Women, gaming and STEM majors: interest and motivation

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Content Running head: WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
1

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS: INTEREST AND MOTIVATION

by

Constance E. Lantz

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015

Copyright 2015 Constance E. Lantz
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey for accepting me into her
cohort and for all the wonderful advice and support she has given me. I count myself as
extremely fortunate to have had Dr. Robert Keim as my instructor and a member of my
dissertation committee. His great knowledge and brilliant teaching style made analyzing the
quantitative data much less daunting. I deeply appreciate the help and advice I have received
from Dr. Patrick Crispen as well; his knowledge of gaming is extensive and impressive. I would
also like the thank Dr. Linda Fischer and Dr. Guadalupe Garcia Montano for their expert
guidance in shaping this document. I would also like to thank Dr. Edward Karpp, Michael
Ritterbrown, Dr. Ricardo Perez and Jeannette Stirdivant for their wonderful help and support in
gathering data at Glendale Community College.

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2

List of Tables 5

List of Figures 6

Abstract 8

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9

Background of the Problem 9

Science, Technology, Engineering and Math 13

STEM and Diversity 15

Women in STEM 16

Stereotype Threat, Gender Bias and Women 18

Statement of Problem 19

Purpose of the Study 20

Importance of the Study 21

Limitations and Delimitations 21

Definition of Terms 22

Chapter Two: Literature Review 24

Why Games Matter 24

Girls, Women, and Gaming 28

Why Girls Play 29

Motivation Theory and Girl Gamers 31

Interest Theory and Girl Gamers 32

Self-Efficacy and Girl Gamers 33

Self-Authorship and Girl Gamers 35

Discussion of Girls, Women, and Gaming 36

Stereotype, Gender Bias and Games 37

Summary 39

Chapter Three: Methodology 41

Game Type Definitions 41

Sample and Population 44

Instrumentation 45

Data Collection 46

Data Analysis 47

Methods 49

Chapter Four: Results 51

Results for Research Question One 51

Statistical Analysis 52

Descriptive Statistics 53

Descriptive Statistics Tables 53

Hypothesis Testing 77

Correlations 77

Results for Research Question Two 79

Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type 81

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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The Interview Results 83

Reddit.com Gamer Girl Subsection Document Analysis 83

Gender Bias in School 84

The Interviews 90

Summary 93

Chapter Five: Discussion 95

Significant Findings 95

Implications 97

Limitations 100

Areas for Future Research 101

Conclusions 102

References 104

Appendix A: Girl Games Example 117

Appendix B: Women, Gaming and STEM Careers: Interest and Motivation Survey 118

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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List of Tables
Table 1: Age 54

Table 2: Gender 55

Table 3: College/University Level 56

Table 4: STEM Majors 56

Table 5: I Believe I can Master Science Knowledge and Skills 57

Table 6: Learning Science is Interesting 58

Table 7: Knowing Science will Give me a Career Advantage 59

Table 8: I Feel Welcome While Participating in Science Courses 61

Table 9: Level of Comfort With Technology 62

Table 10: Length of Time Playing 63

Table 11: Hours per Week 65

Table 12: I Felt Competent 66

Table 13: What Others Did Affected what I Did 68

Table 14: What I Did Affected What Others Did 69

Table 15: I Feel Connected to Others 70

Table 16: I Was Good at It 71

Table 17: Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Technology 73

Table 18: Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Computer Technology 74

Table 19: Game Experience Gave Me Greater Confidence 76

Table 20: Spearman’s Non-parametric Correlations – Spearman’s RHO Correlation
Coefficients Among Each of the Subscales 78

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Age 54

Figure 2: Gender 55

Figure 3: College/University Level 55

Figure 4: STEM Majors 56

Figure 5: I Believe I can Master Science Knowledge and Skills 57

Figure 6: Learning Science is Interesting 58

Figure 7: Knowing Science Will Give me a Career Advantage 59

Figure 8: I Feel Welcome while Participating in Science Courses 60

Figure 9: Level of Comfort with Technology 62

Figure 10: Length of Time Playing 63

Figure 11: Hours per Week 64

Figure 12: I Felt Competent 66

Figure 13: What Others Did Affected What I Did 67

Figure 14: What I Did Affected What Others Did 68

Figure 15: I Feel Connected to Others 70

Figure 16: I Was Good at It 71

Figure 17: Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Technology 72

Figure 18: Game Experience Gave me Greater Confidence 74

Figure 19: Game Experience Gave Me Greater Confidence 75

Figure 20: Population Mean - Male to Female STEM Major’s Comparison – Dependent
Variables 77

Figure 21: Population Mean - Male to Female STEM major’s Comparison – Independent
Variables 77

Figure 22: Overall Population - Gaming and Comfort Level With Technology 79

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Figure 23: Overall Gaming and Positive Impact on Interest & Motivation in STEM Majors 80

Figure 24: Overall Population - Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type 82

Figure 25: Target Population - Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type 82

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Abstract
In light of the ongoing issues of recruiting and retention of women in STEM majors, this study
sought to look at this issue in relation to video game play experience. The research questions
asked; What impact do open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role Play games (RPG), or
social versus single player-type games have on the motivation and interest of college freshman
women to enter STEM majors? Does longitudinal game play experience in games have an
impact on STEM interest in college freshman women? Survey respondents consisted of men and
women, including the target demographic of 18 to 21 year old college freshman women with a
gaming background. Interviews were conducted with men and women ages 18 to 38. This was a
mixed-methods study. The survey data was analyzed with SPSS software, and the interviews
were coded according to the themes. The research revealed that there was a significant impact on
all measures on some first-year college women for interest, motivation and self-efficacy in
STEM majors in relation to longitudinal video game play. Interviewees who had longitudinal
game play experience reported several unexpected advantages as well. These included the
experience of high competition in a safe environment and a feeling of being in control as well as
practicing decision-making. Interest theory, motivation theory, self-efficacy theory and self-
authorship theory informed this study. The implications of the positive impact of longitudinal
video gaming on STEM interest, motivation and self-efficacy could inform future game design
as well as educational practices for girls and women.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study examined the issues surrounding the low number of women who enter science,
technology, engineering and math (STEM) majors and the effect that longitudinal video game
play has on their interest and motivation. The study examined the current statistics related to
STEM majors, the political climate regarding STEM and education, and how stereotype threat
and gender bias have an impact on women’s choices in regard to entering STEM majors. The
importance to the American economy and ecology of recruiting talent to the STEM careers is
also discussed. The aim of this study was to ascertain whether women with a history of video
game experience are more interested and motivated to enter STEM majors, whether this
background makes them more resilient against stereotype threat and gender bias, and whether
this gaming history influences their long-term career choices.
Background of the Problem
There is a disparity in the number of women who enter STEM-related majors and careers
(Marshall, McGee, McLaren & Veal, 2011; NGSS, 2013; Plucker, Burroughs & Song, 2012;
Strate, Kumar & Morris, 2013). The lack of women in these fields can, in part, be attributed to
stereotype threat and gender bias (Deemer, Smith, Carol & Carpenter, 2014; Deemer, Thoman,
Chase & Smith, 2014; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010; Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoli, Graham
& Handelsman, 2012; Ramsey, Betz, & Sekaquaptewa, 2013; Simard, Henderson, Gilmartin,
Schiebinger, & Whitney, 2008; Steele, Spencer & Aronson, 2002). This is a real problem for the
American economy, as there is also a need for more capable and innovative individuals in
science careers to keep America competitive (Breiner et al., 2012; Bybee, 2010; Darling-
Hammond, 2009; Hock et al., 2001; Margolis, 2005; National Academy of Sciences, 2013). In
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
10
addition, there is a swell of support from the American public for enhancing STEM education
and for recruiting young people into science majors and careers (NGSS, 2013). Towards this
end, video gaming may have a positive influence on women’s interest in science majors and
careers by diluting the sense of alienation with technology and by allowing them to connect with
other female gamers. This study looks at video gaming and its impact, if any, on interest and
motivation of college freshman women in terms of their interest and retention in STEM-related
majors.
Challenges of the 21
st
century, such as global warming, the most effective use of natural
resources, environmental quality, global health issues, and the most effective use of energy
resources will require students to enter the workforce with solid STEM backgrounds in order to
compete for careers that can have an impact on these issues (Bybee, 2010). Careers that address
these issues are the future of today’s students. Currently, there is a gap in the numbers of women
who enter the STEM intensive careers. The numbers of women entering into STEM majors and
careers are lower than those of men, and this group has a higher attrition rate once they do enter
(Marshall et al., 2011; Plucker et al., 2012; Strate et al., 2013). This disparity continues to have
an impact on the ability of America’s science and technology workforce to most efficiently
handle the challenges addressed (Breiner et al., 2012; Bybee, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2009;
Hock et al., 2001; Margolis, 2005; National Academy of Sciences, 2013).
Breiner, Harkness, Johnson and Koehler (2012) consider what STEM represents
conceptually to the various stakeholders in education. The authors explain STEM-related
protocols have evolved over the last decade through government policies informed for the most
part by the National Science Academy. While improving science and math scores has been a
national interest since the 1980’s, there is a new and significant push to improve performance in
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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science and math academics since 2007 (Breiner et al., 2012). It is noted in the research that the
highest paying careers of the future will require math and science backgrounds (Breiner et al.,
2012; Bybee, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2009; Hock et al., 2001National Academy of Sciences,
2013; Margolis, 2005). The research states that one in three jobs will meet those criteria in the
near future (Breiner et al., 2012). In response, key legislation was put forth, such as the Obama-
Biden Plan (2009) that addresses the need for STEM education improvements in our current
educational system in order to compete globally (Breiner et al., 2012).
President Obama followed up his initial legislation with bold new programs entitled
“Educate to Innovate” that seek to entice and inspire more girls and boys into STEM fields (The
White House, 2015). An array of programs for students encouraging them to enter and stay in
STEM fields is backed by industry and features impressive funding ($240 million). These
programs focus on low socio-economic families, and underrepresented groups such as girls and
women. These programs offer an array of support and improved opportunities to participate in
science projects and internships. The series designed to “find new and exciting ways to get
students interested in STEM fields” includes opportunities for high school teachers to develop
and deliver courses in interactive application and videogame development (The White House,
2015). Unity Technologies offers “access to no-charge educational licenses of the Unity 5 engine
and editor, a 40-page professional skill standard document, and a 200 page curricular
framework” (The White House, 2015).
The issue of retention is addressed at the university level as the report notes that sixty
percent of students who start out as STEM subject majors switch to other subject, often in their
first year (The White House, 2015). In order to address this issue, one program called The
College Transition Collaborative seeks to improve the self-perpetuating cycle of
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
12
underperformance by offering “belonging” interventions where they hear stories form older
classmates who have overcome their challenges and went on to become successful students (The
White House, 2015). It is encouraging to see the issue of low academic self-efficacy addressed,
but that may not be enough for some students. Often the insecurities that discourage students are
exacerbated by peer behavior, socio-cultural beliefs and internalized low self-efficacy (Deemer,
Smith, Carol, & Carpenter, 2014; Deemer, Thoman, Chase, & Smith, 2014; Hill et al., 2010;
Moss-Racusin et al., 2012; Ramsey et al., 2013; Simard et al., 2008; Steele et al., 2002).
Addressing these issues could have a major impact on retention in these majors, and benefit all
stakeholders.
To better understand what this topic means to the stakeholders who must implement the
new and improved STEM program needs and elicit results, Breiner et al. (2012) investigated
what STEM means conceptually to the stakeholders. The authors, as well as supporting research,
noted that the branches of STEM were often taught in isolated components and not integrated
across disciplines (Barnhart, 2011; Breiner et al., 2012; Doolittle et al., 2008; Lauer et al., 2006;
Vandell, Hall, del Pilar, & Karsh, 2012). While it is obvious that integrating the various
disciplines into a cohesive whole is necessary for an in-depth understanding of application and
transfer to real life career tasks, it is the concepts of the teachers, at an individual level, that may
influence this disconnect in the curriculum (Breiner et al., 2012: Bybee, 2010). All stakeholders,
from parents to legislators, seemed to harbor vague and different conceptual assumptions of the
definition of STEM (Breiner et al., 2012; Bybee, 2010). Research suggests that in-depth
outcomes can best be served by coordinated and shared conceptualizations of what defines
STEM learning (Breiner et al., 2012; Bybee, 2010).
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Science, Technology, Engineering and Math
Since the Cold War arms race in the 1950’s to the moon landing in 1969 and the Mars
rovers exploring the surface of Mars currently, there has always been a great interest in
furthering the cause of science and technology in education (Ames, 2014). Science as a
discipline matured and expanded with every scientific breakthrough and advancement. Thanks to
these advances, human lifespan is longer, information is transmitted instantly via Internet and
these advances address the challenges the world faces in all areas (Ames, 2014). This growth in
scientific knowledge spawned the next generation of science standards in education.
A recent national survey conducted on behalf of Achieve, Inc. (2014) indicates that
American voters are very interested in improving the quality of science education in American
schools to competitive levels (97%). The majority of voters believe that the United States is
lagging behind the rest of the world (56%), a concern that is borne out by research data (Ames,
2014). American voters also approve, by a large margin (62%), of having a standard set of
science student learning outcomes so that all students can meet the same expectations in their
future careers (Achieve, 2014). This survey goes on to note that a majority of the American
voters show broad support (87%) for implementing these internationally benchmarked, more
integrated and challenging new science standards (Achieve, 2014). Achieve Inc. survey data
results clearly indicate that the new science standards receive significant support from the
American public. This support is inspiring and can be seen as an indication that educators and
administrators are on the right track in moving forward with the next generation of science
standards.
Based on the framework for K-12 science education research that was developed by the
National Research Council, the NGSS collaborative state-lead process drafted an overview of
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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advances in the next generation of science standards (NGSS, 2013). The NGSS new standards
are noted as follows:
1. Every NGSS standard has three dimensions: disciplinary core ideas content, Scientific
and engineering practices, and cross cutting concepts. Currently, most state and district
standards expressed these dimensions as separate entities, leading to their separation in
both instruction and assessment. The integration of rigorous content and application
reflects how science and engineering is practiced in the real world.
2. Scientific and Engineering Practices and Crosscutting Concepts are designed to be taught
in context – not in a vacuum. The NGSS encourage integration with multiple core
concepts throughout each year.
3. Science concepts build coherently across K–12. The emphasis of the NGSS is a focused
and coherent progression of knowledge from grade band to grade band, allowing for a
dynamic process of building knowledge throughout a student’s entire K–12 scientific
education.
4. The NGSS Focus on a smaller set of Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI) that students should
know by the time they graduate from high school, focusing on deeper understanding and
application content.
5. Science and engineering are integrated into science education by racing engineering
design to the same level as scientific inquiry in the science classroom instruction at all
levels, and by emphasizing the core ideas of engineering design and technology
applications.
6. The NGSS content is focused on preparing students for college and careers. The NGSS
are aligned, by grade level and cognitive demand with English Language Arts and
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
15
Mathematics Common Core State Standards. This allows an opportunity both for science
to be part of a child’s comprehensive education as well as ensuring and aligned sequence
of learning in all content areas. The three sets of standards overlap and are reinforcing in
meaningful and substantive ways. (NGSS, 2013)
STEM and Diversity
US students are underrepresented in STEM careers, particularly diverse populations
(Marshall et al., 2011). Responding to President Obama’s “Educate to Innovate” (Darling-
Hammond, 2009; The White House, 2015), America’s educators are committed to improving
developing STEM talent and to improving STEM education for all students (Pace-Marshall et
al., 2010). Achievement gaps do currently exist in the K-12 student populations, including
among women, the economically disadvantaged, English language learners, and historically
underprivileged minorities (Marshall et al., 2011; Plucker et al., 2012; Strate et al., 2013).
Plucker et al. (2012) note with some concern that, on a national level, the achievement gap has
shown little improvement since the implementation of NCLB in 2001. In order to remedy this
stagnation, Marshall et al. (2011) recommend the following:
1. Early immersion in multiple inquiry-based and problem centered enrichment
opportunities and systematic pathways that foster mathematical and scientific reasoning
and promote interpersonal and academic growth.
2. A network of significant, caring and trusting relationships that help students to
development academic confidence and a strong resilient learning identity.
3. Multiple opportunities for students to safely explore a wide range of their interests and
passions, individually and with others.
4. Programs that honor students cultural heritage. (p. 22)
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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Sally Ride, NASA astronaut and the first woman in space, articulated the challenges that
women face in science careers. She was asked her opinion on the quote from former Harvard
president Lawrence Summers about women and genetics in relation to STEM abilities and how
women are genetically disadvantaged to excel in science (Benson, 2006). She replied:
Suppose you came across a woman lying on the street with an elephant sitting on her
chest. You notice she is short of breath. Shortness of breath can be a symptom of heart
problems. In her case, the much more likely cause is the elephant on her chest. For a long
time, society put obstacles in the way of women who wanted to enter the sciences. That is
the elephant. Until the playing field has been leveled and lingering stereotypes are gone,
you can't even ask the question. (Benson, 2006, n. p.)
Women in STEM
The U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration (2011)
explains that the STEM-related gender gap in the U.S. economy as a clear imbalance with
women filling around half the jobs nationwide while only 25% of them are employed in STEM-
related careers. An interesting development of this gap is that women in STEM-related careers
earn 33% more than their non-STEM counterparts, and, as a result, the gender gap in wages is
smaller in STEM jobs for women (p. 1). With such a clear positive incentive, it remains unclear
why women would shy away from STEM careers.
U.S. Department of Commerce (2011) research data shows that women hold a very low
proportion of STEM degrees, and those who do have them are more likely to work in humanistic
occupations such as healthcare and education. Some of this disparity may be explained by factors
such as lack of female roles models, gender stereotyping, and “less family-friendly flexibility in
STEM fields” (p. 1). That this trend remained fairly constant over the last decade is a cause for
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
17
concern in education, and in considering the need for an increased show of STEM capable
members of the U.S. workforce. The Nation Science Foundation Strategic Plan (2014) for 2014-
2018 includes the following objective: “NSF is committed to increasing access for currently
underrepresented groups to STEM education and careers through our investments in research and
education” (p. 8). The NSF also pledges to “support the development of a strong STEM
workforce by investing in building the knowledge that informs improvements in STEM teaching
and learning” (p. 8).
Women in the STEM fields face complex bias issues. Often, the unconscious
assumptions of cultural identities of women create situations where they are judged more harshly
than their male counterparts and have higher personal expectations comparable to men doing the
same work (Deemer, Smith, Carol, & Carpenter, 2014; Deemer, Thoman, Chase, & Smith, 2014;
Hill et al., 2010; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012; Ramsey et al., 2013; Simard et al., 2008; Steele et
al., 2002). They are judged as less competent than their male counterparts unless their
competence is clearly demonstrated as excellent, and, often, when they do excel, they are
considered less “likeable” (p. xvi). These discouraging attitudes can create an atmosphere of
social ostracism and stress for these professional women and create cause for attrition from the
STEM careers (Hill et al., 2010).
In order to improve STEM success rates, new strategies are needed. Early immersion and
support in enrichment opportunities that enhance student access to scientific and mathematical
knowledge building are key to scaffolding motivation and student success in the STEM
disciplines (Marshall, et al., 2011). The importance of encouragement and assisting in
developing academic confidence in underrepresented students cannot be overstated (Marshall, et
al., 2011). Stereotype threat and gender bias are two major barriers that women face when
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
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considering STEM careers (Deemer, Smith, Carol & Carpenter, 2014; Deemer, Thoman, Chase,
& Smith, 2014; Ramsey et al., 2013).
Stereotype Threat, Gender Bias and Women
While women hold the majority of bachelor’s degrees in the United States since 2002,
they continue to be underrepresented at the advanced degree levels of STEM (National Science
Foundation, 2010). The problem is particularly acute in the physics disciplines. Research also
indicates that women experience higher attrition rates in STEM careers when compared to their
male counterparts and to their female counterparts in other fields (Simard et al., 2008). Studies
have shown that stereotype threat and gender bias are two psychological constructs that play a
major role in women’s interest and motivation to pursue and remain within STEM majors and
careers (Deemer, Smith, Carol & Carpenter, 2014; Deemer, Thoman, Chase, & Smith, 2014;
Moss-Racusin et al., 2012; Ramsey et al., 2013; Steele et al., 2002).
Stereotype threat is defined as the internalization of fears related to confirming a negative
stereotype about one’s group, such as gender or race (Steele et al., 2002). This type of bias can
be intrinsic and/or extrinsic, and women experience self-efficacy doubts that are confirmed by
subtle discouragement from the group. Steele et al. (2002) described this effect as “profound” in
competitive situations of all types and found that this type of threat is pervasive through
judgment, treatment and stereotype attitudes affecting the core of the female’s personal and
social identity (p. 435). In short, women sense that they are not welcome as colleagues in these
fields, and they become discouraged in remaining within them. It is possible that a woman’s
history with video gaming, and the sense of belonging that women may experience as part of the
gamer community, may buffer this sense of alienation (Mayo, 2009; McMenomy, 2011;
Ondrejka, 2008; Przybylski, Rigby, & Ryan, 2010).
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
19
Gender bias is shown to be real and pervasive in science academia (Moss-Racusin et al.,
2012). In the Moss-Racusin et al. (2012) empirical double-blind study of gender bias, male-
named subjects (selected by male or female names only) were perceived as being more capable
than female-named subjects by faculty who reviewed employment applications. The authors
noted that the gender of the faculty members who made the choices did not change the degree of
bias outcomes, and that male-named subjects were offered a higher starting salary and more
mentoring opportunities (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012). Overall, the researchers discovered that
subtle bias was associated with less support of female students; a phenomenon that male students
did not experience (Cheryan, 2012; Kelly, Dampier, & Carr, 2013; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012).
Statement of Problem
Gender bias and stereotype threat have a large impact on women’s interest in STEM
majors and careers (Pace-Marshall et al., 2010; Plucker et al., 2012; Strate et al., 2013).
Unfamiliarity with technology may cause greater internalized stereotype threat and alienation,
leading to a lack of interest in STEM majors. Gaming may provide a channel through which
women can gain computer literacy, build collaborative relationships with other technologically
savvy women and build a knowledge foundation for expanding their interest in STEM majors
that may create a resiliency against bias and stereotype threat (Mayo, 2009; McMenomy, 2011;
Ondrejka, 2008; Przybylski et al., 2010). Beyond the subtle bias that women experience related
to STEM learning and careers, one of the main issues in recruiting women to STEM careers is
the lack of what women see as interesting and meaningful options (Annetta, Mangrum, Holmes,
Collazo, & Cheng, 2009; Bergsträßer, Hildebrandt, Rensing & Steinmetz, 2009; Boyle, 2011;
Connolly, Boyle, MacAurther, Hainey, & Boyle, 2012). Immersing themselves in the gaming
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
20
community could enhance their perspective regarding what is possible in relation to technology-
and science-based careers.
Current research suggests that the strong social aspects of social virtual worlds and
gaming in general, including games like World of Warcraft© and Second Life©, can have a
positive influence on gamers’ sense of belonging in virtual environments that could lessen the
impact of stereotype threat and gender bias in real world situations (Annetta et al., 2009; Barnett
& Coulson, 2010; Bergsträßer, Hildebrandt, Rensing, & Steinmetz 2009; Boyle, 2011; Connolly,
et al., 2012; Dell, 2008; Dudo, Cicchirillo, Atkinson, & Marx, 2014; Franetovic, 2012; Granic,
Lobel, & Engles, 2013; Kilb, Rohrlick, Yang Choo, Ma, & Ruzic, 2014; Mayo, 2009;
McGonigall, 2011; McMenomy, 2011; Ondrejka, 2008; Przybylski et al., 2010; Swartz, 2013;
Trepte, Reinecke, & Juechems, 2012; Wolz, Barnes, Bayliss & Cromack, 2009).
Purpose of the Study
This study focused on whether computer literacy stemming from video game experience,
social interactions and game aptitude enhances STEM interest and motivation. The purpose of
this study was to discover whether there is increased interest and motivation in STEM majors in
freshman college women after long-term experience in playing video games. The study
examined whether gaming, including open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role-Playing
games (RPG), or social versus single player-type games, lessen the impact of stereotype threat
and gender bias that women experience in STEM majors. This study examined the effect, if any,
longitudinal gaming has on women’s sense of belonging, degree of comfort with technology, and
whether that has an impact on their career choices.
Two research questions guided this study:
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
21
1. What impact do open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role-Playing games
(RPG), or social versus single player-type games have on the motivation and interest of college
freshman women to enter STEM majors?
2. Does longitudinal game play experience in games have an impact on STEM interest in
college freshman women?
Importance of the Study
This study adds to the current body of data on video gaming and interest and motivation
in first-year college women and STEM majors and careers. It addresses important issues in
STEM educational demographics, including recruitment and retention, and a possible way to
improve the current percentage of women entering and staying in STEM-related majors. Results
from this study could inform educators who are interested in recruiting and keeping college
women into STEM majors and channeling them into STEM careers in the future. Women who
game may have an added resiliency in overcoming stereotype thereat and gender bias in STEM
majors and careers. This study endeavored to understand what, if any, effect longitudinal gaming
experience has on women’s sense of interest and motivation when they consider STEM majors.
If there is an indication that a gaming history does improve interest and motivation in STEM
careers for young women, this could lead to greater research regarding how to apply this positive
impact to education and recruitment.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of this study include a small sample size and self-reporting bias. Video
game genre types were limited to open worlds, FPS, RPG, or social versus single player-type
games. Data gathering was limited to closed question surveys and open-ended interviews. The
demographic group of interest is restricted to 18 to 21 year-old female college freshmen for the
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
22
survey instrument. The study also included interviews with women and one man between the
ages of 18 and 38.
This study endeavored to measure any correlation between open worlds, FPS, RPG, or
social versus single player-type game playing and increased interest and motivation in first-year
college women in STEM majors. This could lead to a greater understanding of what impact
video gaming has on STEM career interest and motivation in freshman college women.
Definition of Terms
Virtual Worlds – A massively multiplayer online world (MMOW) and is a computer-based
simulated environment. The term is largely synonymous with interactive 3D virtual
environments where the users take the form of avatars visible to others.
Gamification – (AKA Serious Gaming) – The application of typical elements of game playing
(e.g., point scoring, competition with others, rules of play) to other areas of activity, typically as
an online marketing technique to encourage engagement with a product or service.
Immersive Education – Combines 3D and virtual reality (VR) technologies with digital media
to bring distance education and self-directed learning to a new level.
Massive Online Open Course – A course of study made available over the Internet without
charge to a very large number of people.
MMORPG – (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) – This is any story-driven
online video game in which a player, taking on the persona of a character in a virtual or fantasy
world, interacts with a large number of other players.
MUVE (Multiuser Virtual Environment) – A Virtual Learning World or Multi-User Virtual
Environment (MUVE) is normally a 3D space in which multiple participants are represented by
‘avatars’ (some are 2D).
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FPS - (First Person Shooter) – A video game genre centered on gun and projectile weapon-based
combat through a first-person perspective; that is, the player experiences the action through the
eyes of the protagonist, and, in some cases, the antagonist.
RPG’s (Role-Playing Games) - Games in which players assume the roles of characters in a
fictional setting.
Open World – A type of video game level design where a player can roam freely through a
virtual world and is given considerable freedom in choosing how or when to approach
objectives. The term free roam is also used, as are sandbox and free-roaming.
Single Player Games – A video game where input from only one player is expected throughout
the course of the gaming session.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The pervasive nature of technology in modern times has an impact on all aspects of daily
living. We take for granted the degree to which we rely on computers and computerized devices
to inform us, serve us, educate us and entertain us. Video gaming is one of these new forms of
entertainment. It offers a sense of community, challenging interactive game play with immediate
feedback and intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards, and it requires an ever more expansive
understanding of computer technology in order to play well (McGonigal, 2011). Girls, women
and video games were examined and any positive effects for self-efficacy, interest and
motivation in STEM majors were noted.
Why Games Matter
The ubiquitous nature of technology has had a profound effect on the lives of young
adults (Gee, 2013; Hayes, 2011; Jackson, 2012; Jackson, von Eye, Fitzgerald, Zhao, & Witt,
2010; Mitchell, Lebow, Uribe, Grathouse, & Shoger, 2011; Pressey, 2013). Video games for
entertainment purposes have become a popular pastime with the millennial age group. The
Entertainment Software Association (2013) publishes a yearly report on sales, demographics and
usage data that illustrates the impressive growth of this entertainment technology in popularity.
This report states that 58% of all Americans currently play video games, and that 64% are
between the ages of 18 (or younger) and 35 (p. 2). The report also shows that 45% of all game
players are female (p. 3). Total consumer spending on games in 2012 was 20.77 billion dollars
(p. 11). Constance Steinkuehler Squire, an associate professor in digital media and co-director of
the Games + Learning + Society Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and former
senior policy analyst in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, is quoted in
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
25
this report: “You create these communities around the game that do an incredible amount of
intellectual work, and when they’re done with the work, they want to leave the game and go on
to another game that’s more challenging. Can you imagine if we had that kind of environment in
classrooms?” (p. 11).
It is clear that there is potential for creating a more engaging learning environment with
games. Second Life has a large educational presence with universities and educational groups
from all over the world (Educational Directory, Second Life, 2014). Valve Steam, the host
company of the popular strategy game Portal© offers the game to educators for classroom use
for free along with science-related curriculum plans and support at their “Teaching with Portals”
website (TEACHWITHPORTALS™, 2014). When gaming or any technology is viewed merely
as a tool to facilitate learning, then it serves its purpose (Gee, 2013). Games have potential to
enhance learning, but in order to be most effective; it should include pedagogically sound
constructs such as effectively designed problem-based learning, guidance and prompt feedback
(Daniel, 2013; Gee, 2013). One of the strengths of immersive learning is that it offers
experiential learning opportunities in that students can manipulate their virtual environment
towards solving a puzzle or achieving a learning objective (Appel, 2012; Gee, 2013). When
properly supported by effective instructional design, immersive environments can be engaging
learning arenas in distance education courses (Daniel, 2013; Gee, 2013).
It should be pointed out that gamification, the incorporation of teaching games in
classrooms, is not the same experience as the immersive environments, like Portal©, World of
Warcraft© and Second Life©. This study examined the effect immersive environments and other
entertainment type games have with the perspective of exposure to technology in an
unthreatening and engaging environment, and therefore possibly creating a sense of belonging
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
26
and technological self-efficacy that may increase the resilience of women who face stereotype
threat and gender bias in STEM-related college majors and career choices.
The gaming experience offers familiarization with technology, a new form of
socialization, collaborative problem solving and, in some instances, gaming addiction and
increase in aggressive behaviors (Appel, 2012; Boyle, Connolly & Hainey, 2011; Mayo, 2009).
While the negative effects of gaming addiction have been examined to some extent, the positive
aspects and socialization in groups have not been extensively researched until recently (Boyle et
al., 2011; De Kort, IJseelsteijn, & Poels, 2007). Appel (2012) noted that, with his age
demographic of 17-year-olds, increase in time spent playing video games was related to higher
scores on practical and theoretical computer knowledge. The effect was consistent across both
genders. However, this study did find greater anxiety related to computer use in girls, and,
significantly, a large difference between boys and girls in computer knowledge scores (Appel,
2012). The author explains that the testing had no sampling issues, and considered stereotype
threat and social identity threat to have influenced the results (Appel, 2012).
Entertainment games such as Portal© and World of Warcraft© (WOW) have been
around for decades. WOW has 7.8 million current subscribers worldwide (Ziebart, 2014). Games
in the same genre as World of Warcraft© are commonly referred to as MMORPGs, which stands
for “Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game” (Word of Warcraft©, 2014).
MMORPGs are defined as a “massive” number of players simultaneously interacting in a shared
world (Ziebart, 2014). WOW offers quests and guild groupings in the shared world of this
videogame.
Portal© (released in 2007) and Portal 2© (released in 2011) sold over 7 million copies
combined as of 2011 (Hornshaw, 2011). Portal© and Portal © are referred to as first person
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
27
puzzle platform games (Hornshaw, 2011). This game was well received by game critics and
features an almost all-female cast of non-player character roles (Schiesel, 2011). The player
moves through a series of chambers with a “portal device”, presented with puzzles that allow
them to move to the next and more complex chamber. The Valve Corporation© has created a
program called “Teach with Portals” that offers the game for free to educators and includes a set
of curriculum plans for classroom lessons (Valve Corporation©, 2014). Portal© is described by a
fan as a “brain game”, with the added attraction of making basic physics lessons interesting:
Physics — the basic behavior of this particular reality —can be beautiful. Read Newton
or Einstein. Or you could play Portal 2, the achingly brilliant new game from the Valve
Corporation that wrings more fun out of physics than all of the shoot-’em-ups in the
world. (Schiesel, 2011)
The Sims©, a life simulation video game series, is one of the most successful video game
series of all time (EA Games, 2014; Hayes, 2011). The players control “sims,” which are the
player’s avatars (virtual representations of users). These sims can express emotions, move about
freely, build, shop and interact in the social environment (EA Games, 2014; Hayes, 2011).
Players can earn rewards and unlock achievements (EA Games, 2014). This is a cartoon class
virtual environment that was single player until the most recent version (Hayes, 2011). The
Sims© has a large female player base and is noted as being gender friendly (Hayes, 2011).

Second Life© is a three-dimensional multi-user virtual environment with a vibrant
economy. Players have avatars that can engage Role Play, social events, shop for avatar
accessories, attend classes, run a for-profit business, buy or rent virtual land, build their own
homes and accessories, and move freely throughout the entire Second Life© Universe (Parise &
Crosina, 2014). It is defined a MUVE, a Multiuser Virtual Environment (Mennecke, Hassall, &
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
28
Triplett, 2008; Parise & Crosina, 2014). Second Life© is host to many educational institutions
and organizations (Second Life© Destination Guide). This platform offers players freedom and
abilities not found in the other game types.
From a theoretical perspective, what draws players from all over the world to these types
of social and single player games are basic human behavior needs like competence, autonomy
and relatedness that are intrinsically based (Boyle et al., 2011; Przybylski, Ryan, & Rigby, 2009,
McGonigal, 2011). Gamers enjoy a sense of challenge, increased technological competence and
group relatedness that creates an enjoyable experience for them (Boyle et al., 2011, McGonigal,
2011). Role Play games allow creative expression for imagination and character development
that can be compared to theater (de Luna, 2012). The potential for interactive world creation and
team building draws many to these games (de Luna, 2012; Boyle et al., 2011).
The potential for a providing a gateway to greater technological interest and
comprehension exists for players of videogames. An enhanced sense of community with like-
minded peers may add to their motivation to become deeply involved with computer-based
learning and interacting. The immediate feedback and interactive nature of gaming, paired with
the rewards of unlocking achievements or creating new content within the games can have an
impact on interest and motivation in girls and women. Women who game may have a greater
resilience against the unwelcoming indifference they may experience when they enter STEM
majors and they may remain longer in these areas due to their background gaming experiences.
Girls, Women, and Gaming
What is it that draws women and girls to gaming? This paper considers the motivation
and interest that women and girls may have in playing video games and how that relates to real
life interest and motivation in STEM majors. The motivation to play video games for girls and
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
29
women was examined along with how it may impact stereotype threat and gender bias in STEM
careers and how interest and motivation are involved in self-image and self-efficacy. Given that
girls and women play video games, it is important to understand what effect, if any, gaming has
on their interest and motivation to enter STEM majors in higher education.
Why Girls Play
Beyond the obvious motivational advantage of engaging in a form of entertainment that
is interactive, and the social environments involved in game play, why do girls play video
games? The Entertainment Software Association Sales, Demographics and Usage reports (2012)
explains the perceived advantage. According to their survey, “43% of game players believe that
computer and video games give them the most value for their money, compared with DVD’s,
music or going out to the movies” (p. 3). In general, motives for gaming could include challenge,
competition, fantasy, arousal, social interaction, and diversion, with self-challenge being the
most powerful (Greenberg et al., 2013; Sherry & Lucas, 2003; McGonigal, 2011).
Many studies support the finding that boys play more often than girls (in all age groups)
and that video games are still viewed by many as a male dominant domain (Granic, Lobel, &
Engels, 2013; Hellstrom, Nilsson, Leppert & Aslund, 2012; Schiesel, 2011; Sherry & Lucas,
2003; Trepte et al., 2012; Witt, Massman, & Jackson, 2011). One study found that the amount of
game time varied with the age of the children, with younger children (8 to 10 years old) playing
for longer times (Rideout, Roberts, & Foehr, 2005). Primary gratification for both genders in the
Greenberg, Sherry, Lachlan, Lucas and Holmstrom (2010) study were competition and
challenge. They found that the largest gender differences included arousal and social interaction
(Greenberg et al., 2010). More fascinating, findings from this study include that age and gender
do continue to affect motivation to play, and diversion was the most common motive
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
30
contributing to playing time in 8
th
and 11
th
grade boys and girls and in college males. Social
interaction was also shown to be important amongst 8th and 11
th
graders and college females
(Greenberg et al., 2010). The authors argue that many of the differences in gender related to the
categories of time and gratification could be due to the fact that the games are designed by male
game designers with male players in mind (Greenberg et al., 2013; Hellstrom et al., 2012; Sherry
& Lucas, 2003).
The Sims© game has a strong female presence, which could be due, in part, to its highly
social game design (Hayes, 2011). Hayes (2011) describes a case study where one young woman
discovered that she could create useful content within the game, changing her plus-size self-
image as a gamer. Her ability to design plus-size fashions in The Sims© game fit into her other
interests in art and design. She became inspired, creating plus-size fashions that she would like to
see in real life. This therapeutic effect enhanced her interest in digital technology and could lead
to greater comfort in STEM subject areas (Hayes, 2011). This young woman developed artistic
and technical skills during game play that had a positive impact on her motivation and interest in
technology (Hayes, 2011). This case study highlights the previously unknown therapeutic effect
of some gaming experiences.
The connection between Internet use and video game playing by boys and men in
technology and the computer sciences as well as in STEM majors and careers is evident in
current research (Domahildi, Festl, & Quandt, 2014; Dudo et al., 2014; Durkin & Barber, 2002;
Gronoos, 2013; Kilb et al., 2014; Mayo, 2009). Hayes (2008) argues that the richness of well-
designed games can have a powerful effect, stating:
Immersing your [self] in compelling and often visually stunning worlds, developing a
sense of mastery and control derived from successfully solving complex problems, the
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
31
pleasure of taking on new identities, and in multiplayer games, the chance to build
relationships and achieve social recognition for skillful performance. (p. 183)
The author explains that these experiences can go onto create pathways to information
technology expertise (Hayes, 2008).
Motivation Theory and Girl Gamers
To understand why gaming can lead to improved outcomes for women and girls in the
STEM disciplines, a brief look at motivation theory may be instructive. Weiner (1979) describes
motivation as a construct that operates, in part, below immediate conscious awareness and is
closely tied to self-esteem and self-awareness (p. 4). Bias in the area of interest could have an
impact on the student’s sense of achievement if s/he unknowingly attributes his/her lack of
motivation or unsuccessful attempts at STEM-related subject matter as fixed and unchangeable
personal shortcomings (Weiner, 1979). Even in the event of personal excellence in the subject at
hand, subtle influences of gender bias and stereotype threat can severely affect motivation
(Jackson et al., 2010). Playing video games can go either way for younger players, as the
research suggests that positive effects can occur if a real-life social grouping is paired with the
game play, while violent videogames can result in negative social behavior (Jackson et al.,
2010).
Some of the negative aspects of gaming include disassociation with real life family and
school socialization, less interest in school, addiction potential and antisocial behavior online and
offline (Hellstrom et al., 2012). Hellstrom et al.’s (2012) research found that the amount of time
online playing among MMORPGs had an influence on the risk for negative consequences.
However, they noted that the motivation to play as more important, finding that escapism, status
seeking, or peer demands resulted in negative impact on other areas of their lives. Excessive
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
32
game time data was not gathered for the girl gamers in this study because very few played for
five hours or more a day (Hellstrom et al., 2012).
The research on the impact of gaming on motivation, self-concept and self-esteem is
varied, and, to some degree, inconclusive (Jackson et al., 2010; Mitchell et al., 2011; Hayes,
2011). The variables involved, such as age groups, type of game play and sample size, could be
at the center of this inconsistency. Mitchell et al. (2011) found a perceived positive effect for
social support, introversion and happiness. While excessive internet use, game time and violent
type videogames can and do lead to negative motivation issues, these situations represent
extremes, especially in the case of girl gamers and should be considered in further research
(Hayes, 2011; Jackson et al., 2010; Mitchell et al., 2011;). Positive game experience could have
an impact on affiliative motivation, which is the construct related to achievement and social
recognition (Weiner, 1979).
Interest Theory and Girl Gamers
In order to maintain interest in a particular activity or career trajectory, certain conditions
should be present. In this case, interest is the motivation variable that would encourage sustained
engagement over time. Hidi and Renninger (2006) explain that interest includes both affective
and cognitive components functioning as separate but mutually supportive systems. Affective
engagement describes the rewarding aspect of engagement, while the cognitive perceptions relate
to the perceived value of the activity. The environment also affects interest in content. Therefore,
positive and negative environment influences such as attitudes, stereotype threat and other
psychological variances can have a significant impact (Hidi &Renninger, 2006). Situational
interest in STEM-related subjects might be initially stimulated during the process of game play,
as familiarity begins to overcome any feelings of disconnectedness with technology in general.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
33
This type of interest is instigated by environmental stimuli, and may not continue if the negative
influences are significant. Individual interest is a more permanent interest that describes a more
entrenched and sustaining interest over time. The systems of game play, which includes intrinsic
rewards and social grouping identification could stimulate an individual interest that is resilient
over time for technology related understandings.
The four phases of interest development are traceable in the immersion of an individual
in a game play environment (Hidi & Renninger, 2006). First, a triggered situation of interest
could be stimulated, perhaps trying out gaming for the first time based on a friend’s
recommendations. Second, the maintained situational interest includes persistence and focused
game play over a period of time. Third, the emerging individual interest may manifest itself as
the gamer begins to feel a sense of ability, accomplishment and group belonging in the game of
choice. Finally, a well-developed individual interest can be described as the stage when a player
identifies with the group and the genre overall or self-identifies as a “girl gamer” (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006). At this stage, technological savvy becomes part of the identity of the girl
gamer, and, thus, interest in technology and STEM majors may seem less threatening to her
personal identity. This could fortify resilience in the face of game culture gender bias and
stereotype threat.
Self-Efficacy and Girl Gamers
Self-Efficacy is defined as self-judgment of how effectively one can perform a course of
action that is often difficult and stressful (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). This sense of self-direction
includes the foundation of perceiving, evaluating, motivating and regulating behavior (Bandura,
1977). Persistence in effort becomes a condition of self-efficacy and self-satisfaction, when
performance matches internal standards (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). When these standards are
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
34
not met, this also provides the incentive for self-directed actions (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). The
authors remind us that explicit goals are more likely to trigger incentives for goal achievement
than vague goals would (Bandura & Schunk, 1981).
Social learning theory explains that distal goals, in other words, long range goals do not
effectively create a sense of confidence and authorship in the immediate present (Bandura &
Schunk, 1981). Proximal sub-goals, however, do include some important positive effects for self-
efficacy and self-motivation. These sub-goals may create a sense of self-efficacy as stepping-
stones to the larger future goals (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). This study examined if gaming as a
proximal sub-goal of achievement fortifies future academic goals of freshman women between
18 and 21 years old. If gaming enhances women’s sense of self-efficacy in proximal settings as a
series of sub-goals, this could encourage motivation and interest in pursuing long-term goals
with STEM majors.
Sub-goal attainment is important in that it sets up a framework in which individuals can
gauge and monitor their capabilities and build on them (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Clearly, an
ever-improving sense of efficacy in gaming, as a sub-goal of feeling a sense of accomplishment
in the STEM fields, could inspire and sustain a level of interest and motivation for the future.
Considering the often-invisible effects of stereotype threat and gender bias, any activity that
builds self-efficacy and adds to women’s sense of belonging and authorship, motivation and
interest in STEM majors and careers would be highly advantageous.
Video games have demonstrated that the in-game interest and motivation to level up and
solve puzzles creates a sense of improving one’s skills, which in turn motivates players to
challenge themselves to take on more complex tasks (McGonigal, 2011). As the success of the
sub-goal game incentives adds layers of achievement, and success, it would seem logical that the
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
35
player would have an increased sense of self-efficacy, motivation and interest that may fortify
them in their STEM long term goals. Hackett and Betz (1981) clarify some of the obstacles that
women face in achieving success in STEM careers, and point to socialization as another root
cause of low interest, motivation and self-efficacy. Often families and academic contacts overtly
or covertly steer women into “traditional” careers that pay less and have scarce advancement
potential (p. 327). With discouragement coming from so many sources, Hackett and Betz (1981)
as well as Bandura (1977) emphasize the importance of expectations in considering self-efficacy
and motivation, and state that, “psychological procedures, whatever their form, affect behavioral
change by altering the level and strength of self-efficacy” (p. 328). The social reinforcement and
achievement reinforcement of social video games could be a form of fortifying expectations and
self-efficacy.
Self-Authorship and Girl Gamers
When considering the process of how students arrive at their academic majors, self-
authorship becomes an important aspect of the decision making process. Baxter Magolda (1998)
defines this process of self-authorship as “the ability to collect, interpret, and analyze
information and reflect on one’s own beliefs in order to form judgments” (p. 143). As young
women emerge from high school and enter into higher education, they rely on this self-
authorship to make important long-range choices about their future. This process includes
making meaning of the cues that they receive from others, as well as the degree in which they are
grounded in their own sense of self. Self-authorship does not include behavioral aspects of
decision-making or self-efficacy, but is solely the arrival of meaning received from their
relationships and social environment (Baxter Magolda, 2008).
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
36
Citing existing research, Creamer and Laughlin (2005) report that women are more
influenced by the strength of their self-efficacy and the attitudes and wishes of others,
particularly parents. This research goes on to explain that young women are more likely than
young men to consult and consider the opinions of others about their future career choices
(Creamer & Laughlin, 2005). Women who do choose non-traditional careers in science and
engineering report receiving more support from others, particularly males, including college
faculty and advisors (Creamer & Laughlin, 2005). These individuals can also influence young
women’s persistence in pursing non-traditional career choices.
While these people can have a positive impact on women’s choices, they can also
discourage women based on their gender stereotypical views. Peer groups also play a major role
in the self-authorship level of confidence for young woman. Negative attitudes of male peers can
significantly impact persistence in pursuing STEM majors and careers (Creamer & Laughlin,
2005). In this context, gaming may represent a peer group that could sustain STEM major/career
interest or could weaken it. There is little research on this peer group as the popularity of video
games among women is relatively recent. The gamer sub-culture has a strong social undercurrent
that is not part of the typical sources of influence. The effect on self-authorship of young
freshman women between the ages of 18 and 21 (and older) is not known. This study examined
this new social influence in regards to STEM major and career choices.
Discussion of Girls, Women, and Gaming
Women and girls who play videogames may enjoy a degree of comfort and familiarity
with computer technology and interactive learning environments that could have a positive effect
on their self-efficacy. While there are some negative effects of video game playing, these effects
tend to be noted in violent first person shooter games and excessive hours of play (five or more
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
37
hours a day) (Hayes, 2011; Hellstrom et al., 2012; Jackson et al., 2010; Mitchell et al., 2011).
Motivation in the form of achievement and social recognition can be enhanced with positive
game play (Weiner, 1979). Hidi and Renninger (2006) found that positive gaming experiences
could improve self-image as a technological native and provide a needed buffer to deal with
stereotype threat and gender bias when considering STEM majors.
Stereotype, Gender Bias and Games
While gaming may allow women and girls an opportunity to overcome stereotype threat
in the real world by way of exposure to technology and the technology savvy community within
games, they can still experience it within the game (Bertozzi, 2008; Chess, 2014; Fox & Tang,
2014; Summers & Miller, 2014). Many social games that have a combat theme portray women
as helpless victims or hyper-sexualized warrior divas (Bertozzi, 2008; Chess, 2014). It is
understandable that girls and their parents would see these portrayals as an unhealthy
environment for play. Often, players who identify as female are not welcome in the game guilds
and are openly sexually harassed if they attempt to join (Fox & Tang, 2014). Girl gamers will
sometimes adopt a male persona in their avatars in order to skirt this open discrimination (Fox &
Tang, 2014). The nature of these games, where individual can remain essentially anonymous as
to their real identity is seen as emboldening the degree of hostile aggressive behavior in some
male players (Bertozzi, 2008; Fox & Tang, 2014; Summer & Miller, 2014).
Some of the resentment of girls and women in gaming may come from the male players’
need to establish a powerful and aggressive male identity through their characters in role play
and relate to women in the traditional sense of being their protectors. Therefore, they may find
themselves unable to do battle with female warriors in combat games without a sense of guilt
(Bertozzi, 2008; Li, Liau, & Khoo, 2012). These male gamers may also see their masculine
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
38
identity at risk if they lose a battle to a girl or woman (Bertozzi, 2008; Fox & Tang, 2014;
Summer & Miller, 2014). Research clearly shows that the social norms of gender identity and
behaviors significantly influence player attitude (Bertozzi, 2008; Boyle et al., 2011; Brown,
2014; Greenberg, Sherry, Lachlan, Lucas, & Holmstrom, 2010; Hamlen, 2010; Hartmann &
Klimmt, 2006; Jackson, von Eye, Witt, Zhao, & Fitzgerald, 2011; Jenson & de Castell, 2010;
Lucas & Sherry, 2004; Scharrer, 2013). Hamlen (2010) explains that girls and women feel
equally competent at gaming as do their male counterparts but play less often, suggesting that
stereotype threat and gender bias may add an element of stress that is discouraging.
Just as first-person-shooter games tend to hyper-masculinize the game environments and
the avatar protagonists, there are a multitude of games designed for girls and women that are
hyper-feminized (van Reijmersdal, Jansz, Peters, & van Noort, 2013; Summers & Miller, 2014).
The Girls Go Games site featured in Appendix A includes a bright pink, highly feminine design
and games that focus on body image, fashion, cooking and other stereotypically female interests.
The Sims© is a virtual world that has a strong feminine theme and has a large female player base
(van Reijmersdal et al., 2013). These so-called “pink games” are popular with girls and young
women and offer traditional female gender role activities. While there is little research on the
subject, these feminized games may offer a role-play opportunity for girls to embrace
stereotypical and, thereby, socially acceptable behaviors (van Reijmersdal et al., 2013). Pink
games in general offer less competitiveness and challenge than male-centric video games, which
could explain why girls’ interest in pink games drops off as they reach their mid to late teens
(Summers & Miller, 2014; van Reijmersdal et al., 2013). Girls this age and older tend to play
fewer video games in general, a fact that the gaming industry would like to change
(Entertainment Software Association, 2013).
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
39
The outlook for more gender-generic game design is improving. As girls become young
women, their taste in hyper-feminized “pink games” gives way to more gender-neutral games
that young men in their age group may also enjoy (Terlecki, Brown, Harner-Steciw, Irvin-
Hannum, Marchetto-Ryan, & Wiggins, 2011). Games that are fun, that feature the challenge of
mastery, curiosity, improved cognition, and socialization were noted by both genders as being
what they would buy in the future (Lazzaro, 2004; Terlecki et al., 2011). Cunningham (2011)
explains that video games “embody a particular form of knowledge and shape what people can
and cannot do” (p. 1376) in relation to gender role learning. Terlecki et al. (2011) eloquently
encapsulates the need to make gaming more balanced, gender-neutral, and interesting to girls and
women in design this way, “Because computer video games are a seamless lead-in to the
technological age, those who are not playing may be at a disadvantage” (p. 30).
Summary
Video gaming as an entertainment genre gains popularity and players every year. The
entertainment industry that creates games has a keen interest in developing games for women
and girls. The statistics inform us that girls and women who may be entering STEM majors in
the future will find an array of video games out there for their entertainment. Those games that
are well designed can have a positive influence on women’s attitudes towards technology in
general. Overall, video games can offer experiential interactive learning and can improve the
player’s sense of self-efficacy and sense of community. Video games can offer a variety of
motives to play including challenge, competition, fantasy, arousal, social interaction, and
diversion (McGonigal, 2011). Some videogames are shown to have some negative effects which
include antisocial behaviors, and lack of interest in real life (Lazzaro, 2004; Terlecki et al.,
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
40
2011). These negative effects may be related to excessive game play and violent first-person-
shooter type games.
When we consider that women and girls face stereotype threat and bias in STEM majors
in college and when they go out into the community to work in STEM careers, for which there is
no easy answer. One possible way to address this issue is through the positive reinforcing effects
of video gaming. There is very little research that conclusively demonstrates that video gaming
can offer women and girls resilience in the face of stereotype threat and bias. This study
examined the attitudes and behaviors of women who are freshmen in college and who have been
gaming for a length of time. The degree of motivation and interest in STEM majors and careers
was measured. This research may add to the body of existing knowledge on the subject.

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41

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This mixed-methods study looked at the gaming history of first-year college women and
men between the ages of 18 and 21, as well as older women, and their interest, motivation and
self-efficacy in STEM majors (Lafreniere, Verner-Filion & Vallerand, 2012; Wiebe, Lamb,
Hardy, & Sharek, 2014). The data collected from surveys and interviews with 18 to 21-year-old
first-year college women and older women in STEM majors were examined for evidence that
video game playtime affects interest and motivation in STEM-related majors. This study
consisted of a Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with the independent variables as
longitudinal game play, experience in game play and frequency of game play. The aim of this
investigation was to examine whether these independent variables – hours and history of video
game time - result in a change in the dependent variable, the students’ interest and motivation in
STEM majors.
Game Type Definitions
The video games that were examined in this study included five basic types as outlined in
the first research question, “What impact do open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role-
Playing games (RPG), social games, or single player-type games have on the motivation and
interest of college freshman women to enter STEM majors?” The following definitions include
games titles that the interviewees mentioned that they had played. It should be noted that some of
these games qualify as multiple game types, and survey respondents may have become confused
as to the game types they played.
Open World (a.k.a., Sandbox) – Players cam move freely about in these game environments.
These games can feature action, adventure and puzzle solving. Examples include the Legend of
Zelda, Grand Theft Auto, and The Elder Scrolls.
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42
FPS (First Person Shooter) – First person shooters are environments that feature single player
combat environments. Scoring or player ability progression is usually based on successful kills in
game. Some popular examples of first person shooter type games include Doom, Half-Life,
Halo, and Call of Duty.
RPG (Role-Playing Game) – RPGs are games in which players assume the roles of characters in
a fictional setting. Examples include Diablo, Final Fantasy, Fallout, and Mass Effect. Note that
some open world games (e.g., Grand Theft Auto, The Elder Scrolls) could also be considered
RPGs.
MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) – These games feature massive
multiplayer environments with players assuming character roles. Teams often are formed to
accomplish missions or quests. Examples include Guild Wars, EVE Online, and World of
Warcraft. Note that the online components of some RPGs (e.g., Final Fantasy, Elder Scrolls)
could also be considered to be MMORPGs.
Single Player Game – A video game where input from only one player is expected throughout
the course of the gaming session. This could include games played on video game consoles,
personal computers, or mobile devices. Most open worlds, FPS, and RPGs have a single player
campaign mode. Examples include Portal, Max Payne, and Legend of Zelda.
Multi-Player Game – A video game where input from multiple, simultaneous players is
expected throughout the course of the gaming session. Most single player games – including
Open Worlds, FPS, and RPG – offer multi-player modes.
The individuals that were interviewed for this study reported that they played many
different games over the span of their interest in gaming. The majority of the interviewees
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43
reported that they started with simple, single player games early on and, as they became more
proficient, moved on to more completed and sophisticated game environments.
The following are games that interviewees reported playing:
• Sims – Open World, Single Player or Multiplayer
• Pink Panther: Passport to Peril – Single Player, Adventure game
• World of Warcraft - MMORPG
• Max Payne – Single Player
• Half Life – FPS, single player or Multiplayer
• Godfather - Single player
• The Simpsons – Single player/multiplayer
• Machinarium – Single player graphic adventure
• Team Fortress – FPS, Single player/multi player
• Spyro the Dragon – RPG, single player/multiplayer
• Final Fantasy 14 - MMORPG
• Gauntlet2, - Multiplayer
• Dota 2 – Multiplayer
• Guild Wars 1 & 2 - MMORPG
• Battlefield 3 & 4 – FPS single player/multiplayer
• Eldar Scrolls 5 Oblivion (RPG) – Role Playing, Open World
• ArcheAge –- MMORPG
• Pokeyman - RPG
• Mario Brothers - Single player/multiplayer
• Rune Scape Maple story - MMORPG
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• Counter Strike, Team Fortress 2 – FPS, multiplayer
• Left for Dead 1 & 2 – FPS
• Call of Duty Black Ops 2 – FPS, single player/multiplayer
• Legend of Zelda – Single player
• Ocarina of Time - Single player
• Elder Scrolls Online – Single player/multiplayer
• Skyrim Oblivion – Single player
Sample and Population
A survey was administered online via Reddit.com educational sub-Reddit sites, a female
gamer electronic mailing list, and from female gamers drawn from the Glendale Community
College population, and other digital sites (Appendix B). Interviews were conducted with women
who agreed to be interviewed through the Reddit.com electronic mailing list and at Glendale
Community College. The survey sample population included women who are 18 to 21 years old
and have longitudinal gaming experience. The interviews were of women between the ages of 18
and 40 who have a history of game experience as well as STEM career experience as well as one
college freshman male. They were asked about their interest and motivation in STEM majors and
careers.
The criteria were the following:
1. Sample population focused on 18 to 21 year-old first-year college/university women.
2. Age range: 18-to 21-year-old females and males (survey) and 18- to 40-year-old
females (interviews).
3. The sample interview population was drawn from Reddit.com gamer-girl electronic
mailing list and from the survey respondents who volunteered to be interviewed.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
45
4. Sampling issues could include self-reporting bias, small sample size, and authenticity
questions.
5. Game types were open worlds, FPS, RPG, MMORPGs or social versus single player-
type games
6. Respondents were classified into categories related to number of years of game
experience, gender, and STEM interests.
7. Respondents were asked if they believe that their gaming background had any effect
on their interest and motivation in pursuing STEM majors.
Instrumentation
The instruments used to select questions for this qualitative study were the Science
Motivation Questionnaire II: Validation with Science Majors and Non-Science Majors (Glynn,
Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi, 2011), and the Game Experience Questionnaire
(IJsselsteijn, De Kort, & Poels, 2013). Several questions from the Science Motivation
Questionnaire II and from each subsection of the Game Experience Questionnaire were pulled
for inclusion. The subsections were the Core Module, the In-Game GEQ, and the GEQ - Social
Presence Module. Demographic and game type preferences questions were also included.
Permission to use the Game Experience Questionnaire was granted in writing by Dr.
Wijnand IJsselsteijn of the Cognition and Affect in Human-Technology Interaction, Eindhoven
University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands (IJsselsteijn et al., 2013). Permission was
included to use the instrument in the empirical article for the Science Motivation Questionnaire,
as long as the work was cited (Glynn, 2011).
A Qualtrics survey featuring questions from the described instruments was deployed
related to open worlds, including questions about FPS, RPG, MMORPGs, and social versus
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
46
single player-type games, gaming history and interest/motivation in STEM careers was
deployed. Interviews of college freshman women and one college freshman man between the
ages of 18 and 21 and of older women who are STEM majors and have a history of playing
video games were included, and questions examine genres of game played. The goal was to
receive several hundred or more responses from the Qualtrics survey and to gather three to six
personal interviews.

The relationship of the research questions and the instrumentation is useful and effective
for this study. The Science Motivation Questionnaire II consists of the following scales: intrinsic
motivation, self-determination, self-efficacy, career motivation, and grade motivation. In order to
determine the internal consistency and scale reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was used (Cronbach,
1951). Overall scale reliability for the dependent variables were assessed with this measurement
instrument and were considered acceptable because they were greater than or equal to 0.70
(Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s alphas for The Science Motivation Questionnaire II were career
motivation (alpha = 0.92), Intrinsic motivation (alpha = 0.89) self-determination (alpha = 0.88)
self-efficacy (alpha = 0.83) and grade motivation (alpha = 0.81).
Questions from The Game Experience Questionnaire were pulled for inclusion. The
subsections were the Core Module, the In-Game GEQ, and the GEQ - Social Presence Module
displayed the following reliability: psychological involvement Cronbach’s is (alpha = 0.85), the
behavioral engagement is (alpha = 0.84).
Data Collection
This study was conducted by administering surveys and by interviewing 18- to 21-year-
old first-year college women who have a history of gaming as well as older women who also fit
the descriptors. Questions were pulled from the Science motivation questionnaire II (Glynn et al.,
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47
2011), the Game Experience Questionnaire (IJsselsteijn et al., 2013) and personal interviews
were conducted with local women studying at Glendale Community College. A descriptive
Likert-type scale was designed with questions from the two instruments as well as demographic
questions and gamer history questions regarding the game most often played. Questions included
inquiries as to gender bias and stereotype threat while gaming and while in school.
Questions were grouped in categories. Several of the survey questions asked about game
history and favorite game. Basic demographic questions were queries as to age, gender, race,
college major, city of origin, and year at college. Questions also asked for information about
degree of comfort with technology and about experiences with gender bias or stereotype threat in
games. Interview questions regarded gender bias and stereotype threat in coursework at the
college and in their STEM careers. Questions also asked about comfort level with technology
relating to game experience. Respondents were asked if they believe that gaming improved their
interest and motivation in STEM majors. Interviews also include other open-ended questions.
Data Analysis
Two research questions guided this study:
1. What impact do open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role Play games (RPG), or
social versus single player-type games have on the motivation and interest of college freshman
women to enter STEM majors?
2. Does longitudinal game play experience in games have an impact on STEM interest in
college freshman women?
Creswell’s (2009) six steps of qualitative research review were used to define the
research questions and the direction of the study.
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48
The first step was to identify the problem. The problem is defined as the low interest and
motivation of young college women to enter STEM majors and careers. Secondly, Creswell
(2009) calls for a review of the literature. A comprehensive literature review is included in this
study to provide a background of the extant research on the issues related to women and STEM
interest, motivation in STEM majors and of the research that is currently available on girls,
women, and gaming in regards to any impact on STEM interest and motivation. Third, it is
necessary to specify a purpose. The purpose of this study was to discover whether women’s
longitudinal gaming had any impact or provided any resilience to stereotype threat and gender
bias in relation to their interest and motivation in STEM majors.
The fourth is collection of data. In this study, the data were collected using questions
from the Game Experience Questionnaire (IJsselsteijn et al., 2013) and the Science Motivation
Questionnaire II: Validation with science majors and non-majors (Glynn et al., 2011) as well as
questions on demographic and type of games played. There were interviews of women who have
longitudinal game experience and an interest in STEM careers and of one young man. During the
fifth step, the data was coded and analyzed by creating categories and seeking pertinent
information regarding their game experience and their interest and motivation in STEM majors.
The connections among these categories are presented in Chapter Four. These connections
explain the results attained through the data. The results are illustrated with graphs. Lastly, to
report and evaluate the research (Creswell, 2009), the interview and survey results were coded
and categorized so that they can be considered along with the extant research on women, gaming
and STEM motivation and interest. Findings from this study were compared and contrasted to
previously published research on the subject. Areas of further research are noted in Chapter Five.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
49

Methods
Methods included a survey created in the Qualtrics survey application and personal
interviews of women of various ages as well as one young man. The survey was deployed over
the span of approximately seven weeks, beginning on October 26, 2014, and closing on
December 15, 2014. There were 703 survey respondents and 433 completed the survey. The
respondents included students from colleges and universities across America. A raffle for a Quad
Core Tablet was offered as an incentive to participate in the survey. After the closing of the
survey, a random number generator was used to select the winner from among students who
opted to participate in the raffle by sending their email to a specified email address. The student
who won the raffle was notified via email, and picked the tablet up at Glendale Community
College.
Interviews were conducted using Skype and were audio recorded for coding and
transcription. Students who indicated interest in being interviewed were instructed to contact the
researcher at the email provided at the end of the survey. Interviewees were also recruited from
the Reddit.com sub-Reddit conversation that focused on STEM classroom and STEM career
experiences
(http://www.reddit.com/r/GirlGamers/comments/2p5bgr/female_computer_scientists_do_an_am
a_most_asked/). Interviewees were offered a 20-dollar gift certificate from Amazon.com for
participating in the interview.
Including both the quantitative survey data with the qualitative interview information
allows a comparison and triangulation of the study. The survey results provided a good overall
indicator of how the research questions applied to the sample population over a wide geographic
area while the interviews allowed a deeper understanding of how individuals experienced
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50
gaming and STEM major and whether they felt that gaming had any impact specifically on their
personal choices related to STEM majors. Exploring the survey results with personal interviews
with college freshman women and older women who have been through college STEM
coursework and spent time in the STEM career arena added to the depth of understanding of the
study results. One college freshman man was interviewed in order to get a different perspective
on the subject. The older women with a gaming background and a history of STEM course work
and career trajectories had an especially rich account of the challenges that women face in STEM
majors and careers.
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51

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
To discover what effect gaming history has on the interest and motivation of first-year
college women to enter into STEM majors, this study utilized a mixed methodology. A survey
was conducted regarding game play details for college students, their attitudes towards science
and how they felt while in course work settings. Questions asked them to describe their feelings
about any impact gaming may have had on their science courses and with their comfort level
with technology in general. In order to gain a deeper understanding of their assessments of how
game play affected their interest and motivation in STEM courses, the study included interviews
with women and one 18 year old freshman male from the Glendale Community College
freshman population, and from the entertainment, social networking, and news website
Reddit.com, specifically a gamer girl sub-Reddit discussion area (Reddit, 2014). This study
examined the degree of gender bias and stereotype threat reported by female students, as it was
hypothesized that it may have a significant effect on interest and motivation in entering STEM
majors. The one male was interviewed to compare his experiences and thoughts on gaming and
his STEM interests with the women. This area included candid and frank discussion between
women regarding the challenges they faced in lower and upper division STEM courses and their
experiences in the STEM workforce. Women who reported instances of gender bias and
stereotyping were invited to participate in this study.
Results for Research Question One
The first question asked about the impact of open worlds, FPS, RPG, or social versus
single player-type games on the motivation and interest of first-year college women to enter
STEM majors. The purpose of this question was to learn about any effect of video game play on
first-year college women who may enter STEM majors. Results show that a substantial number
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52
of respondents did feel that video game play had some degree of impact on their interest and
motivation in STEM majors. The survey questions were designed to measure the students’
confidence in science and technology subjects and looked at length of years played as well as
number of hours per week. The students were asked to describe if they felt their gaming
background had any effect on their confidence, and interest in STEM majors. Motivation was
measured by these questions, and questions related to the respondents perception of how
interesting and important that felt understanding science was to their future career goals.
Computer self-efficacy was included, as it is tied into both interest and motivation as the
behavioral constructs of perceived control, outcomes expectations, and self-concept (Bandura,
1977; Schunk, 1991).
Statistical Analysis
Summative Likert-type scales were constructed for each of the variables used to reflect
the following constructs: Interest, Motivation, Computer-Self Efficacy, Experience, Length of
Game Play, and Frequency of Game Play. The internal consistency reliability was measured
using Cronbach’s (1951) statistic alpha. All subscales were found to have acceptable levels of
reliability. Cronbach’s alpha for the overall scale was found to be .826. Individual values for
each of the subscales were:
• Interest α = .81
• Motivation α = .875
• Computer self-efficacy α = .826
• Experience α = .903
• Length of game-play α = .836
• Frequency of game-play α = .765
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53
Descriptive Statistics
The survey results from the 433 male and female responses (n=433) included Male (225)
and Female (198) as well as the gender category of Other (6). The total usable responses
produced a valid response rate of 62%. Age ranges were divided as follows: 18-19 (158), 20-21
(102), 22-23 (59), 24-26 (34) and 26 or older (78). Students who indicated they are currently in
or considering a STEM major (250) outnumbered students who were not (180). When asked to
rate the degree of influence gaming had on their interest and motivation in STEM majors, 43%
indicated slightly more to extremely more (187) and 54% report that they felt there was no
influence at all (233).
In order to gain a better understanding of the focus population of this study, the Qualtrics
survey instrument data was filtered to screen out all but 18 to 21 year old freshman women who
had an interest in STEM majors. This reduced the focus group to twenty-eight women and
distilled out their responses to the survey questions. The demographic data was presented as
percentages and graphed. In the filtered analysis, the target demographic information is listed,
including age, gender, college level, and STEM interest, followed by the game experience
information and finally responses to the key survey questions (Table 1-4, Figure 1-4).
Descriptive Statistics Tables
Target population was filtered by age, gender, freshman status and STEM interest (n=28).
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54
1. Please indicate your age.

Figure 1. Age
Table 1
Age
# Answer Response %
1 18 -19 24 86%
2 20 -21 4 14%
3 22 - 23 0 0%
4 24 - 26 0 0%
5 26 and older 0 0%
Total 28 100%
Statistics
Min Value 1
Max Value 2
Mean 1.14
Variance 0.13
Standard Deviation 0.36
Total Responses 28

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55
2. Please state your gender.

Figure 2. Gender
Table 2
Gender
# Answer Response %
1 Male 0 0%
2 Female 28 100%
3
Another
gender
0 0%
Total 28 100%

3. Please state your college/university level.

Figure 3. College/University Level
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56

Table 3
College/University Level
# Answer Response %
1 Freshmen 28 100%
2 Sophomore 0 0%
3 Junior 0 0%
4 Senior 0 0%
Total 28 100%

4. Are you a currently a science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) major or
considering a STEM major or career?

Figure 4. STEM Majors
Table 4
STEM Majors
# Answer Response %
1 yes 28 100%
2 No 0 0%
Total 28 100%

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57
5. Science Motivation Questionnaire II - Rate how your feel about Science.

Figure 5. I Believe I can Master Science Knowledge and Skills
Table 5
I Believe I can Master Science Knowledge and Skills
# Question Never Rarely Sometimes Often
All of
the
Time
Total
Responses
Mean
1
I believe I
can master
science
knowledge
and skills.
0.00% 0.00% 28.57% 46.43% 25.00% 28 3.96
Statistic I believe I can master science knowledge and skills.
Min Value 3
Max Value 5
Mean 3.96
Variance 0.55
Standard Deviation 0.74
Total Responses 28

In order to understand the target population’s attitude towards science and technology,
the survey asked respondents to rate their degree of confidence in mastering science knowledge
and skills (Figure 5, Table 5). Discovering their degree of self-efficacy in this area would inform
the study, as it could have an impact on their interest and motivation (Bandura, 1977; Hill et al.,
2010). Self-efficacy as defined as by Bandura and Schunk (1981) is self-judgment of how
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58
effectively one can perform a course of action that is often difficult and stressful. The study of
science may seem daunting to freshmen that are just starting their educational path, and a
discouraging environment may have a significant impact on their decisions for future study
(Creamer & Laughlin, 2005). Many young freshman women decide their long-term study majors
at this fragile point in their education, so measurement of their attitudes and confidence towards
science would be informative (Baxter Magolda, 2008).
6. Science Motivation Questionnaire II - Rate how your feel about Science.

Figure 6. Learning Science is Interesting
Table 6
Learning Science is Interesting
# Question Never Rarely Sometimes Often
All of
the
Time
Total
Responses
Mean
1
Learning
science is
interesting.
0.00% 0.00% 14.29% 35.71% 50.00% 28 4.36
Statistic Learning science is interesting.
Min Value 3
Max Value 5
Mean 4.36
Variance 0.53
Standard Deviation 0.73
Total Responses 28

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59
The majority of the respondents declared that science is interesting to some degree, and
50% of them described science as interesting all the time (Figure 6, Table 6). Interest is key in
sustained engagement over time and can have an impact on long-term decisions related to STEM
major choices. The cognitive assessment of the perceived value of an activity can stimulate
greater interest in STEM and science subjects (Hidi &Renninger, 2006). The data suggests a
strong degree of interest in science in this population.
7. Science Motivation Questionnaire II - Rate how your feel about Science.

Figure 7. Knowing Science Will Give me a Career Advantage
Table 7
Knowing Science will Give me a Career Advantage
# Question Never Rarely Sometimes Often
All of the
Time
Total
Responses
Mean
1
Knowing
science
will give
me a career
advantage.
0.00% 3.57% 7.14% 28.57% 60.71% 28 4.46
Statistic Knowing science will give me a career advantage.
Min Value 2
Max Value 5
Mean 4.46
Variance 0.63
Standard Deviation 0.79
Total Responses 28

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
60

The target population expressed a strong positive opinion related to how important
mastering science is to future career goals (Figure 7, Table 7). Interest theory states that, along
with the cognitive perception of the value of an activity, affective engagement is important in
that it relates to the rewarding aspects of an activity, or, in this case, a career trajectory (Hidi &
Renninger, 2006). There is a strong positive belief expressed by this population of knowing
science will offer major career advantages in the future. The previous question aligns with the
degree of interest in science expressed by this group of students and indicates interest and
motivation to enter into science studies is present.
8. Science Motivation Questionnaire II - Rate how your feel about Science.

Figure 8. I Feel Welcome While Participating in Science Courses
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61

Table 8
I Feel Welcome While Participating in Science Courses
# Question Never Rarely Sometimes Often
All of the
Time
Total
Responses
Mean
1
I feel welcome
while
participating in
science courses.
3.57% 3.57% 39.29% 28.57% 25.00% 28 3.68
Statistic I feel welcome while participating in science courses.
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 3.68
Variance 1.04
Standard Deviation 1.02
Total Responses 28

The degree to which the target population feels welcome while participating in science
courses was measured in order to discover if barriers to interest, motivation and self-efficacy
might be present (Figure 8, Table 8). If gender bias and stereotype threat were present, they
could have an impact on the degree to which these students felt welcome in their science courses
(Marshall et al., 2011; Plucker et al., 2010; Strate et al., 2013). While over half of this group
stated feeling welcome often or all the time, a large percentage (39%) indicated they felt
welcome “sometimes”. Approximately 7% said they never or rarely felt welcome in their science
courses. Further research into why these college freshman women do not feel especially
welcome would be useful and informative in creating interventions to improve retention.
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9. Rate your comfort level with technology. Your comfort level refers to how much or how
little anxiety you experience when using technology.

Figure 9. Level of Comfort With Technology
Table 9
Level of Comfort With Technology
# Question Uncomfortable
Slightly
comfortable
Comfortable
Very
comfortable
Extremely
comfortable
Total
Responses
Mean
1
How
would you
rate your
comfort
level with
technology
?
0.00% 10.71% 57.14% 25.00% 7.14% 28 3.29
Statistic How would you rate your comfort level with technology?
Min Value 2
Max Value 5
Mean 3.29
Variance 0.58
Standard Deviation 0.76
Total Responses 28

The majority of the college freshman women in this study said they felt comfortable with
technology (Figure 9, Table 9). Considering the pervasiveness of digital devices and computer in
this group’s lifetime, this result is not surprising. The focus of this study was how technology
and, specifically, video gaming, affect college freshman women’s interest and motivation in
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63
STEM majors. It was assumed that, in order to play video games, one must have some degree of
understanding of technology, and this could translate into their comfort level with technology.
10. How LONG have you been playing the following types of games?

Figure 10. Length of Time Playing
Table 10
Length of Time Playing
# Question Never
6 months
- 1 year
1 -2
years
3 - 5
years
5 years
or more
Total
Responses
Mean
1
Open
worlds like
Second Life
78.57% 3.57% 3.57% 3.57% 10.71% 28 1.64
2
MMORPG's
like World
of Warcraft
82.14% 7.14% 0.00% 7.14% 3.57% 28 1.43
3
Role Play
Games like
Final
Fantasy
71.43% 14.29% 3.57% 0.00% 10.71% 28 1.64
4
Social
Games like
The Sims
50.00% 25.00% 7.14% 3.57% 14.29% 28 2.07
5
Single
Player type
games like
Half Life
46.43% 28.57% 0.00% 7.14% 17.86% 28 2.21

This survey question asking about number of years played by game type and the
following question asking the hours per week by game type sought to discover the degree of
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64
experience that the target demographic had playing video games (Figure 10, Table 10). The
longitudinal game experience of these college freshman women indicates that the majority never
played any of the game types. Single player games seemed to attract most of those who played
video games, and that was for a year or less. Social games like The Sims© came in as second
highest percent (25%) and that was also for a year or less. Single player games had the highest
number of respondents who played for five years or more (18%). A closer look at the students
who have been playing for one to five years or more, however small the percentage, helps inform
this study in relation to interest and motivation related to their STEM major choices. This
population is studied in greater detail in the qualitative section that follows.
11. How many HOURS PER WEEK (on average) have you been playing the following
types of games?

Figure 11. Hours per Week
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65

Table 11
Hours per Week
# Question None
1-2
hours
3-4
hours
4-5
hours
5 hours
or more
Total
Responses
Mean
1
Open
worlds like
Second Life
85.71% 7.14% 0.00% 3.57% 3.57% 28 1.32
2
MMORPG's
like World
of Warcraft
92.31% 3.85% 0.00% 3.85% 0.00% 26 1.15
3
Role Play
Games like
Final
Fantasy
82.14% 10.71% 3.57% 0.00% 3.57% 28 1.32
4
Social
Games like
The Sims
64.29% 25.00% 7.14% 0.00% 3.57% 28 1.54
5
Single
Player type
games like
Half Life
57.14% 32.14% 10.71% 0.00% 0.00% 28 1.54
Statistic
Open worlds
like Second
Life
MMORPG's
like World of
Warcraft
Role Play
Games like
Final Fantasy
Social Games
like The Sims
Single Player
type games
like Half Life
Min Value 1 1 1 1 1
Max Value 5 4 5 5 3
Mean 1.32 1.15 1.32 1.54 1.54
Variance 0.89 0.38 0.74 0.85 0.48
Standard
Deviation
0.94 0.61 0.86 0.92 0.69
Total
Responses
28 26 28 28 28

Along with the number of years that the college freshman women played video games,
the number of hours per week they played was also measured by game type (Figure 11, Table
11). The hours per week reported by the group largely aligned with the years played by game
type. Single player game types were the most popular in the one to two hours per week range
(32%). Social games like The Sims© were the second most popular within the one to two hour
range (25%). The game types were included in order to gain a better understanding of the social
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
66
effect of playing with peers in game, as well as how the players were affected in single player
games (Ijsselsteijn et al., 2013). This data sought to answer the research question, “What impact
do open worlds, First Person Shooters (FPS), Role Play games (RPG), or social versus single
player-type games have on the motivation and interest of college freshman women to enter
STEM majors?” The following questions were taken from the Game Experience Questionnaire
so that the game experience could be analyzed for impact on interest and motivation regarding
STEM majors among the target population for (Ijsselsteijn et al., 2013).
12. Game Experience Questionnaire: Rate how you felt during game play.

Figure 12. I Felt Competent
Table 12
I Felt Competent
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
true
Somewhat
true
Very
true
Extremely
true
Total
Responses
Mean
1
I felt
competent.
39.29% 17.86% 17.86% 21.43% 3.57% 28 2.32
Statistic I felt competent.
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 2.32
Variance 1.71
Standard Deviation 1.31
Total Responses 28

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
67

This question (Figure 12, Table 12) was included in the survey from the core
questionnaire section of the Game Experience Questionnaire and endeavored to measure the
player’s sense of confidence and self-efficacy (Ijsselsteijn et al., 2013). Measuring the degree of
confidence in game and against the years and hours played may point to a trend in influencing
attitudes towards STEM interest. The majority of the respondents indicated that they did not feel
competent at all (39%). However, many felt that it was “very true” that they felt competent
during game play (21%). The scores in response to the remark “I felt competent [in game play]”
for “slightly true” to “somewhat true” were both 18%.
13. Game Experience Questionnaire: Rate how you felt during game play.

Figure 13. What Others Did Affected What I Did
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
68

Table 13
What Others Did Affected What I Did
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
true
Somewhat
true
Very
true
Extremely
true
Total
Responses
Mean
1
What
others did
affected
what I
did.
39.29% 25.00% 25.00% 7.14% 3.57% 28 2.11
Statistic What others did affected what I did.
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 2.11
Variance 1.28
Standard Deviation 1.13
Total Responses 28

14. Game Experience Questionnaire: Rate how you felt during game play.

Figure 14. What I Did Affected What Others Did
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
69

Table 14
What I Did Affected What Others Did
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
true
Somewhat
true
Very
true
Extremely
true
Total
Responses
Mean
1
What I
did
affected
what
others
did.
42.86% 17.86% 35.71% 3.57% 0.00% 28 2.00
Statistic What I did affected what others did.
Min Value 1
Max Value 4
Mean 2.00
Variance 0.96
Standard Deviation 0.98
Total Responses 28

In order to understand interaction in the social games, questions 13 and 14 were included
from the Social Presence Module of the Game Experience Questionnaire (Ijsselsteijn et al.,
2013) (Figures 13-14, Tables 13-14). While some questions were designed to indicate comfort
with technology, and any sense of the positive effect of greater competence in game play, these
two interrelated questions were included to get a glimpse of respondents’ sense of collaborative
socialization in game. For question 13, half of the respondents indicated their actions slightly or
somewhat affected what their teammates did in game (50%). The results for question 14 were
comparable to those of question 13, indicating that 54% believed their actions slightly or
somewhat affected what other players did. This data applies to the respondents who said they
played social games (25%) and experienced interaction with other players while in game. While
this study only touches on the importance of the social aspect of video gaming, it is clear that
socialization and collaborative team play has an impact on the players (de Kort et al., 2007).
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
70
15. Game Experience Questionnaire: Rate how you felt during game play.

Figure 15. I Feel Connected to Others
Table 15
I Feel Connected to Others
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
true
Somewhat
true
Very
true
Extremely
true
Total
Responses
Mean
1
I felt
connected
to others.
60.71% 10.71% 28.57% 0.00% 0.00% 28 1.68
Statistic I felt connected to others.
Min Value 1
Max Value 3
Mean 1.68
Variance 0.82
Standard Deviation 0.90
Total Responses 28

Following the previous focus of attention in the Social Presence Module of the Game
Experience Questionnaire, this question asked about respondents’ sense of connection with other
players while in game (Ijsselsteijn et al., 2013). The majority indicated they felt no connection
with others (Figure 15, Table 15). Those who did feel a connection indicated that they felt
slightly (11%) connected to somewhat (29%) connected to others in game play.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
71
16. Game Experience Questionnaire: Rate how you felt during game play.

Figure 16. I was Good at It
Table 16
I was Good at It
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
true
Somewhat
true
Very
true
Extremely
true
Total
Responses
Mean
1
I was
good at
it.
25.00% 17.86% 32.14% 17.86% 7.14% 28 2.64
Statistic I was good at it.
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 2.64
Variance 1.57
Standard Deviation 1.25
Total Responses 28

While the concept of confidence in game play was measured in this survey instrument,
considering the degree of self-efficacy while playing may render a more detailed result. Asking
respondents to rate if they felt they were good at their favorite game may clarify these two
similar self-awareness constructs and more clearly answer the research question regarding what
impact open worlds, FPS, RPG, or social versus single player-type games have on the motivation
and interest of college freshman women to enter STEM majors. The responses to this question
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72
were more positive, indicating that the majority of the college freshman women enjoyed a slight
to extremely positive sense of self-efficacy in regard to their game play (Figure 16, Table 16). A
strong sense of self-efficacy in game play may possibly translate into greater interest and
motivation in the science of technology (Bandura, 1977). The following two survey questions
looked at how gaming has impacted their comfort and confidence levels in technology in general
and in computer technology specifically.
17. Rate your comfort level with technology. Your comfort level refers to how much or
how little anxiety you experience when using technology.

Figure 17. Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Technology
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
73

Table 17
Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Technology
# Question
Not at
all
Slight
influence
moderately
influential
Very
influential
Extremely
influential
Total
Responses
Mean
1
How would
you rate the
influence
that gaming
has had, if
any, on your
comfort
level with
technology?
18.52% 18.52% 37.04% 22.22% 3.70% 27 2.74
Statistic
How would you rate the influence that gaming has had, if
any, on your comfort level with technology?
Min Value 1
Max Value 5
Mean 2.74
Variance 1.28
Standard Deviation 1.13
Total Responses 27

When asked to define the degree to which their gaming experience affected their comfort
level with technology in general, the majority of the freshmen college women stated that gaming
had a moderate influence (Figure 17, Table 17). A full 22% stated that gaming was very
influential on their comfort level. All told, 81% noted some degree of influence. Possessing a
level of comfort with technology in general may be instrumental in gaining a comfort level in
technology-centric majors. This may have an impact on their future choices for STEM majors.
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
74
18. Rate your thoughts on your game experiences and any impact it may have on your
attitude towards STEM subjects.

Figure 18. Game Experience Gave me Greater Confidence
Table 18
Influence of Gaming on Level of Comfort With Computer Technology
# Question
Not at
all
Slightly
more
confident
Moderately
more
confident
Much
more
confident
Extremely
confident
Total
Responses
Mean
1
My game
experience
gave me
greater
confidence
with
computer
technology.
42.86% 25.00% 21.43% 10.71% 0.00% 28 2.00
Statistic
My game experience gave me greater confidence
with computer technology.
Min Value 1
Max Value 4
Mean 2.00
Variance 1.11
Standard Deviation 1.05
Total Responses 28

The comparison between their perceptions of comfort and confidence in technology in
general and in computer technology gave slightly different results (Figure 18, Table 18). The
majority in this case indicated they noted that gaming had no impact on their comfort level with
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
75
computer technology specifically. However, 25% of the respondents did note a slight degree of
increased confidence, 21% indicated that gaming had a moderate effect on their confidence with
computer technology, and 11% indicated that gaming made them much more confident with
computer technology. The difference in the effect gaming had on their (81%) confidence in
technology overall and their comfort level with computer technology overall (51%) was
interesting. Since the reasons for this difference are not clear, further study is warranted.
19. Rate your thoughts on your game experiences and any impact it may have on your
attitude towards STEM subjects.

Figure 19. Game Experience Gave me Greater Confidence
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
76

Table 19
Game Experience Gave me Greater Confidence
# Question Not at all
Slightly
more
confident
Moderate
ly more
confident
Much
more
confident
Extremel
y
confident
Total
Response
s
Mean
1
My game
experien
ce gave
me
greater
confiden
ce with
my
Science
courses.
57.14% 17.86% 21.43% 3.57% 0.00% 28 1.71
Statistic
My game experience gave me greater
confidence with my Science courses.
Min Value 1
Max Value 4
Mean 1.71
Variance 0.88
Standard Deviation 0.94
Total Responses 28

This survey question were designed to answer both research questions and shed light on
the overall hypothesis of this study, “Did playing video games have an impact on this target
population’s interest and motivation in STEM majors?” (Figure 19, Table 19). The majority of
the respondents to this question said that they noticed no impact. This question asked about their
perceived confidence in their ability to succeed in science courses that could translate into
greater interest and motivation in entering into STEM majors. There were some who did note
that gaming gave them greater confidence with their science courses, with 18% indicating a
slight impact, 21% noting a moderate impact and 4% said video gaming made them much more
confident. Overall, 43% indicated some degree of impact of gaming on their confidence with
their science courses. In order to delve deeper into the possible reasons for this impact on gaming
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
77
and how it affected their confidence in science courses, a series of interviews were conducted.
While the interviewees included the target population, older women and one man, the anecdotal
information they gave was very interesting and may clarify why this effect exists.
Hypothesis Testing
The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between males and females on
the mean scores for each of the subscales was tested using an Independent Samples t-test. The
experiment-wide level of significance was set a priori at .05. Significant differences were found
between males and females on each of the subscales (p<.001). Refer to Figures 20 and 21.

Figure 20. Population Mean - Male to Female STEM Major’s Comparison – Dependent
Variables

Figure 21. Population Mean - Male to Female STEM major’s Comparison – Independent
Variables
Correlations
Correlation coefficients were generated to assess whether significant relationships existed
among interest in STEM majors, overall computer self-efficacy, gaming experience, length of
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
78
time involved in online gaming, and frequency of gaming. Significant correlations were noted (p
< .001) among each of the subscales implying moderate to strong relationships between each
variable pair, with the exception of the Interest subscale which was found to be significantly but
weakly to moderately related to the Experience and Length subscale. This could be interpreted as
interest in STEM majors not being heavily dependent on how long or how broadly an individual
has been involved with online gaming (Table 20).
Table 20
Spearman’s Non-parametric Correlations – Spearman’s RHO Correlation Coefficients Among
Each of the Subscales
Interest
Subscale
Overall
Computer
Self-efficacy
Scale
Experience
Scale
Length
Scale
Gaming
Frequency
Scale
Motivation Subscale .632** .839** .693** .658** .629**
Interest Subscale .933** .400** .395** .306**
Overall Computer
Self-efficacy Scale

.543**

.523**

.451**
Experience Scale .724** .668**
Length Scale .804**
** P< .001
It is noted that the weakest relationship appears to be between gaming interest and
frequency of gaming, which suggests an inverse relationship between interest and the amount of
time played. There are expected relationships between the experience independent variables and
length of time gaming as well as frequency of game episodes per week. This relationship
suggests that experience would be collinear with length of time played and frequency of playtime
per week. The strongest relationships were evident in the comparison of motivation and
computer self-efficacy, interest and computer self-efficacy, and the expected relationship
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
79
between lengths of years played to frequency per week played. Interest and motivation seemed to
be associated strongly with computer self-efficacy.
When the whole survey population was asked what influence their video gaming had on
their comfort level with technology, a high number of respondents reported slightly to extremely
influential (Figure 22). A greater comfort level with technology may translate into greater
interest and motivation in STEM majors and careers in the target demographic. It is interesting to
note that in the overall survey population, 35.7% found gaming to be very influential to
extremely influential in their comfort level with technology. This data suggests that game play
could ease the transition into science-related subjects and begin a journey for first-year college
women that lead to successful STEM careers.

Figure 22. Overall Population - Gaming and Comfort Level With Technology
Results for Research Question Two
The second research question asked about the impact of longitudinal game play
experience of video games on motivation and interest of first-year college women to enter STEM
careers. The purpose of this question was to learn about any positive effect of the length of time
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
80
invested in video game play on first-year college women who may enter STEM majors.
Questions about confidence in their ability to understand since coursework, their interest in
science and their perception of how important science knowledge is to their future career goals
were asked. Computer self-efficacy is included because it is tied to both interest and motivation
as the behavioral constructs of perceived control, outcomes expectations, and self-concept
(Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1991). The paragraphs below present the data related to this research
question.

Figure 23. Overall Gaming and Positive Impact on Interest & Motivation in STEM Majors
The overall population data from this study suggests a connection among length of game
play and interest, motivation and self-efficacy in regard to STEM majors in some first-year
college women and men (Figure 23). The impact that gaming had on comfort levels with
technology in general in regard to length of game play and interest, motivation and self-efficacy
was also measured. Older women (24 to 38 years old) who already entered STEM careers also
reported their gaming experiences had a positive impact on their confidence and resilience in
STEM subjects and course work. While the length of play scale and the experience scale
independent variables suggested a strong connection among length and experience over time in
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
81
game play and interest, motivation and self-efficacy in STEM majors, the frequency measure did
not show any difference.
Overall, the number of years respondents played the games was measured in order to
understand if the length of time invested in the video games had an impact on interest and
motivation in first-year college women for STEM majors. Single player games represented the
longest time in game experience with 61% of the respondents indicating they had been playing
the game from six months to over five years. Single player gamers also indicated that 37.2% of
them had been playing longer than five years. Role-playing games and social games had similar
results with 49.1% of the role-play players indicating they had been playing for six months to
over five years. Role-playing gamers also indicated that 25.6% of them had been playing for
over five years (Figure 24).
Social games results showed that 47.2% of the players had been playing for six months to
five years or more, with 15.4% indicating they had been playing for over five years. MMORPG
gamers reported that 42.5% of them had played from six months to five years or more, with
17.8% playing for more than five years. The open worlds players accounted for the least
longitudinal game play, with 33% indicating they had been playing for six months to over five
years. Those who played open world games for more than five years were recorded at 14.7%.
Overall, 27% indicated they had been playing their particular game type for more than five years.
Many of the survey respondents could be represented in all or some of the game types.
Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type
Compared to the target demographic, it appears that these college freshman women do
not show as strong a degree of experience as the longitudinal results for the entire population
(Figure 24). For the game play length of time that was five years or more, the single player
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
82
games had the largest number (18%) followed by social games (14%) and role-play games tying
with social words for the third longest play experience (11%). While this data gives a good
glimpse of the longitudinal experience of the overall population, it should be noted that not all
games types were studied, and there may have been some confusion as to game types by the
description in the survey. The majority of the target population had no game experience (Figures
24 & 25.). More detailed research on game preferences would help clarify any possible
relationship between game type and longitudinal play experience.

Figure 24. Overall Population - Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type

Figure 25. Target Population - Longitudinal Game Play by Game Type
0

20

40

60

80

Open
worlds

Role
play
games

Social
games

Single
player
games

MMORPG
games

5
years
or
more

3
-‐5
years

1
-‐
2
years

6
months
-‐
1
year

Never

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
83
This study focused on first-year college women between the ages of 18 and 21. The
respondents included 53% who fell into that group, and 58%, all told, who had an interest in
STEM subjects. From the longitudinal game play perspective, length of time playing as well as
experience in game (hours logged) showed a significant relationship (Figure 25). This indicates
there is a significant impact on college freshman women gamers related to STEM major interests
and motivation across all game types. In order to examine the issue in greater detail, interviews
were conducted with volunteer respondents.
The Interview Results
Interviews with students who have a gaming background were conducted as the
qualitative part of the study. Six individuals were interviewed for this study. The ages of the
interviewees ranged from 18 to 38 years old, and included an 18-year-old male respondent.
Interview subjects were recruited from those who indicated they would be interested in being
interviewed at the end of the survey, announcements in the computer Science classrooms at
Glendale Community College, and women who candidly discussed gender bias and stereotype
experiences at the electronic mailing list entitled Reddit.com. The discussion thread that the
interviewees were recruited from was the “gamer girl” sub-Reddit subsection of Reddit.com
(Reddit, 2014).
Reddit.com Gamer Girl Subsection Document Analysis
In order to understand the challenges faced by college freshman women, a document
analysis that looks at the Gamer-girl sub-Reddit.com site is included to add to the data (Bowen,
2009). The gamer girl site included very candid and descriptive conversations about gender bias
and stereotype threat that women faced in their classes from high school level to upper division
course work. The dialog was copied verbatim from the Reddit site, but the grammar was
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
84
corrected for clarity. As this site was specifically for women who play video games, it was
assumed that these women probably had gaming backgrounds. These conversations were
analyzed and the relevance to this study was strong. The women at this site who described
gender issues and affirmed that they had a gaming background were invited to participate in
interviews.
The unsolicited conversations at this site provided a window of observation into how
women felt in situations that they described as biased and discriminatory. Since it was a public
conversation, many women joined in and described personal experiences and how they felt about
the incidents they described. Sharing their experiences with others at this site seemed to reassure
some of the women while others described a sense of despair at the pervasiveness of gender bias.
The episodes of perceived gender bias, stereotype threat and in-game social experiences are
included to address the interview themes.
Gender Bias in School
One woman began the conversation with an impassioned account of her experiences with
gender bias in her STEM courses:
Seriously, this kinda shit pisses me off. I’m a physics major with a CS minor. I’m
frequently one of the only women in my classes. I’ve tried explaining that experience to
people before and they just don’t get it.
Last semester, I was one of two girls in my CS class. I got paired with the only
other girl for the final project. No one got why that upset me. Then, we couldn’t actually
finish the project, and I couldn’t properly explain why I felt like I’d let my entire gender
down. This semester, I’m the only girl in my physics class and, while most of the other
students already know me and while I’ve worked with the professor before so he knows
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
85
me, I’m still more inclined than usual to sit quietly at the back of the room and not say
anything. No one gets this either.
When you are the minority in a group, you feel it. Even if nothing bad ever happens, you
feel it. Professors start to know your name when they know no one else’s, for example.
You have a different experience from those in the majority. It’s not their fault necessarily,
but it happens. A couple years ago, I attended a conference for women in physics. There
were a few guys there, and they were asked what it felt like. The consensus was that “it
feels weird.” Even in a two-day conference, they noticed.
So, yes, I am going to specify I am a woman in these fields. And I will continue to
do so until the day that I am no longer a minority. Because, as it is, my gender guarantees
me a different experience, and I want people to ask questions and learn and understand
until it becomes so normal that no one even thinks to ask why I specified my gender.
Because it shouldn’t matter, but it does.
The frustration and despair that this woman feels is evident in her story. While the
general data on women and gender bias is informative, hearing an account from someone whose
life is affected by these experiences is profound. It is notable that while she openly spoke of her
frustration at this gamer-girl site, she confessed that while the incident was going on, she opted
to “sit quietly at the back of the room and not say anything”. Her initial passive reaction may
suggest that her feelings of motivation to participate, and of her sense self-efficacy were strongly
impacted (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Jackson et al., 2010; Weiner, 1979). The discouraging
environment that is described here and the individual’s reaction to it speak to the effect on
motivation and self-efficacy below the conscious awareness (Weiner, 1979; Bandura, 1977).
Another woman responds:
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
86
Ugh! I got my BS in physics and it was the same thing. For me, it was like I had to prove
myself to my classmates, something the guys never had to do. They just assumed I wasn't
smart enough from the get go. The joke was on them when they realized how hard I
worked and, all of a sudden, wanted to be in my study group.
I’m still kind of bitter. Some of them said some mean things behind my back when I was
nothing but nice. I think half of my stubbornness about getting my degree was to prove
them wrong.
The dialog continues with more women:
I get that too. I’m taking CS and it’s automatically felt that I don’t belong. That, if I’m a
girl in CS, I’m automatically a completely anti-social “freak”, or that I’m dumb and just
there to try and impress someone. But I also hate when people point out I’m a girl and
give me kudos for sticking with it. To me, that’s just as bad. If you really wanted me to
feel equal, treat me equal. Which includes not praising me for things that are expected of
my male peers.
Another woman weighs in:
MS Electrical engineering, same story. Fifteen years ago, I was frequently the only girl in
class in undergrad and only one of two girls in the grad program. The other one was a
doctoral candidate. And, when I mean same story, I’d say the exact same things.
Yet another responds,
My experience with “upper level” physics courses are about the same. Except that instead
of the ratio being 30:1 men to women, it’s more like 6:1. And that’s because there are
only seven people in the class.
This graduate student added,
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
87
It’s like this in graduate division political science classes, too. I was the only woman in
my classes.
A high school student added her experience:
I’m only in high school, but there’s two girls in my engineering class. I hate being
underestimated, and I hate it when guys try to do everything for me. I know how connect
the motor to the power supply, I know how to solve to get the torque, and I don’t need
help with lifting the thing that is maybe 10 pounds! And then the freaking jokes that are
told are so horrible! I do like the subject, but, sometimes, I want to switch to another
elective.
This woman gave an example of her experiences and echoed the despair that many of
these women seemed to feel:
Yeah, it’s just not encouraging. My teachers constantly go after me as well as my
classmates. If I don’t get the right answer, it’s because he should’ve asked a boy. If I do,
it’s because the question was “easy.” I'm constantly referred to as “the girl” instead of my
professors learning my name, constantly targeted by them. In addition, I’ve had to deal
with grading discrepancies for the same mistakes male classmates have made (as in, I got
docked more by the same grader for the same mistake than they did).
I was really excited to read that thread until I saw that was one of the top
comments and just quit reading. I’m a CS major and it made me realize my whole life
will probably be that way. Depressing.
Several of the women in this thread claimed they had never experienced this type of
gender bias, but the consensus was that gender bias and gender stereotype behavior is not
uncommon. The women in this thread are clearly discouraged and angry by the events they
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
88
describe, and it is likely that they all suffer in silence. Perhaps it is too difficult and frightening to
speak up when the bias is as subtle and pervasive as it seems to be in these situations. The impact
of these experiences most likely has a profound impact on interest and motivation to remain in
STEM courses as evidenced by the high school student that stated, “I do like the subject, but
sometimes I want to switch to another elective” (Bandura, 1977; Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Hidi
& Renninger, 2006; Reddit, 2014).
Women who reported that men did not believe that the experiences these women had
illustrated the invisibility of this type of gender bias experienced in this discussion thread. The
attitude these women have encountered from some men was that if you ignore it, it will go away.
One woman explained,
It’s shocking how many people think sexism and racism will go away if we all just agree
to ignore it entirely. There was a guy in OP's thread vehemently opposed to women
talking about sexism because that would somehow get rid of sexism.
Another woman added,
The best part is when your male classmates actually say that to your face!
Guy: There’s no sexism in STEM
Me: Actually I’ve seen/experienced it
Guy: No, you haven’t
It took one of my lady friends from Microsoft to come and lay an e-smackdown on him
before he would believe that it happens.
Stereotype threat was evidenced when the discussion of scholarships for women came up.
One woman indicated that she felt that she did not deserve her STEM scholarship and seemed to
feel that she was patronized by those who awarded it to her;
WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
89
I love the push to get women into STEM fields, but I also despise that I get scholarships
just because I have a vagina. Mention me because of what I've done, not who I am.
This kicked off a heated debate among the women who asserted that no one gets a
scholarship just because they are female. Some argued that women should not get a scholarship
based on gender. The response from one woman to this argument was,
I guarantee you [that] you have never received a scholarship “just” because you have a
vagina. I know nothing about you but I can still guarantee this. Vagina scholarships don’t
exist. Don’t confuse necessary with sufficient conditions - that would mean you were
buying the bs line that women who receive accolades don’t actually deserve them. It’s a
bald-faced lie, period, full stop.
Bandura and Schunk (1981) define self-efficacy as the self-judgment of how one can
effectively perform a course of action that is often difficult. The discouraging impact on the self-
efficacy of women who experienced ongoing and subtle bias is profound, especially when they
internalize a diminished sense of self-worth (Bandura, 1977; Bandura & Schunk, 1981).
Motivation, a key element in persistence of goal achievement, is also negatively affected by the
diminishing effect of feeling unwelcome and unequal in a STEM course (Weiner, 1979). The
high school student who explained that she enjoyed the STEM subject but was considering
switching to another elective demonstrated how interest can be present but the deterring effects
of gender bias and stereotyping in classroom settings can stop motivation in its tracks (Jackson et
al., 2010; Weiner, 1979; Hidi & Renninger, 2006). This can also have a dispiriting effect on self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Bandura & Schunk, 1981)
The discussion turned towards gender bias in their gaming experiences:
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90
It does feel when people need an excuse to go after you, your gender will be the first they
pick because it stands out. This is something we all know as female gamers. Try having a
disagreement with someone in voice, see how fast they go after your gender.
Another woman added ironically,
But it isn’t sexist because they also pick on male players and call them “girls” and
“bitches.” Therefore, equality!
Clearly, judging from this discussion, gender issues follow many women into their games
lives. How this impacts their lives related to school and STEM majors was a focus of this study.
Do the positive effects of gaming outweigh the negative effects? Does gaming have any effect on
their interest and motivation to enter STEM majors? Several of the women from this Reddit.com
gamer-girl conversation were interviewed so that the issues could be examined in greater detail.
The Interviews
The interviews were coded into themes focused on game type, family/friend influence,
interest, motivation, self-efficacy, in-game social experiences, gender bias (in game and/or
classroom/career settings), stereotype threat (in game and/or classroom/career settings), hours
per week of game time, and, finally, interviewees were asked to state their opinion on whether
they felt their gaming experience had any effect on their STEM major. Six subjects were
interviewed, including five women from the ages of 18 years old to 38 years old, and one 18-
year-old male. Adding a male narrative to the discussion adds an alternate view of the world of
gaming, and this young man did have different experiences than the women who were
interviewed. All subjects had STEM majors and the older ones had entered STEM careers. All
interviewees except one reported that they had logged in thousands of hours on the following
game types: FPS, MMORPG, RPG, Team player games, and single player games.
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Interviewees were asked to provide details of their experiences in STEM classes and
within the gaming environments and for their opinion regarding whether gaming influenced their
STEM major and STEM career interest and motivation. All interviewees had a gaming
background and all were in STEM-related classes, planning on entering STEM-related classes or
had been working in STEM-related careers. The older interviewees had more experience in the
STEM majors and careers, and shared personal experiences in which they suffered from gender
bias and stereotype behaviors in the classroom and in their careers after graduation.
The young interviewees reported less gender bias and stereotype experiences in their
STEM courses. The 18-year-old male reported seeing only positive exchanges between male and
female players in game and saw no incidents of gender bias or stereotype threat in his freshman
college courses. Older interviewees who did experience significant gender bias and stereotype
behavior from peers and instructors tended to report these instances as occurring in their upper
division course work and in the STEM career settings. These older women expressed a greater
sense of authorship and confidence in their assessment of their experiences, and reported that
these experiences made them more determined to succeed in their chosen STEM fields (Baxter-
Magolda, 2008, Creamer & Laughlin, 2005). The older interviewees did also report that there
were instances of where they left a particular work site due to gender bias issues.
Two of the younger female interviewees reported they did not feel their video game
backgrounds made them more interested or motivated in STEM careers. However, they did
remark that the gaming environment made them more comfortable with technology and gave
them more confidence in social settings. Considering that technology, video games and smart
devices have surrounded these younger women from a very young age, it is possible that they do
not see technology as being separate from their daily lives. In other words, since they have never
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experienced a life without digital devices at their disposal, they may not recognize the influence
that technology may have had on their choices relating to STEM majors and career choices.
Interviewees who reported feeling that their gaming background did have an effect on
their interest and motivation to enter STEM fields felt strongly that the connection was there.
The following are their statements:
A 24-year-old female working in cyber security and who has gaming since she was 7
years old stated,
I would say [my gaming background] definitely encouraged me to explore technology
more and encouraged me to learn about how to build a computer. I would say, if I had not
been seriously gaming, I would never have gotten into the career field I am in today.
(personal communication, February 10, 2014)
Regarding STEM field interest and videogames, a 19-year-old female computer science
major mentioned,
Well, I think that videogames and my interest in STEM fields are kind of related. Going
back to the feeling of being alienated, I think, it helps in a way because, for me, feeling
alienated in school can be really hard, it can be really tough. And then, when I see people
like myself being alienated in the video game world, it gives me more drive to stick with
my STEM field. It gives me even more determination to stick through all the people that
ignore me, and all the arrogance, and all of that… because if I can stick with it and do
what I want to do, maybe I can show… Maybe just one person, maybe I can show one
little girl that she is allowed to enjoy what she enjoys (personal communication, February
9, 2014).
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One male came forward to be interviewed. He stated that he never saw any gender bias in
his STEM classes, and he never saw any gender bias in his game environments. It may be the
case that men do not realize that their behavior is gender biased or stereotyping of women, as
suggested by the comments at the Reddit.com girl gamer site. In the interview, this young man
discussed what he felt was a positive effect of his game experience, collaborating online versus
in class. This 18-year-old male marine biology major stated,
Well, because, like I said, wherever you play games you are playing with strangers. You
don’t know these people and I guess virtually you put your life in their hands. Generally,
I just try to assume that they know what they’re doing. And if they do, things work a lot
better. But in case that isn’t the case, you know, doing stuff for a [classroom] lab or
something, then it is easier to help them out. You don’t get as frustrated, because you are
kind of used to being let down. (personal communication, February 10, 2015)
Responding to this question about whether game experience made her more resilient
against stereotype threat and gender bias, a 38-year-old female computer science major, career
computer programmer stated,
Oh, dear god yes! I was going to say that if I had been a gamer in high school, or in
college, I probably would have lasted much longer in my career because it would have
toughened me up. I would have had a better idea of what’s out there in the world. And it
would have probably helped last longer with a lot less stress, you know? Yeah, it would
have really helped. (personal communication, February 9, 2015)
Summary
The overall data from this limited study suggests there may be some correlation among
the effects of game play on interest, motivation and self-efficacy in regard to STEM majors in
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some college freshman women. Older women who have already entered STEM careers also
reported that their gaming experiences had a positive impact on their confidence and resilience in
their STEM careers. Type of games played appeared to have a positive effect on the sample
population, including the social, collaborative play environment. It should be noted that there
was a percent of the survey respondents who saw no advantage in having gaming experience and
reported no increase in motivation, interest or self-efficacy related to technology and STEM
majors. Those who did find their game play history increased their motivation, interest, and self-
efficacy appeared to feel confident in that connection.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The goal of this study was to examine the connection between game play experience in
college freshman women and their interest, motivation and self-efficacy in STEM majors. The
game types included in this study were open worlds, FPS, MMORPGs, RPG, or social versus
single player-type games. The number of hours per week and the years of game play were noted
as indicators of the degree of experience with gaming. Longitudinal game play experiences in
games were examined with a special interest in effect on STEM interest and motivation in
college freshman women. These games require a high level of cooperation between players set to
a task while they were all logged in at the same time and had rewards for positive outcomes. The
more complex and collaborative team games seemed to hold greater interest and motivation for
the players than the more simple games, as the respondents reported many more hours of game
play in them.
Significant Findings
The most significant finding indicated that, overall, 79.7% of the survey respondents
indicated that gaming had a positive influence on their comfort level with technology. The data
revealed that a majority of the survey respondents who have high longitudinal presence in games
play mostly single player games. Many respondents also indicated they have never played
MMORPGs, social, RPG or open world games. The most popular game choice overall in the
survey was RPG.
The survey data suggested a strong correlation between length of game play in some of
the respondents’ interest and motivation when entering STEM majors and careers. Games that
featured team-type challenges seemed to have the greatest impact on some of the respondents’
feeling of comfort, comprehension of technology, and self-efficacy in real life settings in their
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STEM coursework. Team-player games seemed to provide the greatest challenge for both the
male and female respondents who were interviewees, with a great deal of frustration expressed
when team members did not do their part to accomplish the quests or missions in game.
The interviews allowed for a more detailed examination longitudinal game play and the
reported gender bias and stereotype threat in their STEM majors and later in their STEM careers.
The high degree of alienation and gender bias that some of these women reported in their college
courses and later in their STEM careers is disturbing. The interview respondents all seemed very
certain in their opinions regarding whether gaming did or did not affect their interest and
motivation for entering STEM careers and majors. The difference between the male interviewed
and the females interviewed seemed to be experiential. The college freshman male did not see
any gender bias or stereotype behavior in his classes or in his game environments. Clearly, more
interviews with male subjects would shed light on whether this perception is what the majority of
men experience.
The interviews also revealed some intriguing and surprising effects from gaming with
college freshman college women and the older women. One young interviewee indicated she
enjoyed the ability to be in control in her video game environment and make all the important
decisions herself. She indicated that this boosted her self-efficacy in real life, as she became
more confident in making important decisions. Another effect revealed during interviews was
that some women found that interacting in the social games gave them exposure to highly
competitive game environments, “toughened them up,” and made them more resilient to gender
bias and stereotype threat (Personal communication, January 15, 2015). The interviewee
explained that, in this safe environment, women could be exposed to high levels of competition
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they would not have a chance to experience in real life before they entered into the competitive
STEM fields. These possible advantages should be explored and researched in greater detail.
Implications
While this study was small in size and had some challenges in the measurement
instruments, it did provide very interesting results. The video game as an entertainment device
rapidly evolved in complexity and realism over the last decade. The passion with which players
invest emotionally in their favorite game is remarkable. Jane McGonigal (2011), a researcher
whose Ph.D. is in the study of gaming, explains, “The fact that so many people of all ages, all
over the world, are choosing to spend so much time in game worlds is a sign of something
important, a truth that we urgently need to recognize” (p. 4). Games, as they evolve, are fulfilling
players’ intrinsic needs in a way that their real lives do not (McGonigal, 2011). The potential for
effectively designed games to enhance education, for therapeutic effect, and for social interaction
is significant (McGonigal, 2011).
Some thoughts on how educational stakeholders in the lives of college freshman women
can put the findings of this study into more efficient use include:
• To improve comfort levels with technology by the time the students reach college
freshman level, educational games could be part of the grade school curriculum. This is
already being done in many K-12 schools across the nation.
• To increase the number of girls in grade school classes that feel interested and
comfortable with science and STEM related subjects, games that enhance scientific
problem solving such a strategy games could be made part of the grade school
curriculum.
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• To increase comfort levels with computer technology, school administrators could insure
that all grade schools have computer labs that are open after the school day is over.
• Parents could include family game time and select science themed games, making sure
that girls have their own play stations, so that they are not be dependent on their male
siblings game stations.
• To allow young women and girls opportunities to be in control during game play,
families could take turns being the team leaders in team type games.
The popularity of video games has inspired a dramatic increase in the number of
entertainment video games being created, along with a similar increase in educational learning
games. Research into the effects of gaming has increased as well, with more interest being
directed towards the positive effects of gaming (Jones, Scholes, Johnson, Katsikitis & Carras,
2014; McGonigal, 2011). The findings in the latest research are encouraging as a connection
between moderate gaming and positive metal health and wellbeing appears to exist (Jones, et al.,
2014). I would echo McGonigal’s (2011) intriguing question, “What if we decided to use
everything we know about gaming to fix what’s wrong with reality?” (p. 7).
The issues and possible positive impact that gaming may have on college freshmen
women who are interested in pursuing STEM careers may be enhanced by this trend in creating
video games that are more supportive and nurturing of women and their interests in science.
While considering the benefits from gaming that the college freshman women and others
reported, some ideas came to mind. In the spirit of innovative and creative thinking, and as a tool
of discovery, I would like to put the following challenges out there for the game designers,
educators, and companies that publish games to consider the following (Dyer, Gregersen &
Christensen, 2013);
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• To address greater resilience: What if games were designed that taught girls and women
how to take criticism and use it to make themselves stronger?
• To address the sense of alienation in classes and beyond: What if games were designed
that featured a “big sister” interactive model to teach girls and women skills like
psychological self-defense, resilience in the face of discouragement, and how to stop bias
behaviors in a low-key way?
• To address gender bias: What if video games carried a rating system in game so that
regardless of gender players were showcased and chosen based on their skill level?
• To build self-efficacy for women: What if game design featured high-level achievements
in games that could only be accomplished using traditionally feminine traits and abilities?
• To improve gender interactions: What if games that promote equality in gender, race,
ability, and socio-economic status were developed and allowed the player to choose
outcomes for others and see the results of those outcomes?
Games featuring these goals and achievements may already exist; it is very difficult to
track all of the new multitudes of games that are published every week. The possibilities for
therapeutic effect designed into gaming become more evident as new research emerges (Jones, et
al., 2014; McGonigal, 2011). The gaming industry would most likely enjoy greater profits as
these types of games become recognized for their beneficial impact on the growing population of
women gamers. Educators might enjoy greater enrollment and retention of college freshman
women into STEM majors. Rather than merely existing as a form of interactive entertainment,
strategically designed video games have the potential to truly change the world for the better.
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Limitations
The limitations of this study include a small sample size for both the survey and the
interviews. As the gamer population in America and worldwide is in the billions, this study
offers only a glimpse at the possible effects of gaming on the attitudes of freshman college
women in America and worldwide. The study would have been more effective if more men had
been interviewed and if it had included a more expansive age range for both men and women.
Participation in the survey and interview was voluntary, and there were monetary incentives
involved in both, possibly introducing volunteer personality-type bias. The monetary incentives
may have influenced respondents to answer in a way they thought would please the researcher.
The survey game definitions may have been too broad in its scope, creating some confusion
amongst the respondents. Another possible weakness may stem from the fact that the interview
subjects selected all self-described as technologically proficient. The design of the survey
measured game types and the time played, but a confounding detail that was not controlled for
was that most of the respondents played all of the game types. This made measuring the impact
of specific game types for interest and motivation related to STEM impossible. The time frame
was limited, and many of the colleges and universities sought for survey deployment did not
respond within the time limits necessary in order to effectively deploy the survey at their site,
and so those sites were abandoned.
The survey design could have been improved. Grouping the different types of games
together in one section with multiple responses may have caused some confusion among
respondents. Some of the questions seemed redundant and should have been screened more
closely. There was some feedback from respondents about details such as age groupings and the
labeling of the types of games. Some issues arose regarding the labeling of the various types of
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games listed in the survey. Individuals at the Reddit.com college and universities sites were very
critical of the labeling of one type of game in particular and complained at the Reddit.com site,
which affected participation. Some individuals felt the deployment of the survey offer was
considered “spamming” their school at the Reddit.com site and reacted in a hostile manner
towards the survey. While the survey respondents did live in many states in America, the number
of respondents per location was small, possibly limiting the ability to get a good idea of the
population’s opinions in that geographical area.
Areas for Future Research
While there is some research on video gaming and the benefits and challenges that this
environment produces, much more research needs to be done. Gaming is a relatively recent
phenomenon as far as escapist entertainment options, and the gaming environment is rapidly
evolving as the realism, popularity and the complexity of the games improves. The gamer sub-
culture has proven to be a very complex and, at times, volatile new cultural phenomenon that
deserves greater scrutiny. One of the effects reported by women who had the highest number of
in-game hours was a sense that they were “toughened up” by their experiences in gaming, and
this made them more resilient to gender bias and stereotype threat in their STEM coursework. If
this is a real outcome for many women gamers, this feature could be developed and educational
games could be created that capitalize on this effect.
It would be useful to explore in more depth the positive aspects of game design for
collaborative learning, unlocking achievements related to pedagogical goals, virtual situations
learning (disaster training, etc.), instructional design incorporating course materials into the game
experience, and improving the quality of educational gaming design overall (McGonigal, 2011).
There is real potential for therapeutic game design as well (McGonigal, 2011; Durkin & Barber,
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2002). In the virtual world of Second Life©, there are organizations that focus on disabled
people and giving them experiences in the virtual that they could never get in real life. The
immersive quality of gaming is worthy of greater study to this end. Instructionally designed
experiences, such as assigning students minority group avatars or other gender exercises in
virtual worlds, could be useful in social sensitivity training. Phobias, anxiety disorders and other
psychological issues may benefit from in-world therapy design (Durkin & Barber, 2002). There
is some study in these areas, but not enough.
While this study did include the types of video games that freshman college women and
others played, the research did not delve into their preferences in detail. The subjects of the
interviews and the survey sample populations seemed to spend some time in all the various types
of games. There seemed to be a progressive interest in general from simple single player games
to the more realistic, complex, and socially interactive games in most of the respondents. The
reason the more violent games were preferred by some of the subjects interviewed were
interesting and unexpected. One interviewee, a 19-year old college freshman woman who is a
biochemistry major, explained that she enjoyed violent games like Call of Duty because it helped
her “get her anger out” (personal communication, January 25, 2015). It would be useful and
interesting to gather more research on this type of reaction.
Conclusions
The results of the data collected in this study are encouraging. There does seem to be
some positive effect for some respondents and their interest and motivation in STEM majors and
careers. Like most modern technologies, the video gaming environment is evolving at a rapid
rate. The potential for creating video games that serve educational needs, therapeutic needs and
give young women greater experience with competitive male-dominated fields in a safe
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environment is great. It is encouraging to see some pioneering research being done by social
scientists like Jane McGonigal (2011).
While video games have the potential to improve learning and possibly other benefits, the
presence of gender bias and stereotype threat may exist in some gamer cultures. More research
into this phenomenon would be practical as the immersive quality of gaming may intensify the
social issues that gamers bring into the game environment. Game designers who create nurturing
environments for girls, women and minorities should be encouraged and supported. However,
the games for young girls that are hyper-feminized may be as hindering to young women as the
“boys only” sentiment that some game environments have (Appendix A). If these cooking and
fashion girls games are all that young girls have to choose from, they may continue to see
themselves as the “other” when it comes to competing for STEM careers.
Dr. Sally Ride, the first woman astronaut to fly in space, described the challenges that
women face going into science fields with the “elephant sitting on her chest” analogy (Benson,
2006, n.p.). The gender specific barriers that women face in STEM majors and beyond are
complex and so ingrained in the cultures they grew up in, so invisible because of that
acculturation, that removing this great “elephant” remains a major challenge. Video games have
become an extremely popular past time, and hold the potential for influencing many beneficial
psychological outcomes if the design is carefully attended to. Perhaps we can harness the power
of good game design to make a difference in improved recruitment and retention of college
freshman women and others by way of thoughtful game designs in the future.
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WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
117

Appendix A
Girl Games Example
Girls Go Games
http://www.girlsgogames.com/

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
118

Appendix B
Women, Gaming and STEM Careers: Interest and Motivation Survey

Q1

PURPOSE
OF
THE
STUDY

This
research
study
aims
to
examine
the
attitudes
of
college
freshmen
who
are
interested
in

science,
technology,
engineering
and
math
(STEM)
majors
and
careers
and
their
history
of
video

game
play.

PARTICIPANT
INVOLVEMENT

If
you
agree
to
take
part
in
this
study,
you
will
be
asked
to
participate
in
an
anonymous
online

survey
that
is
expected
to
take
15
minutes.
You
do
not
have
to
answer
any
questions
you
don’t

want
to;
you
have
the
option
to
click
“next”
in
the
survey
to
move
to
the
next
question.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION
FOR
PARTICIPATION

For
participating
in
the
short
survey,
you
can
choose
to
be
entered
into
a
drawing
for
a

NuVision
801
Tablet
–
8
inch
Quad-‐core
Black.
The
drawing
will
be
held
at
the
end
of
the
study

on
or
around
December
15th,
2014,
and
the
winner
notified
via
email.

ALTERNATIVES
TO
PARTICIPATION

Your
alternative
is
to
not
participate.
Your
relationship
with
your
institution
will
not
be
affected

whether
you
participate
or
not
in
this
study.

CONFIDENTIALITY

You
will
be
offered
a
contact
email
address
at
the
end
of
this
survey
to
send
your
entry
for
the

tablet
drawing,
your
email
will
be
collected
for
the
purpose
of
entering
you
into
the
drawing

and
contacting
the
winner.
You
may
be
contacted
if
you
opt
to
be
interviewed
for
this
study.

The
checkbox
option
and
contact
email
will
appear
at
the
end
of
this
study.

Pertaining
to
the

in-‐person
interview,
any
identifiable
information
obtained
in
connection
with
this
study
will

remain
confidential.
Your
responses
will
be
coded
with
a
false
name
(pseudonym)
and

maintained
separately.
You
will
have
the
right
to
edit/review
your
digitally
recorded
interview

files
if
you
wish.
The
digitally
recorded
interview
files
will
be
destroyed
once
they
have
been

transcribed.

The
members
of
the
research
team
and
the
University
of
Southern
California’s

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
119
Human
Subjects
Protection
Program
(HSPP)
may
access
the
data.
The
HSPP
reviews
and

monitors
research
studies
to
protect
the
rights
and
welfare
of
research
subjects.

INVESTIGATOR
CONTACT
INFORMATION

If
you
have
any
questions
or
concerns
about
the
research,
please
feel
free
to
contact
Principal

Investigator,
Constance
Lantz
via
email
at
clantz@usc.edu
phone
at
(818)
298-‐8119
(cell)
or

Faculty
Advisor,
Dr.
Patricia
Tobey
at
tobey@usc.edu

IRB
CONTACT
INFORMATION

If
you
have
questions,
concerns,
or
complaints
about
your
rights
as
a
research
participant
or
the

research
in
general
and
are
unable
to
contact
the
research
team,
or
if
you
want
to
talk
to

someone
independent
of
the
research
team,
please
contact
the
University
Park
Institutional

Review
Board
(UPIRB),
3720
South
Flower
Street
#301,
Los
Angeles,
CA

90089-‐0702,
(213)
821-‐
5272
or
upirb@usc.edu.

! I
agree
and
will
proceed
to
the
survey.
(1)

! I
disagree
and
will
end
the
survey
now.
(2)

If
I
disagree
and
will
end
the...
Is
Selected,
Then
Skip
To
End
of
Survey

Q2
Please
indicate
your
age.

! 18
-‐19
(1)

! 20
-‐21
(2)

! 22
-‐
23
(3)

! 24
-‐
26
(4)

! 26
and
older
(5)

Q3
Please
state
your
college/university
level.

! Freshmen
(1)

! Sophmore
(2)

! Junior
(3)

! Senior
(4)

Q4
Please
state
your
gender.

! Male
(1)

! Female
(2)

! Another
gender
(3)

Q5
Please
state
your
city
of
origin
(where
you
currently
live).

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
120
Q6
Are
you
a
currently
a
science,
technology,
engineering
or
math
(STEM)
major
or
considering
a
STEM

major
or
career?

! yes
(1)

! No
(2)

Q7
How
LONG
have
you
been
playing
the
following
types
of
games?

Never
(1)
6
months
-‐
1

year
(2)

1
-‐2
years
(3)
3
-‐
5
years
(4)
5
years
or
more
(5)

Open
worlds

like
Second
Life

(1)

!
!
!
!
!

MMORPG's
like

World
of

Warcraft
(2)

!
!
!
!
!

Role
Play

Games
like

Final
Fantasy

(3)

!
!
!
!
!

Social
Games

like
The
Sims

(4)

!
!
!
!
!

Single
Player

type
games
like

Half
Life
(5)

!
!
!
!
!

Q8
How
many
HOURS
PER
WEEK
(on
average)
have
you
been
playing
the
following
types
of
games?

None
(1)
1-‐2
hours
(2)
3-‐4
hours
(3)
4-‐5
hours
(4)
5
hours
or
more

(5)

Open
worlds
like

Second
Life
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

MMORPG's
like

World
of

Warcraft
(2)

!
!
!
!
!

Role
Play
Games

like
Final

Fantasy
(3)

!
!
!
!
!

Social
Games

like
The
Sims
(4)

!
!
!
!
!

Single
Player

type
games
like

Half
Life
(5)

!
!
!
!
!

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
121
Q9
Game
Experience
Questionnaire:
Rate
how
you
felt
during
game
play.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slighty
true
(2)
Somewhat
true

(3)

Very
true
(4)
Extremely
true

(5)

I
felt
competent.

(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q12
Game
Experience
Questionnaire:
Rate
how
you
felt
during
game
play.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
true
(2)
Somewhat
true

(3)

Very
true
(4)
Extremely
true

(5)

I
was
good
at
it.

(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q13
Game
Experience
Questionnaire:
Rate
how
you
felt
during
game
play.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
true
(2)
Somewhat
true

(3)

Very
true
(4)
Extremely
true

(5)

I
felt
connected

to
others.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q14
Game
Experience
Questionnaire:
Rate
how
you
felt
during
game
play.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
true
(2)
Somewhat
true

(3)

Very
true
(4)
Extremely
true

(5)

What
others
did

affected
what
I

did.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q15
Game
Experience
Questionnaire:
Rate
how
you
felt
during
game
play.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
true
(2)
Somewhat
true

(3)

Very
true
(4)
Extremely
true

(5)

What
I
did

affected
what

others
did.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
122
Q10
Rate
your
thoughts
on
your
game
experiences
and
any
impact
it
may
have
on
your
attitude
towards

STEM
subjects.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
more

confident
(2)

Moderately

more
confident

(3)

Much
more

confident
(4)

Extremely

confident
(5)

My
game

experience
gave

me
greater

confidence
with

computer

technology.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q16
Rate
your
thoughts
on
your
game
experiences
and
any
impact
it
may
have
on
your
attitude
towards

STEM
subjects.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slightly
more

confident
(2)

Moderately

more
confident

(3)

Much
more

confident
(4)

Extremely

confident
(5)

My
game

experience
gave

me
greater

confidence
with

my
Science

courses.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q11
Rate
your
comfort
level
with
technology.
Your
comfort
level
refers
to
how
much
or
how
little

anxiety
you
experience
when
using
technology.

Uncomfortable

(1)

Slightly

comfortable
(2)

Comfortable
(3)
Very

comfortable
(4)

Extremely

comfortable
(5)

How
would
you

rate
your

comfort
level

with

technology?
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
123
Q17
Rate
your
comfort
level
with
technology.
Your
comfort
level
refers
to

how
much
or
how
little

anxiety
you
experience
when
using
technology.

Not
at
all
(1)
Slight
influence

(2)

moderately

influential
(3)

Very
influential

(4)

Extremely

influential
(5)

How
would
you

rate
the

influence
that

gaming
has
had,

if
any,
on
your

comfort
level

with

technology?
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q18
Science
Motivation
Questionnaire
II
-‐
Rate
how
your
feel
about
Science.

Never
(1)
Rarely
(2)
Sometimes
(3)
Often
(4)
All
of
the
Time

(5)

Learning
science

is
interesting.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q19
Science
Motivation
Questionnaire
II
-‐
Rate
how
your
feel
about
Science.

Never
(1)
Rarely
(2)
Sometimes
(3)
Often
(4)
All
of
the
Time

(5)

Knowing
science

will
give
me
a

career

advantage.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Q20
Science
Motivation
Questionnaire
II
-‐
Rate
how
your
feel
about
Science.

Never
(1)
Rarely
(2)
Sometimes
(3)
Often
(4)
All
of
the
Time

(5)

I
believe
I
can

master
science

knowledge
and

skills.
(1)

!
!
!
!
!

WOMEN, GAMING AND STEM MAJORS
124
Q21
Science
Motivation
Questionnaire
II
-‐
Rate
how
your
feel
about
Science.

Never
(1)
Rarely
(2)
Sometimes
(3)
Often
(4)
All
of
the
Time

(5)

I
feel
welcome

while

participating
in

science
courses.

(1)

!
!
!
!
!

Asset Metadata

Creator Lantz, Constance E. (author)

Core Title Women, gaming and STEM majors: interest and motivation

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 06/19/2015

Defense Date 03/19/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag game design,gender bias,interest,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,resiliency,self‐authorship,STEM,STEM career preference,STEM majors,stereotype threat,video games,Women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Advisor Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), Crispen, Patrick (committee member), Keim, Robert G. (committee member)

Creator Email clantz@usc.edu,connielantz@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-575110

Unique identifier UC11299004

Identifier etd-LantzConst-3494.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-575110 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LantzConst-3494.pdf

Dmrecord 575110

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lantz, Constance E.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In light of the ongoing issues of recruiting and retention of women in STEM majors, this study sought to look at this issue in relation to video game play experience. The research questions asked