; Chandra et al., 2009; Cozza et al., 2010;
Gilreath et al., 2014; Lincoln, Swift, & Shorteno-Fraser, 2008). Academic difficulties and lower
test scores are also associated with deployment, though the effects of deployment on the latter
are modest (Lyle, 2006; Medway et al., 1995; Richardson et al., 2011). The adverse effects of
deployment, however, appear to persist beyond the return of the deployed parent and can be
cumulative across a variety of behavioral, psychological, and academic measures (Lester et al,
2010; Medway et al., 1995). Less in known about the effects of deployment on the children and
families of reservists, or members of the National Guard, however, Chartrand and Seigel (2007)
posit that these families have been the most adversely affected by the deployments of the current
conflict.
The results summarized paint a bleak picture. Researchers, however, have found that
supportive relationships with caring adults, positive peer relationships, and supportive school
environments can promote resiliency among children experiencing a deployment (DePedro et al.,
2011; Huebner & Mancini, 2005; MacDermid et al., 2008; Mmari et al., 2009). Moreover, not
all children are adversely affected by a deployment. Some children even experience growth
during or after a deployment. Huebner and Mancini (2005) found that adolescent children who
took on additional roles and responsibilities at home during a deployment matured during this
time. Mmari and colleagues (2009) similarly found that adolescent children felt a sense of pride
in response to their new roles and responsibilities in the home. These same adolescents, however,
struggled to return to their previous role when their parent returned from war. School staff
members have also expressed concern that increased responsibilities at home, deployment-
48
related anxiety, and the mental health of the non-deployed parent affects some students’ ability
to function well in school. Concerns about deployment-related reductions in academic support at
home due to the absence of a parent have also been reported (Chandra et al., 2010; Garner et al.,
2014).
Effects of Residential Mobility on Children from Military Families
The demands of military life are great as the studies summarized in the previous section
demonstrate. Deployments are challenging. Moving frequently is also challenging. For many
children, frequent moves are one of the most challenging aspects of military family life (Ender,
2006). They are also among the most consistent and enduring (Jagger & Lederer, 2014).
Approximately every three years, active duty military personnel are issued permanent change of
station (PCS) orders. Per these orders, the service member and his or her family are assigned to a
new duty station or military installation. Given the frequency with which these orders are issued,
children from military families can expect to attend between six and nine different schools prior
to the graduating, a figure that is three times that of the average nonmilitary student (Buddin et
al., 2001; Kitmitto et al., 2011; Military Child Education Coalition, 2012). For those who attend
public schools, each school transition is often compounded by differences in school capacity to
serve children from military families, academic standards, and school climate (Esqueda, DePedro
& Astor, 2013). Children who attend DoDEA schools are less likely to experience such
challenges. Academic requirements are standardized across DoDEA schools. Educators who
work in DoDEA schools are also explicitly trained to work with and support children from
military families.
Prior to the passing of the Interstate Compact, differences in academic policy appeared to
be hindering the academic progress of children from military families attending public schools.
49
Military parents and advocates reported difficulties in the awarding of course credit that resulted
in children having to repeat coursework. Curricular differences were also perceived as
contributing to poorer academic performance. Military parents and advocates also voiced
concerns about how differences in state education standards could potentially delay their child’s
graduation (Council of State Governments, 2010; Military Child Education Coalition, 2001) and
limit the post-secondary opportunities available to them given strict admissions requirements and
deadlines.
As of January 2015, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have endorsed and began
to implement the Compact. Challenges, however, remain as districts and schools have struggled
to implement its provisions (Esqueda et al., 2013). Staff members who work in schools serving a
high percentage of students from military families, further report that gaps in students’
knowledge and skills remain as education standards and curriculums continue to vary by district
and state (Garner et al., 2013). Anweiler (2008), Bradshaw and colleagues (2010) also suggest
that as perpetual newcomers, children from military families might not be receiving the resources
and supports they need to formulate and/or realize their post-secondary aspirations.
Alternatively, some staff members report that some students from military families transfer in
ahead of their peers. Though Guard and Reserve families may or may not move as often as active
duty families, their children also face school-related transition challenges (Military Child
Education Coalition, 2012) that may be compounded since the provisions of the Compact do not
apply to students from Guard and Reserve families who are not serving on active duty (Military
Interstate Children’s Compact Commission, 2013b).
Though residential relocations, and corresponding school moves, can have a detrimental
effect on children from military families, some children and families cite the opportunity to
50
travel to new places and countries and to experience new cultures as a benefit of moving often.
Improved social skills and a broader world experience are viewed as benefits of frequent moves
(Garner et al., 2014; Strobino & Salvaterra, 2000). Weber and Weber (2005) also found that
more frequent moves were associated with fewer reports of problem behavior and overall
improvements in a child’s behavior.
Overall, prior studies examining the effects of deployment and mobility have yielded
mixed results. Some studies have found that deployments are associated with academic and
behavioral difficulties, anxiety, depression, stress, and victimization, and that the effects of
deployment appear to be cumulative, persisting beyond the return of the deployed parent (Barker
& Berry, 2009; Cederbaum et al., 2014; Chandra et al., 2009; Chartrand et al., 2008; Cozza et al.,
2010; Gilreath et al., 2014; Gorman et al., 2010; Lincoln, Swift, & Shorteno-Fraser, 2008; Lester
et al, 2010; Lyle, 2006; Medway et al., 1995; Richardson et al., 2011). Residential mobility has
also been found to have an adverse effect on children from military families (Anweiler, 2008;
Bradshaw et al., 2010; Garner et al., 2013; Military Child Education Coalition, 2001). These
findings, however, while troubling, do not encompass the totality of experiences as researchers
have also found that experiencing a deployment or residential relocation can have positive
effects on children from military families (Garner et al., 2013; Huebner & Mancini, 2005; Mmari
et al., 2009; Strobino & Salvaterra, 2000). Moreover, relationships with caring adults, positive
peer relationships, and supportive school environments can facilitate resiliency (Astor et al,
2013; DePedro et al., 2011; Huebner & Mancini, 2005; MacDermid et al., 2008; Mmari et al.,
2009). Findings from these studies have contributed to increased support for children from
military families, yet a critical gap remains. Educators continue to know little about the
relationship between students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, the deployment of a family
51
member, and residential mobility within the context of war, a gap that is particularly troubling
given the current/most recent wars, and that limits the ability of schools to provide adequate
supports to children from military families and to identify potential gaps in support. The current
study addresses this gap.
Methods
The current study used data from the CHKS to compare the post-secondary plans and
aspirations of children from military families with children from civilian families attending the
same military-connected public schools. The current study also examines whether the
deployment of a family member and/or changing schools is related to students’ post-secondary
plans and aspirations. As previously mentioned, understanding students’ post-secondary plans
and aspirations within the context of war is a critical task for the field of higher education, the
primary and secondary schools called upon to provide post-secondary support to students, and
the military, an entity that needs to sustain a healthy and vibrant force.
Data Collection
Data for this study were collected during the 2010-2011 school year as part of the CHKS,
a statewide survey administered bi-annually in public schools receiving Title IV
18
funding. The
CHKS is comprised of a core module and 17 supplemental modules. Schools receiving Title IV
funds are required to administer the core module of the CHKS to students in the fifth, seventh,
ninth, and 11th grade at the minimum. For the purpose of this study, a subsample of 2,811
secondary school students from the San Diego region, mostly seventh, ninth, and 11th graders,

18
A federal program that provides “funding to local educational agencies to prevent violence in
and around schools; to prevent the illegal use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs; and to foster a safe
and drug-free learning environment that supports academic achievement.,” (California
Department of Education, 2014, n.p.).
52
were selected based on their completion of the core module, the military-connected school
module, and the resilience and youth development module. The core module “provides a
comprehensive overview [of] health-related behaviors and attitudes,” including alcohol and drug
use, resilience, tobacco use, violence, and school safety (WestEd, 2014a, n.p.). Demographic
data are also collected as part of the core. The military-connected school module allows schools
to gather data on the educational needs and perspectives of both military- and nonmilitary
connected students that can be leveraged to establish “military-friendly school climates that
improve social, behavioral, and academic outcomes,” (WestEd, 2014b, n.p.). The resilience and
youth development module contains questions designed to measure both “environmental and
individual protective factors” that promote success among youth. The module also assesses
social-emotional skills, resilience/strengths, and “three key developmental supports (caring adult
relationships, high expectations, and meaningful participation) in the home.” Peer group data are
also collected as part of the resilience and youth development module (WestEd, 2014c, n.p.)
Dependent Variables
The current study included the following dependent variables: plans to attend college or
obtain some other form of post-secondary education after high school (CollegePlans); desire to
join the military (JoinMilitary), and dual plans/aspirations (DualPlans/Aspirations). Respondents
were asked to rate their level of agreement with the following statements: “I plan to go to college
or some other school after high school,” (CollegePlans) and “when I grow up I would like to join
the military,” (JoinMilitary). Responses were coded as follows: 1 = not at all true/a little true and
2 = pretty much true/very much true. Dual plans/aspirations were computed based on responses
to both of these statements. Respondents who endorsed “pretty much true/very much true” in
response to both of the following statements, “I plan to go to college or some other school after
53
high school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military,” were coded as having dual
plans/aspirations (Yes). All other responses were combined (No).
Independent Variables
The current study included the following independent variables: military-connectedness
19

(1 = parent or sibling is not currently serving in the military, 2 = parent is currently serving in the
military, and 3 = sibling is currently serving in the military), number of times a family member
has been deployed in the past 10 years
20
(1 = none, 2 = one, and 3 = two or more), and number of
school moves experienced in the past five years
21
(1 = did not change schools, 2 = one, and 3 =
two or more). Sex (1 = male and 2 = female), race/ethnicity (1 = White, 2 = Black or African
American, 3 = Asian American, 4 = Hispanic/Latino, 5 = American Indian, Alaska Native,
Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander, and 6 = Mixed), and grade level (1 = middle school and 2 =
high school) are also reported and used to describe the overall sample.
Statistical Analyses
Frequency distributions and cross-classification tables ( 
2
analyses) were used to
compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of:
1. respondents with a parent currently serving in the military, students with a sibling
currently serving in the military, and students with neither a parent nor a sibling currently
serving in the military;

19
Respondents were asked to respond the following question, “who in your family is currently in
the military (Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, National Guard, or Reserves)?”
20
Respondents were asked to respond the following question, “how many times in the last 10
years did any member of your family leave home and serve (deploy) outside the USA?”
21
Respondents were asked to respond the following question, “in the last five years, how many
times did you change your school because your family had to move?”
54
2. respondents who have experienced the deployment of a family member in the past ten
years, respondents who have experienced multiple family deployments in the past ten
years, and respondents who have not experienced a family deployment in the past ten
years, and
3. respondents who have changed schools once in the past five years due to a change in
residence, respondents who have changed school two or more times in the past five years,
and respondents have not changed schools.
All analyses were completed using IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
Version 20.
Hypotheses
Research has consistently shown that adolescents with a family history of military
participation are more likely to join the military (Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn & Klerman, 1999;
Kleykamp, 2004; Segal & Segal, 2004). It was therefore hypothesized that respondents with a
parent or sibling currently serving in the military would report a greater desire to join the military
when compared to those with neither a parent nor sibling currently serving in the military. Plans
to attend college were also expected to differ such that respondents with a parent currently
serving in the military would report higher college aspirations than students with neither a parent
or a sibling currently serving, a hypothesis based on data obtained for students attending DoDEA
schools (Embler, 2010).
In terms of deployment, a growing body of research suggests that children from military
families are not immune to the effects of a deployment but that relationships with caring adults,
positive peer relationships, and supportive school environments can facilitate resiliency.
Experiencing a deployment was therefore expected to be associated with plans to attend college,
55
desire to join the military, and reporting dual plans/aspirations, albeit minimally. Changing
schools was also expected to be associated with plans to attend college, desire to join the
military, and reporting dual plans/aspirations.
Findings
Overall sample characteristics are provided in Table 2.1. Frequency distributions and 
2

analyses comparing the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students from military families
and civilian students are presented in Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4. Frequency distributions and 
2

analyses comparing the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students who have experienced a
deployment(s) in the past ten years and those who have not, are presented in Tables 2.5, 2.6, and
2.7. Frequency distributions and 
2
analyses comparing the post-secondary plans and aspirations
of students who have changed schools in the past five years and those that have not, are
presented in Tables 2.8, 2.9, and 2.10.
Overall Sample Characteristics
As seen in Table 2.1, approximately 54.1 percent of respondents in this subsample
identify as female and 45.9 percent as male. Approximately 59.7 percent identify as
Hispanic/Latino, 16.8 percent as white, and 11.9 percent as mixed. The remainder of
respondents, or 11.6 percent, identify as African American/black, Asian American, American
Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander. Approximately 83.9 percent of
respondents (n=2,358) reported that neither a parent nor a sibling is currently serving in the
military, 11.5 percent (n=323) reported that a parent is currently serving, and 4.6 percent (n=130)
a sibling. In terms of grade level, approximately 31.7 percent of respondents were enrolled in
middle school when they completed the survey, while 68.3 percent were enrolled in high school.
Table 2.1
56
Table 2.1
Overall Sample Characteristics
Variable Frequency Percent
Sex
Male
Female

1,264
1,491

45.9
54.1

Race/Ethnicity
White
Black or African American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander
Mixed Race

449
100
113
1,598
98
317

16.8
3.7
4.2
59.7
3.7
11.9

Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or sibling is not currently serving in the military
Parent is currently serving in the military
Sibling is currently serving in the military

2,358
323
130

83.9
11.5
4.6
Grade Level
Middle School
High School

879
1,892

31.7
68.3

Deployments (Past 10 Years)
None
One
Two or More

1,439
198
398

70.7
9.7
19.6
School Moves (Past 5 Years)
Did Not Change Schools
One
Two or More

1,397
424
508

60.0
18.2
21.8
College Plans (I plan to go to college or some other school after HS)
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

276
2041

11.9
88.1
Join Military (When I grow up I would like to join the military)
a
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

1,888
383

83.1
16.9

a. Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, National Guard, Reserves

57
Table 2.1
Overall Sample Characteristics(continued)
Variable Frequency Percent
Dual Plans/Aspirations
No
Yes

1,783
289

86.1
13.9

In terms of number of family deployments, approximately 70.7 percent of respondents
(n=1,439) reported that no one in their family had been deployed in the past ten years, 9.7
percent (n=198) reported that a member of their family had deployed at least once in the past ten
years, and 19.6 percent (n=398) indicated that they had experienced multiple family
deployments. Approximately 18.2 percent of respondents (n=424) reported that they had
changed schools once in the past five years as a result of a family move, while 21.8 percent
(n=508) had moved two or more times. The majority of respondents, or 60 percent (n=1,397),
however, had not changed schools in the past five years. Broken down further, by military-
connectedness, approximately 86.1 percent of respondents (n=235) with a parent currently
serving in the military have experienced at least one family deployment in the past ten years.
Approximately 59.6 percent of respondents (n=62) with a sibling currently serving in the military
also reported experiencing at least a single family deployment in the past ten years while only 18
percent of respondents (n=299) with neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the
military reported experiencing a family deployment in the past ten years. The number of school
moves also varies by military-connectedness, however, by a much smaller degree (see Appendix
C and D for additional information).
In terms of post-secondary plans and aspirations, when asked to indicate their level of
agreement with the following statements “I plan to go to college or some other school after high
58
school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military,” approximately 88.1 percent
(n=2,041) and 16.9 percent (n=383) of respondents endorsed “pretty much true/very much true,”
respectively. Approximately 13.9 percent of respondents (n=289) endorsed “pretty much
true/very much true” for both statements.
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Military-Connectedness
As seen in Table 2.2, there are no significant differences in the college plans of
respondents regardless of military-connectedness (p=0.702). When asked to indicate their level
of agreement with the following statement, “I plan to go to college or some other school after
high school,” approximately 89 percent of respondents (n=253) with a parent currently serving in
the military and 86.1 percent of respondents (n=99) with a sibling currently serving responded
that the statement was “pretty much true/very much true.” Approximately 88 percent of
respondents (n=1,689) with neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military
indicated the same level of agreement. Though these findings do not yield significant
differences, they do support my initial hypothesis that students with a parent currently serving in
the military would report higher college aspirations.
Table 2.2
College Plans by Military-Connectedness (Current)

Military-Connectedness
(Current)
College Plans


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
No Parent/Sibling 229 (11.9) 1689 (88.1) 0.709 2
Parent 31 (10.9) 253 (89.1)
Sibling 16 (13.9) 99 (86.1)
Note: Percentage values (within military-connectedness) appear in parentheses.

59
Unlike plans to attend college, desire to join the military does vary by military-
connectedness. As seen in Table 2.3, there are significant differences in respondents’ desire to
join the military by military-connectedness (p=0.00). When asked to indicate their level of
agreement with the following statement, “when I grow up I would like to join the military,”
respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military were more likely to respond
that the statement was “pretty much true/very much true” when compared to those with neither a
parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military (24.8 percent versus 14.7 percent and 32.2
percent versus 14.7 percent). Respondents with a sibling serving in the military were the most
likely to want to join the military. These findings are consistent with prior research and my initial
hypothesis that students with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military would report a
greater desire to join the military in comparison to those with neither a parent nor a sibling
currently serving in the military. Respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the
military are also more likely to report dual plans and aspirations when compared to those with
neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military.
Table 2.3
Desire to Join Military by Military-Connectedness (Current)

Military-Connectedness
(Current)
Join Military


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
No Parent/Sibling 1595 (85.3) 275 (14.7) 38.37** 2
Parent 215 (75.2) 71 (24.8)
Sibling 78 (67.8) 37 (32.3)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within military-connectedness) appear in parentheses.

60
As seen in Table 2.4, when asked to indicate their level of agreement with the following
statements, “I plan to go to college or some other school after high school,” and “when I grow up
I would like to join the military,” approximately 19.8 percent of respondents (n=51) with a
parent currently serving in the military and 26.2 percent of respondents (n=28) with a sibling
currently serving in the military indicated that both statements were “pretty much true/very much
true.” Only 12.3 percent of respondents (n=210) with neither a parent nor sibling currently
serving in the military indicated that both statements were “pretty much true/very much true.”
Table 2.4
Dual Plans and Aspirations by Military-Connectedness (Current)
Military-Connectedness
(Current)
Dual Aspirations

2

df No Yes
No Parent/Sibling 1498 (87.7) 210 (12.3) 24.65** 2
Parent 206 (80.2) 51 (19.8)
Sibling 79 (72.8) 28 (26.2)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within military-connectedness) appear in
parentheses.

Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Number of Deployments
As seen in Table 2.5, there were no statistically significant differences in plans to attend
college regardless of the number of deployments experienced: none, one, two or more.
Respondents who have experienced a single deployment, however, are slightly less likely to
endorse “pretty much true/very much true,” when asked to indicate their level of agreement with
the follow statement “I plan to go to college or some other school after high school,” in
comparison to respondents who have not experienced a family deployment or those who have
experienced two or more family deployments.

61
Table 2.5
College Plans by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years)

No. of Deployments
(Past 10 Years)
College Plans


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
None 146 (10.7) 1217 (89.3) 0.773 2
One 24 (12.7) 165 (87.3)
Two or More 39 (10.4) 336 (89.6)
Note: Percentage values (within number of deployments) appear in parentheses.

Unlike college plans, there are significant differences in respondents’ desire to join the
military by number of family deployments (p=0.00). As seen in Table 2.6, when asked to
indicate their level of agreement with the following statement, “when I grow up I would like to
join the military,” approximately 26 percent of respondents (n=95) who have experienced two or
more deployments endorsed “pretty much true/very much true,” a percentage that is almost twice
that of those who have not experienced a family deployment (approximately 13.5 percent).
Respondents who have experienced a single family deployment are also more likely than those
who have not experienced a deployment to indicate a stronger desire to join the military
(approximately 21.7 percent).
Respondents who have experienced a single family deployment or multiple family
deployments are also more likely to report dual aspirations when compared to those whose
family members have not been deployed in the past ten years. As seen in Table 2.7, when asked
to indicate their level of agreement with the following statements “I plan to go to college or some
other school after high school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military,”
approximately 17.7 percent of respondents (n=32) who had a family member deploy at least once
in the past ten years indicated that both statements were “pretty much true/very much true.”
62
Approximately, 22.8 percent of respondents (n=79) who reported multiple family deployments
indicated that both statements were “pretty much true/very much true.” Only 11.1 percent of
respondents (n=210) reported dual aspirations.
Table 2.6
Desire to Join Military by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years)

No. of Deployments
(Past 10 Years)
Join Military


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
None 1152 (86.5) 180 (13.5) 35.57** 2
One 148 (78.3) 41 (21.7)
Two or More 271 (74.0) 95 (26.0)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within number of deployments) appear in
parentheses.

Table 2.7
Dual Plans and Aspirations by Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years)
No. of Deployments
(Past 10 Years)
Dual Aspirations

2

df No Yes
None 1123 (88.9) 140 (11.1) 33.32** 2
One 149 (82.3) 32 (17.7)
Two or More 267 (77.2) 251 (14.0)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within number of deployments) appear in
parentheses.

Experiencing a deployment was expected to be related to plans to attend college, desire to
join the military, and reporting dual plans and aspirations, albeit minimally. While there were no
statistically significant differences in plans to attend college regardless of the number of
deployments experienced: none, one, two or more, desire to join the military did differ
significantly by number of deployments, as did dual aspirations.
63
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Number of School Moves
As seen in Table 2.8, plans to attend college are not significantly different regardless of
the number of school moves experienced: none, one, two or more. Respondents who have
changed schools at least once, however, were slightly less likely to endorse “pretty much
true/very much true,” when asked to indicate their level of agreement with the following
statement, “I plan to go to college or some other school after high school.” Unlike college plans,
there were significant differences in respondents’ desire to join the military by number of school
moves (p = 0.00). When asked to indicate their level of agreement with the following statement,
“when I grow up I would like to join the military,” approximately 25.5 percent of respondents
who have experienced two or more school moves endorsed “pretty much true/very much true,” a
percentage that is also almost twice that of those who have not experienced a school move
(approximately 13.1 percent). Respondents who have experienced a single move are also more
likely than those who have not experienced a move to indicate a stronger desire to join the
military (approximately 19.4 percent) as seen in Table 2.9. Dual aspirations are also significantly
different based on number of schools moves. As seen in Table 2.10, approximately 17.1 percent
of respondents (n=63) who reported at least one school move and 22.1 percent of respondents
(n=94) who reported multiple school moves responded “pretty much true/very much true” in
response to the following statements, “I plan to go to college or some other school after high
school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military.” Only 10.2 percent of
respondents (n=125) who had changed schools responded similarly.

64
Table 2.8
College Plans by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years)

No. of School Moves
(Past 5 Years)
College Plans


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
Did Not Change Schools 129 (9.7) 1200 (90.3) 4.12 2
One 51 (12.8) 348 (87.2)
Two or More 56 (12.1) 406 (87.9)
Note: Percentage values (within number of school moves) appear in parentheses.

Table 2.9
Desire to Join Military by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years)

No. of School Moves
(Past 5 Years)
Join Military


2

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
Did Not Change Schools 1122 (86.9) 169 (13.1) 39.79** 2
One 315 (80.6) 76 (19.4)
Two or More 347 (74.5) 119 (25.5)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within number of school moves) appear in
parentheses.

Table 2.10
Dual Plans and Aspirations by Number of School Moves (Past 5 Years)
No. of School Moves
(Past 5 Years)
Dual Aspirations

2

df No Yes
Did Not Change Schools 1105 (89.8) 125 (10.2) 41.42** 2
One 305 (82.9) 63 (17.1)
Two or More 331 (77.9) 94 (22.1)
Note: ** p < .01 Percentage values (within number of school moves) appear in
parentheses.

65
Changing schools was expected to influence post-secondary plans and aspirations. Plans
to attend college, however, were not significantly different regardless of the number of school
moves reported. Alternatively, desire to join the military was found to differ significantly by
number of school moves. Reporting dual plans and aspirations was also found to be significantly
different based on number of school moves.
Discussion
Overall, findings from this study suggest that children from military families are both
similar to and different from children from civilian families in terms of their post-secondary
plans and aspirations. For example, findings from this study suggest that there are no significant
differences in the college plans of students in this sample regardless of military-connectedness.
There are, however, significant differences in terms of students’ desire to join the military by
military-connectedness, a finding that is consistent with prior research (Faris, 1981, 1984;
Kilburn & Klerman, 1999; Segal & Segal, 2004). As such, the current study does not put an end
to ongoing debates regarding the similarities, or lack of, between students from military families
and students from civilian families. Nevertheless, the current study does shed light on how
military service, deployment, and residential mobility are related to students’ post-secondary
plans and aspirations. Findings from this study’s analyses are discussed in greater detail below.
Recommendations are also provided.
Plans to Attend College
As previously mentioned, findings from this study suggest that there are no significant
differences in the college plans of students regardless of military-connectedness. More
importantly, plans to attend college appear to be relatively similar regardless of the number of
family deployments or school moves a student experienced, a positive finding that suggests that
66
students from military families, at least those in this sample, may be receiving the deployment
and transition support they need to maintain high aspirations which is notable given the
disruptive effects both have been shown to have on students’ educational experiences (Garner et
al., 2014; Lyle, 2006; Mmari et al., 2009; Richardson et al., 2011). What is less clear is the
source of this support (e.g., parents, school staff, members of the community), something that
will be explored further in Chapter Three. Regardless, findings from this set of analyses highlight
the potentially critical role of deployment and transition support, supports that districts and
schools will need to continue to provide given the enduring and pervasive nature of deployments
and mobility (see Effects of Deployment on Children from Military Families and Effects of
Residential Mobility on Children from Military Families).
Desire to Join the Military
Unlike college plans, there are insignificant differences in students’ desires to join the
military by military-connectedness, a finding that is consistent with existing data and research
(Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn & Klerman, 1999; Segal & Segal, 2004). What is unique about the
current study, however, is that I was able to differentiate based on whether a parent or sibling is
currently serving in the military and found that students with a sibling serving in the military
were the most likely to want to join the military, a finding that must be explored further. Students
who have experienced a deployment or school move are more likely to want to join the military,
a finding that may be surprising for some. Logically, one might hypothesize that students who
have moved around a lot and/or experienced a family deployment would be less likely to want to
join the military. Nevertheless, it is possible that like the children of firefighters or police
officers, children who have had a family member deploy have embraced the warrior culture
associated with military service and view deployments as an honorable and courageous sacrifice.
67
Multiple school moves, like deployments, may also be constructed in a positive light. With each
move students are exposed to a new culture and presented with the opportunity to learn about
traditions and customs of a culture they may not be familiar with, an opportunity their civilian
peers may not experience until much later in life. As such, mobility may not be viewed as a
negative aspect of life in the military, but rather a positive.
Students with Dual Plans and Aspirations
While prior studies examining the student college choice process have traditionally
conceptualized outcomes of the process in narrow terms—students either choose to attend
college or they choose to not attend college—the current study is one of the first to explore the
idea of students having dual plans and aspirations. While students have always been able to
choose to pursue a multitude of paths after graduating high school (e.g., attending college,
entering the workface, joining the military), they are increasingly choosing to pursue multiple
paths, simultaneously or consecutively, as the cost of attending college continues to increase
(Bachman, Freedman-Doan, and O’Malley, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014; Kleykamp,
2004; Mavor & Sackett, 2003). It is therefore not all that surprising that findings from the current
study suggest that for a particular group of students, a strong desire to join the military does not
negate plans to attend college. What is unclear is the order in which respondents plan to join the
military or attend college, a finding that must be explored further as the order of things does
matter. College-bound students who choose to defer college after high school and enlist in the
military as a way of paying for college are likely to encounter a series of barriers and challenges
that they must be prepared to overcome. For example, studies have shown that undergraduate
students who have served in the military often struggle to transition into civilian roles after
serving in the military (Black, Westwood, & Sorsdal, 2007) and that the transition to college can
68
be equally difficult (Ackerman, DiRamio, & Mitchell, 2009; DiRamio et al., 2009). Transition-
related issues, limited knowledge of GI Bill benefits, and work-life responsibilities, are just
examples of the additional barriers students may face when they enroll in college after serving in
the military (Cook & Kim, 2009), barriers that can be detrimental to their educational goals if
students are not provided with the resources and tools they need to overcome said barriers.
Recommendations
Findings from the current study suggest that practitioners who work with students from
military families, including teachers and counselors, must keep an open mind in regard to their
post-secondary plans and aspirations. A student with a parent or sibling currently serving in the
military may not necessarily be planning to follow in his or her family member’s footsteps.
Moreover, a student who expresses a strong desire to join the military may also have a strong
desire to attend college. As such, practitioners must continue to ask questions and provide
comprehensive advising to students, which is especially critical for students who are planning to
enlist in the military prior to attending college. Practitioners must also be mindful of students
who are experiencing or have experienced a deployment or school move. Even though college
plans were not statistically different based on the number of deployments or school moves a
student experiences, there were still subtle differences (see Table 2.5 and 2.8). As such,
providing adequate supports to students who have experienced a family deployment or recent
school move is critical. Finally, it’s important that practitioners communicate high expectations
for all children given the relationship between high expectations and students’ post-secondary
choices. Though not discussed here, anecdotal data obtained from time spent working in the field
suggest that military families often feel as though expectations are lower for their children. The
expectations of practitioners who work with military families are explored in Chapter Four,
69
however, regardless of whether expectations are lower for children from military families or not,
this is the perception, a perception that may be detrimental to these students’ future trajectories.
Future Research
The current study utilized a sample of 2,811 secondary school students from a particular
region in California, a noted limitation. Future studies must therefore look to replicate these
findings using a larger and more diverse sample. Future studies might also examine whether the
relationships between post-secondary plans and aspirations, military-connectedness, number of
deployments, and number of school moves differ based on the percentage of military-connected
students enrolled in a school. Does having a critical mass of military-connected students enrolled
result in a stronger desire to attend college? To join the military? Regional differences might also
be explored. More specifically, future research might want to examine whether regional
differences in educational attainment influences the relationships between post-secondary
aspirations, military-connectedness, number of deployments, and number of school moves by
region or state given that such factors, or “policy contexts,” are believed to influence students’
post-secondary aspirations (Perna, 2006). Finally, future research must examine the academic,
social, and emotional supports students from military and nonmilitary families receive and from
whom (e.g., parents, adults at school, peers, adults in the community).
Conclusion
The current study examined the relationship between deployment, residential mobility,
and students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations. Findings suggest that plans to attend college
are similar regardless of military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and number of
school moves—a positive finding that suggests students in this sample are getting the
deployment and transition support they need to maintain high aspirations. Desire to join the
70
military, however, differs by military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and
number of school moves. Students with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military are
more likely to express a desire to join the military, a finding that is consistent with prior research.
Experiencing a deployment or school move also influences one’s desire to join the military, a
finding that may seem counterintuitive. Aside from these findings, the current study also
explored the relationship between military-connectedness, deployment, mobility, and students’
reporting dual plans/aspirations, one of the first studies to do so. Prior research examining the
student college choice process has traditionally conceptualized outcomes of the process in
narrow terms—students either choose to attend college or they choose to not attend college. This
conceptualization, however, no longer matches the economic realities facing students who are
increasingly choosing to pursue multiple paths, simultaneously or consecutively, as the cost of
attending college continues to rise (Bachman, Freedman-Doan, and O’Malley, 2001; Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 2014; Kleykamp, 2004; Mavor & Sackett, 2003). It is therefore not surprising
that planning to attend college and wanting to join the military are not mutually exclusive
aspirations for a sizeable percentage of students. Finally, while debates regarding the similarities
and differences between children from military families and children from civilian families will
likely continue into the future, findings from the current study do provide empirical support for
what military parents and advocates have been arguing for some time: military children are
resilient (Park, 2011).

71
Chapter 3: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend
College, Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students Attending
Military-Connected Public Schools
Despite decades of research focused on the college student choice process, researchers
know very little about the effects of military family life on students’ post-secondary plans and
aspirations. In Study 1 of this dissertation study I used data from the CHKS to compare the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of: (1) respondents with a parent currently serving in the
military, respondents with a sibling currently serving in the military, and respondents with
neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military, (2) respondents who have
experienced the deployment of a family member in the past ten years, respondents who have
experienced multiple family deployments in the past ten years, and respondents who have not
had a family member deploy in the past ten years, and finally (3) respondents who have changed
schools once in the past five years due to a change in residence, respondents who have changed
schools two or more times in the past five years, and respondents who have not changed schools
in the past five years. Overall, findings from Study 1 suggest that plans to attend college were
relatively similar regardless of military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and
number of school moves, a finding that suggests students from military families are getting the
deployment and transition support they need to maintain high aspirations which is notable given
the disruptive effects both have been shown to have on students’ educational experiences
(Garner, Arnold, & Nunnery, 2014; Mmari et al., 2009). The source of this support (e.g., parents,
school staff, and/or members of the community), however, remains unknown.
Unlike college plans, findings from Study 1 suggest that there are significant differences
in terms of respondents’ desire to join the military and the likelihood of reporting dual plans and
72
aspirations. Respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military were more
likely to want to join the military. They were also more likely to report dual plans and
aspirations. Respondents who have experienced the deployment of a family member or a school
move were also more likely to want to join the military and to report dual plans and aspirations.
Though prior research has shown that individuals with a family history of military
participation are more likely to want to join the military (Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn & Klerman,
1999; Kleykamp, 2006; Segal & Segal, 2004), educators know very little about how caring and
supportive relationships with parents, educators, and community members, influence students’
desire to join the military. Nevertheless, prior research has consistently shown that parental
expectations and support are critical to students’ post-secondary decisions. Expectations and
support from school staff, including teachers and counselors, are also vital to students’ college
choice process, particularly among students from “at-risk” or disadvantaged backgrounds
(Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Hossler & Stage, 1992; McDonough, 1997, 2005). Emerging
theories of college student choice, and prior research examining the factors associated with
military enlistment, further stress the importance of community influence on students’ post-
secondary plans (Kleykamp, 2004; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009).
The current study builds on findings from Study 1; more specifically, the current study
examines how caring and supportive relationships with parents, school staff, and community
members, are related to students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, defined in the current
study as plans to attend college, desire to join the military, and dual plans/aspirations: students
who plan to attend college and want to join the military. While Study 1 and Study 2 would
typically be presented as a single study, given the dearth of research examining the relationship
between students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, military service, deployment, and
73
mobility within the context of war, the two studies are presented as standalone studies. Study 1
provided an epidemiological overview of the phenomenon of interest. In Study 2, I examine the
complexity undergirding the phenomenon by examining the socio-ecological factors associated
with students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations.
Student College Choice
Prior research examining the student college choice process has resulted in the
development of an array of models and/or approaches to explain or understand students’ post-
secondary choices. Such models/approaches include econometric models of student college
choice,
22
sociological approaches,
23
and psychological approaches.
24
Despite the utility of these
models/approaches in furthering the field’s understanding of the student college choice process,
persistent gaps in post-secondary enrollment among low-income and minority youth remain. In
light of these gaps, a number of ecologically oriented, conceptual models of student college
choice have been developed to better serve an increasingly diverse, college-age population
(Bergerson, 2009), including Perna’s (2006) conceptual model of student college choice and
Tierney and Venegas’ (2007/2009) cultural ecology, both of which can be used to explore
various components of the student college choice process.
25
While both models draw from

22
Econometric models of student college choice posit that students will choose to invest, or not
invest, in higher education based on their comparisons of the costs and benefits associated with
attending, or not attending, college (Bergerson, 2009; Hossler et al., 1999; Manski & Wise,
1983; Paulsen, 1990)
23
Sociological approaches emphasize the relationship between student background
characteristics (e.g., race/ethnicity, family income, prior academic achievement) and students’
post-secondary aspirations and/or choices (Bergerson, 2009; Hossler & Stage, 1992; Hossler et
al., 1999; Paulsen, 1990).
24
Psychological approaches highlight the importance of institutional characteristics on students’
post-secondary choices (Bergerson, 2009; Paulsen, 1990).
25
The college choice process is comprised of three “stages” or phases: predisposition, search,
and choice (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987). During the predisposition phase, “students become
predisposed toward or interested in attending college,” (Perna, 2006, p. 101). During the search
74
overlapping literature bases, they are informed by and advance different theoretical frameworks.
A human capital investment framework
26
largely informs Perna’s conceptual model of student
college choice, while Tierney and Venegas’ cultural ecology advances a cultural approach to the
study of student financial aid decision-making and college choice.
Perna’s Conceptual Model of Student College Choice
Decades of higher education research informs Perna’s conceptual model of student
college choice (Hossler, et al., 1999; Manski & Wise, 1983; McDonough, 1997; Paulsen, 1990;
Perna, 2000; Perna & Titus, 2005; St. John, Chung, Musoba & Simmons, 2004; St. John,
Musoba & Chung, 2004). Recognizing that no single theoretical approach has sufficiently
addressed how multiple contexts inform the student college choice process, Perna’s model draws
from multiple theoretical perspectives and offers an integrated approach to the study of student
college choice comprised of four contextual layers: habitus,
27
the school and community

phase, students engage in an information gathering process and consider what types of higher
education institutions to they will apply to. Finally during the choice phase, students decide
which institution they will ultimately attend (Hossler & Stage, 1992; Perna, 2006).
26
DesJardins and Toutkoushin (2005) define human capital as the “collective skills and
attributes that enable individuals to [be] more productive in the workplace” that are “endowed at
birth or acquired through training and education,” (p. 216). Investments in education are thus
described as investments in human capital. Human capital models assume that students will
evaluate educational options based on their assessment of the costs and benefits of acquiring
additional education (DesJardins & Toutkoushin, 2005).
27
Drawing on the work of Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1988), Perna’s model includes
students’ background characteristics (e.g., race/ethnicity, individual tastes and preferences,
aspirations), cultural capital (e.g., cultural knowledge respective to the college choice process,
parental support and encouragement), and social capital (e.g., information a student has access to
via his or her relationships with peers, parents, or “significant others”) as components of student
habitus (Perna, 2006, pp. 116-117).
75
context,
28
the higher education context,
29
and the social, economic, and policy context.
30
These
layers collectively inform the student college choice process. Students’ financial resources (e.g.,
family income) and demand for higher education
31
also inform students’ perceptions of the cost
and benefits of higher education (Perna, 2006).
Tierney and Venegas’ Cultural Ecology
Tierney and Venegas’ cultural ecology uses culture
32
as a lens for understanding student
financial aid decision-making and the socio-cultural environments shaping how students receive,
interpret, and make use of financial aid and college information (Tierney & Venegas, 2007).
Tierney and Venegas’ model identifies four overlapping environments (or sites)—educational
environments, out-of-class environments, familial environments, and community

28
The resources and support a school can provide a student respective to the college choice
process (e.g., college information handbooks, financial aid brochures, college advising or
guidance counseling), are included and part of school and community context. Barriers that
prevent students from accessing college information or prevent institutional agents from sharing
information respective to the college choice process (e.g., limited contact between students and
teachers outside of class or budget cuts resulting in the loss of counseling staff and larger
caseloads) are also included as part of the school and community context (Perna, 2006, pp. 116-
117).
29
Outreach and recruitment efforts, mechanisms by which colleges and universities can
influence the college choice process and provide students with college information, are included
as components of the higher education context. Institutional characteristics (e.g., location,
selectivity, student demographics, enrollment capacity) are also part of the higher education
context (Perna, 2006, pp. 116-117).
30
Regional levels of educational attainment and attitudes toward higher education are among the
potential proxies Perna identifies as part of the social context, while workforce trends, including
levels of unemployment, are referenced as potential proxies for the broader economic context.
Finally, K-12 education polices, state tuition policies, and financial aid programs are identified
potential proxies for the policy context (Perna, 2006, pp. 116-117).
31
According to Perna (2006), student demand for higher education is a function of academic
preparation and prior achievement. Student’s who are academically prepared for college and
high achieving will have a greater demand for higher education.
32
Tierney and Venegas (2007) define culture as “an interpretive approach to understanding the
environments in which people live… how individuals interpret [the] social work and give
meaning to their lives and decisions” is the focus of this approach (pp. 19-20).
76
environments—that are critical to financial aid decision-making and the student college choice
process. Educational environments (i.e., K-12 and higher education institutions) are critical to the
formation of student perceptions respective to college going. Peer support, extracurricular
activities, and support from mentors, components of the out-of-class environment, are equally
critical, as are familial environments, which include family engagement, parental expectations,
aspirations, and college-related communication. Community environments also play a vital role
in how students access and interpret college-related information (Tierney & Venegas, 2007).
Rather than focusing on a particular environment in isolation, Tierney and Venegas posit that the
interactions occur within and across environments, collectively shaping how students’ gain
access to, interpret and act on financial aid and college information.
Military Enlistment
Similar to the college choice models described in the preceding paragraphs, prior
research examining the factors associated with military enlistment suggest that family contexts
and community contexts influence military enlistments. Numerous studies have found that
students with a family history of military service are more likely to join the military (Faris, 1981,
1984; Kilburn & Klerman, 1999; Kleykamp, 2004; Segal & Segal, 2004). Research has also
found that the odds of enlisting in the military after high school, as opposed to attending college,
entering the workforce, or participating in some other activity, are higher among respondents
who reside in areas with a high military presence (Kleykamp, 2004, p. 272).
Students can choose to pursue a multitude of paths after graduating high school. While
many will choose to attend college, others will choose to enlist in the military or enter the
workforce. The current study explores both pathways—attending college and joining the
military—for students from military and nonmilitary families attending the same military-
77
connected public schools. More specifically, the current study examines whether factors
associated with the college choice process, namely parental support, school support, and
community support, also influence the desire to join the military and/or the desire to both join the
military and attend college. Understanding the socio-ecological factors associated with students’
post-secondary plans and aspirations is critical, particularly within the context of war. As such,
findings from the current study are expected to have relevance for not only the field of higher
education, and the primary and secondary schools called upon to provide post-secondary
supports to students, but for the military, an entity that needs to sustain a healthy and vibrant
force.
Methods
Data for this study were collected during the 2010-2011 school year as part of the CHKS,
a statewide survey of risk and resiliency administered bi-annually to students in the fifth,
seventh, ninth, and 11th grade in compliance with Title IV
33
of the No Child Left Behind Act.
The CHKS is comprised of a core module and 17 supplemental modules, including a military-
connected schools module and a resilience and youth development module. Public schools
receiving Title IV funds are required to administer the core module of the CHKS at a minimum.
For the purpose of this study, a subsample of 2,811 secondary school students in the
seventh, ninth, and 11th grades were selected based on their completion of the core module, the
military-connected school module, and the resilience and youth development module. The core
module “provides a comprehensive overview of health-related behaviors and attitudes,”

33
A federal program that provides “funding to local educational agencies to prevent violence in
and around schools; to prevent the illegal use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs; and to foster a safe
and drug-free learning environment that supports academic achievement.,” (California
Department of Education, 2014, n.p.).
78
(WestEd, 2014a, n.p.). Demographic data are also collected as part of the core module. The
military-connected school module is comprised of questions related to the educational needs and
perspectives of both military- and nonmilitary connected students while the resilience and youth
development module contains questions designed to measure protective factors that promote
success among youth. The latter also assesses social-emotional skills, resilience, and
developmental supports including “caring adult relationships, high expectations, and meaningful
participation… in the home,” (WestEd, 2014b, n.p.). Peer group data are also collected as part of
the resilience and youth development module (WestEd, 2014c).
Dependent Variables
The current study includes the following dependent variables: plans to attend college or
obtain some other form of post-secondary education after high school (CollegePlans), desire to
join the military (JoinMilitary), and dual plans/aspirations (DualPlans/Aspirations). Respondents
were asked to rate their level of agreement with the following statements: “I plan to go to college
or some other school after high school,” (CollegePlans) and “when I grow up I would like to join
the military,” (JoinMilitary). Responses were coded as follows: 1=not at all true/a little true and
2=pretty much true/very much true. Dual plans/aspirations were computed based on responses to
both of these statements. Respondents who endorsed “pretty much true/very much true” in
response to both of the following statements, “I plan to go to college or some other school after
high school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military,” were coded as having dual
plans/aspirations. All other responses were combined and served as the reference group.
Independent Variables
The current study includes the following independent variables: sex (1=male and
2=female), race/ethnicity (1=white, 2=black or African American, 3=Asian American,
79
4=Hispanic/Latino, 5=American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander,
and 6=mixed), and military-connectedness (1=parent or sibling is not currently serving in the
military, 2=parent is currently serving in the military, and 3=sibling is currently serving in the
military), grade level (1=middle school and 2=high school), grades (1=mostly A’s, 2=A’s and
B’s, 3=mostly B’s, 4=B’s and C’s, and 5= mostly C’s and below), number of times a family
member has been deployed in the past ten years (1=none, 2=one, and 3=two or more), and
number of school moves in the past five years (1=did not change schools, 2=one, and 3=two or
more). Multi-item scales representing parental support, school support, and community support
also serve as independent variables (individual items comprising each of scale are described
below).
Parental support. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the
following statements: “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who believes that I will
be a success,” and “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who always wants me to do
my best.” Responses were coded as: 1=not at all true, 2=a little true, 3=pretty much true, and
4=very much true.
School support. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the
following statements: “at my school, there is a teacher or some other adult who really cares about
me,” “at my school, there is a teacher or some other adult who tells me when I do a good job,”
“at my school, there is a teacher or some other adult who believes that I will be a success,” and
“at my school, there is a teacher or some other adult who always wants me to do my best.”
Responses were coded as: 1=not at all true, 2=a little true, 3=pretty much true, and 4=very much
true.
80
Community support. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with
the following statements: “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who really cares
about me,” “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who tells me when I do a good
job,” “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who believes that I will be a success,”
and “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who always wants me to do my best.”
Responses were coded as: 1=not at all true, 2=a little true, 3=pretty much true, and 4=very much
true.
Statistical Analyses
Multiple analyses are conducted in this study. Multi-item scales representing parental
support, school support, and community support are computed as part of the first set of analyses.
A series of bivariate analyses are then conducted to examine the relationship between parental
support, school support, and community support and respondents’ post-secondary plans and
aspirations. Three separate logistic regressions (LRs) are then utilized to predict the likelihood of
reporting high aspirations to attend college, a strong desire to join the military, and dual
plans/aspirations to attend college and join the military, controlling for gender, race/ethnicity,
military connectedness, grades, grade level, number of deployments, number of school moves,
parental support, school support, and community support. Not all variables are included as
independent variables for each of the logit models. Number of deployments, number of school
moves, parental support, school support and community support were only included as
independent variables based on the results of the bivariate analyses conducted in this study and
in Study 1 (see Chapter Two). More specifically, only those found to be significantly related to
college plans, desire to join the military, and dual plans and aspirations were included in the final
81
logit models. All analyses are completed using IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) Version 20.
Hypotheses
Prior research has consistently shown that parental expectations and support are critical to
students’ college choice decisions. Expectations of and support from school staff, including
teachers and counselors, are also vital to the college choice process, particularly for students
from “at-risk” or disadvantaged backgrounds (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Hossler &
Stage, 1992; McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). Emerging
theories of college student choice and prior research examining the factors associated with
military enlistment further stress the importance of community influence on students’ post-
secondary plans (Kleykamp, 2004; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). It was
therefore hypothesized that levels of support would be significantly related to students’ post-
secondary plans and aspirations.
Findings
Overall sample characteristics are provided in Table 3.1 Descriptive statistics for parental
support, school support, and community support items are provided in Table 3.2, as is the
internal reliability of each scale. Findings from bivariate analyses examining the relationship
between parental support, school support, and community support and respondents’ post-
secondary plans and aspirations are provided in Tables 3.3 through 3.5. Results for each logistic
regression (CollegePlans, JoinMilitary, and DualPlans/Aspirations) are provided in Tables 3.6
through 3.7.

82
Overall Sample Characteristics
As seen in Table 3.1, approximately 54.1 percent of respondents in this subsample
identify as female. Approximately 59.7 percent identify as Hispanic/Latino, 16.8 percent as
white, and 11.9 percent as mixed. The remainder of respondents identify as African
American/black, Asian American, American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific
Islander. Approximately 83.9 percent of respondents (n=2,358) report that neither a parent nor a
sibling is currently serving in the military, 11.5 percent (n=323) report that a parent is currently
serving, and 4.6 percent (n=130) a sibling. In terms of grade level, approximately 31.7 percent of
respondents (n=879) were enrolled in middle school when they completed the survey and 68.3
percent in high school (n=1,892). More than 50 percent (n=1,363) indicated that they had earned
mostly B’s or higher in the past 12 months.
Table 3.1
Overall Sample Characteristics (n=2,811)
Variable Frequency Percent
Sex
Male
Female

1,264
1,491

45.9
54.1
Race/Ethnicity
White
Black or African American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander
Mixed Race

449
100
113
1,598
98
317

16.8
3.7
4.2
59.7
3.7
11.9

Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or sibling is not currently serving in the military
Parent is currently serving in the military
Sibling is currently serving in the military

2,358
323
130

83.9
11.5
4.6

83
Table 3.1
Overall Sample Characteristics (continued)
Variable Frequency Percent
Grade Level
Middle School
High School

879
1,892

31.7
68.3

Grades (Past 12 Months)
Mostly A’s
A’s and B’s
Mostly B’s
B’s and C’s
Mostly C’s and Below

402
716
245
615
637

15.4
27.4
9.4
23.5
24.4
Deployments (Past 10 Years)
None
One
Two or More

1,439
198
398

70.7
9.7
19.6
School Moves (Past 5 Years)
Did Not Change Schools
One
Two or More

1,397
424
508

60.0
18.2
21.8
College Plans (I plan to go to college or some other school after HS)
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

276
2,041

11.9
88.1
Join Military (When I grow up I would like to join the military)
a
Not At All True/A Little True
Pretty Much True/Very Much True

1,888
383

83.1
16.9
Dual Plans/Aspirations
No
Yes

1,783
289

86.1
13.9

a. Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, National Guard, Reserves

In terms of deployments and school moves, approximately 70.7 percent of respondents
(n=1,439) reported that they have not experienced a deployment in the past ten years, 9.7 percent
(n=198) reported that they had experienced at least one deployment, and 19.6 percent (n=398)
84
had experienced two or more deployments. Approximately 15 percent of respondents (n=424)
reported changing schools once in the past five years as a result of a family move while 18.1
percent (n=508) moved two or more times. The majority of respondents, 60 percent (n=1,397),
however, had not changed schools in the past five years. Finally, when asked to indicate their
level of agreement with the following statements “I plan to go to college or some other school
after high school,” and “when I grow up I would like to join the military,” approximately 88.1
percent (n=2,041) and 16.9 percent of respondents (n=383) endorsed “pretty much true/very
much true,” respectively. Approximately 13.9 percent of respondents (n=289) endorsed “pretty
much true/very much true” for both statements.
Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support
As seen in Table 3.2, the majority of respondents indicate high levels of parental support.
Approximately 84.8 percent of respondents (n=1,805) endorsed “pretty much true” or “very
much true” in response to the statement: “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who
believes that I will be a success.” Approximately 96.3 percent of respondents (n=1,868)
responded similarly for “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who always wants me
to do my best.” Levels of community support were also high overall. Approximately 79.8
percent of respondents (n=2,178), endorsed “pretty much true” or “very much true” in response
to the statement: “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who believes that I will be a
success.” Approximately 83.8 percent of respondents (n=2,287) responded similarly for “outside
of my home and school, there is an adult who always wants me to do my best.” Levels of school
support were lower in comparison to levels of parental support and community support. Only
70.2 percent of respondents (n=1,905), endorsed “pretty much true” or “very much true” in
response to the statement: “outside of my home and school, there is an adult who believes that I
85
will be a success.” Approximately 77.5 percent of respondents (n=2,091) responded similarly for
“outside of my home and school, there is an adult who always wants me to do my best.
Table 3.2
Post-Secondary Plans and Aspirations by Parental Support, School Support, and
Community Support
It was hypothesized that parental support, school support, and community support would
be significantly related to respondents’ post-secondary plans and aspirations. Findings examining
the relationship between these variables and respondents’ post-secondary plans and aspirations,
however, suggest that this hypothesis only applies to college plans. As seen in Table 3.3, the
relationship between levels of support and plans to attend college was statistically significant.
The relationship between levels of support and desire to join the military, however, was not
statistically significantly, at least not for students in this sample (see Table 3.4). The relationship
between levels of support and dual plans/aspirations was also not statistically significant (see
Table 3.5).
Table 3.2
Descriptive Statistics and Internal Reliability for Multi-Item Scales

Scale



Statements/Items
Not at
All
True
A
Little
True
Pretty
Much
True
Very
Much
True
Parental
Support
0.88 Parent/adult in home…
believes that I will be a success
always wants me to do my best

112 (5.5)
89 (4.2)

211 (9.9)
173 (8.1)

464 (21.8)
403 (68.8)

1,341 (63.0)
1,465 (68.8)

86
Table 3.2
Descriptive Statistics and Internal Reliability for Multi-Item Scales (continued)

Scale



Statements/Items
Not at
All
True
A
Little
True
Pretty
Much
True
Very
Much
True
School
Support
0.85 At my school there is a teacher or some other adult
who…
really cares about me
tells me when I do a good job
believes that I will be a success
always wants me to do my best

299 (11.1)
231 (8.5)
285 (10.5)
151 (5.6)

841 (31.2)
600 (22.1)
523 (19.3)
458 (17.0)

853 (31.6)
934 (34.4)
805 (29.7)
806 (29.9)

706 (26.2)
947 (34.9)
1,100 (40.5)
1,285 (47.6)

Community
Support
0.92 Outside of my home and school there is an adult
who…
really cares about me
tells me when I do a good job
believes that I will be a success
always wants me to do my best

178 (6.8)
276 (10.1)
220 (8.1)
205 (7.5)

303 (11.1)
421 (15.4)
330 (12.1)
239 (8.8)

447 (16.4)
591 (21.6)
555 (20.3)
483 (17.7)

1,795 (65.9)
1,447 (52.9)
1,623 (59.5)
1,804 (66.1)

87
Table 3.3
College Plans by Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support

College Plans

F

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
Parental Support 2.710 3.574 287.55** 1
School Support 2.538 3.053 106.20** 1
Community Support 2.902 3.423 93.23** 1
Note: ** p < .01

Table 3.4
Desire to Join Military by Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support

Join Military

F

df
Not At All True/
A Little True
Pretty Much True/
Very Much True
Parental Support 3.495 3.500 0.010 1
School Support 2.995 3.013 0.159 1
Community Support 3.374 3.327 0.935 1

Table 3.5
Dual Plans and Aspirations by Parental Support, School Support, and Community Support

Dual Aspirations
F

Df No Yes
Parental Support 3.489 3.562 2.017 1
School Support 2.996 3.035 0.602 1
Community Support 3.373 3.367 0.014 1
Note: ** p < .01

88
Factors Influencing College Plans
Based on the analyses conducted and reported in Table 3.3, the relationship between
levels of parental support, school support, community support, and college plans was examined
controlling for sex, race, military-connectedness, grade level, and grades (in the past twelve
months). Number of deployments and number of school moves were not included in the analysis
as prior analyses, conducted and presented in Chapter Two, Tables 2.5 and 2.8, found that
neither variable was significantly related to respondents’ college plans.
As seen in Table 3.6, sex, race/ethnicity, grades, levels of parental support, and levels of
school support, were significantly related to respondents’ college plans. Respondents who
identified as female (OR=2.048, 95% CI=1.494-2.808) were significantly more likely than male
respondents to endorse “pretty much true/very much true,” in response to the following
statement: “I plan to go to college or some other school after high school.” Higher levels of
parental support (OR=2.231, 95% CI=1.863-2.673) and school support (OR=1.349, 95%
CI=1.090-1.669) were also found to be significantly related to increased odds of endorsing
“pretty much true/very much true. Alternatively, respondents who identified as Hispanic/Latino
(OR=0.408, 95% CI=0.233-0.715) or mixed race (OR=0.497, 95% CI=0.250-0.988) were
significantly less likely than white respondents to endorse “pretty much true/very much true,” in
response to same statement. Respondents who reported that they had earned mostly C’s and
below (OR=0.317, 95% CI=0.180-0.559) in the past twelve months were also significantly less
likely than those who had earned most A’s to endorse “pretty much true/very much true.”
89
Table 3.6
Logistic Regression for College Plans
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Sex
Male (Reference)
Female**

0.717

0.161

2.048

1.494-2.808
Race/Ethnicity
White (Reference)
Black or African American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino**
American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander
Mixed*

-0.085
-0.024
-0.897
-0.524
-0.699

0.603
0.560
0.286
0.501
0.351

0.919
0.976
0.408
0.592
0.497

0.282-2.997
0.326-2.926
0.233-0.715
0.222-1.582
0.250-0.988

Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or Sibling Is Not Currently Serving In The Military (Reference)
Parent Is Currently Serving In The Military
Sibling Is Currently Serving In The Military

-0.226
-0.069

0.258
0.370

0.797
0.933

0.481-1.322
0.452-1.928
Grade Level
Middle School
High School

0.129

0.181

1.137

0.798-1.621

Note: * p < .05 and ** p < .01
90
Table 3.6
Logistic Regression for College Plans (continued)
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Grades in the Past 12 Months
Mostly A’s (Reference)
A’s and B’s
Mostly B’s
B’s and C’s
Mostly C’s and below**

0.036
0.046
-0.193
-1.149

0.318
0.389
0.313
0.289

1.036
1.047
0.825
0.317

0.556-0.932
0.489-2.243
0.447-1.522
0.180-.0559

Parental Support**

0.803 0.092 2.231

1.863-2.673
School Support**

0.299 0.109 1.349 1.090-1.669
Community Support

0.159 0.092 1.172 0.979-1.403
Note: * p < .05 and ** p < .01

91
Factors Influencing Desire to Join the Military
Based on the analyses conducted and presented in Chapter Two (see Tables 2.6 and 2.9),
the relationship between the number of family deployments experienced, number of school
moves, and desire to join the military was examined, controlling for sex, race, military-
connectedness, grade level, and grades (in the past twelve months). Levels of parental support,
school support, and community support, were not included in the analysis as prior analyses found
that none were significantly related to desire to join the military (see Table 3.4).
As seen in Table 3.7, sex, race, military-connectedness, grades, number of deployments,
and number of school moves were significantly related to desire to join the military. Respondents
who identified as female (OR=0.273, 95% CI=0.206-0.362) were significantly less likely than
male respondents to endorse “pretty much true/very much true,” in response to the following
statement: “when I grow up I would like to join the military.” Alternatively, respondents who
identified as American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander (OR=3.507,
95% CI=1.843-6.672) were significantly more likely than white respondents to endorse “pretty
much true/very much true,” in response to same statement. Respondents with a sibling currently
serving in the military (OR=2.445, 95% CI=1.457-4.102) were also significantly more likely
than those with neither a parent nor sibling currently serving in the military to endorse “pretty
much true/very much true,” as were respondents who had earned mostly C’s and below
(OR=1.704, 95% CI=1.059-2.774) in the past twelve months when compared to those who had
earned most A’s. Finally, respondents who had experienced two or more family deployments
(OR=1.753, 95% CI=1.198-2.563) and changed schools once (OR=1.543, 95% CI=1.081-2.202)
or twice (OR=2.037, 95% CI=1.462-2.837) were significantly more likely to indicate a stronger
desire to join the military when compared to those who had not had a family member deploy in
92
the past ten years and/or had changed schools in the past five years. Alternatively, respondents
who identified as female (OR=0.273, 95% CI=0.206-0.362) were significantly less likely to
indicate a strong desire to join the military when compared to male respondents.
Factors Influencing Dual Plans and Aspirations
Based on the analyses conducted and presented in Chapter Two (see Tables 2.7 and
2.10), the relationship between the number of family deployments experienced, number of
school moves, and likelihood of reporting dual plans and aspirations was examined, controlling
for sex, race, military-connectedness, grade level, and grades (in the past twelve months). Levels
of parental support, school support, and community support, were not included in the analysis as
prior analyses found that none were significantly related to dual aspirations (see Table 3.5).
As seen in Table 3.8, sex, race, military-connectedness, number of deployments, and
number of school moves were significantly related to reporting dual plans and aspirations.
Respondents who identified as American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific
Islander (OR=2.903, 95% CI=1.470-5.734) were significantly more likely than white
respondents to endorse “pretty much true/very much true,” in response to the following
statements: “I plan to go to college or some other school after high school,” and “when I grow up
I would like to join the military.” Respondents with a sibling currently serving in the military
(OR=2.173, 95% CI=1.244-3.795) were also significantly more likely than those with neither a
parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military to endorse “pretty much true/very much
true,” in response to the same statements. Respondents who had experienced two or more family
deployments (OR=1.796, 95% CI=1.185-2.722) and changed schools once (OR=1.764, 95%
CI=1.195-2.605) or twice (OR=2.380, 95% CI=1.656-3.415) were also significantly more likely
to report a stronger desire to join the military and attend college when compared to those who
93
had not had a family member deploy in the past ten years and/or had changed schools in the past
five years. Alternatively, respondents who identified as female (OR=0.298, 95% CI=0.219-
0.406), were significantly less likely to indicate a strong desire to join the military and attend
college when compared to male respondents.
Discussion
The current study found that parental support and school support both appear to influence
respondents’ college plans, a finding that is consistent with prior literature. Recent grades,
gender, and race, were also found to be significant predictors of students’ college plans and their
desire to join the military, a finding that mirrors current college enrollment and enlistment trends.
Unlike college plans, parental support, school support, and community support did not appear to
influence respondents’ desire to join the military or their likelihood to report dual plans and
aspirations. The number of family deployments and the number of school moves respondents
experienced, however, did influence desire to join the military and likelihood to report dual plans
and aspirations as in Study 1, the difference being that in this study (Study 2), I controlled for
recent grades, grade level, race, gender, and military-connectedness. Race and gender were also
associated with the likelihood of reporting dual plans and aspirations.
Table 3.7
Logistic Regression for Desire to Join Military
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Sex
Male (Reference)
Female**

-1.297

0.144

0.273

0.206-0.362
Note: * p < .05 and ** p < .01

94
Table 3.7
Logistic Regression for Desire to Join Military (continued)
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Race/Ethnicity
White (Reference)
Black or African American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander**
Mixed

-0.547
0.635
0.215
1.255
0.006

0.458
0.333
0.196
0.328
0.254

0.579
1.887
1.240
3.507
1.006

0.236-1.420
0.983-3.634
0.844-1.820
1.843-6.672
0.611-1.657
Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or Sibling Is Not Currently Serving In The Military (Reference)
Parent Is Currently Serving In The Military
Sibling Is Currently Serving In The Military**

0.158
0.894

0.224
0.264

1.171
2.445

0.754-1.819
1.457-4.102
Grade Level
Middle School
High School

-0.232

0.150

0.793

0.592-1.063
Grades in the Past 12 Months
Mostly A’s (Reference)
A’s and B’s
Mostly B’s
B’s and C’s
Mostly C’s and below*

0.163
0.475
0.376
0.533

0.239
0.287
0.243
0.243

1.177
1.609
1.456
1.704

0.737-1.879
0.916-2.825
0.904-2.345
1.059-2.744
Note: * p < .05 and ** p < .01
95
Table 3.7
Logistic Regression for Desire to Join Military (continued)
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Deployments (Past 10 Years)
None (Reference)
One
Two or more**

0.330
0.561

0.221
0.194

1.391
1.753

0.902-2.145
1.198-2.563
School Moves (Past 5 Years)
Did Not Change Schools (Reference)
One**
Two or more**

0.434
0.711

0.181
0.169

1.543
2.037

1.081-2.202
1.462-2.837
Note: * p < .05 and ** p < .01

96
Table 3.8
Logistic Regression for Dual Plans and Aspirations
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Sex
Male (Reference)
Female**

-1.209

0.158

0.298

0.219-0.406
Race/Ethnicity
White (Reference)
Black or African American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander**
Mixed

-0.361
0.464
0.008
1.066
-0.273

0.461
0.361
0.210
0.347
0.279

0.697
1.590
1.008
2.903
0.761

0.282-1.720
0.784-3.224
0.668-1.520
1.470-5.734
0.441-1.314
Military-Connectedness (Current)
Parent or Sibling Is Not Currently Serving In The Military (Reference)
Parent Is Currently Serving In The Military
Sibling Is Currently Serving In The Military**

-0.020
0.776

0.249
0.285

0.980
2.173

0.602-1.598
1.244-3.795
Grade Level
Middle School
High School

-0.302

0.164

0.739

0.536-1.020

Note: ** p < .01
97
Table 3.8
Logistic Regression for Dual Plans and Aspirations (continued)
Variable B SE OR 95% CI
Grades in the Past 12 Months
Mostly A’s (Reference)
A’s and B’s
Mostly B’s
B’s and C’s
Mostly C’s and below

0.148
0.377
0.404
0.339

0.260
0.314
0.265
0.272

1.159
1.457
1.498
1.403

0.697-1.929
0.787-2.698
0.892-2.516
0.823-2.393
Deployments (Past 10 Years)
None (Reference)
One
Two or more**

0.292
0.586

0.245
0.212

1.339
1.796

0.829-2.163
1.185-2.722
School Moves (Past 5 Years)
Did Not Change Schools (Reference)
One**
Two or more**

0.568
0.867

0.199
0.185

1.764
2.380

1.195-2.605
1.656-3.419
Note: ** p < .01

Collectively the findings summarized underscore the complexity of the college choice
process and the relationship between the demands of military family life and respondents’ post-
secondary plans and aspirations. I will now highlight a series of key points.
College Plans
As previously mentioned, parental support and school support both appear to influence
students’ college plans, a finding that is consistent with prior literature examining the student
college choice process. What is unique in the current study is that the items used to measure
parental support offer a broader conceptualization of parental support rather than asking
specifically about parental support for college. More specifically, respondents were asked to
respond to questions like “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who believes that I
will be a success,” and “in my home, there is a parent or some other adult who always wants me
98
to do my best,” questions that do not disadvantage students from lower SES households who
may lack the cultural and/or social capital that middle and high SES households are able to
leverage, including cultural knowledge respective to the college choice process and access to
information via relationships with higher SES peers and parents.
Desire to Join the Military and Likelihood to Report Dual Aspirations
Unlike college plans, military-connectedness, number of deployments, and number of
school moves did appear to influence respondents’ desire to join the military, even when
controlling for recent grades, grade level, race, and gender. Respondents with a sibling currently
serving in the military were significantly more likely to want to join the military. They were also
more likely to report dual plans and aspirations. Both findings appear to reinforce the importance
of sibling relationships mentioned in Chapter 2. It is also worth mentioning that when statistical
controls were applied, students with a parent currently serving in the military were not
significantly different from students with neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the
military, a finding that warrants additional research. The current study also found that
respondents who have experienced a family deployment were more likely to want to join the
military, controlling for recent grades, grade level, race, and gender, a finding that is similar to
those reported in Chapter 2. Moreover, it appears as though students who have experienced the
greatest number of deployments (two or more) were the most likely to report a strong desire to
join the military, a finding that once again may be surprising for some. As stated in Chapter 2,
while logically, one might assume that students who experienced a family deployment would be
less likely to want to join the military, it is possible that like the children of firefighters or police
officers, children who have had a family member deploy have embraced the warrior culture
associated with military service and view deployments as an honorable and courageous sacrifice.
99
Unlike military-connectedness, number of deployments, and number of school moves,
parental support and school support do not appear to influence students’ desire to join the
military or their likelihood to report dual plans and aspirations, a finding that is somewhat
surprising and suggests a need to revisit the applicability of existing college choice models and
their relationship to non-college alternatives, after all, joining the military is theoretically one of
many choices associated with the college choice process.
Recommendations
Findings from the current study have implications for both research and practice. For
example, findings from the current study suggest that practitioners who work with military-
connected students, including teachers and counselors, can and do play a vital role in motivating
students to attend college. Moreover, students from military families may be just as likely to
want to attend college as students from nonmilitary families but may require additional support,
particularly those that have experienced multiple family deployments and/or school moves. As
previously stated, deployments can place a significant strain on the non-deployed parent
(Huebner & Mancini, 2005; Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2012; Mansfield et al., 2010), which may in
turn affect their ability to provide the same level of support they might otherwise provide or that
two parents could provide. It is therefore critical that school staff have supports in place for those
who are experiencing or have experienced a family deployment. Multiple moves may also
contribute to gaps in school support (Anweiler, 2008; Bradshaw et al, 2010; Garner et al., 2013).
As such, it is critical that school staff be vigilant in their efforts to ease the transition of students
who are highly mobile, whether they are military-connected or nonmilitary connected. Schools
must also make a concentrated effort to reach out to these students early on and to direct students
and families to the resources and support they may need to fully integrate into the school.
100
Students who are better integrated may feel more comfortable seeking out resources as they
begin to consider their post-secondary plans.
Future Research
The current study utilized a sample of 2,811 secondary school students from the San
Diego region, a noted limitation. Future studies must look to replicate these findings using a
larger sample size. Future studies might also examine whether students who report dual plans
and aspirations are planning to attend college or join the military first as the order in which
students plan to attend college or join the military is important. As the literature suggests,
students who attend college while serving in the military, and or after they fulfill their military
service commitments, experience a number of challenges (Ackerman, DiRamio, & Mitchell,
2009; Black, Westwood, & Sorsdal, 2007; DiRamio Ackerman, & Mitchell, 2009). Future
studies must also examine the supports military-connected schools provide students and families
given the critical role schools play in shaping students’ college plans (Perna, 2006; Tierney &
Venegas, 2007, 2009).
34

Conclusion
The current study examined how military-connectedness, deployment, residential
mobility, and social support influence students’ post-secondary aspirations. Findings suggest that
while plans to attend college were not influenced by military-connectedness, number of
deployments, and number of school moves, desire to join the military was influenced by
military-connectedness, the number of deployments, and the number of school moves,
controlling for recent grades, grade level, race, and gender. Military-connectedness, number of
deployments, and number of school moves were also associated with the likelihood of reporting

34
Examined in Chapter Four
101
dual plans and aspirations, even when statistical controls were applied. Students with a sibling
currently serving in the military were more likely to express a desire to join the military,
reinforcing the importance of sibling relationships. Parental support and school support were
found to influence students’ college plans, but not their desire to join the military or likelihood to
report dual plans and aspirations, a finding that suggests a need to revisit the applicability of
existing college choice models and their relationship to non-college alternatives.
Recommendations for supporting students from military families were discussed and included
the need for ongoing deployment and transition support. Directions for future research were also
discussed, including the need for research examining the supports students receive in public
schools, a direction that will be explored further in the next chapter.

102
Chapter 4: Understanding the College and Career Supports Military-Connected Schools
Provide Students and Families
In Study 1 of this dissertation study I used data from the CHKS to compare the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of: (1) respondents with a parent currently serving in the
military, respondents with a sibling currently serving in the military, and respondents with
neither a parent nor a sibling currently serving in the military, (2) respondents who have
experienced the deployment of a family member in the past ten years, respondents who have
experienced multiple family deployments in the past ten years, and respondents who have not
had a family member deploy in the past ten years, and (3) respondents who have changed
schools once in the past five years due to a change in residence, respondents who have changed
schools two or more times in the past five years, and respondents who have not changed schools
in the past five years.
Overall, findings from study one suggest that there are significant differences in terms of
respondents’ desire to join the military and their likelihood of reporting dual plans/aspirations by
military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and number of school moves.
Respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military were more likely to want to
join the military, a finding that is consistent with prior research (Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn &
Klerman, 1999; Kleykamp, 2004; Segal & Segal, 2004). They were also more likely to report
dual plans and aspirations. Respondents who have experienced the deployment of a family
member or a school move were also more likely to want to join the military and to report dual
plans and aspirations. Plans to attend college, however, were relatively similar regardless of
military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and number of school moves, a finding
that suggests that students from military families are getting the deployment and transition
103
support they need to maintain high aspirations, which is notable given the disruptive effects both
have been shown to have on students’ educational experiences (Garner, Arnold, & Nunnery,
2014; Mmari et al., 2009). The source of this support (e.g., parents, school staff, and/or members
of the community, however, was less clear. Thus in Study 2 of this dissertation study I used data
from the CHKS to examine how supportive relationships with parents, educators, and
community members, influence students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, controlling for
gender, race/ethnicity, military connectedness, grades, grade level, number of deployments,
number of school moves, parental support, school support, and community support.
35

Overall, findings from Study 2 suggest that caring and supportive relationships with
parents and school staff both appear to influence respondents’ college plans. Caring and
supportive relationships with parents and school staff, however, did not appear to influence
respondents’ desire to join the military or likelihood to report dual plans and aspirations.
Alternatively, the number of deployments and number of school moves respondents’ experience
did appear to influence respondents’ desire to join the military and likelihood to report dual plans
and aspirations to attend college and join the military, as did having a sibling who is currently
serving in the military. There were also notable differences in responses depending on the gender
and race of the respondent. Recent grades were also found to significantly influence the
likelihood of reporting high aspirations to attend college and a strong desire to join the military.
Respondents who identified as female were significantly more likely than male
respondents to report high aspirations to attend college and significantly less likely to report a

35
Not all variables were included as covariates. Number of deployments, number of school
moves, parental support, school support, and community support, were only included as
covariates based on the results of a series of bivariate analyses conducted in Study 1 and 2 of this
dissertation study. Only those found to be significantly related to college plans, desire to join the
military, and dual plans and aspirations were included in the final set of analyses.
104
strong desire to join the military. Respondents who identified as Hispanic/Latino or mixed race
were significantly less likely than white respondents to report high aspirations to attend college,
while respondents who identified as American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or
Pacific Islander were significantly more likely than white respondents to report a strong desire to
join the military. They were also more likely than white respondents to report dual plans and
aspirations. Recent grades were found to significantly influence the likelihood of reporting high
aspirations to attend college and a strong desire to join the military such that respondents who
had earned mostly C’s and below in the past 12 months were significantly less likely than those
who had earned mostly A’s to report high aspirations to attend college. Alternatively,
respondents who had earned mostly C’s and below in the past 12 months were significantly more
likely to report a strong desire to join the military when compared to than those who had earned
mostly A’s. While Studies 1 and 2 give voice to the experiences of both military- and
nonmilitary connected children attending military-connected public schools, their post-secondary
plans and aspirations, and the socio-ecological factors associated with these plans and
aspirations, Study 3 offers a different viewpoint, that of school staff.
Research has consistently shown that access to high quality resources and information
about college is critical to students’ post-secondary decisions. Access to counselors, financial aid
information, academic preparation, exposure to university life, and opportunities to participate in
college preparation programs are critical to students’ plans to enroll in college (McDonough,
1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). Expanding on Studies 1 and 2, Study
3 provides an in-depth examination of the college and career supports provided to students and
families in three military-connected public school districts, all of which serve a high
concentration of students from historically underrepresented backgrounds. Moreover,
105
approximately 60 percent of children in two of the three districts qualified for free and reduced-
priced lunch during the 2012-2013 school year.
Prior Research
Though prior research on the college student choice process has focused largely on how
family background characteristics, academic preparation, and access to information about
college, including information about financial aid, influence students’ college choice decisions, a
growing body of research has focused on the importance of college counseling (e.g.,
McDonough, 1997, 2005). School counselors often play a prominent role in the college and
career advising process and how students from first-generation, low-income, and/or minority
families gain access to, interpret, and make use of information about college (Tierney &
Venegas, 2007, 2009). School counselors, however, face a growing number of barriers. Caseload
size is a significant problem, one that has been exacerbated within the current economic climate
(National Association for College Admissions Counselors, 2011). Demand for college and career
advising also continues to grow within today’s access-for-all environment (Perna et al., 2008).
College and career advising, however, is just one of many responsibilities falling under the
purview of school counselors, a fact that is often overlooked or not well understood by
stakeholders who work with and/or are served by school counselors, including students, families,
teachers, and administrators, many of whom have specific ideas and beliefs in regard to how
counselors spend and/or should be spending their time (Beesley, 2004; McDonough, 2005;
National Association for College Admissions Counselors, 2011; Perna et al., 2008).
The current study uses data obtained via informational interviews with district leaders,
site visits, participant observations, field memos, qualitative questionnaires, and district/school
documents to describe approaches to college and career advising in three military-connected
106
school districts, district and school expectations for students, application and enrollment trends,
and barriers to advising, outreach, and college participation. Recommendations for overcoming
barriers to advising, outreach, and college participation are provided, as are directions for future
research.
Overall Approach and Rationale
The current study utilizes a multi-phase, mixed-method design. Consistent with this
approach, data were collected both sequentially and concurrently with equal emphasis placed on
the various forms of data collected (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). As seen in Figure 4.1, the
first phase of data collection consisted of informational interviews with district leaders that
allowed me to gather targeted information related to the district’s overall approach and
philosophy toward college and career advising. District leaders also served as critical informants
(Creswell, 2007), allowing me to identify key stakeholders at each school site who could provide
additional insight into the college and career advising process. During the second phase of data
collection, I met with key stakeholders from each school site. I also visited school sites and
conducted participant observations (Yin, 2009). Field memos were compiled based on these
informational interviews, site visits, and participant observations. Qualitative questionnaire
protocols were also developed and piloted during phase two of the data collection process.
During phase three, questionnaire protocols were distributed to college and career advising staff.
District and school documents were collected from district leaders and college and career staff
during phases one and two of the data collection process, and were used to complement the
information provided by all stakeholders.

107
Figure 4.1
Approach to Data Collection

Rationale
Data collection for this study began in November of 2012 and continued through June of
2013. The data analysis process took an additional year to complete. The issue of time is
something I grappled with prior to selecting a mixed-method approach, as it is one of the more
notable challenges associated with conducting mixed-method research (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2011). A mixed-method design was nevertheless selected given the strengths associated with this
research methodology. Mixed-method research allows the researcher to answer different research
questions and provides a more comprehensive/elaborate account of phenomena. Mixed-method
research also allows the researcher to triangulate data points and findings, which can help
enhance the integrity of findings and offset some of the weakness associated with a specific
method (Bryman, 2006; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Greene, Caracelli & Graham, 1989). The
current study is guided by multiple research questions, and data for this study was collected
using a variety of techniques, each of which is associated with both strengths and weaknesses.
Interviews allow the researcher to obtain targeted information and insight into a phenomenon of
interest but can be biased for a number of reasons, including but not limited to the reflexivity of
the interviewee. Participant observations capture the day-to-day realities participants face and
108
provide a sense of context. It is, however, difficult to achieve broad coverage without multiple
observers (Yin, 2009). Questionnaires, a form of survey research, allow the researcher to collect
large amounts of data at once but can be limiting in terms of the level of detail respondents are
able to provide given space limitations. Despite these limitations, the data collected using the
methods described allowed me to triangulate data points and provide a more comprehensive
account of the college and career advising process. I further believed that I could offset some of
the weaknesses associated with a specific method by utilizing a mixed-method approach and that
the inclusion of multiple forms of data would enhance the integrity of the study’s findings and
their utility for practitioners and scholars. For these reasons, and in consultation with a larger
research team and academic advisors, I believed a mixed-method approach was justified.
Data Collection
As previously mentioned, data for this study were collected across multiple phases.
During the first phase of data collection, I conducted informational interviews with district
leaders. During the second phase of data collection, I visited school sites, met with key
stakeholders from each site, and conducted participant observations (Yin, 2009). Questionnaire
protocols were also developed during phase two. During phase three, protocols were distributed
to college and career advising staff. District and school documents were collected from district
leaders and college and career staff during phases one and two of the data collection process and
were used to complement the data provided by all stakeholders.
Informational Interviews
Informational interviews were conducted with district leaders using semi-structured
interview protocols (see Appendix E). Interviews provided insight into the district’s overall
approach and philosophy toward college and career advising. Interviewees also identified key
109
stakeholders at each school site who would be able to provide additional insight into the college
and career advising process. Each interview was scheduled for an hour.
Site Visits, Participant Observations, and Field Memos
Participant observations were conducted in conjunction with site visits and meetings with
college and career advising staff. Participant observations shed light on the day-to-day activities
of college and career counseling staff and increased the research team’s understanding of how
the district’s overall approach and philosophy toward college and career advising was being
implemented in schools. Participant observations were recorded as field notes, which were then
compiled into field memos (see Appendix F).
Qualitative Questionnaires
Qualitative questionnaire protocols were developed during the spring of 2013 and
broadly designed to answer the following questions: how is college and career advising
structured, what are expectations for students, do application and enrollment trends mirror these
expectations, what are the barriers and/or challenges associated with college and career advising,
outreach, and participation, and how do college and career advising staff recommend
overcoming these barriers? Graduate-level interns completing a field placement in a military-
connected school provided feedback on the questionnaire protocols during the piloting process,
as did a faculty member in school counseling. Higher education faculty and faculty with
expertise in military-connected schools also provided feedback. Adjustments were made to the
questionnaire based on the piloting process. Changes included removing questions, adding
questions, and altering questions mainly for the purpose of wording clarity. Final protocols
encompassed the following areas: the higher education resources schools provide or sponsor
(e.g., course/ program offerings, college information nights), the college advising process,
110
barriers faced, college application and enrollment trends, perceptions of military-connected
students and families, and recommendations for improving college access for military-connected
students (see Appendix A and B). Links to the questionnaire were emailed to college and career
staff in each district during the first few weeks of May. Follow up emails were sent toward the
end of May and into June. A total of 26 questionnaires were returned. Response rates for each
district and school are provided below. See Table 4.2 for respondent characteristics.
As seen in Table 4.1, college and career staff from six different high schools responded to
the questionnaire request. One respondent served multiple school sites. In terms of respondent
characteristics (see Table 4.2), the majority of respondents identified as female (n=16) and were
racially diverse, much like the schools they served (see Appendix G). They also had diverse
experiences in terms of prior occupations, yet had worked in a school setting for a minimum of
4.75 years when they completed the questionnaire and had a minimum of 3.75 years of
experience working in their current school. All but five had advanced degrees, one respondent
declined to state their highest degree earned. In terms of military-connectedness, many (n=12)
respondents reported that they themselves, a spouse, a parent, and/or a sibling had served or was
currently serving in the military. Six respondents indicated that some other family member had
served or was currently serving in the military.

111
Table 4.1
Response Rates
District School Response Rate
(School)
Response Rate
(District)
Northern Valley Unified High School District Jefferson High School 3/5 3/5
West Oak Union High School District John Adams High 3/7
10/23
Roosevelt High School 4/8
John F. Kennedy High School 2/7
Multisite 1/1
South Bay Unified School District Washington High School 5/10
12/20
Lincoln High 7/10
112
Table 4.2

Respondent Characteristics (n=26)

Role Gender Race Military
Affiliation
Highest
Level of
Education
Years of
Experience
Overall
Years of
Experience
in Current
School
Prior Occupation
College & Career
Counselor
Female White Father Masters 16 16 Career Counselor
Counselor Male Hispanic/
Latino
Other Masters 9.75 9.75 Disability Services and
Child Protective
Services
Counselor Female White Spouse Masters 17.75 9.75 Guidance
Technician
Counselor Female Hispanic/
Latino
-- Masters 21 13 Math
Instructor
Counselor -- -- -- Masters 13 5 Counselor for
Abused Children
Counselor Female White Father/
Sibling
Masters 9 6 Finance and Retail
Counselor Female White Father Bachelors 21.75 14.75 Finance
College & Career
Technician
-- -- -- Associates 20 3.75 --
JROTC Instructor/
Staff
Male Black/
African
American
Self Masters 10 8 Military

113
Table 4.2

Respondent Characteristics (continued)

Role Gender Race Military
Affiliation
Highest
Level of
Education
Years of
Experience
Overall
Years of
Experience
in Current
School
Prior Occupation
Counselor Female Hispanic/
Latino
Asian
American/
Pacific
Islander/
Hawaiian
Native
-- Masters 6.75 4.75 --
Counselor Female White Father Masters 8 7 Social Services
Counselor Female White Other Masters -- 7 --
JROTC Instructor/
Staff
Male Hispanic/
Latino
Self Associates 18 18 Military
Counselor Female Hispanic/
Latino
-- Masters 10 5 Program Coordinator
College & Career
Technician
Female -- -- Bachelors 12 4.75 History Teacher
JROTC Instructor/
Staff
Male White Self/
Sibling/
Father
Masters 4.75 4.75 Military
Counselor -- -- -- Masters 11 5.75 TriO Counselor
Parent Liaison Female Hispanic/
Latino
Other Masters 21 7 Instructional Assistant
and Program Specialist
(Special Education)

114
Table 4.2

Respondent Characteristics (continued)

Role Gender Race Military
Affiliation
Highest
Level of
Education
Years of
Experience
Overall
Years of
Experience
in Current
School
Prior Occupation
DLAC/ELAC
Coordinator
Male Hispanic/
Latino
Other Bachelors -- 15.5 Printing Services
Counselor Female Asian
American/
Pacific
Islander/
Hawaiian
Native
Father/
Sibling
Masters -- 15 Academic Advisor
Counselor Female Hispanic/
Latino
Other Masters 10 8 College Counselor,
Juvenile Justice
Advocate, Counseling
Trainee
DLAC/ELAC
Coordinator
Female Hispanic/
Latino
White
Father/
Spouse
Doctorate 16 5 Urban Planning
Parent Liaison Male Native
American/
Alaska
Native
Self/
Father
Masters 17 7 Sheriff, National Parks,
Peace Corps
Counselor -- -- -- Masters 6 6 Counselor/Teacher
Counselor Female Hispanic/
Latino
-- Masters 9.75 9.75 Credit Recovery
College & Career
Technician
Female Hispanic/
Latino
Spouse/
Other
-- 6 6 Customer Service
115
District and School Documents
Documents related to the college and career advising process were collected from district
leaders and college and career staff when available (e.g., event flyers for college and career
outreach events, student handbooks, event calendars, school accountability reports). District
leaders and college and career staff also referred me to district and school websites where
additional documents had been uploaded. Collectively, these documents were used to
complement interviews with district stakeholders and questionnaire responses provided by
college and career advising staff.
Data Analysis
Like the data collection process, the data analysis process encompasses multiple phases
(see Figure 4.2). During the first phase of data analysis, notes from informational interviews with
district leaders, site visits, and participant observations were compiled into field memos by
district (see Appendix E for sample memo). Memos were analyzed during the second phase of
analysis. Questionnaire data were analyzed in the third phase of analysis while district/school
documents were analyzed during the fourth and final phase. All data were analyzed using
qualitative description (Sandelowski, 2000) and categorical aggregation (Stake, 1995).
Qualitative description seeks to provide a robust summary of events or experiences utilizing
verbal and/or visual data. Researchers utilizing this approach stay close to the data and focus on
the surface of words, events, and experiences, arguing that, “language is a vehicle of
communication, not itself an interpretive structure that must be read,” (Sadelowski, 2000, p.
336). Though no form of description is without interpretation, qualitative description seeks to
provide “low-inference” interpretations that are “likely to result in consensus among
researchers,” (i.e., upon witnessing or hearing about an event or experience, most would agree
116
about the content of what occurred or was said) (Sadelowski, 2000, p. 335). Once all data were
analyzed, a second phase of data analysis commenced using categorical aggregation, an analytic
approach predicated on the search for correspondence and/or patterns of responses within and
across cases, recognizing that while there can be significance in a single occurrence, greater
significance may be associated with multiple occurrences (Stake, 1995).
Figure 4.2
Approach to Data Analysis

Findings

The current study used data obtained via informational interviews with district leaders,
site visits, participant observations, field memos, qualitative questionnaires, and district and
school documents to describe approaches to college and career advising in three military-
connected school districts, district and school expectations for students, application and
enrolment trends, and barriers to advising, outreach, and college participation. Recommendations
for overcoming barriers to advising, outreach, and college participation were also solicited.
Overall, findings suggest that there are a number of similarities between the districts in terms of
their approach to college and career advising and that expectations for students are high overall.
Students are applying to and enrolling in college, but significant barriers to advising, outreach,
and college participation remain, including the issue of caseload size.

117
Approach to College and Career Advising

There were a number of similarities between the districts included in the current study in
terms of their approach to college and career advising. Decisions about the overall approach and
structure of college and career advising were largely decided by district leaders and mapped on
to a four-year plan with noted milestones or activities designated for each grade level. Each of
the districts had also signed a memorandum of understanding with the local four-year university
that guaranteed admission to students who met certain criteria as part of their ongoing efforts to
increase college participation. Moreover, schools in each of the districts sponsored a number of
college and career outreach events (e.g., SAT/ACT workshops, college information nights,
college application workshops, financial aid information nights, college recruitment fairs,
campus tours/visits, and job shadow days). Despite these similarities, there was one significant
difference between the districts: the staff member or staff members responsible for college and
career advising.
The college and career counselor plays a central role in the college and career advising
process in the Northern Valley Unified High School District (Northern Valley). School
counselors are also involved in the process but in a supportive role, supporting the efforts of the
college and career counselor. In the South Bay Unified School District (South Bay Unified),
school counselors play a prominent role in the college and career advising process while the
college and career technician plays a more supportive role. JROTC instructors are also involved
in the college and career advising process, particularly for students from military families.
Responsibility for college and career advising is diffuse in the West Oak Union High School
District (West Oak Union). School counselors are involved in the process, as is a college and
career technician, though the latter’s time is divided between three schools. The district has also
118
started to include parent liaisons and bilingual coordinators in the college and career advising
process given recent demographic changes in the district.
Expectations for Students
Interviews with district representatives suggest that expectations for students are high
overall. According to the college and career counselor for Northern Valley, the district is “big on
promoting a college going culture,” and college enrollments are on the rise. This same counselor
however expects enrollments to decline in coming years due to the increasing cost of attending
college, or at the very least, more students will likely enroll in two-year institutions over four-
year institutions. The associate superintendent of South Bay Unified also has high expectations
for students and wants every student to say they can go to college, or that they are prepared to
enter a career. The associate superintendent, however, acknowledges that many students and
families perceive college is an unattainable goal given a history of limited college participation.
Similar to the data provided by the district leaders, a survey of college and career staff
suggests that expectations for students are high. According to respondents, schools expect all
(n=8) or the majority (n=13) of students to enroll in some form of post-secondary education
within 16 months of graduating (see Table 4.3). Expectations for military-connected students,
however, appear to be slightly lower with fewer respondents responding that schools expects all
(n=6) or the majority (n=8) of military-connected students to enroll in some form of post-
secondary education within 16 months of graduating. The number of respondents indicating that
the school expects only some (n=5) or a few (n=1) military-connected students to enroll in some
form of post-secondary education within 16 months of graduating is also higher when compared
to all students. As a follow up, respondents were asked about their own expectations for military-
connected students and overall, a large number of respondents (n=11) expected that the majority
119
of military-connected students would enroll in some form of post-secondary education within 16
months of graduating (see Table 4.4). Of those who responded that only some (n=4) or a few
(n=1), military-connected students would enroll in some form of post-secondary education
within 16 months of graduating, plans to enlist, financial concerns, and family reasons were
among the most endorsed reasons (see Table 4.5).
Table 4.3

College Expectations (School)

Which of the following best describes YOUR SCHOOL’s
college-going expectations for…
All The
Majority
Some Few

All Students: “We expect that ____ of our students will
enroll in some form of postsecondary education within
sixteen months of graduation.”

8

13

1

0
Military-Connected Students: “We expect that ____ of our
school’s military-connected students will enroll in some
form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of
graduation.”

6 8 5 1

Table 4.4

College Expectations (Respondent)

Which of the following best describes YOUR college-
going expectations for…
All The
Majority
Some Few

Military-Connected Students: “I expect that ____ of our
school’s military-connected students will enroll in some
form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of
graduation.”

6

11

4

1

120
Table 4.5
Reason and/or Reasons Some or Few Military-Connected Students Enroll within Sixteen Months
Not A Reason A Reason Main Reason
Student plans to enlist in the military. 1 2 2

Lack of information about college.

3

2

0

Financial concerns.

1

3

1

Family reasons.

1

4

0

Not academically prepared to enroll in
college.

4

1

0

Other

0

1

0

Application and Enrollment Trends
In terms of application trends, respondents estimate that approximately 60 percent of
seniors apply to college during their senior year (overall average). Estimates, however, vary
between a low of 20 percent and a high of 90 percent. District averages also vary slightly from a
low of 57 percent to a high of 66 percent. The average senior applies to 4.5 colleges/universities,
according to respondent estimates. These estimates, however, again vary, from a low of one to a
high of eight. District averages also vary slightly from a low of four to a high of six. Overall, a
large number of respondents (n=15) report that students are more likely to apply to a Cal-State
institution (see Table 4.6).
In terms of enrollment trends, respondents estimate that approximately 70.5 percent of
students will enroll in some form of post-secondary education within 16 months of graduating.
Estimates, however, again vary from a low of 40 percent to a high of 98 percent. District
averages also vary from a low of 61 percent to a high of 83 percent. Finally, despite prior
responses indicating that students are more likely to apply to a Cal-State institution, the majority
121
of respondents (n=12) report that students are more likely to enroll in a community college due
to financial concerns (n=19), family reasons (n=17), and/or plans to transfer (n=17) (see Table
4.7).
Table 4.6

Enrollment and Application Trends

UC CSU Private
College/
University
US
Service
Academy
Community
College
For-
Profit
College
Other

Students are more
likely to apply to a:

0

15

0

0

6

0

0
Students are more like
to enroll in a:

1 7 0 0 12 0 0

Table 4.7

Reason and/or Reasons for Enrolling in Two-Year College

Reason Not A Reason A Reason Main Reason

Most aligned with future career goals.

8

8

2

Student plans to transfer.

2

7

10

Student is not academically prepared to enroll
in college.

2

12

2

Lack of information about four-year college.

17

3

1

Financial concerns.

2

4

15

Family reasons.

4

10

7

Other

0

1

2

122
Barriers and Challenges
As referenced in the section on expectations, each of the districts appears to be grappling
with at least one significant barrier to advising, outreach, and college participation. In Northern
Valley, the economic downturn and rising cost of attendance was mentioned as a significant
barrier to college going. South Bay Unified is struggling to change the perceptions of students
and families in regard to college. In West Oak Union, staff members are struggling to address the
needs of a growing English language learner population. Caseload size, however, appeared to be
a common barrier to advising and outreach in each of the districts.
Eight respondents mentioned caseload size as a significant barrier to advising and
outreach efforts. One school counselor further commented that, “California has one of the
highest student-per-counselor ratios,” and that “another counselor [had] received a pink slip,”
meaning that the district had “lost 3 counselors in the last 3 years.” Another counselor further
commented that they “could be more effective if [they] had less students per counselor [and that]
sometimes the quality of [their] work is compromised for the quantity of work that needs to be
produced.” Eight respondents also mentioned lack of time as a significant barrier to advising and
outreach.
Limited cooperation between staff members was also mentioned as a barrier, as were
limited resources, financial or otherwise. Though mentioned less frequently, poor
communication with parents and limited parental involvement were mentioned by a parent
liaison in West Oak Union as a barrier to advising and outreach. My interview with the associate
superintendent of South Bay Unified suggests that this is also the case in that district. A school
counselor in West Oak Union further commented that,

123
“[their] population of students and parents have a great need due to low social economic
status, parents low education and/or language and cultural barriers, in addition to our
educational systemic issues such as high failure rates, closing the achievement gap of our
students, etc. Home and school collaboration can improve especially teachers
communicating with parents directly and providing parents with immediate feedback
regarding their childs progress in school. Academic support at home is also a barrier due
to parents having multiple jobs and/or language and educational barriers. As a counselor,
it is difficult to be able to reach the large amount of at-risk students. We have a high
number of students who have failing grades, therefore become credit deficient. With less
summer school options, credit recovery options our graduation rates are impacted, hence
our college completion rate. Again, this is the result of initial potential barriers.”

Time spent addressing mental health issues and/or disciplinary issues were not mentioned as a
barrier to advising and outreach explicitly, however, during my visits to schools, both seemed to
take up a significant portion of a counselor’s time. During a visit to John F. Kennedy High
School, a counselor had to cancel all of her meetings because a student had threatened to harm
him/herself. At Jefferson High School, an MSW intern reported that due to the number of
disciplinary issues counselors were being asked to deal with, he (the intern) was being asked to
take on some of these cases, leaving less time to focus on student programming.
When asked specifically about the barriers military-connected students face, high levels
of mobility was mentioned by six respondents as a significant barrier. According to one JROTC
instructor, military-connected student must navigate “state and local standards as [they] move
from one district to another and then they have to ‘catch up’ because they took Virginia history
and now they live in California and have to pass that state requirement.” The same instructor
further commented that moves impact military-connected students’ “ability to have mentors.
Teachers sometimes focus energy on those most likely to succeed and show a return on their
investment. A transient military student is sometimes ignored because there is no long-term
ROI.” One school counselor further mentioned how moves can also “impact on [military-
connected students] meeting college entrance requirements.” A college and career technician
124
mentioned that, “sometimes students are unwilling to start the college application process
because their family may be relocated or they apply to colleges where they ‘think’ their family
will be.” Three respondents mentioned deployment as a barrier, while caregiver responsibilities
at home and generational status were mentioned as barriers by at least one respondent. In regard
to the latter, one counselor elaborated that,
“this population as needing more services than a school can provide at times. Many of
these families need on-going support to navigate them through the college application,
financial aid process, etc. With caseloads of over 700 students, we try and promote a
college-going culture through classroom presentations and individual meetings with
students and parents, but I think this population needs much more intensive services than
we can provide.”

A college and career staff member for South Bay Unified also mentioned limited understanding
of military benefits as a barrier. “Sometimes students are unwilling to apply for scholarships
because they believe everything will be covered. Or they do not know how to access benefits,”
the staff member said. Finally, a college and career staff member in Northern Valley mentioned
parents as both a barrier and motivator:
“A lot of parents who are in the military are either very much for it as a possibility for
their student or dead set against it. I see more who are against it than for it. This is not to
say that they are not proud of what they do, they are, but know what a difficult life it is.
So for students who may want to go in to military a parent may act as a barrier. On the
other hand, there are families who have served for generations and the unspoken
understanding is that this is where student will end up.”

Recommendations for Increasing Access
College and career staff provided a number of recommendations for improving advising
and outreach efforts, as well as increasing access and participation for both military-connected
and nonmilitary connected students. The importance of early outreach and advising was stressed
in interviews with district personnel. Survey responses further indicated that money and
additional staff were needed to improve advising, outreach, and college participation. The
125
college and career counselor from Northern Valley also mentioned the need for “better
understanding for teachers on what I do and what my purpose is (from administration),” while a
college and career technician from South Bay Unified stated that improvements in technology
were needed. Finally, one school counselor from West Oak Union mentioned the need for a
policy mandate for school counselors.
In terms of military-connected students, the associated superintendent for South Bay
Unified acknowledged that the district needed to consider more targeted outreach to military
families. The college and career counselor for Northern Valley, a district that did not sponsor a
JROTC program, indicated that bringing a JROTC program to campus would provide a venue
for military families to seek out and feel supported by the school, however, there was no budget.
Survey respondents talked about the need for additional programming and support targeting
military families. One school counselor suggested “individual workshops tailored to their special
needs (i.e. moving) and how that affects the college admissions process and taking correct
courses, financial aid workshops for military dependents who receive college funds from GI Bill,
etc.” In this vein, another respondent suggested that districts and schools develop “materials that
are easy to follow, but geared specifically towards military families, local contacts for students of
military families, support groups speakers,” while another suggested that counselors should meet
with military-connected students more regularly or often. “Aligning movement with dates that
semesters end in various states so that students don't lose their credits, more collaboration with
schools so that schools know how the process of movement works and can support in the
transition,” was another recommendation. Finally, one JROTC instructor stated that,

126
“the JROTC's can be one vehicle for information as most of the senior instructors can
provide information about military-connected scholarships. However, the most important
factor is an in-place existing support network. This capacity had been historically ignored
by local school districts, not with malicious intent but just a fact of life when it comes to
serving the voting public.”

Discussion
Findings from this study draw attention to a number of key issues. First and foremost, the
issue of caseload size is mentioned by a number of counselors as a significant barrier to college
and career advising. This is not surprising, given that the issue of caseload size is being raised
nationally. While districts have done their best to address this barrier by including other staff
members in the college and career advising process, not enough is known about whether and/or
how these staff members are being trained to participate in the process. This is particularly
troubling given that access to high-quality counseling and advising is critical to students’ plans to
enroll in college (McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009).
Consequently, one key recommendation to emerge from this study is that districts and schools
need to provide professional development opportunities for staff members who are assigned
college and career advising duties. Moreover, efforts should also be made to investigate and
evaluate the quality and success of these professional development opportunities on practice.
While the issue of caseload size is notable, it was not the only issue to emerge from the
findings. Despite each district’s commitment and push to increase college participation, each
district was struggling to overcome a history of limited college participation. Given this
challenge, it is possible that staff members might benefit from professional development
opportunities specific to working with first-generation college students and families.
In terms of military-connected students, while expectations for students are high overall,
they are slightly lower for students from military families, which is troubling given the
127
importance of high expectations in shaping students’ college choice decisions. Moreover,
findings from Study 1 and 2 suggest that students from military families do want to attend
college, and at rates that are comparable to their civilian peers. Lower expectations, while minor,
could be detrimental and make a difference in terms of whether or not students who are planning
to attend college actually enroll. Finally, deployment and mobility were both noted as significant
barriers to college for children from military families.
Frequent moves are one of the most challenging and disruptive aspects of military family
life (Ender, 2006). They are also among the most consistent and enduring (Jagger & Lederer,
2014). Approximately every three years, active duty military personnel are issued permanent
change of station (PCS) orders. Per these orders, the service member and his or her family are
assigned to a new duty station or military installation. Given the frequency with which these
orders are issued, children from military families can expect to attend between six and nine
different schools prior to graduating, a figure that is three times that of the average nonmilitary
child (Buddin et al., 2001; Kitmitto et al., 2011; Military Child Education Coalition, 2012). For
students who attend public schools, each school transition is often compounded by differences in
school capacity to serve children from military families, academic standards, and school climate
(Esqueda, Astor & DePedro, 2013). Research has also shown that public school educators
struggle to connect and maintain relationships with children from military families, perhaps due
in part to their high mobility. As perpetual newcomers, children from military families might not
be receiving the resources and supports they need (Anweiler, 2008; Bradshaw et al., 2010).
The Interstate Compact addresses some of the inequities facing children from military
families as they transition between public schools and across state lines (Military Interstate
Children’s Compact Commission, 2013a). Prior to the Compact, issues related to enrollment,
128
placement, and eligibility were impeding student progress. Delays in the transfer of education
records left some students in limbo. Students were not receiving credit for courses they took
because there was no equivalent in their new school or having to repeat classes to graduate.
Worse yet, some students, those who transferred late into their senior year, were unable to
graduate because there wasn’t enough time to meet their new school’s graduation requirements.
Placement in certain programs like Advanced Placement courses weren’t always being honored
and students who moved mid-semester were sometimes prevented from participating in
extracurricular activities because they missed a sign-up deadline or tryout. These are just some
examples of the challenges children from military families faced prior to the development of the
Compact, challenges that when left unaddressed, resulted in very real consequences for students,
particularly those who are college bound and seeking admission into selective institutions. As of
January 2015, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have endorsed the Compact (Military
Interstate Children’s Compact Commission, 2013b). Implementation challenges, however,
remain, including a lack of awareness of the policy’s existence. Only one respondent in the
current study mentioned the Compact.
As previously mentioned, school counselors play a prominent role in the college and
career advising process and how students from first-generation, low-income, and/or minority
families gain access to, interpret, and make use of information about college (Perna, 2004;
Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). As a group, children from military families are largely first
generation. Moreover, many identify as racial-ethnic minorities. In the current study,
approximately 75 percent of children with a parent currently serving in the military and 80
percent of children with a sibling currently serving in the military identify as racial ethnic
minorities. Approximately 60 percent of children in two of my three sample districts qualified
129
for free and reduced-priced lunch during the 2012-2013 school year. It is, therefore, imperative
that despite their mobility, college and career advising staff make a concentrated effort to reach
out to these students early and often.
Concluding Thoughts
Expanding on the findings from Study 1 and 2 of this dissertation study, the current study
provided an overview of the college and career supports provided to students and families in
three military-connected public school districts. Findings suggest that there are a number of
similarities between the districts in terms of their approach to college and career advising. There
are, however, differences between the districts in terms of who is responsible for college and
career advising. While expectations for students are high overall, they are slightly lower for
students from military families. There are also significant barriers to college and career advising.
College and career advising staff, however, offer numerous recommendations for overcoming
these barriers, some of which are more feasible to implement than others. Issues related to
caseload size and mobility emerged as recurring themes and recommendations for addressing
these issues were provided. Moving forward, future research must investigate how districts and
schools can best address the challenges they are facing. Future research must also incorporate the
perspectives of students and families.

130
Chapter 5: Final Summaries and Recommendations
This multiple manuscript dissertation study utilized a multi-phase, mixed-method design.
In Study 1, I compared the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected and
nonmilitary connected children using data from the CHKS. In Study 2, I examined the socio-
ecological factors associated with said plans and aspirations for children from military-connected
and nonmilitary connected families. In Study 3, I examined the college and career supports
military-connected public schools provide students and families using a qualitative database
comprised of interviews with district leaders, field memos, questionnaire data, and school/district
documents.
Conceptually and theoretically, one of the main contributions of this dissertation study is
that it is one of the first to conceptualize children from military families as a unique and distinct
cultural group, one that is invisible in the education literature. The current study also differs
conceptually from prior studies in that it is one of the first to explore the notion of students
having dual plans or aspirations. Aside from these conceptual and theoretical contributions, the
current study addresses a notable gap in the higher education research literature, a literature base
that has largely ignored the pre-college and post-secondary experiences of children from military
families. The current study is also one of the first to examine the relationship between children’s
post-secondary plans and aspirations, the deployment of a family member, and residential
mobility. I will now summarize findings for each phase (or study) of this multiple manuscript
dissertation study. I will then highlight main findings for the study overall and discuss
recommendations for practitioners and future research based on these main findings.

131
Study 1: Comparing the Post-secondary Plans and Aspirations of Military-Connected and
Nonmilitary Connected Students Attending Military-Connected Public Schools
In Study 1 of this dissertation study I used data from the CHKS to compare the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of: (1) respondents with a parent currently serving in the
military, respondents with a sibling currently serving in the military, and respondents with
neither a parent or a sibling currently serving in the military, (2) respondents who have
experienced the deployment of a family member in the past ten years, respondents who have
experienced multiple family deployments in the past ten years, and respondents who have not
had a family member deploy in the past ten years, and finally (3) respondents who have changed
schools once in the past five years due to a change in residence, respondents who have changed
schools two or more times in the past five years, and respondents who have not changed schools
in the past five years.
I hypothesized that respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military
would report a greater desire to join the military when compared to those with neither a parent
nor a sibling currently serving in the military as prior research has consistently shown that
adolescents with a family history of military participation are more likely to join the military
(Faris, 1981, 1984; Kilburn & Klerman, 1999; Kleykamp, 2004; Segal & Segal, 2004). Plans to
attend college were also expected to differ such that respondents with a parent currently serving
in the military would report higher college aspirations than students with neither a parent nor a
sibling currently serving in the military, a hypothesis based on data obtained for students
attending DoDEA schools (Embler, 2010). Plans to attend college, desire to join the military, and
dual aspirations, were also expected to differ based on the number of family deployments a
respondent had experienced as a growing body of research has shown that children from military
132
families are not immune to the effects of a deployment (e.g., Barker & Berry, 2009; Cederbaum
et al., 2014; Chartrand et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2009; Cozza et al., 2010; Gilreath et al., 2014;
Gorman et al., 2010; Lincoln, Swift, & Shorteno-Fraser, 2008). Plans to attend college, desire to
join the military, and dual aspirations were also expected to differ based on the number of school
moves respondents reported.
Overall, findings from Study 1 suggest that there are significant differences in terms of
respondents’ desire to join the military and their likelihood of reporting dual plans and
aspirations by military-connectedness, number of family deployments, and number of school
moves. Respondents with a parent or sibling currently serving in the military were more likely to
want to join the military, a finding that is consistent with prior research and my initial
hypothesis. They were also more likely to report dual plans and aspirations. Respondents who
have experienced the deployment of a family member or a school move were also more likely to
want to join the military. They were also more likely to report dual plans/aspirations. Plans to
attend college, however, were relatively similar regardless of military-connectedness, number of
family deployments, and number of school moves, a finding that suggests that students from
military families are getting the deployment and transition support they need to maintain high
aspirations, which is notable given the disruptive effects both have been shown to have on
students’ educational experiences (Garner, Arnold, & Nunnery, 2014; Mmari et al., 2009). The
source of this support—parents, the school, and/or members of the community—however, was
less clear, and explored further in Study 2.

133
Study 2: Examining the Socio-Ecological Factors Associated with Plans to Attend College,
Desire to Join the Military, and Plans/Desire to Do Both for Students Attending Military-
Connected Public Schools
In Study 2 of this dissertation study I used data from the CHKS (n=2,811) to examine
how caring and supportive relationships with parents, educators, and community members,
influence students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations, controlling for gender, race/ethnicity,
military connectedness, grades, grade level, number of deployments, number of school moves,
parental support, school support, and community support. Not all variables were included as
covariates. Number of deployments, number of school moves, parental support, school support,
and community support, were only included as covariates based on the results of a series of
bivariate analyses conducted in Study 1 and 2 of this dissertation study. Only those found to be
significantly related to college plans, desire to join the military, and dual plans/aspirations were
included in the final set of analyses.
Given that prior research has consistently shown that parental expectations and support
are critical to students’ post-secondary plans, and that the expectations of and support from
school staff are also vital to students’ college choice decisions (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999;
Hossler & Stage, 1992; McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009),
parental support and school support were expected to be significantly related to students’ post-
secondary plans and aspirations. Community support was also expected to be significantly
related to students’ post-secondary plans and aspirations as prior research examining the factors
associated with military enlistment stress the importance of community influence on students’
post-secondary plans (Kleykamp, 2004), as do emerging theories of study on college choice
(Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009).
134
Overall, findings from Study 2 suggest that caring and supportive relationships with
parents and school staff both appear to influence respondents’ college plans. Caring and
supportive relationships with parents and school staff, however, did not appear to influence
respondents’ desire to join the military or likelihood to report dual plans/aspirations.
Alternatively, the number of deployments and number of school moves respondents experience
did appear to influence respondents’ desire to join the military and likelihood to report dual plans
and aspirations to attend college and join the military, as did having a sibling who is currently
serving in the military. There were also notable differences in responses depending on the gender
and race of the respondent. Recent grades were also found to significantly influence the
likelihood of reporting high aspirations to attend college and a strong desire to join the military.
Study 3: A Qualitative Approach to Understanding College and Career Support in
Military-Connected Public Schools
While Studies 1 and 2 of this dissertation study gave voice to the experiences of children
attending military-connected schools, their post-secondary plans and aspirations, and the factors
associated with these plans and aspirations, Study 3 offers a different viewpoint, that of school
staff. Research has consistently shown that access to high quality resources and information
about college are critical to students’ post-secondary choices. Access to counselors, financial aid
information, academic preparation, opportunities to participate in college preparation programs,
and exposure to university life are critical to students’ plans to enroll in college (McDonough,
1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007, 2009). Expanding on Studies 1 and 2 of this
dissertation study, Study 3 used data obtained from semi-structured interviews with district
stakeholders, school site visits, participant observations, field memos, qualitative questionnaires
completed by college and career staff, and district/school documents, including event flyers for
135
college and career outreach events, student handbooks, event calendars, district/school websites,
and school accountability reports, to describe approaches to college and career advising in three
military-connected school districts, district and school expectations for students, application and
enrollment trends, and barriers to advising, outreach, and college participation.
Overall, findings from Study 3 suggest that there are a number of similarities between the
three military-connected school districts examined in terms of their approach to college and
career advising. In each of the districts studied, district leaders largely made the decisions about
the overall approach and structure of college and career advising. Each of the districts was also
implementing a four-year plan approach with noted milestones or activities designated for each
grade level. Schools in each of the districts also sponsored a number of college and career
outreach events (e.g., SAT/ACT workshops, college information nights, college application
workshops, financial aid information nights, college recruitment fairs, campus tours/visits, and
job shadow days) and each of the districts had signed a memorandum of understanding with the
local four-year university guaranteeing admission to students who met certain criteria. There
were, however, differences between the districts, the most notable being the composition of their
college and career advising teams. In one district (Northern Valley), the college and career
counselor played a central role in the college and career advising process. School counselors
were also involved but played more of a supportive role. In another district (South Bay Unified),
school counselors played a prominent role in the college and career advising process while the
college and career technician played a more supportive role. JROTC instructors were also
involved in the college and career advising process. In the third and final district (West Oak
Union), responsibility for college and career advising was diffuse. School counselors were
involved in the process, as was a college and career technician, though her time was divided
136
between three schools. The district had also started to include parent liaisons and bilingual
coordinators in the college and career advising process due to recent demographic changes.
In terms of expectations for students, expectations were high overall, though slightly
lower for students from military families. Despite such expectations, and each of the district’s
commitment to increasing college participation, significant barriers to college and career
advising were found, including caseload size, which was mentioned frequently by college and
career staff, and a limited history of college participation. Mobility and deployment were
mentioned as specific barriers for children from military families. In light of these barriers,
college and career advising staff provided numerous recommendations for overcoming these
challenges, including early outreach to both students and families and the need for additional
resources and professional development.
Discussion of Main Findings
While the current study shed light on the various factors associated with the post-
secondary plans and aspirations of students from both military and nonmilitary families, and the
college and career supports military-connected public schools provide children and families, it is
important to highlight the following findings:
1. Children from military families were as likely as children from nonmilitary families to
want to attend college.
2. Deployment and school mobility did not appear to be related to students’ college plans, a
finding that suggests students are getting the deployment and transition support they need
to maintain high aspirations.
3. Students with a sibling currently serving in the military were the most likely to want to
join the military, as were those who have experienced two or more deployments and two
137
or more moves. They were also more likely to report dual plans and aspirations. Such
findings may be surprising for some, particularly those who are less familiar with military
culture. Nevertheless it is possible that like the children of firefighters or police officers,
children who have had a family member deploy multiple times have embraced the
warrior culture associated with military service and view deployments as an honorable
and courageous sacrifice. Multiple school moves may also be constructed in a positive
light.
4. Higher levels of parental support and school support were related to students’ likelihood
of reporting plans to attend college. There was, however, no significant relationship
between these scales and students’ desire to join the military or their likelihood of
reporting dual plans and aspirations, the latter of which is somewhat surprising and
suggests a need to revisit the applicability of existing college choice models and their
relationship to non-college alternatives. Joining the military is theoretically one of many
outcomes associated with the college choice process.
5. Approaches to college and career advising was similar for the military-connected school
districts included in this study yet their organizational structures varied based on the
composition and size of the student body being served.
6. Expectations for students were high overall in the military-connected schools included in
the current study. They were, however, slightly lower for children from military families.
7. Caseload size and a limited history of college participation were barriers to college and
career advising, outreach, and participation. Deployment and mobility were also
mentioned as barriers for children from military families. In response to these challenges
and barriers, district leaders and school staff members stressed the importance of early
138
outreach, targeted advising, and consistency. Districts also sought to increase their
capacity to provide college and career advising by assigning college and career advising
duties to additional staff members.
Recommendations
Overall findings from this dissertation study suggest that practitioners who work with
students from military families must not make assumptions about the post-secondary plans and
aspirations of students based on military-connectedness. While students from military families
were more likely to want to join the military when compared to students from nonmilitary
families, there were no significant differences in their plans to attend college. Findings further
suggest that practitioners must continue to make a concentrated effort to support students who
are experiencing or have experienced a deployment and/or a school move. While plans to attend
college were not statistically different based on the number of family deployments or school
moves a student experienced, there were subtle differences. As the literature suggests,
deployments can place a significant strain on the non-deployed parent (Huebner & Mancini,
2005; Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2012; Mansfield et al., 2010), which may affect his/her ability to
provide the same level of support he/she might otherwise provide or that two parents could
provide. It is therefore critical that school staff have supports in place for those who are
experiencing or have experienced a family deployment. It is also critical that school staff be
vigilant in their efforts to ease the transition of students who are highly mobile, whether they are
military-connected or not, as research has also shown that multiple moves may also contribute to
gaps in school support (Anweiler, 2008; Bradshaw et al, 2010; Garner et al., 2013). Practitioners
must also make a concentrated effort to reach out to highly mobile students early on and to direct
students and families to the resources and support they may need to fully integrate into the
139
school as students who are better integrated may feel more comfortable seeking out resources as
they begin to consider their post-secondary plans. Finally, it is imperative that practitioners
communicate high expectations for children from military families given that findings from this
dissertation study show that practitioners who work with military-connected students can and do
play a vital role in motivating students to attend college, a finding that is supported by the
empirical research literature (McDonough, 1997; 2005).
At the district/school level, findings from this dissertation study show that the issue of
caseload serves as a significant barrier to college and career advising, outreach, and participation,
a finding that was not surprising, given that issues of caseload size are being raised nationally
(National Association for College Admissions Counselors, 2011; Perna et al., 2008). While the
districts and schools included in this study appear to be doing their best to address this barrier by
including other staff members in the college and career advising process, not enough is known
about whether and/or how these staff members are being trained to participate in the process.
This is troubling given that access to high quality counseling and advising is critical to students’
plans to enroll in college (McDonough, 1997, 2005; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2007,
2009). As such, districts and schools need to provide professional development opportunities for
staff members who are assigned college and career advising duties. Efforts should also be made
to investigate and evaluate the quality and success of these professional development
opportunities.
Future Research
Future studies must look to replicate findings from this study using a larger and more
diverse sample. Future studies might also examine whether the relationships between post-
secondary plans and aspirations, military-connectedness, number of deployments, and number of
140
school moves differ based on the percentage of military-connected students enrolled in a school.
Regional differences might also be examined. More specifically, future research might want to
examine whether regional differences in educational attainment influences the relationships
between post-secondary aspirations, military-connectedness, number of deployments, and
number of school moves by region or state given that such factors or “policy contexts” have been
shown to influence students’ post-secondary aspirations (Perna, 2006). It is also important that
future studies examine whether students who report dual plans and aspirations are planning to
attend college or join the military first. The order in which students plan to attend college or join
the military is important as students who attend college while serving in the military, and/or after
they fulfill their military service commitments, experience a number of challenges (Ackerman et
al., 2009; Black et al., 2007; DiRamio et al., 2009) for which they must be prepared. Finally,
future research must investigate how districts and schools can best address the challenges they
are facing.
Concluding Thoughts
This dissertation study used quantitative and qualitative data to answer critical questions
about the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students attending military-connected public
schools. The current study also provided information about the college and career support(s)
military-connected public schools provide students and families, as well as barriers and
challenges related to college and career advising. Conceptually and theoretically, one of the main
contributions of this study is that it is one of the first to describe children from military families
as a unique and distinct cultural group, one that is invisible in the education literature. The
current study also differed conceptually from prior studies in that it is one of the first to examine
the notion of dual plans or aspirations. Aside from these conceptual and theoretical contributions,
141
the current study addressed a notable gap in the higher education research literature, a literature
base that has largely ignored the pre-college and post-secondary experiences of children from
military families.
Overall, findings suggest that children who attend military-connected public schools plan
to attend college; a sizeable amount also wants to join the military. Some plan to do both. While
the desire to join the military was found to vary by number of family deployments and number of
school moves, plans to attend college were relatively similar regardless of the number of family
deployments and/or school moves reported, a finding that appears to provide empirical support
for what military parents and advocates have been arguing for some time—military children are
resilient (Park, 2011). Findings also suggest that children are getting the deployment and
transition support they need to maintain high aspirations but increasing caseloads may threaten
their ability to do so in the future. As such, much work remains to be done to ensure the students
from both military and nonmilitary families are give the support they need to achieve their post-
secondary goals.

142
Bibliography
Ackerman, R.L., DiRamio, D., & Mitchell, R.L. (2009). Transitions: Combat veterans as college
students. In R.L. Ackerman, & D. DiRamio (Eds.), Creating a veteran-friendly campus:
Strategies for transition and success, New Directions for Student Services, Vol. 126 (pp.
5-14). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
American Council on Education. (2008). Serving those who serve: Higher education and
America’s veterans (Issue Brief). Washington, DC.
American Council on Education. (2009). From soldier to student: Easing the transition of
service members on campus. (Research Report No. 311931). Washington, DC: Cook &
Kim.
American Council on Education (2009). Military service members and veterans in higher
education: What the new GI Bill may mean for postsecondary institutions. (Research
Report No. 311930). Washington, DC: Radford.
American Council on Education. (2010). Service members in school: Military veterans’
experiences using the Post 9/11 GI Bill and pursuing postsecondary education. (Research
Report No. 312527). Washington, DC: Steele, Salcedo & Coley.
American Institutes for Research. (2011). Educational options and performance of military-
connected school districts research study: Final report. San Mateo, CA: Kitmitto,
Huberman, Blankenship, Hannan, Norris & Christensen.
American Institutes for Research. (2011). Military connection and student achievement: A look
at the performance of military-connected students in eight public school districts. San
Mateo, CA: Yin, Kimitto, Shkolnik, Hoshen, Hannan & Arellanes.
Anweiler, J. (2008). Tying the yellow ribbon: How school psychologists and educators can
support military families. Communique, 37, 18-19.
143
Astor, R. A., De Pedro, K. T., Gilreath, T. D., Esqueda, M. C., & Benbenishty, R. (2013). The
promotional role of school and community contexts for military students. Clinical child
and family psychology review, 16(3), 233-244.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014). College enrollment and work activity of 2013 high school
graduates [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/hsgec.
nr0.htm
Bachman, G., Freedman-Doan, P., & O’Malley, P.M. (2001). Should U.S. military recruiters
write off the college bound? Armed Forces & Society, 27(3), 461-76.
Barker, L. H., & Berry, K. D. (2009). Developmental issues impacting military families with
young children during single and multiple deployments. Military Medicine, 174(10),
1033–1040.
Beesley, D. (2004). Teachers' perceptions of school counselor effectiveness: Collaborating for
student success. Education, 125(2), 259.
Bergerson, A.A. (2009). College choice and access to college: Moving policy, research, and
practice to the 21
st
century. ASHE Higher Education Report (Vol. 35, No. 4). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Black, T., Westwood, M. J., & Sorsdal, M. N. (2007). From the front line to the front of the
class: Counseling students who are military veterans. In J.A. Lippincott and R.B.
Lippincott (Eds.), Special populations in college counseling: A handbook for mental
health professionals. Alexandra, VA: American Counseling Association.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J.G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and
research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). New York: Greenwood Press.
144
Bradshaw, C., Sudhinaraset, M., Mmaria, K., Blum, R. (2010). School transitions among military
adolescents: A qualitative study of stress and cooping. School Psychology Review, 39,
84-105.
Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: How is it done? Qualitative
Research, 6(1), 97-113.
Buddin, R., Gill, B.P., & Zimmer, R.W. (2001). Impact aid and the education of military
children. Santa Monica, CA: RAND National Defense Research Institute.
California Department of Education. (2014). Categorical programs. Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/fg/aa/ca/
Cederbaum, J.A., Gilreath, T.D., Benbenishty, R., Astor, R.A., Pineda, D., De Pedro, K.T.,
Esqueda, M., Atuel, H. (2014). Well-being and suicidal ideation of secondary school
students from military families. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(6), 672-677.
Chandra, A., Lara-Cinisomo, S., Jaycox, L. H., Tanielan, T., Burns, R. M., Ruder, T., & Han, B.
(2009). Children on the homefront: The experience of children from military families.
Pediatrics, 125(1), 16–25.
Chandra, A., Martin, L. T., Hawkins, S. A., & Richardson, A. (2010). The impact of parental
deployment on child social and emotional functioning: Perspectives of school staff.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(3), 218–223.
Chartrand, M. M., Frank, D. A., White, L. F., & Shope, T. R. (2008). Effect of parents’ wartime
deployment on the behavior of young children in military families. Journal of Pediatric
Adolescent Medicine, 162(11), 1009–1014.
Chartrand, M. M., & Seigel, B. (2007). At war in Iraq and Afghanistan: Children in US military
families. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 7(1), 1–2.
145
Coleman, J.S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of
Sociology, 94, 95-120.
Council of State Governments. (2010). Interstate Compact on Educational Opportunity for
Military Children promotional video [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.csg.org/
knowledgecenter/video/CSGMilitaryChildren.aspx
Cozza, S. J., Guimond, J. M., McKibben, J. B., Chun, R. S., Arata-Maiers, T. L., Schneider,
B.,… Ursano, R. J. (2010). Combat-injured service members and their families: The
relationship of child distress and spouse-perceived family distress and disruption. Journal
of Traumatic Stress, 1, 112–115.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Creswell, J.W., & Plano-Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research
(2
nd
edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Department of Defense Education Activity. (n.d.a). Military K–12 partners: A DoDEA
partnership program. Retrieved from http://www.militaryk12partners.dodea.edu/
index.cfm
Department of Defense Education Activity. (n.d.b). The DoDEA grant program. Retrieved from
http://www.dodea.edu/partnership/grants.cfm
Department of Defense Education Activity Data Center. (2009). DoDEA announces results of
the 2009 TerraNova assessment [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.dodea.
edu/newsroom/pressreleases/20090910.cfm
146
Department of Defense Education Activity Data Center. (2013). DoDEA 4th and 8th grade
students continue strong performance [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.
dodea.edu/newsroom/pressreleases/20131113.cfm
Department of Defense Education Activity Data Center. (2014a) DoDEA: Enrollment. Retrieved
from http://www.dodea.edu/datacenter/enrollment.cfm
Department of Defense Education Activity Data Center. (2014b). DoDEA announces 2014 SAT
results [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.dodea.edu/newsroom/pressreleases/
20141007.cfm
DePedro, K. M. T., Astor, R. A., Benbenishty, R., Estrada, J. N., Smith, G. D. J., & Esqueda, M.
C. (2011). The children of military service members: Challenges, supports, and future
educational research. Review of Educational Research, 81(4), 566-618.
DesJardins, S.L., & Toutkoushian, R.K. (2005). Are students really rational? The development of
rational thought and its application to student choice. In J.C. Smart (Ed.), Higher
Education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 20, pp. 191-240). Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
DiRamio, D., Ackerman, R., & Mitchell, R. L. (2008). From combat to campus: Voices of
student veterans. NASPA Journal, 45(1), 73-102.
Embler, S. (2010). DoDEA seniors’ postsecondary plans and scholarships [PDF Document].
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED529453.pdf
Ender, M. G. (2006). Voices from the backseat: Demands of growing up in military families. In
C. A. Castro, A. B. Adler, & T.W. Britt (Eds.), Military life: The psychology of serving in
peace and combat, Vol 3: The military family (pp. 138–166).Westport, CT: Praeger
Security International.
147
Esqueda, M. C., Astor, R. A., & De Pedro, K. (2012). A call to duty: Educational policy and
school reform addressing the needs of children from military families. Educational
Researcher, 41(2), 65-70.
Faris, J. H. (1981). The all-volunteer force: Recruitment from military families. Armed Forces &
Society, 7(4), 545-559.
Faris, J. H. (1984). Economic and noneconomic factors of personnel recruitment and retention in
the AVF. Armed Forces & Society, 10(2), 251-275.
Garner, J. K., Arnold, P. L., & Nunnery, J. (2014). Schoolwide Impact of Military-connected
Student Enrollment: Educators' Perceptions. Children & Schools, 36(1), 31-39.
Gilreath, T.D., Astor, R.A., Cederbaum, J.A., Atuel, H., Benbenishty, R. (2014). Prevalence and
correlates of victimization and weapon carrying among military- and nonmilitary-
connected youth in Southern California. Preventative Medicine, 60, 21-26.
Gorman, H., Eide, M., & Hisle-Gorman, E. (2010). Wartime military deployment and increased
pediatric mental and behavioral health complaints. Pediatrics, 126, 1058– 1066.
Greene, J.C., Caracelli, V.J., & Graham, W.F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework for
mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(93),
255-274.
Hossler, D., Schmit, J., & Vesper, N. (1999). Going to college: How social, economic, and
educational factors influence the decisions students make. Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Hossler, D., & Gallagher, K. S. (1987). Studying student college choice: A three-phase model
and the implications for policymakers. College and University, 62(3), 207-21.
148
Hossler, D., & Stage, F.K. (1992). Family and high school experience influences on the
postsecondary educational plans of ninth-grade students. American Educational Research
Journal, 29(2), 425-451.
Huebner, A. J., & Mancini, J. A. (2005). Adjustment among adolescents in military families
when a parent is deployed: A final report submitted to the Military Family Research
Institute and Department of Defense Quality of Life Office. Falls Church: Virginia Tech
Department of Human Development.
Jagger, J. C., & Lederer, S. (2014). Impact of Geographic Mobility on Military Children's Access
to Special Education Services. Children & Schools, 36(1), 15-22.
Kilburn, M.R., & Klerman, J.A. (1999). Enlistment decisions in the 1990s: Evidence from
individual-level data. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Coorperation.
Kleykamp, M. A. (2006). College, jobs, or the military? Enlistment during a time of war. Social
Science Quarterly, 87(2), 272-290.
Lara-Cinisomo, S., Chandra, A., Burns, R. M., Jaycox, L. H., Tanielian, T., Ruder, T., & Han, B.
(2012). A mixed-method approach to understanding the experiences of non-deployed
military caregivers. Maternal and child health journal, 16(2), 374-384.
Lester, P., Peterson, K., Reeves, J., Knauss, L., Glover, D., Mogil, C., . . . Beardslee, W. (2010).
The long war and parental combat deployment: Effects on military children and spouses.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(4), 310–320.
Lincoln, A., Swift, E., & Shorteno-Fraser, M. (2008). Psychological adjustment and treatment of
children and families with parents deployed in military combat. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 64(8), 984–992.
149
Lyle, D. S. (2006). Using military deployments and job assignments to estimate the effect of
parental absences and household relocations on children’s academic achievement.
Journal of Labor Economics, 24(2), 319–350.
MacDermid, S. M., Samper, R., Schwarz, R., Nishida, J., & Nyaronga, D. (2008). Understanding
and promoting resilience in military families. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.
Mansfield, A. J., Kaufman, J. S., Marshall, S. W., Gaynes, B. N., Morrissey, J. P., & Engel, C. C.
(2010). Deployment and the use of mental health services among U.S. army wives. New
England Journal of Medicine, 362(2), 101–109.
Manski, C.F., & Wise, D. (1983). College choice in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Univerity Press.
Mavor, A., & Sackett, P. (Eds.). (2003). Attitudes, aptitudes, and aspirations of american youth:
Implications for military recruitment. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
McDonough, P. (1997). Choosing colleges: How social class and schools structure opportunity.
Albany, NY: State Univerisy of New York Press.
McDonough, P. (2005). Counseling matters: Knowledge, assistance, and organizational
commitment in college preparation. In W.G. Tierney, Z.B. Corwin, & J.E. Colyar (Eds.),
Preparing for college: Nine elements of effective outreach (pp. 69-87). Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press.
Medway, F. J., Davis, K. E., Cafferty, T. P., Chappell, K. D., & O’Hearn, R. E. (1995). Family
disruption and adult attachment correlates of spouse and child reactions to separation and
reunion due to Operation Desert Storm. Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology, 14(2),
97–118.

150
Military Child Education Coalition. (2001). U.S. Army secondary education transition study:
Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Military Family Resource Center.
Military Child Education Coalition. (2012). Education of the military child in the 21
st
century:
Current dimensions of educational experiences for Army children [PDF Document].
Retrieved from http://www.militarychild.org/public/upload/images/EMC21FullReportJun
2012. pdf
Military Child Education Coalition. (2013). Month of the military child and educating the
educators [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.militarychild.org/news-and-
events/press-releases/month-of-the-military-child-and-educating-the-educators
Military Interstate Children’s Compact Commission. (2013a). Interstate compact on educational
opportunity for military children [PDF Document]. Retrieved from http://mic3.net/pages/
resources/documents/MIC3_QuadFold_web.pdf
Military Interstate Children’s Compact Commission. (2013b). Frequently asked questions.
Retrieved from http://mic3.net/pages/FAQ/faq_indexnew.aspx
Mmari, K., Roche, K., Sudhinaraset, M., & Blum, R. (2009). When a parent goes off to war:
Exploring the issues faced by adolescents and their families. Youth and Society, 40(4),
455–475.
National Association for College Admissions Counselors. (2011). State of college admissions,
2011. Washington, DC.
Old Dominion University. (2014). Graduate certificate in military child and families education.
Retrieved from https://www.odu.edu/education/programs/tcep/project/teams/academics/
certificate

151
Park, N. (2011). Military children and families: strengths and challenges during peace and war.
American Psychologist, 66(1), 65.
Paulsen, M. (1990). College choice: Understanding student enrollment behavior. ASHE-ERIC
Higher Education Report No. 6. Washington, DC: George Washington University,
School of Education and Human Development.
Perna, L.W. (2000). Differences in the decision to enroll in college among African Americans,
Hispanics, and Whites. Journal of Higher Education, 71(2), 117-141.
Perna, L.W. (2006). Studying college access and choice: A proposed conceptual model. In J.C.
Smart (Ed.), Higher education: A handbook of theory and research (Vol. 21, pp. 99-157).
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Springer.
Perna, L. W., Rowan-Kenyon, H. T., Thomas, S. L., Bell, A., Anderson, R., & Li, C. (2008). The
role of college counseling in shaping college opportunity: Variations across high schools.
The Review of Higher Education, 31(2), 131-159.
Perna, L.W., & Titus, M. (2005). The relationship between parental involvement as social capital
and college enrollment: An examination of racial/ethnic group differences. Journal of
Higher Education, 76(5), 485-518.
Richardson, A., Chandra, A., Martin, L., Setodji, C. M., Hallmark, B. W., Campbell, N. F.,…
Grady, P. (2011). Effects of soldiers’ deployment on children’s academic performance
and behavioral health. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corperation.
Sandelowski, M. (2000). Focus on research methods: Whatever happened to qualitative
description? Research in Nursing and Health, 23(4), 334-340.
Segal, D.R., & Segal, M.W. (2004). America’s military population. Population Bulletin, 59(4).

152
Smrekar, C., Guthrie, J. W., Owens, D. E., & Sims, P. G. (2001). March toward excellence:
School success and minority student achievement in Department of Defense schools: A
report to the National Education Goals Panel. Washington, DC: National Education
Goals Panel.
Stake, R.E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Strobino, J., & Salvaterra, M. (2000). School transitions among adolescent children of military
personnel: A strengths perspective. Children and Schools, 22(2), 95-107.
St. John, E.P., Chung, C.G., Musoba, G.G., & Simmons, A.B. (2004). Financial access: The
impact of state finance strategies. In E.P. St. John (Ed.), Public policy and college access:
Investigating the federal and state roles in equalizing postsecondary opportunity (pp.
109-130). New York: AMS Press.
St. John, E.P., Musoba, G.G., & Chung, C.G. (2004). Academic access: The impact of state
education policies. In E.P. St. John (Ed.), Public policy and college access: Investigating
the federal and state roles in equalizing postsecondary opportunity (pp. 131-152). New
York: AMS Press.
Tierney, W.G., & Venegas, K.M. (2007). The cultural ecology of financial aid decision making.
Readings on Equal Education, 22, 1-35.
Tierney, W.G., & Venegas, K.M. (2009). Finding money on the table: Information, financial aid,
and access to college. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(40), 363-388.
University of South Carolina. (n.d.). The graduate certificate for social work military members,
veterans, and military families. Retrieved from http://cosw.sc.edu/academic-program/
certificate-programs/military-and-families

153
University of Southern California. (2014). Military social work. Retrieved from http://msw.usc.
edu/academic/sub-concentration/military-social-work/
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2014a). Education and training. Retrieved from http://
www.benefits.va.gov/gibill/post911_gibill.asp
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2014b). Frequently asked questions: Post-9/11 GI Bill
Yellow Ribbon [PDF Document]. Retrieved from http://www.benefits.va.gov/gibill/docs/
factsheets/2012_Yellow_Ribbon_Student_FAQs.pdf
Weber, E. G., & Weber, D. K. (2005). Geographic relocation frequency, resilience, and military
adolescent behavior. Military Medicine, 170(7), 638–642.
WestEd. (2014a). Core module (key indicators, grades 7 & above). Retrieved from http://chks.
wested.org/administer/core
WestEd. (2014b). Supplemental series 2 – low cost supplemental modules. Retrieved from
http://chks.wested.org/administer/supplemental2#mil
WestEd. (2014b). Supplemental series 2 – low cost supplemental modules. Retrieved from
http://chks.wested.org/administer/supplemental2#res
White House. (2011). Strengthening our military families: Meeting America’s commitment [PDF
document]. Retrieved from http://www.defense.gov/home/features/2011/0111_
initiative/strengthening_our_military_january_2011.pdf
White House. (2012). AACTE, MCEC join Dr. Jill Biden to celebrate milestone for Joining
Forces commitment ‘Operation Educate the Educators’ [Press Release]. Retrieved from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/10/03/aacte-mcec-join-dr-jill-biden-
celebrate-milestone-joining-forces-commitm
154
Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4
th
edition). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.

155
Appendix A. Questionnaire Protocols for School Counselors, College and Career Staff, and
JROTC Instructors (Northern Valley Unified High School District & South Bay Unified
School District)
Q1 Name:
Q2 Role:
 Counselor
 College and Career Staff
 JROTC Instructor / Staff

Q3 Official Title:
Q4 Highest Degree Earned (please list full degree name, e.g. BA in Education):
Q5 Email Address:
Q6 School:
 Washington High School
 John Adams High School
 Jefferson High School
 Lincoln High School
 Roosevelt High School
 John F. Kennedy High School
 Assigned to Multiple School Sites

Q7 If you are assigned to multiple school sites, please list each school below:
Q8 Number of Students/Caseload Number (if applicable):
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected
Q9 Assignment (e.g., A-L, AVID Counselor, ELL Students A-G):
Q10 Please respond to the following questions regarding you experience working in schools:
Years Months
Years and months you have
been working at your current
school

Years and months you have
been working in a school

156
Q11 Prior Occupation and Years of Experience:
We would like to ask you a few questions about your current position.
Q12 Please describe the roles and responsibilities associated with your current position.
Q13 What are the barriers (if any) that prevent you from fulfilling these roles and
responsibilities?
Q14 What types of resources and/or supports do you believe are needed to ease or eliminate
these barriers?
We would like to ask you a few general questions about the higher education resources and
supports available to students at your school(s). Please respond to the best of your ability.
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q15 Describe the college advising process at your school by grade level.
Q16 Approximately what percentage of your time, annually, is spent on activities related to
college advising:
______ Time spent advising individual students or small groups of students
______ Researching scholarships
______ Writing letters of recommendation
______ Planning or attending college-related events (e.g., college recruitment fairs, financial aid
workshops, test preparation workshops)
______ Visiting classrooms to disseminate college and/or financial aid information
______ Other

Q17 If other, please describe:
Answer If Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is Selected
Q18 Which of the following college-related events, activities, and/or supports are offered at your
school (please mark all that apply):
 College Information Nights
 College Application Workshops
 Financial Aid Information Nights
 Financial Aid Workshops
 College Recruitment Fairs
 Campus Tours/Visits
 SAT/ACT Preparation Workshops
 Other
 Don't Know

157
Answer If Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is Selected
Q19 If other, please describe:
Answer If Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is Not Selected And School: Assigned to Multiple
School Sites Is Not Selected

Q20 Please describe the college-related events, activities, and/or supports your school offers. If
not offered leave blank.

When is the
event, activity,
and/or support
offered:
(1) Fall, (2)
Spring, or (3)
Both
How often is the
event, activity,
and/or support
offered during a
given semester:
(1) once (2)
twice, or (3)
three of more
times
On average, how
many students
attend/
participate:
(1) fewer than
20, (2) 20-35
students, (3) 36-
50 students, or
(4) more than 50
On average, how
many parents
attend/
participate:
(1) fewer than
20 parents, (2)
20-35 (3) 36-50,
or (4) more than
50 parents
College
Information
Nights

College
Application
Workshops

Financial Aid
Information
Nights

Financial Aid
Workshops

College
Recruitment
Fairs

Campus
Tours/Visits

SAT/ACT
Preparation
Workshops

Other

158
Answer If Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is Not Selected And School: Assigned to Multiple
School Sites Is Not Selected
Q21 If other, please describe:
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected
Q22 Approximately how many students participate in the following programs (please provide
your best estimates for both your student caseload the total number of students who participate
school wide)? If not offered, leave blank.
Your Students (#) School Wide (#)
Advanced Placement
International Baccalaureate
Career and Technical
Education/ROP

Upward Bound
TRiO Talent
Search/Educational Talent
Search

Simon Scholars
College Bound
JROTC
AVID

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q23 Has your school signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with any four-year college
that guarantees admission to students that graduate from your school?
 Yes
 No
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q24 If yes, please list the colleges and universities your school has signed a MOU with:
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q25 Is there a physical space on campus where students can go to access college information
and/or materials?
 Yes
 No
 Don't Know

159
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q26 If yes, where is this space located and what types of resources and/or support services are
available to students?
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q27 Which of the following best describes YOUR SCHOOL’s college-going expectations: We
expect that __________ of our students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education
within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is Selected

We would like to ask you a few general questions about your school’s college application
and enrollment trends. Please respond to the best of your ability.
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected And Role: JROTC Instructor / Staff Is
Not Selected
Q28 We would like to ask you a few general questions about your school’s college application
and enrollment trends. Please respond to the best of your ability.
______ Approximately what percentage of seniors at your school applies to college during their
senior year:
______ Approximately what percentage of students at your school enrolls in some form of
postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduating:

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q29 Approximately how many colleges/universities, on average, do students apply to during
their senior year (please provide your best estimates for both your student caseload the school
wide average)?
Estimate
Your Students
School Wide

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q30 In your experience, are students at your school more likely to APPLY to a UC, CSU,
Private College/University, US Service Academy (e.g., Annapolis, West Point, Air Force
160
Academy), Community College, For-Profit College (e.g., Kaplan, University of Phoenix,
DeVry), or Other (please mark only one).
 UC
 CSU
 Private College/University
 US Service Academy
 Community College
 For-Profit College
 Other
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q31 In your experience, are students at your school more likely to ENROLL in a UC, CSU,
Private College/University, US Service Academy, Community College, For-Profit College, or
Other (please mark only one).
 UC
 CSU
 Private College/University
 US Service Academy
 Community College
 For-Profit College
 Other
 Don't Know

161
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q32 If students at your school are more likely to apply to or enroll in a two-year institution,
please select the reason and/or reasons you believe contributed to such actions (mark all that
apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Most aligned with
future career goals
  
Student plans to
transfer
  
Student is not
academically
prepared to enroll in a
four-year institution
  
Lack of information
about four-year
college options
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Other   

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q33 Comments:
One of the underlying goals of the Building Capacity project is to serve military children
using a data-driven model for responsive schools. The following questions are thus specific
to military-connected students and families.
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q34 To your knowledge:
______ what percentage of students at your school has a parent serving in the military?
______ what percentage of students at your school has a sibling serving in the military?

Q35 To your knowledge, how many of YOUR students (i.e., students in your class or caseload)
are military-connected (#):
Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q36 Which of the following best describes YOUR SCHOOL’s college-going expectations for
military-connected students (defined as a student with a parent and/or sibling serving in the
162
military): We expect that __________ of our school’s military-connected students will
enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If School: Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q37 Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going expectations for military-
connected students: I expect that __________ of our school’s military-connected students will
enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

163
Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Selected
Q38 Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going expectations for military-
connected students: I expect that __________ of my military-connected students will enroll
in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR... Few Is Selected
Q39 Please select the reason and/or reasons you believe only some or few of your school’s
military-connected students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen
months of graduation (mark all that apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Student plans to
enlist in the military
  
Lack of information
about college
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Not academically
prepared to enroll in
college
  
Other   

164
Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Few Is Selected
Q40 Please select the reason and/or reasons you believe only some or few of your school’s
military-connected students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen
months of graduation (mark all that apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Student plans to
enlist in the military
  
Lack of information
about college
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Not academically
prepared to enroll in
college
  
Other   

Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going ... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going ... Few Is Selected
Q41 Comments:
Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Few Is Selected
Q42 Comments:
Q43 Have you or someone in your family served in the military (mark all that apply)?
 Self
 Mother
 Father
 Spouse
 Sibling
 Child
 Other

Q44 Please describe the unique experiences, skills, strengths and abilities you believe military-
connected students possess that will enable them to be successful in college.
Q45 Please describe any barriers to college military-connected students face.

165
Q46 What recommendations do you have to facilitate college going among military-connected
students?
Q47 The Building Capacity project is interested in developing a list of frequently asked
questions and answers for military-connected students and families respective to college and
financial aid. Please list any frequently asked questions below.
Q48 The Building Capacity project is interested in speaking with military-connected students
and families in the future. Would you be willing to share this request with or refer military-
connected students at a later date?
 Yes
 No

Q49 Is there anything else you would like to share about your experiences working with
military-connected students that are specific to higher education?
Before we conclude, we kindly ask that you respond to the following demographic
questions:
Q50 Were you a first generation college student?
 Yes
 No
 Decline to State

Q51 Race/Ethnicity (mark all that apply):
 White
 Black/African American
 Hispanic/Latino
 Asian American/Pacific Islander/Hawaiian Native
 Native American/Alaskan Native
 Other
 Decline to State

Q52 Sex/Gender:
 Male
 Female
 Transgendered
 Decline to State

166
We thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. As a reminder, you may be
contacted to clarify your responses. In the meantime, please feel free to email
mesqueda@usc.edu with any questions or concerns as she is overseeing this effort. To
submit your final answers, select the forward arrows below.

167
Appendix B. Questionnaire Protocols for School Counselors, College and Career Staff,
Parent Liaisons, Bilingual Coordinators, and DELAC/ELAC (West Oak Union High
School District)
Q1 Name:
Q2 Role:
 Counselor
 College and Career Staff
 DELAC/ELAC Coordinator
 JROTC Instructor / Staff
 Parent Liaison

Q3 Official Title:
Q4 Highest Degree Earned (please list full degree name, e.g. BA in Education):
Q5 Email Address:
Q6 School:
 Hoover High School
 Washington High School
 Reagan High School
 John Adams High School
 Jefferson High School
 Lincoln High School
 Roosevelt High School
 John F. Kennedy High School
 Taft High School
 Assigned to Multiple School Sites

Q7 If you are assigned to multiple school sites, please list each school below:
Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Not Selected
Q8 Number of Students/Caseload Number (if applicable):
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected And School: Hoover High School Is Not Selected
Q9 Assignment (e.g., A-L, AVID Counselor, ELL Students A-G):

168
Q10 Please respond to the following questions regarding you experience working in schools:
Years Months
Years and months you have
been working at your current
school

Years and months you have
been working in a school

Q11 Prior Occupation and Years of Experience:
We would like to ask you a few questions about your current position.
Q12 Please describe the roles and responsibilities associated with your current position.
Q13 What are the barriers (if any) that prevent you from fulfilling these roles and
responsibilities?
Q14 What types of resources and/or supports do you believe are needed to ease or eliminate
these barriers?
Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Not Selected
Q15 We would like to ask you a few general questions about the higher education resources and
supports available to students at your school(s). Please respond to the best of your ability.
Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Selected
Q16 We would like to ask you a few general questions about the higher education resources and
supports Hoover High School will make available to students. Please respond to the best of your
ability.
If We would like to ask you a ... Is Displayed, Then Skip To Which of the following college-
relate...

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q17 Describe the college advising process at your school by grade level.

169
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected Or Role: College and Career Staff Is Selected
Q18 Approximately what percentage of your time, annually, is spent on activities related to
college advising:
______ Time spent advising individual students or small groups of students
______ Researching scholarships
______ Writing letters of recommendation
______ Planning or attending college-related events (e.g., college recruitment fairs, financial aid
workshops, test preparation workshops)
______ Visiting classrooms to disseminate college and/or financial aid information
______ Other

Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected Or Role: College and Career Staff Is Selected
Q19 If other, please describe:
Answer If Role: DELAC/ELAC Coordinator Is Selected Or Role: Parent Liaison Is Selected
Q20 Which of the following college-related events, activities, and/or supports are offered at your
school (please mark all that apply):
 College Information Nights
 College Application Workshops
 Financial Aid Information Nights
 Financial Aid Workshops
 College Recruitment Fairs
 Campus Tours/Visits
 SAT/ACT Preparation Workshops
 Other
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Selected
Q21 Which of the following college-related events, activities, and/or supports will be offered at
your school (please mark all that apply):
 College Information Nights
 College Application Workshops
 Financial Aid Information Nights
 Financial Aid Workshops
 College Recruitment Fairs
 Campus Tours/Visits
 SAT/ACT Preparation Workshops
 Other
 Don't Know

170
Answer If Role: DELAC/ELAC Coordinator Is Selected Or Role: Parent Liaison Is Selected
Q22 If other, please describe:
Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Selected
Q23 If other, please describe:
If If other, please describe: Is Displayed, Then Skip To Which of the follow programs will De ...

Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected
Q24 Please describe the college-related events, activities, and/or supports your school offers. If
not offered leave blank.

When is the
event, activity,
and/or support
offered:
(1) Fall, (2)
Spring, or (3)
Both
How often is the
event, activity,
and/or support
offered during a
given semester:
(1) once (2)
twice, or (3)
three of more
times
On average, how
many students
attend/
participate:
(1) fewer than
20, (2) 20-35
students, (3) 36-
50 students, or
(4) more than 50
On average, how
many parents
attend/
participate:
(1) fewer than
20 parents, (2)
20-35 (3) 36-50,
or (4) more than
50 parents
College
Information
Nights

College
Application
Workshops

Financial Aid
Information
Nights

Financial Aid
Workshops

College
Recruitment
Fairs

Campus
Tours/Visits

SAT/ACT
Preparation
Workshops

Other

171
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected
Q25 If other, please describe:
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected
Q26 Approximately how many students participate in the following programs (please provide
your best estimates for both your student caseload the total number of students who participate
school wide)? If not offered, leave blank.
Your Students (#) School Wide (#)
Advanced Placement
International Baccalaureate
Career and Technical
Education/ROP

Upward Bound
TRiO Talent
Search/Educational Talent
Search

Simon Scholars
College Bound
JROTC
AVID

Answer If School: Hoover High School Is Selected
Q27 Which of the following programs will Hoover High School host/offer (mark all that apply)?
 Advanced Placement
 International Baccalaureate
 Career and Technical Education/ROP
 Upward Bound
 TRiO Talent Search/Educational Talent Search
 Simon Scholars
 College Bound
 JROTC
 AVID

172
Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q28 Has your school signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with any four-year college
that guarantees admission to students that graduate from your school?
 Yes
 No
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q29 If yes, please list the colleges and universities your school has signed a MOU with:
Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q30 Is there a physical space on campus where students can go to access college information
and/or materials?
 Yes
 No
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q31 If yes, where is this space located and what types of resources and/or support services are
available to students?
Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q32 Which of the following best describes YOUR SCHOOL’s college-going expectations: We
expect that __________ of our students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education
within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If Role: DELAC/ELAC Coordinator Is Selected Or Role: Parent Liaison Is Selected
Q33 We would like to ask you a few general questions about your school’s college application
and enrollment trends. Please respond to the best of your ability.

173
Answer If Role: Counselor Is Selected And School: Hoover High School Is Not Selected
Q34 We would like to ask you a few general questions about your school’s college application
and enrollment trends. Please respond to the best of your ability.
______ Approximately what percentage of seniors at your school applies to college during their
senior year:
______ Approximately what percentage of students at your school enrolls in some form of
postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduating:

Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q35 Approximately how many colleges/universities, on average, do students apply to during
their senior year (please provide your best estimates for both your student caseload the school
wide average)?
Estimate
Your Students
School Wide

Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q36 In your experience, are students at your school more likely to APPLY to a UC, CSU,
Private College/University, US Service Academy (e.g., Annapolis, West Point, Air Force
Academy), Community College, For-Profit College (e.g., Kaplan, University of Phoenix,
DeVry), or Other (please mark only one).
 UC
 CSU
 Private College/University
 US Service Academy
 Community College
 For-Profit College
 Other
 Don't Know

174
Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q37 In your experience, are students at your school more likely to ENROLL in a UC, CSU,
Private College/University, US Service Academy, Community College, For-Profit College, or
Other (please mark only one).
 UC
 CSU
 Private College/University
 US Service Academy
 Community College
 For-Profit College
 Other
 Don't Know

Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q38 If students at your school are more likely to apply to or enroll in a two-year institution,
please select the reason and/or reasons you believe contributed to such actions (mark all that
apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Most aligned with
future career goals
  
Student plans to
transfer
  
Student is not
academically
prepared to enroll in a
four-year institution
  
Lack of information
about four-year
college options
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Other   

175
Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q39 Comments:
One of the underlying goals of the Building Capacity project is to serve military children
using a data-driven model for responsive schools. The following questions are thus specific
to military-connected students and families.
Answer If School: Reagan High School Is Selected Or School: John Adams High School Is
Selected Or School: Roosevelt High School Is Selected Or School: John F. Kennedy High
School Is Selected Or School: Taft High School Is Selected
Q40 To your knowledge:
______ what percentage of students at your school has a parent serving in the military?
______ what percentage of students at your school has a sibling serving in the military?

Q41 To your knowledge, how many of YOUR students (i.e., students in your class or caseload)
are military-connected (#):
Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q42 Which of the following best describes YOUR SCHOOL’s college-going expectations for
military-connected students (defined as a student with a parent and/or sibling serving in the
176
military): We expect that __________ of our school’s military-connected students will
enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Not Selected
Q43 Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going expectations for military-
connected students: I expect that __________ of our school’s military-connected students will
enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If School: Assigned to Multiple School Sites Is Selected
Q44 Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going expectations for military-
connected students (defined as a student with a parent and/or sibling serving in the
177
military): I expect that __________ of my military-connected students will enroll in some
form of postsecondary education within sixteen months of graduation.
 All
 The Majority
 Some
 Few

Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR... Few Is Selected
Q45 Please select the reason and/or reasons you believe only some or few of your school’s
military-connected students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen
months of graduation (mark all that apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Student plans to
enlist in the military
  
Lack of information
about college
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Not academically
prepared to enroll in
college
  
Other   

178
Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Few Is Selected
Q46 Please select the reason and/or reasons you believe only some or few of your school’s
military-connected students will enroll in some form of postsecondary education within sixteen
months of graduation (mark all that apply) and the main reason or reasons (mark all that apply)
Not a Reason A Reason Main Reason
Student plans to
enlist in the military
  
Lack of information
about college
  
Financial concerns   
Family reasons   
Not academically
prepared to enroll in
college
  
Other   

Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going ... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going ... Few Is Selected
Q47 Comments:
Answer If Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Some Is Selected Or
Which of the following best describes YOUR college-going... Few Is Selected
Q48 Comments:
Q49 Have you or someone in your family served in the military (mark all that apply)?
 Self
 Mother
 Father
 Spouse
 Sibling
 Child
 Other

Q50 Please describe the unique experiences, skills, strengths and abilities you believe military-
connected students possess that will enable them to be successful in college.
Q51 Please describe any barriers to college military-connected students face.

179
Q52 What recommendations do you have to facilitate college going among military-connected
students?
The Building Capacity project is interested in developing a list of frequently asked
questions and answers for military-connected students and families respective to college
and financial aid. Please list any frequently asked questions below.
Q53 The Building Capacity project is interested in speaking with military-connected students
and families in the future. Would you be willing to share this request with or refer military-
connected students at a later date?
 Yes
 No

Q54 Is there anything else you would like to share about your experiences working with
military-connected students that are specific to higher education?
Before we conclude, we kindly ask that you respond to the following demographic
questions:
Q55 Were you a first generation college student?
 Yes
 No
 Decline to State

Q56 Race/Ethnicity (mark all that apply):
 White
 Black/African American
 Hispanic/Latino
 Asian American/Pacific Islander/Hawaiian Native
 Native American/Alaskan Native
 Other
 Decline to State

Q57 Sex/Gender:
 Male
 Female
 Transgendered
 Decline to State

180
We thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. As a reminder, you may be
contacted to clarify your responses. In the meantime, please feel free to email
mesqueda@usc.edu with any questions or concerns as she is overseeing this effort. To
submit your final answers, select the forward arrows below.

181
Appendix C
Number of Deployments (Past 10 Years) by Military-Connectedness (Current)

Military-
Connectedness
(Current)
No. of Deployments
(Past 10 Years)


2

df None One Two
No Parent/Sibling 1359 (82.0) 126 (7.6) 173 (10.4) 632.1** 4
Parent 38 (13.9) 48 (17.6) 187 (68.5)
Sibling 42 (40.4) 24 (23.1) 38 (36.5)
Note: p < .01. Percentage values (within military-connectedness) appear in
parentheses.

182
Appendix D
School Moves (Past 5 Years) by Military-Connectedness (Current)

Military-
Connectedness
(Current)
No. of School Moves
(Past 5 Years)


2

df
Did Not Change
Schools

One

Two
No Parent/Sibling 1245 (65.0) 323 (16.9) 346 (18.1) 160.4** 4
Parent 84 (28.4) 76 (25.7) 136 (45.9)
Sibling 68 (57.1) 25 (21.0) 26 (21.8)
Note: p < .01. Percentage values (within military-connectedness) appear in parentheses.

183
Appendix E. Interview Protocols

Date:
Time:
Location:
Participants:

Tell me about your role.

Tell me more about the
district’s expectations for
students as they relate to
college?

What has the district done to
help students meet these
expectations?

What seems to be working?

What doesn’t seem to be
working?

What are some areas of need?

Anything else you would like
to add?

184
Appendix F. Sample Field Memo (Jefferson High School)

The college and career counselor plays a prominent role in the advising process, directing
many of the school’s advising and outreach activities. Her responsibilities are vast. She conducts
career assessments, hosts bi-monthly guest speakers, and works with the local military
installation to organize job shadow days for students. She also maintains the school’s scholarship
database, writes letters of recommendation in support of students’ college applications and/or
scholarship applications, coordinates financial aid workshops, organizes college tours, hosts
college representatives, visits classrooms to discuss students’ college and career goals, and works
with student athletes to ensure that they understand and comply with NCAA rules and
regulations. Aside from these activities, the college and career counselor is also responsible for
issuing work permits to students and certifying volunteer hours for the purpose of graduation.
School counselors appear to support the efforts of the college and career counselor and in fact
she mentions them and their contributions frequently. Like the college and career counselor,
school counselors visit classrooms to discuss students’ college and career goals. They also write
letters of recommendation. Their primary contribution to the college and career advising process,
however, appears to be helping students select classes and ensuring that college bound students
meet the state’s A-G requirements. What is not clear is whether this allocation of responsibilities
is intentional or circumstantial.
The college and career counselor has worked and the school for more the fifteen years.
Both the Superintendent and Principal view her as the go to person when it comes to college and
career advising. Her colleagues in the counseling department appear to view her in a similar light
and thus seem to defer to her when it comes to college and career advising. While it is plausible
to assume that they defer to her given the number of years she has worked as the college and
185
career counselor and the depth of her knowledge, it is equally possible that the counseling staff
defer to her because they are overwhelmed by other responsibilities. During my time at the
school, it appeared as though the counselors spent most of their day dealing with disciplinary
issues, an observation that was seemingly verified by an MSW intern who was completing his
field placement at Jefferson High. Though he was assigned to the school to work with military-
connected students, he was rarely able to work with these students and was instead asked to
assist the counselors in dealing with disciplinary issues and at-risk students. Immigration issues
were also mentioned by one of the counselors as a time consuming demand, but one that he was
passionate about as the son of immigrants. This same counselor also mentioned how recent
budget cuts were adversely affecting counseling staff such that they were being asked to take on
greater caseloads year after year.
Given the time demands placed on school counseling, it is not surprising that they seem
to be deferring to the college and career counselor. What is troubling, however, is that she is only
one person and the school serves thousands of students. It does not seem feasible that she would
be able to provide equal amounts of support to all students, something the school seems to have
realized. During one of our conversations, the college and career advisor mentioned that
instructors in the AVID program had taken on some of the responsibilities associated with
college and career advising in recent years. She also mentioned that the counseling department
was trying to work more closely with teachers in the school so that they, the teachers, could play
a more active and informed role in the advising process. Finally, she mentioned the school’s
efforts to embed aspects of college and career advising into Naviance, an online college and
career readiness program that counseling staff, students, and parents could access. The program
made it easier to share information related to college applications and scholarships.
186
Overall, the district appears to be doing all that they can to prepare students for life after
high school. They offer a tremendous amount of college and career programming and counseling
staff are doing what they can to help students achieve their college and career goals. Counseling
staff also appear to communicate high expectations for students whatever their goals may be.
There does however appear to be a slightly greater push towards students attending college. Case
in point, whenever I was asked to talk to students it was to discuss the importance of attending
college. The school has also signed a memorandum of understanding with a local CSU to ensure
that students who meet a series of requirements are guaranteed admission. Finally though the
college and career counselor was extremely proud of the fact that recent graduates were enrolling
in greater numbers, she did expect their numbers to decline in the coming years given recent
tuition increases and the still struggling economy. She also hypothesized that more students
would choose to enroll in community colleges as opposed to a CSU or UC due to cost.
Additional Observations
 The college and career counselor works out of the college and career center, a space that
is housed across the way from the counseling office. The spaces face one another and are
less than a minute’s walking distance.
 The school does not have a JROTC program because the budget does not allow for it. It
was however something the college and career counselor looked into because she thought
it would be a good way to provide additional support to students from military families.
Source of Observations
 Time spent with the college and career counselor in the college and career center;
 Time spent in meetings with school counselors;
 Time spent with an MSW student intern; and
187
 Time spent with a twelfth grade AVID instructor.

188
Appendix G

School Characteristics (2012-2013)

School
Name
No.
of
Students
Enrolled
%
Military-
Connected
(2010-11)
%
American
Indian,
Native
Hawaiian,
Pacific
Islander,
Alaska
Native
%
Asian
%
Filipino
%
Hispanic
or
Latino
%
Black
or
African
American
%
White
%
Mixed
Race
%
Not
Reported
%
FRPL
Jefferson
High School
2,496 11.4 2.0 1.2 1.4 56.1 1.8 35.5 2.0 0.9 56.5
Washington
High School
3,076 11.8 3.3 2.6 6.1 51.7 7.7 27.1 1.4 0.2 48.6
Lincoln
High
2,254 21.8 3.0 1.3 2.4 62.9 8.2 21.6 0.5 0.4 64.6
John Adams
High
2,645 7.9 0.7 2.5 2.9 68.5 3.4 21.7 0.3 0.1 63.2
Roosevelt
High School
2,181 8.1 0.7 2.5 2.1 79.5 2.2 12.7 0.2 0.1 83.2
John F.
Kennedy
High School
2,458 7.1 1.2 3.5 2.2 49.6 2.2 40.7 0.2 0.4 47.3

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Background/Context: The demands of military family life are great, especially within the context of war. Yet, because less than 1 percent of the population serves, the unique needs and circumstances facing the more than two million children from military families are often absent from our collective consciousness. In the past decade, public schools have increasingly been called upon to serve children from military families. Educational research, however, has not kept pace making it difficult for educators to adequately address the needs of this unique student population. ❧ Purpose: Despite the field’s ongoing commitment to understanding the educational experiences of students from underserved, first-generation, low-income, and/or minority backgrounds, research examining the educational experiences of children from military families, a group that is largely comprised of first generation, minority, and often times low income families who are underserved, is largely absent from the research literature. Consequently, educators know very little empirically about the experiences of children from military families within K-12 settings, and even less about their plans and aspirations beyond high school. The current study addresses this gap in the research literature and provides valuable insight into how practitioners, scholars, and policymakers can promote research and practice that empower military-connected children and families to realize their goals. ❧ Research Design: This multi-study, mixed-method study examines the relationship between students’ post-secondary aspirations, military service, socio-ecological support, deployment, and mobility. The current study also examines the college and career supports military-connected public schools provide students and families. ❧ Sample/Participants: In Study 1, I compare the post-secondary plans and aspirations of military-connected and nonmilitary connected children (n=2,811) using data from the California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS), a statewide survey of risk and resiliency. In Study 2, I examine the socio-ecological factors associated with said plans and aspirations for both military-connected and nonmilitary connected children (n=2,811), using data from the CHKS once again. In Study 3, I examine the college and career supports military-connected public schools provide students and families using a qualitative database comprised of interviews with district leaders (n=3), field memos, questionnaire responses (n=26), and school/district documents. ❧ Main Findings: The current study finds that children from military families are as likely as children from nonmilitary families to want to attend college. Deployment and school mobility also do not appear to be related to students’ college plans, a finding that suggests students are getting the deployment and transition support they need to maintain high aspirations. Students with a sibling currently serving in the military are the most likely to want to join the military, as are those who have experienced two or more deployments and/or two or more moves. These respondents are also more likely to report dual plans and aspirations. Higher levels of parental support and school support are related to students’ likelihood of reporting plans to attend college. There is, however, no significant relationship between parental and/or school support and students’ desire to join the military or likelihood of reporting dual plans and aspirations. In terms of college and career advising, the current study finds that approaches to college and career advising is similar for the military-connected school districts included in this study, yet organizational structures vary based on the composition and size of the student body being served. Expectations for students are high overall in the military-connected schools included in the current study, they are, however, slightly lower for children from military families. Caseload size, a limited history of college participation, deployment, and residential mobility are mentioned as barriers to college and career advising, outreach, and participation for children from military and nonmilitary families. In response to these challenges and barriers, district leaders and school staff members collectively stressed the importance of early outreach, targeted advising, and consistency. Districts are also increasing their capacity to provide college and career advising by assigning college and career advising duties to additional staff members. ❧ Recommendations: Overall findings from this dissertation study suggest that practitioners who work with students from military families cannot make assumptions about the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students based on military-connectedness. Findings further suggest that practitioners must continue to make a concentrated effort to support students who are experiencing or have experienced a deployment and/or a school move and to communicate high expectations for children. At the district/school level, while the districts and schools in this study are doing their best to address this barrier to college and career advising, outreach, and participation, by including additional staff members in the college and career advising process, not enough is known about whether and/or how these staff members are being trained to participate in these activities which is troubling given that access to high quality counseling and advising is critical to students’ plans to enroll in college. As such, districts and schools must to provide professional development opportunities for staff members that are assigned college and career advising duties. Efforts must also be made to investigate and evaluate the quality and success of these professional development opportunities. ❧ Concluding Thoughts: This dissertation study uses quantitative and qualitative data to answer critical questions about the post-secondary plans and aspirations of students attending military-connected public schools. The current study also provides information about the college and career support(s) military-connected public schools provide students and families. Conceptually and theoretically, one of the main contributions of this study is that it is one of the first to describe children from military families as a unique and distinct cultural group, one that is invisible in the education literature. The current study also differs conceptually from prior studies in that it is one of the first to examine the notion of students having dual plans or aspirations. Aside from these conceptual and theoretical contributions, the current study addresses a notable gap in the higher education research literature, a literature base that has largely ignored the pre-college and post-secondary experiences of children from military families.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The role of school climate in the mental health and victimization of students in military-connected schools

PDF

A case study of the academic and behavioral support provided to military-connected children in public schools

PDF

Program customization in a comprehensive college transition program for low-income students

PDF

Three essays on the high school to community college STEM pathway

PDF

Strategy and college participation: a comparative case study of two early college high schools

PDF

Big dreams: a multi-case examination of institutional support for DACA students in California community colleges

PDF

Designing college transition programs for low-income, first-generation commuter students

PDF

How college affects Latinas' STEM career decision-making process: a psychosociocultural approach

PDF

Part-time and time faculty conceptualizations of academic community: a case study

PDF

Racing? to transform colleges and universities: an institutional case study of race-related organizational change in higher education

PDF

University ready: examining the relationships between social capital and an online college access program

PDF

High-achieving yet underprepared: first generation youth and the challenge of college readiness

PDF

Exploring faculty-student interactions in a comprehensive college transition program for low-income and first-generation college students

PDF

How do non-tenure track faculty interact with Latino and Latina students in gatekeeper math courses at an urban community college?

PDF

Community college transfer student involvement experiences at a selective, private four-year university

PDF

The use of students funds of knowledge to increase college success among low-income and first-generation students

PDF

Whiteness: a narrative analysis on student affairs professionals, race, identity, and multicultural competency

PDF

Creating a supportive climate to facilitate the transition for veteran students at the University of Southern California: a gap analysis

PDF

Impact of culturally responsive education on college choice

PDF

Navigating the struggle: neoliberal meritocracy, Latinx charter school graduates, and the college transition

Asset Metadata

Creator Esqueda, Monica Christina (author)

Core Title A mixed method examination of available supports for secondary school students’ college and military aspirations

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/28/2015

Defense Date 01/13/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college access,college choice,military families,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Astor, Ron Avi (committee chair), Cole, Darnell G. (committee chair), Gilreath, Tamika D. (committee member), Kezar, Adrianna J. (committee member)

Creator Email mesqueda@usc.edu,monica.christina@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-566511

Unique identifier UC11299020

Identifier etd-EsquedaMon-3421.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-566511 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-EsquedaMon-3421.pdf

Dmrecord 566511

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Esqueda, Monica Christina

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA