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Positive classroom leadership: how teachers manage meaningfully in high needs contexts

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Positive classroom leadership: how teachers manage meaningfully in high needs contexts

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Content Running head: POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 1
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP: HOW TEACHERS MANAGE MEANINGFULLY
IN HIGH NEEDS CONTEXTS

by

Carrie Ellen ‘Azi’ Jankovic

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015

Copyright 2015 Carrie Ellen ‘Azi’ Jankovic

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 2
Epigraph
Who is wise? One who learns from all. As is stated in Psalms: "From all my teachers I have
grown wise, for Your testimonials are my meditation.”
-Ben Zoma, 2nd century C.E. citing Psalms circa 1000, BCE

Someone who is trying to educate through [merely] command and habituation need not pay at-
tention to the way… [his child] thinks … An educator, however, who wishes to uncover the soul
of the child that lies hidden and concealed…. must therefore teach according to his [student’s]
nature, mind, character and other unique qualities… What he commands and instructs one child
should be different from what he commands and instructs the next child, whose nature, will,
mind, and personality are completely different from the first. And this is what King Solomon is
hinting to us, “Educate each child according to his own path” (Proverbs. 22:6).
-The Aish Kodesh, 1937, citing King Solomon, circa 900, BCE

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 3
Acknowledgements
Rossier School of Education and the doctoral program has helped to open my eyes and
heart to acknowledge the great blessings and tremendous fortune that has lined my path up to this
moment. Life, in its great diversity of experience, hands us each a unique set of opportunities and
challenges. This program has enabled me to cross paths with people that I would not have other-
wise, and they have made lasting impressions for the good.
Thank you to Dr. Green, who recognized my strengths and passions, and inspired me for-
ward in his calm and assuring way. Thank you to Dr. Hasan and Dr. Baca whose efforts and in-
sights made this study possible. Thank you to Dr. Garcia, whose lessons of leadership are with
me. Thank you to Dr. Fischer for ongoing support, and for believing that I could complete this
program even in my own moment of questioning.
To my husband, Daniel, for his unwavering support, time, and encouragement. I could
not have done this without him. His morality, optimism, and tenacity inspire me every day. To
our three children, who we love so dearly, who have been patient and understanding while their
mommy has had school work. It is my hope that they will each find their passions, and in their
own way, work to make this world a better place. I pray that in our ways, Daniel and I may be
setting two types of examples for our children.
To my parents, Jim and Judy Farley, for the life time of love and support that they have
given to me. Their passion and value for education has had immeasurable impact on my journey.
So much of my life is the result of seeds planted by my parents, my grandparents (may their
memories be for blessing) and those before them. I have tremendous gratitude for my parents -
two people who have poured their love, time, and energy into promoting a promising future for
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 4
my family and our future generations. Not only are they exemplary parents, but they are wonder-
ful people who seek to do good and repair this world. It is my prayer that we will merit to pass
the torch.
To my in-laws, the Jankovics, for their inspiration and strength. Not only have I been
blessed with Daniel as my husband - he is truly an angel beside me - it has also been an honor
and a privilege to join the Jankovic family. Papa Joe and Mama Cathy, you are two guiding
lights, full of energy and joy, and showing us the tremendous potential for two people to make
the world a better place.
My gratitude overflows to all who have lined my path with positivity, support, encour-
agement, and insight. Looking back over thirty-four plus years, it is clear to me how certain
words, however unassuming, spoken with love and conviction, have inspired me to do believe in
myself and seek to do good in this world. To see the good in others and acknowledge it, I be-
lieve, is the way to water invisible seeds. I have a dream that one day, we will all live together in
a well watered garden of light and love. Anything is possible.
Ultimately, I acknowledge the Almighty with utmost gratitude for bringing me into this
world and sustaining me. It is through the supportive individuals placed in my life that I have had
the privilege to work on this study and complete a doctorate program in education - it is through
all of these people and experiences that I see the greatness of G-d in all things. Thank You.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 5
Table of Contents
Epigraph 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 10
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 17
Significance of the Study 22
Research Questions 24
Limitations 25
Delimitations 26
Definition of Terms 26
Organization of the Study 27
Chapter Two: Literature Review 28
Introduction 28
Frameworks 29
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) 29
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management 32
Discussion of Theories 35
Teacher Beliefs 37
Recognition of Personal Beliefs 38
Beliefs About Race And Socio-Economics 43
White Teacher Beliefs 44
Black Teacher Beliefs 44
Pre-Service Beliefs 47
Culturally Relevant Beliefs 48
Ridas 49
Equity and Equality 50
Affirmative Beliefs 51
Discussion of Teacher Beliefs 53
Knowledge 54
Practices 57
Strategy Knowledge and Implementation 57
Caring Spaces 61
Culturally Relevant Pre-Service Education 64
Summary 66
Chapter Three: Methodology 67
Purpose of the Study 68
Population and Sample 71
Location 71
Participants 71
Interviews 72
Observations 74
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 6
Documents 76
Data Collection 76
Data Analysis 78
Conclusion 79
Chapter Four: Results 80
Overview 80
Research Questions 81
Overview of the Data 83
Beliefs 83
Knowledge 84
School Descriptions 87
Downtown High School 87
Tech University Prep Charter High School 88
Participants 91
Participant #1: Mr. Walter - Downtown High School 91
Participant #2: Mrs. Richards - Downtown High 92
Participant #4: Mrs. Lowe at Tech University Prep High School 93
Case Study Presentation 93
Case Study #1: Mr. Walter 94
Case Study #2: Mrs Richards at Downtown High School 117
Case Study #3: Ms. Sims at Tech University Prep High School 136
Case Study #4: Ms. Lowe at Tech University Prep High School 156
Summary 178
Chapter Five: Discussion 180
Discussion of Findings 180
Methodology 181
Theoretical Framework 181
Discussion of Findings 182
Findings about Belief 183
Findings about Knowledge 192
Findings about Practice 199
Implications for Practice 203
Future Research 205
Conclusions 206
References 209
Appendix A: Post Observation Interview Protocol 221
Appendix B: Observation Protocol for Cultural Responsiveness 223
Appendix C: Conceptual Framework 229
Appendix D: Pre-Selection Survey 233
Appendix E: Findings and Research Question Matrix 234

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Theoretical Framework and Relevance 20
Table 2: 13 Measures of Responsiveness in Protocol 76
Table 3: Indicators for Culturally Relevant Beliefs 84
Table 4: Indicators of Culturally Relevant Knowledge 85
Table 5: Indicators of Culturally Responsive Classroom Practice 87
Table 6: Overview of High School Contexts 91
Table 7: Participant Profiles 94
Table 8: Summary of Mr. Walter's Beliefs 103
Table 9: Summary of Mr. Walter’s Knowledge 108
Table 10: Summary of Mr. Walter's Practice 116
Table 11: Summary of Mrs. Richards’ Beliefs 124
Table 12: Summary of Mrs. Richards’ Knowledge 127
Table 13: Summary of Mrs. Richards’ Practices 135
Table 14: Summary of Culturally Responsive and Non-Responsive Beliefs for Ms. Sims 143
Table 15: Summary of Knowledge for Ms. Sims 146
Table 16: Summary of Ms. Sim’s Practices 155
Table 17: Beliefs of Ms. Lowe 165
Table 18: Summary of Ms Lowe’s Knowledge 168
Table 19: Summary of Practices for Ms. Lowe 177
Table 20: Summary of Findings 183
Table 21: Teachers’ Self-Perceptions 184
Table 22: Teacher Perceptions about Teaching 190

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 8
Abstract
This study applied culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally sensitive classroom man-
agement theories to deconstruct the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers who did not
over-rely upon exclusionary discipline to manage classrooms. Specifically, this study qualita-
tively explored beliefs, knowledge, and practices of four White high-school teachers in predomi-
nately Black and Latino, low socio-economic contexts. These students are statistically subjected
to disproportionate rates of exclusionary discipline by a body of teachers in the United States
who are predominately White. Subjects for this study were pre-screened through administrator
recommendation, and selected through written surveys about classroom management. Using in-
class observations of teaching, student work time, and free time, in combination with in-depth
teacher interviews and document analysis, data was coded to uncover measures of cultural re-
sponsiveness and sensitivity in beliefs, knowledge base, and classroom practices. This study
aimed to draw connections between teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices grounded in cul-
tural responsiveness and meaningful relationships.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Classroom management pedagogies can be implemented by teachers to produce positive
teacher student relationships, decrease disciplinary problems, and increase student learning out-
comes. Classroom management is particularly challenging for teachers in high needs classroom
settings; this is evidenced by disparate rates of reliance on exclusionary methods of discipline,
including referrals, suspensions, and expulsions for both Black and Latino students. Black stu-
dents are disciplined by suspension at over three times the rate, and Latinos at over 150% the
rate, with harsher punishments, than their White peers (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Skiba, Michael,
Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). Reliance on exclusionary discipline methods has been associated
with inadequate teacher training and development in classroom management pedagogies (Dar-
ling-Hammond, 2000; Delpit, 2006). With implementation of effective management strategies,
teachers can manage classrooms internally, maximize learning time, and increase student out-
comes (Delpit, 2006; Gregory et al, 2010; Milner & Tenore, 2010; Skiba et al., 2002). Highly
trained, highly efficacious teachers who believe in successful academic outcomes for students
are most seldom found in low socio-economic status (SES) schools with predominately Black
and Latino students (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Lynn, et al, 2010; Obgu, 2003). White, middle SES
teachers, in particular, struggle to teach in these settings; generally they have been raised in and
trained for White, middle SES schooling contexts (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Seidl & Hancock,
2011). This study aimed to identify and explore teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices of four
White teachers who, in spite of any racial and cultural differences with their students, were able
to rely minimally on exclusionary discipline methods and consciously manage classrooms inter-
nally through relationships.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 10
Background of the Problem
Knowledge of students and of student culture is a necessary pre-cursor to successful
teaching pedagogy. The educational landscape of United States schools has become, and is con-
tinuing to grow racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse (Banks, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2000).
Concurrently, teachers have historically been, and remain predominately White, middle SES, and
mono-lingual English speaking (Ford, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2000; NCES, 2011). Current fig-
ures indicate that 83% of public school teachers are White and 76% female; 48% of P-12 stu-
dents are of color, a figure predicted to grow to more than 52% by 2021 (NCES, 2012). More
than one in five students live in poverty (Children’s Defense Fund, 2014), and one in ten has lim-
ited proficiency in English (NCES, 2011). Teacher and student populations in the United States
schools are culturally and demographically incongruous. Additionally, there are significant ineq-
uities between predominately White and predominately Black and/ or Latino school settings.
Inequity is evidenced by an array of challenges facing students of today, particularly for
Black and Latino children. This includes disparate rates of exclusionary discipline, higher rates
of special education referral, severe underrepresentation in gifted programs, high rates of attri-
tion, and resulting negative life outcomes (Ford, 2012; NCES, 2011; Losen & Skiba, 2012). Edu-
cation in the United States has been historically fraught with injustice based on race and ethnic-
ity, greatly affecting the beliefs, attitudes, and predispositions of teachers and students alike
(Delpit, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Seidl & Hancock, 2011). African Americans have been
culturally and economically hindered by historical enslavement, segregation practices, the endur-
ing implementation of Euro-centric curriculum and instructional pedagogies, and unequal access
to educational resources in the United States of America (Asante, 1991; Delpit, 2006). Latino
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 11
students attend high schools with the highest student populations, highest number of poor stu-
dents, and highest ratio of students to teachers (Marx, 2008). Recognizing the role of racism in
history is essential for positive identity development of teachers in non-White contexts, who
through this development can learn to actualize their teaching potential in cross-raced contexts
(Seidl & Hancock, 2011). In particular, middle class and White teachers of Black and Latino stu-
dents are working in contexts where race related issues play a critical role in the equitable provi-
sion of education.
Teachers and students from different ethnic or cultural backgrounds may be operating
with differing norms and understandings. This may lead to misunderstanding of even well-inten-
tioned behavior (Bartolome, 2004; Delpit, 2006; Milner & Tenore, 2010). While conditioned to
be “color blind,” teachers are confronted by issues of race and inequality in non-White school
contexts (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). While teachers teaching students of the same race or ethnicity
in no way a guarantee of successful teaching and learning, teachers with developed anti-racist
identities are better equipped to face issues surrounding race in the teaching setting, and success-
fully foster equitable learning opportunities for all (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). Well developed at-
titudes, dispositions, and abilities are essential for teachers’ addressing and remediating educa-
tional disparity.
Education is a fundamental right of all citizens of the United States. Addressing equity
in education has been poised as the most central and pressing educational issue of our time (Hol-
lins & Guzman, 2010; Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson, 2010). The achievement gap, or the dif-
ference in achievement between White and non-White students, has been examined by several
theories of education research (Au, 1980; Banks, 1995; Delpit, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1994;
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 12
Nieto, 2005). One such theory, Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP), examines teacher-student
interactions as having the potential to close achievement gaps.
There are three main tenets of CRP. CRP promotes academic achievement, cultural com-
petence, critical consciousness of students (Ladson-Billings, 1994). Through the lens of CRP,
disparity in the classroom is perpetuated by, or resultant of, a lack in: relevant cultural
knowledge, pedagogical teaching knowledge, interpersonal understandings, and appropriate
teaching practice. Teachers who are able to adopt culturally relevant pedagogies experience the
effectiveness of these practices in minimizing discipline issues and providing the greatest possi-
ble scholastic opportunity (Delpit, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner & Tenore, 2010). Cultur-
ally Relevant Pedagogy intentionally advances equity and opportunity for all children.
Culture and socio-politics, as Valenzuela (1999) asserts, are present within schools even
if unbeknownst to teachers. The third component of CRP, promoting a critical consciousness, in-
volves teaching an explicit awareness of socio-politics. This involves imparting within students
an awareness as to how they can act productively, on their own behalf, amidst socio-political
forces (Ladson-Billings, 1994). With well-developed beliefs, increased cultural and socio-politi-
cal knowledge and awareness, pedagogical skills are more apt to address the needs of students in
any classroom setting.
Due to the vast number of cultures in American society, teacher preparation programs
may not have the capacity to impart knowledge of every student culture. Preparation can impress
upon teachers the notion that cultures vary in significant and impactful ways (Weinstein, Tomlin-
son-Clarke, & Curran, 2003; 2004). Research on teacher education programs points to a need for
increased learning in the fields of diversity and classroom management (Vern, 2006; Hollins-
Guzman, 2010). In-service teachers report the need for more knowledge and skills in dealing
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 13
with student behavior, particularly in settings with high percentages of African American and
Latino students of high poverty (Hollins & Guzman, 2010). Within these same schools, teachers
and community members may be resistant to imported solutions - solutions brought in from out-
side of the school that may have little relevance or meaning in their context (Heath & Heath,
2010). An American Psychological Association survey of teachers reports that teachers are most
interested in teacher-designed and teacher-led professional development (APA, 2006). The most
effective type of professional development is ongoing and sustained with continuous evaluation
of results in the actual classroom setting (Guskey, 2000). Teacher buy-in and implementation of
professional development happens when results are apparent and student learning outcomes are
improved (Guskey, 2000). Classroom management and diversity related learnings are necessary
in both the pre-service and in-service contexts, led and implemented by teachers and other pro-
fessionals who are in close proximity to the classroom setting.
Classroom management is reported by teachers as the most important professional skill,
predicating all teaching and learning (APA, 2006; Skiba et al., 2002; Evertson & Weinstein,
2006). In light of addressing the growing racial, ethnic, and socio-economic differences between
United States K-12 teachers and students, theories of CRP examine classroom management is-
sues through an affirmative diversity lens, specifically promoting positive relationships between
teacher and student (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Milner & Tenore, 2010). Therefore, this
study aimed to identify the classroom management practices, knowledge, and beliefs of teachers
who, in spite of cultural or demographic differences with students, implement CRP and are able
to maintain management inside their classrooms with positive outcomes.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 14
Statement of the Problem
Successful teachers of high needs students, those students with diverse cultures from low
socio-economic backgrounds, have been studied by examining teacher beliefs, ideologies, and
practices (Bartolome, 2004; Brown, 2003; Duncan-Andrade, 2007, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2009;
Milner &Tenore, 2010). As previously stated, this study aimed to extend such research by focus-
ing specifically beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers who manage high-needs students
without over-relying upon exclusionary discipline. Beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers
were examined through the lens of CRP.
Teacher beliefs were explored and analyzed through the lens of cultural relevance. Spe-
cifically, interviews aimed to uncover how teachers valued their profession, what their aspira-
tions for students were, their ways of empowering students through critical consciousness, and
their beliefs about students. Knowledge referred to cultural content knowledge about self, stu-
dent, and context, as well as pedagogical knowledge of teaching and managing diverse learners
while imparting a critical consciousness. Ladson-Billings (1995) defines critical consciousness
as “a broader sociopolitical consciousness that allows them [students] to critique the cultural
norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain inequities…” (pp.162). Prac-
tices of teachers referred to the processes and procedures teachers used to managed their class-
rooms.
The role of culture in the classroom cannot be overstated, as culture influences language,
communication patterns, behaviors, values, and beliefs. All of these factors affect the way teach-
ers and students relate to one another (Bennet, 2001; Delpit, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2009). For
students to reach their potential, culture must be a point of affirmation, and not conflict (Asante,
1991; Bennet, 2001). However, the role of culture in defining social and interpersonal norms can
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 15
cause misunderstandings in the classroom (Brown, 2003; Delpit 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2009;
Milner & Tenore, 2010). This study focuses on cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices of
teachers who did not over-rely on exclusionary discipline to manage classrooms.
Teacher beliefs, knowledge, and implementation of pedagogy can lead to successful man-
agement, however, they can also lead to conflict in the classroom. While most teachers act with
best intentions (Sheets & Fong, 2003), conflict can arise if student behaviors, aptitudes, inten-
tions, or abilities are misconstrued by teachers (Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2000; Milner & Tenore,
2010). Teacher modes of instruction and discipline may diverge from community norms and
therefore be misinterpreted by students (Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2000). Cultural values may define the
appropriate measures of teacher authority and control in the classroom, which may define what
“authority” and “control” look like. Delpit (2006) and Ladson Billings (2009) outline cultural
differences in teacher display of authority and control in the classroom. For example, there is a
mainstream, middle SES, White practice of displaying power indirectly by questioning rather
than commanding. Using inquiry as a command may be perceived by some students as an abdi-
cation of power, or not caring (Delpit, 2006; Ladson Billings, 2009). In this scenario, students
may not realize that they are being given orders, and therefore fail to comply. Misunderstandings
that arise out of indirect displays of power evidence cultural incompatibility between teachers
and students (Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Nieto, 2005). Misunderstandings
such as these undermine the effectiveness of well intentioned, yet culturally irrelevant classroom
management practices.
Discipline is founded upon belief and knowledge. Excessive use of exclusionary disci-
pline has been attributed to deficit oriented teacher beliefs about students, and gaps in cultural
knowledge (Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Losen & Skiba, 2012). Classroom
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 16
management is a practice with far reaching effects; research posits inequity associated with ex-
clusionary discipline, including administration of harsher punishments with same level infraction
based on race and socio-economic status (Losen & Skiba, 2012). Specifically, Black students are
disciplined by exclusionary methods, with referrals, suspensions, and expulsions, at rates up to
three times higher than Whites (Losen & Skiba, 2012). Black students are suspended out of
school at 1.78 times the rate of White students; these differences exist even when controlling for
income level and actual behavior (Skiba et al, 2014). Taking students away from the learning en-
vironment is neither empowering nor assistive, but instead creates barriers to learning, academic
achievement, and positive life outcomes (Tolan, Guerra, & Kendall, 1995; Fallon et al, 2012;
(Losen & Skiba, 2012; Milner, 2010). Exclusionary discipline is associated with academic defi-
ciencies, lower test scores, decreased skill levels, expulsion, lower graduation rates, lower levels
of self-efficacy, and higher rates of incarceration (Tolan, Guerra, & Kendall, 1995; Fallon et al,
2012). Removal from the classroom means less time learning, less preparation for academic as-
sessments, and possibly being sent home to places without adult supervision. Exclusionary disci-
pline reduces both access and opportunity and leads to school dropout (Milner & Tenore, 2010;
Ruglis, 2009). Exclusion may have different meanings for students depending upon cultural val-
ues and understandings; being excluded from class may effect student self-image and further a
feeling of disconnect from the classroom and school space (Delpit, 2006; Ruglis, 2009). Consid-
ering these far reaching effects of exclusionary discipline, teachers play a fundamental role in
student life outcomes by managing classrooms appropriately.
As exclusionary discipline measures are associated with negative life outcomes, it is nec-
essary to examine successful pedagogical models of classroom management which promote
learning, achievement, and associated positive life outcomes. Delpit (2012) asserts that excellent
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 17
teachers “seldom send a disruptive student to the office... (but) they maintain their own disci-
pline” (pp.86). Rather than excluding disrupters, they build relationships to strategically integrate
all students into the classroom and learning process (Delpit, 2012). Positive student -teacher re-
lationships and parent-teacher relationships have been shown to reduce disciplinary disparities
(Tobin & Vincent, 2011). A qualitative analysis of successful teachers in high needs contexts
concludes that “there are successful teachers in every school, even where failure is rampant,” and
suggests that the education research community “should be spending more time figuring out who
they are, and studying what they do and why it works” (Duncan-Andrade, 2007, pp. 636). Thus,
this investigation aimed to extend this research by identifying and explaining the teacher beliefs,
knowledge, and practices in high needs contexts. This study is timely in that a majority of United
States K-12 teachers are White, and a significant and growing proportion of United States K-12
students are Black or Latino and living in poverty (NCES, 2011). As the majority of exclusion-
ary disciplines involve Black and Latino students at the hands of White teachers, this study
sought to find White practitioners teaching Black and Latino students who did not rely on exclu-
sionary discipline, but rather implemented culturally relevant management practices based on
well developed, culturally sensitive beliefs and knowledge bases.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teach-
ers in high needs contexts who used CRP. This study examined the beliefs, knowledge, and
practices of teachers who maintained positive relationships with students and did not over-rely
upon exclusionary discipline methods. Qualitative interviews and observations were poised to
uncover which types of beliefs and areas of knowledge were assistive to teachers in developing
relationships with students and managing classrooms internally.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 18
First, this examination looked at how teachers perceived their roles within a high needs
classroom context. High need, within this study, referred to a context wherein students are pre-
dominately Black and/or Latino and from low SES backgrounds (Losen & Skiba, 2012). A sec-
ond objective of this study was to uncover what cultural content knowledge, diversity training,
and classroom management pedagogical knowledge teachers had acquired through preservice
and/ or professional development. Third, this study aimed to identify effective classroom man-
agement pedagogies. Effective pedagogies, according to the tenets of CRP (Ladson-Billings,
1994) and Culturally Responsive Classroom Management (CRCM) (Weinstein, Curran, & Tom-
linson-Clark, 2003; 2004), refer to the ways in which cultural competency, critical conscious-
ness, and academic success are promoted within a caring space. Meeting these objectives was in-
tended to identify possible avenues in teaching training and professional development for pro-
moting more effective classroom management.
As teacher knowledge and skill of classroom management increase, discipline problems
decrease (Weinstein, et al, 2003; 2004). However, students with the highest level of suspensions
are not in the classrooms of the highly skilled teachers, as high poverty schools are much more
likely to employ less experienced and under qualified teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Losen
& Gillespie, 2012). Teacher beliefs and knowledge of culture are fundamental to ameliorating
inequity (Delpit, 2006; Brown, 2004; Gay, 2000; Weinstein et al, 2003, 2004). The misunder-
standings, which often lead to exclusionary discipline and associated negative life outcomes, are
reflective of teachers’ knowledge and engagement gaps with the particular values, orientations,
and experiences of student cultures and broader contexts of which they are a part (Gay, 2000).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 19
Teachers, armed with knowledge and skills, can address discipline issues through culturally re-
sponsive management practices without administering exclusionary discipline (Delpit, 2006;
Milner & Tenore, 2010).
Effective classroom management refers to knowledgeable, skilled, and sensitively predis-
posed teaching of students of all backgrounds. (Irvine, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Weinstein
et al, 2003). There is a pressing need for reform in the area of classroom management for high
needs students, as disproportionate exclusionary discipline practices have far-reaching, negative
life outcomes for these students.
In response to the demographic incongruities of US teachers and students, this study fo-
cused on teachers and students representative of this difference. This study aimed specifically to
identify successful practitioners of CRP who were White, maintained positive relationships, and
achieved successful academic outcomes with high needs students. Interviews and observations
were used for the researcher to gain insight into the beliefs and knowledge bases of successful
practitioners, and to examine the process by which teacher beliefs and understandings had been
constructed.
The theoretical frameworks for this research were based on theory of CRP (Ladson-
Billings, 1995); the Weinstein et. al. (2003, 2004) model for developing Culturally Responsive
Classroom Management (CRCM), the Duncan-Andrade iteration of Culturally Relevant Peda-
gogy (2007, 2009), and the Rightmyer et al (2008) Culturally Responsive Indicator Observation
Protocol. There are five major common tenets in these frameworks. They are: (a) promoting aca-
demic success of students, (b) having and teaching cultural competence, (c) having and teaching
critical consciousness, (d) knowledge and use of culturally responsive strategies, and (e) creating
a caring and respectful classroom climate as summarized in Table 1.1.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 20
Table 1
Theoretical Framework and Relevance
Ladson Billings (2009) Weinstein et al
(2003; 2004)
Duncan Andrade (2007;
2009)
Rightmyer et al
(2008)
Creating a Caring Space
-creating a familial atmos-
phere
-maintaining hopeful de-
meanor
-seek to understand stu-
dents
Creating a Caring Space
-avoiding reliance on ste-
reotypes
-inclusive classroom
-sharing personal T/S sto-
ries
-maintain positive com-
ments about diverse lan-
guages and cultures
-communicating and main-
taining high expectations
-creating sense of commu-
nity
Creating a Caring Space
-accountable to students
-spends time outside of
class with students
-provides food and other
resources to students
-models caring and re-
spectful behavior
Creating a Caring Space
-teacher differentiates
management using direct
interactive when needed
-refers to students by name
and uses personalized lan-
guage
-models respectful interac-
tions
-students do not hesitate to
ask questions
-students know the class
routines
-students encouraged to
provide peer feedback and
support
-students invested in learn-
ing and peers’ learning
Promote academic suc-
cess of students:
-promote positive student
outcomes
-imparts skills for partici-
pation in democratic soci-
ety
-focus on student empow-
erment
Promote academic suc-
cess of students:
-teacher creates space to
support academic and so-
cial goals
-holds students accounta-
ble for high quality aca-
demic work
Promote academic suc-
cess of students:
-express confidence in stu-
dents to change the world
-imparts the belief that
learning yields success and
freedom
Promote academic suc-
cess of students:
-advocates for all students
-teacher uses investigative
“let’s find out” process
-teacher organizes social
learning groups to build
community
-helps students learn about
how to communicate and
relate in different contexts

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 21
Table 1, continued
Cultural Competence:
-broad conception of stu-
dent cultures
-knowledge of student
lives and culture
-maintains richly diverse
curriculum
-affirms student cultures
-connects students mean-
ingfully with the curricu-
lum
Cultural Competence:
-recognition of one’s own
teacher beliefs
-knowledge of student
lives and culture
-knowledge of student
contexts and school con-
text
-reject ‘color blind’ no-
tions and acknowledge
role or ethnicity and race
in society and schooling
Cultural Competence:
-asset orientation toward
all students
-believe teaching high
needs students is a privi-
lege
-share personal learnings
with students
-knowledge of personal
culture
-knowledge of student cul-
ture and lives
-knowledge of diverse cul-
tural capital among stu-
dents
Cultural Competence:
-teacher uses MC literature
-teacher engages students
to examine curriculum
-teacher learns about di-
verse perspectives with
students
-teacher address real life
issues within students
communities
-engages students in solu-
tion identification and de-
velopment around social
justice
Critical Consciousness:
-acknowledge the role of
race and ethnicity in soci-
ety
-challenge existing social
order
-questions dominant hege-
monic belief structures
-aware of power distribu-
tions in society
Critical Consciousness:
-knowledge of social and
political contexts
-brings bias to a conscious
level in order to challenge
and evaluate them
-concrete knowledge of
power relations and distri-
butions in society; ques-
tions the existing social or-
der
Critical Consciousness:
-skeptical of school and/ or
administrative policies

-promotes student contri-
bution to community dur-
ing and after schooling

-encourages real world in-
vestigation
-uses literature and learn-
ing to reflect on discrimi-
nation and bias
Critical Consciousness:
-teacher confronts student
biases
-teacher encourages multi-
ple perspectives
-teacher encourages stu-
dents to question hege-
monic structure
-critical thinking tech-
niques; requesting evi-
dence, multiple points of
view, respect divergent
ideas
-students think in multiple
ways
-multiple possible answers
to problems and multiple
methods to find answers
-encourages real world in-
vestigation
-uses literature and learn-
ing to reflect on discrimi-
nation and bias
- discusses biases in popu-
lar culture, texts
-challenges students to de-
construct cultural assump-
tions and biases, including
their own

CRP responds to the cultural incompatibility between school and home contexts (Ladson-
Billings, 1995). Rather than aiming solely to impart the dominant culture through schooling,
CRP aims to understand and respond to students’ cultural ways of being. Ladson-Billings (1995)
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 22
maintains that culturally relevant practices and behaviors are not fixed or rigid, but run on a con-
tinuum. The framework presented in Table 1 (above) examines the types of (a) beliefs, (b) back-
ground training and knowledge in classroom management and CRP, and (c) implementation of
CRP.
Culturally relevant teachers believe in the academic capacity of all students, work to
maintain relationships, and focus on promoting achievement and positive life outcomes in that
they are sensitive to the unique needs of their students (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Weinstein et al.
(2003, 2004) provides a development model for acquiring CRCM practices, consistent with the
tenets of CRP.
CRCM practices can be learned. Weinstein et al. (2004) propose a five component model
for developing these pedagogies: (a) recognition of personal ethnocentric beliefs, (b) knowledge
of students’ cultures, (c) knowledge of greater contexts, (d) knowledge and use of new strategies,
and (e) commitment to creating a caring space.
Significance of the Study
The study of effective and equitable classroom management is both important and timely.
The importance is in light of disparate discipline rates and resultant negative life outcomes, spe-
cifically for students of color and poverty, which have continued to grow disproportionately over
the last four decades (Losen & Skiba, 2012). In particular, teacher commitment to and imple-
mentation of social justice and equity based classroom management practices are imperative
(Losen & Skiba, 2012; Ruglis, 2009). Theories of teacher-student cultural incompatibility em-
phasize potential of cultural knowledge and skills to hone culturally relevant pedagogies and
eradicate unjust discipline practices based on misunderstandings and knowledge gaps (Ladson-
Billings, 2000; Delpit, 2006; Nieto, 2005; Milner, 2006). Processes and practices associated in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 23
this school of thought are within the genre of CRP, and emphasize the role of developing mean-
ingful and empowering teacher student relationships which promote academic achievement
(Ladson-Billings, 1995). In depth, qualitative analyses of teacher purveyors of CRP evidence a
positive impact of CRP upon student discipline rates and upon traditional measures of academic
achievement (Delpit, 2006; Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2009).
While improved academic outcomes are possible in high needs classrooms, popular cul-
ture portrayals of successful teachers in movies and books perpetuate a notion of such success as
miraculous, and contingent upon teacher personality but not processes (Duncan-Andrade, 2007).
Academic research in the area of culturally sensitive teaching focuses on qualifying teacher pro-
cesses that can be taught and learned (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Milner & Tenore, 2010; Delpit,
2006; Ladson-Billings, 1995a). Such studies outline several dispositions and pedagogies of suc-
cessful educators.
Culturally sensitive educators have knowledge and awareness of greater social and histor-
ical constructs which impact teaching and learning. They have concern for student academic and
life outcomes. They respect their students and take a genuine interest in students’ lives and com-
munities. They have respect for, and interest in the field of teaching, and making ongoing im-
provements to their practices as educators. This study aimed to uncover the beliefs, knowledge,
and pedagogies of successful practitioners of CRP in order to identify successful models. While
teachers with different styles can be successful in diverse school settings (Milner & Tenore,
2010), this study aimed to identify specific practices that worked for four, successful White
teachers inside of two, predominately Black and Latino public, predominately low SES, high
school contexts in Southern California.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 24
Through the identification and examination of successful culturally sensitive manage-
ment practices as will be presented in the findings of this study, incoming teachers and teachers
in professional learning contexts can use this data to more readily identify components of effec-
tive management. They can utilize these findings to develop as professionals with the goal of re-
placing exclusionary discipline methods with culturally sensitive, inclusive, relationship based
classroom management.
Research Questions
Three dimensions of teaching practice are addressed through the research questions:
teacher beliefs, teacher knowledge, and teacher practices. The first area of research focused on
teacher beliefs, and in particular, teacher beliefs surrounding student culture, demographic char-
acteristics, and aspirations for students. The second body of research looked at CRP, particularly
classroom management practices and diversity related knowledge, in pre-service or in-service
teacher training and development. The third body of research looked at the specific practices of
these teachers aligned with culturally relevant classroom management.
Components for effective teaching practices are explicated in qualitative studies (Brown,
2003; Delpit, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Bartolome, 2004; Milner, 2010; Duncan-Andrade,
2009) and are reviewed below to identify common themes. Table 1.1, the theoretical framework
for this study outlines five tenets of a culturally relevant, sensitive teaching practice, and their
relation to the specific contributions of four seminal studies in this field (Duncan-Andrade, 2007,
2009; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Rightmyer et al, 2008; Weinstein et al, 2003,4). These bodies of
literature are organized to highlight the role of teacher beliefs, and the cultural knowledge, un-
derstandings, and classroom management practices of teachers being studied.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 25
Interviews and observations intend to address the following three research questions:
1. What beliefs does the successful classroom manager in a high-needs context hold about
him/herself as a teacher and about students in regards to teaching and learning?
2. What pre-service and professional development training did/ do teachers have which con-
tribute to culturally sensitive classroom management practices?
3. How do teachers implement culturally relevant classroom management pedagogies, and
how do these practices or dispositions reflect emphasis on the role of teacher-student re-
lationships?
Limitations
This dissertation focused on teacher beliefs, knowledge, and classroom management ped-
agogies. It was not designed to generalize findings as the small sample size makes generalizabil-
ity impossible. A limitation of this study is its reliance on self-reported interview data and re-
searcher observations. This data is valid if, and only if, the self-reported interview data is honest
and accurate. The use of qualitative, in-depth interviews was employed to gain an understanding
of the deeper beliefs held, and pedagogies employed by these practitioners. While researcher ob-
servations were designed to view a breadth of classroom teacher behaviors and practices, a limi-
tation of these observations is that teacher and students were aware of the researcher’s presence.
This is a limitation in that it may inadvertently affect the behaviors of teachers and/ or students
being observed.
Participation in this study was voluntary. The perspectives of teachers who have not been
identified as successful by their administrators were not be included. This could have been limit-
ing in certain ways. First, there were no comparison groups to examine the independent variables
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 26
of beliefs or practices between two groups. Second, some teachers may have been excellent pur-
veyors of pedagogy but nevertheless skeptical of policies and administration (Duncan-Andrade,
2007) and therefore not chosen by administration, and are not included in the data set.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study pertained to data collection, interviews, and observations.
Data collection was limited to White teachers who managed high needs students without over re-
lying upon exclusionary methods. Interviews and observations were limited to four teachers who
were been identified by their school administrator as successful classroom managers who main-
tained positive teacher-student relationships.
Definition of Terms
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP): “a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, so-
cially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and
attitudes” (Ladson-Billings, 1994 pp. 17-18). Ladson-Billings asserts three criteria of CRP which
include student academic success, student cultural competence, student critical consciousness in
challenging the status quo of the current social order (Ladson-Billings, 1995; 2009).
Culturally Relevant Classroom Management (CRCM): Classroom management wherein
teachers utilize an awareness of self, other, and context to enact culturally responsive manage-
ment pedagogies (Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003).
Exclusionary Discipline: school exclusion as a discipline practice; removal of a student from
classroom setting. This includes in-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, referrals, or
expulsions (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 27
High Needs: historically and systemically disadvantaged groups; predominately African Ameri-
cans and Latino low SES students. Otherwise, particular groups will be mentioned by name
when data is disaggregated.
“Rid a”: the rare and exceptional teacher in high needs schools who becomes deeply involved
with students, and through these commitments is able to get a high level of success and achieve-
ment. Usually follows limitations and delimitations. Term coined by Duncan Andrade (2007).
Organization of the Study
Chapter one established the background and significance of the problem, research ques-
tions, and limitations. Chapter two reviews bodies of literature and conceptual frameworks re-
lated to this study. Chapter provides an overview of the research design and methodology for this
study including the sample, population, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter four presents
the findings from observations and interview data, and it identifies themes across the data. Chap-
ter five concludes this study and makes recommendations for teacher education programs, pro-
fessional development, and further research.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 28
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter provides an explanation of teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices aligned
with Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) and Culturally Sensitive Classroom Management
(CRCM). First, a review of these frameworks describes each one in detail. Next, a review of
studies in the field of culturally relevant teacher teaching summarizes different models of belief,
knowledge, practice, and their implementation. All of the research reviewed in this chapter aim
to provide context for the frameworks grounding this study.
As the research questions for this study aimed to identify and unpack the beliefs,
knowledge and understandings, and practices of White teachers with Culturally Relevant Peda-
gogies (CRP), the literature review herein addressed each of these three bodies. Each are ex-
plored, and specifically examined through the lenses of CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1994) and Cultur-
ally Relevant Classroom Management (CRCM) (Weinstein, et al, 2003, 2004). As noted by Baca
and Cervantes (1989), teacher practice is informed by teacher belief which is informed by back-
ground knowledge and experience. As beliefs and knowledge are precursors for effective class-
room management practices with equitable outcomes (Darling Hammond, 2004; Duncan An-
drade, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Milner, 2010), this study aimed to uncover perceptions of
teachers about themselves, about their students, and about their processes of formulating and im-
plementing classroom management practices with equitable and successful outcomes. As this
study focused White teachers of high needs students; Black and Latino students of low SES; the
research and theory within the literature review highlight research pertaining to these demo-
graphic variables.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 29
Frameworks
Two frameworks were utilized in order to ground this investigation of teacher beliefs,
knowledge, and pedagogies. Responding to changing demographics in American schools and
outcome disparities due to demographics has been poised as the quintessential need in our educa-
tion system today (Hollins & Guzman, 2010; Nieto, 2005; Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson,
2010). Two frameworks, CRP and CRCM, are explored in the literature review below. CRP
(Ladson-Billings, 1994) incorporates and extends theories of best teaching practices to empha-
size particularities of teaching across cultures. CRCM (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran,
2004) works within this framework, focusing specifically upon teacher practices facilitating opti-
mized management of students, and the processes by which teachers can acquire and hone these
skills. Cultural relevance and sensitivity are central to effective management practices for all
teachers, and especially for teachers of high needs students.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP)
CRP is the practice of relating to students as scholars, cultural beings, and members of
society who have, or are being taught to have agency. In 1994, Gloria Ladson-Billings published
the book Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African American Children. She chronicled ef-
forts over the preceding ten years to understand and remediate academic performance disparities
for a diverse array of children. She reviewed theories surrounding these disparities, explained
that notions of “cultural congruence” (Mohatt & Erickson, 1982) beckoned teachers to alter
speech and communication to reflect those of students; while theories of “cultural appropriate-
ness” (Au & Jordan, 1981) emphasized using teaching methodologies to teach in ways more rep-
resentative of student home cultures.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 30
Ladson Billings (1994) draws upon these contributions and incorporates the philosophy
of critical theorist Henry Giroux (1983; 1989), extending notions of cultural incompatibility to
account for a complex web of power, ideology, and political constructs in society. Ladson-
Billings (1994) asserts the importance of acknowledging race, and the social, economic, and po-
litical role that it has historically played in schooling; thus her notion of “cultural relevance” in-
cludes broad conceptualizations of student and school cultures in order to counteract negative ef-
fects of being left out of, or distorted by dominant cultural narratives. Specifically, CRP is poised
to implement:
an effective pedagogical practice that addresses student achievement but also helps stu-
dents to accept and affirm their cultural identity while developing critical perspectives
that challenge inequities that schools (and other institutions) perpetuate. (Ladson-
Billings, 1995, p. 469).
The framework of CRP calls upon teachers to: (a) promote student outcomes, (b) affirm
student cultures, and (c) impart critical consciousness. CRP acknowledges interrelationships be-
tween and among students and teachers, as well as on societal levels between groups of people
acting and interacting in various capacities. In an effort to identify factors influencing the learn-
ing environment, representations of power within the school are identified and analyzed.
Students are socialized and educated through the schooling experience in both formal and
informal ways. Dominant cultural ideology can inform a curriculum, affect staffing patterns, and
influence academic tracking (Ladson-Billings, 2009). CRP is a theory of opposing, questioning,
and disregarding the necessity of hegemony. It aims to educate and collectively empower stu-
dents from all cultures (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Hegemony refers to the dominant lens through
which students are taught, the people they see filling professional and paraprofessional roles in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 31
school, and the ways which students are grouped; all playing roles to inform student world view
and shape educational experiences (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
CRP addresses three major tenets of the scholastic experience: academic achievement,
cultural competence, and critical consciousness. Academic success relies on development of
skills and dispositions necessary for meaningful participation in democratic society. It requires
teachers to attend to academic and interpersonal needs, appeal to student interests, and utilize
student strengths (Ladson Billings, 1994). While CRP is an effective mode of teaching in diverse
classrooms, it encompasses more than incorporating student racial, ethnic, or generational culture
into the curriculum. CRP aims to maximize student learning through socially mediated processes
(Irvine, 2010; Ladson Billings, 1994). By understanding the prior knowledge and life experi-
ences of students, teachers can connect students with new knowledge in meaningful and relevant
ways (Irvine, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Understanding students is necessary to teaching ef-
fectively.
Cultural competence encompasses a broad understanding of culture. This includes the
ways in which individuals in the schooling context are interacting, and the ways in which aware-
ness and knowledge of the self and other guide social relations. Within this framework, school is
seen as a place to affirm and build upon student culture.
Critical consciousness, a term coined by Paulo Freire (1970/2003), refers to the concep-
tion of knowledge and perception of self amidst powerful, and even oppressive, socio-political
ideologies. Awareness and knowledge of these systems are requisite in order to teach effectively.
As CRP is an effective method of teaching in diverse classroom settings, this study aimed
to identify teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices aligned with this theory. Interview questions
and observations were designed to identify and unpack the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 32
four teachers. As this study focused specifically upon classroom management, an additional
framework, Culturally Responsive Classroom Management (Weinstein et al, 2003; 2004) con-
sistent with CRP, was utilized.
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management (CRCM) promotes academic progress,
cultural competence, and critical consciousness in students, while focusing on teacher implemen-
tation of proactive classroom discipline pedagogy. Weinstein et al. (2003; 2004) created a five
part model for teaching CRCM, addressing belief and knowledge as precursors of practice. Con-
sistent with the propositions of CRP, CRCM provides the framework for the following literature
review, drawing from a broad range of research. The five components of CRCM development
are: (a) recognition of personal ethnocentric beliefs, (b) knowledge of students’ cultures, (c)
knowledge of greater contexts at play, (d) knowledge and use of new strategies, and (e) commit-
ment to creating a caring space. A summary of the CRCM model is followed by a review of re-
lated research.
To begin the process of adopting CRCM practices, one must recognize oneself as a ‘cul-
tural being.’ (Weinstein et al., 2003; 2004). Values of individualism, efficiency, independence,
and color-blindness are implicit in mainstream US education and need to be recognized as such
(Weinstein et al., 2003). As belief is the foundation upon which knowledge and practice are
built, Weinstein and colleagues (2003; 2004) propose deconstructing ideologies through writing
personal identity stories, exploring the social construction of identity, and evaluating one’s per-
sonal role within a multi-cultural context.
Milner (2006) and Brown (2004) affirm the effectiveness of honest, personal reflection in
promoting responsive teaching pedagogy. Brown (2004) notes that culturally responsive teachers
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 33
will have “explored their personal histories and value systems, developed an understanding, re-
spect, and value for other cultures, and expanded their reference group membership to include
others” (pp. 327). Recognizing one’s own beliefs, values, and implicit biases lends itself to ac-
knowledging and understanding oneself objectively in relationship to other cultures, value sys-
tems, and belief systems.
Weinstein et al (2003; 2004) affirm that race, class, and ethnicity need to be both
acknowledged and understood by teachers. While teachers may value fairness and strive toward
color blindness, CRCM posits the importance of acknowledging, understanding, and affirming
student cultures (Weinstein, et al, 2003; 2004). A teacher may perceive oneself as “color blind”
and striving to teach all students fairly. In doing so, they may be dismissing the prevalence or ab-
sence of culture in their own curricula (Delpit, 2006). Cultural knowledge of oneself and students
includes the family background, education, interpersonal norms, disciplinary methods, values,
and concepts about time and space (Weinstein, et al, 2004). These are concepts that can be af-
firmed through classroom interactions and through the curriculum itself. Knowledge of students
and cultures lend to more concrete conceptions of power distributions in the classroom and soci-
ety, and the interplay between race, ethnicity, gender, and access. Accurate understandings pro-
mote the formulation and practice of culturally sensitive management.
Once personal beliefs are evaluated and re-established, knowledge and use of new strate-
gies create the foundation for a CRCM system. Weinstein and colleagues (2004) recommend
several specific strategies. Physical space can be utilized to highlight student countries of origin
with world maps and pictures. Books about unity and cooperation can be displayed and read.
“Kindness boxes” can be created for students to write notes acknowledging positive acts in class.
Clear expectations for behavior are provided explicitly, and ideal behavior is modeled by the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 34
teacher, providing students with opportunities to practice. Teachers can communicate with fami-
lies, assume that all parents care about their children, and be asset oriented toward different com-
munication styles (Weinstein et al, 2004). Having an asset orientation to diversity provides a
foundation for positive relationships.
Understanding broader social context is the fourth component of CRCM (Weinstein et al,
2004), and is consistent with the ‘critical consciousness’ element of CRP (Ladson-Billings,
1994). This includes the acknowledgement that school may be a discriminatory, perpetuating dis-
parities across racial and ethnic groups. Weinstein et al (2004) beckon educators to re-examine
student resistance, and inquire as to the purpose for their resistance, realizing that it may be moti-
vated by the reality of inequity or discrimination. Realistic awareness of the schooling context
which students experience is foundational in building positive relationships.
Caring classroom communities are built by establishing genuine and meaningful relation-
ships. Weinstein et al (2004) assert that students perform better when they are engaged in caring
relationships with teachers. Teachers can elicit feedback from students regarding their perfor-
mance as teachers, empowering students to provide constructive feedback regarding their experi-
ences as consumers in the classroom (Weinstein et al, 2004). Students can play social games to
promote rapport and establish connections; days can begin with morning meetings wherein stu-
dents greet one another by names. Additionally, teachers can positively verbalize the presence of
multiple languages (Weinstein et al, 2004). Speaking with students outside of class time and tak-
ing interest in the lives of students builds relationships. Weinstein et al (2004) conclude that
CRCM is based firmly in a frame of mind, and is built when teachers meaningfully confront their
own beliefs and knowledge in a conscious effort to both grow and evolve as educators and con-
nect with students.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 35
This study aimed to identify the ways in which teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices
reflected the tenets of CRCM and CRP. The theoretical framework for this study details the over-
lapping tenets of each theory. Research questions, interviews, and observation protocols of this
study were based upon the foundational principles of CRCM and CRP.
Discussion of Theories
CRP promotes student academic outcomes, affirms student culture, and imparts critical
consciousness. CRCM poises teachers to engage with beliefs, acquire knowledge, and implement
practices consistent with these tenets. Teachers who promote academic success impart skills for
meaningful participation in democratic society, aim to empower students, create supportive aca-
demic and social spaces, hold students accountable for high quality work, express confidence in
students to change their worlds, and help students learn to communicate in multiple contexts
(Duncan Andrade, 2007; 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Rightmyer et al, 2008; Weinstein et al,
2003, 2004). Successful teachers empower their students both socially and academically.
Cultural competence can be promoted by teachers who hold broad, asset-oriented, and
affirmative conceptions of student cultures. Teachers are knowledgeable about student lives and
cultures, and maintain a richly diverse curriculum with representations of diverse authors and
historical narratives holding multiple viewpoints. Teachers engage students to critically examine
curriculum, the socio-political contexts affecting their lives and society, and the ways in which
race and ethnicity affect schooling and life experiences (Duncan Andrade, 2007, 2009; Ladson-
Billings, 2009; Rightmyer et al, 2008; Weinstein et al., 2003, 2004). Rightmyer et al (2008) as-
serts that teachers promote critical thinking techniques in the classroom to respect multiple
points of view, encourage real world investigation, and reflect on biases and discrimination in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 36
popular culture and society at large. Cultural competence and critical thinking are foundational
for developing critical consciousness.
Critical consciousness acknowledges the roles of race and ethnicity in society and imparts
modes of questioning, challenging, and changing existing hegemonic social structures. Students
are encouraged to bring personal, societal, and curricular biases to a conscious level in order to
evaluate and change them (Duncan Andrade, 2007, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Rightmyer et
al, 2008; Weinstein et al, 2003, 2004). Duncan Andrade (2007) asserts that critically conscious
educators may be skeptical of school and or administrative policies affecting the schooling expe-
rience. He encourages teachers to teach students to value their own communities and work to-
ward contributing to their own communities both during and after their formal schooling experi-
ence (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; 2009). Rather than looking at education as a pathway to escape
from marginalized and oppressed communities, he asserts that students can use their education to
help promote sustainability, prosperity, and freedom.
Physical space in the classroom can be utilized to promote student involvement and en-
gagement. Weinstein et al (2003, 2004) advocate for the use of physical space to include repre-
sentations of student culture. Rightmyer et al (2008) assert the importance of creating a physi-
cally active space for involved learning experiences, the importance of providing student choice
of reading and study assignments, and multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate compe-
tencies through variety of assessments. Physical space should be both representative of student
cultures, and inviting for students to interact and engage with learning opportunities.
Duncan Andrade (2007; 2009) notes that culturally relevant teachers seek opportunities
for professional growth both in and out of school. They are reflective in practice, hold high
standards, and manage classrooms internally. Positive relationships, between teacher, student,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 37
parent, and community, are promoted. Ideally, teachers consult with adults in the school commu-
nity regarding their students, the curriculum, and management pedagogies (Duncan-Andrade,
2007, 2009).
Creating a caring space is addressed in the Duncan-Andrade (2007, 2009) and Righmyer
et al., (2008) models. Caring includes being accountable to students, spending time with students
outside of class time, providing students with food and other necessary resources, and advocating
for students to become independent. Rightmyer et al (2008) specifically outlines methods for
teachers to differentiate management according to student needs, connecting with students by us-
ing their names and personalized language, and implementing classroom routines consistently to
promote student questions and feedback. Within this environment, ideally students will be in-
vested in their own learning and that of their peers (Rightmyer, et al, 2008). Communication of
clear teacher expectations provided to students in all domains of teaching and learning and the
modeling of respectful interaction in which students can share their personal stories is fundamen-
tal to this framework. Each of the above practices is contingent upon the beliefs and knowledge
of teachers. Related research in each of these areas will be presented below in relationship to the
research questions set forth by this inquiry.
Teacher Beliefs
Beliefs, attitudes, and ideologies of teachers are central to the schooling experience.
Teacher beliefs the best predictors of practice and may be difficult to alter (Brown, 2010). Dun-
can-Andrade (2009) and Weinstein et al (2004) contend that teacher beliefs can be changed
through professional learning and on-going reflection. Understanding decisions of educators re-
lies upon understanding their beliefs. Teacher beliefs mediate actions and play a significant role
in the lives of students, affecting the ways in which students are taught and managed (Brown,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 38
2010; Delpit, 2006; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2000). Pajares (1992) provides a comprehen-
sive overview of the research on teacher beliefs. He notes that beliefs are distinct from
knowledge in that they are based on subjective evaluation and not on objective evidence (Pa-
jares, 1992). In-service teachers are in close proximity to the schooling context, having com-
pleted 12 years of prior schooling experience as students, both observing teachers and formulat-
ing beliefs about good teaching (Pajares, 1992). While development and alteration of belief take
time and happen through processes of integrating new experiences and understandings (Pajares,
1992), specifications of teachers’ circumstance and mono-cultural backgrounds of teachers may
narrow conceptualizations of students (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). Teachers may have been “en-
capsulated” by culture and unaware of their own cultures (Banks & Banks, 1994; Weinstein, et
al, 2004). The work of examining personal ethnocentricity is that of all teachers, from all demo-
graphic backgrounds (Milner, 2006; Weinstein, et al, 2004). A recognition of personal beliefs
and experiences moves a teacher into questioning and evaluating cultural understandings and
personal ideology. The following section addresses specific components of teacher beliefs; the
process of recognizing personal beliefs, the evolution of beliefs from pre-service to in-service,
and specifically focuses upon the importance of culturally relevant, culturally sensitive beliefs.
Recognition of Personal Beliefs
The first component of CRCM is the recognition one’s own ethnocentric beliefs. Cultur-
ally relevant practices begin with accounting for personal beliefs and ideologies, and objectively
assessing these beliefs. Effective management is built upon a foundation of strong interpersonal
relationships, requiring a high level of self-awareness (Weinstein & Evertson, 2006). Delpit
(2006) asserts that in order to begin the dialogue about intercultural sensitivity, one must “be
willing to see (one) self in the unflattering light of another’s angry gaze” (pp. 46) as this is “the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 39
only way to start the dialogue” (pp.47). Beliefs and ideologies play a key function in personal ex-
planations and understandings of society.
As context plays a fundamental role in defining cultural relevance (Ladson-Billings,
1994), for the purpose of this study, research from United States public schools is utilized. Power
structures in US schools have been historically driven by a White majority- one that has exerted
political influence to historically subjugate African Americans through enslavement and segrega-
tion (Woodworth, 2014). While policy has advanced beyond that of those eras, the role of race in
paving America’s present landscape and the effects of institutionalized racism lends itself to an
analysis.
Examination of personal beliefs about the world is highly contextualized, as beliefs in re-
gard to self and other are subject to the physical and social setting in which one is immersed.
Learning activities described herein are context specific and pertain to the U.S. teaching land-
scape where exploring concepts relating to “White privilege” are relevant, and where White
teachers constitute the vast majority of public school teachers today (McIntosh, 1988; Delpit,
2006). The broader concept of privilege, in addition to those of culture clash, language acquisi-
tion, social ideologies, and perceptions of both self and other can be applied with relevance in a
wider range of contexts. A focus on White teachers and White privilege is relevant to this study
the research subjects were four White teachers working in schools with predominately Black and
Latino students from low socio-economic backgrounds.
Knowledge of oneself includes an awareness and familiarity with the circumstances in
life related to one’s color and culture. Contrary to the notion that color is of no importance, re-
search asserts that color must be recognized and affirmed as an important. To recognize one’s
own perspective about color, teachers may begin by gaining an awareness of the concept of
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 40
“White privilege” (McIntosh, 1988; Delpit, 2006), as well as the underlying beliefs and ideolo-
gies of the dominant culture (Weinstein, et. al., 2004). McIntosh, (1988) used her experience of
understanding subjugation in Women’s studies in order to gain entry into understanding an un-
consciousness of societal inequity surrounding the construct of race. By identifying the af-
fordances of White privilege in her own daily life, McIntosh disaggregated conditions of White
privilege influencing society on a structural level, in tangible capacities. She addresses the preva-
lence and disparate power of dominant culture through outlets of popular culture, political struc-
tures, and social interactions, asserting that “Whiteness... [had] protected...[her] from hostility,
distress, and violence…” while conferring systematic power and strength upon the group of
which she was a part. McIntosh (1988) emphasizes the imperative for teachers of exploring the
role of race in daily life, consistent with Weinstein and colleagues (2004), who promote learning
about identity as fundamental to recognizing personal beliefs.
Tools, readings, projects, protocols, and discussions can promote genuine and honest re-
flection upon personal beliefs. Working with the Cultural Proficiency Receptivity Scale from
Lindsey, Roberts, and Campbell-Jones can promote self-reflection and analysis of school policy
and practice (Weinstein, et al, 2004). Knowledge of student cultures can be acquired by forming
study groups to read and analyze literature reflecting class identities (Weinstein, et al, 2004).
Students can develop and share family historical inquiry projects (Weinstein, et al, 2004). Home
and community visits can aim to explore familial backgrounds and structures, culturally specific
concepts of time and space, food, history, tradition, and other context specific variations of cul-
ture (Delpit, 2006; Weinstein, et al, 2004). In addition to gaining awareness of self and other, en-
try into student worlds lends itself to an awareness of broader contexts.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 41
Broader contextual awareness promotes teacher examination of policies and practices which
may perpetuate institutional discrimination toward some students (Bartolome, 2004). Students
and teachers can engage in discussions of class, school, and societal rules and laws (Ladson-
Billings, 1994; Weinstein, et al, 2004). Learning activities can include reading about culture
clash, and simulations to experience culture clash and power relations, including the immersion
into a foreign language and a deconstruction and reflection of that experience (Weinstein, et. al.,
2004). This is essential for teachers, who are increasingly White and middle class, and who may
have been raised with privilege that could otherwise impede understanding different perspectives
and experiences (Achinstein & Athanases, 2005; Seidl & Hancock, 2011). This is beneficial to
the experience of all teachers, in spite of demographic similarity or difference with students.
Relationships are built through sensitivity to students’ needs and an understanding of
one’s own personal motives, beliefs, values, and biases (Weinstein et. al, 2003). Teachers may
not intend to operate from biased perspectives, but may not be aware of, or have been confronted
by, their personal beliefs and values as being the product of culture or experience (Gay, 2000;
Sheets & Fong, 2003). Delpit (2006) asserts that people see the world through their beliefs, and
that teachers can understand, or misunderstand student behavior resultantly. Teachers may be
challenged by beliefs regarding appropriate exercise of power in the classroom, challenged to ac-
curately interpret student behaviors, and thus challenged to manage students sensitively. Addi-
tionally, the culture clashes taking place in society at large may be present on a micro-level in the
classroom.
Beliefs and ideologies serve to explain the reasons why society operates a certain way.
Common beliefs in the U.S include the notion that this country is a pure meritocracy - this is the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 42
individualistic notion of the U.S. as a level and democratic playing field; the idea that equal ef-
fort for any and every one, in spite of demographic characteristics, affords equal outcome (Bar-
tolome, 2004; McIntosh, 1988). The notion of a pure meritocracy must be questioned and chal-
lenged.
Teachers and students may want to believe that society is fair and just, or abstain from
acknowledging race and ethnicity in order to try and be polite. Teachers may do this as not to of-
fend students, and to adhere to a narrative of equal opportunity (Bartolome, 2004; Filback &
Green, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Structural practices of schooling demonstrate how policy
shapes access, that meritocracy and individualism in schooling are not a reality for all students.
This is evidenced by biased testing requiring dominant cultural competence, unequal funding in
schools across socio-economic divides, and the over-representation of new and uncertified teach-
ers in low SES, non-White schools (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Ruglis, 2009). Delpit (2006) as-
serts that those in the group of power are least likely to be aware of their power and ethnocen-
tricity, but behave in the interest of maintaining power. Problematizing and questioning merito-
cratic ideologies promotes awareness and reconceptualization of beliefs that could otherwise go
unchallenged.
Teachers may have beliefs about their own success teaching in cross cultural contexts.
Even highly qualified teachers may lack efficacy to teach African American students (Pang &
Sablan, 1998). Pang and Sablan (1998) looked at prejudice and teacher efficacy in 100 pre-ser-
vice and 75 in-service teachers and found that as experience increases, confidence decreases in
multi-cultural settings (Pang & Sablan, 1998). Specifically, 41% of teachers in this study be-
lieved they had “little or no influence” upon the success of their African American students, and
blamed poor student achievement on negative influences in students’ home environments (Pang
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 43
& Sablan, 1998). Blaming home environment is an example of making a permanent attribution.
Permanent attributions (Mayer, 2011) look at the source of a problem as stable and unchanging,
and are associated with low levels of personal control and motivation. If teachers believe that
causes for poor performance are outside of their control, their motivations to fix the problem de-
crease.
Beliefs About Race and Socio-Economics
Teacher beliefs pertaining to race reveal several differences. Ferguson (2003) found that
teachers have higher expectations for White students than Black students. Irvine (1990) found
that White teachers have more negative beliefs about Black students regarding academic abili-
ties, potential for college, and expectations of desirable classroom behavior. Irvine (1990) notes
that these beliefs are most negative for Black males; a perception that is unchanged over time,
even in light of improved student outcomes. Good (1987) found that teachers with lower belief in
students implement rote learning exercises rather than teaching comprehension or analysis on
deeper levels. This implicates belief as the precursor of practice, influencing levels of motivation
and measures of academic rigor applied to the curriculum.
Beliefs may be influenced by perception of race, SES, and prior performance. Brophy
and Good (1970) found that teachers had expectations for students as early as Kindergarten. Rist
(2000) found that teachers used skin color as well as physical indicators of socioeconomic status
to group students according to supposed ‘ability’ in class. These groupings by physical indicators
serve to prepare students to assume positions in the lower classes of society; they are serving to
build a caste like model of society in which students will take part (Rist, 2000). Tettageah (1996)
found that White teachers believe Black students to be less intelligent than their White peers.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 44
White Teacher Beliefs
Studies examine the beliefs of pre-service and inservice teachers who are White. Seidl
(2007) explains White teacher beliefs as an emanation of experience; many middle class Whites
may engage with people of color in contexts where Whites are few, and thus may not experience
the presence or significance of their differences, going on to believe in the similarity of all peo-
ple. This may pose challenges for White teachers in becoming culturally sensitive to the non-
White, non-middle class student (Seidl, 2007). Cultural context is an important variable to con-
sider when teaching - CRP and CRCM assert the importance of teachers learning about, and un-
derstanding the unique contextual variables in which they are operating.
Expectations. Teacher beliefs and expectations may be connected with student out-
comes. Low expectations are particularly influential in creating lower outcomes for Black stu-
dents (Ferguson, 2003). Jussim, Eccles, and Madon (1996) measured the influence of belief upon
educational outcomes at three times as detrimental for Black students than Whites. Steele and
Aaronson (1995) demonstrated this impact by studying ‘stereotype threat,’ whereby marginal-
ized groups perform less well on tests when operating under perceived stereotypes of their test-
ers, therefore concluding that teacher beliefs, including implicit belief, can influence student per-
formance.
Black Teacher Beliefs
Teacher beliefs are important variables even when the race of teachers and students are
congruous. In seeking explanations for the achievement gap in one Black, low SES, underper-
forming high school, Lynn et al (2010) found mostly Black teachers and administrators held
three main beliefs regarding reasons for poor student learning outcomes. These attributions for
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 45
low achievement included blaming student behavior and attitudes, community factors, and lack-
ing parental involvement. Teachers in the study did not take personal responsibility for undera-
chievement of their Black male students; 80% of teachers placed blame on students themselves
for failure to meet standards. Teachers specifically pointed to low student attendance rates, low
levels of motivation, interest, attention, and preparation, as well as “... participation in street cul-
ture, and failure to behave appropriately in class” (pp. 308). Teachers blamed dysfunction in stu-
dent homes and communities as reason for inabilities to focus, and expressed beliefs that their
students were not committed to academic excellence. Some teachers noted student vocational en-
deavors as subtracting from study time, while other teachers asserted that their students had no
work ethic.
One teacher compared his Black students to other minorities with successful academic
outcomes, to illustrate that his students refused to work hard. Regarding teacher beliefs about
students in this study, Lynn et al (2010) posits that “...according to these teachers, African Amer-
ican students lack motivation, do not respect school as an institution, and tend to have misplaced
priorities” (pp. 309). Regarding teacher beliefs about family and community influences, Lynn et
al (2010) found that teachers identified both parents and community as sources of achievement
and behavior problems. Teachers believed that parents were not involved, did not spend enough
time helping with homework, and did not provide proper nutrition for their children before
school. Teachers suggested that young kids needed face sanctions for their performance; the
“principal had a relationship with a nearby apartment complex where children who ‘acted up’ in
school consistently could be evicted from their homes” (pp. 310). Teachers cited single parent
families and lack of male role models as reason for academic difficulty. This explanation was
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 46
particularly salient for teachers in this school where Black male students were expelled and drop-
ping out at higher rates than all other students.
Teachers in the Lynne et al (2010) study further expressed views about the Black com-
munity and Black culture: that adults in the community emphasized church over school, that
Black culture is anti-intellectual and emphasizes success in sports and pop culture over academ-
ics (Lynn et al, 2010). One teacher believed that students were not able or allowed to think criti-
cally at home or express personal opinions. Lynn and colleagues (2010) expressed puzzlement
with the findings, as the mostly Black educators in the study were not representative of the many
positive beliefs held by other Black teachers in past studies. Lynn et al (2010) equated teacher
belief findings with hate speech, specifically:
much of the language used by teachers in this study to discuss and describe African
American students and their families seems tantamount to racist hate speech. It not only
condemns these students for engaging in ‘the wrong behaviors’ and having ‘the wrong
attitude,’ but it also condemns them for being African American (pp. 313).
These studies collectively highlight the influence of teacher belief upon teacher practice,
and specifically Lynn et al (2010) affirms the possibility for all teachers, even with similar racial
background, to hold deficit beliefs about students. Filback and Green (2012) affirm that deficit
mindsets about the academically inabilities of certain groups ignore the potential of individual
students. An asset oriented mindset affirms the potential of individual students and seeks to build
upon it through a rigorous and meaningful curricular experience (Filback & Green, 2012).
As teacher beliefs are associated with student outcomes, a thorough accounting of per-
sonal belief is imperative in development of CRCM. Teachers of all backgrounds can hold defi-
cit beliefs or alternatively, critically affirm student culture with asset oriented mindsets (Delpit,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 47
2006; Lynn, et al, 2010). Beliefs are the lens through which students are seen, understood, and
related with.
Pre-Service Beliefs
Pre-service teacher beliefs may change through the course of teacher education. Teacher
education may provide diversity and social justice training, address teacher beliefs, and promote
positive self identity through meaningful and supportive cross cultural internship experiences.
With training in linguistic and cultural diversity, new teachers can move away from deficit ori-
ented misconceptions of students (Achinstein & Athanases, 2005). Vern (2006) found beginning
teachers most commonly concerned with classroom management issues, expressing shock at the
severity of both emotional and behavioral problems encountered in the classroom. Teachers feel
inadequately prepared to address these issues, and blame teacher preparation programs for inade-
quately imparting preparation in this area. Citing Ladd (2005), Vern (2006) explains how teach-
ers believe their programs to be too theoretical and not practical enough. American Psychologi-
cal Association (2006) has found highest levels of teacher interest in professional learning about
classroom management and diversity related issues.
Cross-cultural internship. One model for diversity training and positive identity for-
mation is the cross cultural teaching internship with ongoing university support. Siedl and Han-
cock (2011) explore the process of inquiring into pre-service teacher beliefs over the course of an
eight year cross cultural internship program. Siedl and Hancock (2011) recount the experiences
of eight years teaching Masters of Education students in a cross-cultural internship with mostly
White Ohio State University interns in predominately Black Mt. Olivet church. The program
aimed to impart a “double consciousness” within the interns; including fostering critical con-
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 48
sciousness, bicultural competency, and a move toward culturally relevant teaching. The research-
ers identified a common set of challenges, beliefs, and attitudes expressed by many White interns
through their process of acquiring anti-racist identities. Pedagogy is essential in guiding students
through their processes, from the first moment of awakening to the idea that their lives are raced
(Seidl & Hancock, 2011). First confronted with ideas of racism, typical White responses may in-
clude feeling stereotyped, raced, blamed, or accused of being racist. It is important to help stu-
dents understand that these are normal responses, and it is important that White students be given
validation for their complexity and individuality beyond their Whiteness, as well as their com-
mitment to learn and work in anti-racist spaces (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). This study outlines the
evolution of teacher beliefs over the course of the internship.
Before beginning the internship, White students often express one of two attitudes. Some
may have apprehensions about being perceived as White, different, or less than within a Black
context. Seidl & Hancock (2011) qualify this apprehension as healthier than a naive attitude, as
in reality these teachers are about to enter a context deeply affected by racist history. Whites may
struggle to express thoughts and feelings surrounding the construct of race, as they may have
been socialized that a color-blind attitude is moral and correct (Seidl & Hancock, 2011; Wein-
stein et al, 2004). Learning to confront the issues of race in relationships is necessary in develop-
ing the double image. Seidl and Hancock (2011) document changing attitudes and beliefs
through the internship process; White teachers may believe that their work in cross-cultural set-
tings is altruistic but then find that their presence is actually either suspect or unwanted.
Culturally Relevant Beliefs
CRP affirms the importance of cultural competence in an effective teaching practice. Stu-
dent cultures are acknowledged, understood, and affirmed in order to broaden the curriculum
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 49
(Ladson-Billings, 1994). A review of culturally relevant teacher beliefs reveals commonalities
among successful practitioners which stand in contrast to those of unsuccessful practitioners.
Teachers with Culturally Relevant Pedagogies hold particular beliefs about themselves as teach-
ers, about their students, and about society.
Culturally relevant beliefs are affirmative. Delpit (2006) notes a confidence and asset ori-
entation in great teachers toward their students. Further research of Brown (2003), Duncan-An-
drade (2007, 2009), Milner and Tenore (2010), Ladson-Billings (2009), and Seidl and Hancock
(2011) define and describe the characteristics of culturally relevant teachers. Duncan-Andrade
(2007) notes that popular movies emphasizing heroic teachers and exceptional results with non-
White, low SES students perpetuate myths that these teachers and circumstances are exceptional.
His studies aim to demystify and deconstruct the processes used by Culturally Relevant teachers,
including the beliefs and practices associated with teachers who produce increased learning out-
comes for non-White, low SES students.
While Duncan Andrade (2007) typifies teachers a three tiered hierarchy of effectiveness,
he classifies the teacher at the highest level of cultural relevance as a “Rida.” “Rida,” a popular
culture slang referent for “rider”, is the term used by Duncan Andrade for a highly effective
teacher who is accountable to students through even the most difficult of circumstances. Com-
mon characteristics of these successful teachers fall into five categories, or pillars.
Ridas
First, Ridas have a “critically conscious” purpose; they believe that their students may
struggle, yet will ultimately be the ones to change the world. Success, as defined by the “Rida,”
involves creating sustainable communities wherein students become educated in order to give
back. This is in contrast to a conception of success as an individual’s escape from one’s own
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 50
community. Ridas believe that learning is the path to success and freedom, and they impart this
notion upon students. The second pillar of a Rida is “Duty,” which entails one’s service to the
people. Ridas believe that accessing and working with students is a privilege and not a burden,
and they view urban teaching as a way of life. Pillar three, “Preparation,” is founded upon the be-
lief that time in school or out of school can be a professional development opportunity. Ridas be-
lieve their outside experiences can provide insight and information for later transmission in the
class room. “Socratic Sensibility,” the fourth pillar, includes the belief that self-examination is
both painful and highly necessary. Fifth, “Trust,” entails several beliefs facilitating positive
teacher-student relationships; teachers know that trust must be earned by students, and are aware
that history and government policy have affected poor communities deeply. Ridas prioritize be-
ing loved over being liked, realizing that maintaining high standards and careful discipline will
lead to long term relationships. Students are held to high standards by the Rida, as student failure
is seen as a failure to teach and not failure to learn (Duncan-Andrade, 2007).
Culturally Relevant teaching promotes social justice. Duncan Andrade (2007) maintains
that most low income students of color enter school without a positive self-identity, sense of pur-
pose, or hope - an examination of schooling history and society makes this justifiably so. A
‘Rida’ focuses on raising these three human elements, believing in the capacity for students to
learn and achieve.
Equity and Equality
Milner and Tenore (2010) assert that culturally relevant teachers hold specific beliefs: -
understanding equity and equality and the notion that what is fair is not always the same. They
decide when and how they will incorporate management strategies for all students or adapt prac-
tices based upon situations. Specifically, teachers understand power, interpersonal relationships,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 51
and view school as a type of community (Milner and Tenore, 2010). They understand divisions
of power in the classroom and recruit popular students to embrace the class vision of learning in
order to engage others (Milner & Tenore, 2010). They accurately perceive themselves in relation
to their students, acknowledging similarities and differences with regard to their own race, eth-
nicity, SES, and gender. This knowledge is used to build affirm student culture and build rela-
tionships.
Affirmative Beliefs
Bartolome (2004) studied an award winning Southern California High school with a 70%
Mexican immigrant and 62% low English proficiency population where teachers were able to
promote successful student outcomes. Common beliefs among teachers emerged through inter-
views and observations. Issues of power relations were addressed; teachers asserted commit-
ments to creating a fair and caring environment for all students, questioned meritocratic explana-
tions for the existing social order, and noted the role of dominant culture in creating and enforc-
ing structural inequities. These teachers reject deficit views of subordinated groups of students,
and recognize critical factors in school and society at large. Teachers believe themselves to be
advocates for their students in navigating the school and societal infrastructures. They did not
hold romanticized views of the dominant culture in America; rather found favor with the behav-
iors of their Latino students and emphasized the assets in Latino culture. Consistent with Seidl
and Hancock (2011), Bartolome (2004) notes that while some teachers, specifically White teach-
ers, may hold certain meritocratic beliefs about society, teaching in a cross raced context and ex-
periencing inequity can challenge and change this belief system if supported by teacher educa-
tion and development.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 52
Questioning meritocracy and the role of education as a ‘great equalizer’ makes room for
practices and policies which promote social justice in schools. Nieto (2005), put forth five essen-
tial beliefs for effective teaching for social justice: “They are: (a) a sense of mission to service
ethnically diverse children to the best of their abilities, (b) solidarity with, empathy for, and value
of students’ lives, experiences, cultures, and human dignity; (c) courage to question mainstream
school knowledge and conventional ways of doing things, and beliefs and assumptions about di-
verse students, families, cultures, and communities; (d) willingness to improvise, to push the en-
velope, to go beyond established templates and frameworks, and to embrace uncertainty and
flexibility; and (e) a passion for equality and social justice.
Social justice orientations may not be prioritized in the hierarchy of teacher belief. Hu-
berman and Post (1990) studied 227 inservice cooperating teachers regarding multicultural edu-
cation by asking teachers to select one goal from a list of five in optimizing multicultural educa-
tion. Most teachers chose teaching of cooperation and tolerance, followed by the teaching that
“all people are individuals.” Five percent of respondents selected the answer directly addressing
common responsibility to focus on equity and social justice. This highlights the teachers’ priority
placed upon celebrating individualism and diversity above that of adopting social justice orienta-
tions.
Belief includes an appreciation for student cultures, and a genuine interest to understand
and affirm those cultures. Gay (2010) asserts that “...most culturally diverse students and their
teachers live in different words, and they do not fully understand or appreciate one another’s ex-
periential realities” (pp 144). Little opportunity for meaningful interaction limits mutual under-
standing; and understandings may be mediated or distorted by mass media influences. Delpit
(2012) notes that good teachers enjoy teaching. Using the term “warm demanders” to refer to
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 53
good teachers, Delpit notes that these teachers believe in the success of their students, and are
willing to help them. They believe in the brilliance of their students, and view themselves as ad-
vocates, and even parental figures for those students in their charges.
Grounded in Dewey’s idea that finding one’s unique purpose is the key to happiness and
freedom, Noddings (2012) affirms that educators need to value multiple forms of knowledge and
skills. Diversity of skill is valuable; it is the basis for an interdependent society where prepara-
tion in arts, as well as in academics, has long term and lasting value (Yosso, 2005). Yosso
(2005) proposes shifting beliefs away from deficit notions of capital whereby “People of Color”
do not have access to White, mainstream resources, and into an understanding of multiple forms
of capital. This exemplifies an asset orientation toward students, capturing and cultivating the
unique strengths and interests of individual students throughout their learning processes.
Discussion of Teacher Beliefs
The literature on teacher beliefs highlights the importance of replacing limiting, deficit,
negative orientations toward students with culturally affirming, asset oriented beliefs. As CRP
promotes academic success, affirms student culture, and cultivates critical consciousness (Lad-
son-Billings, 1994), the process of evaluating personal beliefs and ethnocentricity lends to the
consideration of other points of view and placing value upon cultural diversity (Noddings, 2012).
An appreciation and understanding of student worlds (Gay, 2000; Milner & Tenore, 2010) and
questioning power systems lends itself to questioning meritocratic explanations of society, and
notions of education as “the great equalizer” (Bartolome, 2004; McIntosh, 1988). While some
teachers may believe that the education system and society itself act as equalizers, the daily ex-
periences of students facing challenges in school and society may be, and feel to them, unfair.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 54
Through re-evaluating beliefs about society and juxtaposing these ideas with the realities
of students, more meaningful understandings can be developed regarding the actual experiences
of student worlds. Ultimately, belief informs knowledge acquisition, and the implementation of
teacher practice in promoting culturally relevant management. Through the accurate accounting
and re-evaluation of teacher beliefs, teachers can reassess what types of knowledge and practices
are most relevant in promoting academic success, cultural competency, and critical conscious-
ness for their students.
Knowledge
As CRP maintains, teacher knowledge of diversity and student culture is foundational for
promoting successful student social and academic outcomes (Ladson-Billings, 1994). The three
tenets of CRCM further address types of knowledge: knowledge of students’ cultures,
knowledge of greater contexts at play, and knowledge and use of new strategies. Literature pre-
sented in the following review addresses these knowledge types. Implementation of strategic
knowledge will be incorporated in the following section on teacher practices.
Cultural Knowledge. As the second tenet of CRP is understanding and affirming stu-
dent cultures, acquiring a foundation in student cultures is necessary for teachers. Delpit (2012)
asserts that knowledge, and not skin color, predicates teacher and student relationships. Specifi-
cally, she asserts that, “success is not because ... skin color matches ... but because (teachers)
know the lives and culture of their students. Knowing students is a prerequisite for teaching them
well” (pp. 87).
Upon examining personal beliefs, teachers can move into becoming more knowledgeable
of student cultures and of the greater communities and contexts (NCATE, 2010; Weinstein, et.
al., 2004). Cultural awareness constitutes an understanding that behaviors, celebrations, rules,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 55
and etiquette vary across different ethnic groups; cultures maintain differing social taboos, ways
of relating, styles of communicating, styles of learning, and systems of motivation, all of which
can impact classroom activity and teacher-student interaction (Gay, 2010). To grow a cultural
knowledge base, teachers can form teacher study groups to read culturally relevant literature,
share family history and culture, and explore the structures and specifics within communities
(Weinstein, et. al., 2004). Learnings will vary across context; it is context itself which informs
the meaning of cultural relativity and sensitivity.
Knowledge of community is an essential pillar of understanding students. Consulting
adults within student communities and maintaining relationships with community members is
important for meaningful development of curriculum, pedagogies, and student learning goals
(Delpit, 2006; Duncan-Andrade, 2009). With culturally relevant knowledge and pedagogy,
teachers can build and implement equitable management practices (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gay,
2000; Milner & Tenore, 2010). Ladson-Billings (2001) affirms the importance of teacher
knowledge of personal culture, students’ cultures, and school culture - with increased cultural
knowledge teachers can promote diversity and expand learning opportunities for all students.
Broadening awareness and valuing diverse student assets is an essential form of teacher
knowledge. Knowledge and understanding of multiple, and dynamic forms of cultural capital
provides recognition of the strengths and assets of different groups of students. Various types of
capital are the resources which will transform education and empower People of Color to recog-
nize utilize their assets (Yosso, 2005). Broadened knowledge base of dynamic cultural capital
can be attained by learning about student cultures. Effective disciplinary practices can be built
through the commitment to this learning, and to building a climate of care and respect (Wein-
stein, et.al, 2004; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Noddings, 2012).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 56
Contextualized knowledge. As culturally relevant practices are not prescriptive, but ra-
ther flexible in terms of best addressing the needs of a particular school context, the strategies set
forth by the literature are based on context and a high level of teacher discretion (Delpit, 2006;
Ladson-Billings, 1995). Effective classroom management is purposed for facilitating student
learning, which ideally both empowers teachers and students and assists them in realizing their
potential (Milner & Tenore, 2010).
While CRP addresses several key factors of teaching practice intended to improve student
achievement, Weinstein and colleagues (2004) coined the term CRCM to refer to pedagogies
specific to organizing and managing a classroom. Wienstien et al. (2004) examine case studies,
whereby differences in teacher and student culture create misunderstandings, and explore learn-
ing opportunities poised to develop context specific, culturally sensitive management practices.
For example, in their study, Nicole, a middle SES, White, female novice teacher disciplines two
of her students, both Black, for conversing loudly, which by her standards is inappropriate. Her
principal informs her that this behavior need not be reprimanded; the boys were conversing in a
style culturally different, albeit perfectly appropriate. Cindy, a White, middle SES teacher of
Haitian four year olds was unable to implement her typical repertoire of classroom management
successfully with this group. After observing Haitian teachers manage their students, she identi-
fies differences in their control statements and discourse style that she subsequently adopts to im-
prove order in her room (Weinstein, et al, 2004).
As many White, mainstream teachers have not had significant experience with students
of color and poverty, they may not have the knowledge of the greater social, political, cultural,
and contextual factors influencing their students’ lives (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Sleeter, 2004).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 57
Pang and Sablan (1998) found that fewer than 50% of beginning White teachers had any Afri-
can-American friends, and 69% had not taken coursework in diversity or multicultural studies.
Teachers need a specific knowledge base to address issues of working with diverse stu-
dents. Achinstein and Athanases (2005) found that teachers of culturally and linguistically di-
verse students need skills to establish trust, build classroom community, scaffold lessons, use
multiple modalities of teaching, promote engagement, and maintain high expectations for all
learners. Contextual knowledge and strategic knowledge in appropriate classroom management
inform and guide classroom practice.
Practices
As stated above, the fourth component of CRCM addresses the application of teacher
knowledge; the fifth and final tenet is commitment to creating a caring space. Literature in these
two areas will be reviewed herein. Strategy knowledge and use refers to the organization and uti-
lization of physical space, communication processes of teachers, learning activities implemented
by teachers, teacher engagement in ongoing learning and reflection, and the modeling of skills
and attitudes consistent with the tenets of CRP.
Strategy Knowledge and Implementation
Teacher beliefs and knowledge of greater context serve to continually inform a culturally
sensitive teaching and classroom management practice. Culturally relevant teachers screen poli-
cies and practices for discriminatory potential, as well as engage students in discussions of both
tacit and explicit class and societal rules (Weinstein, et. al, 2004). As Ladson-Billings (2009) as-
serts, the tenets of CRP are not meant to be prescriptive in nature, but rather crafted continuously
by a teacher in context, to meet unique needs of students. The following studies illustrate specific
practices of culturally relevant teachers within their unique contexts.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 58
Brown (2003) looked at nine teachers in an urban schooling environment. Teachers were
identified by colleagues or acquaintances and volunteered for the study. Nine were White, one
Sri Lankan, one African American, and two were Hispanic. Average years teaching was 16, all
in low SES schools. Data from the study uncovered themes of Culturally Relevant Pedagogies
among these successful practitioners.
The first emergent theme found by Brown (2003) was caring for students. This was done
by getting to know students, seeing them outside of school, and creating psychological safety
with warm, familial classroom environments. Pete, a teacher of war refugees, spends weeks in
the beginning of the year playing social games, establishing school-home connections, and build-
ing trust with students. Adrienne, a White teacher of Black students uses hugs, and speaks softly
and respectfully. The second theme was that culturally relevant teachers are assertive and author-
itative. Teachers explicitly demonstrate authority with clear expectations and commands phrased
as directives and not questions. Third, communicating and listening are essential in building
teacher student relationships. Teachers dedicated time and allowed students to visit their classes
during lunch and recess, where they listen to student life stories. Teachers understand that stu-
dents may have culturally specific ways of operating in the classroom; Black students may use
“call response” or speaking while teacher is speaking as way of responding in order to
acknowledge agreement. Accurately interpreting a response such as this is part of a cultural
knowledge base.
With cultural knowledge, teachers understand student behaviors and respond respect-
fully; Brown (2003) notes that negative responses by teachers in such cases create negative class-
room climates. As cultural communication patterns differ, teachers understand and respect these
norms through their differentiated communication. Brown (2003) notes that Asians may value
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 59
collective harmony and not correct peer work, and language learners may listen but not partici-
pate in order to learn the language. Brown (2003) concludes that the environment created by
teacher contributes strongly to student learning. By adopting relevant beliefs, knowledge, and
practices, teachers can effectively engage students across cultures.
Student behaviors are subject to teacher interpretation, and thus may be understood dif-
ferently depending upon perspective. Beaty-O’Farrel, Green, and Hanna (2010) affirm the im-
portance of understanding students in addressing even the most serious behavior problems in the
middle grades. Although students may appear resilient or disinterested, students at this age are
seeking meaningful relationships with adults (Beaty-O’Farrel, et al, 2010). Beaty-O’Farrel et al
(2010) posit the importance of showing empathy, and finding the positive qualities in student
misbehavior in order to help re-frame the misbehavior. Careful interpretation of behavior is fun-
damental to identifying, affirming, and building upon student strengths.
Milner and Tenore (2010) illustrate practices of two teachers in an urban, diverse middle
school to exemplify culturally responsive management. Milner & Tenore (2010) posit that con-
flicts between students and teachers may be based upon misinterpretations. For example, the first
subject, Mr. Hall, worked to build relationships with students by playing ball with them outside
of class. Mr. Hall, in correcting students’ behavior, focused his verbal feedback to students on
their specific behaviors and not their persons. As Mr. Hall viewed himself as a role model, he
modeled the appropriate behaviors for all students on campus, being present at multiple locations
as an advocate for them.
Mr. Jackson, the second subject of Milner and Tenore (2010), dressed formally with the
intention of conveying the importance of his students and classroom environment. He played soft
music to create a positive climate. To address issues of power, he reached out to the popular and
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 60
tough students in the class. His approach emphasized fairness with the same consequences for all
student behavior in a consistent manner. Milner and Tenore (2010) note the importance of im-
mersion into student worlds; Mr. Jackson took interest in students, communicated casually with
them, and stayed current on culture of children their age to incorporate this into their conversa-
tions.
Milner and Tenore (2010) identify common practices of the pedagogues in six emergent
themes, as mentioned above, three of which address specific practices. They are:
A. immerse into students’ life worlds- Teachers attempt to understand the lives of their stu-
dents and elements of student culture including music, sports, film, and popular culture.
Knowledge of student life worlds is incorporated into discussions and learning.
B. grant student entry into teachers’ worlds- Teachers share stories and allow students to
learn about their lives in order to make connections and build community.
C. conceive school as a community with family - As teachers believe school is a type of
community, they allow students to voice perspectives, define the community, and take
important roles within the classroom.
Culture may influence patterns and procedures of speech, thus affecting the conversations
within a school. European American teachers commonly have learned a “passive-receptive” dis-
course which alternates teacher speech and student response, whereas many African Americans
maintain a more active, participatory style of discourse (Gay, 2000; Weinstein, et. al., 2004).
Many Pacific Islanders place interpersonal harmony above competition and thus may appear lazy
to the Eurocentric teacher valuing competition, by not engaging in competitive learning activities
(Sileo-Prater, 1998). Native American students may appear passive or apathetic in whole class
settings, but talkative and engaged when in small group settings (Delpit, 2006). Trueba, Cheng,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 61
and Ima (1993) note that Southeast Asians may smile as an admission of guilt after making a
mistake in order to create harmony and smooth over any hard feelings. As Japanese culture shuns
redundancy, Japanese students may avoid participation in classroom activities requiring repeti-
tive discussions (Delpit, 2006). Considering these specific examples among a vastitude culture-
specific practices, a teacher has many considerations to make in order to accurately understand,
engage with, and sensitively manage diverse discourse in the classroom, as well as to prepare
students to engage in different discourse styles outside of the classroom.
Vern (2006) outlines the most important classroom management skills of teachers as ex-
pressed by school administration. They include establishing positive classroom climate, building
and maintaining student relationships, and managing classrooms / maintaining discipline.
In reviewing suggestions for classroom management preparation programs, Vern (2006)
cites Lasley (1994), advocating a teaching of mastery for three skills. These include (a) develop-
ment and implementation of rules, (b) knowing how and when to use practices, and (c) use of
parents as a resource to deal with ongoing behavior issues.
Vern (2006) cites Jones’ comprehensive approach, which argues for a research based
skills focus in teacher preparation, rather than exposure to a few theories or models. Research
based skills include (a) an understanding for student cultural considerations, (b) creation of posi-
tive classroom relationships between teachers, students, peers, and parents, (c) developing stu-
dent commitments to behavior standards and procedures within a safe supportive class environ-
ment, and (d) knowing how and when to respond to disruptive student behavior.
Caring Spaces
Classroom management can be conceptualized as the teacher’s creation of an environ-
ment facilitating both social-emotional, as well as academic learning (Evertson & Weinstein,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 62
2006). Methods by which a teacher creates order and learning opportunities in the classroom are
more important than order in and of itself (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Creating order can be
done by way of multiple pedagogies, some culturally appropriate for specific contexts and stu-
dents but not others (Au, 1980; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Delpit, 2006). Classroom management is
a delicate issue in this way, and is not being addressed as such within teacher preparation pro-
grams at large (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006).
Ladson-Billings (1995) notes the idiosyncratic type of caring among culturally relevant
teachers; caring not as an affectionate demonstration, but rather a concern for the welfare, social
justice, and learning outcomes for students expressed by maintaining high student expectations.
Delpit (2012) asserts that “It is the quality of relationship that allows a teacher’s push for excel-
lence” (pp. 85). Relationships built around respect, reflection, and meaningful communication
can facilitate this caring environment. Research confirms the importance of a quality teacher stu-
dent relationship wherein teachers maintain relationships in and out of school, maintain trust and
confidence, allow students to ask for help and provide assistance to them, and give students lee-
way to make mistakes and learn from them (Noddings, 2012). Commitment to establish this car-
ing space is the fifth step in the Weinstein model.
Creating a caring environment is essential in promoting equitable outcomes for all stu-
dents. Teachers may intend to create a positive space for learning but implement practices with
unintended consequences, including referrals or suspensions. Exclusionary discipline is associ-
ated with several negative outcomes (Skiba et al, 2014). While teachers may intend to implement
referrals and suspensions to keep negative influences out of the classroom, use of exclusionary
methods is correlated with less teaching time, lower test scores, and lower graduation rates
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 63
(Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Milner & Tenore, 2010). Further, highest rates of exclusionary disci-
pline and lowest rates of achievement are prevalent for students of color and poverty (Milner &
Tenore, 2010; Ruglis, 2009). Teachers in schools of low income students of color have the low-
est levels of preparation and professional experience (Darling-Hammond, 2004). Given the im-
portance of maintaining discipline in the classroom, knowledge and skills are requisite for imple-
mentation of effective management pedagogy.
Skiba et al (2014) found that perspectives and practices of schools have strongest impli-
cations for disciplinary outcomes. Safe school climate is related to decreased rates of suspension
and strong student-teacher, parent-teacher relationships. Promising practices to reduce discipline
disparities include relationship building, structural interventions such as PBIS, and promotion of
emotional literacy in students. Specifically, Skiba et al (2014) pose questions for further research
to address teacher bias and “subtle stereotyping ... [that] is virtually universal in our society. Fur-
ther research is needed on the extent to which implicit bias may contribute to disparities in office
referrals, suspension, or expulsion” (pp. 6). Development of CRCM aims to address such im-
plicit biases through taking inventory and evaluating personal beliefs, ideologies, and biases.
Valenzuela (1999) wrote the book Subtractive Schooling in which she discussed the con-
cept of mutual care between teachers and students. This built upon the work of Noddings, (1986)
who discusses the ethic of caring and asserts the importance of modeling and practicing care
with students to further their character development. This type of caring rests on a mutually re-
spectful teacher-student relationship where all feel and are valued. Noddings (1988) critiqued
schools’ emphasis on high stakes testing and individualism over a focus on character based,
moral growth. Creating a caring space is a fundamental aspect of implementing culturally rele-
vant pedagogy.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 64
Culturally Relevant Pre-Service Education
Many beginning teachers do not feel adequately prepared by their preparation programs
to manage their classrooms; research on teacher preparation programs and effective classroom
management points to a need for reform (Everston & Weinstein, 2006; Vern, 2006). Gaps in
teacher preparation and gaps in knowledge of culturally relevant management pedagogies hinder
a teacher’s ability to provide effective learning experiences in the classroom (Evertson & Wein-
stein, 2006; Delpit, 2006). While educators perceive classroom management as their greatest
challenge and many would like help improving their practice, this field is not emphasized in
teacher preparation programs, or in the field of research (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Everston &
Weinstein, 2006). For beginning teachers, a most common concern is how to manage a class-
room, as they perceive severe emotional and behavioral problems in students (Vern, 2006).
These teachers report finding more severe behavioral problems in their classes than they antici-
pated, and for those teachers leaving the profession discipline issues are cited as the second rea-
son for leaving the profession (Vern, 2006).
Research on preservice programs highlight several gaps in the field of classroom man-
agement instruction (Everston & Weinstein, 2006; Vern, 2006). Teachers express the need for
more focus on practice rather than theory, more comprehensive classroom management curricu-
lum, increased attention to severe behavioral issues and special needs, and specific preparation to
work with diverse populations (Hollins & Guzman, 2010; Wideen, et. al, 1998).
In spite of lacking emphasis within preparation programs, specific classroom manage-
ment practices are associated with improved educational outcomes, are needed in schools, and
can be taught (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Losen & Gillespie, 2012). Specifically, school ad-
ministrators seek teachers who are able to build positive classroom climates and maintain rapport
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 65
with students (Darling Hammond, 2006; Vern, 2006). Differing ideologies about discipline per-
meate the field in this area of teacher education, with some emphasizing skills or strategies while
others emphasize popular models of classroom management (Everston & Weinstein, 2006). Ad-
ditionally, others view classroom management models and strategies as merely a “bag of tricks”
(Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Loughran, 2006). Lack of emphasis on classroom management in
teacher preparation is also attributed to divergent beliefs about management pedagogies; some
view a dichotomy between current models of constructivist, active learning versus the traditional,
authoritative, behavioristic notions associated with classroom management as a mode of oppres-
sive control (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Culturally relevant and sensitive models affirm the
active and engaged styles of teaching and learning (Rightmyer, et. al, 2008).
Teacher preparation programs are further lacking a diversity orientation, in spite of re-
search documenting its importance (Hollins & Guzman, 2010). Preparing teachers for diverse
populations has not been highly prioritized for funding sources or research (Hollins & Guzman,
2010). With scant attention to classroom management and related cultural understandings in
teacher preparation programs, it is imperative for teachers to receive the support and training that
they need to implement effective pedagogies (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Weinstein, et.al, 2003).
This is a void that needs to be filled through reform in teacher preparation and professional de-
velopment for in-service teachers (NCATE, 2010).
In addition to pre-service training, occupational socialization plays a major role in the
formation of teacher beliefs and pedagogies (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005). Occupational context
is the greatest influence upon teachers and can wash out prior learning acquired during the pre-
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 66
service stage (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005). The influence of occupational socialization, as dis-
cussed by Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) implicates professional development as imperative for
maintaining beliefs, knowledge, and practices most consistent with conceptions of best practice.
Summary
The critical role of teachers in promoting positive student social and academic outcomes
cannot be overstated. Frameworks related to CRP and CRCM are important in conceptualizing
and addressing the role of teachers in building relationships and caring spaces to achieve learning
goals. Chapter two summarized the tenets of CRP (Ladson-Billings, 1995), and the Weinstein et
al (2004) model for developing CRCM practices. Literature was presented according to the five
part model for CRCM development; recognizing personal beliefs, developing three relevant do-
mains of knowledge, and honing the commitment to creating a caring space. This study exam-
ined the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of White, female teachers of Black students in high
school settings who manage classrooms from the inside without relying on exclusionary meth-
ods.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 67
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter outlines the methodology used to study effective classroom management
pedagogies of White teachers of Black and Latino, low SES students. Aligned with the theoreti-
cal framework for this study (see Table 1), and based upon protocols used to study culturally
relevant classroom management (Duncan-Andrade, 2014; Rightmyer et al, 2008), interviews and
observations aim to uncover how certain processes contribute to the development of teacher be-
liefs, knowledge, and practices. While there are existing models for imparting these pedagogies
to teachers (Weinstein et al, 2004); research iterates the importance of finding and studying
teachers exemplary of culturally sensitive practice in order to gain insight into the processes by
which these teachers came into, and implement their expertise (Milner, 2010; Duncan-Andrade,
2009). As relationship building has been identified as a key component to lowering rates of ex-
clusionary discipline among the most high needs and most frequently excluded students, the ten-
ets of the theoretical framework for this study promote a climate of classroom management
through relationships.
There are five core components within the framework: (a) promoting student academic
success, (b) having and promoting cultural competence, (c) having and promoting critical con-
sciousness, (d) knowledge and strategy use, and (e) creating a caring space. These are poised to
create and maintain positive teacher student relationships (Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Ladson-
Billings, 2009; Rightmyer et al, 2008; Weinstein et al, 2003, 2004). Culturally Relevant Peda-
gogy and Culturally Relevant Classroom Management can be adapted and used in any schooling
context. This study focused on classroom contexts and teachers with specific characteristics.
White teachers of Black and Latino, low SES students with culturally relevant beliefs,
knowledge, and practices were the subjects of this study.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 68
These particular demographic of students, Black and/ or Latino and low SES, experience
highest rates, statistically as group, of exclusionary discipline within a school system of predomi-
nately White, female teachers (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Skiba et al, 2014; Tobin & Vincent,
2011). Disparate rates of exclusionary discipline have negative academic and life outcomes.
Blacks are suspended at rates over 300% more than Whites (Tobin & Vincent, 2011), and Lati-
nos at approximately 150% rate of their White peers (Losen & Gillespie, 2012). Educators are
charged, when at all possible, to find alternative methods of discipline to keep students in class-
rooms and learning (Delpit, 2006; Ladson Billings, 1995; Losen & Gillespie, 2012). This study
aimed to identify and deconstruct practices of teachers demographically representing the major-
ity of US teachers, yet who maintain classroom management internally without over-reliance on
exclusionary practices.
Exclusionary discipline, or referral to administration, has been correlated with higher
rates of suspension, expulsion, drop out, and negative life outcomes (Losen & Gillespie, 2012;
Tobin & Vincent, 2011). This study intended to identify and understand teachers who were not
implementing exclusionary practices, and focus on how these teachers managed classrooms in-
ternally.
Purpose of the Study
A promising alternative to exclusionary discipline is classroom management grounded in
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) (Evertson &Weinstein, 2006; Delpit 2006; Ladson-
Billings, 1995; Duncan-Andrade, 2009; Milner, 2010). Ladson Billings (2009), Delpit (2006),
Duncan-Andrade (2009), and Milner (2010) and others have qualitatively researched teachers
with culturally sensitive practices - their studies recommend a continuation of this work, in order
to deconstruct processes through which these practices are developed and implemented.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 69
This study aimed to identify beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers which led to
equitable outcomes for all students; in particular, Black and Latino students with low SES in
classrooms with White teachers. Teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices will be identified as
either self-reported, observed by the researcher, or when applicable; both. This study utilized
qualitative methods to research these three variables, and it was guided by the following research
questions:
1. What beliefs does the successful classroom manager in a high-needs context hold about
him/herself as a teacher and about her students in regards to teaching and learning?
2. What pre-service and professional development training did/ does teachers have which
have contributed to culturally sensitive classroom management practices?
3. How do teachers implement culturally relevant classroom management pedagogies, and
how do these practices or dispositions reflect emphasis on the role of teacher-student re-
lationships?
Research Design
This study utilized qualitative methods including interviews, document analysis,
and observations. Interviews and observations were poised to gain insight as to the beliefs,
knowledge, and practices of teachers. These insights allowed the primary instrument, the re-
searcher, to collect data and uncover themes and meaning from the subjects’ experiences (Cre-
swell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). In depth interviews were used to gain an inside perspective of ex-
ternal behaviors (Patton, 1987), and were used to deconstruct the processes and beliefs through
which classroom management pedagogies were developed and used. Observations were poised
to identify specific practices of four model teachers in relating to students, and aimed to make
connections between self-reported data and observed practices. Documents related to curriculum,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 70
instruction, policies, and pedagogies provided additional data to validate interview and observa-
tion data.
A major goal of this study was to understand a phenomenon- teacher implementation of
culturally sensitive and culturally relevant management pedagogy. This research used a case
study design in order to unpack the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers, and to make
the tacit thought processes and beliefs of teachers more explicit. Making teacher knowledge
more explicit is essential for unpacking a largely tacit body of professional knowledge, espe-
cially in field of teacher education and ongoing professional development (Loughran, 2006;
Zeichner, 2011).
The first research question, “What beliefs does the successful classroom manager in a
high-needs context hold about him/herself as a teacher and about her students in regards to teach-
ing and learning?” was answered by self-reported interview data and through classroom observa-
tions. This question was based on the research of Weinstein et al (2003; 2004), Duncan Andrade
(2009), and Milner (2010). Weinstein and colleagues (2003; 2004) created a model for teaching
CRCM including analysis of personal beliefs, ideologies, and biases. The two aforementioned
researchers assert that successful teachers in high needs contexts are both aware of, and commit-
ted to, working successfully therein, and see this work in a constructive and positive light, as a
privilege, or part of their life’s work in making meaningful differences.
Research question two, “What pre-service and professional development training did/
does teachers have which have contributed to culturally sensitive classroom management prac-
tices?” uncovered pertinent information about the teachers’ background experiences and learning
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 71
in the field of education and specifically, classroom management. This included classes, read-
ings, lectures, simulations, and activities both in formal pre-service or professional development
settings, as well learning through life experiences.
Research question three, “How do teachers implement culturally relevant classroom manage-
ment pedagogies, and how do strategies or dispositions reflect emphasis on role of teacher-stu-
dent relationships?” served to identify and explain the specific techniques used by teachers to
manage in their contexts. Further, it aimed to inquire as to the particular learning activities and
experiences, life experiences, and ongoing practices which were assistive in promoting these
practices. This question was answered through self-reported interview, and additionally through
the observation of classroom practice, and any artifacts (books, articles, etc.) provided by the
teacher.
Population and Sample
Location
Teachers were recruited from two school districts in Southern California during the fall
of 2014. The first school, Downtown High School, is part of a district in South East Los Angeles.
The second school, Tech University, is part of a charter school organization which maintained
nearly thirty schools in southern California. Schools were chosen according to demographic data,
which included a majority of Black and/or majority Latino student population from low SES
backgrounds. This demographic data was available through the California Department of Educa-
tion website (CDE, 2014). Staff demographics were also diverse, though this study aimed to ex-
amine practices of White teachers specifically.
Participants
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 72
Purposeful sampling methods focus on choosing participants who can best answer partic-
ular research questions. Each of the four teachers in this study was observed with their class for
two or more hours of class. The selection criteria for teachers included: working with high
school grades students, not over-relying on exclusionary discipline, and being White. Teachers
selected for this study were identified by administrators as having positive relationships with
their students. While certain behaviors warrant exclusionary methods of discipline according to
school or district policy, the chosen teachers maintained management inside of their classrooms
as identified by administrators.
This study aimed to deconstruct teacher beliefs from teacher perspectives, and
from the perspective of the researcher. Creswell (2009) asserts that primary instrument in data
collection is the researcher. The instrumentation consisted of classroom observations and inter-
views of approximately one hour per teacher, and follow up emails and conversations with teach-
ers for necessary clarifications. Three forms of qualitative instrumentation were used for this
study: interview, observation, and document review.
Interviews
Interviews intend to collect information on a subject or topic that is particular to the per-
spective of the interviewees. Specific ideologies, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, attitudes, and experi-
ences can be collected through this process (Merriam, 1998). Semi-structured interviews were
used in order to maintain flexibility with the direction of the interview. Questions were guided by
pre-selected protocol (Duncan Andrade, 2014) (see Appendix A), grounded in culturally relevant
pedagogy (see appendix a), and supplemented with probing questions and follow interview ques-
tions deemed necessary by the researcher to provide clarification. Merriam (1998) asserts that
this technique allows for discovering or uncovering tacit information, making explanations for
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 73
the phenomena more clear. Interview questions were constructed according to the three research
questions for this study, and grounded by the literature in this study.
Questions 1-15 of the protocol were designed to focus on beliefs. Specifically, questions
1-3 assess teacher beliefs about purposes for teaching. Duncan-Andrade (2007) asserts that cul-
turally relevant teachers value their professional practice, and view their work in urban schools
as a privilege. Question 4 was based on the idea that effective teachers prepare for classes and
teaching in multiple ways. Questions 5 -13 assesses teacher beliefs about students, families, com-
munities, and culture. As the first component of CRCM is addressing personal beliefs and ethno-
centric orientations, interview questions were poised to identify beliefs about identity, race, eth-
nicity, culture, and socio-economics. As Bartolome (2004) asserts, teachers may maintain domi-
nant ideologies that include the myth of American meritocracy. These beliefs serve as personal
justifications and explanations as to why society exists as it does (Bartolome, 2004). Question
15 asks teachers to elaborate upon their ideological beliefs regarding society as a meritocracy.
Question 13 intends to identify and unpack teacher expectations. As Ladson-Billings (1994) as-
serts, Culturally Relevant teachers hold high expectations for students and believe in their poten-
tial for high levels of achievement.
Regarding knowledge, Questions 16-17 addressed teacher experiences with learning
about classroom management in teacher education programs and in the professional setting. Vern
(2006) asserts that many teachers see their training programs as too theoretical, although cross-
cultural internships programs such as Seidl& Hancock (2011) provide immersive diversity and
management training. These questions aim to connect the types of pre-service training in diver-
sity and classroom management with pedagogies used by the teacher. CRP (Ladson-Billings,
1994) and CRCM (Weinstein et al, 2003, 2004) affirm the importance of maintaining cultural
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 74
knowledge of personal and student cultures. Questions 20-21 are based on the work of Milner
and Tenore (2010). Milner and Tenore (2010) highlight the role of teacher life experience in
making connections with students, and the importance of making connecting and ‘entering into
student life worlds.
Questions about practices seek to identify and understand they ways in which cultural rel-
evance manifests. Question 26 was an open ended question for teachers to describe and frame
their practices. Question 27 addressed the use of physical space. Weinstein et al (2004) imparts
the importance of utilizing physical space for affirming diverse student interests and cultures,
and making meaningful connections with the curriculum. Question 28 addressed the issue of cul-
ture explicitly, as cultural relevance is the foundational principle of both CRP and CRCM. Ques-
tion 29 examined the issue of authority, as this is a culturally relative construct. Questions 31-35
address the three main components of CRP, including the promotion of student achievement and
the affirmation of student culture and critical consciousness. All questions were aligned with the
research questions for this study, and grounded by the theoretical framework for this study.
Observations
The researcher observed each high school teacher for between one and three classes of
two hours each. Goals of these in-person observations were to observe different lessons in a unit
of study, delivery of a lesson, facilitation of student learning, teacher responses to student ques-
tions and needs, use of various classroom management strategies, and interactions with students
to evidence relationships.
Observation occurs in a natural setting; it is subject to interpretation of the researcher, but
deemed an important tool in situating the interview data with examples from practice. According
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 75
to Patton (2001), “triangulation within a qualitative inquiry strategy can be attained by combin-
ing both interviewing and observations, mixing different types of purposeful samples...or exam-
ining how competing theoretical frameworks inform a particular analysis” (pp. 248).
Observation protocol used for this study was based upon the Responsive Instruction Ob-
servation Protocol (CRIOP) (Rightmyer, Powell, Cantrell, Powers, Carter, Cox, and Aiello
2008). It was chosen for its compatibility and alignment with the principles of culturally respon-
sive pedagogy. The Rightmyer and colleagues (2008) protocol for Culturally Responsive Instruc-
tion is categorized into eight categories according to this model, including: (1) assessment prac-
tices, (2) classroom climate and physical environment, (3) classroom caring and teacher disposi-
tions, (4) curriculum/planned experiences, (5) discourse/instructional conversation, (6) family
involvement and collaboration, (7) pedagogy/instructional practices, and (8) sociopolitical con-
sciousness/multiple perspectives. For the purposes of this study, three constructs were chosen as
the tool to facilitate observations. These were: classroom caring and teacher dispositions, peda-
gogy and instructional practices, and sociopolitical consciousness / multiple perspectives (see ap-
pendix B).
The observation protocol form includes a checklist of variables, in rubric format, for the
researcher to record “culturally responsive” or “non-responsive” on a list of variables. Each of
the three main constructs within the protocol outline measures by which to observe teacher prac-
tice. There were a total of thirteen measures of responsiveness within the three categories; creat-
ing a caring space, instructional pedagogy, critical consciousness, outlined by Table 2 below.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 76
Table 2
13 Measures of Responsiveness in Protocol
Creating a Caring Space ethic of care: reciprocal relationships;
(t) communicates high expectations;
(t) creates atmosphere of respect;
(t) actively confronts discrimination
Instructional Pedagogy (t) learns with students;
(t) allows (s) collaboration;
(t) promotes (s) engagement through active learning; in-
struction balanced between skill and meaning; (t) provides
choices in content and assessments
Critical (Socio-Political) Con-
sciousness & Multiple Perspec-
tives
(t) encourages (s) to question; (t) encourages investigation
with real world problems; (t) deconstructs bias within cur-
riculum; (t) provides instruction in discourse patterns to fit
social contexts

Documents
According to Merriam (1988), “Documents are ... a ready-made source of data easily ac-
cessible to the imaginative and resourceful investigator” (p.112). Merriam asserts that documents
such as lesson plans, classroom objects, report cards, assignments, school records, and evalua-
tions can be appropriate sources of information. This study utilized school and class rules, proto-
cols, and other documents used in the classrooms of the four research subjects. Teacher artifacts
such as articles, books, or websites were collected as evidence of specific teacher education or
professional development.
Data Collection
Once the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from the university and schools was
granted, the researcher connected with teachers in different ways. After informally surveying
colleagues and professors at the research university, the researcher emailed high school princi-
pals with demographic profiles meeting criteria for this study. Principals were informed of the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 77
researcher’s status as a doctoral student, the purpose of the study, its confidential nature, and cri-
teria for the selection of subjects for the study. After administration contact was granted, teachers
were emailed with a link to an online survey for this study, and the data collection process began.
Data collection consisted of three phases. Participation was voluntary and no incentives
were offered for participation. A pre-selection survey consisting of ten questions in Likert scale
format was administered via email to a select group of teachers from each institution. Surveys
were collected and analyzed for levels of responsiveness, and the most responsive practitioners
were selected as candidates for formal interviews and observations. Qualitative interviews were
then administered. Next, observations were performed. Finally, post observation interviews were
administered to clarify the observations, and to collect teacher reflections about moments of
practice that had been observed.
Teachers were notified of the confidentiality of the study and rights to privacy and ano-
nymity in the research process. Teachers were informed of the components of the study; the pre-
observation preliminary interview, the observations, and the post-observation in-depth interview.
The preliminary interview consisted of basic introductions between researcher and teacher, as
well as scheduling of observations that aimed to include teacher lessons and student work time.
Interviews and observations were the primary source for data collections. Four teachers
meeting the sampling criteria, who willingly volunteered to participate in this study were inter-
viewed and observed. Interview protocols were used for an approximately one hour, one-on-one
interview with researcher (Appendix A).
Data collection was planned for the beginning of the 2014-15 school year, at times se-
lected in conjunction with each classroom teacher over the course of December, January, and
February. Pre-observation interviews were scheduled within hours or days of the observation, as
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 78
close to the observation as possible to insure accurate memory of the moments observed. The
four teachers were observed for two or more sessions, depending upon the depth and breadth of
data obtained through these observations.
Data Analysis
To answer the research question posed in this study, data was analyzed using the related
research in order to interpret and validate findings. Data analysis was conducted according to the
Creswell (2009) six step model. The steps are designed to understand the data and emergent
themes. Creswell (2009) steps of data analysis begin with organization and preparation of data.
This included transcription, field note processing, and coding of data. After reading through data,
the process of coding data was utilized in an attempt to understand the chunks or themes present
within it. The final step was assigning meaning to the data, by creating a narrative and interpret-
ing it. The Creswell (2009) model is organized as follows:
1. Organize and prepare data
2. Read through data
3. Code data
4. Generate description
5. Interpret data
Research questions were answered through the data interpretation process. Data was
coded according to themes of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Culturally Sensitive Classroom
Management. Those themes, as outlined in the conceptual framework matrix (Appendix C), are
as follows: (a) promoting academic success of students, (b) cultural competence, (c) critical con-
sciousness, (d) strategy use and knowledge, and (e) creating a caring space. Specific emphases of
these constructs in the research of Ladson Billings (2009), Duncan Andrade, (2007), Weinstein
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 79
et al (2003, 2004), and Rightmyer et al (2008) are also noted in the theoretical framework table
(Appendix C). Coding of data was guided by these themes, and data was further coded and strati-
fied to differentiate between beliefs, knowledge, and practices. Observation data was organized
according to the protocol utilized for this study, based upon selected indicators of the protocol of
Rightmyer et al (2008).
Conclusion
This chapter described the purpose and research methodology of this study. Research
questions, protocols, and procedures were developed for thoughtful, intentional data collection
and analysis. The next chapter provides description of the data collection process, findings that
emerged from that process, and an analysis of the process and findings.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 80
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Overview
The purpose of this study was to identify and examine the beliefs, knowledge, and prac-
tices of successful classroom managers in high needs school contexts. Beliefs encompassed ideas
and guiding principles about teaching and learning, focusing on schools with predominately
Black and Latino students from low SES backgrounds, herein referred to as “high needs” con-
texts (Delpit, 2006; Duncan-Andrade, 2007; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Seidl & Hancock, 2011).
Knowledge included pedagogical knowledge, and specifically knowledge regarding culture, crit-
ical consciousness, and culturally sensitive management pedagogy (Bartolome, 2004; Brown,
2003; Duncan-Andrade, 2007, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner &Tenore, 2010). Practice
referred to classroom management pedagogy implementation, and specifically the procedures
employed by teachers to develop relationships with students (Duncan-Andrade, 2007, 2009;
Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner &Tenore, 2010, Rightmyer et al, 2008). The first three chapters
presented a statement of the problem, purpose of the study, the three research questions, a litera-
ture review, and a description of the methods utilized for this study. This chapter presents the
data collected in this study.
This study was qualitative in that it utilized a case study methodology including pre-se-
lection survey questions, interviews, observations, and relevant artifacts. Each teacher and school
involved in this study was referred to by a pseudonym in order to keep data and personal infor-
mation confidential.
Findings are presented in case study analyses, individually, for each of the four teachers.
Each case study includes background regarding the context of the teacher in their school and
classroom, and descriptions of teacher’s beliefs, knowledge, and pedagogies. Information about
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 81
the school and community context is presented, as collected from district demographic data, ob-
servations by the researcher, from the unique perspective of each teacher. Data from the four
subjects in this study answered the research questions as explained below.
Research Questions
The first research question addressed the role of beliefs in the formulation and implemen-
tation of classroom management practice. Research Question One asked: What beliefs does the
teacher in a high-needs context hold about him/herself as a teacher and about his/ her students in
regards to teaching and learning? Self-reported interview and classroom observation data were
used to answer this question.
Research Question Two asked: What pre-service and professional development training
did/ does teachers have which have contributed to culturally sensitive classroom management
practices? This question aimed to identify pertinent information about the teachers’ background
experiences and past learnings related to classroom management and cultural relevance. This
background knowledge was broadly conceived of, and included classes, readings, lectures, simu-
lations, activities both in formal pre-service or professional development settings, and knowledge
from informal learning experiences.
Research question three asked: How do teachers implement culturally relevant classroom
management pedagogies, and how these practices or dispositions reflect emphasis on role of
teacher-student relationships? This question sought to identify specific techniques used by teach-
ers and their reasoning as to why implementation of these pedagogies was important. It aimed at
exploring successful pedagogies and the processes by which the pedagogies were developed.
Teachers were selected according to several criteria. School sites were selected for main-
taining a significant proportion of either Black and or Latino students receiving predominately
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 82
free or reduced school lunches. As the problem of practice guiding this study was disproportion-
ate exclusionary discipline, specific school sites were chosen as students meeting those demo-
graphic profiles affected by this problem (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Skiba, et.al, 2002). This
study aimed to identify teachers who taught majority Black and/or Latino students and managed
classrooms internally, without reliance on exclusionary methods.
Upon selecting potential school sites, the principals of each site were asked to select ten
or more potential teachers who they viewed as excellent classroom managers. Principals were
asked specifically to identify those teachers who did not over rely on exclusionary discipline.
Next, the ten teachers chosen by their site administrators were emailed a pre-selection survey to
determine if their beliefs and practices were consistent with the theoretical framework for cultur-
ally responsive classroom management as set forth by this study.
Pre-selection survey questions were written with answers in a Likert scale format, with
answers indicating “strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “agree” or “strongly agree.” Each answer
provided an optional space for explanations if respondents desired to provide them. Questions
were poised to uncover levels of cultural responsiveness in each of the teachers’ belief systems,
knowledge bases, and teaching practices. Those teachers whose pre-selection surveys indicated
highest levels of cultural responsiveness, at their particular school site, were chosen as candi-
dates for interviews and observations.
Two teachers were chosen at two separate school sites, for a total of four research sub-
jects. The following qualitative case studies include descriptions of the two school contexts, de-
scriptions of the four subjects, and a presentation of the data collected from each. Data is orga-
nized case by case, according to interview responses and observations as they answer the re-
search questions in context of the theoretical framework for this study.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 83
Overview of the Data
Data is presented in order to explain who was being observed, and in what context. A de-
scription of setting has been provided for each school site, in order to contextualize the processes
being observed. Background for each teacher is provided, in addition to a thick description of the
classroom site in which the observations took place. In particular, the classroom context is de-
scribed as a part of a school system with varying degrees of teacher autonomy over the organiza-
tion and presentation of the room. Data gathered through interviews, observations, and collection
of artifacts is explained according to the three research questions for this study addressing
teacher beliefs, teacher knowledge, and teacher practices. Each case study concludes with a sum-
mary, and is followed by an explanation and analysis in Chapter 5.
Beliefs
Teacher beliefs were analyzed for ways in which teachers valued their profession, cared
about their students, and aspired for their students to learn in school for life-long success. Re-
garding beliefs, the way that a teacher conceives of his/her role in the classroom, and that of
his/her student, shapes an ideology and impacts the teaching practice itself (Bartolome, 2004;
Delpit, 2006). According to the theoretical framework for this study, a culturally relevant teacher
believes in his students, holding them to a high standard for academic achievement and positive
life outcomes (Ladson-Billings, 2009). Cultural relevance further refers to a critical conception
of society; a teacher is both able to critically analyze the social structure which encapsulates his
students, and to disseminate knowledge, awareness, and critical questioning skills of this struc-
ture to students (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Duncan-Andrade, 2007). Specifically, asset oriented
teacher beliefs about students, knowledge of students and their culture, and emphasis on relation-
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 84
ships with students have been identified as pre-cursors for effectively managing classrooms (Del-
pit, 2006; Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Losen & Skiba, 2012). Interview questions aimed
to identify and deconstruct beliefs held by teachers and were based on the interview protocol of
Duncan-Andrade (2014) (see appendix A). Table 3 provides an overview of the indicators for
culturally relevant beliefs according to the theoretical framework for this study.
Table 3
Indicators for Culturally Relevant Beliefs
Purposes for Teaching Role of Culture in Class Aspirations for Students
recognition of personal beliefs

prepare students for life
affirming diversity

asset-orientation
value student learning (over
exclusionary discipline)
profession as important
acknowledging systematic
challenges & inequities
high expectations for students
cultivating student potential
critically conscious beliefs college and professional goals
caring about students
value giving back to commu-
nity

Knowledge
Questions relating to knowledge aimed to uncover the types of knowledge teachers held
about themselves, their students, and their contexts. It further aimed to identify teachers’ peda-
gogical knowledge of teaching with a focus on managing diverse learners in culturally relevant
ways. Survey questions, interview questions, and observation protocols were organized to un-
cover these bodies of knowledge and their classroom implementation.
Knowledge refers to the facts, concepts, procedures, and strategies which a teacher has
acquired and/ or continues to acquire over the course of their personal and professional lives.
Knowledge of oneself and of students is a pillar of culturally sensitive practice (Weinstein et al;
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 85
2006). Specifically, questions about knowledge sought to highlight the critical consciousness of
teachers. Critical consciousness is defined in this study as “a broader sociopolitical conscious-
ness that allows them (students) to critique the cultural norms, values, mores, and institutions
that produce and maintain inequities...” (Ladson-Billings, 1995, pp.162). Professional
knowledge, as acquired through teaching preparation or professional development, comprises a
key component of culturally responsive teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Additionally,
knowledge acquired informally and through experiences is explored to answer research question
two. Table 4 presented below outlines the indicators for a culturally relevant knowledge base.
Table 4
Indicators of Culturally Relevant Knowledge
Knowledge of Self Knowledge of Students Knowledge of Context Professional
Knowledge
Personal Biases Interests, strengths School Systems Teacher Preparation
Personal Culture & Phi-
losophy
Family life, culture Community Mandatory Professional
Development
Life Experience Structural Considera-
tions / Challenges for
the Students
Culture of Community Voluntary Professional
and Personal Develop-
ment

Emphasis on relation-
ships in classroom man-
agement

Research questions and observations were aimed to uncover types of teacher knowledge
and specifically to speak to the aforementioned four indicators.
Practices
Questions and observations looking at teacher practices aimed to uncover which practices teach-
ers were implementing to actively manage classrooms internally, through relationships, and by
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 86
establishing structures to avoid the use of exclusionary discipline. Interviews and observations
were aimed to identify connections between what teachers believed and knew in these domains,
and what practices they implemented. While a teacher maintains a certain body of knowledge,
only those bodies of knowledge reflected in actual practice with students have an effect upon stu-
dents and the classroom environment. This study specifically aimed at uncovering those prac-
tices utilized to manage classrooms effectively, maintain discipline internally, and promote posi-
tive teacher-student relationships. The observation protocol and interview questions were aligned
with the conceptual framework of cultural relevance, and sought to uncover ways in which
teachers affirmed student cultures, promoted positive academic outcomes, and transmitted criti-
cal consciousness (Ladson Billings, 2009).
Teacher practices were observed and recorded according to indicators set forth by the
culturally responsive observation protocol (appendix B), which was adapted from the Rightmyer,
et al. (2008) observation protocol. Thirteen indicators for cultural responsiveness were addressed
by the adapted protocol, and they refer to ways in which teachers actively created caring spaces
in their classroom, encouraged critical consciousness, and delivered instructional pedagogy.
Teachers were observed speaking and acting in ways consistent with these indicators, and data is
presented accordingly. Table 5 provides an overview of the indicators as presented by the obser-
vation protocol.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 87
Table 5
Indicators of Culturally Responsive Classroom Practice
Creating a Caring Space: Imparting a Critical Con-
sciousness:
Instructional Pedagogy:
High Expectations

Creating an Atmosphere of
Respect and Connection

Actively Confronting Dis-
crimination
Encouraging Students to
Question

Encouraging Investigation
with Real World Problems.

Deconstructing Stereotypes
and Biases in the Curriculum

Instruction in Discourse Pat-
terns.
Learning with Students

Student Collaboration

Active Learning to Promote
Engagement

Balanced Instruction.

Providing Choice

School Descriptions
This study examined the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of four separate subjects in
two different schools. The following descriptions provide overviews of each school context.
Downtown High School
Inside of an urban neighborhood south east of Los Angeles, Downtown High School is
part of an independent school district belonging to Downtown City. Downtown city spans ap-
proximately 10.1 square miles, and had a population of 97,877 people, with 65 % Latino, 32.9 %
Black, and remaining population was White or of other ethnicities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).
Downtown city is within a diverse community of Los Angeles, containing both urban and subur-
ban neighborhoods. The median household income was $42,953 annually, with a per capita me-
dian of $13,548. There was 26.3% of the population living below the poverty level. Downtown
city contained both small single family homes, condominium buildings, as well as apartment
buildings and public housing projects surrounded by strip malls and commerce.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 88
Downtown City High school was built in 1954 and in 2014 had a student population of
2,190 students (Ed-Data, 2014). The campus spans approximately two square miles, and is moni-
tored by school security officers keeping watch over entrances and school activity. Demograph-
ically, the school is 81% Hispanic or Latino, and 19.4% Black or African American (Ed-Data
Partnership, 2014).
This study included data from four participants, two of which were teachers at Downtown
City High School: Mr. Walter and Mrs. Richards. The principal at Downtown, Mr. Blazer, was
given criteria for subjects who (a) maintain positive teacher student relationships, (b) manage
from inside the classroom without over-reliance on exclusionary discipline, and (c) have students
achieving higher grades and standardized test scores than their peer classes. According to that
criteria, Mr. Blazer emailed an online survey, created by the researcher, as a screening tool for
this study. Subjects were then sorted according to their responses on the screening tool, and con-
tacted for follow up observations and interviews. Downtown High School maintained a diverse
teaching and professional staff. Mr. Blazer was not specifically instructed to recruit from only his
White teaching staff. While the teacher pre-selection survey provided a place for teachers to indi-
cate their race or ethnicity, respondents seldom indicated this variable. Teachers were chosen for
this study from Downtown High for their self-reported levels of cultural responsiveness, and
only upon meeting the subjects did the researcher learn that they were both White. This is not to
say that the non-White teachers at Downtown were not culturally responsive; only ten teachers at
Downtown High completed the pre-selection survey.
Tech University Prep Charter High School
Located adjacent to a major freeway running through south Los Angeles, Tech University
Prep Charter is part of a network of nearly thirty schools established under a public California
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 89
charter in order to promote college preparedness for students in low income neighborhoods. The
school itself had been established three years prior to the date of this study, and operated in a
renovated public school building. The surrounding neighborhood, Deer Heights, was comprised
predominately of Latino and some Asian immigrant families. The school was 98% Latino, with
students in grades nine, ten, and eleven. Their current eleventh grade class was the first class at
the school and began as freshman. Each year prior to inception, the school has added one grade.
As of the date of this study, there were 231 students in the school and 231 tracked to graduate on
time.
Deer View is the oldest neighborhood in all of Los Angeles, with a history dating back to
the 1830’s. The 2000 United States Census counted over 25,000 residents in the population (US
Census, 2000). Seventy percent of the population was Latino, with the majority of those having
been born in Mexico. 16% of the residents were born in Vietnam (US Census, 2000).
The neighborhood spans just over 2.5 miles of urban space, and is densely populated. It
had eleven public schools, of which, five were operating under a charter, and six governed by the
main public school system in the city. The rate of four year college completion among the neigh-
borhood residents is just over 5 %, a number considered to be extremely low, compared to the
national average of over 30% (US Census, 2013). Median household income was reported at ap-
proximately 33,000 dollars in 2014 (City Data, 2014).
The third and fourth subjects in this study, Ms. Sims and Ms. Lowe, were teachers at
Tech University Charter High School. The assistant principal at Tech U, Dr. Rome, was given
criteria for subjects who: (a) maintain positive teacher student relationships, (b) manage from in-
side the classroom without over-reliance on exclusionary discipline, and (c) have students
achieving higher grades and standardized test scores than their peer classes. Unlike Mr. Blazer at
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 90
Downtown High, Dr. Rome, the assistant principal at Tech U, was notified of the research crite-
ria to look at White teacher practices, in particular. Dr. Rome, emailed an online survey, created
by the researcher, as a screening tool for this study. Subjects were selected according to their re-
sponses to the survey, and contacted for follow up observations and interviews. Ms. Sims and
Mrs. Lowe both demonstrated cultural responsiveness in their survey answers. Tech U differed
from Downtown High School in that it was a charter school, founded upon the principle of col-
lege readiness, and aimed to utilize technology across the subject areas. The philosophy of the
school reflected that of its greater charter organization. It maintained highly organized and tech-
nology based systems of organizing and analyzing student data. Teachers, students, and parents
were constantly aware of academic progress; each student’s completion of objectives and stand-
ards was instantly available in an on-line data base, monitored by the staff, to insure matricula-
tion and graduation.
Table 6 provides an overview of the two school contexts, highlighting some of main
characteristics of each.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 91
Table 6
Overview of High School Contexts
Downtown High School Tech University Charter High School
2,190 students

73% school graduation rate

81% Latino, 19% Black

Common Core Curriculum

Block Period Schedule

Major Sports Teams

After school clubs available

No mandatory tutoring for failing students

Public High School

South East Los Angeles
210 students

95% district graduation rate

98% Latino, 1% Asian, 1% Black

Common Core Technology Based Curriculum

Block Period Schedule

No Major Sports Available

Free Tutoring and Dinner available daily

Mandatory tutoring for failing students

Public Charter High School

East Los Angeles

Participants
Participant #1: Mr. Walter - Downtown High School
Mr. Walter is a White male in his early 40’s. He grew up in a northern suburb of San Di-
ego County and graduated from high school there. After a five year hiatus after high school
wherein he worked various jobs, he began coursework at community college, went on to matric-
ulate into state university, and then begin a career as a chemist. After graduating from college
and beginning a career in chemistry, he was not entirely satisfied with the career and soon heard
of opportunities to teach within the field of science. He was accepted to a teaching credential
program at Cal State Los Angeles, where he graduated in 2008, and was recruited to teach by the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 92
Downtown district which was actively seeking qualified math and science teachers. He has been
teaching at Downtown High in the chemistry department since 2008.
Participant #2: Mrs. Richards - Downtown High
Mrs. Richards is a White female in her mid-fifties. She grew up in a working class, urban
neighborhood in South East Los Angeles, approximately ten miles from Downtown High School.
After working in the corporate world for the first several years after college, she took time off for
maternity leave with her second child. While on maternity leave, she volunteered in her older
son’s kindergarten class, and realized that she did not want to return to the corporate world, but
rather embark on a career change and become a classroom teacher. Mrs. Richards took the pre-
requisite courses and exams to become an educator, and through what she describes as “divine
intervention,” was placed at Downtown City High School as an English teacher over seventeen
years ago and has been teaching there ever since.
Participant #3: Ms. Sims at Tech University Prep High School
Ms. Sims is a White female in her early 20’s. She grew up in an upper middle class sub-
urb of New York State, and graduated from both high school and university there. She finished
high school at an elite neighborhood public school and went on to attend Columbia University as
a science, pre-medicine major, graduating in spring of 2014. During university, Ms. Sims be-
came interested in the discrepancy between the public high schools in New York City and those
her own middle class suburb. Subsequently, she spearheaded a mentoring and tutoring program
through Columbia University with a local public school to promote success in high school and
college readiness. Ms. Sims was heavily recruited by the organization, Teach for America, due to
her background in science, high levels of campus involvement, and her activism for local public
school students. After graduating in 2014 spring, Ms. Sims went on to attend the Teach for
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 93
America summer preparation program which included a teaching internship in South Los Ange-
les. She was a then placed at Tech U to teach eleventh grade chemistry for the 2014-15 school
year, where she was observed for the purposes of this study.
Participant #4: Mrs. Lowe at Tech University Prep High School
Ms. Lowe is a White female in her late 20’s. She grew up in an upper middle class suburb
of Orange County, California. She finished high school at her neighborhood public school, a
high performing school with a largely college bound student population. She went on to attend a
local university where she studied liberal arts and finished a fifth year with a single subject
teaching credential. During University, Ms. Lowe was inspired by her social justice classes and
developed an interest to teach English in high needs contexts. Her student teaching placement
was in a public high school specializing in special needs inclusion. Her first year of teaching was
at a southern California alternative public high school, for students who had been expelled from
regular high school or were working toward graduation after having had babies. She was hired in
2011 by Tech U during its pilot year, and taught the first class of high school freshman. She had
been teaching freshman English at Tech U since 2011.
Case Study Presentation
A qualitative case study methodology was utilized in this study. Data was presented as
separate case studies in order to examine the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of each teacher
specific to the particular context and situation.
Data is presented in order to explain who is being observed, and in what context. A de-
scription of setting has been provided for each school site, in order to contextualize the processes
being observed. Background for each teacher is provided, in addition to a thick description of the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 94
classroom site in which the observations took place. In particular, the classroom context is de-
scribed as a part of a school system with varying degrees of teacher autonomy regarding the or-
ganization and presentation of the room. Data gathered through interviews, observations, and
collection of artifacts is explained according to the three topics posed in the research questions
for this study: teacher beliefs, teacher knowledge, and teacher practice. Each case study con-
cludes with a summary, and is followed by an explanation and analysis in Chapter 5.
Table 7 below presents a summary of the participants’ profiles, their respective school
sites, years of teaching, and subject specialization.
Table 7
Participant Profiles
School Site Participant Years Teaching Subject Specialization
Downtown High Mr. Walter Five Chemistry
Downtown High Mrs. Richards Seventeen English
Tech U Charter Ms. Sims One Chemistry
Tech U Charter Ms. Lowe Five English

Case Study #1: Mr. Walter
Mr. Walter taught five periods of ninth and tenth grade Chemistry, both regular and ad-
vanced placement (AP) courses. At Downtown high, all five periods met for 55 minutes, except
for Wednesdays, when the periods are 45 minutes each and the staff used the extra time for
faculty meetings. Mr. Walter was hired by a principal who is no longer on staff, and according to
Mr. Walter, the administration has changed numerous times since he first began. Although skep-
tical of the administration and policies of the school in general, he feels optimistic about the new
principal of instruction, Mr. Blaze, saying that he feels “heard” and “understood” by Mr. Blaze.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 95
Mr. Walter spent the majority of his lunches and free periods inside his classroom, either
preparing for upcoming classes, grading student work, or hosting different student club meetings.
Hosting clubs was limited to lunch time for Mr. Walter, and his duties did not extend past the
school hours. His hobbies outside of teaching included skateboarding, playing guitar, and wood-
working, as well as taking an array of courses in the adult education department of his local com-
munity college.
The chemistry classroom of Mr. Walter was located within the science quad of Down-
town High School. Student desks were organized in a semi-circle formation, all facing the center
of the class and a main whiteboard toward the front where lessons and lectures were delivered.
There were no class rules posted around the room, but rather, various student created posters
with chemistry concepts around the entirety of the room. A large deep freezer was located in the
front of the room, where Mr. Walter stored chocolates and various other foods which he distrib-
uted to his students throughout the day as a reward for participation. Science books were stored
up front near the refrigerator, and Mr. Walter made sure the books are organized and neat, like
all else in his room.
Mr. Walter was chosen by the Principal of Downtown High School as one of ten teachers
recommended to the researcher as excellent classroom managers. The data collected through ob-
servations and interviews indicate that Mr. Walter met the above criteria, delivered instruction
tailored to meet the needs of his students, and exhibited culturally sensitive classroom manage-
ment pedagogy.
Mr. Walter’s initial survey questionnaire indicated that he was a likely candidate for this
study. His answers demonstrated his high level of belief in his student’s academic and life out-
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 96
comes; his selection was the highest on the Likert scale for the question: “Do you have high ex-
pectations / aspirations for your students?” Additionally, his answers indicated that he imple-
mented management practices other than exclusionary discipline.
Responses from Mr. Walter indicated that he was a likely candidate for observations and
interviews. The following section details the data collected on Mr. Walter and explores his be-
liefs, knowledge, and classroom management practices.
Beliefs. According to the theoretical framework for this study, beliefs are a fundamental compo-
nent of culturally sensitive and culturally relevant management. Data collected through inter-
views of Mr. Walter covered several components of belief. First, Mr. Walter discussed the im-
portance of his teaching practice, his purposes for teaching, and the ways in which these pur-
poses are reflected in his classroom culture and his practice as a whole. Next, Mr. Walter ad-
dressed his perceptions of culture- the ways in which he conceived of his own culture and that of
his students, and the possible intersection of those cultures within the context of teaching and
learning. Mr. Walter responded as to how he perceived his students’ motivations, values, and as-
pirations, and the ways in which those conferred with or diverged from his own motivations, val-
ues, and aspirations in regards to his students:
Some of my students are pretty casual, and I can relate to that. My perception is that they
have a lot going on in their home lives, generally including parents that are not around, or
even abusing drugs or in trouble with the law. I grew up with a single mother on drugs, so
I feel like I can relate to that. When I hear about my students getting involved with drugs,
or shirking off their school responsibilities, I try to encourage them while still empathiz-
ing. (Mr. Walter, personal communication, December 9, 2014).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 97
He explained that his students needed to be made aware of their prospects, and he would
routinely encourage them that they can succeed no matter where they come from in life or what
their challenges are. Mr. Walter identified with a feeling of aimlessness that some of his students
expressed;
growing up, high school flew by. I had no idea what I wanted to do when I graduated. It
took me time. That said, it could really harm these students to have idle time after high
school in this neighborhood. It is not safe. I discuss that with them” (Mr. Walter, personal
communication, December 9, 2014).
Purposes for teaching. Mr. Walter became a teacher after having embarked on a profes-
sional career as a scientist. He wanted to make his profession more meaningful for him, and saw
teaching as a viable avenue to do this. Now, as a classroom teacher for over five years, he said
that he constantly wants to grow and improve his teaching practice. At the same time, Mr. Walter
feels that his job comes easy to him, and provides a lot of vacation time over the course of the
school year, which he enjoys using for recreation.
Initially, when questioned, Mr. Walter says that he is “not trying to change the world by
teaching.” He followed up his answer by explaining that nobody had ever asked him about his
purposes for teaching, and now that he was beginning to reflect upon his purposes, it “felt like
there was more to it.” He went on to explain that as a chemistry teacher, he was focused on im-
parting fundamental knowledge, beliefs, and skills to his students so that they can master the
content in his subject area. Further, his aim was to relate with his students as people, and show
them that they were respectable young adults.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 98
The role of culture in the classroom. Mr. Walter sees a positive future for his students,
and firmly believes that they need to transcend the idea that their place of birth and de-
mographics will determine their future. Duncan Andrade (2007) posits that learning is the key to
unlocking future success, freedom, and opportunity. Similarly, Mr. Walter works on changing
paradigms so that his students will come to value learning and the acquisition of meaningful
skills. He explained that the culture of his school does not seem to value academic success, espe-
cially among males:
I need them to be better than they are out there on the yard- the kids curse and throw their
garbage on the ground. The culture outside feels apathetic to me, and the challenges that
families face may get in the way of these kids’ success. Their culture outside of class is
not all bad. Three of my classes- I don’t have to worry about them. They are autonomous.
I don't have to make sure that I am on top of everyone. In third period … students are …
casual about school, and this sets the tone. They crack jokes, and people follow them,
mimic them. I have a lot of casual people in that class- low level people. Even the ones
who are better and have more aptitude and autonomy are suddenly acting helpless. The
helplessness and casual tone spreads; this is where I have my work cut out. (Mr. Walter,
personal communication, December 3, 2014).
While on one hand Mr. Walter was aiming to hold his students to high expectations, this
response demonstrates his belief that some students had low levels of aptitude and low levels of
autonomy. By referencing some of his students as “low level people,” he was making permanent
attributions about their abilities, rather than their levels of engagement or current levels of
productivity in his class. Mr. Walter's beliefs did not reflect well developed understandings or
critical consciences of the systems to which his students belonged. He believed that his students
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 99
were apathetic, but did not take the next step to critically analyze why; or how to work through
that apathy as symptomatic of something beyond the students.
Mr. Walter explained further that his most challenging students perceive basketball, and
not academics, as the most viable of their life outcomes. He clarified that these students think they
are going on to play college and NBA basketball;
This school produces NBA players, and these kids think that going to division one basket-
ball is their goal, and that school is not. I don't see this as a viable option for them, because
at this age, if they are being scouted and watched, usually it is for lower level schools. I try
to discuss this with them, but they are simply casual about school and do not feel that
school is urgent for them” (Mr. Walter, personal communication, December 8, 2014).
In spite of feeling challenged by some students’ lack of prioritizing school over basket-
ball, Mr. Walter works to create a classroom culture that communicates his belief in students:
My classroom culture reflects the belief that success is possible. I’m constantly out there
trying to help my students and get them to recognize what they are doing- to get them to
notice their own actions and the effects of those actions” (Mr. Walter, personal commu-
nication, December 3, 2014).
His classroom culture aimed to students become introspective, and self-reflective. Mr.
Walter asserts that being good to one another is of the utmost importance in school and in life.
Actions have an effect on the world, as he posits, “karma exists, as a fundamental part of the cir-
cle of life” (Mr. Walter, personal communication, December 10, 2014).
Mr. Walter believes in different types of success, and that everyone has a different path.
Specifically, he imparts that “there is not one way” to be successful, but many paths and various
journeys to take toward happiness and prosperity in life and as he explained, “a part of my purpose
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 100
is to let these kids know that you don’t have to be Steve Jobs or Bill Gates to succeed” (Mr. Walter,
personal communication, December 10, 2014).
Mr. Walter's own philosophies in life are reflected in his perceptions of his students. He
describes himself as part of a “surfer culture,” in which one “aspires to be at peace with oneself,
and confident in the path that he has chosen.” Fundamental to his self-described personal culture,
is the concept of “karma.” Mr. Walter conceives of karma as a “circle of life,” and he asserts that
what an individual does to others is fundamentally important, and creates their own personal ex-
perience: “I try and explain to my students that we need to be good to one another. This is what
creates a good life.” Mr. Walter communicates his beliefs to his students both verbally, and
through his allowing them entry into his life world.
Aspirations for students. Mr. Walter believes in the inherent ability and potential of all
of his students, even his most difficult ones, although he expresses frustration at the apparent lack
of interest and work ethic from certain students:
I’m looking for a sense of urgency from my students; to see in their behaviors that they
value school work and success in school. For some students, I feel like I could get the
same results from them not coming to class. I teach and teach and nothing happens. (Mr.
Walter, personal communication, December 3, 2014)
Mr. Walter feels frustrated by the apparent apathy of some students. He explained that
some students will avoid taking personal responsibility, and shift that blame onto him as their
teacher:
One kid took a month to get a binder and has been pretty much uninvolved. He sits there
and doesn't do work, even tests. Finals roll around and one of these kids is sitting here,
doing nothing, and blaming me that he doesn't have enough time to finish. He is blaming
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 101
me, but he has a low work ethic. We have been testing for two days, and he has done six
problems out of forty six. I get frustrated when my students blame me. (Mr. Walter, per-
sonal communication, December 10, 2014)
Mr. Walter expresses frustration at the behaviors he sees among his most difficult stu-
dents, but he believes that behaviors can change, and that his students are capable of growing and
achieving. He asserts that candid conversations with students and contact with guardians can
help to remedy these types of situations. Contact with parents and guardians of his students may
include conferences, phone calls, and open communication. Openness, according to Mr. Walter,
and attempting to relate with students can help them understand the significance of their perfor-
mance and actions in class:
Rather than finger pointing and blaming them for their past actions, I try to have conver-
sations and open their eyes up to how they can take responsibility in class, and behave in
ways which will serve them academically and karmically” (Mr. Walter, personal commu-
nication, December 10, 2014)
Mr. Walter's beliefs and practices are highly intertwined with his self-knowledge and per-
sonal experience.
I was an average student with a less than average GPA, and I found my path. Success
does not come in breeding, that some people are successful and some not. Success is a
choice. (Mr. Walter, personal communication, December 3, 2014)
Mr. Walter explained how he related to his students based on his own personal experi-
ence. He recognized that students with average, or less than average grades could make the nec-
essary changes to graduate high school and go on to obtain meaningful careers, as he did.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 102
Mr. Walter's personal experiences growing up have contributed to his beliefs and prac-
tices as a teacher:
I need to believe that they do take some responsibility at home; but it is possible that at
home, they may not face consequences. I know about that because I grew up with a single
mom who was busy. What flies with their parents won’t fly with me because they are not
my little babies, and I am here to help them learn and improve. (Mr. Walter, personal
communication, December 10, 2014)
Mr. Walter had challenges growing up, and explained that he was not always motivated
or successful as a high school student. From those experiences, he seemed to empathize with his
students and understand their situations. While he accepted that his students may have been fac-
ing challenges at home or lacking accountability for school work, he saw it as his responsibility
to emphasize the importance of learning chemistry and being accountable in school. He did not
look down upon his students for their lack of prioritizing academics, but saw it as part of his job
to model the importance of learning, trying new skills, and succeeding in school. He viewed his
students as fundamentally good people in need of academic guidance, which he happily provided
for them on a daily basis. Table 5.6 below provides a summary of Mr. Walter’s beliefs, both cul-
turally responsive and non-responsive.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 103
Table 8
Summary of Mr. Walter's Beliefs
Purposes for
Teaching (re-
sponsive)
Purposes for
Teaching
(non-respon-
sive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(responsive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(non-respon-
sive)
Aspirations
for Students
(responsive)
Aspirations
for Students
(non-respon-
sive)
prepare stu-
dents for life
full time pay/
part time
work
did not
acknowledge
the role of di-
versity
value student
learning (over
exclusionary
discipline)

profession as
important
profession as
easy & enjoy-
able
acknowledg-
ing systematic
challenges
somewhat
high aspira-
tions for stu-
dents
low aspira-
tions for some
students
cultivating
student poten-
tial
did not articu-
late critically
conscious
purpose
college or
professional
goals for all
students

caring about
students
did not value
community

Knowledge. Knowledge refers to the facts, concepts, procedures, and strategies which a
teacher has acquired and continues to acquire over the course of their personal and professional
lives. Knowledge of oneself and of students is a pillar of culturally sensitive practice. This in-
cludes knowledge of one’s own and one’s students’ broader context and culture (Weinstein et al;
2006). Additionally, professional knowledge, as acquired through teaching preparation or profes-
sional development, comprises a key component of culturally responsive teaching (Darling-
Hammond, 2000). Finally, the notion of informally acquired knowledge is also incorporated into
the data collection.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 104
Knowledge of self. Mr. Walter gave an open and honest account of his life thus far, dis-
cussing his challenges of growing up with a single mother who abused drugs, and taking several
years to establish his professional path and find a meaningful and productive career. His profes-
sional career was bout enjoyable for him, and lucrative, as he described it. “Teaching is perfect
for me because it’s a part time job with full time pay.”
Free time outside of school was important to Mr. Walter. He maintained a variety of in-
terests, and enjoyed taking classes in the arts at his local community college. His current focus
was on carpentry, and he had brought in several of his projects to share with his students. He de-
scribed himself as being “weird,” and “unafraid to fail.” He also summarized his own personal
philosophy as being about “karma,” doing good by other people, and enjoying life: “Life is all
about balance; finding a job and interests that you enjoy, and taking care not to pursue the ex-
tremes. I tell my students to stay balanced. It’s all about balance.”
Knowledge of students. Mr. Walter knew all of his students on a first name basis. He
knew what types of food they liked, and kept stock of those in his classroom. He knew what
sports they played, and what their interests were outside of class. While he did not believe that
getting to know students personally played an important role in his teaching, he did ask students
questions both before and after class, at lunch breaks, and during independent work time while
rotating through the classroom without formally inquiring about their lives: “I don’t give any big
get-to-know-you surveys to my students because I don’t think they take that stuff seriously. I
also don’t think that I need to get to know them too much. I do like to ask them questions infor-
mally, and I think that helps us build relationships.”

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 105
He addressed knowledge of his students in relationship to disciplining them:
I’m not into finger wagging with my students. If one of them is having an issue, we step
outside of the classroom and chat about it. I try to get a sense for why they are misbehav-
ing in class, or coming unprepared. There is usually a reason and I want them to know
that I am a reasonable person. So, I talk to them with respect. (Mr. Walter, personal com-
munication, date)
While Mr. Walter verbalized the importance of relating to his students as young adults,
he did not acknowledge that race or ethnicity played any role in his classroom. Specifically, he
noted that “there is no place in this room for talk about race. This is a chemistry class, and we
need to stay focused on academics.” Mr. Walter was able to describe some of his students’ com-
mon interests with him; he chatted with them about their common music and extra-curricular in-
terests. However, he did not seek out knowledge of student interests beyond what he held in
common with them.
Knowledge of context. Mr. Walter initially that he did not maintain a lot of knowledge
about his community context; “There are certain ways that I perceive this context, but I’m hon-
estly not sure how accurate these perceptions are.” Mr. Walter did not live inside the community
where he taught, and spent little to no time in the surrounding area before or after school time;
I live near the beach, and that is where I like to spend most of my time. It is pretty differ-
ent here and there; the kids who live in my neighborhood – it’s like a guarantee that they
are going to college. Here, it’s a question whether or not these kids will even graduate
from high school.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 106
Mr. Walter said he did not fully understand why the communities were so different, but
he thought it had a lot to do with parents levels of education, as well as the reputation of the
community context;
This neighborhood has a bad rap. When I tell people I teach here, they are morbidly curi-
ous. I think hip-hop has given this neighborhood a bad reputation. We should re-name
this school so that it doesn’t carry the stigma of that reputation. (Mr. Walter, personal
communication, December 10, 2014)
Mr. Walter believed that by re-naming the school, the image of Downtown High would
somehow shift toward a more positive perception. While this expressed his belief in transcending
stereotypes, it did not affirm the cultural capital of Downtown City. Mr. Walter was unable to
articulate what types of cultural capital were present in Downtown City, and spoke only to the
deficits; gangs, violence, drugs, corruption, and poverty. He had spent less than five years in his
current job, and had not gotten to know the history or culture of the surrounding community. His
perception of Downtown was limited to what he had heard in hip-hop music; songs originating in
the mid 1990’s, highlighting particular challenges that the community was facing. Mr. Walter
was unable to contextualize these challenges or speak to why they existed, or how the commu-
nity had changed or evolved. He had not taken the time to challenge his own perceptions of the
community, and instead chose to isolate himself in his classroom and focus on teaching chemis-
try.
Professional knowledge. Mr. Walter attended a public university in California to obtain
his teaching certificate. While he said that he maintained a high level of knowledge in his content
area, he also explained that he did not necessarily learn how to teach in his teaching program or
in any professional development courses:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 107
I can’t remember too many teaching strategies that I learned in my program, and we don’t
do much professional development at this school. My strength as a teacher is being a peo-
ple person, and that’s what my professors told me in college. (Mr. Walter, personal com-
munication, December 10, 2014)
While Mr. Walter described his professional content knowledge in chemistry as being very
high, he also expressed an interest in acquiring the teaching strategies to make chemistry accessible
and relatable for his students; “it would be great to acquire the tools to make this subject more
doable for my students. We don’t get that here in professional development, but it would be very
helpful.” Table 4.7 below summarizes the main components of knowledge that Mr. Walter dis-
cussed in his interviews and demonstrated in his observations.
Mr. Walter did not recall having taken courses in social justice or diversity during col-
lege. Now in his mid-forties, Mr. Walter had been away from the college and university contexts
for over fifteen years. During his credentialing program, he recalled an emphasis upon general
strategies for managing classrooms - tools such as charts and stickers and other behavioristic in-
struments for promoting on-task behavior. He explained that discussions and learnings about cul-
ture, race, and ethnicity had been absent from his coursework. There were no diversity or social
justice components in Mr. Walter’s credential experience. Although Downtown High mandated
weekly staff meetings, Mr. Walter explained that there was no ongoing development in regards
to any of these topics. He articulated that the focus of meetings was generally about a variety of
new initiatives, and not diversity or social justice.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 108
Table 9
Summary of Mr. Walter ’s Knowledge
Self
Knowledge
(respon-
sive)
Self
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(respon-
sive)
Knowledge
of Students
(non-re-
sponsive)
Context
Knowledge
(respon-
sive)
Context
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Profes-
sional
Knowledge
(respon-
sive)
Profes-
sional
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
personal
culture

student
lives, fami-
lies,

unaware of
community
structures/
functions
knowledge
of social
learning

have con-
fronted per-
sonal bias
“color
blind ” men-
tality
diverse cul-
tural capital
some stu-
dents as
“low level ”
knowledge
of power re-
lations (in
district) and
vulnerabil-
ity of stu-
dents to
prison sys-
tem/ vio-
lence

interpersona
l skills

race as un-
important

lacking
knowledge
of student
culture
systems &
politics af-
fecting stu-
dents
unaware of
how to nav-
igate system
for supplies

did not
acknoweldg
e discourse
patterns

student in-
terests and
aspirations

biases in
popular cul-
ture

some sup-
plementa-
tion of cur-
riculum
emphasis
upon stand-
ard issue
curriculum;
lacking sup-
plies

Practices. Mr. Walter’s knowledge was reflected in his practice, and recorded and ana-
lyzed according to the observation protocol (appendix B) utilized in this study.
Indicators of cultural relevance. Teacher practices were observed and recorded accord-
ing to indicators set forth by the culturally responsive observation protocol (appendix B), which
was adapted from the Rightmyer, et al. (2008) observation protocol. Thirteen indicators for cul-
tural responsiveness were addressed in the observation protocol. Indicators refer to ways in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 109
which teachers actively create caring spaces in their classroom, encourage critical consciousness,
and deliver instructional pedagogy.
Of the thirteen indicators, Mr. Walter was observed implementing several, which will be
detailed in the data below. Mr. Walter ’s practices indicated an overall responsiveness according to
the culturally responsive indicators. Each indicator will be addressed according to the specific
observation data for Mr. Walter.
Creating a caring space. The first indicator, creating a caring space, addresses ways in
which the teacher demonstrates an ethic of care. Mr. Walter demonstrated responsiveness in this
area in that he differentiated management strategies, using both direct and indirect interactions
with students as needed. While Mr. Walter would regularly tell his students exactly what he ex-
pected from them in regards to classroom procedures, he also devoted time to having one-on-
one conversations with students that were not adhering to classroom protocol. He referred to stu-
dents by name, and personalized his language by calling them “Mr.” or “Ms.” followed by their
last names. His reference to students using formal names communicated a high level of respect
for them.
High expectations. Indicator two addressed ways in which Mr. Walter communicated
high expectations. High expectations were demonstrated; he communicated verbally that he ex-
pected all of his students to do well on the upcoming examination. He did not communicate an
expectation for all of his students to finish their class work on time, and in fact, allowed students
to take their class work home as homework if they did not finish during the period. Allowing stu-
dent work to go home may have communicated a low level of expectation for some students in
that he did not express his belief in that they would finish before the period ended. At the same
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 110
time, this may have also demonstrated an ethic of care in that he realized there was not enough
time in school to finish the assignment.
Maintaining high expectations means that teachers do not let students avoid their assign-
ments even if they have challenges outside of school. Mr. Walter acknowledged that many of his
students held time-consuming jobs outside of school, were in foster homes, and lived in unstable
homes. For those students, as well as those who were making a conscious choice to play compet-
itive basketball outside of class, Mr. Walter held an expectation that they would learn and perform
in his class.
Creating an atmosphere of respect and connection. Indicator three refers to the ways in
which a teacher creates an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connections. In Mr. Walter’s
class, students felt comfortable to ask questions, both by raising hands and by calling out infor-
mally as Mr. Walter rotated through the room. Students knew the routines and demonstrated this
by entering the classroom and placing their supplies atop their desks as class commenced. By
providing an opportunity for students to work in groups, Mr. Walter encouraged the students to
provide peer feedback and support, as each group collectively investigated the answers to ques-
tions that they were assigned. Further, Mr. Walter aims to speak with his students in terms, and
using metaphors, that they will connect with. Specifically, he explained:
I try and connect with my students through meaningful metaphors. Rather than pointing a
finger at them, I might look for a metaphor that they will understand in order to help them
become aware of their actions. If he is on the basketball team, I tell him that when the
buzzer rings, the game is over. I tell him that I know he can do well if he puts some effort
forward, and I am very honest about this. Parent contact can be helpful to me in these
processes; I’m in contact with guardians frequently. I just emailed one today.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 111
Mr. Walter’s conversations were poised to connect with his student, express confidence
in his potential, as well as connect meaningfully with the parents of this student.
Actively Confronting Discrimination. Indicator four refers to ways in which a teacher
actively confronts discrimination. This includes confronting student biases, encouraging multiple
perspectives, using multi-cultural literature, and engaging students to examine the curriculum.
Mr. Walter confronted student biases in that he would perpetually address the students’ percep-
tion that hard working students were uncool or unpopular. He explained that many of the male
students at Downtown High were afraid to fail, and afraid to look as though they cared about
learning. Mr. Walter’s self-described persona of a “life-long learner” meant that he was con-
stantly sharing his new endeavors with his students and encouraging them to try new things. His
curriculum did not include multi-cultural literature, and was limited to a set of mismatched text
books provided by the school. Mr. Walter told his students that their books were different, and
that they would have to coordinate their efforts accordingly by getting into groups by who had
which book. During a lunch time, Mr. Walter screened a documentary about foreign born Reg-
gae singer, Bob Marley, in his classroom. Mr. Walter explained that he liked to expose his stu-
dents to new and alternative ideas and perspectives where possible. Since the chemistry curricu-
lum did not allow for this, he spent his lunch times sharing these ideas with his students.
Indicators for demonstrating and imparting a critical consciousness. Indicators for
demonstrating and imparting critical consciousness address the pedagogies implemented to pro-
mote questioning societal structures, and the students’ roles within this society.
Encouraging students to question. The first indicator for critical consciousness ad-
dresses ways in which a teacher encourages students to question. Mr. Walter encouraged stu-
dents to question the hegemonic structures in society by being open and honest with them. He
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 112
communicated his belief in their positive life outcomes, and explicitly told them that their place
of birth would not have to determine their success in life. He expressed that their work and inter-
personal ethics would determine their successes. While he was honest with them in conversations
about his own life experience and path in becoming a chemistry teacher, he also verbally
acknowledged the importance of being actively engaged in educational and professional endeav-
ors, given the specifics of their community context:
While I waited five years after high school to begin college, I realize that it may not be
safe for my students to do the same. Five years of idle time in this neighborhood could,
unfortunately, land a student up in jail, or worse, even dead.
Conversations such as these were “candid,” as Mr. Walter put forth. His aspirations were
to be honest with his students in conversations and interactions, in order to prepare them for the
reality that they were faced with in their lives both now and in the future.
Mr. Walter further encouraged questioning by using critical thinking strategies such as
requesting evidence and eliciting multiple points of view. In chemistry, Mr. Walter clarified that
there is often only one correct answer to a question or problem, and he allowed students ample
time to explain their processes implementing formulas, solving problems, and answering ques-
tions. When reviewing answers to homework questions in the text, Mr. Walter requested answers
as well as explanations to those answers, acknowledging that students may have arrived at the
correct answer in multiple ways.
Encouraging investigation with real world problems. The second indicator of critical
consciousness refers to way in which a teacher encourages investigation and actions with real
world problems. Mr. Walter’s curriculum was fairly straightforward in addressing the standards
and objectives set forth for high school chemistry. His real world experience as a professional
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 113
chemist allowed him to incorporate real world examples of chemistry in the classroom. While
this contributed to the richness of his curricular content, it also posed limitations, given the set of
circumstances and lack of resources such as text books and lab equipment at Downtown High.
Mr. Walter’s school did not maintain a chemical disposal system, and therefore he felt
unable to implement experimentation with chemicals in his settings. He did not look outside of
the school for any resources in obtaining the necessary supplies. He discussed the dangers of in-
correctly disposing toxic chemicals down the sink, and refused to expose students and surround-
ing communities to harmful chemicals. Without a functioning eye-washing station in his room,
he would execute any potentially dangerous lab experiments. This limited his pupils in their ex-
posure to experimentation, yet protected them from the potential dangerous effects of working
without proper safety equipment. For Mr. Walter, the safety of his students was a primary con-
cern. Mr. Walter did supplement the laboratory curriculum with videos of experiments as multi-
media component of his instruction.
Deconstructing stereotypes and biases in the curriculum. The next indicator of critical
consciousness addresses how a teacher deconstructs stereotypes and biases in the curriculum.
Mr. Walter did not acknowledge any stereotypes in his curriculum, or biases in the text books.
He did not actively challenge students to deconstruct cultural assumptions and biases verbally,
although by the content shown in his lunch time documentary screening, he was challenging ste-
reotypes by sharing content matter about a counter cultural icon, Bob Marley. Mr. Walter ex-
plained that the time allotted for chemistry class and the objectives set forth, in his opinion, did
not make discussions of social justice or cultural stereotypes a relevant point of discussion. He
further explained that the topics of race, ethnicity, and gender were not addressed by his students
and in his view “had no place” in his class.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 114
Instruction in discourse patterns. Indicator four, “teacher instructs students to use differ-
ent discourse patterns to fix social context” was not evident in Mr. Walter’s pedagogy. While he
himself maintained a surfer slang type of dialect using phrases such as “right on,” “totally,” and
“stoked,” he did not bring the topic of Standard English discourse into his classroom conversa-
tion. When calling on students and listening to them speak out loud in class, he did not correct
their grammar, and listened for the content of their answers.
Indicators for instructional pedagogy. The following section details indicators for in-
struction pedagogy, and specifically the strategies implemented by teachers in the classroom as
observed by the researcher. These include learning with students, student collaboration, active
learning in the classroom to promote engagement, balancing instruction, and providing choice to
students.
Learning with students. The first indicator for instructional pedagogy is that a teacher
learns with students. Mr. Walter was observed circulating his room, at times strumming a guitar,
as students worked busily in cooperative groups investigating answers to assignments. Mr. Wal-
ter modeled active listening by pausing to look at students while they spoke to him, repeating
their questions back for clarity, and answering their questions slowly and clearly until they
demonstrated comprehension. The researcher did not observe students taking on the role of the
teacher, and Mr. Walter did not refer to any projects or presentations where the students were in-
vited or required to address their peers.
Student collaboration. The next indicator for instructional pedagogy is allowing student
collaboration. Mr. Walter relied heavily on collaborative student group work. While students
were allowed to discuss and collaborate on answers, their autonomy was limited in that they
were finding the answers to a set of pre-determined questions prescribed by the text.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 115
Active learning to promote engagement. The third indicator for pedagogy is use of active
learning to promote student engagement. While Mr. Walter expressed interest in posing the “let’s
find out” investigative questions, he also felt frustrated and limited by the lack of supplies to ac-
tually carry out investigations. This limitation in resources also isolated the content of his class-
room to near exclusive use of text books. Mr. Walter supplemented this by utilizing relevant
video content available on YouTube, when possible, in order to provide supplemental materials
and support for his teaching. His lectures were interactive and driven largely by student question-
ing and feedback.
Balanced instruction. The fourth indicator for pedagogy refers to how instruction is bal-
anced between skill instruction and reading and writing for meaning. Mr. Walter modeled and
demonstrated skills, and focused on the meaning when dialoguing about skills and concepts.
Learning experiences and activities were limited in scope in that they did not include physical
activity or involvement. Science labs and investigations could provide these opportunities, if
given resources to carry them out.
Providing choice. The fifth indicator refers to ways in which the teacher provides choices
in content and assessment methods based on experiences, needs, values, and strengths. Mr. Wal-
ter did not provide students with choice, or multiple opportunities to demonstrate competency.
Assignments were teacher initiated and unvaried regardless of student ability or language profi-
ciency. Mr. Walter used the lack of resources as an explanation for why he could not provide
more student choice or opportunity. Table 10 presents a summary Mr. Walter's practices.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 116
Table 10
Summary of Mr. Walter's Practice
Indicator Responsive Examples Non-Responsive Examples
Creating a Caring Space differentiated management;
used student names; one to
one conversations

High Expectations verbally communicated ex-
pectation to complete work;

Creating an Atmosphere of
Respect and Connection
students knew routines; came
prepared to class; teacher lis-
tened actively

Actively Confronting Dis-
crimination
promoted life-long learning
and challenged the stereotype
that failing was cool

Encouraging Students to
Question
atmosphere of honesty; ad-
dressed post-high school di-
lemmas; requested evidence
and promoted multiple points
of view

Encouraging Investigation
with Real World Problems
incorporated real-world issues
in chemistry;
unable to implement labs due
to lacking resources in school;
did not investigate or pursue
avenues of obtaining supplies
for students
Deconstructing Stereotypes
and Biases in the Curricu-
lum
did not acknowledge any ste-
reotypes or bias in the curricu-
lum
Instruction in Discourse Pat-
terns
used a “surfer” “so-cal” dis-
course in class and did not
discuss discourse patterns
Learning with Students circulated room to discuss and
learn with students
students did not take on role
of teacher

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 117
Table 10, continued
Student Collaboration collaborative group work autonomy limited by pre-fab-
ricated textbook worksheets
Active Learning to Promote
Engagement
interactive lessons, video sup-
plements
no laboratories or active learn-
ing; constrained by resources
Balanced Instruction skill learning lack of learning through appli-
cation; no labs or experiments
Providing Choice teacher-initiated assignments

Case Study #2: Mrs. Richards at Downtown High School
The following case study of Mrs. Richards explores the beliefs, knowledge, and practices
of a second teacher at Downtown High School. An introduction to Mrs. Richards is provided,
followed by the results of her interview, and then the observation data according to the Culturally
Responsive Indicators as adapted from Righmyer et al., (2008).
Mrs. Richards taught five periods of twelfth grade English. All five periods met for 55
minutes, except for Wednesdays, when the periods were 45 minutes each and the staff used the
extra time for a faculty meeting. Mrs. Richards was hired seventeen years ago by a principal who
is no longer at the school. She voluntarily participated in a teacher induction program when she
began, and was matched with a teacher mentor who has since gone on to become a highly suc-
cessful principal out of state. Mrs. Richards considered herself one of the administrators of the
school, and while her official status is that of teacher, she had taken on numerous teacher leader
roles including BTSA coordinator, community service organizer, recycling club chair, text book
selection committee member, and curriculum development board member. When referring to the
administration and faculty of Downtown High, Mrs. Richards consistently used the pronoun
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 118
“we.” She considered herself a permanent member of the faculty there, and asserted that she
would “God-willing, die or retire as a Downtown High English teacher.”
The English class of Mrs. Richards was located on the first floor of Downtown High,
about three rooms away from the front entrance and administrative offices. Student desks were
organized in a small clusters of four and five desks around the room, all facing the front of the
class where the majority of lectures and lessons were given. Around the room, there were a mul-
titude of posters, flags, and informational postings, ranging in content type. There were no class
rules posted around the room, although the Downtown High Expected School-wide Learning Re-
sults (ESLRs) were posted by the front door. There were various college and university themed
flags and posters around the room, as well as US Army, Navy, and Marines promotional stickers
on the windows. Learning aides with grammar and editing tips were clearly visible from all
points in the room. Pictures of famous authors and thinkers including Shakespeare, and Albert
Einstein lined the four walls of the room. Hundreds of novels sat inside of the back closet, as
well as markers and pens easily accessible in baskets in several spots around the room. The room
was covered of posters, supplies, and informational postings, and it was orderly, neat, and clean.
Period 1, a regular twelfth grade English class, consisted of 37 students, twenty one boys
and sixteen girls. It was racially diverse with 26 Latino and eleven Black students. Students sat
at assigned seats, and were intermixed by gender and ethnicity. They entered the classroom qui-
etly, sat down in assigned seats, and immediately began copying vocabulary words from the
board. Period 2, a regular twelfth grade English class, consisted of 21 students, fourteen boys and
seven girls. It was racially diverse with sixteen Latinos, four Blacks, and one student of Pacific
Island origin. Routines in period two followed the same order as in period one, with all students
entering and immediately beginning to work on vocabulary independently.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 119
Mrs. Richards was chosen by Principal Blazer as one of ten teachers recommended to the
researcher as excellent classroom managers. Mrs. Richards met the criteria for not over-relying
on exclusionary discipline - in her seventeen year career at Downtown High, she had given a to-
tal of five referrals and two suspensions, significantly less than other teachers at the school. Mrs.
Richards was further selected as a result of her survey answers. Her answers consistently demon-
strated her commitment to culturally relevant management.
Beliefs. Interview data from Mrs. Richards covered several components of belief. First,
Mrs. Richards addressed the importance of her teaching practice, purposes for teaching, and the
ways in which these purposes were reflected in her classroom culture and interactions with her
students. Mrs. Richards also addressed her perceptions of culture; the ways in which she con-
ceived of her own culture and that of her students, and the intersection of these cultures. Mrs.
Richards responded as to how she perceived her students’ motivations, values, and aspirations,
and the ways in which those conferred with, or diverged from her own motivations, values, and
aspirations for them.
Purposes for teaching. Mrs. Richards viewed her teaching profession as highly im-
portant, so much so that she considered it her life’s main work, having happened through what
she deemed to have been divine intervention. Specifically, she recalled:
I became a teacher because I wanted to be with kids - I prayed for my job. It really
worked out perfectly that I became a teacher at this school- I was looking for a purpose in
life, and this is really it. I believe it was by the hand of G-d and divine intervention that I
wound up here, and I couldn't be happier about it.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 120
Mrs. Richards saw teaching as her main purpose in life, and she expressed enjoyment of
her work both in and out of school. Her aspiration is to remain a teacher for as long as possible,
and there is nothing else that she would rather be doing:
G-d willing, I will die or retire from this school. It’s not just to be a teacher, but to be a
teacher here, that is my purpose. I don’t know if this is a typical response, but I take it
very seriously and I think I need to do it right. (Mrs. Richards, personal communication
January 9, 2015)
Mrs. Richards perceived herself as part of a team. In referring to herself, she frequently
substituted the pronoun “we” for “I,” and explained that she and her colleagues operate together
to help “their” students. Having grown up less than five miles from Downtown High, Mrs. Rich-
ards recalled a time when the neighborhood was a thriving middle class hub for commerce and
local business. She recalled how, over time, Downtown City became a center for local gang ac-
tivity, riots, and many of the bigger businesses vacated the area. Mrs. Richards did not see the
decline of Downtown City as a permanent feature of the community, but rather a “bump in the
road” which would eventually be “smoothed out” and the city could once again thrive. As Mrs.
Richards was in her mid-fifties and had grown up locally but in a different era, she was able to
maintain perspective and a positive association with the Downtown community. She explained
how community was currently improving, albeit slowly, and that those businesses which had va-
cated the neighborhood due to gang violence were slowly returning and local commerce was
picking up.
Mrs. Richards expressed her commitment to teaching as a life purpose, in that she felt a
sense of duty to make the world a better place. She iterated her immense love and appreciation
for her students, and discussed ways in which her students were special, loving, and kind. Mrs.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 121
Richards felt that the students of Downtown deserved the best, and taught them “the same way
she would teach her own children- with everything that (she) has got.” Her own son, then an
eleventh grader in 2013, attended the Downtown City prom instead of his own prom, because he
and she both felt that the students of Downtown were “much nicer.”
Mrs. Richards’ life outside of school reflected ways in which teaching was her main life’s
purpose. Specifically, she spent hours after school volunteering her time to clubs, planning, grad-
ing, and community activism with her students. She said that she spent approximately five or
more hours daily, in addition to her required teaching hours, working on school related projects
for her students. Her family knew how important her work was to her. For holidays, she asked
for school-related gifts from her family members, such as printers, ink cartridges, and novels.
During summer, she looked all over the city and the internet for the best deals on school sup-
plies, and often used her own money to purchase them. After graduation, many students stayed in
touch with Mrs. Richards who volunteered to help them with college assignments and projects.
Mrs. Richards’ beliefs about teaching and her students were reflected in her comments,
interactions with students, and the ways in which she chose to spend her personal time.
The role of culture in the classroom. Mrs. Richards described the distinct characteris-
tics of her students, touched upon their ethnicity, socioeconomic background, and generation.
She repeatedly focused on the caring, loving, resourceful, and appreciative qualities that she
found in her students:
My students - If I had to go on the show “Survivor,” I would take my students because I
will live, and thrive on the island. Kids know how to make a little turn into a lot. They see
every day as a gift. They may not know where their food is coming from or if they are
going to get shot.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 122
She explained that her students heard gun shots so often that they would know what type
of gun was behind the noise, and from which direction the shot originated. While she did not
mention anything about her students being involved in this violence, she saw them as living
amidst it, and being affected by the violence in the sense that they came to see each day as a gift.
Mrs. Richards shared anecdotes about her students’ resourcefulness and caring: “These
are the type of students who would give you the shirt off of their back, or their dinner, even if
they were hungry.”
Students of Mrs. Richards referred to her as “honorary Black,” and “honorary Latino.”
While Mrs. Richards was White and of European ancestry, she saw it as her responsibility to stay
current and knowledgeable of her students’ cultures and interests. She rattled off several different
genres of music that her students enjoy, and explained that understanding student culture was
central to her work as an English teacher. Her cultural knowledge helped her to identify a stu-
dent, years ago, who had immigrated from a remote village in Mexico, and spoke an obscure lan-
guage, other than Spanish. She was able to help this student acquire the language services he
needed in order to participate in classes at Downtown High School.
She explained that she enjoyed the music and cultures of her students. She shared an an-
ecdote of a day, years prior, when she was in the parking lot with students listening to some mu-
sic playing in one of their cars. A fellow teacher from an upper middle class white neighborhood
walked by and oversaw what she was doing. He later remarked to her, asking how she could pos-
sibly relate to “these people.” She viewed his remark as negative, and possibly implicating the
students’ ethnicity and socio-economic status as impossible to relate to: “At the time, I remember
thinking that this teacher could not possibly last at our school. Sure enough, he was gone the next
year. To last here at downtown, a teacher must love our students.”
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 123
Mrs. Richards discussed the challenges that her students faced as a result of socio-eco-
nomic barriers. A few of her students were living alone and supporting themselves after their
parents were deported out of the United States and into their country of their citizenship. Others
of her students, “several each year,” were in transient living situations, or part of the foster care
system. Mrs. Richards believed it is essential to know what each student was dealing with both
inside and outside of school, in order to be the most effective support system and resource that
she could be for each.
Aspirations for students. Mrs. Richards aspired for all of her students to go to college.
While she initially said “college,” when probed, she added that this could include vocational and
trade schools, as long as students were receiving a fair education and skill set for their financial
investment.
As discussed in the pedagogy section, Mrs. Richards organized her curriculum around her
aspirations for her students, providing extensive support and preparation for post-high school ed-
ucational experiences.
Mrs. Richards believed her students to be fundamentally good people, and she saw teaching
as the most important part of her life. She was grounded by her belief in G-d, and felt that her job
at Downtown High had been divinely orchestrated. Because she valued her students and her work
as a teacher so greatly, her life was organized around helping her students succeed and being the
best teacher that she could be.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 124
Table 11
Summary of Mrs. Richards ’ Beliefs
Purposes for
Teaching
(responsive)
Purposes for
Teaching
(non-respon-
sive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(responsive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(non-respon-
sive)
Aspirations
for Students
(responsive)
Aspirations
for Students
(non-respon-
sive)
prepare stu-
dents for life
acknowledged
the role of di-
versity
value student
learning (over
exclusionary
discipline)

profession as
life’s purpose
acknowledg-
ing systematic
challenges
high aspira-
tions for stu-
dents

cultivating
student poten-
tial
critically con-
scious pur-
pose
college or
professional
goals for all
students

caring about
students
valued com-
munity

Knowledge. Mrs. Richards provided information about herself, her students, and her con-
text. Having grown up within a five mile radius from Downtown High and having spent her en-
tire teaching career at Downtown, Mrs. Richards spoke to her connection with her past, her cur-
rent teaching situation, her students, and the surrounding community. She further detailed her
professional knowledge and the acquisition of this knowledge.
Knowledge of self. Mrs. Richards described herself as someone fundamentally devoted
to her teaching; teaching was at the core of her identity and she described her profession as her
life’s purpose. She described her upbringing in a hardworking family, not far from Downtown
High, where she had fond childhood memories. She explained how as an adult, she needed to
work in order to supplement her husband’s income and support her family. She needed her job as
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 125
much as she also valued and enjoyed it. She viewed herself as a religious person; she made sev-
eral references to the Lord in her interview, and detailed how she felt guided into her current po-
sition by a divine intervention. She discussed the fact that she was White, although she also ex-
plained how her students saw her as “honorary Black,” or “honorary Latino.” Although she was
White, she described how her interests in music and literature reflected diversity and how she
genuinely valued diversity. She felt that her teaching was good for her students, and also for her
own children. Her own children routinely attended events at Downtown High, and although they
were zoned to attend a different, local public high school, she encouraged them to come to her
school events and they enjoyed doing so. She felt part of the Downtown High community and
wanted her children to be a part of that community as well.
Knowledge of students. Mrs. Richards knew her students well. From day one of the
school year, she worked with them to write personal narratives and fill out personal surveys so
that she could understand their backgrounds, interests, opinions, and aspirations. Mrs. Richards
knew each student by name, who they were friends with, what their home lives were like,
whether or not they worked, what extracurricular they were involved in, and what their plans
were for after high school. Spending time with them both in class, at lunches, and after school,
she got to know them personally and took interest in their lives. She knew what kind of music
they listened to, and got to know that music as well. She followed popular news to stay current
with their interests in pop culture and the arts; “I try to stay up to date on things that interest my
students. It helps to keep them interested and also to connect with the curriculum.” (Mrs. Rich-
ards, Personal Communication, January 8, 2015).
Knowledge of context. Mrs. Richards maintained a robust knowledge of her context. She
worked regularly to organize events and activities with community organizations and businesses.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 126
She had grown up and lived her adult life within a five mile radius of Downtown High, and had
watched the area change over the years. Her clubs were actively involved in volunteering
throughout the neighborhood, and she maintained regular communications with a host of individ-
uals within the surrounding areas.
Professional knowledge. Mrs. Richards was in her seventeenth year of teaching. She be-
gan her teaching career on an emergency credential, and then began working toward a permanent
single subject teaching credential in English. When she began at Downtown High, there was a
mandatory mentorship program for new teachers. She explained having learned a tremendous
amount from her mentors;
My mentors were the greatest. They went on to become principals in two excellent insti-
tutions. They taught me so much of what I know and inspired me to want to be the best
teacher possible (Mrs. Richards, personal communication, January 8, 2015).
Mrs. Richards spent time outside of school seeking out mentors, sharing in personal
learning communities, and meeting with teacher leaders and administration members at Down-
town to constantly evaluate and improve her own teaching practice as well as the curriculum in
her classroom and department. After being mentored at her school and participating in the BTSA
program, she went on to become a BTSA advisor and coordinator at her site.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 127
Table 12
Summary of Mrs. Richards ’ Knowledge
Self
Knowledge
(responsive)
Self
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(responsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(non-respon-
sive)
Context
Knowledge
(responsive)
Context
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(responsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(non-respon-
sive)
personal cul-
ture

student
lives, fami-
lies,

community
structures/
functions

knowledge
of social
learning

have con-
fronted per-
sonal bias

diverse cul-
tural capital

knowledge
of power re-
lations

interpersona
l skills

student cul-
ture

systems &
politics af-
fecting stu-
dents

knoweldge
of discourse
patterns

student in-
terests and
aspirations

biases in
popular cul-
ture

broadly con-
ceived cur-
riculum

Practice: Indicators of Cultural Relevance. Mrs. Richards’ practices indicated cultural
relevance and responsiveness according to the indicators for this study. Each indicator will be
addressed according to the specific observation data for Mrs. Richards. Indicators are divided
into three categories of culturally relevant practice: creating a caring space, demonstrating and
imparting critical consciousness, and instructional pedagogy.
Creating a caring space. The first indicator of creating a caring space is “demonstrating
ethic of care through reciprocal relationships and bonding.” Mrs. Richards teaching was respon-
sive in that she differentiated management strategies using both direct and indirect inter actives
as needed. One student, Marcel, spent several minutes of class with his head down on a desk.
While Mrs. Richards seemed to be ignoring his actions during class, she later explained that this
student had been the victim of an assault earlier in the week, and she was allowing him some
space to rest and recuperate.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 128
Toward the end of a second period class, Julio, a boy toward the back of the room packed
up his belongings and stood up to leave before the class was officially dismissed. Responding to
this breach of conduct, Mrs. Richards told him that when he would sit back down, the class
would be dismissed. Demonstrating the ethic of care includes holding students to high expecta-
tions; Mrs. Richards explained that she sought to be understanding as possible while still holding
her students accountable for their behaviors:
Part of being responsive is making judgement calls. I want to hold my students to a high
standard, and at the same time, try to be there and accommodate them when they really
need those accommodations. (Mrs. Richards, personal communication, January 8, 2015)
Mrs. Richards demonstrated care by referring to her students by their names and using
personalized language. She consistently called upon students using their names, referred to stu-
dents by name in conversations, and asked them personalized questions in reference to their in-
terests and what she knew about them.
High expectations. The second indicator of creating a caring space is “communicating
high expectations.” This includes differentiating instruction, advocating for all students, provid-
ing challenging work, and not letting students “get by” if having outside challenges. Mrs. Rich-
ards demonstrated responsiveness in these areas. She called nearly every student throughout the
class period, and gave a detailed overview of the requirements for each assignment. As she as-
signed a poetry recitation project, she explained her grading criteria for the performance, and de-
tailed all objectives in the grading rubric. While certain students were absent that day due to ex-
tenuating circumstances including illness, she made a note of who was missing in order to inform
them of the assignments and detailed requirements of these assignments.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 129
Creating an atmosphere of respect and connection. The next indicator for creating a car-
ing space is creating an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connections. This includes stu-
dents feeling comfortable enough to ask questions out loud and in one to one conversations. Dur-
ing formal observations, students in Mrs. Richards’ class asked minimal questions, and hesitated
to answer questions when called upon. Mrs. Richards explained later that these same students
would have been speaking and questioning freely, if it had not been for the presence of the re-
searcher. During breaks, a number of students entered Mrs. Richards’ class to ask her specific
questions, indicating that they feel comfortable to approach her individually.
Creating an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connection refers to how well stu-
dents know the class routines, and how the students are invested in and supportive in the learning
processes of their peers. Students demonstrated knowledge of procedures in that they began their
assignments without being told, and returned all supplies to their respective storage spaces inde-
pendently. Mrs. Richards indicated partial non-responsiveness in that she stayed behind her po-
dium for the majority of the period. Further she did not initiate any group work or peer collabora-
tive assignments or projects.
Actively confronting discrimination. Mrs. Richards recalled incidents over the years
where she had confrontations and faculty regarding their deficit perspectives of students. She
viewed these perspectives as discrimination, and was vocal about questioning teachers who ex-
pressed such views. She reflected about her experiences, and how those teachers did not last very
long at Downtown. Regarding discrimination among students, Mrs. Richards explained that at
times it became necessary for her to mediate disagreements between her students, and rarely the
issue of race or ethnicity was involved in the dispute.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 130
Demonstrating and imparting a critical consciousness. The following indicators sum-
marize ways in which Ms. Sims demonstrates and imparts critical consciousness in the class-
room. These strategies include encouraging students to question, encouraging students to investi-
gate real world issues, instructing in discourse, as well as deconstructing stereotypes and bias in
the curriculum and students’ life experiences.
Encouraging students to question. The first indicator for critical consciousness is “en-
couraging students to question.” Mrs. Richards encouraged questioning in her lessons by request-
ing evidence from the text. She explained to her students that there may be multiple ways of in-
terpreting poetry, in spite of the specific answers provided in the actual textbooks. While Mrs.
Richards was not observed addressing the presence of any ethnocentricity or bias in her English
curriculum, the variety and volume of supplemental texts she provided in her room drew from
world cultures.
Mrs. Richard’s vocabulary curriculum exemplified methods of encouraging students to
question. Rather than merely filling in definitions and memorizing them, Mrs. Richards encour-
aged students to look for multiple ways to define vocabulary and emphasized students’ skills in
using those words effectively in context.
Encouraging investigation with real world problems. The next indicator of critical con-
sciousness is “encouraging investigation and action with real world problems.” Candidly, Mrs.
Richards addressed real life issues within students’ communities. Her curriculum was geared to-
ward assisting students over the course of their senior year in applying for college entrance, fi-
nancial assistance, and college scholarships. Class assignments and homework were scaffolded
in order for students to build a college application portfolio, prepare for interviews, and acquire
necessary information to access post-high school education.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 131
Her room was decorated with several college banners, and she has actively worked over
the years to tailor the Downtown High curriculum toward college readiness. College preparatory
curriculum included several fundamental writing pieces and assignments required for college and
scholarship applications. By making these required school assignments, students were thus auto-
matically ready to complete applications, which they would otherwise have to do in addition to
required school work. Mrs. Richards saw this as helping to move her students forward in the ap-
plication and college readiness processes.
Respecting students’ funds of knowledge was an area that Mrs. Richards consciously at-
tended to, both in and out of school. Over the course of her lessons, she made references to musi-
cians and public figures that the students were familiar with. This enabled her to connect with
students, and to create metaphors for curriculum scaffolding purposes. Mrs. Richards allowed
students to choose personally meaningful writing topics when possible. Each student was respon-
sible for a personal narrative as their first senior year assignment, also part of the college applica-
tion. These narratives helped Mrs. Richards to gain entry into student worlds, as well as differen-
tiate for individual students and their needs over the course of the school year. Students were
given choices on independent projects, in order to make the learning process more meaningful.
In class, Mrs. Richards assigned a poetry recitation project, with students having freedom to
choose a poem of their preference.
Outside of the immediate twelfth grade English curricular objectives, Mrs. Richards was
involved in numerous projects to engage students with real world problems. She volunteered
nearly every day after school and during lunch to coordinate student clubs and initiatives. As the
chair for the recycling club, she opened her classroom for students to collect and sort recyclables,
and personally drove bags of cans and bottles to the recycling center each week. Further focused
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 132
on environmental issues, Mrs. Richards orchestrated student trips and meetings with the local
watershed to learn about conservation. She took on the role of community service advisor in the
school, coordinating and supporting the volunteer efforts of all students in the school, who were
required to engage in hundreds of community service hours. She explained that many of the stu-
dents exceed the two hundred hour requirement, and become involved in all sorts of service pro-
jects. Mrs. Richards called their service “a meaningful part of their education here at Downtown
High, which connects them with the community and prepares them for their futures.”
Deconstructing stereotypes and biases in the curriculum. Mrs. Richards was not ob-
served using literature to reflect on discrimination and bias, or engaging students in solution
identification and development of social justice issues. In her interview, Mrs. Richards explained
that she feels it both important and necessary to address discrimination in the classroom; she per-
ceived the discrimination as between students and not necessarily an element of her curriculum.
The next indicator addresses deconstruction of stereotypes and bias in the curriculum. While
Mrs. Richards did refer to popular culture, she did not address biases, or issues of race, gender,
or ethnicity within her curriculum. Her current unit of study focused on Western European au-
thors, although she indicated that a variety of authors from multiple continents of origins were
highlighted within the curriculum.
Instruction in discourse patterns. Mrs. Richards addressed the fourth indicator for criti-
cal consciousness, instruction in the use of different discourse patterns to fit social context. When
assigning an oral presentation, she explicitly addressed the topic of language, pronunciation, and
the use of “fillers.” While students were allowed to read poems in any language of their choos-
ing, she candidly spoke with them about the speed of their oration, encouraging enunciation and
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 133
pronunciation: “In a business setting, you want to communicate that what you have to say is im-
portant. You are going to dress the part, and speak the part.” While she emphasized “pronuncia-
tion,” she did not refer to a “standard English” pronunciation. She coached students to focus on
their audience and convey that they would be making eye contact, by looking at the foreheads of
each audience member. Mrs. Richards conveyed that this was a formal presentation, and that in-
formal language such as slang needed to be replaced with descriptive adjectives and expressions.
Indicators for instructional pedagogy. Instructional pedagogy indicators for cultural
relativity include learning with students, allowing for student collaboration, promoting student
engagement, instructing for meaning, and providing meaningful, individualized assignment and
project choices for students.
Learning with students. Mrs. Richards was observed to be open to learning about diverse
perspectives with students. She posed questions to students throughout her lessons and main-
tained a diverse body of knowledge regarding the interests and backgrounds of her students. She
modeled active listening by maintaining eye contact and appearing focused and attentive when
her students were speaking. Mrs. Richards did not demonstrate responsiveness by allowing stu-
dents to take on the role of the teacher.
Student collaboration. Mrs. Richards demonstrated responsiveness in that she involved
students in collaborative groups. While the lessons observed were whole-class readings and dis-
cussions of poetry, the desks in her room were arranged in clusters of four or five. Mrs. Richards
explained that the students often engage in collaborative reading and writing workshop groups
and are sitting in groups to promote the success of these activities.
Active Learning to promote engagement. Mrs. Richards demonstrated non-responsive-
ness in that her teaching promoted little active learning or student engagement. Students were
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 134
seated behind their desks for the majority of the class periods while she spoke from behind her
podium in the front of the room. Students did not leave their seats or engage in any movement;
the class alternated between Mrs. Richards reading aloud and explaining a text, and then calling
upon students to answer questions and read.
Balanced instruction. Instruction in Mrs. Richards’s teaching was responsive in that it
was balanced between skill instruction and reading and writing for meaning. She modeled a
reading of poetry, and then allowed students to discuss, interpret, and evaluate the poem. Stanzas
of the poem were isolated and dissected for meaning, as Mrs. Richards made references to situa-
tions familiar to her students in order to make the poem relatable for them.
Providing choice. Mrs. Richards’ students were given choice on some assignments.
While observed, the class was engaged in a whole-class learning activity around reading and ex-
plicating a poem. Mrs. Richards assigned an independent project, a poetry reading, where stu-
dents would be allowed to choose their poems from a wide variety of texts. This demonstrates
Mrs. Richards’ responsiveness in providing students with choice.
Table 13 presents a summary of the indicators where Mrs. Richards demonstrated respon-
siveness in his observed classroom behaviors.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 135
Table 13
Summary of Mrs. Richards ’ Practices
Indicator Responsive Examples Non-Responsive Examples
Creating a Caring Space differentiated management; used stu-
dent names; involved after school

High Expectations individualized assignments
Creating an Atmosphere of Re-
spect and Connection
students knew routines; came pre-
pared to class; teacher listened ac-
tively

Actively Confronting Discrimi-
nation
questioned biased faculty members,
mediated student issues

Encouraging Students to Ques-
tion
atmosphere of honesty; requested
evidence and promoted multiple
points of view

Encouraging Investigation
with Real World Problems
incorporated real-world issues in
English; used curriculum to prepare
students for college and life; com-
munity service

Deconstructing Stereotypes
and Biases in the Curriculum
did not acknowledge bias in
curriculum or on wall posters
Instruction in Discourse Pat-
terns
explicitly instructed students in dis-
course for speeches

Learning with Students students did not take on role
of teacher; did not circulate
Student Collaboration students did not work in
groups
Active Learning to Promote
Engagement
students were not observed
learning actively
Balanced Instruction learning through discussion and
analysis

Providing Choice choice for projects

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 136
Case Study #3: Ms. Sims at Tech University Prep High School
The following case study of Mrs. Sims explores the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of a
second teacher at Tech University (Tech U) Prep High School. An introduction to Ms. Sims is
provided, followed by the results of her interview, and then the observation data according to the
Culturally Responsive Indicators as adapted from Righmyer et al., (2008).
Ms. Sims teaches five periods of eleventh grade Chemistry. All five periods meet for two
hour blocks, on an alternating day schedule. There is a sixth period in the school which serves as
preparation time. Ms. Sims was hired in the fall by the current administration of the Tech U char-
ter organization, United Technology Charter schools of California. United Tech Charters main-
tain nearly thirty schools in Southern California, and serve over fourteen thousand students.
Since it was founded in the mid 1990’s, over ninety five % of students have gone on to college.
College preparedness is the main objective set forth by the charter organization.
A first year intern with Teach for America, Ms. Sims was highly sought after by this or-
ganization due to her involvement and activism at Columbia University in New York. As a soph-
omore in college, Ms. Sims realized a discrepancy between the high schools surrounding her col-
lege campus in New York City, and those which she attended while growing up in the suburbs.
Recognizing a “huge discrepancy in resources,” Ms. Sims became an activist and began volun-
teering as a mentor in local public schools in her area.
The chemistry classroom of Ms. Sims is located on the second floor of the building, in a
wing of the school dedicated to science. Student desks are organized around laboratory tables, in
three distinct sections of the room. Groups of four and five students sit around tables in the two
back sections of the room. These sections are dedicated for either collaborative group work, or
independent study stations. In the front of the room, there are fourteen dedicated chairs around a
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 137
U- shape table formation, where all students sit facing the front. In the front of the room, there
are four large white boards, and a “Smart Board,” digital whiteboard in the middle. On a front
table in the middle of the students, chemistry supplies, including beakers, scales, and measuring
cups are neatly organized. Ms. Sims gives lectures and lessons to the from section of the room,
as a part of a “rotation” system used by the school in all classes to effectively teach and manage
classes of approximately forty students.
Around her classroom there were bulletin boards with four distinct themes displayed.
One wall is labeled “dreams,” and is decorated with large note cards created by students. Stu-
dents have written their long term goals, or “dreams” on the cards. Examples of these dreams in-
clude “I want to be a nurse and make money,” “I want to become district attorney,” “I want to
make music and perform in front of huge audiences,” or “I want to travel the world.”
On the back classroom wall, there is a “data wall.” Ms. Sims explained that her charter
school system places emphasis on data, looks at student test data in order to drive instruction,
and believes that students need to learn to understand, use, and create data. Ms. Sims and her stu-
dents have chosen to list the class quiz scores on the data wall in the form of a graph.
An adjacent wall hosts a fluorescent sign which says “goals.” In large print, the teacher
has written: our class goal is for an 80% average or higher on all quizzes and tests. All of stu-
dents will pass chemistry with a C or higher, and all students will score a 24 on the ACT in the
science section. Smaller cards fill up the remainder of the board, created by students, listing their
goals. Student goals include “scoring an 80% on all tests,” “getting in to UCLA for college,”
“graduate high school,” “get a GPA over 3.5 in junior year.” There is nothing posted around the
room which lists “class rules” specifically, but there are several charter issued posters which
spell out student expectations for successful participation. The first one says “Do you part! Let’s
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 138
keep our classrooms clean. No food, no drinks, no markers, no spitting, no gum.” Another char-
ter school issued poster that says “Be a PRO, and be prepared” up on the wall which outlines the
components of being a “PRO.” Pro is an acronym for “prepared,” “respectful,” and “on task.”
Under each of the three letters, there are clear guidelines as to what it means to be prepared, re-
spectful, and on task. Another poster spells out the qualifications for the standards based grading
policy at the charter.
Period two, a regular eleventh grade chemistry class, consisted of forty students. There
were twenty two boys and eighteen girls, all Latino. Students sat at assigned seats and were inter-
mixed by gender. Students entered the room having casual conversations and waited for the cue
from Ms. Sims that class had begun. All observations for Ms. Sims were conducted in the period
two class, which was followed by a teacher preparation period which we utilized for post-obser-
vation interview questions.
Ms. Sims was chosen by the Assistant Principal at Tech U, and recommended to the re-
searcher as an excellent classroom manager. She met the criteria for not over-relying on exclu-
sionary discipline. Although Ms. Sims was in her first year at Tech U, unlike the other first year
teachers who frequently gave detentions and referrals, Ms. Sims had seldom given any referrals,
and when she did, it was only for a clear violation of school policy. Ms. Sims was further se-
lected as a result of her survey answers which reflected her implementation of culturally relevant
management practice.
Beliefs. Several components of belief were addressed through interviews with Ms. Sims.
She addressed the importance of her teaching practices, her purposes for teaching, and the ways
in which her classroom reflected these beliefs. Ms. Sims also addressed her perceptions of her
students’ culture and her own; both the similarities and the differences which she saw between
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 139
the two. Mrs. Sims explained her perception of her students’ motivations, values, and aspirations,
and the ways in which those conferred with or diverged from her own motivations, values, and
aspirations for them.
Purposes for teaching. Ms. Sims viewed her teaching profession as highly important, so
much so that she is “always” thinking about her students and how she can teach them chemistry
in meaningful and relevant ways. She enjoys working in her current setting as a Teach for Amer-
ica fellow, and aspires to continue as a fully credentialed teacher for the rest of her professional
career in her school or a similar demographic school.
She explained that she had initially majored in science in order to prepare for medical
school. While she aspired to go in to medicine, her primary goal was to be a pediatrician and
work with children in order to serve them and develop meaningful connections with her patients.
Over the course of her college career and especially when she began mentoring in New York
City public schools, Ms. Sims re-envisioned her life goals and realized that teaching could pro-
vide a different, yet equally meaningful opportunity to serve young people.
I wanted to be a pediatrician so that I could help kids. When I realized, in college, that
there were so many children who needed help in the education system, it became clear to
me that teaching was a career path for me.
Ms. Sims views teaching as highly important to her, and she has thus made several sacri-
fices in order to serve as a TFA fellow:
I left my family, my hometown, and my long-term boyfriend back east in order to do this
program. It is important to me, and I really like what I am doing in spite of the sacrifices
I’ve had to make.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 140
While serving as a TFA fellow, Ms. Sims is simultaneously enrolled in a teacher creden-
tialing program through a major southern California university.
The role of culture in the classroom. Ms. Sims described her students, their ethnicity,
socioeconomic backgrounds, and generational characteristics. She emphasized how much she en-
joyed working with her students, and how she felt that the students in her school were a close-
knit community of teens who truly cared about each other and respected her:
These students really respect me. Once they realized I was not going to leave in the mid-
dle of the year, as several of their past teachers had done, they began helping me out with
classroom routines and really opening up to me. They care about each other, and that be-
comes obvious when they are open to helping each other out in collaborative groups.
(Ms. Sims, personal communication, January 14, 2015)
She explained that as a TFA fellow, the students had been skeptical that she was going to
leave mid-year. Two of the TFA fellows before her had to leave for personal reasons, and that
left the students “almost expecting” that Ms. Sims would follow suit.
Ms. Sims believed that the small school size and age of the school contributed to the
close-knit community feel among her students. The school had started three years prior, and Ms.
Sims’ students, the junior class, were its first entering freshmen. A relatively small class of ap-
proximately 240 students meant that most students got to know one another whether in class, in
after school programs, community service hours, or free times during the day.
Ms. Sims explained that many of her students had unstable family lives at home, or were
involved with the authorities outside of school. When she began the school year in August, she
collected information about her students by way of student surveys, one-on-one conversations,
and talks with her colleagues at Tech U. While only three of the families in the school were
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 141
known to have any gang affiliation, it surprised Ms. Sims how many of the students were in-
volved with the police and authorities outside of school: “I’m not sure exactly what is going on
outside of school, because these students don't even do drugs. There are a few who have been
caught with marijuana, but that is the extent of it.”
She speculated that the involvement with authorities may have been due to her students
living in a low income neighborhood, that historically had dealt with issues of gang violence and
drug related crimes. That said, she felt certain that her students were not a part of this activity.
Ms. Sims reiterated the high level of caring and respect that her students demonstrated
toward one another and toward her. She was not certain that this was directly connected to the
cultural or ethnic background of her students, who were 100% Latino, the majority of which
were classified as English language learners.
Ms. Sims believed that her students enjoyed being at school. Although the day was longer
than that of a typical area public school, a majority of the students chose to stay for free after
school tutoring and mentoring as well as complimentary dinner provided by a local foundation in
cooperation with the charter.
Ms. Sims explained that most people in charge of the Tech U charter and its related tech-
nology programs were typically White. When they came in and out of the classrooms, her stu-
dents had mixed responses:
My low students are generally skeptical of these people, and I have even heard them
question why all of the white people are trying to control them and experiment new edu-
cational programs upon them. The higher students are generally less skeptical and more
interested to know what is going on behind the scenes. (Ms. Sims, personal communica-
tion, January 14, 2015)
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 142
Ms. Sims said that she could relate to her students in certain ways but not in others.
Growing up in a predominately White and upper middle class suburb, she noted several differ-
ences between her upbringing and theirs: “Our high school had very few, if any, students receiv-
ing free and reduced lunch. Our neighborhood was safe, and there were not all sorts of students
getting involved with the police and the authorities. Gang issues were non-existent, and people
did not question if or how they could pay for college.”
At the same time, she pointed out similarities in her high school experiences and that of
her AP students: “When I see them feeling stressed about classes, grades, and tests, I remember
those feelings so clearly.” By focusing on their similarities, and not drawing attention to their
differences, Ms. Sims believed that her students saw her as a real, and somewhat relatable person
whom they could trust.
Ms. Sims discussed the challenges that her students faced, and she perceived that these
resulted primarily from socio-economic barriers. Some of her students were taking care of their
siblings, and even financially contributing to, or supporting their families. Some of her students’
parents had been deported back to their countries of origin, and now her students were living
with relatives or on their own. Ms. Sims believed that it was helpful to know what each student
was going through outside of school in order to be the best resource possible for each one.
Aspirations for students. Ms. Sims aspired for all of her students to graduate from high
school. She explained that she did not think that college or university was the right fit for all of
her students. She rejected the notion that a school could or should track students according to
their socio-economic status and prepare them for lower level jobs. At the same time, she
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 143
acknowledged that many of her students were significantly low in reading and mathematics lev-
els, and would as a result need to enroll in remedial courses before beginning a standard college
or university curriculum.
Table 14
Summary of Culturally Responsive and Non-Responsive Beliefs for Ms. Sims
Purposes for
Teaching
(responsive)
Purposes for
Teaching
(non-respon-
sive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(responsive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(non-respon-
sive)
Aspirations
for Students
(responsive)
Aspirations
for Students
(non-respon-
sive)
prepare stu-
dents for life
acknowledged
the role of di-
versity
value student
learning (over
exclusionary
discipline)

profession as
life’s purpose
acknowledged
systematic
challenges
high aspira-
tions for stu-
dents

cultivating
student poten-
tial
critically con-
scious pur-
pose
college or
professional
goals for all
students

caring about
students
valued com-
munity

Knowledge. The following section provides an overview of Ms. Sims types of
knowledge. This includes knowledge of herself, her students, and her context. This particular
data highlights her unique interest in her students, her experience as a TFA fellow, and how she
situated herself within this new teaching context.
Knowledge of self. Ms. Sims described herself as someone highly interested in teaching
as a life’s profession. Although she had begun at a top tier university as a science major intend-
ing to go on to medical school, her experiences living in New York City inspired her to go in to
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 144
the field of education. She was fully aware that she had been brought up with certain privileges
afforded to her by her race and socio-economic status; upon realizing the lack of equity for
young students of color, she became interested in restoring equity to the field of education and
thus became a teacher.
Although she was in her first year of teaching, she had moved across the country, sacri-
ficing proximity to her parents and boyfriend, in order to commit to her teaching placement with
Teach for America. She was also actively taking classes toward her permanent teaching creden-
tial and intended to embark upon a lifetime career as an educator.
She discussed the fact that she was White, and explained how she was aware that her stu-
dents may have mistrusted her because of this. She was determined to prove to her students that
she could be trusted, and that unlike a few of her predecessors at Tech U who were young and
White, she would not quit teaching mid-year.
Knowledge of students. Ms. Sims knew her students as well as a first year teacher could
have. She surveyed her students regarding their interests and strengths, as well as their academic
backgrounds with science, and chemistry in particular. Ms. Sims knew each student by name,
what their interest were outside of school, and a bit about their lives outside of school. She was
mainly focused on their interest and ability in chemistry and saw teaching chemistry as her main
goal with her students. She volunteered to drive students to their sporting and extracurricular ac-
tivities after school, and saw this as an optimal time to converse with students and learn about
their lives. She saw this information as an avenue for developing a relationship with students and
motivating them to learn.
Knowledge of context. Ms. Sims was getting to know her school and the surrounding
context. As a first year teacher who was new to both California and to Tech U, she was learning
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 145
about the area, surrounding community, and the school. Her time spent with students outside of
school at extracurricular activities allowed for her to get to know the families and the physical
layout of the neighborhood and city. She had also researched historical and cultural informant
about her school by speaking with faculty, community, and reading online.
Professional knowledge. Ms. Sims was a first year teacher, and had not yet obtained her
permanent teaching credential. She had a strong foundation in her subject matter, chemistry, hav-
ing majored in chemistry as a university student.
She had gone through the summer program in Teach for America, and was going through
ongoing development with the organization. Concurrently, she was enrolled in teacher’s ed and
ongoing PD with TFA and with TechU.
Ms. Sims had obtained knowledge about diverse students and their communities in her
mentoring and tutoring experience during college. She had been self-motivated to initiate the
program through her university and local New York public schools where she had ongoing,
meaningful interactions with students and faculty on campuses.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 146
Table 15
Summary of Knowledge for Ms. Sims
Self
Knowledge
(responsive)
Self
Knowledge
(non-
responsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(responsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(non-
responsive)
Context
Knowledge
(responsive)
Context
Knowledge
(non-
responsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(responsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(non-
responsive)
personal
culture

student
lives, fami-
lies,

community
structures/
functions

knowledge
of social
learning

have con-
fronted per-
sonal bias

diverse cul-
tural capital

knowledge
of power re-
lations

interpersona
l skills

student cul-
ture

systems &
politics af-
fecting stu-
dents

knoweldge
of discourse
patterns

student in-
terests and
aspirations

biases in
popular cul-
ture

broadly
conceived
curriculum

Practice: Indicators of cultural relevance. Ms. Sims practices indicated high levels of
responsiveness according to the culturally responsive indicators selected for the observation pro-
tocols in this study. Each indicator will be addressed according to the specific observation and
interview data for Ms. Sims. Indicators are divided into three categories of culturally relevant
practice: creating a caring space, demonstrating and imparting critical consciousness, and in-
structional pedagogy.
Creating a caring space. The first indicator of creating a caring space is “demonstrating
ethic of care through reciprocal relationships and bonding.” Ms. Sims class was responsive in
that she differentiated management strategies by using direct and indirect inter-actives as needed.
She relied on a model of interaction called “positive narration,” in which the teacher uses two
positive narrations in order to redirect off task behaviors. This is a form of indirect interaction,
whereby Ms. Sims would verbally acknowledge the on task behavior of some students in order to
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 147
both repeat a direction, and re-direct off task behavior. If, after two positive narrations, the off
task behavior was still occurring, Ms. Sims would use one direct command to redirect the spe-
cific off task student/s. Ms. Sims explained that she only rarely had to rely on the third, direct
narration:
While early on in the year, I had to do a lot more of the narrations, as my students and I
got to know each other, it became much easier to quiet the class and make sure that eve-
ryone was listening. (Ms. Sims, personal communication, January 14, 2015)
Another part of demonstrating the ethic of care is holding high expectations. Ms. Sims
discussed the balancing act between understanding her students’ particular situations and still
holding them accountable for their behaviors and school work:
Some of my students are going through a lot outside of school. There are some days
when I have to be more understanding of that, and give them some quiet time. I balance
that out by really capitalizing on their good days, and then building upon those successes
as time goes on.
Ms. Sims used pronouns such as “everyone,” “we,” and “you,” in referring to her class.
She was frequently giving whole class instructions, and did not use student names during these
times. During independent seat work, which accounted for ninety % of class time, she would re-
fer to students by name, demonstrating care and responsiveness through the use of personalized
language.
High Expectations. The second indicator of creating a caring space is “communicating
high expectations.” This includes differentiating instruction, advocating for all students, provid-
ing challenging work, and not letting students “get by” when having outside challenges. Ms.
Sims demonstrated responsiveness in these areas, and had the ability to utilize a student testing
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 148
and grading system which kept students informed regarding their ongoing progress in meeting
each learning objective and requirement. For each of her science units, students received a “play-
list,” or list of activities and assignments from which they could choose from in order to mean-
ingfully engage with and complete the standards for the unit. Ms. Sims meticulously monitored
student absences and the completion or incompletion of each student assignment, recording
scores into her online data base which could be instantly viewed by the student, teachers, and the
parents. She provided ample time for students to complete the playlist, and would periodically
check progress of each student to make sure that their pacing was coming along. The rotation
model used in her class further allowed her to give personalized attention to each student on a
daily basis.
Creating an atmosphere of respect and connection. The next indicator for creating a car-
ing space is “creating an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connections.” Specifically, this
includes students feeling comfortable to ask questions. During formal observations, Ms. Sims
students raised their hands and asked questions freely. Students working in cooperative groups
raised hands and walked up to the learning assistant in the room if Ms. Sims was engaged in a
lesson.
Creating an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connection refers to how well stu-
dents know the class routines, and how the students are invested and supportive in the learning
processes of their peers. Students in Ms. Sims class worked cooperatively on assignments in sev-
eral groups throughout the room. When one student would receive guided help with a particular
chemistry problem, he or she would then bring that information back into the group to collabo-
rate with peers. Discussing and working out loud was permitted, and even encouraged by the ro-
tation model implemented by Tech U.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 149
Ms. Sims initiated cooperative work by encouraging students to share new information
and insights with their group members. After walking one student through an equation, she asked
him to return to his group and share the process with this peers. Ms. Sims positioned herself in
the middle of her direct instruction group, in close proximity to the students, the supplies, and the
Smart Board from which she taught.
Actively confronting discrimination. Ms. Sims did not discuss discrimination as a part of
her classroom experience. She explained that her students got along well with one another, and
cooperated respectfully when working in groups. She was not aware of experiences where her
students were being discriminated against. She perceived school system in which she worked as
a positive force for her students, actively working toward their best interests. She saw her role in
teaching as a way to actively confront discrimination in that she wanted to provide her students
with the best chemistry experience possible. She did not acknowledge that she was a first year
teacher, teaching without a credential, and that this in itself may have been perpetuating discrimi-
nation and uneven distribution of resources for low-income students of color.
Demonstrating and imparting a critical consciousness. The following indicators sum-
marize ways in which Mrs. Richards demonstrates and imparts critical consciousness in the
classroom. These strategies include encouraging students to question, encouraging students to
investigate real world issues, instructing in discourse, as well as deconstructing stereotypes and
bias in the curriculum and students’ life experiences.
Encouraging students to question. The first indicator for critical consciousness is “en-
couraging students to question.” Ms. Sims explained that the curriculum being implemented by
Tech U was based primarily in critical thinking. While chemistry skills and standards were being
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 150
addressed throughout the eleventh grade curriculum, the critical thinking element encouraged
students to question and investigate the real world implications of chemistry and its uses:
One of our recent units asked students to brainstorm, research, and debate the possible outcomes
of developing a nuclear plant in their community. This required them to understand all of the im-
plications of building and maintaining a plant, as well as keep their own community and its well-
being in mind when considering this decision (Ms. Sims, personal communication, January 14,
2015).
Ms. Sims expressed a high level of satisfaction with the curriculum and its emphasis on
teaching critical thinking skills across the subjects:
I want my students to see themselves within the world, and recognize the different sys-
tems at play in their lives. This is the first step of taking ownership over their experiences
as they move into life as adults (Ms. Sims, personal communication, January 14, 2015)
Encouraging Investigation with Real World Problems. The next indicator of critical con-
sciousness is “encouraging investigation and action with real world problems.” Ms. Sims seemed
to be somewhat aware of the issues going on within students and their communities. She took
time outside of school to drive students to their soccer games, and felt that this was quality time
to listen to the students interact with one another outside of school and simultaneously help them
their extracurricular activities. During conversations which were “somewhat more informal” in
the car, she could gather more information about what real world problems students may be fac-
ing outside of school. Ms. Sims said that this was a work in progress, and she aimed to place
more emphasis on these skills as time progressed. Throughout the room, she had created open
spaces where students could post their dreams, goals, and objectives both as students and in life.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 151
By discussing these and referring to them periodically, she felt that students could begin to dia-
logue about real world issues that were meaningful to them.
She explained that as a first year teacher, she was still getting to know her students and
their families. She followed the standard charter school curriculum, which focused on college
readiness. On her own time, she worked with students on applications for summer internships
and programs which she felt would be valuable experiences for them, and help build their college
application portfolio.
Ms. Sims aimed to respect diverse funds of knowledge that her students had. She made
conscious efforts to dialogue with them in small groups and individually, asking them about their
interests inside and outside of school:
[R]emember so clearly who were the teachers that impacted me, and why they impacted
me. I felt like the ones who actually knew something about me - something I cared about
- were the teachers who inspired me the most. I want to be that teacher for every one of
my students. (Ms. Sims, personal communication, January 14, 2015)
While her students had many interests that both converged with and diverged from her
own, she maintained a nonjudgmental and respectful outlook when her students shared. Her main
goal was to get to know her students in order to establish a relationship, and let them know that
she was interested in what they liked, and what they do.
Ms. Sims explained that she spent a lot of time fulfilling the requirements of Tech U
charter. With longer hours in school and a mandatory after school tutoring day, she was ex-
tremely busy with the basic schedule. On top of those requirements, Ms. Sims was involved with
ongoing professional development for TFA, as well as a rigorous teacher credentialing program
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 152
in a major university which she attended in the evenings. With any time left over, she would ei-
ther exercise to relieve stress, or work on accomplishing tasks in her own life that needed to get
done.
This job is much more time consuming than a regular teaching job, and I think that’s why
there has been a high level of turnover. That said, I like my students and I appreciate this
school - I’m not going anywhere.
Deconstructing stereotypes and biases in the curriculum. Ms. Sims was not observed
using literature to reflect on discrimination and bias. Her curriculum did include components of
identifying social justice issues and developing solutions for them. She was aware of the discrep-
ancies in public schools, based on local income levels. After recognizing these differences while
attending university in New York City, Ms. Sims began mentoring local students that she saw as
being disadvantaged by a system which lacked sufficient resources. She remained cognizant of
this issue in her daily work as a teacher, and had open and candid conversations with her students
about how and where to find and utilize the resources that they would need to succeed in high
school and beyond. Ms. Sims viewed socio-economic resource imbalances as a form of discrimi-
nation, and saw it as her job to irradiate this injustice for her students.
While Ms. Sims did not address biases, or issues of race, gender, or ethnicity in the cur-
riculum, she did perceive the overall curriculum and standards as being generally low, and even
said that the students’ grades at Tech U are “inflated” due to the low standards. While Tech U
has a high %age of students going on to enter college, Ms. Sims was concerned that the low
standards did not prepare students well enough for success once they entered college.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 153
Instruction in Discourse Patterns. Ms. Sims did not address the fourth indicator for criti-
cal consciousness - using different discourse patterns to fit the social context. She did not articu-
late any unique components of her students’ discourse patterns, or ways in which she addressed
or instructed discourse through her curriculum. She acknowledged that she was interested in lan-
guage development and differences in discourse, and was learning about this area in her teaching
preparation program.
Indicators for instructional pedagogy. Instructional pedagogy indicators for cultural
relativity include learning with students, allowing for student collaboration, promoting student
engagement, instructing for meaning, and providing meaningful, individualized choices for stu-
dents.
Learning with students. Ms. Sims based her classroom management practices upon her
personal relationships with students. When the year began, she had been instructed to use partic-
ular strategies to manage her class. She felt that these strategies were “pre-packaged,” and “inau-
thentic” feeling for her, and thus proved to be ineffective in her classroom environment. One of
the strategies was maintaining a chart of rewards and consequences. Within a few weeks after
school began, Ms. Sims got to know her students and quickly realized that the chart was doing
more harm than good: “My students respond best when I have honest conversations with them.
They know right away when I am being genuine, and they respond to that.”
Ms. Sims explained that her discipline system was “entirely” based upon relationships
with her students. She asserted that she did her part by:
coming to school prepared to teach, working hard to make chemistry relatable for her stu-
dents, being honest with her students about what was expected from them, and doing her
best to help them meet that expectation.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 154
She modeled active listening by making eye contact with students when they spoke to her.
Ms. Sims kept a calm tone of voice in conversations with students and when giving instructions to
the whole class.
Student collaboration. Ms. Sims class was designed according to a rotation model of
learning, utilized by all classrooms within the Tech Charter system. The system allows for rela-
tively large classrooms of up to forty students to be run by one teacher with one learning assis-
tant. Students are broken into three groups, with each of the groups rotating between direct in-
struction with the teacher, or one of two collaborative work stations to practice skills and com-
plete assignments. Within the groups, Ms. Sims could be overheard asking students to share in-
formation with one another. This falls into the category of responsive, whereby students take on
the role of the teacher. According to Ms. Sims, the rotation model supported this type of student
interaction.
Active learning to promote engagement. Ms. Sims students were constantly involved in
collaborative groups wherein they have discussions, work on assignments together, and take au-
tonomy over their own group work.
Balanced instruction. Learning in Ms. Sims classroom is balanced between learning
from the teacher, and learning with materials in collaborative groups. Ms. Sims demonstrated re-
sponsiveness by modeling skills to each group, using a Smart Board, and constantly involving
students in order to check for understanding. On science experiment days, the levels of physical
involvement and engagement were highest. On practice and review days, students generally
stayed seated unless rotating between the three groups.
Student choice. The final indicator for responsive pedagogy was related to student
choice. The Tech U Charter was designed in order to provide students with the ongoing ability to
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 155
make choices. The curriculum itself allowed for students to choose from a variety of learning ac-
tivities in order to complete the requirements for each unit. These learning activities were varied
and allowed multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate competency. Tech U had adopted
a science curriculum which allowed students to choose to investigate topics which both inter-
ested them, and were related to the standards for each unit. Table 16 presents a summary of Ms.
Sims’ practices.
Table 16
Summary of Ms. Sim’s Practices
Indicator Responsive Examples Non-Responsive Examples
Creating a Caring Space differentiated management;
used student names; one to
one conversations

High Expectations clearly communicated instruc-
tions and expectations

Creating an Atmosphere of
Respect and Connection
students knew routines; came
prepared to class; teacher lis-
tened actively

Actively Confronting Dis-
crimination
believed that her students de-
served the best schooling ex-
perience

Encouraging Students to
Question
solicited questions in group
and individual settings

Encouraging Investigation
with Real World Problems
incorporated real-world issues
in chemistry;

Deconstructing Stereotypes
and Biases in the Curricu-
lum
did not acknowledge any ste-
reotypes or bias in the curricu-
lum
Instruction in Discourse Pat-
terns
did not address discourse is-
sues

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 156
Table 16, continued
Learning with Students circulated room to discuss and
learn with students; students
took on role of teacher

Student Collaboration collaborative group work and
assignments daily

Active Learning to Promote
Engagement
interactive lessons, lab supple-
ments

Case Study #4: Ms. Lowe at Tech University Prep High School
The following case study of Mrs. Lowe explores the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of
a second teacher at Tech University (Tech U) Prep High School. An introduction to Ms. Lowe is
provided, followed by the results of her interview, and then the observation data according to the
Culturally Responsive Indicators as adapted from Righmyer et. al., (2008).
Ms. Lowe teaches five periods of ninth grade Language Arts. All five periods meet for
two hour blocks, on an alternating day schedule, with one hour periods on Wednesday. First pe-
riod serves as preparation time for Ms. Lowe. Ms. Lowe was hired three years ago, for the first
year of Tech U. The current building was undergoing renovations, and the school was temporar-
ily housed in a local high school in empty classrooms. Ms. Lowe was hired three years ago ad-
ministration of the Tech U charter organization, United Technology Charter schools of Califor-
nia. Prior to teaching for Tech U, Ms. Sims taught at an alternative high school in Orange
County, and completed her student teaching at a high school concentrated on integrating special
and regular education students together.
Ms. Lowe grew up in a predominately white, upper middle class suburb of Orange
County. She attended college and a teaching credential program at a small, private college in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 157
suburban Orange County, and envisioned herself going on to teach in an urban school environ-
ment. She always wanted to be both a writer and a teacher.
Ms. Lowe described her own experience in high school, and explained that she wanted to
teach in a school that would be different from the high school she attended. In her high school,
parents were highly involved, and in her opinion, “overly-involved” in their children’s education.
As she stayed in touch with her own high school teachers, they confided in her that parents had
made attempts to change or alter their children’s test grades by negotiating with teachers. She did
not want to work in a high school where she would be interacting with parents in this way.
Initially, as a credentialing student, Ms. Lowe had planned to teach in the primary grades.
One of her professors in the credentialing program realized her strengths and interests in social
justice, and recommended that she teach in high school. She explained that her social justice pro-
fessor “planted a seed” in her that she would “be great at promoting social justice and equity in
the high school level.” Respecting her teacher’s opinion, she switched tracks and began prepara-
tion to teach English at the High School Level. This is her fourth year teaching high school Eng-
lish, and her third year at Tech U.
The English classroom of Ms. Lowe was located on the second floor of the building. Stu-
dent desks are organized in three main areas. In the front of the room, there were twelve desks in
a horseshoe shape, facing the front of the room. This group was the “direct” group, who had di-
rect instruction and interaction with the teacher for one third of the class period. In the back sec-
tion of the room, there are three groupings of desks, with four desks in each. These groups were
called “collaborative,” where students worked on group projects for one third of the class period.
On the far side of the room, there was a row of twelve desks in a line facing the windows. This
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 158
row was called the “independent” section of the room, and worked on individual projects and as-
signments for one third of the class period. Ninth grade classes can have up to thirty students per
class, and most of Ms. Lowe’s classes have approximately twenty five.
Around the room, there were various bulletin boards and resources up on the wall. For
Ms. Lowe’s advisory period of eleventh grade students, she had a bulletin board where her stu-
dents’ goals were visibly posted. There was a data wall in the front of the room where students
had created small posters with data about college readiness of students in their grade. Data was
both quantitative and qualitative. There were several colorful posters throughout the room
providing information about literary devices and parts of speech. One large bulletin board listed
the top scorers on ACT prep classes, and also provided examples of sentence starters, appropriate
for student writing.
The wall behind Ms. Lowe’s desk has a large “L” shape, made out of student goals writ-
ten by her former students, the first ninth graders who are now juniors at Tech U. Student wrote
goals such as “I will go to USC for college,” or “I will bring up my GPA in order to get into col-
lege.”
Several posters around the room listed student expectations for successful participation.
The first one said “Do you part! Let’s keep our classrooms clean. No food, no drinks, no mark-
ers, no spitting, no gum.” Another charter school issued poster read “Be a PRO, and be prepared”
up on the wall which outlined the components of being a “PRO.” Pro is an acronym for “pre-
pared,” “respectful,” and “on task.” Under each of the three letters, there were clear guidelines as
to what it meant to be prepared, respectful, and on task. Another poster spelled out the qualifica-
tions for the standards based grading policy at the charter. All teachers in Tech U were required
to post these charter issued posters up on their class walls.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 159
Ms. Lowe was chosen by the Assistant Principal at Tech U, and recommended to the re-
searcher as an excellent classroom manager. She met the criteria for not over-relying on exclu-
sionary discipline, and explained that her practices centered on meaningfully conversing with her
students and establishing relationships with them. Ms. Sims was further selected as a result of
her survey answers which reflected a high level of implementation of culturally relevant manage-
ment practices.
Beliefs. Ms. Lowe addressed several components of belief in her interview answers. She
addressed the importance of her teaching practices, her purposes for teaching, and the ways in
which her teaching and classroom environment reflected her personal beliefs. Ms. Lowe also ad-
dressed her perceptions of her students’ culture and her own; similarities and differences that she
saw between the two. She discussed her aspirations for her students, as well as their motivations,
and values.
Purposes for teaching. Ms. Lowe viewed her teaching profession as having the utmost
importance in her life and in the lives of her students. She saw herself as a teacher for life; this
was her career now and she intended to teach until the end of her career. She explained that
teachers have as much or more contact with students than the students have with their own par-
ents. She viewed teaching as fundamentally important to the growth and development of stu-
dents, and saw it as her duty to contribute to her students’ lives in positive ways. She enjoyed
teaching in an urban setting, and although she expressed missing the aesthetic beauty of her
home town, she said that the benefits of working with her particular students, and in an urban
area, made the experience meaningful for her. For her, teaching was “the most important that any
profession could be.” (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 12, 2015).
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 160
Recapping her personal motivations and interest in teaching, Ms. Lowe reflected that: I
have a very cool job where I have a very huge responsibility. I either have a chance to make a
positive or negative difference in each of these students’ lives. My job is to be calm, and patient,
so that I can be the positive influence that they will look back upon as someone who helped them
to learn and grow. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 12, 2015)
Ms. Lowe described how she had always loved literature and writing. She aspired to be-
come a writer professionally, and also enjoyed the process of teaching writing, which she had as
a long term goal since her own years in high school. She studied literature and writing in college,
taking a variety of courses in these subject areas including creative writing and seminars in
Shakespeare. She recalled her college experience fondly, and believed that a college experience
could be an enriching opportunity for her own students. She believed that it was her purpose to
instill a love of learning and a strong work ethic in her students, as a part of her college prepara-
tory curriculum:
When I take my students on field trips to visit college, I have positive memories of my
own experiences, and I think that they see the college students as relatable. To see the day
to day college experience of kids attending classes and riding around campus on scooters
is much more relatable than what they see in movies about drinking and partying. (Ms.
Lowe, personal communication, February 12, 2015)
Ms. Lowe made an effort to go on college visits with her students as soon as they began
Tech U. She explained that when students begin ninth grade, they are only usually familiar with
the two major universities in Los Angeles. She believes it is an important component of her job
to research a wide variety of institutions so that she can help her students find the best fit for
their personal and professional interests moving forward.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 161
She maintained an excitement and interest in teaching when she saw her students have
“light bulb moments” in class; moments where she saw their learning taking place.
The role of culture in the classroom. Ms. Lowe described her students and their ethnic,
socio-economic, and generational characteristics. She emphasized that she liked her students, and
saw them as fundamentally good kids, going through the normal developmental stages of being
teenagers:
My students are generally very well-behaved, but they have normal issues for students their
age. Just like a five year old needs to learn not to sit under the desks and tables in class, my
students need to be reminded to respect property and each other. Issues don't come up often,
but when they do, I think they are very normal” (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, Feb-
ruary 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe did not mention her students’ ethnicity or socio-economic demographics when
discussing them or referring to them. She reiterated several times that her students were going
through normal, developmental stages for teens.
A lot of what we learn about special education is applicable, I think, in all teaching con-
texts. Students have certain needs and you are going to meet those needs in different
ways. Before I taught, I tutored a girl who was hard of hearing. Some days she would go
to class and come home and tell me that her teacher forgot to put subtitles on the video. I
know her teachers just forgot to put on subtitles, but it affected her deeply and she
thought she would not succeed. I make it my business to remember, and stay conscious of
what my students need.
She also described how she related to her students, and remembers clearly what it was
like to be their age, and going through high school:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 162
It doesn’t feel like so long ago that I was in high school. So, in a lot of ways, I can relate
with my students. At the same time, they are counting on me to be the responsible adult
in the room, so it is up to me to encourage them and help them to make mature decisions.
(Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 5, 2015).
She touched upon the fact that she was White and her students were Latino, and dis-
cussed their interest in popular culture:
She explained that although her students were predominately Latino, their cultural inter-
ests seemed, in her opinion, consistent with popular teenage American culture;
When they have choices about assignments and include famous actors or musicians in
their work, I don’t see any emphasis on Latinos, in particular. My students seem genu-
inely most interested in what’s popular in mainstream culture. (Ms. Lowe, personal com-
munication, February 5, 2015).
She explained that as a relatively young, petite, White, and blonde woman, she felt that
her students would test her at the beginning of the year to see if she would be strict with them or
not. She explained that her students had a certain degree of skepticism and mistrust for their
teachers, as in past years teachers had left the classroom mid-year: “Once they see that I am com-
mitted and I know my subject matter, they begin to trust me” (Ms. Lowe, personal communica-
tion, February 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe believed that the small school size contributed to the generally good conduct
of her students. The school made efforts to have supervision on the yard and around campus to
keep a close watch on what the students were doing. Not all local schools had the same levels of
student conduct as did Tech U, according to Ms. Lowe:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 163
There is a large high school, down the street, and it is much different than Tech U. The
students have lots of places to hide; they have more fights, more drugs, and more gang
involvement. We have a lot of teachers and counselors at Tech U who are actively in-
volved to make sure that our students can avoid these behavioral issues. (Ms. Lowe, per-
sonal communication, February 12, 2015)
Ms. Lowe explained that she was not always clear as to what her students were experi-
encing at home. She had come to believe that some of them were experiencing challenges at
home that could possibly interfere with their emotional lives. In her experience, most families
had parents who were working late hours and either were not able or were still learning how to
become involved in their students’ educations. She speculated that these families were working
long hours in order to support their families, and were generally facing economic challenges of
providing stable housing and consistent food for their families.
She felt that in spite of any challenges her students may have been facing at home, they
were generally motivated to succeed in her class and learn. She also believed that their parents,
even if working long hours, were interested in learning about the technology elements that their
students were using in school, and become more involved in the school and its activities. She felt
that the parents were looking for guidance in getting involved meaningfully in their children’s
educations.
Ms. Lowe believed that her students generally enjoyed being at school and being with
each other. They were eager to attend school field trips, school events, and after school tutoring
and activities. Ms. Lowe explained that the emphasis on technology in her classroom kept the
student work relevant for them:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 164
“These students are technologically savvy. They enjoy being on their smartphones and
social networks, so the more we can implement technology, the more they see the relevance and
interest.”
Ms. Lowe addressed the issue of ethnicity, and the differences that she had with her stu-
dents. She explained that as a petite, blonde, White, young female, her students did not initially
take her seriously. Once they got to know her and realized that she was both committed to them,
and genuinely interested in their lives, their perceptions changed:
I think there is this stereotype of a white teacher marching in to try and save her
students from their poverty, or the effects of racism. That is not what I am trying to do in
the sense that I’m simply trying to be a good teacher. I appreciate my students and their
families; I like that they respect their teachers and in turn, I respect them that much more.
(Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 12, 2015)
Mrs. Lowe was not trying to save her students, so much as she was trying to do her best
to cultivate students who had the potential to learn, grow, and succeed.
Aspirations for Students. As a part of Tech U Charter, Ms. Lowe affirmed the school’s
emphasis upon college and career readiness. She explained that her students were working hard
to acquire the skills and dispositions necessary to be accepted into college, and to successfully
complete college. She explained that while their parents may have low rates of college gradua-
tion, these students were being prepared for college on a daily basis:
It is a unique experience here at Tech U because from day one of freshman year, we are
inundating our students with the idea that they will go to college, and we will help them
get there. I lead college tours for freshman and spend hours each week in advisement pe-
riod where we specifically work on college readiness skills, applications, and answering
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 165
all of the questions our students have about their processes of getting there (Ms. Lowe,
personal communication, February 5, 2015).Table 17 summarizes the beliefs of Ms.
Lowe.
Table 17
Beliefs of Ms. Lowe
Purposes for
Teaching (re-
sponsive)
Purposes for
Teaching
(non-respon-
sive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(responsive)
Role of Cul-
ture in Class
(non-respon-
sive)
Aspirations
for Students
(responsive)
Aspirations
for Students
(non-respon-
sive)
prepare stu-
dents for life
acknowledged
the role of di-
versity
value student
learning (over
exclusionary
discipline)

profession as
life’s purpose;
helping others
acknowledged
systematic
challenges;
decried injus-
tice
high aspira-
tions for stu-
dents

cultivating
student poten-
tial
critically con-
scious pur-
pose
college or
professional
goals for all
students

caring about
students
valued com-
munity; aimed
to get to know
students and
community
outside school

Knowledge. The following section outlines the types of knowledge discussed by Ms.
Lowe and observed in her classroom practice. This includes self-knowledge, knowledge of stu-
dents, knowledge of greater context, as well as professional knowledge.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 166
Knowledge of self. Ms. Lowe was aware of her own motivations and inspirations about
teaching:
I feel like teaching is a tremendous responsibility. I cannot be sad or angry ever. The kids
pick up on it. If I'm sad, then their issues at home turn into a big deal. If I'm positive and
happy, then they can move on with their day. I’ve had students that had been bullied or in
a family fight. If those students walk in the room and I am not present and engaging, they
are stuck thinking about their outside lives. It doesn't erase the problem entirely, it simply
makes their class time more engaging so they are thinking about class and learning. (Ms.
Lowe, personal communication, February 5, 2015).
Knowledge of students. Ms. Lowe believed that there was a variance in the developmen-
tal stages of the different high school years. While she had taught eleventh and twelfth grade in
past years, her three years at Tech U were all spent teaching ninth grade English. She saw her
students in a positive light:
I was always told that I don't want to teach 9th grade, and that somehow it was a negative
year. I taught 11th and 12th grade before I came here. They were like adults, and my stu-
dents are closer to middle-schoolers. I like this age. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication,
February 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe described her students and referred to them fondly. She explained how in her
teaching internship in a special needs integrated school, she came to learn that each student had a
different type of intelligence and expressed it in a different way.
Ms. Lowe got to know all sorts of students, different from those she had attended high
school with, during her student teaching experience, first year teaching at an alternative school,
and then at Tech U. While in high school, Ms. Lowe and her peers had been focused on college,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 167
and not merely high school graduation. She explained that during her internship and first year
teaching, she got to know students for whom college was not the goal, but rather, high school
graduation was the goal.
Knowledge of Context. Ms. Lowe was a veteran teacher of Tech U and began there in its
first year as a charter:
Our first year we did not have a campus. We were sharing space in a larger campus and
there were five schools sharing space there. It was complicated to keep all the students in
the right parts of the school, and also begin to implement our curriculum at the same
time. We were not up and running yet, so I had to work hard to put together a meaningful
curriculum based on the common core standards. My curriculum is based upon what
works for my students and what works in my class. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication,
February 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe described the school community at large. She did not live within the commu-
nity, but commuted approximately ten miles each day to work.
I don’t think that all teenagers are necessarily good people, but I have to think that they
are good. If I give them the chance that they can be good today, they will. Even if they
make a mistake, it’s a bad decision and not a bad person. (Ms. Lowe, personal communi-
cation, February 5, 2015).
She felt that her students were waiting for positive feedback, and she made it part of her
practice to acknowledge the good that she saw in her students.
Professional Knowledge. Ms. Lowe attended a private college in Southern California as
an undergraduate student and attended a fifth year of university to obtain her teaching credential.
She described her teaching internship as a “formative time in her education,” where she learned
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 168
to “put the needs of the students first and guide lesson plans in terms of what students needed.”
There, she said that the “culture depended upon the students. If student needed something differ-
ent, everyone accepted it. There was an emphasis on equity over equality. I learned a lot there,
and this has guided my practice since. Table 18 below summarizes Ms. Lowe’s culturally re-
sponsive and non-responsive knowledge base.
Table 18
Summary of Ms. Lowe ’s Knowledge
Self
Knowledge
(responsive)
Self
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(responsive)
Knowledge
of Students
(non-re-
sponsive)
Context
Knowledge
(responsive)
Context
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(responsive)
Professional
Knowledge
(non-re-
sponsive)
personal
culture

student
lives, fami-
lies,

community
structures/
functions

knowledge
of social
learning

have con-
fronted per-
sonal bias

diverse cul-
tural capital

knowledge
of power re-
lations

interpersona
l skills

student cul-
ture

systems &
politics af-
fecting stu-
dents

knoweldge
of discourse
patterns

student in-
terests and
aspirations

biases in
popular cul-
ture

broadly
conceived
curriculum

Practice: Indicators of cultural relevance for Ms. Lowe. Each indicator will be ad-
dressed according to the specific observation and interview data for Ms. Lowe. Indicators are di-
vided into three categories of culturally relevant practice: creating a caring space, demonstrating
and imparting critical consciousness, and instructional pedagogy.
Creating a caring space. The first indicator of creating a caring space is “demonstrating
ethic of care through reciprocal relationships and bonding.” Ms. Lowe’s class was responsive in
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 169
that she differentiated management strategies by using direct and indirect inter-actives as needed.
She relied on a model of interaction utilizing positive feedback for her students. As her students
would not verbally inquire after Ms. Lowe’s attention, she made an effort to tune in to students’
body language and notice when they are looking around the room for help. As much as Mrs.
Lowe encouraged her students to be proactive and ask for help, she perceived their actions in
class as bids for her attention:
I constantly have to stay on top of what is going on inside my classroom. If I see one of
my students running around the room or goofing off, is is generally because they want
my attention and simply don’t know how or are too scared to ask for it. (Ms. Lowe, per-
sonal communication, February 12, 2015)
High expectations. Demonstrating the ethic of care requires holding students to high ex-
pectations. Ms. Lowe discussed her own expectations for her students and how she held them ac-
countable for college preparatory work: “My students are going to graduate from high school and
go to college. It is my job to make sure that they are fully prepared to be successful in this expe-
rience.”
Holding students to high expectations includes differentiation of instruction. Ms. Lowe
carefully differentiated based on her students’ needs:
One of my students has an issue with his phone. I used to catch him checking his phone
during independent work time. When I asked him what was going on, he said it was hard
for him to stay away from it. I got to know him a little bit, and we set up a system where I
would keep his phone. In turn, I began trying to assign him projects with more individu-
alized themes. This has really worked out. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February
12, 2015)
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 170
Creating an atmosphere of respect and connection. The next indicator for creating a car-
ing space is “creating an atmosphere of respect and interpersonal connections.” This includes
students feeling comfortable to raise hands and ask questions. Ms. Sims explained that generally
her students were shy to ask questions when they were in whole class settings. As a result, she
rotated throughout the room and conversed with small groups of students and one-on-one with
them.
Ms. Lowe explained that creating a respectful atmosphere was something that she learned
how to do from prior experience:
One of my students in my first year teaching, a twelfth grader, had his head down one
day. Rather than punishing him for sleeping in class, I was concerned, and so I asked him
what was going on. When he explained to me that he was sleep deprived because his
baby son was up all night with him, there was no way that I could punish him. I became a
lot more understanding and learned to approach my students with questions, rather than
accusations. When they see that I respect them and don’t jump to conclusions or judge
them, they care a lot more about what goes on in school. (Ms. Lowe, personal communi-
cation, February 5, 2015).
Students in Ms. Lowe’s class knew the routines well and supported the learning processes
of their peers. When they heard a certain song go on to begin the class, all students immediately
began a journaling assignment that was posted on the board. When they heard another song be-
ing played, they automatically rotated stations in the room. Students worked cooperatively in
groups on assignments and were tasked to take on distinct roles in completing the assignments.
Group collaboration was encouraged by the model at Tech U and supported fully by the assign-
ments Ms. Lowe crafted for her students.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 171
Ms. Lowe positioned herself in close proximity to the students receiving direct instruc-
tion. When those students were doing independent practice, she rotated to check their progress as
well as check in with groups at the other centers in the room.
Actively confronting discrimination. Ms. Lowe did not discuss discrimination as a part
of her classroom experience. She explained that her students got along well with one another,
and that she had never witnessed a physical, or verbal fight in her classroom in three years. She
explained that the number of fights happening at Tech U were extremely rare, and that students
were carefully supervised by teachers and encouraged to maintain positive relationships and
communicate effectively with one another. She saw the Tech U faculty as a driving force behind
the students’ cooperation, explaining that the teachers and staff modeled respect and saw the
good in the students: “We see the good in them, and we have actively created this school culture
where they know that we respect them.” She saw herself as a highly skilled, highly educated, and
highly qualified English teacher who could be hired at an urban or suburban school. Making the
conscious choice to work at her school was her way of confronting the discrimination that these
students would be facing if they had a less than excellent English teacher in place of Ms. Lowe.
Demonstrating and imparting a critical consciousness. Indicators for demonstrating
and imparting critical consciousness address the pedagogies implemented to promote questioning
societal structures, and the students’ roles within this society.
Encouraging students to question. The Tech U English curriculum was a multi-cultural
curriculum with an emphasis on critical thinking, creativity, and technology. It was updated to
reflect the common core standards shift, and maintained the Tech U commitment to implementa-
tion of technology. Ms. Lowe created her assignments based on the common core standards and
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 172
an array of cutting-edge blogs and websites which emphasized critical thinking skills and ques-
tioning. Daily journaling prompts posed big questions, critical questions, creative questions to
promote thinking.
Ms. Lowe was highly satisfied with her curriculum and its emphasis on promoting critical
thinking and questioning.
Encouraging investigation with real world problems. The next indicator of critical con-
sciousness is “encouraging investigation and action with real world problems.” Ms. Lowe had
learned about students and their families during her time at Tech U. She had a sense of their in-
terests outside of school, and allowed students to bring their issues and interests into class pro-
jects and assignments. The main real world “issue,” or “problem,” as Ms. Lowe saw it, was get-
ting these kids to realistically believe that they would complete college successfully:
Most of our students don't have college graduate role models in their families, so the idea
of going to college seems foreign to them. I make it my business to take them on college
trips and introduce them to students who they could identify with (culturally). I think they
begin to see themselves going to college, and this helps motivate them with their school
work. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe distributed an assignment, a “tic tac toe” board, full of technology based pro-
jects and assignments designed around the novel being read as a class. The assignments were
based upon solving real-world problems and issues. One such assignment tasked students to
choose a cast for the modern feature film of a Shakespeare play. The directions asked students to
“justify why each of the characters would fit each role, and evidence their experience in past
films to justify your decision.” While assignments were realistic and encouraged students to
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 173
think like practitioners, they were not necessarily poised to solve problems in the students’ com-
munities.
Ms. Lowe aimed to respect diverse funds of knowledge that her students maintained. She
spoke with them in groups and individually, asking them about their interests and about why they
had written certain stories or chosen specifics on any given assignment. She asked out of a place
of genuine interest and respect, and provided encouragement when students came up with new or
creative ideas, or when they made concerted efforts.
Deconstructing stereotypes and biases in the curriculum. Ms. Lowe was not observed
using literature to reflect on discrimination and bias in the curriculum. When questioned about
the curriculum and its emphasis on diversity, Ms. Lowe explained:
“I do make adjustments when needed to the curriculum, though it is already geared to
meet a diverse population. In fact, the Common Core standards make explicit references to en-
couraging diverse opinions and perspectives in discussion. However, I do make a point to select
texts that reflect diverse experiences. This is easy to do on Achieve3000, our nonfiction article
platform. I will select articles about famous or important people of different races, ethnicities,
genders, etc. Also, I make a point to select both female and male authors for the texts we read”
(Ms. Lowe, personal communication, February 27, 2015).
Instruction in discourse patterns. Ms. Lowe addressed the topic of discourse patterns
and explained that there are different expectations and standards for academic work and dis-
course depending upon context. Specifically, she explained that her students had always been in
a relatively ethnically homogenous context where they were the majority in their school and
community:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 174
In college, these students are going to be the Latino minority in many universities. I want
to make sure that they are aware of different patterns in communication and speech so
that they can feel comfortable in a number of settings. We discuss the ways that people
speak; in terms of word choice, pronunciation, and tone, depending upon the context.
People speak differently and have diverse ways of communicating whether we are talking
about Shakespeare or a rap artist. I want my students to be aware of that. (Ms. Lowe, per-
sonal communication, February 5, 2015).
Indicators for instructional pedagogy. Instructional pedagogy indicators for cultural
relativity include learning with students, allowing for student collaboration, promoting student
engagement, instructing for meaning, and providing meaningful, individualized choices for stu-
dents.
Learning with students. Ms. Lowe based her classroom management strategies around
engaging her students, being upbeat and positive, and promoting student interest:
When I welcome my students each day, I play the role of the ‘nerdy’ teacher. Every day
I’m outside of the door saying something like ‘happy Monday,’ and getting them to smile
before they even walk inside. When they know I’m happy to see them, they are generally
happy to be in class and respect our space. (Ms. Lowe, personal communication, Febru-
ary 5, 2015).
Ms. Lowe was observed circling her room, inquiring into students’ projects and assign-
ments, as well as learning with them. When one student asked about the specific historical facts
behind one element of their in-class text, Ms. Lowe responded to him:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 175
You may want to check with Google on that one. Google knows a lot more than me and
tends to be much more reliable. And when you find out, keep me updated. (Ms. Lowe,
Classroom Observation, February 5, 2015)
While Ms. Lowe was admitting where she did not know an answer to something, she was
modeling for students that it was ideal to be constantly learning and obtaining new skills and in-
formation. She was also affirming that it was okay not to know an answer, and that she was in
the process of learning with her students.
Student collaboration. Ms. Lowe’s class was organized according to the rotation model
utilized in TechU. As a freshman teacher, she could have up to thirty students in her room for
any given class period. The system allowed for three groups, with each of the groups rotating be-
tween direct instruction with the teacher, or one of two collaborative work stations to practice
skills and complete assignments. Within the groups, Ms. Lowe rotated and checked in with each
of the stations, depending upon their levels of need or to promote their engagement and persis-
tence on an assignment. Ms. Lowe created assignments for the students where within collabora-
tive groups, each group member would take on specific roles in the expectation of a project. This
was a system of checks and balances to make sure that the assignment was completed collabora-
tively and that everyone participated.
Active learning to promote engagement. Ms. Sims students were constantly involved in
collaborative groups wherein they had discussions, completed projects, and took autonomy over
their own group work using computers collaboratively. Students used programs such as “Google
Presentation” or “Prezi” where each group member could be logged on to the same screen and
making changes from their own computer in real time while everyone shared the same screen.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 176
Balanced instruction. Ms. Lowe balanced time between learning from the teacher and
learning by interacting with texts, web-based materials, and project design applications on the
computers. She modeled skills up front on the Smart Board, and asked questions and rotated the
room to check for understanding. When reading from the Shakespeare text, Ms. Lowe drew a di-
agram to characters up on the board and sketched out elements of the story line. She referred to
this as a “story diagram,” something that she had used in the past and that students were accus-
tomed to using in order to understand the plot line of story.
Student choice. The final indicator for responsive pedagogy was related to allowing for
student choice. The Tech U Charter was designed in order to provide students with the ongoing
ability to make choices. The curriculum in Ms. Lowe’s class was designed for students to choose
from a variety of learning activities in order to complete the requirements for each unit. These
learning activities were varied and allowed multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate
competency; for the lessons being observed, students were engaged in a series of projects related
to the Shakespeare story being read in class and could choose three of nine possible assignments
from a “tic-tac-toe” sheet designed by Ms. Lowe. These choices allowed students multiple op-
portunities, and types of opportunities to demonstrate competency. One such example was writ-
ing a screen play based on the novel; another was creating advertisements for a modern day fea-
ture film of the novel, and another was creating a Prezi Presentation about the story line with
modern day characters and plot twists. Table 19 below summarizes the responsive and non-re-
sponsive practices implemented by Ms. Lowe.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 177
Table 19
Summary of Practices for Ms. Lowe
Indicator Responsive Examples Non-Responsive Examples
Creating a Caring Space differentiated management;
used student names; one to
one conversations

High Expectations clearly communicated instruc-
tions and expectations; posted
student goals visibly on wall

Creating an Atmosphere of
Respect and Connection
students knew routines; came
prepared to class; teacher lis-
tened actively

Actively Confronting Dis-
crimination
believed that her students de-
served the best schooling ex-
perience; created an unbiased,
balanced curriculum

Encouraging Students to
Question
solicited questions in group
and individual settings

Encouraging Investigation
with Real World Problems
incorporated real-world issues
in English; learning activities
were designed to solve prob-
lems

Deconstructing Stereotypes
and Biases in the Curricu-
lum
curriculum was tailored to af-
firm diversity and model mul-
ticulturalism

Instruction in Discourse Pat-
terns
addressed the importance of
attending to speech

Learning with Students circulated room to discuss and
learn with students; students
took on role of teacher

Student Collaboration collaborative group work and
assignments daily

Active Learning to Promote
Engagement
interactive lessons, interactive
technology

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 178
Summary
This chapter provided a detailed exploration of the beliefs, knowledge bases, and prac-
tices of the four teachers selected for this study. Data was organized and analyzed according to
the theoretical framework of this study, based upon CRP, CRCM, and the Culturally Responsive
Observation Protocol, consistent with the major tenets of CRP and CRCM. Beliefs of the four
teachers indicated a generally high level of importance placed upon teaching practice, and levels
of aspiration for students which exceeded reproducing status quo levels of education within the
surrounding community. Teachers levels of knowledge; contextual, cultural, and professional;
were deconstructed to understand how teachers had constructed their beliefs and practices. Fi-
nally, classroom management practices were uncovered to identify methods for developing rela-
tionships, promoting academic success, affirming student cultures, and transmitting critical con-
sciousness.
While there was variability between the four educators’ beliefs, knowledge, and practice,
most notably, Mr. Walter’s self-reported beliefs deviated from the other four subjects. While Mr.
Walter expressed “liking” his students as people, his interview responses consistently pointed to
deficit thinking about his students and a knowledge gap in being able to attribute their actions
and attitudes to the socio-political and economic forces of which students were a part.
Chapter five will explore nine findings which emerged from this study; three findings for
each of the research questions posed. The identification and deconstruction of Mr. Walter’s devi-
ant beliefs will highlight critical differences in knowledge which distinguished Mr. Walter from
the other subjects in this study. This gap will be explored to identify areas of preparation and
professional development which could serve to fill knowledge gaps and support more responsive
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 179
and affirmative teacher beliefs and practices. Exploration and analysis of findings aims toward
making recommendations for teacher practice and future research.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 180
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Discussion of Findings
This investigation was poised to examine the problem of teacher over-reliance on exclu-
sionary discipline methods for Black and Latino students from low SES backgrounds. Black stu-
dents are disciplined by exclusionary methods at rates three times as high as their White peers,
and Latinos at rates 1.5 times higher than their White peers; all for subjectively similar infrac-
tions (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002). As the majority of
United States K-12 teachers are White and struggling to effectively manage these students in par-
ticular (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Seidl & Hancock, 2011), this study was timely and necessary to
identify potential solutions to this problem. Milner (2010) and Duncan Andrade (2009) assert the
necessity for further research of exemplary, culturally sensitive classroom managers, in order to
gain insight into their processes. This study aimed to do exactly that - the four teachers selected
for this study did not over-rely on exclusionary discipline methods and were chosen to partici-
pate due to their implementation of effective, internal classroom management based upon strong
and responsive relationships.
This study explored the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of four White teachers working
with Black and Latino students from low SES backgrounds, herein referred to as “high needs
contexts.” Contrary to the disproportionate overuse of exclusionary discipline methods with stu-
dents of high need, these teachers consciously endeavored to develop relationships with their stu-
dents and promote learning and successful life outcomes. Interviews, in-class observations, and
document analysis of four teachers at two high school sites in Los Angeles provided data for this
qualitative investigation. The following research questions guided this investigation:
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 181
1. “What beliefs does the successful classroom manager in a high-needs context hold about
him/herself as a teacher and about her students in regards to teaching and learning?”
2. “What pre-service and professional development training did/ does teachers have which
have contributed to culturally sensitive classroom management practices?”
3. How do teachers implement culturally relevant classroom management pedagogies, and
how do these practices or dispositions reflect emphasis on role of teacher-student rela-
tionships?
Methodology
Teachers were selected for this study through university connections with schools that
met demographic criteria. Two high needs schools were identified as potential contexts in which
to conduct research. Administrators at each site were contacted and given a criteria in which to
select ideal subjects for this study. They were advised that ideally, teachers would manage class-
rooms from inside, without relying on exclusionary discipline, when at all possible. Administra-
tors at each site chose ten or more teachers and emailed a link to an online survey, created by the
researcher, to teachers of their choice.
Chosen teachers filled out the online, pre-selection surveys (Appendix D) which were
then collected and sorted by the researcher. Teachers whose answers indicated lowest reliance on
exclusionary methods and highest levels of cultural relevance were contacted to participate in the
study requiring in-class observations and follow up, detailed interviews.
Theoretical Framework
Surveys, interview questions, and observations were conducted according to the princi-
ples and research within theoretical framework for this study (Appendix C), and based on the re-
search of Ladson-Billings (2009), Weinstein et al (2003; 2004), Duncan Andrade (2007), and
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 182
Rightmyer et al (2008). The theoretical framework was organized to synthesize the three ele-
ments of culturally relevant pedagogy, as well as strategy use and implementation for a total of
four categories. As such, the four main themes in this framework were: (a) promoting academic
success of students, (b) cultural competence, (c) critical consciousness, and (d) strategy use and
implementation. Each of the four main researchers indicated within the theoretical framework for
this study speaks to some or all of the above four main themes, as was summarized in the litera-
ture review and will be applied to the findings in this study in the following discussion.
Discussion of Findings
Through the qualitative investigation of four research subjects in this study, the three re-
search questions have been answered. Through data coding and analysis, each of the three re-
search questions have yielded three main findings. There are three findings for questions relating
to belief, three relating to knowledge, and three relating to practice, as is summarized in Table 20
below:

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 183
Table 20
Summary of Findings
Findings about Beliefs Findings about Knowledge Findings about Practices
1. all teachers believed exclu-
sionary discipline to be inef-
fective and believed that re-
spectful relationships were ef-
fective means of management
4. Teachers held various lev-
els of cultural knowledge
about their students and con-
texts
7. Teachers used positive
feedback to reinforce instruc-
tions, classroom rules, and
acknowledge on-task behavior
in place of reprimanding off-
task behaviors.
2. all teachers liked and re-
spected their students; they
saw their students as the opti-
mal students to be working
with and were not seeking
teaching positions in any other
place
5. Teachers had knowledge of
their context from diversity
courses, social justice courses,
hands-on experiences living
nearby, and community in-
volvement experiences
8. 3/4 teachers did not com-
plain about their students,
families, culture, or commu-
nity. They accepted their con-
text as it was, learned how to
work the system, and worked
hard to push students toward
excellence.
3. All of the teachers valued
their professions and saw their
work with students as im-
portant, to varying degrees.
6. All four teachers used dif-
ferentiation of curriculum and
management to meet their stu-
dents’ unique needs.
9. teachers volunteered to
spend their free times during
lunches, breaks, and during
after school hours with stu-
dents in various capacities and
to varying degrees.

Findings about Belief
Finding #1: All four teachers believed exclusionary discipline to be ineffective and per-
ceived respectful relationships as effective means of classroom management. Each teacher be-
lieved him/ herself to be skilled at managing classrooms through relationships, and perceived
him/ herself as a positive classroom manager. As Weinstein and colleagues assert, culturally rel-
evant practice begins with a recognition of one’s own beliefs (Weinstein, et al, 2003; 2004).
These four teachers held positive conceptions of themselves as teachers which grounded their
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 184
management practices. Table 21 details the self perceptions of the four teachers as positive class-
room managers:
Table 21
T e ac he rs’ Self-Perceptions
Teacher Self-Perception
Mr. Walter People person
Mrs. Richards Mother of the Classroom
Ms. Sims Dedicated to students
Ms. Lowe Caring adult role model for students

Mr. Walter considered himself to be a “people person.” He had been told by a professor
in his credentialing program that his strength was in relating with students. Recalling vividly his
own experience as a high school student, he felt that he students were looking to be respected
and did not appreciate being embarrassed in front of the class, or singled out for their bad behav-
ior. Rather than excluding students from class, he would take time to discuss students’ issues
with them outside of class, and try to understand why the students were breaching the classroom
rules. He saw his methods of interacting with students as a respectful alternative to sending stu-
dents out of class, which was more likely to aide their learning process than sending them out of
lessons. This was an effective practice for Mr. Walter, and he felt that his students respected his
as a result of it. Mr. Walters adhered to a ‘color-blind’ mentality - he did not acknowledge race
or ethnicity as an important factor in his students’ lives or school experiences. This was part of
being a ‘people person’ for Mr. Walters - he viewed color blindness as a component of being po-
lite and politically correct. His color-blind belief system deviated from those of the other subjects
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 185
in this study, and will be discussed in contrast to the implementation of more culturally relevant
acknowledgements of race and ethnicity.
Mrs. Richards saw her teaching as her life’s work, and that she had been divinely inspired
to teach her particular students. She saw herself as a “mother figure” in her classroom, and
wanted to insure that her students were in class as much as possible. This was consistent with
teachers in the Brown (2003) study, who created familial classroom environments. Therefore,
she felt that excluding her students from class due to behavioral issues was only detracting from
their educational experience. She knew many of her students were facing issues outside of school
- work/life balance issues, foster care placements, and unstable housing situations which were
already detracting from their time in school. She saw it is her job to provide a warm, safe space
for her students to learn and that everything she did while in charge of her students should be
promoting their love of learning and their growth as people. Viewing her role as the “mother” in
her classroom is consistent with the notion put forth by Milner and Tenore (2010) that excellent
classroom managers conceive of school as a community of family members. Mrs. Richards reit-
erated that she “loved” her students like children.
Ms. Sims viewed herself as someone genuinely dedicated to her students. She had been
moved to begin a teaching career after learning about lacking resources in urban schools which
often served Black and Latino students from low SES backgrounds. Ms. Sims aimed to provide
her students with a genuinely meaningful learning experience, and felt that sending them out of
class impeded her ability to do so. She saw her students as fundamentally good people who de-
served an education, as she believed all children do, and she perceived her role working with
them as a teacher and not a disciplinarian. She believed that her students initially mistrusted her,
a first year Teach for America intern, believing that she would drop out of teaching in the middle
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 186
of the year. She sought to prove them wrong, and committed to helping out with extra-curricular
activities, after-school tutoring, and a commitment to show up to teach every day. As she in-
vested in her relationship with her students, she began to watch her classroom manage itself.
Ms. Lowe had been explicitly taught that exclusionary discipline was an ineffective
means of managing classrooms. She was aware of the discrepancy in discipline rates across race,
ethnicity, and socio-economic divides, and thus planned to manage through developing relation-
ships. Her early experiences working with high-needs students taught her to approach students
with an attitude of inquiry rather than an attitude of accusation. She felt that by approaching her
students with a genuine interest in understanding them and attending to their needs, she mitigated
the need for any punitive disciplinary methods.
Finding #2: All four teachers in this study liked and respected their students; they saw
their students as the optimal students to be working with and were not seeking teaching positions
in any other place.
Mr. Walter had both responsive and non-responsive beliefs about his students. He articu-
lated that his students were “cool,” and, yet, that many had “low work ethics,” and were “low
level people.” While initially, Mr. Walter had come to Downtown High because this urban
school was recruiting science teachers at a higher pay-scale than other suburban public schools,
he had come to appreciate his students and wanted to remain teaching in his context.
He saw students in suburban schools as “privileged,” and wanted to be a role-model and a
resource for his students, who he believed had potential for positive life outcomes. While he dis-
tinguished between Downtown High and other suburban schools, his articulation of the differ-
ence between these contexts emphasized economic differences and not cultural ones. Mr. Walter
related with his students, and shared interests with some of his students such as skateboarding,
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 187
playing guitar, and shared appreciation for some of the same music. He related to some of his
students who faced challenges in their home lives; having grown up with a single mother who
abused drugs, he perceived that some of his students faced similar challenges and wanted to be a
positive role model for them.
Mr. Walter did not acknowledge any significance of a fundamental difference between
himself and his students, namely that he was White and they were not. While he believed that
they were capable of achieving positive life outcomes, he had not yet explored the ways in which
race and ethnicity could be systematically challenging his students. This is inconsistent with cul-
tural relevance, as Ladson-Billings (1994; 2009) asserts that by acknowledging race, and the so-
cial, economic, and political role that it plays in schooling can help to counter negative effects of
being left out of, or distorted by dominant cultural narratives in the curriculum. Race, ethnicity,
and socio-economics need to be acknowledged by teachers (Weinstein et al, 2003; 2004); Mr.
Walter did not acknowledge the importance of these factors in his students’ educations.
His color blind ideology is supported by the literature which posits that Whites may
struggle to express thoughts and feelings about race, having been socialized that color blindness
is polite and correct (Seidl & Hancock, 2011; Weinstein et al, 2004). He may have further omit-
ted discussion of race and ethnicity so as not to offend students, and aim to perpetuate a notion of
equal opportunity and meritocracy, consistent with the research of Bartolome (2004), Filback &
Green (2012), and Ladson-Billings (1994; 2009). The perception of the United States as a meri-
tocracy provides an explanation for socio-economic stratification in society as resultant of di-
verse levels of effort.
As historical, sociological, and educational research assert the fallacy of this absolute
meritocracy, it is necessary for teachers to acknowledge the role of race and ethnicity in the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 188
schooling experience. Ideally, teachers will have ideally examined their beliefs and ethnocen-
tricity (Milner, 2006), their awareness of the broader culture (Weinstein, et. al., 2004) and of
their awareness of White privilege (McIntosh, 1988). While Mr. Walter’s color blind attitude
may have been well intended, he could have acknowledged the role of race, class, and ethnicity
to further connect with his students and enhance their learning. In spite of his inability or unwill-
ingness to acknowledge race and ethnicity in his context, he did express an overall enjoyment
and satisfaction in working with his particular students.
Ms. Sims held culturally responsive beliefs about her students and a high level of aware-
ness regarding the structural inequity which students faced based on race, ethnicity, and socio-
economics. This knowledge and awareness had moved her to teach, and she firmly believed ex-
tremely pleased with her Teach for America placement at Tech U in Urban Los Angeles. Alt-
hough she had made serious sacrifices including leaving her parents and boyfriend to move
across the country for this position, she expressed high levels of satisfaction with her school con-
text and with her students in particular. Ms. Sims had been working to develop a double identity;
although her students had been suspect of her presence as a new, White teacher, she had worked
to prove her commitment to them. Seidl and Hancock (2011) affirm that confronting race issues
is necessary in double image development, and that White teachers often find their presence in
diverse schools to be suspect. Ms. Sims persevered through the initial mistrust from her student,
and persisted with her commitment to teaching them well and believing in their positive life out-
comes. In spite of having had to make sacrifices for her TFA placement and having to overcome
initial trust issues with her students, Ms. Sims expressed a high level of satisfaction with teach-
ing in her context.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 189
Ms. Lowe had intentionally applied to teach in high-needs contexts. While she was White
and was raised in a suburban, upper-middle class high school, she felt that her students and their
families were respectful and appreciative of her efforts on their behalf, and she wanted to be the
best teacher she could be in order to serve them. This is consistent with the culturally responsive
teachers in the Bartolome (2004) study who did not hold romanticized views of the dominant
culture in America. These teachers found favor with the behaviors of their Latino students and
emphasized the assets in Latino culture (Bartolome, 2004). Ms. Lowe reflected upon the culture
of her suburban, predominately White high school, viewing many of the parents there as overly-
involved in their children’s educational process. From her experience, it was not uncommon for
parents in the suburban context to attempt to change their students’ grades on tests. Ms. Lowe
expressed no interest in interacting with this context.
Ms. Lowe held her students and their parents in a high regard. She viewed the parents as
eager to get involved with school, and to help in the schooling process. At the same time, they
were respectful of teacher authority in the educative process. Consistent with the research of
Duncan-Andrade (2007), Ms. Lowe saw teaching her specific students as a privilege. She was
genuinely aligned with the college and career preparatory goals set forth by Tech U, and believed
that all of her students could succeed in college and their chosen career paths.
Finding #3. All of the teachers valued their professions and saw their work with students
as important, to varying degrees. Teachers Richards, Sims, and Lowe held their practice in the
“highest” of regard. Teacher Walter held his practice in a “fairly high” level of regard. These an-
swers were initially indicated on the pre-selection teacher surveys, and further evidenced by in-
depth interview answers consistent with the teacher surveys. Table 22 summarizes each of the
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 190
teachers’ beliefs about their teaching practice and level of aspiration for their students’ life out-
comes.
Table 22
Teacher Perceptions about Teaching
Teacher Perceived Value of Teaching Role
Mr. Walter somewhat high
Mrs. Richards very high
Ms. Sims very high
Ms. Lowe very high

Mr. Walter, at Downtown High, held his practice at a “somewhat high” level of im-
portance. While he was frustrated that his students did not value academics, he did make daily
efforts to promote his philosophies about life-long learning and pursuing a variety of interests
and passions. He shared his passion projects with his students, both his successful endeavors as
well as those failures which moved him to keep trying and persevering. These were values that
he held dear and endeavored to impart upon his students. At the same time, he stated that he was
“not trying to change the world by teaching.”
While Mr. Walter felt hindered and limited by the lack of resources in his classroom, he
made little effort to obtain what he needed through channels other than the school. On one hand,
Mr. Walter held attitudes about the school consistent with the Duncan-Andrade (2007) profile of
a ‘Rida,’ i.e. an excellent classroom manager: Mr. Walter did not trust the school or administra-
tion. Yet, he did not take the next step to connect with community organizations, businesses, or
outside individuals to support his class and potentially advocate for more resources and supplies
in his classroom. Simply put, Mr. Walter accepted the lack of resources and altered his teaching
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 191
to reflect this inequity. When asked to justify his “somewhat high” value of the teaching profes-
sion, he blamed the lack of resources as causing unnecessary frustration and keeping him from
fulfilling his potential and fully enjoying teaching.
At the same school, Mrs. Richards believed that her teaching practice was her “life’s
work,” and spent her summers and outside time finding donated and discounted supplies for her
students. Mrs. Richards had been teaching at Downtown for seventeen years and had strong rela-
tionships with administrators and access to curricular resources. Mrs. Richards explained that
over time, she learned to sit on curriculum review committees, because they would provide the
committee members with free texts and supplies. She had found of libraries and stores to find
free or inexpensive books, and called upon her contacts in the community to make donations
where possible.
She reflected upon ways that she had tailored the English curriculum to align with college
entrance requirements, and noted how the college entrance rates had gone up consecutively over
the years as she and her colleagues had being working toward this change. Mrs. Richards volun-
teered her time during lunch and most days after school to help her students pursue extracurricu-
lar activities, community service projects, and complete college applications. She met with for-
mer students who were now in college to loan them books or advise them with assignments. Mrs.
Richards was proud of her ongoing efforts on behalf of her students, and held her profession in
the highest regard.
Ms. Sims was a first year Teach for America intern, and very much valued her work. She
believed in the mission of Tech U, that all students would be prepared by Tech U for a successful
college and professional life. She attended to students’ needs in class and by volunteering her
time for after school extra-curricular activities and events. At the same time, Ms. Sims expressed
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 192
some mistrust of the system. She felt that Tech U had an inflated grading system, and compared
the level of rigor to her own suburban, White, elite high school in New York, evaluating the
Tech U curriculum as less rigorous. As such, she did not think that her students were receiving
the same level of college preparation as she did in high school, but aimed to hold her own teach-
ing to the highest possible standard and one that would have met the standards of her own high
school back in New York. While she was aware of the research that new and uncertified teachers
were over-represented in low SES, non-White schools (Darling-Hammond, 2004; Ruglis, 2009),
she aimed to grow professionally and hold herself to the highest possible levels of professional-
ism.
Ms. Lowe believed that her teaching job was of the highest level of importance, specifi-
cally because she saw teachers as having the greatest influence upon students of this age. Ms.
Lowe reflected upon the importance of providing each student what they need and tailoring the
curriculum toward the interests of students. She believed that her relationships were based upon
acknowledging students through the curriculum, and maintained knowledge of how to differenti-
ate accordingly. Milner and Tenore (2010) assert that culturally relevant teachers hold specific
beliefs and understand that equity and equality are not the same. Ms. Lowe had learned this prin-
ciple in her student teaching position at a special needs inclusion school, and maintained that all
students benefitted from a differentiated curriculum.
Findings about Knowledge
Finding #4. Teachers held varying levels of cultural knowledge, knowledge of their stu-
dents’ cultures, and knowledge of their contexts. Mr. Walter had grown up in a culturally and
socio-economically diverse community. He attended a diverse community college in Northern
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 193
San Diego, and was acquainted with people from a diverse spectrum of cultures. He did not inde-
pendently pursue professional development focused on culture, diversity, or social justice, and he
did not interact formally with the surrounding school community. He did not acknowledge the
importance of his students’ culture in his teaching practice, or the systematic inequality with
which his students were faced. His attitudes were consistent with research about teachers having
been trained to be “color blind” (Bartolome, 2004: Filback & Green, 2012), and believing that
acknowledging race is impolite (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). Mr. Walter’s beliefs regarding the
role of race and ethnicity were undeveloped as a result of his knowledge gap in the fields of di-
versity, culture, and social justice.
Mrs. Richards maintained and continuously sought knowledge of her students’ cultures.
She actively inquired about their backgrounds and interests. She independently pursued
knowledge about her students and their ancestors’ countries of origin, as well as their interests in
music, food, and literature. Mrs. Richards’ practices were consistent with the research of Duncan
Andrade (2007) who advocates for teachers to consult with community about curriculum, peda-
gogy, and relating with students. Mrs. Richards organized school and community partnership
events where students engaged in community service roles. She also and brought in community
organizations for school events. She felt that by making meaningful connections between stu-
dents and community organizations, she was empowering students to interact meaningfully and
critically with their worlds.
Ms. Sims had been working actively during her first year of teaching to get to know her
students and their cultures. She was keenly aware of the similarities and differences between her
community of origin in suburban New York and Deer View; she had described the socio-eco-
nomics of Deer View in contrast to her home town, and had observed ways in which this affected
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 194
the community. While she had interned at low income schools in New York, her students there
had been predominately Black, and now she was working with predominately Latinos. She was
able to describe some of the differences; she maintained that her Black students had been louder,
more participatory in class, and enjoyed socializing with each other and with her. She described
her current students as calmer, more introverted, and less interested in being social. She was not
sure what caused this difference, as it may have been caused by any number of factors, although
she questioned if student culture had been an influence. Ms. Sims noted the differences in the
students objectively, and reserved judgement or evaluation. She had not yet taken courses in di-
versity or social justice, but maintained a high level of interest in pursuing them in her creden-
tialing program. In order to get to know her students and context better, she pursued opportuni-
ties to drive students to their sporting and extracurricular events where she could interact with
students, their families, and their communities. Ms. Sims was actively pursuing knowledge of
her students and their cultures.
Ms. Lowe had obtained her teaching credential four and a half years prior to the date of
this study. Her program had provided courses in diversity, social justice, and classroom manage-
ment for diverse learners. She had been highly interested by the learnings in her courses, and
upon graduation, applied to teach in settings which reflected diversity. During her student teach-
ing year, she was placed at a public school focused on inclusion of diverse learners. Her master
teacher had modeled the importance of knowing about students, differentiating instruction, and
using student needs and interests to drive the curriculum and learning activities. During her first
year teaching independently, she accepted a position at an alternative high school where many of
her students had left traditional high school settings because they had become teen parents.
Working with young teen parents had been a formative experience for Ms. Lowe, where she had
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 195
realized the importance of respectfully inquiring as to her students’ situations and needs rather
than using a punitive approach if students were off task, disengaged, or seeming uninterested in
learning. She felt that approaching students without judgement helped to open lines of communi-
cation with students, and help her accommodate students on an as needed basis. Ms. Lowe stayed
current with edu-blogs, education websites, social networks for educators, and the ongoing pro-
fessional development at her site. She perceived the process of getting to know her students as
highly important, ongoing, and a constant part of her work teaching them.
Finding #5. Teachers had varying degrees of context knowledge from diversity courses,
social justice courses, hands-on experiences living nearby, and community involvement experi-
ences. Mr. Walter did not articulate having a background in diversity or social justice. He main-
tained that he did not know his community well, and did not interact formally with members of
the community; nor did he perceive this as an important part of his teaching. He did keep in reg-
ular contact with parents and guardians of his students, and aimed to learn about the home lives
of his students when their behavior in school necessitated conversations with parents and guardi-
ans. He also made routine phone calls home to share student progress with their guardians. Oth-
erwise, he was not involved with the surrounding community, and spent the majority of his free
time outside of the Downtown neighborhood pursuing his own recreational interests.
Mrs. Richards had learned about her students’ community over the course of her life
time, living in close proximity to her school. She was born and raised within a five mile radius,
where she was still living, raising her own family, at the time of this study. She had gotten to
know about the cultures of her students, and the structures and systems which impacted her stu-
dents, school, and their communities. She discussed the transformations she had witnessed in the
school community over the course of her seventeen years teaching there. Her ongoing interest
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 196
and engagement with local news, local community professionals, Downtown High faculty and
mentors, and personal investigations, helped her to gain insight into the lives and experiences of
her students and their families.
Ms. Lowe had been trained through social justice and diversity courses to develop curric-
ulum. Specifically, her background learnings taught her how to promote critical thinking and in-
dependence through curriculum design and implementation. She was inspired to teach in low in-
come, diverse schools by her social justice professor in college, who recognized her interest and
passion in this area. Ms. Lowe stayed current with edu-blogs, social networks for educators, and
online forums with other teachers who were like-minded, and interested in promoting social jus-
tice and critical consciousness in the classroom. While Ms. Lowe did not spend time after school
involved with the nearby community, she had implemented a curriculum, designed with guid-
ance from her charter organization, which reflected an asset orientation toward diverse cultures
and literature.
Ms. Sims, in her first year of teaching as a Teach for America fellow, was adjusting to
her new context. She was comparing her students’ experience with the one she grew up with, and
she saw that her students had fewer resources provided through the schooling system. She saw
this as an injustice, and had been reading and learning about social justice and schooling for two
years prior to the date of this study. As a teacher at TechU, she was actively getting to know her
students, their families, and their communities by maintaining communication with parents as
well as chaperoning extra-curricular activities. Ms. Sims was pursuing courses in teacher educa-
tion which emphasized diversity and social justice learnings. As of the date of her interview,
these courses had not yet commenced.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 197
All four of these teachers, to varying degrees, knew their students and contexts. As Delpit
(2012) asserts: knowledge, and not skin color, is the foundation upon which teacher-student rela-
tionships are built. She specifies that “success is not because ... skin color matches ... but because
(teachers) know the lives and culture of their students. Knowing students is a prerequisite for
teaching them well” (Delpit, 2012; pp. 87). The various educational and life experiences of the
four teachers provided knowledge, to different degrees, about students and their cultures.
Finding #6: All four teachers maintained varying degrees of knowledge in differentiation
of curriculum and management to meet their students’ unique needs. Mr. Walter had content
area knowledge of his subject, chemistry, but was not always clear about the best methods of de-
livering instruction and meeting the diverse needs of his students. He verbalized an interest in
learning the pedagogies to differentiate the curriculum and engage all students with the learning
processes, but had not taken the initiative to seek out professional development opportunities. To
manage his classroom, he individualized his conversations with students and created individual-
ized plans to promote student engagement and achievement.
Ms. Sims had content area knowledge of her subject matter, chemistry, but was still
learning teaching pedagogies for delivering content and engaging students. As a first year teacher
and Teach for America fellow, Ms. Sims was newly enrolled in a teaching credential program
and maintained a high interest level in obtaining pedagogical knowledge of instruction, including
differentiation. She did work after school in the tutoring program, and helped students in small
group and one-on-one settings to master the curricular content.
The English curricula between the two English teachers in this study varied in their de-
gree of differentiation of content. Ms. Lowe taught English at Tech U and Mrs. Richards at
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 198
Downtown. While neither of the teachers perceived any bias in the curriculum, observations in-
dicate a Euro-Centric curriculum. During classroom observations, both teachers were studying
English authors; Shakespeare in one room and John Donne in the other.
The classroom of Mrs. Richards was decorated with several posters, and all individuals
pictured on her wall, authors and politicians, were White. Lisa Delpit (2012) explains that those
in power are the least likely to be aware of that power. Mrs. Richards did not acknowledge any
bias in her room decoration, but rather, matter-of-factly explained that these individuals were in-
fluential in the literary world.
Ms. Lowe and Mrs. Richards emphasized the role of romantic relationships and friend-
ships in each of the stories they taught, seeking to make relatable connections with the students’
lives. They both focused on the human element in their curriculum, although when interviewed,
neither of the two teachers identified their curriculum as Eurocentric. While Mrs. Richards and
Ms. Lowe aimed to teach the competencies and skills necessary in English class, they did not
acknowledge any ethnocentricity in the curriculum, and did not acknowledge the significance of
race or ethnicity in their readings.
Post observation interviews and follow ups indicated that in the classroom of Ms. Lowe,
the curriculum reflected diversity and multiple cultures. The curriculum design team at Tech U
had collaborated to create a culturally inclusive and curriculum affirmative of diversity, based
around a variety of cultures. The classroom of Ms. Lowe did not feature any cultural icons, and
the students featured in her wall posters were visibly diverse.
Mrs. Richards’ in-depth knowledge of her students helped her to individualize learning
for students as necessary. She knew detailed information about each students’ life in and out of
school, and sought to understand each student’s circumstances when dealing with academic and
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 199
behavior issue. She explained that she was often responding to different students’ needs, and
while she did not intend to lower expectations, she saw modification for some students as neces-
sary in light of specific circumstances. For example, one of her students had parents who were
recently deported. He was working full time to pay the rent. Mrs. Richards responded by sending
materials home to her student, pairing him up with study partners, and tailoring due dates to ac-
commodate for his needs.
Mrs. Lowe implemented a highly differentiated curriculum. Her assignments contained
several choices for her students in terms of both resources and product. While students were en-
gaged in learning the same content, they were able to engage their interests and apply their
unique skill sets toward assignments of their choosing, from a pre-determined list of options.
Mrs. Lowe had learned to create differentiated assignments in her credentialing program. She
also stayed current with educational blogs and social networks which promoted the implementa-
tion of differentiated assignments. Mrs. Lowe explained that within the social networks, hun-
dreds if not thousands of English teachers were sharing ideas and lessons to reflect an emphasis
upon differentiation. She had learned about these blogs and networks in her teacher preparation
program as well as in her professional development sessions through Tech U.
Findings about Practice
Finding #7. All four teachers used positive feedback to reinforce instructions, classroom
rules, and acknowledge on-task behavior in place of reprimanding off-task behaviors.
Mr. Walter believed in being a positive person. He referred to himself as a “man of least
resistance;” someone who was easy to get along with and who related well with people. For Mr.
Walter, a large part of relating well with people was having a positive attitude. He discussed con-
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 200
cepts of “karma,” and being good to all people. Mr. Walter was observed complementing stu-
dents on their work habits and for completing homework assignments. He did not draw attention
to students who were talking out of turn, but maintained a conversation style of teaching in class
in which he attended to those students who were on task and discussing relevant materials. Mr.
Walter’s methods of using positive feedback can be described as casual, and a part of his style of
interaction.
Mrs. Richards made verbal acknowledgements of her students’ on-task behaviors. For ex-
ample, there were several times when she verbally noted that students had supplies out and
ready. Once, during the course of two class periods, verbally acknowledge the off-task behavior
of one student. When one student visibly stood up to leave the room before class was dismissed,
she directly asked him to sit down until class was finished. Although this was not positive feed-
back, it was consistent with the finding of Brown (2003) that culturally relevant teachers explic-
itly communicate clear expectations and commands phrased as directives and not questions. This
is further consistent with the findings Delpit (2006) and Ladson Billings (2009) that using in-
quiry as a command may be perceived by some students as an abdication of power, and not car-
ing about students.
Ms. Sims had been trained in a method of classroom management called “positive narra-
tion.” She had learned this technique through Teach for America. The organization had placed
her in a student teaching position with a special coach, an employee of TFA, who used a head-
phone communication system with Ms. Sims while she taught. As the coach observed off-task
classroom behavior, she would prompt Ms. Sims, through the earphone system, to verbally
acknowledge the on-task behavior of particular student/s. The goal of this verbal acknowledge-
ment, or “positive narration,” was to correct the off-task behavior of other students. If the first
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 201
narration was not successful, the coach prompted Mrs. Sims to make a second positive verbal
narration. If that was not successful in remediating the off-task behavior, Ms. Sims was then
coached to directly address the off-task behavior. Ms. Sims had learned this technique as an ef-
fective and positive mode of managing students whereby she could repeat directions and re-di-
rect student behavior without embarrassing students or reinforcing undesirable behavior.
Ms. Lowe acknowledged the on-task behaviors of her students both verbally and non-ver-
bally. She began each class period by greeting students at the door with positive words. Some of
the phrases observed included “good morning,” “happy Monday,” or “welcome to English
class,” followed by her students’ names. She visibly smiled at each student as they entered class,
and verbally acknowledged groups of students as they began their assignments according to her
instructions.
Finding #8 Three out of four of the teachers did not complain about their students,
school, or community. They accepted their context as it was, learned how to work the system,
and worked hard to push students toward excellence.
Mr. Walter was the only teacher who complained about resources, school administration
corruption, and students’ work-ethics. Mr. Walter felt constrained by the lack of resources in his
chemistry class. Without proper chemical disposal, functioning eye-washes, and lab materials, he
was unable to implement laboratory activities in his classes. He perceived his students, and spe-
cifically the male students, as generally apathetic about academics.
Mrs. Richards loved her students, loved her school, and viewed the community with opti-
mism. She viewed her students as her own children. Referring to the faculty and administration
at Downtown High, she repeatedly used the pronoun “we” to indicate that she was a part of a
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 202
team at her school. While she was aware that certain of her students faced challenges in their
home lives, she admired her students for their resilience and care.
Ms. Sims enjoyed working with her students, understood why they initially mistrusted
her, and enjoyed getting to know her students in class and during extracurricular activities.
Ms. Lowe viewed her students’ behaviors as better than most. Any off-task behaviors
were viewed as developmentally appropriate and normalized. She respected her students and
their parents, saw them as polite, and appreciated the systems in Tech U which helped her moni-
tor student progress.
Finding #9 All four of the teachers volunteered to spend their free times during lunches,
breaks, and during after school hours with students in various capacities and to varying degrees.
Mr. Walter - Mr. Walter volunteered his lunch times and opened up his classroom space
to host anime club, and an open space for students to gather. He did not volunteer any time after
school or on weekends.
Mrs. Richards - Mrs. Richard’s room was open for several clubs which she oversaw, in-
cluding recycling club and community service. She was the community service coordinator for
the school and spent after school hours working to place students in meaningful community ser-
vice organization. She organized school-community activities on an ongoing basis, and had
served as the school BTSA coordinator. She spent time on weekends and after school chaperon-
ing for school events. She actively kept in touch with students after graduation and volunteered
to coach and mentor them through their post-high school experiences.
Ms. Sims was busy with the ongoing Tech U professional development and obligations,
and also volunteered as an extracurricular chaperone and tutor.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 203
Ms. Lowe helped run college tours for her students, and spent her own time volunteering
as an after school tutoring. She described how Tech U had ongoing development which was time
consuming, but made time for her students during breaks and lunch on an as-needed basis.
Implications for Practice
This study was not a critique of four teachers; rather, it aimed to deconstruct the beliefs,
knowledge, and practices of four educators who had been identified by administrators as exem-
plars of classroom management and cultivating teacher-student relationships. While the findings
indicate different levels of cultural relevance and sensitivity as well as variance in the practices
of these four teachers, each of the teachers worked in complex organizational environments and
succeeded in avoiding the use of exclusionary discipline. The unpacking and discussion of be-
liefs, knowledge, and practices for each teacher was intended to create understanding about how
these teachers were able to develop effective systems of management.
Each of the four teachers came into their teaching practice with unique backgrounds, pro-
fessional training experiences, and ongoing professional development experiences. It can be con-
cluded from this investigation that several experiences promote the implementation of culturally
relevant pedagogy with students, including but not limited to: experience in culturally diverse so-
cial settings, teaching experience and / or student teaching in urban schools, diversity and social
justice trainings, content area courses, and ongoing professional development (PD).
Experience in culturally diverse settings is especially important for White teachers, who
may be new to a culturally diverse classroom. Many white teachers may have been encapsulated
by their own educational experiences in predominately White settings (Banks & Banks, 1994),
and taught that acknowledging race or ethnicity is not polite (Seidl & Hancock, 2011). They may
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 204
not acknowledge the role of race in an effort to adhere to a narrative that all students are afforded
equal opportunity in a meritocratic society (Bartolome, 2004; Filback & Green, 2012).
Yet, being able to consciously and verbally acknowledge the role of race and ethnicity in
a student’s life and schooling experience is foundational to maintaining a culturally relevant ped-
agogy (Ladson-Billings, 1994; 2009). The teacher in this study who had taken recent university
courses in diversity and social justice topics was able to articulate the role of race and ethnicity
in her teaching profession. She was also the most recent graduate from a teaching credential pro-
gram; the two more veteran teachers did not note any courses which emphasized social justice or
diversity from their credentialing experience years ago. It is my recommendation that all teacher
training programs include a diversity and social justice training component. This is consistent
with past studies indicating a need for more emphasis in teacher preparation upon working with
both special needs and diverse student populations (Hollins & Guzman, 2010; Wideen, et. al,
1998).
Two of the teachers were involved in mandatory, ongoing PD, and the other two ex-
pressed interest in developing. Those involved in the ongoing PD expressed satisfaction with the
program and its components. This is consistent with Guskey (2000) who posits that the most ef-
fective professional development is ongoing and sustained with continuous evaluation of results
in the actual classroom. Improved student learning outcomes promotes teacher buy-in of profes-
sional development; this was apparent in the classes where teachers participated in mandatory,
ongoing PD. Specifically, professional development to help teachers with relationships is critical
to the purposes of this study. Interpersonal skills with an emphasis upon communication and un-
derstanding is central to this type of programming.
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 205
Finally, this study affirms the critical importance of teacher beliefs. Teachers in this study who
believed most strongly in positive student outcomes were willing to dedicate time and energy to-
ward allocating resources, re-shaping curriculum, and promoting these outcomes however possi-
ble.
Future Research
As this study affirms the importance and implications of teachers’ optimistic beliefs in
their students’ positive life outcomes, a next step in research could be examining practice which
help teachers improve their outlooks about all students’ academic and life outcomes. As this
study highlighted the role of color blind mentality in the practice of Mr. Walter, future research
could implement training for teachers such as Mr. Walters, and longitudinally follow their imple-
mentation of theory and transformation of practice.
As this study examined the beliefs, knowledge, and practices involved in implementation
of culturally relevant and relationship based management, a next step in research could be identi-
fying programs to support teachers in this endeavor. What types of PD influence teachers to pro-
mote relationships with students and refrain from reliance upon exclusionary discipline methods?
The most effective programs can be identified, studied, and incorporated into the curriculum of
all teacher preparation programs throughout the country. This study highlighted the diverse ways
in which teachers implement culturally relevant pedagogy. Each of the four teachers had unique
ways of developing relationships with students, all consistent with CRP, and yet, methods which
could possibly influence and motivate other teachers if shared in professional communities. On-
going professional development in the fields of classroom management could be further studied
to examine if or how disciplinary methods impact academic outcomes in the classroom. Studies
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 206
such as these could aim to evaluate which management methods are most closely associated with
improved academic outcomes.
Finally, research regarding the development of interpersonal skills and empathy training
could provide more clarity for how to help teachers connect with students across demographic
divides. Teachers and students have an age gap, and may also differ by gender, ethnicity, race,
and socio-economic background. Future research could examine the most effective methods for
sensitively connecting with students across these divides. This study indicates several means of
doing so, and future research could look into these practices in more detail.
Conclusions
Teachers are tasked with identifying, nurturing, and guiding students nationwide toward
their actualization of diverse skills sets and interests. The fields of culturally relevant pedagogy
and relationship based classroom management demonstrate, I believe, the tremendous influence
of one person upon many. Through honest and thorough accounting of personal ideologies,
learning about cultures and contexts, and implementation of pedagogies which aim to shepherd
students through a meaningful and productive learning process, culturally relevant teaching is
possible for all teachers, from all backgrounds.
While this study has addressed the challenges faced by students of today, and it has
placed primary emphasis upon the potential for teachers to grow and change, it does not ignore
the challenges faced by teachers, or the fact that managing students has grown increasingly com-
plex in light of societal issues. Challenges line the path of a teacher; from balancing teaching
standards and objectives with the engagement of students, to managing classrooms effectively to
promote learning and positive life outcomes. It goes without saying that teaching in today’s
schools with heightened levels of school violence, suicide, and seemingly increasing levels of
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 207
dysfunction as portrayed through the news, that the job of a teacher may be more challenging
and even precarious than ever before in the history of our country. That said, to teach is to make
a choice and a commitment to work toward bettering society, and educating tomorrow’s adults in
ways consistent with our visions for our societal future.
With any challenge, one must remain resolute to reach one’s potential; to embrace effort
and growth, no matter how infrequent, or difficult to recognize. The teachers in this study had
varying degrees of support and guidance in actualizing their goals and objectives, yet all four
were constant in their efforts to relate with students respectfully and teach them without exclu-
sion from the classroom setting. It was an honor and a pleasure to meet, speak with, and observe
these four individuals, who, day in, and day out, remain resolute in their commitments as educa-
tors.
While this study analyzed interview and observation data according to a culturally rele-
vant framework, I did not feel that it adequately captured the passion or vibrancy with which
these teachers spoke and acted. Mr. Walter, for all of the analysis of his ‘color blind’ mentality,
exuded a clear and obvious interest in his students as people. His smile, his sense of humor, and
his generosity with his students created a lively and exciting classroom environment that was a
pleasure to watch. Mrs. Richards, with a desk stacked full of paper, and a full calendar of school
related activities, was a true inspiration and clear example of one who had devoted herself to her
students. Ms. Sims had persevered through a trial period in which her students had tested her as a
new TFA fellow. Her tenacity and commitment pushed her through, and I have every bit of con-
fidence that she will continue her journey as a professional educator. Ms. Lowe had a keen inter-
est in her specific students, and her enjoyment for them felt contagious to me, and to all that were
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 208
in her room. To watch a teacher transform a four walls into a learning laboratory, in which stu-
dents are engaged and creating; this is to witness the art and power of teaching. I am grateful to
the four teachers who invited me in to their worlds.
The future of our country lies in the hands of parents, children, and the educators charged
with the great task of preparing our children for a productive life; culturally relevant manage-
ment in today’s classroom is an imperative that all educators must embrace and implement for
the sake of our children and long-term welfare of this country.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 209
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POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 221
Appendix A
Post Observation Interview Protocol
Adapted from Duncan Andrade (2014)
Beliefs
1. How would you rank on a scale of 1 to 10 (1-being no importance, 10-being high im-
portance) the importance of teaching practice to you?
2. How would you describe your purpose for teaching? How does your classroom culture re-
flect your purpose for teaching?
3. How would you rank on a scale of 1 to 10 (1-being no importance, 10-being high im-
portance) the importance of preparation to your teaching?
4. How is your purpose for teaching reflected in how you interact with the community (par-
ents, community members, colleagues)?
5. How do you describe the role of culture in your classroom?
6. How would you describe elements of your students’ culture outside of school?
7. How would you describe your students interpersonal norms and ways of interacting?
8. How are these similar or dissimilar to your own interpersonal norms?
9. How would you describe your students’ motivation to master the content in your class?
10. How are your beliefs and values reflected in your classroom?
11. How would you describe your communities’ support of the goals set forth by your school
and in your class?
12. How would you describe your own aspirations for your students?
13. Can you provide an anecdote from your teaching that you feel captures the importance of
teacher belief?

Knowledge
14. How would you rank on a scale of 1 to 10 (1-being no importance, 10-being high) the
importance of teacher education in contributing to your classroom management?
15. How would you rank on a scale of 1 to 10 (1-being no importance, 10-being high) the
importance of professional development in contributing to your classroom management?
16. How would you describe your coursework in teacher education in CM?
17. How would you describe your professional development experiences in CM?
18. How has your life experience influenced your practice as an educator?
19. How do you learn about your students and ‘gain entry into their worlds?
20. What type of knowledge is important in being a successful teacher?
21. How did you/ do you acquire this knowledge?
22. How would you describe your own personal culture?
23. How would you describe your students’ culture?
24. Can you provide an anecdote from your teaching that captures the importance of
being knowledgable as a teacher?

Practices

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 222
25. How would you describe your classroom management practices?
26. How do your classroom management practices pertain to physical spaces in your
room?
27. How is student culture reflected in your classroom management practices?
28. How do you maintain authority in your classroom?
29. What types of behaviors require special teacher interventions?
30. How do your management practices serve to promote student learning?
31. How do your teaching / management methods promote academic achievement?
32. How do your teaching / management methods promote cultural competence?
33. How do your teaching / management methods promote student awareness of social,
political, and historical constructs of which they are a part?
34. How would you describe your practices which empower your students to become
independent thinkers?
35. Can you provide an anecdote from your teaching that captures the importance of your
classroom management practices?

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 223
Appendix B
Observation Protocol for Cultural Responsiveness
(adapted from Rightmyer, Powell, Cantrell, Powers, Carter, Cox, and Aiello 2008)
I. Creating a Caring Space
CRI indicator of
Creating a Caring
Space
In a responsive
classroom
In a non responsive
classroom
Example:
time
Non-Ex-
ample:
time
No
Example
1. teacher demon-
strates ethic of
care (reciprocal
relationships,
bonding)
-teacher differen-
tiates manage-
ment using direct
interactive when
needed
-refers to students
by name and uses
personalized lan-
guage
-models respect-
ful interactions
-demonstrates
high expectations
-sarcastic teacher
comments
-frequent criticism
and negative com-
mentary
-same interactions
and management
with all students
-low expectations
for social interac-
tions

2. teacher com-
municates high
expectations
-differentiated in-
struction
-advocates for all
students
-provides chal-
lenging work and
does not let stu-
dents ‘get by ’
even when hav-
ing outside chal-
lenges
-teacher criticizes
student, not the
work
-low expectations
-teacher does not
balance student par-
ticipation
-ignores some stu-
dents and does not
call on them

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 224
CRI indicator of
Creating a Caring
Space
In a responsive
classroom
In a non responsive
classroom
Example:
time
Non-Ex-
ample:
time
No
Example
3. teacher creates
atmosphere of re-
spect and inter-
personal connec-
tions
-students do not
hesitate to ask
questions
-students know
the class routines
-students encour-
aged to provide
peer feedback
and support
-students invested
in learning and
peers ’ learning
-teacher dominates
decision making
-teacher stays be-
hind desk -students
not encouraged to
assist peers
-teacher does not
address negative
comments of stu-
dents toward one
another

4. teacher ac-
tively confronts
discrimination
-teacher con-
fronts student bi-
ases
-teacher encour-
ages multiple
perspectives
-teacher uses MC
literature
-teacher engages
students to exam-
ine curriculum
-teacher appears to
favor certain stu-
dents
-teacher allows open
prejudicial expres-
sion
-teacher does not al-
low diverse opin-
ions
-teacher presents
only mainstream
perspectives in con-
tent
-content includes
only mainstream
populations

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 225
II. Instructional Pedagogy
CRI indicator
for Instruc-
tional Peda-
gogy
In a responsive classroom In a non responsive
classroom
Example:
time
Non-Ex-
ample:
time
No
Example
1. Teacher
learns with
students
-teacher learns about
diverse perspectives
with students
-models active listen-
ing
-students take role of
teacher
-teacher is author-
ity, students are
passive
-students not en-
couraged to chal-
lenge or question
ideas

2. Teacher
allows stu-
dent collabo-
ration
-teacher involves stu-
dents in collaborative
groups
-students have discus-
sions in groups
-students are autono-
mous and take control
over groups
-most student work
is isolated seat
work
-students not al-
lowed to help each
other or collaborate

3. Teacher
uses active
learning pro-
moting stu-
dent engage-
ment
-teacher uses investiga-
tive “let’s find out ”
process
-teacher organizes so-
cial learning groups to
build community
-teacher dominated
lectures with no/
very little interac-
tion
-pre-fab worksheets
-Whole class read-
ing
-Exclusive use of
texts with no explo-
ration outside

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 226
4. Instruc-
tion is bal-
anced be-
tween skill
instruction
and reading
and writing
for meaning
-teacher models and
demonstrates skills
-focuses on meaning
when students dialogue
about texts to construct
shared meaning
-physically active and
involved learning ex-
periences
-skill and drill rote
learning focus
-isolated tasks
without connection
to one another
-repetition, routine

5. Teacher
provides
choices in
content and
assessment
methods
based on ex-
periences,
needs, val-
ues,
strengths
-students have some
choice in reading and
assignments
-teacher provides mul-
tiple opportunities to
demonstrate compe-
tency
-teacher allows choice
in topic of study
-teacher initiated
assignments only
-no variation in as-
sessments regard-
less of ability or
language profi-
ciency

.

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 227
III. Socio-Political / Critical Consciousness, Multiple Perspectives
CRI indicator
for Socio-Politi-
cal Conscious-
ness
In a responsive class-
room
In a non responsive
classroom
Example:
time
Non-Exam-
ple: time
No
Example
1. teacher en-
courages stu-
dents to ques-
tion
-teacher encourages
students to question
hegemonic structure
-uses critical thinking
techniques such as re-
questing evidence,
multiple points of
view, respect diver-
gent ideas
-teacher helps stu-
dents think in multi-
ple ways
-teacher explains that
there may be multiple
possible answers to
problems and multi-
ple methods to find
answers
-teacher reduces
complex content to
lists, facts
-teacher does not
provide whole story
in order to avoid
controversy
-teacher does not
engage students in
dialogue around is-
sues in curriculum

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 228
2. teacher en-
courages in-
vestigation
and action
with real
world prob-
lems
-teacher address real
life issues within stu-
dents communities
-respects student
‘funds of knowledge ’
-allows students to
choose meaningful
writing topics
-encourages real
world investigation
-uses literature and
learning to reflect on
discrimination and
bias
-engages students in
solution identification
and development
around social justice
-teacher does not
encourage applica-
tion to real world
issues; accepts or
endorses status quo
by ignoring or dis-
missing real life
problems related to
topic being studied

3. teacher de-
constructs ste-
reotypes and
bias in curric-
ulum
-t discusses biases in
popular culture
-t helps s to think
about bias in texts
-t challenges students
to deconstruct cul-
tural assumptions and
biases, including their
own
-t engages s in using
skills and behaviors
to make meaningful
social justice change
-t follows scripted
curriculum even
when conflicting
with student lives
-t accepts infor-
mation in texts as
fact without ques-
tioning
-t makes prejudiced
statements to stu-
dents

4. teacher in-
structs stu-
dents to use
different dis-
course pat-
terns to fix
social context
-t helps s focus on an
audience to learn
about how language
works in different
contexts
-t uses diverse texts
to model diverse
forms of discourse
-t requires students
to use the same,
Standard English,
discourse in all con-
texts including re-
cess and lunch

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 229
Appendix C
Conceptual Framework
Ladson Billings
(2009)
Weinstein et al
(2003,4)
Duncan Andrade
(2007)
Rightmyer et al
(2008)
Promote academic
success of students:
-promote positive stu-
dent outcomes
-imparts skills for
participation in demo-
cratic society
-focus on student em-
powerment
Promote academic
success of students:
-teacher creates space
to support academic
and social goals
-holds students ac-
countable for high
quality academic
work
Promote academic
success of students:
-express confidence
in students to change
the world
-imparts the belief
that learning yields
success and freedom
Promote academic
success of students:
-advocates for all stu-
dents
-teacher uses investi-
gative “let ’s find out ”
process
-teacher organizes so-
cial learning groups
to build community
-helps students learn
about how to com-
municate and relate in
different contexts
Cultural Compe-
tence:
-broad conception of
student cultures
-knowledge of student
lives and culture
-maintains richly di-
verse curriculum
-affirms student cul-
tures
-connects students
meaningfully with the
curriculum
Cultural Compe-
tence:
-recognition of one’s
own teacher beliefs
-knowledge of student
lives and culture
-knowledge of student
contexts and school
context
-reject ‘color blind’
notions and
acknowledge role or
ethnicity and race in
society and schooling
Cultural Compe-
tence:
-asset orientation to-
ward all students
-believe teaching high
needs students is a
privilege
-share personal learn-
ings with students
-knowledge of per-
sonal culture
-knowledge of student
culture and lives
-knowledge of diverse
cultural capital among
students
Cultural Compe-
tence:
-teacher uses MC lit-
erature
-teacher engages stu-
dents to examine cur-
riculum
-teacher learns about
diverse perspectives
with students
-teacher address real
life issues within stu-
dents communities
-engages students in
solution identification
and development
around social justice
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 230
Ladson Billings
(2009)
Weinstein et al
(2003,4)
Duncan Andrade
(2007)
Rightmyer et al
(2008)
Critical Conscious-
ness:
-acknowledge the role
of race and ethnicity
in society
-challenge existing
social order
-questions dominant
hegemonic belief
structures
-aware of power dis-
tributions in society
Critical Conscious-
ness:
-knowledge of social
and political contexts
-brings bias to a con-
scious level in order
to challenge and eval-
uate them

-concrete knowledge
of power relations
and distributions in
society; questions the
existing social order
Critical Conscious-
ness:
-skeptical of school
and/ or administrative
policies

-promotes student
contribution to com-
munity during and af-
ter schooling
Critical Conscious-
ness:
-teacher confronts
student biases
-teacher encourages
multiple perspectives
-teacher encourages
students to question
hegemonic structure
-uses critical thinking
techniques such as re-
questing evidence,
multiple points of
view, respect diver-
gent ideas
-teacher helps stu-
dents think in multi-
ple ways
-teacher explains that
there may be multiple
possible answers to
problems and multi-
ple methods to find
answers
-encourages real
world investigation
-uses literature and
learning to reflect on
discrimination and
bias
- discusses biases in
popular culture
-helps s to think about
bias in texts
-challenges students
to deconstruct cultural
assumptions and bi-
ases, including their
own
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 231
Ladson Billings
(2009)
Weinstein et al
(2003,4)
Duncan Andrade
(2007)
Rightmyer et al
(2008)
Strategy Knowledge
& Use:
-physical space in-
cludes representations
of student cultures
-clear expectations
are provided to stu-
dents
-respectful behavior is
modeled
-students share per-
sonal stories
Strategy Knowledge
& Use:
-seeks PD opportuni-
ties in and out of
school
-socratic, reflective in
practice
-holds high standards
-manages classrooms
internally
-facilitates positive
student/ teacher, and
teacher/ parent rela-
tionships
-consults community
about curriculum,
pedagogy, and stu-
dents
Strategy Knowledge
& Use:
-demonstrates high
expectations
-differentiated in-
struction
-provides challenging
work and does not let
students ‘get by ’ even
when having outside
challenges
-teacher models and
demonstrates skills
-focuses on meaning
when students dia-
logue about texts to
construct shared
meaning
-physically active and
involved learning ex-
periences
-students have some
choice in reading and
assignments
-teacher provides
multiple opportunities
to demonstrate com-
petency
-teacher allows choice
in topic of study
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 232
Ladson Billings
(2009)
Weinstein et al
(2003,4)
Duncan Andrade
(2007)
Rightmyer et al
(2008)
Creating a Caring
Space
Creating a Caring
Space
-accountable to stu-
dents
-spends time outside
of class with students
-provides food and
other resources to stu-
dents
-models caring and
respectful behavior
Creating a Caring
Space
-teacher differentiates
management using di-
rect interactive when
needed
-refers to students by
name and uses per-
sonalized language
-models respectful in-
teractions
-students do not hesi-
tate to ask questions
-students know the
class routines
-students encouraged
to provide peer feed-
back and support
-students invested in
learning and peers ’
learning

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 233
Appendix D
Pre-Selection Survey
Teacher Survey: Pre-Selection Questions
Posted at http://theexceptionalclassroom.polldaddy.com/s/classroom-management-survey
Please answer the following questions with a yes or no answer, where indicated, or on a scale of
1-4 where indicated. (1=very low, 2=low, 3=somewhat high, 4=high)

Survey Questions and RQ Alignment

1. How would you rank the importance of the school experience for preparing your students
for life? (Beliefs about teaching)
2. How would you rank the importance of your role as teacher in preparing students for
achievement in school and in life? (Beliefs about teaching)
3. How important is preparation, or ongoing formal or informal professional learning, to your
practice? (Beliefs and Pedagogies; specific pedagogy = preparation, Duncan pillar)
4. Do you feel that it is realistically possible to prepare your students to become independent
and critical thinkers about their lives and society? (Beliefs about students, CRP variable of
critical consciousness, Ladson-Billings) ***** Answer questions 5-9 with a 'yes' or 'no' an-
swer. Please elaborate if any explanation would be helpful in understanding your re-
sponse.
5. Do you make special considerations in speaking with and relating with your students
based upon particular elements of your culture and/ or theirs? (Knowledge of teaching &
students, Pedagogies in teaching, specifically, relationships)
6. Has your unique life experience helped you to better connect with your students?
(Knowledge of teaching (specifically self-knowledge and knowledge of students); Teaching
Pedagogies: relationship-building, care, and empathy)
7. Do you have high expectations / aspirations for your students? (Beliefs about teaching and
students - specifically CRP Academic Excellence (all 4 in theoretical framework matrix)
8. Do you think that your students face particular challenges in their schooling process based
on their racial, socio-economic, or cultural status? (Knowledge of Teaching, Beliefs about
Teaching/ Students: particularly cultural competence)
9. Do you view exclusionary discipline (including referral, suspension, or expulsion) as an ef-
fective means of disciplining? Why or why not? (beliefs about teaching; knowledge of
teaching - particularly cultural competence, disciplinary / life outcome connection)
10. Do you use other forms of management or discipline (other than exclusionary)?
(knowledge of teaching, pedagogies in teaching)

POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 234
Appendix E
Findings and Research Question Matrix
Findings about Beliefs
RQ 1
Findings about Knowledge
RQ 2
Findings about Practices
RQ 3
1. all teachers believed exclu-
sionary discipline to be inef-
fective and believed that re-
spectful relationships were ef-
fective means of management

Interview Questions 2, 3, 5,
11
Brown (2003),Ladson-Billings
(1994; 2009),Milner & Tenore
(2010),Seidl & Hancock
(2011),Weinstein, et al, (2003;
2004)
4. Teachers held various lev-
els of cultural knowledge
about their students and con-
texts

Interview Questions 16-24
Delpit (2012)
Duncan Andrade (2007)
7. Teachers used positive
feedback to reinforce instruc-
tions, classroom rules, and
acknowledge on-task behavior
in place of reprimanding off-
task behaviors.

Interview Questions 25-35,
Observation Protocol
2. all teachers liked and re-
spected their students; they
saw their students as the opti-
mal students to be working
with and were not seeking
teaching positions in any other
place

(Bartolome, 2004; Ladson-
Billings, 1994; 2009; Filback
& Green, 2012; Seidl and
Hancock, 2011; Weinstein et
al, 2003; 2004)
Interview Questions 2, 4, 6, 7,
8, 9, 11, 12, 13
5. Teachers had knowledge of
their context from diversity
courses, social justice courses,
hands-on experiences living
nearby, and community in-
volvement experiences

Brown (2003)
Delpit (2006)
Ladson-Billings (2009)

Interview Questions 16-19,
21, 23, 24
8. 3/4 teachers did not com-
plain about their students,
families, culture, or commu-
nity. They accepted their con-
text as it was, learned how to
work the system, and worked
hard to push students toward
excellence.

Duncan Andrade (2007)
Milner & Tenore (2010)
Filback & Green (2012)
Bartolome (2004)

Interview Questions 28, 29
Observation Protocol
POSITIVE CLASSROOM LEADERSHIP 235
3. All of the teachers valued
their professions and saw
their work with students as
important, to varying de-
grees.
(Brown, 2003; Duncan-An-
drade, 2007; Ladson-Billings,
2009; Milner & Tenore, 2010)
Interview Questions: 1, 2, 3,
4, 13
6. 3/4 teachers had knowledge
of differentiation of curricu-
lum and management to meet
their students’ unique needs.
(Brown, 2003; Duncan-An-
drade, 2007; Ladson-Billings,
2009; Milner & Tenore, 2010)

Interview Questions 14-16,
20, 25-35
9. teachers volunteered to
spend their free times during
lunches, breaks, and during
after school hours with stu-
dents in various capacities and
to varying degrees.

Interview Questions 19-21

Observation Protocol

Milner & Tenore (2010)
Duncan Andrade (2007)
Milner & Tenore (2010)

Interview Questions 25-35
Observation Protocol

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally sensitive classroom management theories to deconstruct the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of teachers who did not over-rely upon exclusionary discipline to manage classrooms. Specifically, this study qualitatively explored beliefs, knowledge, and practices of four White high-school teachers in predominately Black and Latino, low socio-economic contexts. These students are statistically subjected to disproportionate rates of exclusionary discipline by a body of teachers in the United States who are predominately White. Subjects for this study were pre-screened through administrator recommendation, and selected through written surveys about classroom management. Using in-class observations of teaching, student work time, and free time, in combination with in-depth teacher interviews and document analysis, data was coded to uncover measures of cultural responsiveness and sensitivity in beliefs, knowledge base, and classroom practices. This study aimed to draw connections between teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practices grounded in cultural responsiveness and meaningful relationships.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Jankovic, Carrie Ellen (Azi) (author)

Core Title Positive classroom leadership: how teachers manage meaningfully in high needs contexts

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/06/2015

Defense Date 04/05/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag classroom management,culturally relevant pedagogy,Discipline,multicultural education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan Gilford (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee member), Hasan, Angela Laila (committee member)

Creator Email azrielajankovic@gmail.com,cjankovi@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-585521

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Dmrecord 585521

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Jankovic, Carrie Ellen (Azi)

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