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Evidence-based school counseling: challenges encountered by public high school counselors in implementing 21st century counseling skills

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Evidence-based school counseling: challenges encountered by public high school counselors in implementing 21st century counseling skills

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Content Running head: EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 1
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING: CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED BY
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN IMPLEMENTING 21
ST
CENTURY
COUNSELING SKILLS

by

José Garza

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2015

Copyright 2015 José Garza
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 2
Dedication
When I was a child, I looked out of windows and dreamed of a better life. This dissertation is for
my parents who nurtured that dream, and for my students who inspired me to fight for it. I love
you.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 3
Acknowledgements
Many people have helped me along my journey towards this degree. First of all, I would
like to acknowledge my dissertation committee members Dr. Pedro Garcia, Dr. Rudy Castruita,
and Dr. Laurie Love for their advice and guidance in completing this work. They have a passion
and dedication for education that is infectious, and they inspire me to be the best educator that I
can.
I would also like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my good friends Ben and
Linda Wong for inviting me to stay at their home when I commuted to USC from Bakersfield
every other weekend. I also want to thank my classmates Xochitl Martinez, Dylan Lira, Olga
Rios, and Regina Maldonado for their friendship and support through this process. This program
was made even better because they were in it.
I also want to thank the hard working and dedicated school counselors whose voices are
represented in this work. They gave up several hours of their time in order to help me obtain my
data and I appreciate it. I thank them for advocating and helping the children in their
communities. The world needs more counselors like them!
I would be remiss if I did not mention my grandparents. Even though they are no longer
with me, I could always feel their protective presence each time I began my commute to USC. I
know they would be proud.
Finally, my mother always told me that everything was possible with God. I want to
thank God for protecting me when I commuted to USC from Bakersfield in the snow, fog, and
rain; for helping me when I stayed up late to complete assignments for class only to have to wake
up ready for work the next morning; and for giving me the strength to persevere and achieve this
dream.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2

Acknowledgements 3

List of Tables 6

Abstract 7

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8

Background of the Problem 8

Statement of the Problem 12

Purpose of the Study 13

Research Questions 14

Importance of the Study 15

Limitations 15

Delimitations 16

Definitions 16

Organization of the Study 17

Chapter Two: Literature Review 18

School Counselor Preparation Programs 20

CACREP and Non-CACREP Accredited Programs 21

Leadership Training and Practices 23

Role Perceptions of School Counselors 27

Principal Perceptions of the School Counselor Role 28

School Counselor Self-Efficacy 31

Summary 32

Chapter Three: Methodology 34

Research Questions 35

Theoretical Framework 35

Research Design: A Mixed Methods Approach 36

Sample and Population 36

Instrumentation 37

Data Collection 38

Data Analysis 39

Ethical Considerations 40

Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion 41

Participants and Methodology 42

Research Findings 43

Participant Demographics 43

Interviewed Participants 44

Research Question 1: To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement
evidence-based practices at their school site? 45

Research Question 2: How do school principals’ perceptions and expectations of the
school counselor’s role influence the counselor’s implementation of evidence-based
practices? 51

Research Question 3: What motivates school counselors to implement evidence-based
practices? 57

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 5
Research Question 4: What strategies do school counselors use in implementing
evidence-based practices at their school site? 64

Summary and Discussion of Findings 68

School Counselor Preparation 69

School Counselor Perceived Role 70

Triangulation 71

Points of Convergence 71

Points of Divergence 72

Chapter Five: Conclusions 75

Background and Overview of the Study 75

Limitations 76

Implications 76

Summary 77

Recommendations for Future Research 78

Conclusion 80

References 81

Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 89

Appendix B: School Counselor Survey 90

Appendix C: Interview Questions 94

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Appropriate and Inappropriate PSC Functions 28

Table 2: Theoretical Schema 29

Table 3: Triangulation of Data 39

Table 4: Accreditation of School Counseling Program 44

Table 5: Membership in Professional Network/Organization 44

Table 6: Demographics of Interviewed Participants 45

Table 7: Element 1: Level of Preparation of School Counseling Program 46

Table 8: Element 2: Perception of School Counselor Role 52

Table 9: Element 3: Evaluating School Counselor Self-Efficacy 58

Table 10: Element 4: Evaluating School Counselor Colleagues’ Self -Efficacy 61

Table 11: Indicators School Counselors Use to Evaluate Their Motivation 63

Table 12: Strategies used by School Counselors 64

Table 13: Profession Learning Communities Effectiveness 67

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 7
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to better understand the challenges encountered by public
high school counselors in implementing evidence-based practices, specifically examining the
organizational, educational, and professional aspects that shape the school counselor’s role.
Specifically, this study set out to determine 1) the extent to which school counselors are prepared
to implement evidence-based practices at their school site, 2) how the perceptions of principals
and other administrators of the counselor’s role influence the counselor’s implementation of
evidence-based practices, 3) the motivational factors that contribute to a school counselor’s use
of data, and 4) the strategies school counselors use to implement evidence-based practices. The
study implemented a mixed-methods approach in which 31 public high school counselors from
the state of California completed an electronic survey and five public high school counselors
contributed responses to an in-person interview. Through the process of triangulation, the study
found that school counselors who graduate from a CACREP accredited school-counseling
program and who have more years of school counseling experience are more likely to implement
evidence-based practices. This study also found that, although these school counselors use data,
their knowledge and identification of the types of data they use is superficial. Furthermore,
school counselors believed that professional learning communities are effective tools for
identifying evidence-based practices, but the implementation of professional learning
communities has proven ineffective. Overall, this study provides hope for school counselors and
those who work with them that an awareness of these challenges can lead to school counseling
that is evidence-based.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Background of the Problem
In the United States, the role of the school counselor is changing. Traditionally, school
counselors held ancillary roles that supported the educational and vocational goals of students
(Gysbers, 2001; Herr, 2002). For years, this meant that school counselors were relegated to either
administrative or clerical peripheral positions within school systems (Dahir, 2004). Told what to
do by misinformed principals and other educational policymakers, “the role of the school
counselor remain[ed] unclear in many school districts” (American School Counselor Association
[ASCA], 2005, p. 3). Indeed, the lack of a clear definition about services provided by school
counselors and the lack of a universal focus resulted in the omission of school counselor
accountability in much of the literature (Commission for Pre-College Guidance and Counseling,
1986). Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, there is increasing pressure for all
stakeholders to provide evidence-based measures that demonstrate student achievement. This is
particularly true for school counselors in the 21
st
century who are no longer ancillary supporters
of education, but integral parts of it.
School counselors work in an era of increasing accountability and the need to acquire 21
st

century skills. While a universal definition of 21
st
century skills varies in the literature, scholars
agree that the term applies to a set of competencies that students must master in order to engage
in the world of life and work. According to the Partnership for 21
st
Century skills (2011), these
areas encompass a range of competencies that include global awareness, collaboration, subject
area mastery, and the use and application of literacy and media. As school systems and family
and social institutions change, school counselors are the best equipped to address a variety of
inequities that present themselves against this changing American landscape (Herr, 2002). These
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 9
inequities include discrimination, access to better education, and the growing achievement gap
that exists among children of color (Steen & Noguera, 2010). While classroom teachers and
other educators focus primarily on content and standards of student learning, school counselors
hold a unique position in school reform efforts because they work directly with the malleable
circumstances that affect the development and learning of young adults. Despite this keen
advantage, school counselors have largely been ignored in discussions of accountability and
school reform. This is mainly due to the reluctance and failure of school counselors to use
evidence-based practices in order to align these inequities with measurable outcomes.
Every educator working with students in United States public schools is expected to
engage in evidence-based practices. Evidence-based practices involve the use of data and
research to inform and address problems in education. In counseling, these practices translate to
needs assessment, outcome research, and intervention evaluation (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch,
2007).
Until recently, school counselors were not included in these expectations. While using
school data proved effective in demonstrating that students enrolled in comprehensive school
counseling programs benefit positively, school counselors have not systematically followed a
process of collecting this data (Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). Research postulates that school
counselors were slow to respond to the use of evidence-based practices primarily because they
lack the skill, confidence, and knowledge in how to use data to enhance and evaluate their
programs (Isaacs, 2003). Moreover, the more experienced the counselor, the more likely he or
she will use data and research to inform practice (Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). Most
counselors lack clarity regarding analyzing data and do not have opportunities for professional
development that could provide them with the support they need (House & Hayes, 2002). This
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 10
lack of knowledge and skill has a negative impact the school counselor’s credibility as agents of
school reform (Holcomb-McCoy, Gonzales, & Johnson, 2009).
In the same way that accountability shapes and directs curriculum decisions for
classroom teachers, the use of evidence-based practices to guide comprehensive school
counseling programs is becoming a prominent focus for the school counseling profession. What
counselors do and how they do it are important questions that are continually asked by
stakeholders who look at the effects of school counseling programs on student achievement and
justification for public investment (Anderson & Reiter, 1995). For these stakeholders, who
include principals, school board members, and parents, the demands of student-based outcomes
produced by school counselors become more and more important, especially in an era of school
funding. With budget cuts and lack of funding in other educational arenas, school counselors
must learn to use and analyze data in order to justify their programs, student learning, and their
jobs.
Systems of public education in the United States face challenges in the important topics
of improving student achievement, closing the achievement gap, and providing students with
workplace skills that are often technologically based. While classroom teachers, administrators,
and other educational staff members have traditionally been associated with accountability
efforts, school counselors are missing from these discussions (Dahir & Stone, 2009; White,
2007). Indeed, scholars pointed out the importance of counselor accountability (Brigman, 2006;
Gysbers, 2004), but the school counselor’s role in educational reform still remains largely
undefined and lacking (House & Hayes, 2002). In some schools, counselors emphasize
productivity and number of students seen over data and research-based practices (Dahir & Stone,
2009). Such attitudes are problematic and do little to advance the role of the school counselor in
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 11
school reform (Colbert, Vernon-Jones, & Pransky, 2006). In response to this problem, school
counselor professionals and scholars called for an accountability mindset that embraces a more
universal and evidence-informed practice for the 21
st
century (Dahir & Stone, 2009; Myrick,
2003).
Efforts to incorporate a universal and systematic focus for school counselor
accountability have been sparse and appear to occur every few decades. In 1996, the Education
Trust created the Transforming School Counselor Initiative (TSCI) and emphasized school
counselor preparation programs. This initiative encouraged school counselors to take a proactive
approach in closing the inequities found in public education by integrating curriculum and
counseling practices, but it was not endorsed by many school counseling professionals (Galassi
& Akos, 2012). In 2003, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) created a national
model that aimed to promote the development of students in three domains – academic, career,
and personal/social. Because the framework was relatively new, it was not adopted by many
counselors who were also not members of ASCA. Lastly, the National Accreditation Standards
for School Counselor Preparation Programs were established with clear academic guidelines for
school counselors that focused primarily on “(a) closing the achievement gap, (b) promoting
student academic success, (c) preventing students from dropping out of school and (d) preparing
youth for a full range of postsecondary options and opportunities” (CACREP, 2009). Ultimately,
these efforts, although admirable, did not result in a clear, systematic process for school
counselors to engage in evidence-based practices, and this is a problem for school counselors
who struggle with using and analyzing data effectively at their school sites.
Recent agendas pushed for more counselor involvement in school reform and
accountability efforts (Dahir, 2004). School counselors hold integral positions, are ideally
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 12
situated in school systems, and often possess keen insight into student issues and concerns. They
must be encouraged to be leaders who can effect change and to be advocates of social justice for
every child (Amatea & Clark, 2005; House & Hayes, 2002). Especially in an age of increasing
accountability and the need to acquire 21
st
century skills, school counselors must demonstrate
that they can use and analyze evidence-based practices to address all aspects of student
achievement.
Statement of the Problem
The ultimate goal of a comprehensive school counseling program is to provide students
with academic and post-secondary skills that will prepare them for effective futures in the 21
st

century. School counselors must realize that their job is much more than just seeing students,
changing schedules, and monitoring attendance rates (Dahir, 2004). The expectations and duties
of school counselors are changing to reflect the demands of increasing accountability and the
need to acquire 21
st
century skills. Learning how to use and analyze data is a tool for school
counselors to monitor their effectiveness and the learning of students. Research postulates that
students benefit from comprehensive counseling programs that are consistently evaluated and
assessed (Gysbers, 2001).
Since the publication of A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983), accountability has been a major focus within public school systems. However,
that focus was primarily placed upon classroom teachers (Galassi & Akos, 2012) and left school
counselors out of the dialogue. In response to this, ASCA (2012) developed a framework for
school counselor standards and expectations. Still, the research shows that not all comprehensive
counseling programs implement this model, and this results in the lack of a clear accountability
system (Dahir, 2004). A review of the literature reveals several proposals by scholars to integrate
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 13
action-based research and other research-based frameworks into counseling programs and
preparation programs in an effort to promote a universal accountability standard.
The literature presents many frameworks that aim to instill action-based research on
comprehensive counseling programs (Dahir, 2004). These programs, like M.E.A.S.U.R.E. (Dahir
& Stone, 2009) and The School Change Process (Colbert, Vernon-Jones, & Pransky, 2006),
encourage school counselors to examine data and research-based solutions at their school sites in
order to help close the achievement gap. With guidance from facilitators, these structured efforts
engage school counselor participants in collaboration, dialogue, and examination of current data
that they can use at their school sites and in their profession. A major criticism of these
frameworks is that, although they are very effective in theory, the challenge remains in
integrating them on the field, especially when school counselors have other duties to fulfill
(Colbert et al., 2006).
The problem remains that the majority of school counselors encounter barriers and
challenges in implementing evidence-based practices in their profession. These barriers are
attributed to education and training, conflict of the counselor’s role caused by school principals
and other administrators, and a reluctance to use evidence-based practices due to decreased
levels of motivation and self-efficacy (Isaacs, 2003). The changing educational landscape
demands increased counselor accountability that can no longer be avoided.
Purpose of the Study
In order to address student achievement, to provide students with 21
st
century skills, and
to be accountable to many stakeholders, there is a need to examine school counselors’
implementation of evidence-based practices. This practice plays an integral role in monitoring
student success, especially in the students’ participation in comprehensive school counseling
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 14
programs. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which school counselors used
accountability practices such as evidence-based practices in order to bolster student achievement.
Moreover, the study further evaluated school counselors’ perceptions and beliefs regarding
collecting and analyzing data. It is important for school counselors and the administrators who
supervise them to reflect on how school counselors can implement evidence-based practices at
their school site to support student achievement, guide professional development for counselors,
and inform best counseling practices.
Research Questions
This study sought to answer the following four questions:
1. To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement evidence-based practices
at their school site?
2. How do the perceptions of principals and other administrators of the counselor’s role
influence his or her implementation of evidence-based practices?
3. What motivational factors contribute to school counselor’s implementation of
evidence-based practices?
4. What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-based practices at
their school site?
This study incorporates Grounded Theory, which focuses on the meanings of social
phenomena (Merriam, 2009). It examined the ways in which participants interact with one
another and construct meaning out of symbols. The theory of self-efficacy was also applied
within this study.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 15
Importance of the Study
Accountability is one of the most important components of education today. From
teachers, principals, and school board members, accountability demands are placed on everyone,
and school counselors are not an exception. Despite a push from stakeholders and the public,
school counselors have been slow to respond to this demand. In order for students to be best
prepared for the life in the 21
st
century, school counselors must possess the skills and confidence
to implement evidence-based practices for accountability purposes, yet research on this topic is
just emerging in the scholarship. Understanding the challenges that school counselors encounter
in terms of implementing evidence-based practices may lead to the identification of effective
strategies and practices for school counselors and the presentation of these to school districts,
various stakeholders, and, especially, counselors.
In response to the changing climate of education and the social and familial dynamics of
students’ lives, school counselors are obligated to use evidence-based practices to better address
these inequities. Students in the 21
st
century experience different lives than those 25 years ago,
and they must be prepared for the future. Therefore, it is necessary for school counselors to
provide them with tools and skills through comprehensive school counseling programs that are
based on measurable outcomes. Unlike teachers, school counselors are ideally situated in places
where they can effect the most change and where they can be social justice advocates for every
child. Analyzing and understanding the challenges presented to school counselors in
implementing evidence-based practices will further help students close the achievement gap.
Limitations
This study presents data collected over approximately four months, as the researcher had
a limited time in which to conduct the findings. These results from the study were influenced by
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 16
time limitations. Also, the researcher limited the study to school counselors who worked and
lived around the Kern County area. Therefore, responses and experiences of participants may not
be representative of a universal school counselor pool. Moreover, some of the counselor
participants may have viewed their participation in this study as reflective of their abilities and
their answers may have influenced the data collected.
Delimitations
This study focused on challenges encountered by school counselors in implementing
evidence-based practices. The results are only applicable to these schools and cannot be
generalized to other school districts. Assumptions were made that all participants were school
counselors, worked at a public high school, and were fully credentialed to work in the state of
California.
Definitions
ASCA: American School Counselor Association. This is an organization for school
counselors with a national, standards-based framework that supports the academic, career, and
social/personal aspects of all students.
CACREP: Council for Accreditation of Counseling & Related Educational Programs. An
independent agency that accredits school counseling preparation programs.
Evidence-Based Practices: The use of research, collaboration, and other empirical
assessments to measure outcome-based learning and results.
Grounded Theory. A conceptual framework that examines meaning and reality in the
context of individual and social construction (Creswell, 2009).
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 17
NCE: The National Counselor Examination for Licensure and Certification. An
examination used for state and national certification. The exam tests applicants’ knowledge on a
variety of basic counseling terminology, techniques, and other knowledge.
NCLB: No Child Left Behind Act (2001). This is the reauthorization of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act.
Self-Efficacy Theory. The belief that one can accomplish a task or goal (Bandura, 1986).
21
st
Century Skills. An applied set of skills and competencies that include reading,
writing, and global awareness for student success and achievement (Partnership for 21
st
Century
Skills).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 begins with the problem statement
and introduces the research questions that will be addressed in this study. Chapter 2 presents a
review of the literature, and Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to implement the study.
Finally, Chapter 4 details the results of the study, and Chapter 5 discusses the findings and
recommendations.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Amid a culture of accountability, curriculum changes, and sweeping school reform for
classroom teachers and other education stakeholders, school counselors lag far behind their
counterparts when it comes to implementing and applying 21
st
century practices to their own
profession (Hatch, 2014). Currently, school counselors appear to adopt two very different
paradigms in their field: best practices and evidence-based practices. Best practices are 20
th

century skills with which educators respond to a problem, and these are based on their own
knowledge and methods; evidence-based practices are 21
st
century skills that rely on the use of
data and research in order to inform practice. It is the latter skills, scholars argue, that many
school counselors lack and which, if learned, could shift the profession into the 21
st
century:
“the school counseling profession needs to make the transition from a best practice orientation to
an evidence-based practice orientation so that school counselors can maximize their
effectiveness, demonstrate their worth, and increase their legitimacy in public schools” (Dimmitt,
Carey, & Hatch, 2007, p. 2). Evidenced-based practice includes the use of data as a primary tool
in order to inform problems of practice in the field. The focus on evidence-based practices
recently surfaced in the literature, particularly the challenges encountered by counselors to
incorporate these practices.
A review of the literature concerning evidence-based practices employed by school
counselors suggests three broad areas of focus that account for challenges in implementing an
evidence-based practice: (1) school counselor education and leadership, (2) the perception of
principals and other staff members of the school counselors’ role, and (3) the motivation and
beliefs of school counselors in using data. The school counselor education and leadership area
suggests that graduate programs do not adequately prepare future school counselors with
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 19
leadership skills that could help them lead comprehensive, evidence-based counseling programs
at their school sites (Janson, 2009). The perception of principals and other staff members
produces a role strain for school counselors as counselors struggle to balance the expectations of
their supervisors and their own obligations to accountability and professional standards
established by ASCA (Fitch & Marshall, 2004). Lastly, self-efficacy plays an integral part in
school counselors’ motivation and beliefs to incorporate evidence-based practices into their
profession.
Within the context of school counselors’ motivation and beliefs, the most applicable
theoretical approach to study the problem of implementing evidence-based practices in the
counseling profession is self-efficacy theory. “Self-efficacy” refers to an individual’s belief and
persistence in engaging in challenging tasks (Bandura, 1997). Individuals who exhibit strong
motivation and beliefs are more likely to accomplish expectations and set higher goals for
themselves than individuals who do not. Additionally, these individuals are more likely to
perform better at their job, experience more career satisfaction, and adapt to change (Bodenhorn
& Skaggs, 2005). Although the research on school counselor self-efficacy is scarce, Young and
Kaffenberger (2011) demonstrate that school counselors who are more experienced and who
receive nationally recognized certification are more likely to employ evidence-based practices.
This literature examines the research on the challenges that affect school counselors’
implementation of 21
st
century skills – primarily, the use of evidence-based practices. It presents
contributing factors such as school counselor education and leadership, perceptions of the school
counselor’s role by principals and other staff members, and counselor motivation factors. The
literature review concludes with a conceptual framework of self-efficacy as it relates to this
study.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 20
School Counselor Preparation Programs
The challenges of implementing evidence-based practices in the school counseling
profession stem from two areas within school counselor education programs: CACREP
accreditation and leadership training. There are approximately 491 graduate-level programs in
school counseling throughout the United States (ASCA, 2014); currently, only 232 of those
programs are recognized by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling & Related Educational
Programs (CACREP, 2014). Established in 1981, CACREP was formed in order to promote an
alignment of national content and professional standards for school counseling professionals. It
ensured that CACREP programs implemented curriculum that would make connections between
theory and application, particularly in an era that pushed toward evidence-based practices
(Adams, 2006; Brott, 2006). Accreditation by CACREP has become an important marker of
professional accountability. Ten years ago, only 124 of 322 master’s level school counseling
preparation programs were accredited (Perusse, Goodnough, & Noel, 2001) in comparison to
twenty years ago when only 74 programs received this distinction (Hayes, Dagley, & Horne,
1996). Accreditation by the committee provides students with the recognition that their graduate
program emphasizes skills, knowledge, and practice relevant to their profession and the 21
st

century – most especially, the use of evidence-based practices. It has been well documented in
the literature that graduate-level programs distinguished by CACREP accreditation standards
produce school counselors who are significantly more prepared and equipped to lead and
implement comprehensive counseling programs than those students who graduate from non-
accredited schools (Milsom & Akos, 2007). The literature presents several studies that highlight
this distinction.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 21
CACREP and Non-CACREP Accredited Programs
CACREP graduate-level school counseling programs are distinguished for their
adherence to national and professional standards, a focus that prepares future school counselors
for effectiveness and accountability (Bratt, 2006). Scholars agree that CACREP programs help
counselors close achievement gaps and make them more readily able to implement evidence-
based practices (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007), a much needed skill for 21
st
century school
counselors. Though the literature on the effects of CACREP programs on school counselor skills
and abilities has been scarce (Bloom, 1996; Bobby & Kandor, 1992), recent studies and public
concern for the quality of school counselors suggest that these programs do make a difference.
Among the few existing studies that examine the outcomes of CACREP and non-
CACREP accredited programs on school counselor performance, Adams (2006) looked at
participants’ conceptual knowledge of the profession, primarily their scores on the National
Counselor Examination (NCE) licensure and certification test. Originally, NCE was introduced
to assess the minimum skills and knowledge needed by school counselors in the profession; in
1995, however, test items were directly linked to CACREP curriculum (Loesch & Vacc, 1991).
Results of the study indicated that, although a majority of the test takers (69.7%) were graduates
of CACREP programs, their scores were, nonetheless, significantly higher than non-CACREP
graduates. The implications of this study suggest that CACREP graduates are more competent
when it comes to demonstrating their knowledge of basic counseling skills on the National
Counselor Examination, yet it omits differences in other areas such as clinical skills and non-
formal assessment.
In a recent study that aimed to address the non-academic competencies of graduates from
CACREP and non-CACREP programs, Even and Robinson (2013) surveyed the frequency and
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 22
type of ethical misconduct of 453 school counselors. Their findings indicated that, although
training in ethics may be commonplace among school counselor education programs, the method
of delivery of this topic varies. Indeed, ethics courses are either presented as a stand-alone class
or are infused in the curriculum. The individuals in this study committed ethics violations that
included practicing outside one’s ability and expertise (27.6%), violating professional boundaries
(22.3%), and breaking confidentiality (10%). Even and Robinson (2013) found that a majority
(81.7%) of school counselors who committed an ethics violation were more likely to graduate
from a non-CACREP accredited program. The empirical results of this study suggest that
individuals who graduate from a CACREP program also possess higher levels of professional
competency than their peers.
Milsom and Akos (2005) studied CACREP and the professional competency of school
counselors, but the use of evidence-based practices as an indicator has not been studied at all. As
of this writing, there are no empirical studies that examine CACREP programs and their effect
on the frequency and implementation of evidence-based practices among school counselors. In
their study, Milsom and Akos (2005) looked at school counselors’ contributions to professional
development, leadership, and education as indicators of professionalism. They found that
counselors with CACREP affiliations were more likely to exhibit these indicators. Interestingly,
more counselor educators from CACREP accredited programs authored more journal articles
than non-CACREP educators who were more likely to present at conferences. Milsom and Akos
(2005) argue that journals offer much more rigorous admission standards and may require
additional data collection, suggesting that school counselors who do write for journals, are
competent and proficient in using data. This implies that CACREP graduates are more
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 23
knowledgeable about infusing and working with data in their practice. However, this implication
demands more research.
Leadership Training and Practices
Scholars agree that successful leadership is the “ability to create communal
environments, have a clear vision or goal, build consensus among diverse group members,
advocate, take risks, and seek and use information” (Meany-Walen, Carnes-Holt, Barrio Minto,
Purswell, & Pronchenko-Jain, 2013). Future school counselors must be trained in leadership
skills and frameworks that meet the needs of students in order to use evidence-based practices in
the workplace and to guide effective comprehensive school counseling programs towards the 21
st

century (Bemak, 2000; House & Hayes, 2002; Lee & Wagner, 2007). Though not explicitly
indicated in the literature, counselors with more professional leadership and academic
competency are more likely to implement 21
st
century skills. Historically, leadership has been a
neglected concept among school counselor research, and there has been a disconnect between the
leadership skills – if any – school counselors learn in their preparation programs and how these
are translated into their work in the field (Mason & McMahon, 2009). Indeed, leadership is a
neglected skill among school counselors training programs (Paradise, Ceballos, & Hall, 2010).
Despite initiatives that encourage leadership as an integral component of school counselor
curriculum, scholars agree that leadership may often receive less attention in relation to other
skills (ASCA, 2005; House & Hayes, 2002). Therefore, a majority of the studies concerning
school counselor leadership examine internal models and experiences within the field;
nonetheless, these findings present telling implications that can inform the teaching of leadership
within school counselor education programs. They also suggest that current programs do not
address and teach leadership competency skills to school counselors. To become successful
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 24
leaders, “school counselors need to be educated in leadership skills and given opportunities to
explore their own leadership styles” (Dollarhide, Gibson, & Saginak, 2008, p. 262).
School counselors are, by their very job description, change agents (Dahir, 2001). They
are leaders who advocate for systematic change and education reform. They are well educated
and “moderately versed in quantitative and qualitative research methods” so that they can lead
comprehensive counseling programs that use evidence-based practices (Sink, 2009, p. 70).
However, much of the research indicates that school counselors are ill prepared to assume
leadership positions in their profession (Paradise, et al., 2010).
School counselor leadership is a burgeoning research topic in the literature. A few studies
have devoted considerable attention to counselor leadership styles and its effects on program
delivery. Dollarhide (2003) sets the theoretical framework for this problem by applying
Bolman’s and Deal’s (1997) holistic leadership framework to school counselor leadership
practices. This framework includes four leadership contexts: (a) structural, (b), human resource,
(c) political, and (d) symbolic. She argues that school counselors possess structural and human
resource leadership activities because they can communicate well and empower others (Bolman
& Deal, 1997). School counselors, however, lack symbolic and political aptitudes because those
frameworks are not traditionally associated with their job description. Though not an empirical
study, Dollarhide’s application of Bolman’s and Deal’s leadership framework to school
counselor activities offers a lens through which leadership values and practices in school
counselors can be studied.
Among the studies that examine school counselor leadership values and practices, Janson
(2009) looked at the leadership behaviors of 49 current school counselors. Participants were
given 40 opinion statements and asked to reflect on how those statements were exhibited in their
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 25
own leadership practices. Results indicated that counselor leadership varied and mostly depended
on the context and expectations of the school site administrator. For example, the fewest
participants (7%) identified with descriptors that would classify them as systems change agents –
the type of agent who would challenge the process and advocate for better student outcomes.
This theme was closely associated with the use of data to inform practice and effect change. The
majority of participants did not identify with this theme because their leadership practices and
values were such that they did not want to challenge the status quo. In this study, counselors who
challenged the status quo demonstrated more leadership skills and systematic change in their
jobs than counselors who did not.
In a similar study, Dollarhide, Gibson, and Saginak (2008) followed five new
professional school counselors throughout a single academic school year and interviewed them
concerning their leadership values and practices. At the start of the study, each counselor was
encouraged to engage in a leadership project and his or her reactions were monitored through
qualitative interviews. Results indicated that successful participants benefited from mentors, had
a clear vision and goal, and possessed a willingness to bring about change despite falling out of
favor with their colleagues (Dollarhide et al., 2008).
While these studies examine the effects of leadership practices and values on
comprehensive school counseling programs, a study by Shillingford and Lambie (2010)
demonstrates that leadership practices of school counselors are more important than originally
thought. The authors surveyed 163 school counselors and discovered that the majority of them
preferred leadership styles that adhered to the status quo, and they did not try to engage in
systematic change. A lack of focus on challenging or risk taking behavior indicates that school
counselors’ leadership styles are contrary to the leadership practices that “have been found to
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 26
promote school counseling programmatic service delivery” (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010, p.
213). The authors’ research suggests that, if school counselors cannot challenge the status quo
through leadership, then the impact and quality of comprehensive counseling programs will be
impeded.
Leadership is a necessary skill for school counselors in the 21
st
century (Mason, 2011).
The ASCA National Model (2005) specifically calls for counselor leaders who can guide
comprehensive school programs. This entails equipping strong leaders who can promote
systematic change in order to improve student outcomes through data-driven initiatives (Dimmit,
2003). The literature reveals, however, that school counselors are not prepared to assume
leadership roles at their school sites that change and confront current, ineffective practices.
Despite national initiatives, school counselor education programs must do more. Although their
strengths lie in helping others and forming collaborative alliances with other stakeholders, school
counselors are vital change agents. As the role of the school counselor defines itself in the 21
st

century, some scholars remarked that school counselors embody a “new vision” of leadership
(Mason & McMahon, 2009) in the form of Transformational Leadership.
According to Northouse (2004), Transformational Leadership relies on the strength of
networks and relationships in order to move goals forward and effect change. As Northouse
explains,
Transformational leaders are recognized as change agents who are good role models, who
can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, who empower followers to
achieve a higher standard, who act in ways that make others want to trust them, and who
give meaning to organizational life (p. 198).
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 27
This label promotes school counselors as advocates and change agents who have significant
impact on student achievement. New research appears to embrace this term and encourages
school counselors to “challenge the process” of the status quo by using their leadership skills to
advance student success through evidence-based practice (Mason & McMahon, 2009), but
research is still lacking on counselor leadership as it relates to evidence-based practices.
Role Perceptions of School Counselors
The role of the school counselor has evolved since its inception in the early 20
th
century.
The introduction of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (US Department of Education, 2001),
increased the accountability of every education stakeholder, including counselors. No longer
ancillary players, school counselors hold important positions in an era of school reform (Dimmit,
Carey, & Hatch, 2007; Hatch, 2014), but despite initiatives set by ASCA (2005), the Education
Trust (2006), and the College Board (2006), the role of the school counselor in today’s schools
still remains relatively ambiguous (Dodson, 2009). This is chiefly the result of administrators’
and other staff members’ lack of awareness and information concerning the school counselor’s
role. Principals, especially, have an impact on the role of school counselors by setting working
conditions and guidelines that often fail to appropriately utilize school counselors (Liebrman,
2004). According to some scholars, more than half of school principals are unfamiliar with the
ASCA National Model for counselors (Leuwerke, Walker, & Shi, 2009). Because their
educational programs do not train and educate principals about school counselor roles, a lack of
information concerning this role persists and contributes to the discrepancy in perceptions
between what principals think school counselors should do and what counselors actually do. The
perception of school counselors by principals and other administrators is important because it
affects expectations and standards that propel school counselors to use evidence-based strategies
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 28
in their profession. An example of appropriate and inappropriate roles for school counselors is
illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
Appropriate and Inappropriate PSC Functions
Appropriate Function Inappropriate Function
Individual counseling Scheduling
Small group counseling Testing program
Large group guidance Attendance duties
Peer-helper program Bus/lunch duties
Outreach activities Discipline

Principal Perceptions of the School Counselor Role
The school counselor’s role is ultimately defined by the school principal (Zalaquett,
2005), as the principal determines the tasks and role responsibilities attributed to counselors. A
review of the literature reveals that the majority of school principals assign counselors
inappropriate tasks that include clerical, pseudo-administrative, and disciplinary duties (Ribak-
Rosenthal, 1994). These duties are inconsistent with the role of school counselors and can have a
severe impact on the quality of a comprehensive school counseling program. Several studies
highlight principals’ confusion regarding the role of school counselors, which stems from a lack
of understanding of the ASCA National Model.
The ASCA National Model (2005) sets specific role guidelines for school counselors that
include school guidance curriculum, student planning, response services, and system support.
Research shows that, despite this framework, many principals are either unaware of it or have
different expectations for their schools counselors (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Studies reveal that
more than half of high school principals are unfamiliar with the ASCA framework and guidelines
(Leuwerke et al., 2009). This contributes to the discrepancy in perceptions between what school
principals think counselors should do and what counselors actually do. The authors found that,
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 29
once principals were educated about the ASCA National Model, principals became more
supportive about aligning their counselors’ tasks towards the framework. However, this
conclusion is not consistent within the literature. For example, Zalaquett (2005) surveyed 500
elementary school principals concerning their perceptions of the school counselor role. Results
indicated that less than a third of principals believed that schools counselors did not need to
follow the ASCA guidelines. This suggests that principals are more informed about the ASCA
model and support appropriate tasks for school counselors than previously thought.
Despite being informed about the ASCA National Model, principals still prefer
counselors to spend more time in administrative tasks such as testing, scheduling, and discipline
as opposed to individualized counseling (Leuwerke et al., 2009). Moreover, principals have the
most influence over the role of the school counselor and still view them based on their own
perceptions (Ponce & Brock, 2000). Indeed, a study by Amatea and Clark (2005) showed that
school principals view school counselors through four different lenses. These lenses are
illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2
Theoretical Schema
Major Dimensions of Role Conceptions
Valued Role Activities Extent of Role
Specialization
Style of Role
Coordination
Innovative school leader Specialized knowledge in
student and organizational
intervention
Highly interdependent
Collaborative case consultant Specialized knowledge in
student intervention and case
consultation
Somewhat interdependent
Responsive direct service Specialized knowledge in
student intervention and
psychoeducation
Independent
Administrative team player Nonspecialized Dependent
Source: Amatea & Clark, 2000
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 30
These four distinct identities indicate the types of roles administrators expect of their
school counselors and represent the evolution of the school counselor’s role throughout the 20
th

and 21
st
century. For example, innovative school leaders are most heavily associated with the
descriptions of the school counselor role in the ASCA National Model (2005) that emphasizes
collaboration with others, the identification of student needs, and the use and application of
evidence-based practices. Interestingly, this role was the least (3%) selected by principals
compared to the most selected, which were the Collaborative Case Consultant and Responsive
Direct Service. This implies that the role of the school counselor is still very much in the 20
th

century, with expectations of non-appropriate tasks that impede change and the use of evidence-
based practices among this group. Lastly, scholars point out that one remedy to this role
confusion is the collaboration and relationship forged between school principals and counselors.
School counselors are encouraged to build professional relationships with their principals
(Stone & Clark, 2001). As the leader, principals ultimately shape services that include a school’s
comprehensive counseling program and counselors must promote communication and advocacy
about their role (Leauwerke et al., 2009). While the reality of school demands often influences
the tasks of school counselor in appropriate assignments, research shows that this devalues the
counseling program (Ross & Herrington, 2005). Interestingly, school counselors in high
achieving schools are more likely to spend time in appropriate tasks than those in poorer schools
(Fitch & Marshall, 2004). In these schools, counselors spend more time in examining data and
building a structured and systematic counseling program. This implies that counselors who adopt
the role of innovative school leader immediately define their role that leads to more
implementation of evidence-based practices.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 31
School Counselor Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy describes the beliefs an individual has about his or her ability to
successfully complete a given task (Bandura, 1986). It relates to motivation and behavior in that
individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to accomplish their goals through
commitment and perseverance. Self-efficacy is also linked to resiliency in individuals who use it
when confronted by change and adversity. Indeed, studies find that self-efficacy is related to job
satisfaction and that employees with higher self-efficacy experience favorable response to
change than those who do not (Pyne, 2011). In education, there is a direct relationship between
the degree of teacher self-efficacy and student achievement (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000). For
school counselors, self-efficacy is an important quality in helping them transition in their job to
21
st
century skills and for building comprehensive counseling programs that bolster student
achievement (Bodenhorn & Skaggs, 2005). Currently, the research on school counselor self-
efficacy is growing.
Schools counselors have varying beliefs about the use of evidence-based practices in their
profession and how they can implement these. For example, a survey of 3,000 school counselors
concerning their beliefs about the most important aspects of a comprehensive school program,
revealed that the majority of preferred mission and goals over use of data to monitor and guide
the program to excellence (Hatch & Chen-Hayes, 2008). Although these counselors recognized
the important of the standards, they preferred to engage in inappropriate counseling tasks. The
authors cite fear and lack of knowledge in using data as a major reason the school counseling
profession has not fully transitioned into the 21
st
century era of school reform and accountability.
Though previous literature reveals that school counselors are kept from engaging in
evidence-based practices by principals who envision them in other roles (Dodson, 2009), school
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 32
counselors share the blame in failing to advocate for themselves due to reluctance and fear
(Scarborough & Culbreth, 2008) and continue to engage in inappropriate tasks due to lack of
knowledge and their own dispositions towards change (Holcomb-McCoy, Gonzalez, & Johnston,
2009). Bodenhorn and Skaggs (2006) confirm these findings, as their survey results revealed that
teaching experience, age, and knowledge about the standards contributed to the self-efficacy of
the school counselor.
Another study implies that counselor self-efficacy is related to motivation and
recognition. Young and Kaffenberger (2011) looked at the difference between school counselors
who were nationally recognized by ASCA and those who were not. The study found that ASCA
recognized counselors were more likely to use data to inform practice, were generally older, had
more experience, and belonged to counseling programs that received RAMP certification.
RAMP is a designation applied to school counseling comprehensive programs that demonstrate
fidelity and accountability to the ASCA National Model. School sites undergo a rigorous
application process that includes demonstrating fulfillment of the ASCA model and providing
school site evidence.
Summary
School counselors encounter varying challenges in implementing 21
st
century skills –
primarily, evidence-based practices. While stakeholders and national mandates have traditionally
pushed for more accountability from all educators, the time has come for school counselors to
embrace evidence-based practices as a vital tool for closing the nation’s achievement gap
(Scarborough, 2005). The country at large is moving towards data-driven instruction and inputs
that bolster student learning (Gysbers, 2001) as it enters the 21
st
century, and school counselors
still lag behind in contributing their voice to efforts of school reform (Brott, 2006). Research
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 33
indicates that this transition is impeded by significant and varied factors which include training
and education, administrators’ perceptions of the school counselor’s role, and self-efficacy
factors (Bodenhorn, Wolfe, E, & Airen, 2010; Poynton, Schumacher, & Wilczenski, 2008). An
understanding of these challenges is essential in helping school counselors advance as education
professionals into the 21
st
.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 34
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Accountability has been an integral part of America’s public education systems ever
since the publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983. That report created a sense of urgency over the
quality of education and skills students would need in order to compete in the 21
st
century; it also
influenced an era of school reform initiatives such as No Child Left Behind (2001) and Race to
the Top (2010). While teaching and its effects on student achievement became a major driving
force behind these initiatives, school counselors and their effects on other types of learning –
primarily, social, emotional, and career – were largely dismissed or forgotten in the frenzy. As
the United States enters the 21
st
century and an uncertain economy, increasing focus has been
applied to student support services, especially school counseling programs (Anderson & Reiter,
1995). As a group that has traditionally been relegated to ancillary roles and as invisible helpers
within schools (Reiner, Colbert, and Perusse, 2009), school counselors are moving toward the
forefront in the school reform arena and tackling the issue of accountability as many of their
programs and positions are cut due to budget restrictions. School counselors must empirically
demonstrate that their interventions, programs, and skills have a direct effect on student
achievement (Dahir, 2004). However, research shows that the implementation of evidence-based
practices, which include the use of data and research to inform interventions, is a challenge for
school counselors for a variety of reasons (Dimmitt, Carey, and Hatch, 2007; Hatch, 2014;
Holcomb-McCoy, 2007). The purpose of this study was to identify the challenges encountered
by school counselors in implementing evidence-based practices as a 21
st
century skill.
Furthermore, the study aims to understand these factors and provide suggestions as to how
evidence-based practices can be incorporated.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 35
Research Questions
This study addressed the following four research questions:
1. To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement evidence-based practices
at their school site?
2. How do the perceptions of principals and other administrators on the counselor’s role
influence his or her implementation of evidence- based practices?
3. What motivational factors contribute to school counselor’s implementation of
evidence-based practices?
4. What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-based practices at
their school site?
Theoretical Framework
In this study, evidence-based practice is the integration of evidence and practice as it
applies to the work of school counselors (Dimmit, Carey, & Hatch, 2007). While the term refers
to quantitative evidence such as data, the types of data and level of importance can have different
meanings, especially within a social context. Therefore, this study used Grounded Theory as a
conceptual framework.
Grounded Theory refers to the meanings that individuals and groups assign to phenomena
(Creswell, 2009). Individuals interpret reality through meaning and interaction with others. This
framework incorporates the use of multiple assessments and lends itself to a mixed-methods
research design which is also the design of this study. Because Grounded Theory lends itself to
the experiences of individuals and groups, a purposeful sample of participants was selected in
order to gage a spectrum of interpretation about a single phenomenon.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 36
Research Design: A Mixed Methods Approach
Sample and Population
Consistent with Grounded Theory is the use of purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2009).
Purposeful sampling is the selection of a unit of analysis in order to “discover, understand, and
gain insight” concerning a specific phenomenon (Merriam, 2009, p. 77). Purposeful sampling
aided in acquiring what Patton (2002) termed, “information rich” responses and explanations in
the study. Specifically, the type of purposeful sampling applied to this study was maximum
variation sampling because, in employing Grounded Theory, a rich representation of experiences
and characteristics would produce a wide range of possible responses (Merriam, 2009).
Therefore, the sample was purposeful and voluntary.
The population sample chosen for this study was based on five criteria: a) participants
must have worked as a school counselor at a public high school; b) they must have obtained a
pupil-personnel services credential that authorized school counseling services in California; c)
they must have worked at a school site that employed two or more counselors in the counseling
department; d) they must have worked as a school counselor in counties surrounding Kern
County; and e) they were willing to participate in a 30- to 45-minute interview or were willing to
complete a survey.
Survey respondents were 252 school counselors who worked in public schools
surrounding Kern County: Tulare, Fresno, and Kings Counties. These counties were selected
because of their proximity and similarity to the researcher’s home district, and for the insights
they could provide to a similar district. In addition, the investigator recruited five school
counselors to participate in 30- to 45-minute semi-structured interviews. By restricting the
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 37
sample size to these areas, the researcher acknowledges that responses and explanations of the
participants are not representative of the entire United States.
Instrumentation
This study incorporates the conceptual framework of Grounded Theory in order to
understand the challenges encountered by school counselors in implementing evidence-based
practices. Because this study employs a mixed-methods approach, five semi-structured
interviews and 100 closed surveys was used. The aim of qualitative interviews is to “capture how
those being interviewed view the world, to learn their terminology and judgments, and to capture
the complexities of their individual perceptions and experiences” (Patton, 2002, p. 348). The use
of semi-structured interviews allowed for exploration and further participant elaboration
concerning the phenomena being studied. Furthermore, an electronic survey with 20 closed
questions was administered to 100 participants. Closed questions were implemented due to time
and ease of scoring, interpretation, and analysis (Fink, 2013).
Both the survey and interview protocol were developed in alignment with the research
questions and with the three general themes revealed in the literature review: a) school counselor
training and education, b) role perceptions of school counselors by principals, and c) self-
efficacy of school counselors. Participant responses from the interview allow for elaboration on
expected as well as unexpected themes; participant responses on the survey provide a general
understanding of the challenges that school counselors believe they encounter in implementing
evidence-based practices.
Threats to the validity and reliability of these instruments include the investigator’s
subjectivity, the withholding of information by participants, and time constraints.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 38
Data Collection
The researcher arranged the time and meeting place for each interview by contacting each
participant. Interviews were conducted by the researcher in private and confidentiality was
assured. Interviews were 30 to 45 minutes in length and were tape-recorded with participant’s
consent. The interviewer took notes and assured him or her that names and places of work would
not be provided. For the administration of the survey, the researcher obtained permission from
local districts and sent a letter of introduction that described the survey to the email addresses of
100 school counselors. Once participants responded that they would like to participate, they
received an electronic link. Those who did not respond were sent a reminder four days later.
After that, a personal phone call was made. As was the case with those interviewed,
confidentiality and privacy of the participant was assured.
Because this study incorporated Grounded Theory, the researcher used both surveys and
interviews to provide a spectrum of participant responses. In addition, threats to validity were
tested through triangulation, the incorporation of multiple strategies and methods that aim to
obtain data from many sources (Maxwell, 2013). An illustration of how this worked in the study
is presented in Table 3.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 39
Table 3
Triangulation of Data
Research Questions Interviews Surveys
To what extent are school
counselors prepared to
implement evidence-based
practices?
Questions about: education,
leadership, and on the job
experiences.
Questions about educational
background, training, years of
experience at current job.
How do the perceptions of
administrators on the school
counselors’ role influence
implementation of evidence-
based practices?
Questions about: job duties,
daily schedule, assignments
Questions about the
identification of appropriate
and inappropriate tasks for
school counselors.
What motivational factors
contribute to school
counselors’ implementation
of evidence based practices?
Questions about beliefs and
practices; incentives.
Questions that ask counselors
to identify self-efficacy
beliefs and probability of
performing illustrated task.
What strategies do
school counselors use
in implementing
evidence-based
practices at their
school site?
Questions about job practices.

Open-ended questions.

Data Analysis
Qualitative studies, like all research, can be limited by funding (Merriam, 2009). For this
study, a simple computer with MS word was used in order to transcribe interviews recorded on a
phone. The researcher uploaded his recordings to his computer and listened to them as he wrote
down his participant’s words verbatim on the interview protocol. All interviews were transcribed
by hand.
Data collection and analysis occurs simultaneously (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009).
Therefore, a rudimentary analysis of the data occurred by the manual transcription of the
interviews and observations. For example, the first interview was transcribed before the second
interview. In doing this, hunches and insights were informally gathered that could be used to
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 40
explore questions in later interviews. While insights were learned through the manual
transcription of interviews, a three step process is presented by Merriam (2009) in which the
researcher is encouraged to look for patterns, themes, and words that are linked to the research
questions. First, initial responses to the data were made through open coding. This was done by
jotting down notes and being open to themes that presented themselves in the data. Second, these
open codes were used to construct categories by grouping similar words and phrases through
axial coding. These items came from patterns that emerged in documents. Lastly, subcategories
were created as they related to the main categories.
Ethical Considerations
Participation in this study was voluntary. Credibility and ethics were maintained by
providing participants’ consent – either verbally or in writing—and assuring them of
confidentiality. For the survey, emails were sent to the participants’ email addresses using “blind
carbon copy.” Respondents’ answers for the survey were anonymous. For the interview, names
were changed and participants were informed of the extent of the research. The researcher did
not share information with other participants and made every attempt at confidentiality. In this
study, interviewed school counselors are referred to as Counselor “A”, “B”, “C”, “D”, and “E.”

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 41
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Although there has been increasing pressure for public high school teachers to close the
achievement gap through measured results and research-proven pedagogy, the same
accountability demands have been absent from most school counselors’ duties (Scarborough &
Luke, 2008). Recent movements called for the integration of more evidence-based practices in
order to shape comprehensive school counseling programs. Rather than focus on the quantity of
student contact, or parent and teacher meetings, evidence-based practices require school
counselors to utilize data and research in order to make decisions and close the achievement gap
for all learners (Johnson & Johnson, 2003; Poynton & Carey, 2006). Despite recent interest,
research on public school counselors and their use of evidence-based practices has not been
prevalent.
This chapter presents and discusses findings obtained from this mixed-methods study
about the challenges encountered by public high school counselors in implementing evidence-
based practices. Specifically, this study sought to examine how various factors either supported
or affected public high school counselors’ knowledge and application of evidence-based
practices in their profession. Evidence-based practices is the use of data and research to inform
and address problems in education. In counseling, these practices translate to needs assessment,
outcome research, and intervention evaluation (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007). The beliefs,
attitudes, education, and training of public high school counselors are at the center of this study
that aimed to analyze how these factors contribute to a school counselor’s use of evidence-based
practices, especially as the profession enters the 21
st
century. The data collected proposed to
answer the following four research questions:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 42
1. To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement evidence-based practices
at their school site?
2. How do the perceptions of principals and other administrators of the counselor’s role
influence his or her implementation of evidence- based practices?
3. What motivates school counselors to implement evidence-based practices?
4. What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-based practices at
their school site?
Participants and Methodology
This study used a mixed-methods approach that included surveys and interviews.
Quantitative data was collected via an electronic survey which asked participants questions about
counselor preparation programs, accreditation, knowledge and use of data, principal perceptions
of the counselor’s role, and beliefs and motives for using evidence-based practices. Questions
were purposefully designed in order to answer the four research questions. The survey also
included three open questions. The participants for the quantitative aspect of this study were
public school counselors in the Central Valley with at least one or more years of school
counseling experience. Participants were purposefully selected from school websites and emailed
a link to the survey. Of the 252 school counselors, 31 submitted completed responses. The areas
in the Central Valley included Kern County, Tulare County, Kings County, and Fresno County.
Of these respondents, five were selected to participate in interviews. These counselors are
referred to as Counselor A through E, and their identities have been protected.
Qualitative data was collected through personal interviews that were recorded and
transcribed. This data further explored school counselors’ beliefs and challenges concerning
evidence-based practices. Qualitative data was also collected via the last three questions on the
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 43
electronic survey. This information was later coded and placed into categories. The mixed-
methods approach allowed for the triangulation of findings by examining the literature, survey
and interview data.
Research Findings
Participant Demographics
The participants for this study were public high school counselors with at least one year
of school counseling experience who worked in one of the four Central Valley counties: Kern,
Kings, Fresno, or Tulare. Of the school counselors who answered the survey, 3.23% had been a
school counselor for 1 year, 6.45% had been a counselor for 2 or 3 years, 12.9% had 4 or 5 years
of experience, and 54.8% had at least 10 or more years’ experience. An indicator for using
evidence-based practices is the number of years as a school counselor. Longevity and experience
have proven effective among the school counselors surveyed, as they were able to use and
analyze evidence-based practices in their profession when compared to new school counselors.
All of the school counselors surveyed currently work in a public high school. Moreover,
the majority of them, 71%, graduated from a school counseling program accredited by CACREP.
The literature shows that counselors who graduate from a CACREP accredited counseling
preparation program are more likely to use evidence-based practices in their profession (Milsom
& Akos, 2005). Furthermore, when asked if they belong to a professional counseling network
such ASCA, 81% responded yes, and 19% responded no.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 44
School Counselors’ Years of Experience

Figure 1. School Counselors’ Years of Experience
Table 4
Accreditation of School Counseling Program
Accreditation Type f %
Yes 22 71
No 9 29
n=31
Table 5
Membership in Professional Network/Organization
Professional Membership f %
Yes 25 81
No 6 19
n=31
Interviewed Participants
Interviews are purposeful conversations that can be used to understand phenomena from
a participant’s perspective (Merriam, 2009). This study applied the framework of Grounded
Theory in order to provide in-depth understanding of the research questions as the participants
interpreted them. All five participants interviewed were public high school counselors with at
least one year of experience at the time of the interview. Of the five participants, only one
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 45
graduated from a CACREP accredited school counseling program. Further, no counselor was a
member of ASCA, but all belonged to a professional school counselors’ network within their
local districts.
Table 6
Demographics of Interviewed Participants
Name Sex Years as
School Counselor
Type of Program
Accreditation
Member of
Network
Counselor A M 8 Non-CACREP Yes
Counselor B F 9 Non-CACREP Yes
Counselor C F 11 Non-CACREP Yes
Counselor D F 11 Non-CACREP Yes
Counselor E F 30 CACREP Yes

Research Question 1: To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement
evidence-based practices at their school site?
Accreditation of school counselor preparation program and leadership. School
counselors who graduate from a CACREP accredited program are more likely to demonstrate
and apply evidence-based practices than school counselors who do not (Adams, 2006). CACREP
programs are aligned to national school counseling standards and professional competencies.
Specifically, CACREP accredited programs emphasize the application of theory and practice and
prepare future school counselors to implement evidence-based practices and data-informed
decision making (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007). Furthermore, CACREP programs prepare school
counselors to be leaders in their profession; research shows that counselors who are leaders are
more effective at challenging the status quo and using data to measure the outcomes associated
with comprehensive school counseling programs (Dollarhide, et. al., 2008).
As stated earlier, the majority, 71% of the 31 school counselors who were surveyed,
graduated from a CACREP accredited school-counseling program. Table 7 presents the level of
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 46
preparation school counselors believed they had in their program to use evidence-based
practices. Element 1, School Counselor Preparation, included four Likert-scale statements that
illustrated this belief. Statements included beliefs concerning leadership and training in a school
counselor preparation program.
Table 7
Element 1: Level of Preparation of School Counseling Program
Statement Level of Agreement

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
f % f % f % f % f %
My program prepared me
for leadership in my
profession.
1 3.2 4 12.9 5 16.1 9 29 12 38.7
My program prepared me
to use quantitative data to
improve my services.
2 6.5 5 16.1 7 22.6 11 35.5 6 19.4
My program prepared me
to use qualitative data to
improve my services.
1 3.2 7 22.6 7 22.6 9 29 6 19.4
My program prepared me
to use evidence-based
practices.
1 3.2 0 0 3 9.7 18 58.1 9 29.0
n=31

The participants’ responses from Element 1, as shown in Table 7, ranged from “Strongly
Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” In the first statement, “My program prepared me for leadership
in my profession,” 38.7% of the participants strongly agreed with the statement. Moreover, 29%
agreed and 16.1% were indifferent. Of the remaining participants, 12.9% “Disagreed” with the
statement while 3.2% “Strongly Disagreed.”
When asked about the level of leadership preparation they received in their school
counseling programs, all of the school counselors interviewed replied that they received no
preparation. Indeed, all but counselor E indicated that their preparation as leaders came as a
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 47
result of on the job practice and experience. Counselor D, who is also the head counselor of her
counseling department, stated:
I felt that most of my leadership training was hands-on. Once I jumped in there and did
the work, that’s where I learned most of my practices. I didn’t have any classes on
leadership, but, as a lead counselor, I definitely think it would have made a difference.
Another school counselor, Counselor A, reaffirmed that leadership experience came from
on-the-job practice and one’s own desire to learn:
I did not feel that [my program] prepared me. I was not prepared for some of the social
personal [aspects of] counseling that was involved and you learn some of that with
reading on your own….in dealing with different situations, you become more aware of
the range of counseling situations.
For school Counselors B and C, their counseling programs did not prepare them for
leadership roles because the programs were outdated and were taught by practitioners who were
never counselors or who were no longer active in their profession. Both felt there was a need to
revamp the curriculum. They, too, relied on their own motivation for learning and innate
leadership skills. As Counselor C states:
Half of [the program] was theoretical and non-useable because it was taught by people
who had never been school counselors. They were MFTs, school psychologists, and then
there were retired school counselors who had no real educational background. They had
no master’s degrees, just [pupil personnel services] credentials. Three of them had never
even been in a classroom. They’d been drug intervention counselors, and there was a
retired counselor teaching who was severely out of touch with the reality of what we
were going to be doing as counselors.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 48
Counselor C also describes that it was her own experience outside of the counseling
program that helped her develop leadership skills, especially when she became the head
counselor of her department:
I’ve been head counselor for the past five years, and my program did not prepare me to
lead counselors. My four years in a sorority as an executive member, and my training
through the private sector [prepared me]. These are skills that are paramount for being a
leader as a school counselor. Not only do you need to guide a team, but you have to be
able to make decisions that affect students and work with administrators who may not
always have [students’] interests in mind. I didn’t learn these skills through my program.
There wasn’t anybody in that program that I looked at and went, “Yeah. I can do it, too.”
For Counselor B, a school counseling curriculum that was disconnected from the realities
and current practices of the profession also contributed to her disagreement concerning the lack
of leadership skills learned in her program:
[The program] taught us from a backwards model. There was no talk about current issues
or trends or how to apply what we learned to practice. I don’t want to say anything bad
because some of those professors are good guys, but they were talking to us and dealing
with how they did counseling [in] the 70s and 80s. We’re in a completely different world
now. I just think through time and on the job practice….my innate skills helped me
become a leader.
For all of the four school counselors above, each one graduated from a non-CACREP
school and felt unprepared. School Counselor E, however, offers a different perspective and is
the only counselor who attended a CACREP program. She describes her program favorably:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 49
My training program was very rigorous and demanding. We met with teachers and
student peers on a regular basis and discussed our progress. We were videotaped
frequently and given constant feedback. These sessions gave me valuable lessons in
learning about myself and others. I felt more prepared and knowledgeable about my skills
and how to lead after completing this program.
The second statement in Element 1, “My program prepared me to use quantitative data to
improve my services,” revealed that the majority of the participants (54.9%) indicated that they
were in agreement with the statement. However, 22.6% of the participants neither agreed nor
disagreed with the statement, and the same percentile (22.6%) was indicated among participants
who did not agree with the statement.
For the third statement in Element 1, “My program prepared me to use qualitative data to
improve my services,” 48.4% of the participants agreed with the statement. Additionally, 22.6%
were indifferent, and 25.8% did not agree. While the majority of participants agreed with the
statement, the percentile difference was smaller between this statement and the previous
statement concerning the use of quantitative data.
The last statement in Element 1, “My program prepared me to use evidence-based
practices” revealed that a majority of participants (87.1%) agreed with the statement. Only 9.7%
of participants were indifferent with the statement whereas 3.2% did not agree. The interview
revealed different responses because the majority of school counselors did not feel that their
programs prepared them to use evidence-based practices. For many of these counselors, the
school counseling preparation program either had a class or did not have a class that trained them
to use evidence-based practices. During the interview, Counselor D stated that she did not have a
course on the topic:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 50
[My program] didn’t prepare me. It was such a long time ago, but I honestly don’t recall
having to look at data, read data, or make changes in my school based on the data. I don’t
believe we even had a course based on that subject.
Although she had a course on data analysis like Counselor A, Counselor B indicates that
there was a disconnect between understanding and application:
We had one research class, but it was more about understanding research. It wasn’t about
applying it or using it. It was a statistics class for researchers, but the subject of
counseling was not even mentioned. I just don’t think this is taught.
Counselor C further elaborates on this topic and explains that school counseling programs
fail current professionals because there are no classes concerning the use and application of data
for school counselors. Most of the classes, she argues, are separate from the program:
I took the Assessment class, the Data Management class, the Statistics class; the point is
nobody’s talking about data in our programs, and there’s nothing out there that teaches
you about data analysis. It’s all about laws, programs….so if you’re not good at [data],
then there’s no real teaching of it. My statistics class taught me data, not my counseling
program, and that’s part of the reason why I think counselors are weak: we just don’t
know how to use data.
In contrast, Counselor E felt very prepared about her use of evidence-based practices. As
the only counselor who graduated from a CACREP program, she states:
In my program, we took many classes that taught us about data and how to use it in our
profession. My statistics class, my testing class, and my psychology class helped me
understand how to interpret and use data to further enhance and broaden problems of
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 51
practice. Because of this, I was ready to assist students and parents in a more relevant and
beneficial way.
Overall, the results in Table 7 show that the majority of the participants agreed with the
survey statements in Element 1. For the most part, all of the school counselors who participated
in this survey agreed that their school counseling program prepared them to be leaders, to use
quantitative and qualitative data, and to apply evidence-based practices in their profession.
Interestingly, four out of the five interview participants did not feel that their program prepared
them for leadership within their profession, to use qualitative and quantitative data, or to use
evidence-based practices. For many of them, this lack of preparation was due to an outdated
curriculum, a disconnect between theory and application, and/or the absence of a data-based
class specifically for school counselors. Interestingly, Counselor E, the only counselor who
graduated from a CACREP accredited school counseling program, was the only interview
participant to express positively that her program prepared her.
Research Question 2: How do school principals’ perceptions and expectations of the school
counselor’s role influence the counselor’s implementation of evidence-based practices?
The role of the school counselor is defined by the principal (Zalaquett, 2005), but most
school principals have different perceptions and expectations of the school counselor. Despite
outlines and descriptions from ASCA about what a counselor should and should not do, the
reality is that many school counselors are performing non-counselor related tasks in public
schools (Lieberman, 2004). This misconception is due to a lack of understanding and training by
the principal, and a failure of communication between counselor and supervisor.
Element 2, “The role of the school counselor,” included four Likert scale statements that
asked participants to rate their level of agreement concerning how they believe their role and job
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 52
expectations are perceived by their school principals. Statements included beliefs concerning
counselor jobs perceptions and expectations. The participants’ responses from Element 2, as
shown in Table 8, ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.”
Table 8
Element 2: Perception of School Counselor Role
Statement Level of Agreement

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
f % f % f % f % f %
My principal understands
the role of the school
counselor.
5 16.1 2 6.5 3 9.7 7 22.6 13 41.9
My principal often asks
me to perform non-
counselor duties
3 9.7 3 9.7 4 12.9 12 38.7 9 29
My principal expects me
to use evidence-based
practices as part of my
role.
2 6.5 5 16.1 7 22.6 8 22.8 8 22.8
My principal holds me
accountable for using
evidence-based practices
as part of my role.
5 16.1 2 6.5 3 9.7 7 22.6 13 41.9
My principal holds my
counseling department
accountable for using
evidence-based practices
as part of our roles.
2 6.5 5 16.1 7 22.6 8 25.8 8 25.8
n = 31

As Table 8 indicates, the majority of the participants who completed the online survey
“Strongly Agreed” with the statements. The “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” category were
equal in responses received. For the first statement in Element 2, “My principal understands the
role of the school counselor,” 41.9% of the participants stated that they “Strongly Agree” with
the statement, followed by 22.6% who stated that “Agree.” It is evident that the majority of the
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 53
respondents (64.5%) agree with the statement. Of the remaining 35% of participants, 6.5% stated
that they “Disagree,” 16.1% stated that they “Strongly Disagree,” and 9.7% stated that they
“Neither Agree” or “Disagree.” Although the majority of the participants agree that their school
principal understands their role, interviews with school counselors indicated mixed results.
During the interview, Counselor A stated that his job as a school counselor was perceived
and understood very well by a school principal who had also been a counselor. Counselor A
stated:
My principal was a school counselor, and he’s kind of like a cheerleader for us. He
supports us and always tells us that we are doing a good job. He makes sure to place
counseling as a priority and gets us trained in the most current intervention and
educational programs so we can better help our students.
Counselor D also spoke about a supportive school principal, yet she commented on expectations
that are difficult to achieve:
[My principal] expects us to meet with every student, to know each of them individually,
and to be on top of them. Sometimes, those are very high expectations. It’s funny because
she’ll often run into a student and bring them to us. She’ll say, “This is your student, so
you should know him or her.” She expects us to know what is going on with that
particular student and that’s hard to do sometimes because we have over 400 students in a
caseload and can’t possibly know each one.
For Counselors B and C, the school principal’s perception of what school counselors actually do
has a direct impact on the comprehensive counseling program as it shapes the services and
purposes that are ultimately offered to students. When speaking about her principal’s
understanding of the counseling role, Counselor B said:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 54
My principal believes counselors should focus on academics because he is very academic
himself. He wants us to push our A-G rates and he ignores all of the personal and social
parts of our job. He struggles in understanding that because all the focus is about college,
college, college, so we basically become schedulers. There is no depth to his plan for us
because we don’t do grade level presentations, college fairs, and stuff like that. There is
no substance to why we want our kids to go to college. It is just something he said he
expects us to do.
Counselor B suggests that the principal’s understanding of the counselor’s role is shaped by the
principal’s own ideas and beliefs. Counselor C also implies this when she spoke about what she
thought her principal expected of her:
My principal expects me to be her right arm. She’s told me, “I rely on you to make sure
things get done.” She expects me to please parents, please teachers, and to take care of
problems before they get to her. I also must have a really high graduation and a-g rate and
make sure [our school] does better than everybody else.
For Counselor E, the school principal does not understand the counselor’s role at all. She stated:
At my school site, our principal tells us what we are to do, and I don’t feel I have the
freedom to do my job. He only sees what is going on outside. He doesn’t see how our
students feel or what other factors might be affecting them, so, when I make a decision,
he doesn’t understand why I did that. I think, as counselors, we have all the pieces of the
puzzle that other people don’t get, and principals forget that.
The second statement in Element 2 asked school counselors to relate their level of
agreement to the following statement: “My principal often asks me to perform non-counselor
duties.” Once again, the majority of respondents agreed with the statement. Of the 31
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 55
participants who took the survey, 29.1% “Strongly Agree,” and 38.7% “Agree.” Only 9.7%
stated that they “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” with the statement, while 12.9% of the
participants stated that they “Neither Agree or Disagree.” Interestingly, while counselors stated
that they felt their principals understood their role, they also stated that they were asked to
perform non-counselor duties. This disconnect points out a discrepancy in the results which are
further elaborated in the interviews with the five school counselors.
During the interview, Counselor C stated that she is often asked to perform non-counselor
duties by her principal. She explained:
Some people might say I am the highest paid secretary at my school. I stuff envelopes,
make my own copies, and address my own mailing labels. A lot of my work is clerical,
and I am expected to do it. I also act as a dean when I get students sent to me because
they don’t bring a pencil to class. Whoever says counselors don’t do discipline – and we
shouldn’t – well, that’s an absolute lie.
Counselor B shared similar experiences such as filing documents and having schoolyard
responsibilities at a high school. She stated:
We did a lot of the secretarial work because my principal did not think counselors needed
one. We also had lunch duty every day. We weren’t allowed to be in our offices at that
time, so we couldn’t be accessible to students.
The third statement in Element 2 asked respondents to indicate their level of agreement to
the following statement, “My principal expects me to use evidence-based practices as part of my
role.” The results for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree” were the same (22.8%) for each category as
the majority (45.6%) of participants agreed with the statement. Of the remaining participants,
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 56
22.6% indicated that they “Neither Agree or Disagree,” while 16.1% indicated they “Disagree”
and 6.5% “Strongly Disagree.”
In the fourth statement in Element 2, “My principal holds me accountable for using
evidence-based practices as part of my role,” a majority (64.5%) “Agreed” with the statement
while 22.6% “Disagreed.” Only 9.7% of the participants “Neither Agreed or Disagreed.” In the
interview, all of the five counselors explained that they were held accountable for using data
such as high school graduation and college eligibility rates. Counselor B explained:
At my school site, the counselors are arranged by grade level, so everybody knows who
the freshmen counselor, the sophomore counselor is, but, even if you don’t reach a
certain target, you won’t necessarily be called out onto the carpet by the principal, but
there is the brow raising and that kind of stuff.
Counselor D pointed out that the data she is asked to be accountable for by her principal is not
very “sophisticated or complex data.” Like Counselor B, she explained that the data concerns
high school graduation rates and college:
It’s straight forward data. Nothing that really shapes our program, but there really isn’t
any pressure from my principal about it. She just always asks like how many students did
we get into college. You know, whenever we get a student into an Ivy League school or
we get a certain number into a University of California, she gets excited about that.
The last statement in Element 2, “My principal holds my counseling department
accountable for using evidence-based practices as part of our roles” again shows that the
majority of participants (51.8%) “Agree” with the statement. Of the remaining participants,
22.6% “Disagree” and 22.6% “Neither Agree or Disagree.”
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 57
Overall, it is evident that the majority of survey participants agreed with the five
statements in Element 2. The majority of participants agree that principals understand their role
and they are in agreement with job demands expected of them. The interviews with the five
counselors demonstrate a different result as most of them agree that the principal does not
understand their role.
Research Question 3: What motivates school counselors to implement evidence-based
practices?
Self-efficacy is an important factor in motivation. School counselors who have more self-
efficacy and who have more experience in their profession, are more likely to utilize evidence-
based practices (Young & Kaffenberger, 2011). Element 3, “Evaluating School Counselor Self-
Efficacy Factors,” included five Likert Scale statements that asked survey participants to rate
their level of agreement concerning their current use of evidence-based practices. The
participants’ responses from Element 3, as shown in Table 9, range from “Strongly Disagree” to
“Strongly Agree.”

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 58
Table 9
Element 3: Evaluating School Counselor Self-Efficacy
Statement Level of Agreement

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
f % f % f % f % f %
I use evidence-based
practices to guide my
work with students
1 3.2 0 0 3 9.7 18 58.1 9 29
I regularly review my
school’s data (academic,
attendance, behavior, etc.,)
to identify gaps.
2 6.5 0 0 3 9.7 9 29 17 54.8
I use quantitative data to
improve my school
counseling services.
1 3.2 2 6.5 9 29 11 35.5 8 25.8
I use qualitative data to
improve my school
counseling services
1 3.2 1 3.2 9 29 20 64.5 0 0
I am competent in my own
use of evidence-based
practices
0 0 0 0 2 6.5 25 80.7 4 12.9
n = 31

The participant’s responses from Element 3, as shown in Table 9, ranged from “Strongly
Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.” In the first statement, “I use evidence-based practices to guide
my work with students,” 29% of the participants “strongly agreed” with the statement.
Additionally, 58.1% “Agreed” and 9.7% were indifferent. Of the remaining participants, 3.2%
“Strongly Disagreed” with the statement; no one “disagreed.”
When asked how she uses evidence-based practices to guide her work with students,
Counselor C explained:
I look at failure and success rates. I look at A-G rates and use these rates to help students
and staff become more aware of what is going on at the school. Recently, I started
looking at AP scores and I noticed how low they were among our students. I brought this
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 59
information to my principal and told her that we needed an intervention to address this
problem. I worked with the counselors to develop an Advanced Placement preparation
summer program.
Counselor A also spoke about A-G rates. He stated:
As the AVID counselor at my school, I know there is a big need to monitor how many of
my AVID students are college or university bound. This is information that everyone
needs to know because the entire school has a stake in it. I especially have to make sure I
improve those rates so I am constantly looking at grades and how these students are
performing in their classes.
Counselor D also concurred that she focuses on A-G rates and college acceptances as well. She
described:
For the most part, my use of evidence-based practices is nothing too detailed. I just look
at our gradation and A-G rates – you know, how many students are attending the different
systems of high education in our state. I track these acceptances each year, but, really, it’s
nothing too big.
For Counselor E, evidence-based practices appear to be more than just examining A-G and
failure rates. She explains:
I use evidence-based practices to understand problems of dropouts, absenteeism, poverty
and its effect on students. It helps me to become better informed about how to help
students accomplish their goals and graduate. You know, we have this Link Crew
program at our school – it’s an orientation program for new ninth grade students. Well,
that all started because I looked at discipline programs and read some research. As a
result, we had less fights on campus after this program was implemented.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 60
The second statement in Element 3, “I regularly review my school’s data (academic,
attendance, behavior, etc.)”, demonstrates that the majority of participants (54.8%) “Strongly
Agreed” with the statement. Moreover, 29% of the participants “Agreed” and 9.7% were
indifferent. Of the remaining participants, only 6.5% “Strongly Disagreed” with the statement.
The third statement in Element 3 asked respondents to indicate their level of agreement to
the following statement, “I use quantitative data to improve my school counseling services”
indicates that a majority (61.3%) of the participants are in agreement with the statement. Of the
31 participants who took the survey, 29% were indifferent to the statement while 9.7% did not
agree.
In the fourth statement in Element 3, “I use qualitative data to improve my school
counseling services,” no participants “Strongly Agreed” with the statement. However, 64.5%
“Agreed” while 29% were indifferent. Of the remaining participants, 6.4% did not agree with the
statement.
The final statement in Element 3 asked participants to rate their level of competency in
their own use of evidence-based practices as it applies to their profession. For the statement, “I
am competent in my own use of evidence-based practices,” 12.9% of the participants “Strongly
Agreed” with the statement. Of the remaining participants, 80.7% “Agreed” and only 6.5% were
indifferent. None of the participants disagreed on any level with the statement.
Evaluating the Self-Efficacy of School Counseling Colleagues. Element 3 asked school
counselors to evaluate their own self-efficacy concerning their use of evidence-based practices.
Element 4, Table 10, asked school counselors to evaluate the self-efficacy of their colleagues and
department as this pertains to the use of evidence-based practices. This section included five
Likert-scale statements that ranged from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree.”
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 61
Table 10
Element 4: Evaluating School Counselor Colleagues’ Self -Efficacy
Statement Level of Agreement

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
f % f % f % f % f %
My counseling
department uses
evidence-based practices
to guide our work with
students.
2 6.5 2 6.5 4 12.9 13 41.9 10 32.3
My department regularly
reviews our school’s data
(academic, attendance,
behavior, etc.).
3 9.7 2 6.5 4 12.9 14 45.2 8 25.8
My department is
receptive to new ways of
using data.
3 9.7 2 6.5 5 16.1 13 41.9 8 25.8
My department has
produced programs that
are a direct result from
our use of evidence-
based practices.
2 6.5 3 9.7 3 9.7 12 38.7 11 35.5
My colleagues are
competent in their use of
evidence-based practices.
5 16.1 3 9.7 2 22.6 12 38.7 4 12.9
n = 31
The participants’ responses from Element 4, as shown in Table 10, range from “Strongly
Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” In the first statement, “My counseling department uses evidence-
based practices to guide our work with students,” 32.3% of the participants “Strongly Agreed”
with the statement. There were 41.9% participants who “Agreed” and 12.9% were indifferent to
the statement. Additionally, 13% “disagreed” with the statement.
For the second statement in Element 4, “My department regular reviews our school’s data
(academic, attendance, behavior, etc.), 25.8% of the participants “Strongly Agreed” with the
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 62
statement while a majority (45.2%) “Agreed” with it. Of the remaining participants who took the
survey, 12.9% were indifferent, 6.5% “Disagreed,” and 9.7% “Strongly Disagreed.”
The third statement in Element 4 asked respondents to indicate their level of agreement to
the following statement, “My department is receptive to new ways of using data,” indicates that
25.8% of the participants “Strongly Agree.” Additionally, 41.9% “Agree” and 16.1% were
indifferent. There were 6.5% participants who “Disagreed” with the statement and 9.7% who
“Strongly Disagreed.”
Regarding the fourth statement in Element 4, “My department has produced programs
that are a direct result of our use of evidence-based practices,” 35.5% of the participants
“Strongly Agreed” and 38.7% “Agreed” with the statement. Moreover, 9.7% were indifferent
while 9.7% “Disagreed” with the statement. Lastly, there were 6.5% participants who “Strongly
Disagreed” with the statement.
The final statement in Element 4 asked participants to rate their colleague’s level of
competency concerning evidence-based practices. For the statement, “My colleagues are
competent in their use of evidence-based practices,” 12.9% of the participants “Strongly Agreed”
with the statement. A majority (38.7%) also “Agreed” with the statement while 22.6% were
indifferent. Of the remaining participants, 9.7% “Disagreed” and 16.1% “Strongly Disagreed”
with the statement.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 63
Table 11
Indicators School Counselors Use to Evaluate Their Motivation
Indicators f %
Identify and Close the Achievement Gap 8 26
Evaluate Effectiveness of Programs 7 23
Decision-Making 6 19
Determine Goals and Objectives 5 16
Share with Parents and Students 2 6.5
Increase Graduation and College Going Rates 2 6.5
Accountability 1 3
n = 31

Evaluating motivation factors. School counselor participants shared varied responses
when asked the open-ended question, “What motivates you to use evidence-based practices?”
There were short responses such as “accountability” and “goals.” Other responses were more
elaborate as counselors described their motivational factors such as “to identify and close the
achievement gap” and “to identify the needs of students in order to apply appropriate
interventions.” Similarities in responses were categorized into common themes as presented in
Table 11.
The majority of school counselors who responded to the question about motivation said
that closing the achievement gap was the most important factor for them in using evidence-based
practices. According to 26% of the participants, they used information gleaned from test scores,
graduation rates, college access, and truancy rates in order to focus on achievement differences
between subgroups that included students of color, English-Language Learners, and foster youth.
The second most popular response given by participants concerning what motivated them
to use evidence-based practices was evaluating the effectiveness of programs. Indeed, 23% of the
participants shared this response. As one survey participant explained, “I use evidence-based
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 64
practices because I want to see if my programs and interventions are working. It helps me see
what needs to be targeted and what needs to change so my department doesn’t waste time.”
Additionally, 19% indicated that they are motivated to use evidence-based practices
because it helps them make decisions. Another 16% also mentioned that determining goals and
objectives was an important motivation for them. Indeed, one counselor explained: “Having an
objective helps me guide my counseling department towards practices and goals that can benefit
our students.”
An equal amount of counselors (6.5%) responded that sharing data with parents and
students, and increasing graduation and college acceptance rates is the main motivator for using
evidence-based practices. As one counselor stated, “My department pushes really hard for raising
college acceptance rates. We chart what we are doing and look at our data constantly.” Lastly,
one counselor responded that being held accountable for his/her work motivated him/her to use
evidence-based practices.
Research Question 4: What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-
based practices at their school site?
Table 12
Strategies used by School Counselors
Indicators f %
Professional Learning Communities 17 55
Speaking with other Colleagues 7 23
Trainings/Workshops 4 13
Reading Books, Scholarly Articles 2 6
Taking extra classes 1 3
n = 31

When school counselors were asked the open-ended question, “What strategies do you
use to implement evidence-based practices at your school site?” five major categories resulted.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 65
The most popular response given by participants was that they used professional learning
communities. According to 55% of the participants, professional learning communities are
vehicles for counselors to share data, evaluate programs, and communicate with one another
concerning student and school community issues.
During the interview, Counselor A shared that professional learning communities have
been adopted by his department as a major strategy for implementing evidence-based practices.
He explained: “The positive of PLCs is that it gives us time to share with our colleagues.”
Counselor D recognizes the potential of professional learning communities and rated it as a
strategy that she is learning to use. She described:
The PLC is still a work in progress for counselors. Even though it’s the main way we talk
about data, I think it could be so much more. We’re not there yet, but I see the purpose of
it. It’s a good thing.
For the same question, 23% of school counselors responded that their main strategy for
implementing evidence-based practices is speaking to their colleagues. These discussions can be
informal and formal exchanges that concern a variety of student and school issues. For counselor
C, workshops, conferences, and new ideas can spark conversations and discussions that occur
with school counselor colleagues during lunch, while at work, or by visiting their office.
Counselor C explained:
Some colleagues and I started talking about “D” and “F” rates, so we started tracking
these. We helped students become more aware of their rates, and we noticed that the rates
went up. We started talking about this finding more and with other colleagues.
Counselor E also described:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 66
We have informal conversations. If somebody’s read something or seen something, they
share that with us. After a workshop, we started having real conversations about our kids
getting through advanced algebra because we know that it is the gateway to doing well at
a community college.
Additionally, 13% of the participants responded that trainings and workshops are
strategies that help them use evidence-based practice. Another 6% responded that they read
books and research to help implement these practices. Counselor E described, “As the lead
counselor, I bring books so that we can read as a team. Right now, we are reading From Good to
Great. Only one participant indicated taking extra classes as a strategy used.
Evaluating the effectiveness of a Professional Learning Community as a strategy. In
the past few years, there has been a push at the district level for educators to “ac[t] in new ways”
when it comes to professional development (Togneri & Anderson, 2003, p 12). Indeed,
Professional development has become an important part of successful schools (Mac Iver &
Farley, 2003). Many school districts have actively implemented professional learning
communities as a vehicle for examining data and implementing evidence-based practices. These
communities have become part of the regular school day as educators go through a “cyclical”
process of looking at student data to improve instruction (US Department of Education, 2009).
During these sessions, educators collaborate and design summative and formative assessments,
evaluate programs, and collaborate on strategies that help address student achievement. Table 13,
Element 5, asked participants to evaluate the effectiveness of Professional Learning
Communities as a strategy for implementing evidence-based practices. Because not all
respondents provided answers to this question, the data in Table 13 presents information from 30
respondents.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 67
Table 13
Professional Learning Communities’ Effectiveness
Statement Level of Agreement

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neither
Agree or
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
f % f % f % f % f %
Professional Learning
Communities have been
an effective strategy for
implementing evidence-
based practices.
3 9.7 7 22.6 7 22.6 5 16.1 8 25.8
n = 31
The majority (41.9%) of the participants agreed with the statement in Element 5,
“Professional Learning Communities have been an effective strategy for implementing evidence-
based practices.” Additionally, 22.6% of participants were indifferent while 32.3% did not agree
with the statement.
Interestingly, all of the interviewed school counselors disagreed with the effectiveness of
Professional Learning Communities as a strategy for implementing evidence-based practices.
From “non-existent” meetings to meetings that are “a waste of time,” the school counselors who
were interviewed expressed their dissatisfaction with Professional Learning Communities.
Counselor D explained:
To be honest with you, it was a really rough start. At the beginning, we were placed in
teacher groups so I didn’t see that as much as a benefit because counselors have their own
curriculum that they need to work on. Now that we are in our own group, we don’t meet
regularly. And when we do, most of the counselors come in late or they just want to talk
about other things like how their weekend went.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 68
Counselor A also described:
The negative aspect about PLCS at my school is that the topics are usually given to use
by the school principal. They aren’t really specific to school counseling, but I think our
[PLCs] could be much better if we developed these topics within our own department.
Because of this need to address school topics that are given to us, I don’t think it gives
school counselors a voice. I think one of the biggest losses that happens in our PLC is
that counselors have so much to add, but we aren’t given that opportunity because we are
so busy addressing these topics that have nothing to do with us.
For some of the interviewed counselors, professional learning communities did not
address topics or evidence-based practices. Counselor B explains:
Our PLCs could vary. Depending on the time of the year, it could be about transcript
review or getting ready for our next activity like a college event. There is never a whole
lot of collective planning or data sharing. Mainly, our PLC is just a time for event
planning and what was needed at the time for the department. Sometimes, all we did was
make posters or wrote up dates about upcoming events.
Counselor E shared similar concerns:
During our PLC, we just bring our calendars and make sure we have dates down for
different events. Other times, we don’t even have a PLC meeting. We should meet more
regularly and have a planned agenda to discuss data.
Summary and Discussion of Findings
This chapter presented and analyzed research findings that were obtained from an online
survey and in-person interviews with five school counselors. The research findings and analysis
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 69
of the data presented sought to elaborate and provide insights to the following four research
questions:
1. To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement evidence-based practices
at their school site?
2. How do school principals’ perceptions and expectations of the school counselor’s role
influence the counselor’s implementation of evidence-based practices?
3. What motivates school counselors to implement evidence-based practices?
4. What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-based practices at
their school site?
School Counselor Preparation
Findings obtained from the interview show that only School Counselor E, who graduated
from a CACREP accredited school counseling program, felt more prepared to implement
evidence-based practices than the other interviewed school counselors who did not graduate from
a CACREP accredited school counseling program.
During her interview, School Counselor E shared that her program prepared her well for
the leadership and data analyzing responsibilities of being a school counselor. Compared to the
other school counselors who focused primarily on college eligibility and graduation rates, School
Counselor E used data to delve deeper into larger issues that affect student achievement such as
truancy, equity, and poverty. Her implementation of the school’s Link Crew program, for
example, curtailed schoolyard fights and promoted school culture. When asked if she felt that
preparation from a CACREP accredited program attributed to her use of evidence-based
practices, Counselor E responded:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 70
Yes! I was confident I would do well because of the skills and knowledge I gained from
my program.
She further explained that enrollment in her program helped her to better understand and
measure the needs of her students through data.
Responses from the online survey indicate that the majority of respondents graduated
from a CACREP accredited school counseling program and were more likely to be use evidence-
based practices. Of the 31 participants who were surveyed, several agreed with the statements
concerning their level of preparation. The majority of participants agreed that their school
counseling program prepared them to implement and evaluate data as it pertains to student
achievement and their roles as counselors (Table 7). In addition, the majority of participants
agreed that their program also prepared them for leadership within their profession. None of the
participants overwhelmingly disagreed with the statements presented.
School Counselor Perceived Role
The majority of school counselors surveyed agreed that their school principal understood
their role (Table 8). Interestingly, the second statement asked if school counselors were ever
asked by their school principal to perform non-counselor related duties. Surprisingly, the
majority of school counselors agreed with the statement. This response revealed a discrepancy
between the two levels of agreement that was further explored in the interviews.
According to the in-person interviews, all of the school counselors explained that their
school principals did not understand the counselor’s role. From expecting counselors to know
every student on their caseload, to asking them to participate in supervising yard duty, and to
expecting them to file papers and substitute, the interviewed school counselors felt that a lack of
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 71
understanding of their role contributed to their inability to effectively implement evidence-based
practices. School Counselor E explained:
The principal is supportive, but she can be narrow-minded about the counselor’s role. She
doesn’t give us enough time to discuss important ideas and she gives us large caseloads
that make any type of data discussion or collaboration almost impossible.
Triangulation
Points of Convergence
Maxwell (2013) posits that the use of multiple data sources allows for a more rich
research-based analysis. This study used online surveys and in person interviews in order to gain
insights about the phenomena being studied. Triangulation, therefore, helps highlight areas of
convergence and divergence within the research. The following section discusses the study
findings as they relate to or disassociate from the literature. In Chapter 5, implications and
recommendations are further explained.
According to information obtained from the online survey and interviews, school
counselors who graduate from a CACREP accredited school counseling program are better
prepared to use and apply evidence-based practices in their work. Examples of these practices
include the integration and manipulation of qualitative and quantitative data, evaluation of
comprehensive counseling programs, and the ability to help guide a school counseling team
towards measurable objectives. In this area, the data agrees with the literature.
Additionally, school counselors with more years’ of experience are better motivated and
prepared to implement evidence-based practices. The literature is in agreement with this finding.
The majority of these counselors strongly agreed with their competency level concerning the use
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 72
of data. Their primary motivation for using data was to identify and close the achievement gap;
they were less concerned with accountability.
Interviews with school counselors support the literature concerning counselor motivation
as it relates to experience. With 30 years’ experience as a school counselor, Counselor E shared
her confidence in using evidence-based practices in her profession. In addition, her choice to
focus on more comprehensive issues highlighted the differences between the sophistication of
her areas of focus in comparison to the superficial and surface areas of her colleagues. Counselor
D supports this finding in her description of her colleagues’ motivation concerning evidence-
based practices:
My team is very opposite ends of the spectrum, and they all have different reasons for
their motivation or lack of it. There are some counselors who are very close to retirement,
and they are kind of ready to be done. They don’t want to bring something extra to the
table. And then there are some of them who are still young in their careers, and that’s a
challenge, too, because they don’t want to use data. They’re just motivated in making it
through the year!
Points of Divergence
The findings presented several areas of divergence from the literature and the results. The
literature argues that school counselors with more years’ of experience are more likely to use
data and evidence-based practices, yet it does not distinguish between the types of data. The
interview with School Counselor D shows that she uses more complex and sophisticated forms
of data in comparison to her peers who look at more straightforward and simplistic data such as
college eligibility and graduation rates. Although the literature emphasizes the importance of
accountability, the majority of school counselors indicated they were motivated to use data to
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 73
close the achievement gap. In fact, interviewed school counselors were not very concerned about
being held accountable by their school principal.
Interview data from this study supports the literature argument that school principals do
not understand the role of the school counselor. Interestingly, survey participants indicated
disagreement with this statement, but, in the next item, they indicated that their principal often
expected them to perform non-counselor duties. This section revealed a divergence between the
literature, survey results, and interviews.
For the majority of school counselors, professional learning communities were the
primary strategy that they identified as helping them implement evidence-based practices.
However, when it came to evaluating the effectiveness of this strategy, the levels of agreement
were closely mixed. Although a strong majority agreed (41.9%), those who disagreed (32.3%)
with the statement were not too far behind. In the interview, all of the counselors agreed that
professional learning communities were not working in their respective school sites. During the
interview, Counselor B explained:
[Professional learning communities] need to focus more on data….major data. We can’t
just focus all the time on A-G rates. There’s always this big push to get students college
ready, but nobody talks about the other areas – the other issues.
This study provided additional insights into the challenges that school counselors
encounter in implementing evidence-based practices. Data reaffirmed the argument that
preparation from a CACREP accredited school, the perception of the school principals of the
counselor’s role, and the number of years’ experience as a school counselor, have a direct impact
on the counselor’s use and application of evidence-based practices. The study also showed that
professional learning communities, as a strategy for implementing evidence-based practices, is a
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 74
tool that must be further elaborated on and refined to the needs of school counselors. The next
chapter presents additional analysis, implications, and recommendations.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 75
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Background and Overview of the Study
“School counselors are uniquely positioned to influence and implement many of the
schoolwide goals and initiatives to ensure that all students are college-and-career-ready”
(Achieve, 2012, p. 7). For school counselors, this means knowing how to use and apply
evidence-based practices in order to evaluate and monitor programs concerning students’
achievement (Hatch, 2014). Unfortunately, the use of data remains a challenge for school
counselors as the role moves into the 21
st
century (Hatch & Chen-Hayes, 2008). Although recent
trends in education push for more accountability among school counselors and the programs they
implement for children (Gysbers, 2001), scholars argue that there are existing organizational and
professional factors that impede this progress (Young and Kaffenberger, 2011). According to
Hines and Lemon (2011), the inconsistencies between school counseling preparation programs
and the perceptions of high school principals of the school counselor’s role have an impact on
the school counselor’s ability to perform his or her job. This disconnect between the role
expectations of school counselors and what they actually do results in a school counseling
profession in which “random acts of guidance” supersede “intentional acts of guidance” (Hatch,
2014). School counselors are now called upon to use data more effectively and purposefully.
The purpose of this study was to understand the challenges encountered by public high
school counselors in implementing evidence-based practices as they attempt to define their
comprehensive school counseling programs within the 21
st
century. This study applied a mixed-
methods approach in order to better understand the phenomena. An electronic survey provided
quantitative data and in-person interviews with five school counselors provided qualitative data.
Triangulation of the data was achieved using both surveys and interviews, and areas of
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 76
divergence and convergence were explored. This study aimed to address the following four
research questions:
1. To what extent are school counselors prepared to implement evidence- based practices
at their school site?
2. How do the perceptions of principals and other administrators of the counselor’s role
influence his or her implementation of evidence-based practices?
3. What motivates school counselors to implement evidence-based practices?
4. What strategies do school counselors use in implementing evidence-based practices at
their school site?
Limitations
This study elicited data from public high school counselors in the Central Valley of
California and only reflects information from that region. Also, interviews reflect the opinions,
beliefs, and experiences of public high school counselors from within Kern County and may not
be reflective of other school counselors within the rest of the state or the country.
Implications
The information collected from surveys and interviews in this study indicate that school
counselors encounter several challenges in implementing evidence-based practices. For these
school counselors, challenges include organizational, systemic, and personal barriers that result
in the superficial practice and application of data. Moreover, these challenges have an effect on
the creation of comprehensive school counseling programs and their impact on student
achievement. Additionally, interviews affirm and provide examples of the challenges
encountered by school counselors in implementing evidence-based practices at their respective
school sites. The following findings were presented:
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 77
1. School counselors who graduate from CACREP accredited school counseling
preparation programs are more prepared to implement evidence-based practices than colleagues
who do not graduate from a CACREP accredited program.
2. School counselors’ ability to use and implement evidence-based practices is affected
by the principal’s perception of their role.
3. School counselors are motivated to implemented evidence-based practices for a variety
of reasons with “identifying and closing the achievement gap” as their first priority;
“accountability” was the least concern for school counselors.
4. School counselors use Professional Learning Communities as a strategy to implement
evidence-based practices at their school site; however, this model, in its current implementation,
has proven to be an ineffective tool.
5. School counselors demonstrate a superficial understanding and application of
evidence-based practices.
Summary
The role and job demands of the school counselor are changing as education enters the
21
st
century. School counselors are major stakeholders in the education of all children as they
provide a variety of services and resources. In an era of budget cuts and increasing educator
accountability, school counselors must use evidence-based practices in order to justify their
positions and the programs they implement. This study explores the challenges public high
school counselors encounter in implementing evidence-based practices. It provides counselors,
counselor educators, and supervisors of counselors with examples of these challenges so needs
can be identified and addressed.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 78
While this study explored the challenges that school counselors encounter in
implementing evidence-based practices, information gained from interviews provided additional
insights concerning this topic. Although responses to the survey indicated that school counselors
appear to use data in their profession, comments from all five interviews contradict this finding.
These school counselors reveal that the current practice of using and applying evidence-based
practices is superficial at best, as almost all school counselors focus on surface level data that
includes college eligibility and graduation rates; more complex problems, such as gender equity,
truancy, and poverty, are either not thoroughly explored or ignored altogether. This is due to
several factors such as a school counselor’s lack of knowledge, lack of preparation, and role
conflict. Furthermore, it was also revealed in the data that professional learning communities, as
a strategy to help school counselors implement evidence-based practices in their profession, are
not as effective as they can be.
Overall, this study provides awareness to school counselors and others who work with
school counselors, about the challenges these professionals encounter in implementing evidence-
based practices. It is hoped that, with a better understanding of these challenges, school
counselors and those who work with them can help guide the profession towards the 21
st
century.
Recommendations for Future Research
The purpose of this study was to understand the challenges school counselors encounter
in using accountability practices like data in order to bolster the success of student achievement.
Furthermore, this study added to the knowledge and literature concerning school counselors and
their use of evidence-based practices. The information presented in this study will be valuable to
current and future school counselors and those who work with them.
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 79
Although this study provided insight into the challenges that school counselors encounter
in implementing evidence-based strategies, it also inspired more research in other areas that
affect school counselors. These areas serve an important role in helping researchers understand
the importance of data in the school counselor profession. Therefore, additional research is
needed in the following areas:
1. Expand the current study to include a larger sample size and multiple school districts
and counselors.
2. Further explore the use of and evaluate the effectiveness of Professional Learning
Communities among school counselors.
3. Further explore the types of data that school counselors identify and select as problems
of practice.
This study focused on a small sample size of public school counselors from across the
state of California. Expanding the study to encompass more California school districts and
counselors would provide additional insight into the phenomena. Although this study focused on
the challenges encountered by school counselors in implementing evidence-based practices,
further research is needed on the following:
1. How can school counselor preparation programs better prepare school counselors for
21
st
century skills in the age of education reform and increasing accountability?
2. Since the role of the school counselor varies from school site and school district,
additional research is needed from the principal’s point of view concerning the school
counselor’s role and expectations for using data.
3. How can current school counselors learn the 21
st
century skills needed in order to
implement evidence-based practices in their profession?
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 80
Although school counselors responded that they do use data in their profession, the types
and levels of data differed. More research is needed on strategies that can assist school
counselors identify and evaluate more complex forms of data that have an even larger impact on
comprehensive school counseling programs.
Conclusion
School counselors are an integral part of student achievement. As educators with
specialized training in student development and guidance, they have the power to effect change.
However, these changes must be empirically measured and evaluated in order for stakeholders to
recognize their impact. For many school counselors, this task is challenging and resulted in a
superficial use of evidence-based practices. This study provides school counselors, school
counselor educators, and those who work with school counselors, with an understanding of the
challenges encountered by public high school counselors as they aim to implement evidence-
based practices.
Without a doubt, the expectations and role of the public high school counselors is
changing. A reform-focused 21
st
century learning environment demands outcome-based results
and measurable success. School counselors can no longer rely on best practices to justify their
work in closing the achievement gap; instead, they must look closely at complex educational
issues that require research and collaboration in order to create systemic changes in education
and their profession (Dimmitt et. al, 2007). For the majority of public high school counselors,
this study demonstrates that they are receptive to making a change in order to bring their
profession into the 21
st
century.

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 81
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EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 89
Appendix A
Recruitment Letter

My name is Jose Garza, a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at the University
of Southern California. (I am also a public high school counselor). I am conducting a research
study as part of my dissertation process under the direction of Dr. Pedro Garcia. My study
focuses on school counselors and the challenges they encounter in implementing evidence-based
practices.

You have been identified as someone who is currently a public high school counselor and who
may be eligible to participate. Participation would require a one time 15- 20 minute survey.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity will remain confidential at all
times. Your relationship with USC will not be affected whether or not you participate in this
study.

You may also be contacted for an interview.

If you have questions, please feel free to contact me at josegarz@usc.edu

Thank you for your consideration. Your responses will add to the research.

Jose Garza
University of Southern California

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 90
Appendix B
School Counselor Survey
1. How many years of school counseling experience do you have?
2. Was your school counseling program accredited by CACREP?
3. What professional organizations or networks do you belong to?
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
4. My program prepared me for leadership in my position.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

5. My program prepared me to use quantitative data to improve my services.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

6. My program prepared me to use qualitative data to improve my services.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

7. My program prepared me to use evidence-based practices.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

8. My principal understands the role of the school counselor.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 91
9. My principal often asks me to perform non-counselor duties.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

10. My principal expects me to use evidence-based practices as part of my role.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

11. My principal holds me accountable for using evidence-based practices as part of my role.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

12. My principal holds my counseling department accountable for using evidence-based
practices as part of our roles.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

13. I use evidence-based practices to guide my work with students.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

14. I regularly review my school’s data (academic, attendance, behavior, etc.) to identify gaps.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

15. I use quantitative data to improve my school counseling services.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 92
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

16. I use qualitative data to improve my school counseling services.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

17. I am competent in my own use of evidence-based practices.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

18. My counseling department uses evidence-based practices to guide our work with students.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

19. My department regularly reviews our school’s data (academic, attendance, behavior, etc.).
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

20. My department is receptive to new ways of using data.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

21. My department has produced programs that are a direct result from our use of
evidence-based practices.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 93
22. My colleagues are competent in their use of evidence-based practices.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

23. What motivates you to use evidence-based practices?

24. What strategies do you use to incorporate evidence-based practices in your profession and
workplace?

25. Professional Learning Communities have been an effective tool for working with evidence-
based practices.
a. Strongly Disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither Agree or Disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly Agree

EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 94
Appendix C
Interview Questions

Date of interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer: Jose Garza
Interviewee:
School/District

Introduction

Thank you for participating in this interview. Your time and responses are appreciated.

I am a graduate student at the University of Southern California. My dissertation is about school
counselors and how they use evidence-based practices. As a school counselor, your experiences
are important because you can describe how you and other counselors use evidence-based
practices at your school site.

Let’s get started.

1. How long have you been a school counselor?

2. What is your prior experience and training?

3. Was your school counseling program accredited by CACREP?

4. What professionals networks and/or organizations do you belong to?

5. Tell me about your school counseling preparation program.

6. How did the program prepare you to use evidence-based practices?

7. How do you use evidence-based practices at your school site?

8. Within your department?

9. What type of support would help you use evidence-based practices in your school site?

10. How is the school counselor’s role perceived by the school principal?

11. What non counselor duties has your school principal asked you to perform?

12. What types of counseling duties are you expected to perform?
EVIDENCE-BASED SCHOOL COUNSELING 95

13. How does your principal expect you to use evidence-based practices?
14. What incentives or accountability is there for using evidence-based practices in your
profession?

15. Please describe your colleagues knowledge concerning evidence-based practices.

16. What strategies do you use to incorporate evidence-based practices?
a. In your profession.
b. As a department.

17. Professional Learning Communities have been implemented in several school districts
to help educators use evidence-based practices. How does this work for school
counselors at your school site?

18. Suppose I was a new counselor at your school site. What would I see at your PLC meeting?

19. What challenges does your department face in using evidence-based practices?

20. What would you describe as the ideal way or environment for school counselors to use
evidence-based practices?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to better understand the challenges encountered by public high school counselors in implementing evidence‐based practices, specifically examining the organizational, educational, and professional aspects that shape the school counselor’s role. Specifically, this study set out to determine 1) the extent to which school counselors are prepared to implement evidence‐based practices at their school site, 2) how the perceptions of principals and other administrators of the counselor’s role influence the counselor’s implementation of evidence‐based practices, 3) the motivational factors that contribute to a school counselor’s use of data, and 4) the strategies school counselors use to implement evidence‐based practices. The study implemented a mixed‐methods approach in which 31 public high school counselors from the state of California completed an electronic survey and five public high school counselors contributed responses to an in‐person interview. Through the process of triangulation, the study found that school counselors who graduate from a CACREP accredited school‐counseling program and who have more years of school counseling experience are more likely to implement evidence‐based practices. This study also found that, although these school counselors use data, their knowledge and identification of the types of data they use is superficial. Furthermore, school counselors believed that professional learning communities are effective tools for identifying evidence‐based practices, but the implementation of professional learning communities has proven ineffective. Overall, this study provides hope for school counselors and those who work with them that an awareness of these challenges can lead to school counseling that is evidence‐based.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Garza, José C., Jr. (author)

Core Title Evidence-based school counseling: challenges encountered by public high school counselors in implementing 21st century counseling skills

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/03/2015

Defense Date 01/22/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,evidence‐based practices,OAI-PMH Harvest,Public schools,school counselors

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Love, Laurie (committee member)

Creator Email jgarza@post.harvard.edu,josegarz@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-537008

Unique identifier UC11298447

Identifier etd-GarzaJoseC-3217.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-537008 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GarzaJoseC-3217.pdf

Dmrecord 537008

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Garza, José C., Jr.; Garza, Jose C., Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA