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Teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they choose to support academic achievement

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Teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they choose to support academic achievement

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Content Running head: TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 1 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS AND THE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES THEY CHOOSE TO SUPPORT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT by Linda B. Moffatt A Dissertation Presented to the FACUTLY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2015 Copyright 2015 Linda B. Moffatt TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 2 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First I would like to thank my children, Kyle and Christopher. You are my inspiration and my motivation and I thank you for your love and support. I love you for always being there to encourage me and to keep me focused on the light at the end of the tunnel. To my parents, Adrian and Sarah Briggs, who sacrificed so much to provide me with the educational and life experiences that made me who I am today. Your unconditional love has been a blessing through all my endeavors. This has been one of my greatest challenges, and I thank my family and friends for being there for me, cheering me on to the end. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 3 Table of Contents List of Tables 5 Abstract 7 Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8 Background of the Problem 8 Statement of the Problem 15 Purpose of the Study 16 Research Questions 16 Theoretical Background 17 Methodology 17 Significance of the Study 18 Definition of Terms 19 Organization of the Study 20 Chapter Two: Literature Review 21 Background of English Learner Education 21 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and Bilingual 21 Education Act (BEA) 1997 Content Standards and the 2010 Common Core State Standards 24 Instruction of English Learners 26 Professional Development 28 Teacher Perceptions of English Learners 28 Instructional Strategies 31 Conclusion 36 Chapter Three: Methodology 38 Purpose of the Study 39 Research Questions 40 Methodology 40 Discussion of the Instrument 42 Discussion 45 Chapter Four: Results 46 Treatment of Data 46 Participants Description 47 Findings 48 Results from Research Question 1 49 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Age 54 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Years Teaching 56 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Ethnicity 57 Analysis of the Scenario on Teacher Perceptions 59 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Age 62 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Years Teaching 64 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Ethnicity 66 Results from Question 2 68 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Age 71 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Years Teaching 73 Independent-Sample t Test Analysis by Ethnicity 74 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 4 Findings of the Study 76 Summary 76 Chapter Five: Summary of Findings 77 Problem of the Study 77 Purpose of the Study 79 Research Questions 79 Methodology 80 Discussion of the Findings 80 Findings on Teacher Perceptions 81 Findings on Instructional Strategies 83 Findings on English Language Development 84 Limitations 85 Implications for Practice 87 Professional Development on Teaching Culturally Diverse 87 English Learners Professional Development on Instructional Strategies 89 Professional Development on Explicit Instruction in English Language 90 Development Future Research 90 Conclusion 91 References 94 Appendix A: Survey Instrument 105 Appendix B: Dr. Sherry Marx Email 112 Appendix C: Dr. Sherry Marx Survey 114 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 5 List of Tables Table 1.1: Demographics for White and Hispanic students in California 8 Table 1.2: Academic achievement for two consecutive years 9 Table 1.3: Academic achievement for seven consecutive years 11 Table 3.1: Participating California School Districts selected 41 Table 4.1: Characteristics of participating teachers 48 Table 4.2: Participating teachers perceptions of English learners 51 Table 4.3: Percentage of each participant responding to teacher perception items 53 Table 4.4: Differences in perceptions of English learners between teachers who 55 are under 50 years old and teachers who are 50 years old or older Table 4.5: Differences in perceptions of English learners compared by 57 years teaching Table 4.6: Differences in perceptions of English learners by ethnicity 59 Table 4.7: Participating teachers perceptions of English learners (Scenarios 1 and 2) 61 Table 4.8: Percentage of each participant responding to teacher perception items 62 (Scenarios 1 and 2) Table 4.9: Differences in perceptions of English learners by age (Scenarios 1 and 2) 64 Table 4.10: Differences in perceptions of English learners by years of teaching 66 experience (Scenarios 1 and 2) Table 4.11: Differences in perceptions of English learners by ethnicity 67 (Scenarios 1 and 2) Table 4.12: Instructional strategies used by participating teachers 69 Table 4.13: Percentage of each participant responding to instructional strategies items 71 Table 4.14: Differences in perceptions of English learners between teachers who 72 are under 50 years old and teachers who are 50 years old or older TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 6 Table 4.15: Differences in instructional strategies teachers use between teachers who 74 have taught for 14 years or less and teachers who have taught for 15 years or more Table 4.16: Differences in instructional strategies teachers use between minority 75 teachers and White teachers TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 7 Abstract The new Common Core State Standards (CCSS) are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world by reflecting the knowledge and skills that students should possess in order to be college and career ready (www.corestandards.org). The content, performance, and language demands of the new standards are more difficult than those of the previous standards. This change will have an impact on all students, but especially on English learners. Students are required to engage with complex texts across all disciplines. This study was conducted to analyze two components of quality instruction that contribute to the academic success of English learners in light of the expectations the new standards have on student performance: (a) to determine teacher perceptions of English learners in a sociopolitical context, and (b) to determine the instructional strategies teachers use to support the challenging expectations of student learning. This study focused on elementary teachers in five public school districts across Southern California: Yucaipa-Calimesa Joint Unified School District, Fontana Unified School District, Ontario-Montclair School District, Riverside Unified School District, and Banning Unified School District. A quantitative method was used to collect survey data from 442 participants in order to analyze the perceptions, knowledge, and skills teachers have that may contribute to, or deter from, the academic achievement of English learners. Study findings revealed the challenges in using a quantitative method as the sole form of research when attempting to determine the knowledge and skills of teachers that may be preventing them from performing their jobs well and improving the academic achievement of English learners. Based on the findings, research-based solutions are presented to address the challenges. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 8 CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) represent a shift in thinking that requires students to engage with complex texts and to use critical thinking skills to solve real world problems (CA CCSS Mathematics Framework, 2014). They are demanding for all students, but more so for English learners, who face numerous academic challenges. The must not only become proficient in English, but also master the same rigorous content as their English-only classmates. The challenge for teachers is to meet the educational needs of a growing, diverse student population while at the same time deliver a rigorous instructional program for all students. Background of the Problem As the number of English learners in California’s public schools increases, teachers will need to learn how to teach them in light of the new California standards. Table 1.1 highlights the change in the English learner population in California between 2002 and 2013. Although the total number of English learners has decreased during this time, they now constitute a higher percentage of the student population, especially at the elementary level. Table 1.1 Demographics for White and Hispanic Students in California Population 2002–2003 2012–2013 Total student population 6,244,732 6,226,989 Percent White 34% 26% Hispanic 45% 53% Total English learners 1,599,542 1,346,333 Percent English learners 26% 22% Percent English learners in grades K–6 68% 72% TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 9 Source: California Department of Education (CDE), Data Quest (2014) According to the California Department of Education (2014), English learners make up 22% of the total student enrollment in California schools and are the largest growing group of students in the United States. Yet, as significant as the English learner population is, its academic achievement has fallen behind that of its English-only classmates. Table 1.2 shows the difference between the academic achievement of English learners and that of their English-only classmates, as reported on the California Standards Test (CST) for 2012 and 2013. Table 1.2 Academic Achievement for Two Consecutive Years Percent proficient or advanced Population 2012 2013 English language arts 4th-grade English learners 39% 30% 4th-grade English-only 74% 72% 8th-grade English learners 12% 8% 8th-grade English-only 66% 64% Mathematics 4th-grade English learners 54% 51% 4th-grade English-only 74% 76% 8th-grade English learners 17% 17% 8th-grade English-only 49% 46% Source: California Department of Education (CDE), Data Quest (2014) In 2013, 51% of the English learners in fourth grade were proficient or advanced in mathematics on the California Standards Test (CST). This number represented a decrease of 3% from the previous years’ CST results for fourth graders. In that same year, 30% of English learners in fourth grade were proficient or advanced in English language arts (ELA) on the TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 10 California Standards Test (CST), which indicated a decrease of 9% in the number of students who were proficient or advanced from the previous years’ CST results for fourth graders. This decline in academic achievement was repeated with eighth-grade English learners. In that same year (2013), 17% of English learners in eighth grade were proficient or advanced in mathematics, which was a 0% change from the previous years’ CST results for eighth graders. As for ELA, 8% of English learners in eighth grade were proficient or advanced. This percentage indicates a decrease of 4% from the previous years’ CST results for eighth graders. English-only students performed significantly better on the CST during these same two testing years. Also in 2013, 76% of fourth-grade students and 46% of eighth-grade students who spoke English only were proficient or advanced on the CST in mathematics. Additionally, 72% of fourth-grade students and 64% of eighth-grade students who spoke English only were proficient or advanced on the CST in ELA. Although there was little change in the academic achievement of fourth- and eighth-grade English-only students between 2012 and 2013 in both math and ELA, the difference between the academic achievement of English-only students and English learners is significant. Although the 2012 and 2013 assessment data represent different student groups, a consistent pattern emerges. Table 1.2 shows that for most of the assessments the English-only students outperformed English learners by a ratio of nearly 2 to 1. Comparative data between the academic achievement of English learners and English- only students can also be viewed longitudinally. Table 1.3 tracks a cohort of English learners and English-only students over the course of seven years for both ELA and mathematics. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 11 Table 1.3 Academic Achievement for Seven Consecutive Years % proficient or advanced by grade level from 2007–2013 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Population 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th ELA English learners 30 17 34 22 15 16 8 English-only 56 47 69 66 63 70 64 Mathematics English learners 46 46 47 38 22 22 17 English-only 65 66 70 64 58 57 46 Source: California Department of Education (CDE), Data Quest (2014) The English learners tested in second grade in 2007 had a 30% chance of being proficient or advanced in ELA on the CST. By the time this same group of students was tested in 2013 during the eighth-grade year, they had an 8% chance of being proficient or advanced in ELA. This finding was a 22% decrease in the number of English learners that were proficient or advanced in ELA between the time they were in second grade to the time they were in eighth grade. In comparison, English only students tested in second grade in 2007 had a 56% chance of being proficient or advanced in ELA on the CST. By the time this group of students was tested as eighth-graders in 2013, they had a 64% chance of being proficient or advanced on the CST. This finding is an 8% increase in the number of English-only students who were proficient or advanced in ELA between the year they were in second grade and the year they were in eighth grade. In mathematics, English learners were 19% less likely to be proficient or advanced in second grade than their English-only classmates, and 29% less likely to be proficient or TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 12 advanced than English-only students when they were tested in eighth grade. Between their second- and eighth-grade years in school, the English learners who were proficient or advanced decreased by 29%. No matter how the data are displayed, English-only students scored higher on the CSTs than English learners in both ELA and mathematics. The achievement gap between English learners and English-only students is wide, and may be too wide to close without changing the way we teach our English learners. Gloria Ladson-Billings (2007) has stated that focusing on the achievement gap only perpetuates the perception that there is something wrong with the English learners who have fallen behind. She has suggested that we shift our focus from what is wrong with English learners to what is wrong with the instructional practices we use in the classroom to support them. English learners have linguistic, educational, and cultural experiences that require a variety of instructional strategies. They are challenged with learning new concepts at the same time they are developing language skills, which produces unique learning needs that require additional scaffolding of both content and language. Meyer (2000) has referred to the number of new concepts within a lesson as its “cognitive load,” and how well English learners respond to a “cognitively loaded” activity will be dependent on the student’s initial familiarity with the content. If an English learner has little knowledge about the subject matter, the cognitive load of the lesson will be heavy, and require a larger degree of scaffolding for the student to learn the content. If the English learner has some knowledge of the topic, the cognitive load is less, requiring a reduced amount of scaffolding throughout the lesson. The Common Core State Standards asks students to explain, justify, and defend their thinking. The assessments for the Common Core State Standards will emphasize more performance-based assessments where TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 13 students will use illustrations and words to articulate their thinking and will contain less multiple choice tests (Duguay, 2013). Specific instructional strategies that scaffold the learning for English learners will be central to their academic achievement. However, teachers often claim they are not equipped to meet the challenges of teaching English learners, and they struggle with using effective instructional strategies that have an impact on student learning (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). In addition to instruction, what teachers bring of themselves to the classroom—their experiences, their histories, and their culture—is likely to have an impact on the academic success of students. For teachers from dominant cultural backgrounds, their own culture may not be something they are immediately aware of because it is in line with the prevailing opinions and beliefs of their social and academic environments (Glenn, 2012). The expectations that teachers hold for teaching and learning are grounded in their own cultural beliefs. According to the California Department of Education (2014), 69% of the teaching force is White, whereas 74% of the student enrollment in the state has declared it belongs to an ethnicity that is not White. Misunderstandings about the role of culture in behavior, communication, and learning often lead to assumptions about the abilities of students, especially English learners, to be successful in school (Glenn, 2012). The following information on student demographics was extracted from the California Department of Education (Dataquest, 2014):  53% of students are Hispanic  22 % of students are English learners  84% of English learners are Hispanic/Latino  88% of White students graduate from high school TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 14  75% Hispanic/Latino students graduate from high school  63% of English learners graduate from high school  Hispanic/Latino students are four times more likely to drop out of school than White students  English learners are two times more likely to drop out of school than English-only students. The Common Core State Standards are designed to ensure that students graduating from high school are prepared for college and career (www.corestandards.org, 2014). The data above indicate that large numbers of English learners and Hispanic/Latino students are not graduating from high school. Table 1.2 and Table 1.3, presented earlier, show that students who are graduating from high school are not academically equipped to succeed in college or the workforce. If the United States is to remain a global leader, our nation’s schools must provide high-quality education to all students regardless of race or ethnicity (National Council of La Raza, 2013). It is the responsibility of schools and teachers to implement the standards using research- based best practices that will assist students in achieving academic success (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices [NGAC], 2010). Research has indicated that the effects of high-quality instruction on student achievement can be stronger than the influences of language background and minority status (Darling-Hammond, 2000). As such, two practices that have a significant effect on the academic success of English learners include: (a) delivering quality instruction through the use of research-based instructional strategies and English language instruction (Calderón, Slavin, & Sanchez, 2011), and (b) providing a classroom environment that promotes equity based on cultural awareness and freedom from bias (Brown, 2007). However, TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 15 when there is a conflict between what students can do and what their teachers perceive they can do, barriers may arise that interrupt student achievement. Research has shown that the beliefs teachers hold regarding their teaching capabilities have a powerful influence on their teaching effectiveness. In a study by Groulx (2001), a high percentage of preservice teachers confirmed that (a) they did not see themselves as teachers of minority children, (b) they were not comfortable teaching in schools with a high number of minority students, and (c) they believed limited English proficiency was a permanent condition and presented an obstacle to student engagement and academic success. Groulx (2001) also found that preservice teachers were more comfortable teaching in schools where their own backgrounds matched those of their students. With 69% of California teachers identified as White and 53% of the student population identified as Hispanic/Latino, this disparity could have an effect on the academic achievement of English learners. Statement of the Problem The achievement gap between English-only students and English learners continues to widen as the English learner population grows (Hemphill & Vanneman, 2011; Rumberger & Gándara, 2004). Karabenick and Noda (2004) found that the recent change in student demographics has exposed a gap between teacher perceptions of English learners and their knowledge of how to meet the needs of their diverse student populations. Linda Darling- Hammond (2004) identified a gap between the knowledge teachers have of what works best in classroom instruction for English learners and the implementation of appropriate instructional strategies that will meet students' needs. The problem presented in this study is that teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they use have an effect on the academic achievement of English learners. There is a difference between the educational needs TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 16 of English learners and English-only students. The challenge for school districts is to determine what is preventing their English learners from making academic progress in English language arts and mathematics and to change those behaviors in order to provide English learners with access to challenging standards and curriculum. Purpose of the Study With the onset of the Common Core State Standards, concerns about the lack of academic achievement of English learners and the impact that quality classroom instruction has on that achievement has prompted this research. Two practices related to the academic success of English learners were the focus of this research: (a) teacher perceptions of English learners, and (b) the implementation of instructional strategies and best practices that support the academic success of English learners. This research examined teacher responses to an online survey regarding their perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they used to determine disparities among different groups of teachers that may have affected the academic achievement of English learners. Research Questions The following questions guided this study: 1. How do elementary teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? 2. What are the instructional strategies teachers use to provide English learners access to the CCSS? TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 17 Theoretical Background The current study was informed by social cognitive theory and stems primarily from the work of Albert Bandura. Social cognitive theory supports the belief that part of an individual’s academic achievement can be directly related to his or her observation of others within the context of social interactions and experiences (Bandura, 1977). Bandura’s (1977) theory emphasized how children and adults function cognitively in the context of their social experiences and how those experiences influence their behavior. The social cognitive theory suggests that individuals internalize information they encounter in a variety of social experiences and seek out new environments that are familiar to them (Bandura, 1977; Crusec, 1992). Bandura’s (1977) research included an exploration of how a person’s behavior that was originally maintained by external expectations can become maintained by internal expectations. His research stated that people do not change their behaviors according to momentary influences; rather, they hold on to ideological positions throughout their lives in spite of changing situations (Bandura, 1977, 2001). Bandura’s (1977) framework supports the notion that teachers construct meaning from interactions and experiences that shape their worldview and learning. This study was designed to capture and examine the experiences of teachers, how those experiences shaped their perceptions of English learners, and what impact that had on them as teachers of English learners. Methodology A quantitative design was used to address both research questions. This method was selected to examine numerical trends of a sample population of elementary teachers and to make it relatable to a larger population of teachers (Creswell, 2009). Data were collected via a survey distributed to 442 elementary teachers who worked in five public school districts in Southern TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 18 California. The instrument used to collect data was a 69-question survey intended to measure teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they use in their classroom. Elementary teachers from kindergarten through sixth grade were sent an email with a link to the survey that was created in the Qualtrics program available to USC students. Following a four-week collection window, the results were analyzed through Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Prior to distribution to participating teachers, a cohort of educators piloted the survey to determine the reliability of the survey. Significance of the Study The results of this research provide information on how a particular set of elementary teachers perceived English learners. They also reveal the instructional strategies teachers used to scaffold learning for English learners so they may access rigorous curriculum supported by the Common Core State Standards. The results of this study can be used by educators to guide relevant professional development for new and veteran teachers on how to meet the unique learning needs of English learners. The information provided in this study can also be used by teachers to gauge their own perceptions of English learners and decide which strategies to use to support student learning. And, finally, this study can be used as a model by other researchers as they design their own studies and learn from the methodologies presented here. Definitions of Terms The following is a list of terms and definitions of specific vocabulary used in this study. Access: curricular and instructional modifications are applied throughout a lesson according to the individual needs of the students to ensure they can acquire the content knowledge and meet grade-level standards (Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose, & Jackson, 2002). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 19 Achievement gap: a consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between different groups of children. California Standards Test (CST): standardized tests based on the 1997 California Content Standards indicating what teachers were expected to be teaching and what students were expected to be learning. Common Core State Standards (CCSS): Educational standards that describe what students should know and be able to do in each subject in each grade from kindergarten through high school. Since 2010, 45 states have adopted the same standards for English and math. Culture: the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a particular social, ethnic, or age group. English-only: students who are native English speakers. Equity: an obligation to equalize students' access to educational opportunities. Professional development: adult learning focused on increasing knowledge, skills, and abilities of educators in order to address improved student achievement. Research-based instructional strategies: instructional strategies and practices that are connected to research and are shown to have an impact on student achievement. Scaffold: instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward deeper understanding of the content knowledge and, ultimately, to greater independence in the learning process. Organization of the Study This dissertation is presented in five chapters, with an introduction to the problem in the first chapter. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the relevant literature used to inform and guide the current study of teachers’ perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 20 use to scaffold learning. The methodology for surveying teachers is outlined in Chapter 3, and an outline of the methods, data collection, and data analysis process is reviewed in Chapter 4. The study concludes with a discussion of the findings, recommendations, and implications for future research in Chapter 5. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 21 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW The California Department of Education (2012) reported that 78% of teachers in California had a certificate to provide appropriate instruction to English learners; yet, the lack of academic achievement of English learners indicates that teachers are still not addressing their students’ specific learning needs. Analyzing the struggles of English learners provides a roadmap for recognizing teaching practices and attitudes that contribute to this lack of success (Darling- Hammond, 2007). With the implementation of the new rigorous Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the new accountability system called the California Assessment of Student Performance & Progress (CAASPP), it is useful to consider factors that contribute to the lack of academic achievement of English learners—including background information on bilingual education, which provides a rationale for the social cognitive theory as an appropriate framework in the education of English learners. Background of English Learner Education Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and Bilingual Education Act (BEA) The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was signed into law in 1965 by President Lyndon B. Johnson as part of his War on Poverty. Prior to the ESEA, the federal government provided minimal funding to states for special programs. The purpose of the ESEA was to grant federal aid in the form of Title 1 funding to schools that had a large number of poor and minority children for the purpose of closing the achievement gap (Standerfer, 2006). The passage of the ESEA brought about a change in the role of the federal government in public education. Shortly after becoming law, the ESEA added programs to include children with disabilities as well as English learners. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 22 Over the years, presidents and the federal government have modified the law several times. Beginning in the 1980s, the focus of the ESEA—specifically the role of Title 1 funding— changed from providing schools with support to one holding school districts accountable for better test results. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan created the National Commission of Excellence in Education (NCEE) to investigate the quality of education in the United States. The outcome of this investigation was highlighted in a report entitled A Nation at Risk: The Imperative For Educational Reform (1983). The NCEE looked at several aspects of teaching and learning at the primary, secondary, and college levels, and compared those findings to statistics in other advanced nations. At its conclusion, the report provided several recommendations for improving schools, including adopting more rigorous content standards. The report made only slight references to the equitable treatment of English learners, stating that all students would have equal access to the same rigorous educational expectations (A Nation at Risk, 1983). A Nation at Risk touched off a wave of local, state, and federal reform efforts, including reforms for the education of English learners. Since 1965, the ESEA has undergone six reauthorizations. With each reauthorization, the importance of educating English learners has increased. The first reauthorization in 1968 established the Bilingual Education Act (BEA), Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965). The BEA provided grants to school districts that focused on children with limited English proficiency who came from homes where the primary language was not English (Wright, 2005). The goal of the BEA was to provide equitable access to rigorous curriculum for English learners. However, the language of the BEA was vague and did not provide specific recommendations (Ovando, 2003). Despite its ambiguity, the BEA marked the first steps toward recognizing languages and cultures in schools, as well as outlining the obligations for districts TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 23 that receive additional funding to address the needs of English learners. As a result of the BEA, a student’s home language and culture could be used to educate students. The 1974 reauthorization of ESEA for Title VII provided clarity in the types of instruction that were appropriate for English learners. New provisions in the law indicated that a students’ native language could be used to meet their educational needs. Additionally, the law provided a clearer definition for the label “limited-English speaking ability” (LESA) to mean students whose native language is not English and who would have difficulty speaking and understanding instruction in the English language. With this reauthorization, the federal government took the official position that the purpose of bilingual education was to teach English and to help students progress through the educational system, downplaying a student’s native language (Wright, 2005). The reauthorization of ESEA in 1988 for Title VII stated that English learners must meet specific goals for improving the academic achievement and English proficiency and that English learners could be taught in their native language for the purposes of promoting subject matter achievement and English language acquisition (Wright, 2005). In 1994, the ESEA was reauthorized once more under President Bill Clinton’s Goals 2000: Improving America’s Schools Act. This reauthorization included modifications to Title VII, including changing the definition of bilingual education to make it broader and encompass more programs with the sole purpose of ensuring that English learners master English and meet the same rigorous standards for academic performance expected of all children (Weise, 1998). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is the most recent reauthorization of the ESEA and passed under President George W. Bush in 2001. The main focus of NCLB is on educational outcomes and accountability, specifically requiring that all students make adequate progress as measured TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 24 on standardized tests and for districts to provide evidence of student progress (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). As part of NCLB, the Bilingual Education Act was eliminated and replaced with Title III, the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act. Title III accomplished four things: (a) it placed a strong emphasis on English learning, (b) it removed the term “bilingual” from the federal law, (c) it required all English learners to take the same statewide tests as their native English-speaking classmates, and (d) it required all English learners to take English language proficiency assessments to measure their acquisition of English (Menken, 2010). These components of NCLB contrast with the goals of the BEA, which emphasized putting structures and programs in place to promote language learning. The social political history of bilingual education through the many reauthorizations of the ESEA shows that what matters most for the education of English learners is quality classroom instruction (Calderón et al., 2011). In spite of all the changes to the ESEA in terms of bilingual education, the performance of English learners on state assessments remains low. If the goal is to improve the academic achievement of English learners, regardless of English proficiency or academic background, changes must occur in the way English learners are educated (Olson, 2003). 1997 Content Standards and the 2010 Common Core State Standards According to NCLB (2001), all students must be proficient on state assessments by 2014. The report, A Nation at Risk (1983), criticized the increasing mediocrity within American schools and started a reform movement across the country. Academic standards and student performance dominated this movement with the expectation that all children achieve at high levels. California’s academic standards were authorized by the 1995 passage of the Leroy Greene TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 25 California Assessment of Academic Achievement Act, which mandates the adoption of rigorous standards in the core curriculum areas of English language arts, mathematics, history-social science, and science, for grades K–12 (Koski, 2002). Curriculum frameworks were created for each of the core subjects for the purpose of supporting the implementation of the new 1997 content standards with a focus primarily on curricular and instructional content (English– Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve, 2009). In 2010, California and 45 other states across the United States adopted new content standards. The California Common Core State Standards represent a unified state-led initiative to develop a common set of standards in English language arts and mathematics, to establish common expectations for students in grades K–12, and to prepare them for success in college and the workplace (CDE CCSS, 2015). The Common Core State Standards differ from the 1997 standards because they are internationally benchmarked and explicitly focus on what students need to learn. The NGAC officers have concurred that all students should be held to the same high expectations outlined in the Common Core State Standards, recognizing that English learners may require additional support as they acquire both English language proficiency and content area knowledge (CDE, 2012). As California’s English learners engage in learning the rigorous content of the Common Core State Standards, they will require instructional supports (Calderon et al., 2011). In recognition of this support, new English language development standards, aligned with the Common Core State Standards and the college and career readiness standards, have been developed to clarify what knowledge is needed to enhance the academic achievement of English TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 26 learners (CDE, 2012). Given appropriate pedagogical supports, English learners can be successful with the new standards (Bunch, 2013). Instruction of English Learners The Cross-Cultural, Language and Academic Development (CLAD) and Bilingual- CLAD (B-CLAD) credentials were created in response to the state’s rapidly growing English learner population. The purpose of the CLAD and B-CLAD certificates was to ensure that every teacher in California was prepared to provide effective instruction that meets the specific needs of English learners (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). The CLAD credential qualifies a teacher to provide instruction on the acquisition of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in English. The B-CLAD credential qualifies a teacher to provide the same instruction as the CLAD credential, but allows the instruction to be delivered in the primary language. In 1998, the CLAD credential changed when the State of California passed Senate Bill (SB) 2042. This bill required the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC) to restructure the CLAD/B-CLAD credentials to have greater emphasis on English acquisition and less on biliteracy and bilingual development. The passage of SB 2042 coincided with voter- approved Proposition 227, which required that English learners be taught in English unless parents specifically request that their children be placed in a bilingual program. The passage of both SB 2042 and Proposition 227 provide a backdrop to the English-only instruction mandate embedded within each of the bills. SB 2042 established credentialing reforms that would require elements related to teaching English learners to be imbedded in all postsecondary education programs. Although every teacher education program in California must demonstrate that it provides this special preparation, teachers felt the coursework was superficial and were not prepared to teach English TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 27 learners (O’Hara & Pritchard, 2008). English learners are mainstreamed into classrooms in which teachers do not necessarily have the expertise to provide support in language development and acquisition. At the time of reauthorization of the CLAD credential under SB 2042, there was no mention of the B-CLAD or what new requirements there would be for the preparation of bilingual teachers (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). As a result, there was an underlying assumption that there would be less demand for bilingual teachers and a decreased need for bilingual programs. The preparation of new teachers to provide effective instruction to English learners diminished with the conversion of content-specific courses to embedded content throughout credential coursework. Negative attitudes about English learners began to emerge when unprepared teachers encountered challenges in working with this population (Karabenick & Noda, 2004). A well-intentioned teacher can become overwhelmed when he or she does not have the prerequisite training to effectively teach an English learner (Walker, Shafer, & Iiams, 2004). Teachers who hold misconceptions about second language acquisition may develop negative attitudes toward English learners when their expectations for academic progress are not met. The traditional belief is that exposure to English is the most effective means to learn the language and that more exposure to the English language will result in quicker academic achievement (Gutiérrez, Asato, Pacheco, Moll, Olson, Horng, & McCarty, 2002). Providing training for teachers so they may support English learners can correct many of the misconceptions they may have about teaching English language instruction. In their research, Walker et al. (2004) found that even a small amount of appropriate training on English language development (ELD) can go a long way in improving negative teacher beliefs toward English learners. They found that teachers who reported having at least some training in effective TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 28 instructional strategies for English learners were more likely to want English learners in their class (Walker et. al., 2004). Professional Development A typical professional development enterprise provides teachers ways to adapt teaching techniques to making the content comprehensible for English learners and to develop contextual support for instruction. However, the theoretical foundation for English language development is simplified, and complex learning structures are condensed into bulleted lists of activities (Harper & Jong, 2004). Participants typically leave the professional development with a sense that teaching English learners is only a matter of using good teaching strategies that can be adapted for English learners. Common sense and good intentions are important, but teaching English learners also requires knowledge in second language acquisition, linguistics, multicultural education, and English learner pedagogy (Banks, 2001; Walker et al., 2004). Our current postsecondary educational system has failed to provide instruction to teachers on the role of language in learning and how language acquisition supports student achievement (Gutierrez et al., 2002). Not focusing on the specific language needs of English learners extends the perception that English learners will academically progress over time. It is important to contest this misconception and prepare and train teachers to provide an appropriate education for English learners—one that includes English language development (ELD). Teacher Perceptions of English Learners Much of the existing research on academic achievement has addressed variables that schools can control such as curriculum, instructional strategies, and professional development. Much less research has been conducted on social and cultural assumptions that affect how teachers interact with diverse student populations (Glenn, 2012). In 2012, the National Center for TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 29 Educational Statistics (NCES) reported that nearly 71% of public school teachers were White, native English speakers who were likely to have had little training in working with culturally and linguistically diverse learners. With a decrease in multicultural course offerings due to SB 2042, many teachers hold a cultural deficit perspective on student learning and the academic achievement of English learners (Athanases & Martin, 2006). Research has shown that English learners are frequently misperceived, and are very aware of this misperception (Payne, 1994). Ichheiser (1970) has noted that people who do not separate themselves from a particular group will eventually adjust their behavior to match the expectations of that group, which could lead to the development of stereotypes. This finding suggests that when teachers are exposed to negative attitudes toward English learners over a long period of time, they are prone to internalize those negative attitudes. Due to the increasing population of English learners in the nation’s schools and the pressure placed on teachers to be accountable for their academic achievement, there is potential for negative teacher attitudes to emerge. Unprepared for the rapid growth of English learners and the changing demographics in both their community and classroom, teachers often experience a change in attitude toward English learners (Walker et al., 2004). Ball and Lardner (1997) stated that effective instruction of English learners relates directly to teachers’ dispositions toward their students and their backgrounds. They observed that a lack of respect for the home language led to negative attitudes toward English learners, which led to obstacles that hindered the students’ academic achievement. In rural and small communities, where the majority of residents often have little or no experience with diverse populations, sudden demographic changes can translate into wide- spread misunderstandings. Beck (1994) found chronicles of negative attitudes among teachers toward diverse students in cities across America when these teachers were faced with the TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 30 challenges of teaching this population. Beck (1994) also found that if a community does not embrace its diverse citizens, schools and many of the teachers in that community are unlikely to embrace them, too, impacting the quality of education these students receive. Horencyzk and Tatar (2002) found that a teacher’s behavior toward a culturally diverse student population often reflects the values of the community in which he or she lives and his or her educational settings. As members of their communities, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers, administrators, and parents internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms, creating an environment that mirrors the community and society as a whole (Walker et al., 2004). Negative attitudes have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the motivation and achievement of English learners (Payne, 1994). Furthermore, teachers’ attitudes toward English learners can affect a teachers’ openness to participating in professional development designed to improve competencies and to dispel beliefs about language and cognition (Karabenick & Noda, 2004). This finding suggests that when they go unchallenged, negative attitudes can impede attention to instructional practices that support the success of English learners. A teacher’s belief that he or she can teach is a powerful factor in student achievement. If teachers strongly believe that all students can learn and that they can teach all students, they are more likely to engage in positive instructional practices (Meyer, 1985). Supporting research shows that teachers with a high sense of personal efficacy are more confident in their classrooms and demonstrate more positive communication with their students (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1983). In turn, a teacher’s attitude and behavior can have an effect on the students’ self- confidence, which is developed through interpersonal interactions in the classroom (Davidson & Lang, 1960). In their research, Davidson and Lang (1960) found a positive correlation between a TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 31 child’s perception of his or her teachers’ feelings toward him or her and the child’s perception of him- or herself. This insight is valuable because Payne (1994) found that negative attitudes about English learners had an effect on their academic performance, resulting in alienation between teachers and their English learners. Instructional Strategies As the number of English learners grows, teachers are realizing how critical it is to learn how to best support instructional needs. English learners are challenged with learning content at the same time they are learning English, which confronts them with an amplified cognitive load that requires additional scaffolding. With the Common Core Standards, our students will be increasingly asked to explain, justify, and defend their thinking. The emphasis is shifting away from multiple-choice tests and toward performance-based assessments that require students to articulate their thinking. Equipping students to confidently engage in learning will require teachers to think creatively about how best to scaffold their instruction and to choose instructional strategies that will accomplish this objective (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Teacher quality is critical to meeting the specific learning needs of English learners. However, teachers claim that they struggle with determining effective instructional strategies that have an impact on student achievement (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). Failure to use appropriate instructional strategies for English learners stems from the assumption that teaching English learners involves curricular adaptations that can easily be incorporated into a teacher’s daily instruction. Good teaching practices are necessary for English learners, but these practices do not necessarily meet their specific linguistic needs. The unmet needs of English learners continues to be a concern for teachers who are focused on meeting the challenges of providing TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 32 effective instruction for English learners with the onset of the California Common Core State Standards (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). According to the new English Language Arts/English Language Development Framework for California Public Schools: Transitional Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (ELA/ELD Framework, 2014) teachers will need to provide English learners with English Language Development (ELD) instruction, as well as employ effective strategies that support English learners as they access core content for math, science, English, and history. All English learners need a daily designated time protected from interruptions, as well scaffolding that supports access to the core curriculum and is integrated throughout the day (ELA/ELD Framework, 2014). During this integrated time, teachers need to provide carefully planned scaffolding that supports each student according to his or her needs in order to access to the content. Bruner and Watson (1983) have referred to scaffolding as a process in which teachers create situations that support a student’s access to core curriculum, and then gradually release that role to the student as he/she becomes skilled enough to manage the content without the support. Scaffolding does not change the intellectual challenge of the task, but allows learners to build the knowledge they need to eventually perform the task without the support. Research-based strategies that provide effective scaffolding for English learners have been identified for this research. Below is a review of each of the 13 strategies selected to study for this research:  Academic vocabulary: Academic vocabulary is a strategy used to lighten the language load of written and verbal language in order to increase accessibility to rigorous curriculum (Meyer, 2000). Academic vocabulary can be domain-specific whereby the TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 33 words are specific to core disciplines like biology and geometry, or general whereby words appear across different content areas (Baumann & Graves, 2010).  Peer-to-peer interaction: Cooperative grouping and pair work enable students to assist each other for the purpose of accomplishing a task. Peer-to-peer interaction supports effective communication, provides leadership opportunities, builds positive and supportive relationships, and increases self-confidence and independence (Johnson & Johnson, 1999).  Realia: Real objects incorporated into lessons provide a concrete context for words and ideas. Embedding contextual objects such as manipulatives, pictures, short films, and other authentic objects can make language accessible and engaging for students (Walqui, 2006).  Graphic organizers: Visual aids facilitate learning and help students organize their ideas and communicate more effectively. Graphic organizers, such as Venn Diagrams, Thinking Maps, story webs, and flow charts, help students organize complex information in a way that makes the information accessible and easier to understand and learn (Dye, 2000; O'Donnell, Dansereau, & Hall, 2002).  Front loading: Front loading is preteaching for the upcoming vocabulary and language demands that will be needed to comprehend and engage in the content of the lesson. Front-loading anticipates the linguistic competence the lesson will require. Skills and vocabulary are determined by the language requirements of the forthcoming lesson (Dutro & Moran, 2003).  Prior knowledge: This strategy is the practice of beginning a lesson by establishing a link between the students’ personal lives and the material. It puts new knowledge into a TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 34 familiar context for the students, relating it to prior knowledge and experiences (Pearson, Hansen, & Gordon, 1979).  Multiple modes of instruction: Different modes of instruction are necessary to meet the diverse learning needs and preferences of each student. The delivery of content must be in multiple formats (Singh, 2003). Examples of different modes of delivery include audio, textbooks, videos, role playing, small group discussion, lecture, power points, animations, and stories (Buch & Bartley, 2002).  Feedback: Teachers provide timely and corrective feedback, specific to the students’ knowledge level throughout the lesson (Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder, & Marsh, 2008). Corrective feedback is a model of continuously monitoring the student’s academic performance and has been linked to positive student engagement and achievement (Barbetta & Heward, 1993). Examples of effective feedback can be answering questions, checking seatwork, and replying directly to student responses.  Modeling classroom activities: Modeling refers to the process by which students pattern their thoughts and behaviors after those being displayed by the teacher. Learning through modeling occurs when students display new behaviors that they could not perform prior to being exposed to the models (Schunk, 1987). Observing a teacher perform a successful action shows students the sequence of the action that he or she would need to follow in order to be successful.  Manipulatives: Manipulatives are objects designed to represent abstract mathematical ideas explicitly and concretely. They have both a visual and a tactile appeal and can be manipulated by learners through hands-on experiences. Actively manipulating objects specifically selected for a lesson allows learners to develop a set of representations that TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 35 enhances their thinking and their ability to grasp abstract concepts (Raphael & Wahlstrom, 1989).  Regular and structured opportunities to write: Reading and writing share a close, reciprocal relationship. Improving writing instruction and the use of new vocabulary across the curriculum produces greater reading achievement (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000). Writing fosters the organization of ideas and the selection of the most important information, and forces students to put those ideas into their own words (Graham & Hebert, 2010).  Extended time: Extended learning time refers to additional time given to students to complete assignments and take tests. It can also refer to adding hours to the school day or to the school year. Additional time has been shown to improve the academic achievement of English learners (Abedi, Lord, Hofstetter, & Baker, 2000). English learners must access new academic concepts and language skills whose mastery may require more time (Goldenberg, 2008).  English Language Development (ELD): ELD instruction occurs during the school day, both within the classroom and through pullout programs. In 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974), held that school districts must take steps to help students overcome language barriers so they can participate meaningfully in each school district’s academic programs. ELD is designed to help English learners acquire English proficiency such that the barriers they face when engaging in academic studies are minimized. The primary goal of ELD instruction is learning English. During a separate, daily block of time, ELD instruction should include the following components: (a) explicit instruction on the targeted elements of English (Krashen, 1981; Saunders & TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 36 Goldenberg, 2010); (b) attention to the function, form, and fluency of English (Dutro & Moran, 2003); (c) explicit instruction on academic vocabulary (Baumann, 2010); and (d) attention to grammar, and to the morphological and phonological aspects of the English language (Van Patten, 1993). The purpose of ELD instruction is to increase communicative competence in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and thinking. Conclusion The California Common Core State Standards will be challenging for all students, but more so for English learners who struggle with learning the English language at the same time they are learning the content of the new standards. It is important to study the gap in academic achievement between English learners and their English-only peers in order to provide a quality education to all students. English learners are an important subgroup of students in California because of their increasing population and their lack of academic achievement. The literature review focused on the following core topics related to the research on the academic achievement of English learners: (a) the social-political background of English language instruction revealed through an account of the history of the ESEA, the BEA (Title VII), and the political environment; (b) the history of the California content standards and the CCSS; (c) the theoretical context of social cognitive theory and the rationale for studying teacher perceptions of English learners; (d) an overview of the research on effective instructional strategies for English learners, especially ELD instruction; and (e) the importance of professional development for teachers about how to meet the instructional needs of English learners. The sociopolitical tension regarding the education of English learners reflects key differences in core values and essential components for guiding instructional practices for diverse learners. Teacher perceptions of English learners have an effect on the quality of instruction and on student self-efficacy TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 37 (Bandura, 1993). Chapter 3 provides the methodology of this study on teacher perceptions of English learners and the use of appropriate instructional strategies TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 38 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLGY The California Common Core State Standards are designed to ensure that students graduating from high school are prepared for college and career (www.corestandards.org, 2014). However, research has shown that large numbers of English learners and Hispanic/Latino students are not graduating from high school—and those who are graduating, are not academically equipped to succeed in college or in the workforce (Callahan, 2005; CDE, 2014). If the United States is to remain a global leader, the nation’s schools must provide high-quality education to all students regardless of ethnicity (NCLR, 2012). English learners deserve a high quality education taught in a learning environment that values individual student differences and supports the unique learning needs of each student. Equally important as instruction is what teachers bring of themselves to the classroom, including their attitudes, perceptions, and biases, which will influence the environment of the classroom (Ball & Lardner, 1997). The expectations that teachers hold for teaching and learning are grounded in their own cultural beliefs. Misunderstanding about the role of culture in learning often leads to assumptions about the abilities of English learners to be successful in school (Glenn, 2012). It is the responsibility of the schools and teachers to implement the standards using research-based best practices that will assist students in achieving academic success (NGAC, 2010). Several factors have been determined to increase the academic success of English learners, including: (a) providing designated ELD instruction (Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010), (b) delivering quality instruction through the use of research-based instructional strategies (Calderon et al., 2011), and (c) providing a classroom environment that promotes equity-based cultural awareness and freedom from bias (Brown, 2007). But any conflict between what TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 39 students can do and what their teachers perceive they can do erects barriers that interrupt teaching and learning. Purpose of the Study English learners are a significant student population in the State of California and across the nation. Their academic success is tied to both the current and future accountability measures. Changes in accountability related to NCLB (2001) led teachers to feel pressure from the district, state, and federal government to meet the academic needs of English learners and to show progress in student learning (Anagnostopoulos, 2003). Teachers must meet these demands for academic achievement or face the possibility of sanctions as a district or a school. Consequently, to attain the academic success of English learners, teachers must analyze all aspects of their classroom teaching, including their attitudes and the scaffolds they provide to meet the needs of their English learners. The purpose of this study was to gather data on teacher perceptions of English learners that may contribute to—or deter from—student learning. Additionally, data were collected on the effective instructional strategies teachers used to engage students in the learning process. The data were examined through the lens of age, ethnicity, and years of teaching to determine trends that could be generalized to a larger population of teachers to improve classroom instruction and student achievement (Babbie, 1990). The expectation was that this study would contribute to the body of knowledge on the academic achievement of English learners and the barriers that might hinder that achievement—specifically, teacher perceptions and effective instructional strategies. The impact both instructional strategies and teacher perceptions have on student achievement was considered in light of the expectations and rigor of the 2010 California Common Core State Standards (CCSS). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 40 Research Questions The following questions guided this study: 1. How do elementary teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? 2. What are the instructional strategies teachers use to provide English learners access to the CCSS? Methodology A quantitative design was utilized for this research to measure the attitudes and behaviors of teachers of English learners and to determine what instructional strategies they used to provide effective classroom instruction. A quantitative method was selected for the purpose of studying a numerical trend of a small population of elementary teachers and to extrapolate it to a larger population (Creswell, 2009; Fowler, 2002). The focus population of this research was elementary teachers. Data were collected via a self-administered survey distributed via email to 442 kindergarten through sixth-grade teachers who worked in five different public school districts in Southern California—Yucaipa-Calimesa Joint Unified School District, Fontana Unified School District, Ontario-Montclair School District, Riverside Unified School District, and Banning Unified School District. These five districts were selected because of their dichotomous characteristics: rural and city setting, small and large student population, and small and large English learner population. (See Table 3.1, below). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 41 Table 3.1 Participating California School Districts Selected School District Setting Student Population EL Population Banning Unified School District Rural 4,480 18% Fontana Unified School District Rural/City 39,982 36% Ontario-Montclair School District Rural/City 22,767 46% Riverside Unified School District Rural/City 42,587 17% Yucaipa-Calimesa Unified School District Rural 9,762 9% Source: California Department of Education (CDE), Data Quest (2014) These districts were also selected due to the ease of extracting email addresses from district websites and importing the addresses into an Excel document that was used for randomizing teacher-participants. Factors that influenced the choice to use an on-line survey includes (a) the convenience for the researcher and the participating teachers, (b) a no-cost delivery method of the survey reaching participating teachers, and (c) the ability to reach a large number of participants in a short period of time. A total of 2,026 email addresses of elementary teachers were obtained from the five districts. A database was created for the email addresses in order to organize and randomize the participating teachers. The researcher employed a dual stage randomization of the email addresses, beginning with alphabetizing the addresses, followed by numbering the addresses repeatedly from 1–100, and finally sorting the participants by the numbers (Creswell, 2002). Teachers assigned to numbers 1–4 in the second stage of the randomization were selected to receive the survey, which totaled 442 teacher participants. Teachers received an email with a link to the on-line survey created in Qualtrics. The collection window for taking the survey was four weeks the survey was designed to take approximately fifteen minutes to complete. The results were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 42 Discussion of the Instrument This research required gathering data from elementary school teachers, and compiling a database to analyze the responses and to arrive at a more complete understanding of teacher perceptions and teacher choices of instructional strategies. The survey instrument for this research combined an instrument created and used in a research study by Sherry Marx (2008), as well as additional survey questions created specifically for this research by the researcher. The original survey, The Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey (Marx, 2008), included eighteen questions in a Likert-type scale format (1 = Strongly Agree, 5 = Strongly Disagree) and had an internal reliability of.86. Dr. Marx (2008) studied the cultural and linguistic influences in a secondary school in which the majority of the staff was White and spoke only English, and the school was experiencing a growing number of Latino students. Permission to use Dr. Marx’s survey for this research project was obtained via email correspondence. Dr. Marx also gave permission for the researcher to change the wording of each survey item. Specifically, Dr. Marx (2008) used the wording “Latino students,” which this researcher changed to “English learners.” Additional survey items were developed through an examination of prior research studies on teacher perceptions and instructional strategies that have the greatest impact on student success. Using the knowledge gained, the researcher designed a quantitative survey to include two major themes (a) teacher perceptions of English learners in light of the rigorous Common Core State Standards, and (b) the instructional strategies teachers chose to support access to rigorous curriculum and English language development. The final quantitative survey consisted of 69 items: 12 items were included to establish the demographics of participating teachers and 57 Likert-style items were included to reflect the two research questions. The items were valued from 1 to 4, where 1 was assigned the response of Strongly Disagree, 2 was assigned Disagree, 3 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 43 was assigned Agree, and 4 was assigned Strongly Agree. Fink (2013) indicated that a 4-point scale removes the middle or “neutral” option, making the survey a forced-choice method, thus requiring the participant to commit to a specific answer. This structure allowed the researcher to gauge the degree of support for each of the survey items. As mentioned earlier, the reliability coefficient for the survey used by Dr. Marx (2008) was .86. However, the items added to the instrument by the researcher could modify the reliability of the original survey, making it important to re-establish the reliability through a pilot study (Creswell, 2008). To re-establish internal reliability for the survey, the 69-item survey was field tested on randomly selected teachers who worked in the same Southern California school district as the researcher. Eighteen elementary school teachers were randomly selected from a database of 180 teachers to pilot the survey. The pilot teachers received an introductory email discussing the research and a link to the pilot survey. As an added incentive to complete the survey, the researcher sent a $10 gift card for a local coffee shop to each selected teacher as a sign of gratitude for taking part in the pilot survey. All 18 teachers selected to take the pilot survey responded to the email with the survey. (Each teacher was asked to give the gift card to another elementary teacher if he or she was not interested in participating in the survey.) Although the researcher was personally acquainted with all of the randomly selected participants, knowing for sure if those were the actual teachers who completed the survey was not possible. The pilot survey had a response window of two weeks. Responses on the pilot survey were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The pilot survey included 69 items organized into four sections: 12 survey items on the demographics of the participating teachers, 29 survey items related to teacher perceptions of English learners, 15 survey items related to two scenarios, and 13 survey items TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 44 related to instructional strategies. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to determine the internal reliability of the survey. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient determines the internal reliability of the items, or how closely related a set of items is as a group, within a survey instrument (Creswell, 2002). The Cronbach’s alpha score provides a number, ranging from 0 to 1, that allows the researcher to have a measure of confidence that his or her instrument will elicit consistent and reliable responses (Santos, 1999). The closer the alpha coefficient score is to 1, the more reliable the scale. Nunnally (1978) indicated that 0.7 is an acceptable reliability score in most social science research situations. At the end of the two-week window for the pilot survey, SPSS was used to analyze the results. The reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) of the pilot survey was .621, which is considered a medium reliability score for a survey. To improve the reliability of the survey, two additional scores reported in SPSS were considered to determine if certain items on the survey could be altered or deleted prior to sending out the official research survey. In SPSS, certain output scores provide information that helps to determine the strength of each survey item and if specific items can be deleted in order to improve the reliability of the whole survey. These scores include the “Corrected Item–Total Correlation” and the “Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted” scores. The “Corrected Item–Total Correlation” score represents the correlation of a specific survey item to the total score for all the survey items. The general rule is that the scores in this column should be at least .40 (Gliem & Gliem, 2003). The second score of importance is the “Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted,” which represents the survey’s reliability coefficient for internal consistency if a specific survey item were removed from the survey. Through analysis of the data, the researcher determined that several survey items had total TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 45 correlation scores below .40, as well as having a significant effect on the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient if the item was deleted. The results of this analysis created the need to remove 12 survey items on teacher perceptions of English learners from the final analysis of the research data in order to improve the internal reliability. It is important to note that the pilot survey and the research survey were conducted simultaneously. Ideally, the official study survey would have been an edited version based on the results of the pilot survey prior to being sent to the participating teachers. Because this step did not occur, the items found to be unreliable on the pilot survey were not analyzed for the study survey. The complete survey can be found in Appendix A. Items that were not analyzed in the final survey are indicated by the use of the strikeout feature. These specific items had low correlation scores and, if deleted, would significantly increase the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the entire survey in the final research analysis. With the removal of the unreliable items, the Cronbach’s alpha score for the final research survey increased from .621 to .836. Summary This chapter shared the specific methodology employed in this research study. The overarching purpose of this study was to gather data to examine teacher perceptions of English learners and the effective strategies they use during classroom instruction. A quantitative method design was used to compare numerical relationships between teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they chose to support the academic achievement of English learners. Chapter 4 is a review of the teachers’ responses to the survey. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 46 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS This chapter describes the results of the research questions presented in Chapter 3 and the analysis of these results. English learners are the largest growing group of students in the United States, yet, their academic achievement lags behind that of their English-only classmates. As English learners advance in grades, the percent of students proficient or advanced in ELA and mathematics decreases (Dataquest, 2014). Concerns about the quality of classroom instruction of English learners with the onset of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) prompted this research, which focused on two elements related to their academic success: (a) teacher perception of the abilities of English learners to be successful in learning the CCSS, and (b) instructional strategies and best practices teachers used that supported the academic success of English learners. The purpose of this research was to examine teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they used during classroom instruction. This quantitative study compared the responses of teacher participants according to their age, experience, and ethnicity. The survey sought to examine how teachers perceived English learners, and what instructional strategies they used to support learning. The following research questions guided this study: 1. How do elementary teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? 2. What are the instructional strategies teachers use to provide English learners access to the CCSS? Treatment of the Data Findings presented in this chapter represent a summary of the responses provided by 45 elementary school teachers who voluntarily took a survey of 69 questions, which they received TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 47 via an email. A quantitative design was utilized to address the two research questions, which required gathering data from elementary school teachers, compiling a database in order to analyze the responses, and arriving at an understanding of teacher perceptions of English learners and their choice of instructional strategies. The results were analyzed through SPSS, following a four-week collection window. The survey instrument for this research consisted of 69 items: 12 items that established the demographics of participating teachers and 57 Likert-style items that were reflective of the two research questions. A discussion of the responses follows. Participants Description Table 4.1 shows the demographic information of the teachers who participated in this study. This study looked at three specific pieces of information: age, ethnicity, and years teaching. As the table shows, 49% of the participants were in their 50s and 60s, and 69% had been teaching for 15 or more years. The majority of the participants were White (67%), while 33% were minorities, mostly Hispanic/Latino (27%). More than two-thirds of the teachers (71%) had earned a master’s degree, and all of the teachers held an English learner certificate. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 48 Table 4.1 Characteristics of Participating Teachers (N = 45) Characteristics Frequency % Age Under 50 23 51.1% 50 or older 22 48.9% Sex Male 4 8.9% Female 41 91.9% Ethnicity Minority teachers 15 33.3% White teachers 30 66.7% Education Bachelor's degree 13 28.9% Master's degree 32 71.1% Years teaching Less than 15 years 14 31.1% 15 years or more 31 68.9% Number of English learners 10 or fewer 23 51.1% 11 or more 22 48.9% English Learner certificate CLAD and other 23 51.1% B-CLAD 11 24.4% SDAIE and other 7 15.6% Other 4 8.9% Minutes dedicated to ELD instruction 10–20 minutes 5 11.1% 30–40 minutes 35 77.8% 50–60 minutes 5 11.1% Provider of ELD instruction Classroom teacher 41 91.1% Other certificated staff 4 8.9% Findings Little research has been conducted on social and cultural assumptions that affect how teachers interact with diverse student populations (Glenn, 2012). In 2012, the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) reported that nearly 71% of public school teachers were White, TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 49 native English speakers who were likely to have had little training in working with culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Payne (1994) found that English learners were frequently misperceived, and were aware of this negative perception. Due to the increasing population of English learners and the pressure placed on teachers to be accountable for the academic achievement of these students, there is potential for negative teacher attitudes to emerge. Unprepared by the rapid growth of English learners and the changing demographics, teachers often experience a change in attitude toward English learners, resulting in mediocre classroom instruction (Walker et al., 2004). Ball and Lardner (1997) stated that effective instruction of English learners relates directly to teachers’ dispositions toward their students and their backgrounds. Teacher’s attitudes toward English learners and bilingual education are important because they affect a teacher’s motivation to engage with his or her students. Negative attitudes have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the academic achievement of English learners (Payne, 1994). Results from Research Question 1 How do teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? To compare the experiences of teachers as reflected in their responses to the survey, the researcher used two data analysis tools within SPSS. First, descriptive statistics was used to determine the mean of the responses for each survey item. The means of the responses were rank ordered from the item with the most positive outcome to the item with the least positive outcome. The second statistic used was the independent-sample t test, which was performed to compare the differences in teacher responses for each item across ethnic groups, age, and number of years teaching. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 50 Participating teachers rated 19 survey items related to teacher perceptions of English learners on their level of agreement (1 = Strongly Agree, to 4 = Strongly Disagree). Table 4.2 shows the mean of the responses of the 19 items. A mean of 1 indicates that all the participants Strongly Agree with the statement; a mean of 2 indicates that all the participants Agree with the statement; a mean of 3 indicates that all the participants Disagree with the statement; and a mean of 4 indicates that all the participants Strongly Disagree with the statement. Ten items were more heavily rated Strongly Agree or Agree, where the mean was between 1.24 and 1.84. The highest ranked survey item was “I enjoy working with English learners” (M = 1.24). “I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom” was the second highest rated item (M = 1.42), whereas “I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school” was ranked third (M = 1.56). Nine questions were more heavily ranked as Agree or Disagree, where the mean was between 2.07 and 2.62. Three items that ranked closest to Agree (M = 2.00) were “English learners have a strong work ethic” (M = 2.07), “English learners come from families where education is highly valued” (M = 2.11), and “English learners are strong students” (M = 2.13). One item that ranked closest to Disagree (M = 3.00) was “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own” (M = 2.53). The two items that inquired about the participant’s level of agreeability to professional development ranked closer to Agree. Teachers agreed with “I have received professional development in working with English learners” (M = 1.73), and “I am interested in receiving training in working with English learner” (M = 1.87). This finding is important because teachers who reported having at least some training in the education of English learners were more likely to want English learners in their class and to see the need to adapt their instruction for English learners (Walker et al., 2004). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 51 Table 4.2 Participating Teachers Perceptions of English Learners (N = 45) Teacher Perceptions M Ranking I enjoy working with English learners 1.24 1 I am actively interested in having English learners 1.42 2 in my classroom I feel prepared to help English learners succeed 1.47 3 in my classroom and at school English learners bring needed diversity to my school 1.51 4 I have received professional development/training in 1.73 7 working with English learners I understand English learners and feel that I can 1.75 8 relate to them I try to include different cultures and languages 1.84 9 in my classroom I am interested in receiving training in working with 1.87 10 English learners English learners have a strong work ethic 2.07 11 English learners come from families where 2.11 12 education is highly valued English learners are strong students 2.13 13 I feel that I know and understand the parents of my 2.24 14 English learners in school English learners are prepared for school 2.47 16 Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using 2.49 17 “good teaching” strategies English learners have had experiences very similar 2.53 18 to my own Note: M = Mean Table 4.3 shows each survey item on teacher perception of English learners by the percentage of teacher responses for each level of agreement. The majority of the teachers (> 50%) responded favorably to 14 items, either Strongly Agree or Agree. The four items with the highest percentage of teachers choosing Strongly Agree (SA) included: TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 52 1. “I enjoy working with English learner” (SA = 78%, A = 20%). 2. “I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom” (SA = 64%, A = 31%). 3. “English learners bring needed diversity to my school” (SA = 58%, A = 33%). 4. “I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school” (SA= 56%, A = 42%). The majority of the teachers (> 50%) responded unfavorably to two items by selecting Disagree (D) or Strongly Disagree (SD) with the item. Fifty-four percent of the teachers responded unfavorably to “Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using ‘good teaching’ strategies” (D = 47%; SD = 7%), and 60% of the teachers responded unfavorably to “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own” (D = 49%, SD = 11%). Two items had split results, where about half the teachers responded favorably, and the other half of the teachers responded unfavorably. Fifty-one percent of the teachers agreed with “English learners are well prepared for school,” whereas 44% disagreed. Forty-nine percent of the teachers agreed with “I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners,” whereas 38% of the teachers disagreed. Additionally, responses to “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own” were spread across all levels of agreement, with 18% of the teachers answering Strongly Agree, 22% of the teachers answering Agree, 49% of teachers answering Disagree, and 11% of the teachers answering Strongly Disagree, with the item; the majority of the teachers (60%) disagreed with the item. The majority of the teachers responded Agree to “I have received professional development in working with English learners” (64%), and “I am interested in receiving training in working with English learner” (56%); however, 15 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 53 teachers (33%) responded Disagree to the statement “I am interested in receiving training in working with English learner.” Table 4.3 Percentage of Each Participant Responding to Teacher Perception Items Teacher Perceptions SA* A D SD I enjoy working with English learners 78 20 2 0 I am actively interested in having English learners 64 31 2 2 in my classroom English learners bring needed diversity to my school 58 33 9 0 I feel prepared to help English learners succeed 56 42 2 0 in my classroom and at school I understand English learners and feel that I can 40 47 11 2 relate to them I have received professional development/training in 31 64 5 0 working with English learners I am interested in receiving training in working with 29 56 15 0 English learners I try to include different cultures and languages 27 62 11 0 in my classroom English learners come from families where 13 64 20 2 education is highly valued I feel that I know and understand the parents of my 13 49 38 0 English learners English learners have a strong work ethic 11 73 13 2 English learners are strong students 11 64 24 0 English learners are well prepared for school 2 51 44 2 Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using 11 36 47 7 “good teaching” strategies English learners have had experiences very similar 18 22 49 11 to my own *1 = Strongly Agree (SA); 2 = Agree (A); 3 = Disagree (D); 4 = Strongly Disagree (SD) Teacher responses related to perceptions of English learners were further analyzed by age, years of teaching, and ethnicity using independent-sample t tests. The results of the t tests showed that only a few items had significant differences in the mean (p < .05) between teacher groups when compared by age, years of teaching, and ethnicity. Three measures were used to TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 54 compare the responses of the two groups: the mean (M) of each survey item for each group, the difference of the means (dM) for each survey item for each group, and the calculated effect size for each item (Cohen’s d) if the item had a significant p value. By calculating the mean, the level of agreeability for each group could be studied. The closer the mean was to 1, the more the group strongly agreed with the item. Calculating the difference of the means showed how closely the two groups agreed with each other. The closer the difference of the means was to 0, the more the two groups agreed with each other. An effect size is a descriptive statistic that measures how significant the difference of the mean is between the two sample groups without making a statement about whether the relationship in the data reflects a true relationship in the population (Cohen, 1992). An effect size, referred to as Cohen's d, of about 0.3 is a "small" effect, 0.5 is a "medium" effect, and 0.8 and beyond is a "large" effect (Cohen, 2013). The Cohen’s d was determined using SPSS for items that resulted in a p value equal to or less than .05, indicating a significant difference. Independent-sample t test analysis by age. Table 4.4 indicates the results of the independent-sample t test for two age groups of teacher participants. The mean for each response for the two different groups for each item was determined using SPSS. The difference of the means for each item was calculated, and the Cohen’s d, if appropriate, was calculated for items that had a significant difference. When the teachers’ responses were studied by age group, none of the items for teacher perceptions resulted in a significant difference of the means. Teachers over the age of 50 had a lower mean for three of the 19 survey items on teacher perceptions of English learners, indicating that they more strongly agreed with these statements than teachers under the age of 50 did. These items included: “I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them” (M = 1.64; dM = .23); “Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 55 ‘good teaching’ strategies” (M = 2.45, dM = .07), and “I have received professional development in working with English learners” (M = 1.68, dM = .10). These particular items netted extremely small differences of the means, indicating that both groups of teachers had the same level of agreeability to the item. One item resulted in a difference of the means (dM) greater than .30: “I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners” (dM = .32) had the greatest difference of the means. Table 4.4 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners Between Teachers Who Are Under 50 Years Old and Teachers Who Are 50 Years Old or Older Under 50 50 or older dM Cohen’s d - if (p < .05) Teacher Perceptions M M I enjoy working with English learners 1.17 1.32 .15 I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom 1.30 1.55 .25 I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school 1.39 1.55 .16 English learners bring needed diversity to my school 1.43 1.59 .25 I try to include different cultures and languages in my classroom 1.74 1.95 .21 I am interested in receiving training in working with English learners 1.74 2.00 .26 I have received professional development in 1.78 1.68 .10 working with English learners I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them 1.87 1.64 .23 English learners have a strong work ethic 1.96 2.18 .22 English learners are strong students 2.00 2.27 .27 I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners 2.09 2.41 .32 English learners come from families where 2.09 2.14 .05 education is highly valued English learners are prepared for school 2.43 2.50 .07 English learners have had experiences very similar to my own 2.43 2.64 .21 Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using “good teaching” strategies 2.52 2.45 .07 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 56 Independent-sample t test analysis by years teaching. Table 4.5 shows the results of the independent-sample t test for teachers compared by the number of years they had been teaching—teachers who had been teaching for less than 15 years and teachers who had been teaching for 15 years or more. The mean, the difference of the means, and the effect size (when appropriate) of the responses for the two groups were determined. Only one survey item had a significant difference of the mean. “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own” resulted in a difference of the means of .47, with a medium effect size of .54. Although teachers with more teaching experience had a lower mean for this item (M = 2.39), both groups agreed with the statement. Four items resulted in a difference of the means greater than .30. All four of the items were scored more agreeably by teachers who had been teaching for 15 years or more: “English learners are strong students” (M = 2.00; dM = .33); “English learners come from families where education is highly valued” (M = 2.00; dM = .36); “I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom” (M = 1.32; dM = .32); and “I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them” (M = 1.65; dM = .35). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 57 Table 4.5 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners Compared by Years Teaching Less 15 years 15 years or more dM Cohen’s d – if (p < .05) Teacher Perceptions M M I enjoy working with English learners 1.43 1.16 .27 I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school 1.50 1.45 .05 I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom 1.63 1.32 .31 English learners bring needed diversity to my school 1.71 1.42 .29 I try to include different cultures and languages in my classroom 1.71 1.90 .19 I am interested in receiving training in working with English learners 1.86 1.68 .18 I have received professional development in working with English learners 1.93 1.84 .09 I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them 2.00 1.65 .35 English learners have a strong work ethic 2.21 2.00 .21 English learners come from families where 2.36 2.00 .36 education is highly valued English learners are strong students 2.36 2.03 .33 I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners 2.36 2.19 .17 Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using “good teaching” strategies 2.43 2.52 .09 English learners are prepared for school 2.57 2.42 .15 English learners have had experiences very similar to my own 2.86 2.39 .47 .54 Independent-sample t test analysis by ethnicity. Table 4.6 shows the results of the independent-sample t test for teachers compared by ethnicity-minority and White. For these two groups of teachers, the results of the independent-sample t test indicated that four survey items were statistically significant. The four items included: “English learners bring needed diversity to my school” (M = 1.27; dM = .36, Cohen’s d = .55); “I understand English learners and feel that I TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 58 can relate to them” (M = 1.33; dM = .64, Cohen’s d = .89); “I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners” (M = 1.73; dM = .77, Cohen’s d = 1.28); and “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own” (M = 1.87; dM =1.00, Cohen’s d = 1.21). For all four of the statistically significant items, minority teachers responded more agreeably with the item than White teachers, with differences of the means ranging from .36 to 1.00 and effect sizes ranging from .55 to 1.28, all representing a significant difference in the two groups of teachers for these four survey items. Four survey items resulted in a difference of the means of .30 or more. Minority teachers were more agreeable with “English learners are strong students” (M = 1.93; dM = .30); “I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school” (M = 1.27; dM = .32); and “I have received professional development in working with English learners” (M = 1.53, dM = .30). White teachers were more agreeable with “Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using ‘good teaching’ strategies” (M = 2.33; dM = .47). These findings suggests that minority teachers may have a better understanding that good teaching is important, but English learners need more instruction in ELD in order to access rigorous curriculum. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 59 Table 4.6 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners by Ethnicity Minority White dM Cohen's d Teacher Perceptions M M I enjoy working with English learners 1.13 1.30 .17 I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school 1.27 1.57 .30 I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom 1.27 1.50 .23 English learners bring needed diversity to my school 1.27 1.63 .36 .59 I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them 1.33 1.97 .64 .95 I have received professional development in 1.53 1.83 .30 working with English learners I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners 1.73 2.50 .77 1.32 I am interested in receiving training in working with English learners 1.73 1.93 .20 I try to include different cultures and languages in my classroom 1.80 1.87 .07 English learners have had experiences very similar to my own 1.87 2.87 1.00 1.2 English learners are strong students 1.93 2.23 .30 English learners have a strong work ethic 2.00 2.10 .10 English learners come from families where 2.20 2.07 .13 education is highly valued English learners are prepared for school 2.47 2.47 .00 Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using “good teaching” strategies 2.80 2.33 .47 Analysis of the Scenarios on Teacher Perceptions The survey presented two scenarios of conceivable educational situations for English learners that teachers may encounter during their teaching career. Both descriptive and comparative statistics were used to determine truths about teacher perceptions in relation to the different scenarios. The means of the responses were rank ordered from the item with the most positive outcome to the item with the least positive outcome for each scenario. The second statistic used was the independent-sample t test, which was performed to compare the differences TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 60 in teacher responses for each item across ethnic groups, age, and teaching experience. Participating teachers responded to12 survey items on their level of agreement (1 being Strongly Agree to 4 being Strongly Disagree). The subject of the first scenario was Sarah, a nine-year-old girl who had recently moved to Southern California from a small village in Mexico and knew very little English. The subject of the second scenario was Joseph, a 10-year-old boy who had lived in the United States since he was two years old and spoke English but struggled with reading and writing. Table 4.7 shows the mean of the responses of the 12 items; Table 4.8 breaks down each survey item by the percentage of teacher responses for each level of agreement using the Likert scale. For both scenarios, the teachers agreed that Sarah and Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long with a mean of 1.98 (71% Strongly Agree or Agree) for Sarah and a mean of 1.80 (85% Strongly Agree or Agree) for Joseph. Additionally, teachers disagreed that Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom until she progresses in English with a mean of 3.22 (82% Strongly Agree or Agree), and they disagreed that Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores with a mean of 3.04 (77% Strongly Agree or Agree). Although teachers agreed that both students should be allowed to use their native language during classroom activities with a mean of 1.69 (89% Strongly Agree or Agree) for Sarah and a mean of 2.36 (58% Strongly Agree or Agree) for Joseph, they were more agreeable that Sarah be allowed to use her native language, as a new arrival to the States, than Joseph, who had been in the States for eight years. Teachers agreed that instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning with a mean of 2.31 (64% Strongly Agree or Agree), and they agreed that Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments with TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 61 a mean of 1.82 (89% Strongly Agree or Agree). Teachers also agreed that Joseph should be given extended time to complete his homework with a mean of 1.89 (89% Strongly Agree or Agree). Table 4.7 Participating Teachers Perceptions of English Learners (N = 45) Scenarios 1 and 2 Teacher Perceptions M Ranking It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class. 1.22 1 Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 1.53 2 Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities. 1.69 3 Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long 1.98 4 Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning. 2.31 5 Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate). 3.22 6 Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. 1.80 1 Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments. 1.82 2 Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork. 1.89 3 Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities. 2.36 4 Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores. 3.04 5 Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school. 3.11 6 Notes. M = Mean TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 62 Table 4.8 Percentage of Each Participant Responding to Teacher Perception Items Scenarios 1 and 2 Teacher Perceptions SA A D SD It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class. 78 22 0 0 Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 51 44 5 0 Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities. 42 47 11 0 Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long 40 31 20 9 Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning. 11 53 29 7 Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate). 5 13 38 44 Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. 38 47 13 2 Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments. 29 60 11 0 Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork. 22 67 11 0 Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities. 9 49 40 2 Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores. 7 16 44 33 Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school. 2 18 47 33 1 = Strongly Agree (SA); 2 = Agree (A); 3 = Disagree (D); 4 = Strongly Disagree (SD) Independent-sample t test analysis by age. Teacher responses were further analyzed by age, years of teaching, and ethnicity using independent-sample t tests. The results of the t tests indicated that the differences between teacher groups when compared by age, years of teaching, and ethnicity were statistically significant in only a few items. Table 4.9 highlights the results of the independent-sample t test for teachers compared by age— teachers under the age of 50 and teachers 50 years and older. The mean and Cohen’s d (if appropriate) for each item for the two different groups were determined using SPSS. Patterns in the data emerged when they were TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 63 organized in a table. One survey item showed a significant difference in the mean scores between the two groups of teachers. Teachers under the age of 50 more strongly agreed with “Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning” than teachers under the age of 50 did (M = 2.09; dM = .46; Cohen’s d = .62). This finding represents a medium effect size. Although the difference of the means was significant, both age groups generally agreed with this item. Four survey items resulted in a difference of the means greater than or equal to .30. This difference was not large enough to be significant (p < .05), but large enough to highlight. Younger teachers had a lower mean on two of the survey items, and older teachers had a lower mean on two of the items. Younger teachers had a lower mean for “Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities” (M = 1.52; dM = .34), and “Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long” (M = 1.65; dM = .30). Older teachers had a lower mean for “Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate)” (M = 3.05; dM = .34). In this case, although older teachers had a lower mean, both age groups disagreed that Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom. Older teachers also had a lower mean for “Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities” (M = 2.18; dM = .34). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 64 Table 4.9 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners by Age (Scenarios 1 and 2) Under 50 50 or older dM Cohen’s d Teacher Perceptions M M It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class. 1.17 1.27 .10 Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 1.48 1.59 .11 Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities. 1.52 1.86 .34 Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long 1.96 2.00 .04 Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning. 2.09 2.55 .46 .62 Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate). 3.39 3.05 .34 Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. 1.65 1.95 .30 Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments. 1.87 1.77 .10 Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork. 2.00 1.77 .23 Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities. 2.52 2.18 .34 Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores. 2.91 3.18 .27 Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school. 3.22 3.00 .22 Independent-sample t test analysis by years teaching. Table 4.10 highlights the results of the independent-sample t test for teachers compared by the number of years they had been teaching—teachers who had been teaching for less than 15 years, and teachers who had been teaching for 15 years or more. The mean and Cohen’s d (if appropriate) for each item for the two different groups was determined using SPSS. Two survey items showed a significant difference TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 65 in the means between the two groups of teachers. Teachers with less teaching experience agreed that “Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school” (M = 2.79). Teachers with more teaching experience disagreed with this statement (M = 3.26). The difference of the means for the two groups was .47 and Cohen’s d was .64, representing a medium effect size. The second item that showed a significant difference of the means between the two groups of teachers was “Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments.” Teachers with more teaching experience had a lower mean of 1.65. Teachers with less teaching experience had a higher mean of 2.21. The difference between the two means was .56, and the Cohen’s d was 1.07, resulting in a large effect size. Although there was a significant difference in the means, both groups of teachers agreed with the item. Two additional survey items resulted in a difference of the means greater than or equal to .30. This difference was not large enough to be significant (p < .05), but large enough to highlight. Teachers with more teaching experience had a lower mean for both survey items. Teachers with more teaching experience were more agreeable with “Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities” (M = 1.58; dM = .35), and “Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities” (M = 2.26; dM = .31). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 66 Table 4.10 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners by Years of Teaching Experience (Scenarios 1 and 2) Less 15 years 15 years or more dM Cohen’s d Teacher Perceptions M M It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class. 1.29 1.19 .10 Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 1.71 1.45 .26 Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long 1.79 2.06 .27 Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities. 1.93 1.58 .35 Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning. 2.21 2.35 .14 Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate). 3.07 3.29 .22 Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. 1.86 1.77 .09 Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork. 2.07 1.81 .26 Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments. 2.21 1.65 .56 1.07 Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities. 2.57 2.26 .31 Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school. 2.79 3.26 .47 .64 Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores. 3.07 3.03 .04 Independent-sample t test analysis by ethnicity. Table 4.11 highlights the results of the independent-sample t test for teachers compared by their ethnicity—minority and White. The mean and the Cohen’s d (if appropriate) for each item for the two different groups was TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 67 determined using SPSS. For this grouping of teachers, none of the survey items resulted in a significant difference of the means. One survey item resulted in a difference of the means greater than or equal to .30. Minority teachers had lower means for “Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning” (M = 2.07; dM = .36). Both groups of teachers disagreed that Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom until she progressed in English and that Joseph should be retained until he improved in reading and writing. Table 4.11 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners by Ethnicity (Scenarios 1 and 2) Minority White dM Cohen's d Teacher Perceptions M M It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class. 1.20 1.23 .03 Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 1.53 1.53 .00 Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities. 1.53 1.77 .24 Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long 2.07 1.93 .14 Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning. 2.07 2.43 .36 Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate). 3.33 3.17 .16 Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. 1.80 1.80 .00 Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments. 1.93 1.77 .16 Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork. 2.00 1.83 .17 Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities. 2.27 2.40 .13 Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores. 3.00 3.07 .07 Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school. 3.20 3.07 .13 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 68 Results from Research Question 2 What instructional strategies do teachers use to support the academic achievement of English learners? Teacher quality is critical to meeting the specific learning needs of English learners; however, teachers claim that they struggle with using effective instructional strategies that have an impact on student achievement (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). Teachers will need to provide intentionally planned scaffolding that supports each student according to his or her needs in order to access the content for math, science, English and history. Bruner (1983) has referred to scaffolding as a process in which teachers create situations that support a student’s access to core curriculum and then gradually release that role to the student as he/she becomes skilled enough to manage the content without the support. Research-based strategies that provide effective scaffolding for English learners have been identified for this research. Participating teachers responded to 13 survey items related to instructional strategies they used during classroom instruction on their level of frequency (1 = Daily, 2 = Frequently, 3 = Sometimes, and 4 = Never). Table 4.12 highlights the mean of the responses and the ranking of the 13 items on instructional strategies. A mean of 1indicated that the participating teachers used the strategy Daily; a mean of 2 indicated that participants used that strategy Frequently; a mean of 3 indicated that participants used that strategy Sometimes; and a mean of 4 indicated that the participants Never used that strategy. For 11 of the 13 strategies, teachers were more likely to choose Daily, with means from 1.07 to 1.49. The highest rated instructional strategies teachers claimed to use on a daily basis to support the academic achievement of English learners were “Use different modes of instruction” (M = 1.07); “Build on prior knowledge” (M = 1.11); “Model classroom activities and tasks” (M = 1.13); “Teach academic vocabulary” (M = 1.20); TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 69 and “Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interactions” (M = 1.22). The response rate for two of the instructional strategies indicated that teachers were more likely to use them Frequently, a mean of 2.00. These strategies were “Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests” (M = 1.69), and “Use meaningful realia” (M = 1.76). Table 4.12 Instructional Strategies Used by Participating Teachers (N = 45) Instructional Strategies M Ranking Use different modes of instruction 1.07 1 Build on prior knowledge 1.11 2 Model classroom activities and tasks 1.13 3 Teach academic vocabulary 1.20 4 Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer 1.22 5 Interactions Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals 1.29 6 Provide explicit ELD instruction 1.35 7 Provide immediate feedback 1.36 8 Use manipulatives, illustrations, and other hands- 1.42 9 on experiences during instruction Front load key concepts and vocabulary prior to 1.47 10 Instruction Provide regular and structured opportunities to write 1.49 11 Provide extended time to complete assignments 1.69 12 and take tests Use meaningful "realia" 1.76 13 Notes. M = Mean Table 4.13 shows each survey item on instructional strategies by the percentage of teacher responses by the frequency that teachers used each strategy. For all 13 survey items on instructional strategies, at least 87% of the teachers responded that they used each of the strategies either Daily (D) or Frequently (F). For five of the strategies, 100% of the teachers indicated that they used the strategies either Daily or Frequently. The five strategies included: TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 70 “Build on prior knowledge” (D = 89%, F = 11%); and “Teach academic vocabulary” (D = 80%, F = 20%). “Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interaction” (D = 78%, F = 22%); “Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals” (D = 71%, F = 29%); and “Provide immediate feedback” (D = 64%, F = 36%). Thirteen teachers “Use meaningful realia” only sometimes; nine teachers sometimes “Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests,” and two teachers never “Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests.” Seven teachers “Frontload key concepts and vocabulary prior to instruction” sometimes, and four teachers sometimes “Provide regular and structured opportunities to write.” Seven teachers indicated that they sometimes “Provide explicit ELD instruction,” and 22 teachers indicated that they provided ELD instruction sometimes. According to the English Language Arts/English Language Development (ELA/ELD) Framework (2014), this strategy is required daily for all English learners. Providing explicit ELD instruction is the only instructional strategy of the 13 in this study that is required daily for English learners. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 71 Table 4.13 Percentage of Each Participant Responding to Instructional Strategies Items* Instructional Strategies D F S N Use different modes of instruction 93 7 0 0 Build on prior knowledge 89 11 0 0 Model classroom activities and tasks 89 9 2 0 Teach academic vocabulary 80 20 0 0 Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer 78 22 0 0 interactions Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals 71 29 0 0 Provide explicit ELD instruction 71 22 7 0 Provide immediate feedback 64 36 0 0 Use manipulatives, illustrations and other hands- 60 38 2 0 on experiences during instruction Frontload key concepts and vocabulary prior to 60 33 7 0 instruction Provide regular and structured opportunities to write 56 40 4 0 Provide extended time to complete assignments 44 44 9 2 and take tests Use meaningful "realia" 38 49 13 0 *1 = Daily (D); 2 = Frequently (F); 3 = Sometimes (S); 4 = Never (N) Independent-sample t test analysis by age. The results of the survey items related to the instructional strategies teachers used were further analyzed by age, years of teaching, and ethnicity. Table 4.14 shows the results of an independent-sample t test of the differences between the responses for teachers who are under the age of 50 and those who are 50 years or older. The results of the independent-sample t test indicated that the differences between teachers under 50 years old and those 50 years or older were not statistically significant. The differences of the means of the 10 of the instructional strategies were low, .20 or less; however, four questions are worth noting. Teachers under the age of 50 almost solely chose Daily for “Use different modes of instruction” (M = 1.04, dM = .05); “Build on prior knowledge” (M = 1.04, dM = .14); and “Model classroom activities and tasks” (M = 1.04, dM = TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 72 .19). Additionally, teachers under the age of 50 were more likely to “Provide regular and structured opportunities to write” (M = 1.39; dM = .20) daily or frequently compared to the teachers 50 years or older. Teachers 50 years or older were more likely to “Use manipulatives, illustrations, and other hands-on experiences during instruction” (M = 1.32, dM = .20) daily or frequently. Table 4.14 Differences in Perceptions of English Learners Between Teachers Who Are Under 50 Years Old and Teachers Who Are 50 Years Old or Older Under 50 50 or older Instructional Strategies M M dM Cohen's d Use different modes of instruction 1.04 1.09 .05 Build on prior knowledge 1.04 1.18 .14 Model classroom activities and tasks 1.04 1.23 .19 Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to- peer interactions 1.17 1.27 .10 Teach academic vocabulary 1.22 1.18 .04 Provide immediate feedback 1.30 1.41 .09 Provide graphic organizers and meaningful Visuals 1.35 1.23 .12 Provide explicit ELD instruction 1.35 1.36 .01 Provide regular and structured opportunities to write 1.39 1.59 .20 Frontload key concepts and vocabulary prior to instruction 1.43 1.50 .07 Use manipulatives, illustrations, and other hands-on experiences during instruction 1.52 1.32 .20 Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests 1.65 1.73 .08 Use meaningful "realia" 1.83 1.68 .15 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 73 Independent-sample t test analysis by number of years teaching. Items related to instructional strategies teachers used were further analyzed by years of teaching. Table 4.15 showed the results of an independent-sample t for teachers compared by the number of years they had been teaching—teachers who had been teaching for less than 15 years and teachers who had been teaching for 15 years or more. Once again, the results of the independent-sample t test indicated that the differences between the two teacher groups were not statistically significant. The differences of the means of the 13 instructional strategies were very low, .21 or less, indicating that the two groups of teachers had fairly similar responses for each of the items. Teachers having 14 years or less teaching experience were more likely to daily “Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals” (M = 1.14, dM = .21) than were teachers with 15 years or more teaching. Less experienced teachers were more likely to “Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interaction” (M = 1.14, dM = .12), and “Provide regular and structured opportunities to write” (M = 1.36, dM = .19). Teachers with more experience (15 years or more) were more likely to “Model classroom activities and tasks” (M = 1.10, dM = .11), and “Front load key concepts and vocabulary prior to instruction” (M = 1.39, dM = .25). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 74 Table 4.15 Differences In Instructional Strategies Teachers Use Between Teachers Who Have Taught for 14 Years or Less and Teachers Who Have Taught For 15 Years or More 0–14 Yrs 15 Yrs or more dM Cohen’s d Instructional Strategies M M Use different modes of instruction 1.04 1.10 .06 Build on prior knowledge 1.14 1.10 .04 Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to- peer interactions 1.14 1.26 .12 Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals 1.14 1.35 .21 Model classroom activities and tasks 1.21 1.10 .09 Teach academic vocabulary 1.21 1.19 .02 Provide regular and structured opportunities to write 1.36 1.55 .19 Provide immediate feedback 1.36 1.35 .01 Provide explicit ELD instruction 1.35 1.36 .01 Use manipulatives, illustrations and other hands-on experiences during instruction 1.50 1.39 .11 Frontload key concepts and vocabulary prior To instruction 1.64 1.39 .25 Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests 1.64 1.71 .13 Use meaningful "realia" 1.79 1.74 .05 Independent-sample t test analysis by ethnicity. Finally, items related to instructional strategies teachers used were further analyzed by ethnicity. Table 4.16 indicates the results of an independent-sample t test comparing the responses between minority teachers and White teachers. Once again, the results of the independent-sample t test indicated that the differences between the two teacher groups were not statistically significant. The difference of the means (dM) for teacher responses for 11 out of 13 of the instructional strategies was very low, .16 or less; however, one items had a difference between the means of .43. All of the minority teachers indicated that they daily “Use different modes of TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 75 instruction,” while White teachers were more likely to use this strategies frequently (dM = .43). White teachers were more likely to daily “Use manipulatives, illustrations, and other experiences during instruction,” while minority teachers were more likely to use manipulatives frequently (dM = .16). Minority teachers were more likely to “Provide explicit ELD instruction” on a daily basis. The remaining survey items indicated that White and minority teachers made similar choices in the instructional strategies they used in the classroom, with differences in the mean between .00 and .13 and low effect sizes ranging from .00 to .22. Table 4.16 Differences in Instructional Strategies Teachers Use Between Minority Teachers and White Teachers Minority White Instructional Strategies M M dM Cohen’s d Use different modes of instruction 1.00 1.43 .43 Build on prior knowledge 1.07 1.13 .06 Model classroom activities and tasks 1.13 1.13 .00 Teach academic vocabulary 1.20 1.20 .00 Provide explicit ELD instruction 1.20 1.43 .23 Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to- peer interactions 1.27 1.20 .07 Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals 1.27 1.30 .03 Provide immediate feedback 1.33 1.37 .04 Frontload key concepts and vocabulary prior to instruction 1.40 1.50 .10 Use manipulatives, illustrations, and other hands-on experiences during instruction 1.53 1.37 .16 Provide regular and structured opportunities to write 1.40 1.53 .13 Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests 1.60 1.73 .13 Use meaningful "realia" 1.67 1.80 .13 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 76 Findings of this Study To address the achievement gap of English learners, this study focused on two components of quality instruction: teacher perceptions of English learners, and instructional strategies teachers used during classroom instruction. The findings of the study were as follows: 1. The teachers in this study had positive perceptions of English learners and enjoyed having English learners in their classrooms. (experiences, strong students) 2. The teachers in this study used instructional strategies daily or frequently that supported the academic achievement of English learners. 3. Not all teachers in this study provided daily ELD instruction, with most of the teachers indicating that teaching English learners was simply a matter of using good teaching strategies. 4. Teachers want English learners to succeed. Summary This chapter reviewed the data collected from participating teachers. The study examined teacher perceptions of English learners and the strategies they used in their classroom to determine if these components might provide information on the achievement gap between English learners and English-only students. The researcher conducted the study through a survey sent to participating teachers via email. This chapter analyzed and discussed the findings of the study. The results were organized by age, teaching experience, and ethnicity. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the study, as well as concluding remarks and implications for further research. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 77 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The current study was conducted to gain knowledge from elementary teachers regarding their perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they used for engaging students in the process of learning. The expectation was to acquire a deeper understanding of teacher experiences with English learners amid the context of shifting demographics and the curricular demands of the new Common Core State Standards (CCSS). This study was developed to gain insight about the challenges current classroom teachers have faced in improving the academic achievement of English learners by implementing the CCSS. The sociopolitical pressures within Proposition 227, Senate Bill 2042, and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) surrounding the education of English learners provided a backdrop for this study in terms of how society perceives English learners and how those perceptions influence the values teachers have for the education they provide. Teacher perceptions of English learners and the quality of classroom instruction constituted the motivation for this study. Problem of the Study The content and language demands of the Common Core State Standards are challenging for English learners who must not only master rigorous content, but also become proficient in English. The challenge for teachers is how to meet the educational needs of English learners within a rigorous instructional program. The Common Core State Standards are designed to ensure that students graduating from high school are prepared for college and career (www.corestandards.org, 2014). However, data have indicated that large numbers of English learners are not graduating from high school, and those who are graduating are not academically equipped to succeed in college or in the workforce. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 78 English learners make up 22% of the student enrollment in California; yet, as significant as the English learner population is, its academic achievement has lagged behind that of its English-only peers (Dataquest, 2014). English-only students outperform English learners on the California Standards Tests (CST) in both English language Arts (ELA) and mathematics (Dataquest, 2014). It is important to look at factors that may be contributing to the gap in performance. By not addressing this gap, educators are denying English learners access to academic courses that are necessary for college entrance and successful entry into the workforce. The new English Language Arts/English Language Development Framework for California Public Schools (2014) has stated that teachers need to use effective strategies throughout the day that support English learners as they access the core content. One factor addressed in this study that might be affecting the academic achievement of English learners is the gap between the knowledge teachers have of what works best in classroom instruction and the implementation of appropriate instructional strategies that will meet students' needs (Darling-Hammond, 2004). Specific strategies that scaffold learning of both content and language are central to academic achievement (Cadiero-Kaplan & Rodriquez, 2008). Improving the academic achievement of English learners and meeting their linguistic and curricular needs are challenges teacher face daily with the onset of the Common Core State Standards. A second factor that might be impeding academic achievement among English learners is how teachers perceive them. Research has shown that English learners are frequently misperceived—and, unfortunately, they are aware of this negative perception (Payne, 1994). Athanases and Martin (2006) found that many teachers hold cultural deficit perspectives of student learning and the academic achievement of English learners. According to the research, TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 79 there is a gap between teacher perceptions of English learners and their knowledge of how to meet their needs (Karabenick & Noda, 2004). Purpose of the Study This research was prompted by the rise of Common Core State Standards (CCSS) concerns regarding the lack of academic achievement by English learners and the quality of classroom instruction. Two factors related to the academic success of English learners were the focus of this research: (a) teacher perceptions of English learners, and (b) the implementation of instructional strategies and best practices that support the academic success of English learners. The purpose of this research was to examine both teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they have used to determine the impact these two factors may have had on the academic achievement of English learners in light of the new rigorous Common Core State Standards for both English language arts and mathematics. Research Questions The research questions were developed in order to study how teachers perceived English learners and to determine if they were using appropriate instructional strategies that would increase student acquisition of English and ultimately provide access to rigorous content. This study used the following research questions to compare teacher responses: 1. How do elementary teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? 2. What are the instructional strategies teachers use to provide English learners access to the Common Core State Standards? TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 80 Methodology This study collected data via an online survey created in Qualtrics from a small population of elementary teachers from five school districts in southern California representing a variety of geographical settings, student populations, and numbers of English learners. Email addresses were obtained from district and school websites accessible to the public. A total of 442 surveys were sent to a randomized group of teachers across two counties. Forty-five elementary teachers responded and completed the survey. The data from the teacher responses were examined for numerical trends in attitudes and behaviors of teachers of English learners to determine teacher perceptions and their use of effective strategies by comparing responses according to their ages, teaching experience, and ethnicity. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Excel. The survey consisted of 69 questions: twelve items to establish the demographics of the participating teachers and 57 Likert-scaled items to answer the two research questions. Discussion of the Findings Four major findings were revealed from the teacher responses in this study: (a) the teachers had positive perceptions of English learners and enjoyed having them in their classrooms; (b) the teachers wanted English learners in their classrooms and wanted their students to succeed; (c) the teachers used instructional strategies daily or frequently that supported the academic achievement of English learners; and (d) not all of the teachers provided daily ELD instruction, with most of the teachers indicating that teaching English learners was simply a matter of using good teaching strategies. The results of this study negate the often-stated belief that teachers have negative perceptions of English learners and are not eager to have them in their classrooms (Walker et al., TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 81 2004). Further, the perception that teachers are not knowledgeable about the instructional strategies they can use to support student access to rigorous core curriculum. The results of this research portray an alternate view of teachers in that they have an appreciation of English learners and the struggles these students face to be successful in school. However, English learners are not showing improvement in ELA and math, as evidenced by the results of the California Standards Tests (Dataquest (2014). The implications of these results for classroom practices is that teachers may have positive perceptions of English learners, but may also need assistance in providing appropriate instruction for English learners based on their unique learning needs. These results may be of interest to educational professionals as they work with teachers to provide appropriate professional development based on classroom observations and student test scores. Findings on Teacher Perceptions The results of Research Question 1: How do elementary teachers perceive English learners both academically and emotionally? demonstrated that teachers had positive perceptions of English learners and enjoyed having English learners in their classrooms. Over 90% of the teachers agreed with the statements: “I enjoy working with English Learners,” and “I am actively interested in having English learners in my classroom.” This result is supported by Papanastasiou and Papanastasiou (1997), who found that adults enter the field of education motivated by intrinsic factors such as the love of teaching and the love of the students. Further, evidence found in both of the scenarios indicated that teachers wanted English learners in their classrooms, and they anticipated success for them. The teachers agreed that the students should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. There was uniformity among the teachers that English TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 82 learners should remain with their peers and should not be taught in separate classrooms or retained at the end of the school year. The information resulting from this study has established that teachers desire to work with English learners and directly affect their classroom instruction to support their interest in school. Ball and Lardner (1997) found that effective instruction of diverse students related to teachers’ dispositions toward their students and their backgrounds. Teacher perceptions of English learners affected student self-efficacy, which in turn impacted the quality of instruction (Bandura, 1993). The results of this study have suggested that these teachers belonged to learning communities that valued student diversity and were willing to accept the challenges of teaching English learners. Because a teacher’s personal surroundings affect his or her cultural outlook on diverse populations (Horencyzk & Tatar, 2002), the implications suggest that school districts in Southern California are providing learning communities that welcome and respect diverse student groups, including English learners. From Bandura (1977), teachers in a less tolerant learning community can develop negative views of teaching and learning through their interactions and experiences in the environment in which they teach. Crusec (1992) found that individuals internalized information they encountered in a variety of social experiences and sought out environments that were supportive. Data in this study reported that 60% of the participating teachers responded negatively to the statement: “English learners have had experiences very similar to my own.” Libbey (2004) found that students who felt connected to their school had teachers who were academically and socially supportive. These results illustrated that even though the majority of teachers in this study may not have shared experiences similar to those of their English learners, they enjoyed working with them and having them in their classroom. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 83 Findings on Instructional Strategies The results in relation to Research Question 2: What are the instructional strategies teachers use to provide English learners access to the Common Core State Standards? demonstrated that participating teachers used the effective English learner strategies presented in this study either daily or frequently. This research evaluated the use of 13 instructional strategies that were supported by the research as being effective in improving the academic achievement of English learners: prior knowledge (Pearson et al., 1979); multiple modes of instruction (Buch & Bartley, 2002); realia (Walqui, 2006); multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interactions (Johnson & Johnson, 1999); graphic organizers (Dye, 2000; O'Donnell et al., 2002); Explicit ELD instruction (Baumann, 2010; Dutro & Moran, 2003; Krashen, 1981; Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010; Van Patten, 1993); regular opportunities to write (Graham & Herberts, 2010); extended time to complete assignments and take tests (Abedi et al., 2000; Goldenberg, 2008); model classroom activities and tasks (Schunk, 1987); academic vocabulary (Baumann, 2010); meaningful, timely feedback (Barbetta & Heward, 1993); front load key concepts and vocabulary (Dutro & Moran, 2003); and the use of manipulatives (Raphael & Wahlstrom, 1989). Some 87% of the teachers indicated that they used each of these English learner strategies daily or frequently. However, six strategies surfaced that were used 100% of the time. These six strategies included: (a) use different modes of instruction, (b) build on prior knowledge, (c) teach academic vocabulary, (d) provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interactions, (e) provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals, and (f) provide immediate feedback. The teacher decided which appropriate strategy to use during instruction according to the cognitive load of the assignment as well as the level of support needed by the English learners (Meyers, 2000). TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 84 These results are in contrast with the research conducted by Cadiero-Kaplan and Rodriquez (2008), who found that teachers can struggle selecting effective strategies and sometimes do not know which strategies to use to support English learners. The teachers in this study consistently selected six strategies when working with English learners. Strategies are tools that teachers use to engage students and connect them with rigorous curriculum. Equipping students to confidently engage in the learning process requires teachers to think creatively about how to scaffold their instruction and which strategies will serve student learning (Walqui, 2006). Teachers who use appropriate strategies promote learning among their students resulting in higher test scores (Schroeder, Scott, Tolson, Huang, & Lee, 2007). Findings on English Language Development One of the 13 strategies included in this study is mandated by the State of California to be used every day. English language development (ELD) is required for all English learners on a daily basis (ELA/ELD Framework, 2014). Not all teachers in this study provided dedicated daily ELD instruction. Instead, their responses indicated that teaching English learners was simply a matter of embedding ELD when using general teaching strategies. Responses to the survey item, “Provide explicit ELD instruction” indicated that 29% of the teachers did not provide ELD instruction daily. However, as pointed out by Saunders and Coleman (2008), ELD is one of the most effective strategies for improving the academic achievement of English learners. By employing English learners strategies in the classroom, the teachers provide appropriate pedagogical supports and dedicated ELD instruction so that English learners can be successful with the new Common Core State Standards (Bunch, 2013). Therefore, a strong academic program designed to provide English learners access to rigorous curriculum must include instruction in English Language Development (ELD) that emphasizes form, function, fluency, TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 85 grammar, and phonology to help English learners access content knowledge and increase English proficiency (Harper & Jong, 2004). The strategies teachers would use to accomplish this is the California ELD standards and the other 12 strategies highlighted in this study. Forty-six percent of the teachers in this study who agreed with the statement “Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using “good teaching” strategies” suggests that some teachers lack the understanding that English learners need specific instructional strategies and instruction directed to English language. Failure to use appropriate strategies for English learners stems from the assumption that teaching English learners is just a matter of curricular adaptations (Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). The California Common Core State Standards for English language arts/literacy and the English Language Development Standards are designed to support the language and literacy demands in each academic discipline with the California Common Core State Standards for ELA/Literacy, providing the foundation for the English Language Development Standards. The language and literacy skills specific to each discipline, such as grammar and vocabulary, aid in students’ access to rigorous content. Limitations Web-based polls are popular because they provide a low-cost means for reaching a large audience and getting quick responses that can be analyzed immediately (Schmidt, 1997). Web- based polls can survey a large population of a particular group rather than a sample, allowing for the reduction or elimination of sampling errors or bias (Sills & Song, 2002). A large number of teachers received the survey (442), but 10.2% (45) of the teachers responded (45). Although a survey may be random and anonymous, a low response rate may indicate self-selection, reducing the randomness (Pitkow & Kehoe, 1996) and increasing the potential for survey bias, which in turn reduces the ability of the data gathered to be generalized to an entire population (Sills & TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 86 Song, 2002). Low response rates and lack of generalizability can diminish the utility of an Internet survey. For this study, email addresses for elementary teachers were obtained from the school and district websites. Eighteen teachers responded to the first email by the end of the four-week window. Following up with a reminder email asking the teachers to reconsider taking the survey resulted in 27 additional teachers completing the survey. Research shows that reminder emails usually result in doubling the number of respondents (Cook, Heath, & Thompson, 2000; Crawford, Couper, & Lamias, 2001). Low response rates could be attributed to the length of the survey and the topic. The survey for this study had a total of 69 questions and two scenarios. For convenience, the survey was organized with radio buttons, drop-down menus, and check boxes in order to reduce the time needed for completion. Zhang (1999) found that the design of the survey that includes features such as pop-up instructions, dropdown boxes, check boxes, and skip buttons makes the survey easy to navigate and might increase a respondent’s motivation to complete the survey. Research also found that surveys should take no longer than 10 to15 minutes to complete (Gunn, 2002; Shannon, Johnson, Searcy, & Lott, 2001). Overall, the length may have been a deciding factor that reduced the number of participating teachers for this study. Dillman, Sinclair, and Clark (1993) found that people are more likely to respond to shorter surveys and surveys that have questions that are short, easy to read, and do not cover complex issues. The length of the survey could also contribute to survey fatigue. The introductory email that teachers received mentioned the topic and that it would take about 10 minutes to complete. The actual survey contained a completion bar so that teachers could see how far they had to go until completion. Galesic and Bosnjak (2009) found that lengthy surveys cause people to lose interest in the survey as they progress to the end. They found that the quality of the data for TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 87 questions later in the survey was lower than those at the beginning. For this research, the questions at the end of the survey may have received less thought than those at the beginning. This phenomenon could explain the high percentage of positive responses at the end. The most positive choices (Strongly Agree and Daily) were the first choice for all the items on the survey. The topic of the survey could also have an impact on the low response rate. For this study, the topics were teacher perceptions and English learner instructional strategies. Both the topic and the purpose of the study were discussed in the introductory email that contained the link to the survey. Alreck and Settle (1985) found that the topic of the research is the primary determinant of whether an individual will respond or not. For example, a teacher who does not serve English learners may not necessarily be interested in responding to a survey about English learners. Implications for Practice To effectively support the academic achievement of English learners with the more rigorous Common Core State Standards, three educational practices are recommended based on the findings of this research. The recommendations focus on professional development for teachers, which include: (a) professional development on teaching culturally diverse English learners, (b) professional development on the use of appropriate instructional strategies, and (c) professional development on explicit instruction in English Language Development. Professional Development on Teaching Culturally Diverse English Learners In 2012, the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) reported that nearly 71% of public schools teachers are native English speakers who have had little training in working with culturally and linguistically diverse learners. The California Department of Education (2014) reported that English learners currently make up 22% of the total student enrollment in TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 88 California schools and are the fastest growing group of students in the United States. There is a gap between English learner–trained teachers and the increasing number of English learners both in California and the nation. It is important, then, to provide on-going professional development among current teachers and cultivate an awareness of school culture and helps teachers in their instructional practices to work with English learners. Through teacher training and professional development, we will have a more effective teacher core to work with English learners. The traditional approaches as explained by teachers have not been effective, as evidenced by the poor achievement of English learners in English language arts and mathematics (Dataquest, 2014). The findings of this research showed that teachers enjoyed having English learners in their classrooms and wanted them to succeed; although caring and well-intentioned, teachers must also understand effective strategies and aspects of culture and school climate that affect student achievement (MacNeil, Prater, & Busch, 2009). Professional development must be related to creating a culturally responsive classroom environment that allows equitable opportunities for students to be successful. Ball and Lardner (1997) found that the academic achievement of diverse learners relates directly to the teachers’ dispositions toward them. Poor understanding of the group or inadequate training on cultural differences and ineffective strategies can foster negative attitudes toward the English learner. As such, professional development for school personnel should: (a) create professional learning communities that support ongoing collaboration for teachers who are engaged in learning, reflecting, and improving their practices (Vescio, Ross, & Adams, 2008); (b) encourage training that addresses personal beliefs and attitudes toward English learners and their families to create positive mindsets that value the linguistic and cultural multiplicity English learners bring to the school (Walker et al., 2004); (c) set high expectations among students and support them by TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 89 providing appropriate scaffolds to ensure equitable opportunities for all students to be successful (Stigler & Hiebert, 2009); and (d) offer training related to the role culture plays in content- specific instruction (MacNeil et al., 2009). Providing a school environment that values the English learners and is supportive of their learning needs and life experiences will have a positive effect on their confidence in learning rigorous curriculum. Professional Development on Instructional Strategies The findings in this research showed that teachers used English learner strategies during classroom instruction that supported the academic achievement of English learners. The use of instructional strategies should be shaped to the specific learning task and cognitive load of the lesson. Instructional modifications will change as students develop English proficiency and the learning expectations increase. Beginning English learners need significant scaffolding to be successful with learning objectives that have a higher cognitive load and require a greater knowledge of English (Walqui, 2006). As English learners gain in English proficiency, students will need fewer scaffolds but different modifications. Selecting one strategy per lesson for all the students will not provide the support English learners need. The results of this research suggest that professional development should include: (a) a practical, hands-on application of different English learner strategies and discussion of how each one scaffolds instruction for different levels of proficiency; and (b) the creation of professional learning communities that allows for collaboration on best practices and student achievement. The Common Core State Standards require students to explain, justify, and defend their thinking; therefore it is necessary that they confidently engage in rigorous curriculum. Teachers will need to think creatively and use effective English learners instructional strategies to best to scaffold TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 90 instruction that will allow students to access core curriculum until they can manage the content without support. Professional Development on Explicit Instruction in English Language Development Additionally, this study found that not all teachers provide students with ELD instruction. According to the new English Language Arts/English Language Development Framework for California Public Schools: Transitional Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (ELA/ELD Framework), teachers must provide English learners with ELD instruction throughout the day in order to access the core content for math, science, English and history. Professional development should be provided to teachers on ELD instruction that includes: (a) information on the research behind the purpose and importance of ELD instruction in terms of supporting English learners to access rigorous core curriculum; (b) training on how to provide explicit instruction in English and academic vocabulary; (c) training on the function, form, and fluency of English; and (d) training on the effective and intentional use of research-based instructional strategies. Future Research This quantitative study focused on teacher perceptions of English learners, both academically and emotionally, as they implemented the Common Core State Standards. It also focused on the importance of employing quality instructional strategies to ensure English learners full access to challenging curricula. The study was prompted by the low achievement of English learners in California and a desire to understand why English learners continue to demonstrate poor academic success. The findings of this study showed that teachers have positive perceptions of English learners and that they say they use effective English learner strategies to support student learning. However, further research is needed on the role the classroom and school culture plays in teaching English learners. The recommendations for TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 91 further research include: (a) research on deficit mindsets teachers have of English learners; (b) research on the relationship between a student’s cultural background and how that influences the scaffolds that will be used to address his or her specific learning needs; and (c) research on professional development that supports cultural awareness of the educational environment that impacts student achievement. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrated the complex nature of the instruction of English learners. Teachers in this study enjoyed working with English learners and were using appropriate English learner strategies to support instruction. Yet, English learners continue to underperform on annual state tests compared to their native English-speaking peers. They struggle with learning the Core Curriculum while learning English at the same time. This situation provides challenges for both the teacher and the student. Cadiero-Kaplan and Rodriquez (2008) reported that teachers are not equipped to meet the challenges of teaching English learners, and that teachers struggle with using effective English learner strategies that impact student learning. The purpose of this study was to describe teacher perceptions of English learners and the English learner strategies they used to impact the achievement of English learners. These students are an important subgroup due to their continuous lack of achievement and the large number that do not graduate from high school or college and are not career ready (California Department of Education, Dataquest, 2014). In this study, elementary teachers reported positive perceptions of English learners and frequent use of strategies that provide access to rigorous curriculum. Based on the findings, 98% of the participating teachers reported that they enjoyed having English learners in their classrooms, and 95% reported that they wanted English learners in their classrooms. They also TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 92 reported that they want English learners to succeed in the regular classroom, as evidenced by 82% of the respondents stating that students should be taught in the general education classroom as they learn English. Related studies have provided evidence illustrating how important it is for teachers to have positive perceptions of their students and believe English learners can succeed (Payne, 1994). A clearer understanding must be established regarding how these perceptions relate to academic achievement. Having a positive perception of English learners may be a byproduct of why people initially become teachers, the love of teaching, and the love of children (Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 1997). A limitation of this study was that having a positive perception of English learners did not determine the teacher’s mindset regarding his or her beliefs that English learners are capable of learning the Common Core State Standards. However, 75% of the participating teachers agreed with the item that English learners are strong students. An assumption could be made that the teachers who disagreed with this item (24%) might have a deficit mindset regarding English learners. With proper training and professional development, teachers will successfully implement English learners strategies and promote academic success. Based on the current findings, participating teachers use effective English learner strategies daily or frequently that supports the academic achievement of English learners. However, not all of the teachers provide daily ELD instruction. More than 86% of the participating teachers used 13 of the strategies either daily or frequently. Related studies provided a framework for the importance of high quality instruction, including the intentional use of appropriate strategies that scaffold the learning for equitable access to rigorous curriculum (Bruner & Watson, 1983; ELA/ELD Framework, 2014) and ELD instruction (ELA/ELD Framework, 2014; Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). One item on the survey attempted to TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 93 determine a teacher’s level of understanding regarding the importance of ELD instruction. According to the new ELA/ELD Framework (2014), teachers are required to provide English learners with English Language Development (ELD) daily. Fifteen percent of the participating teachers did not provide ELD on a daily basis. This is a limitation of this study. Additionally, the study did not examine the teachers’ understanding of the intentional use of the appropriate instructional strategies—or if they understood that scaffolds are in place for a limited time and are determined by the cognitive load of the lesson. This study revealed that teachers have positive perceptions of English learners and do use instructional strategies that support their learning. This study led to a realization that teachers’ perceptions of English learners are not the same as those traditional beliefs held by educators of English learners. Cultural differences between teachers and students have an impact on student achievement and is worthy of further study (MacNeil et al., 2009). 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Evolution of Federal Policy and Implications of No Child Left Behind for Language Minority Students. Policy Brief. Education Policy Research Unit. Zeichner, K. M. (1993). Educating teachers for cultural diversity. East Lansing: Michigan State University, National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 105 Appendix A Survey Instrument 1. What is your age? 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s 2. What is your sex? Male Female 3. What is your ethnicity? American Indian or Alaska Native Asian Black/African American Hispanic or Latino Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander White (not Hispanic or Latino) Other 4. What is your highest education attainment? Bachelor Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree 5. How long have you been teaching? TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 106 0 - 4 years 5 - 9 years 10 - 14 years 15 – 19 years 20 – 24 years 25 – 29 years 30 years or more 6. What grade(s) do you teach? Kindergarten 1 st Grade 2 nd Grade 3 rd Grade 4 th Grade 5 th Grade 6 th Grade 7. How many students are in your class? 8. How many students in your class are English learners? 9. Which English learner certificate do you have? CLAD B-CLAD SDAIE Other English learner certificate I do not have an English learner certificate TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 107 10. How is explicit ELD instruction delivered to your students?” Whole class By ELD levels within the classroom By ELD levels through team teaching Pull-out intruction 11. How much time each day is dedicated to explicit ELD instruction. 12. Who provides your English learners with their explicit ELD intruction? Classroom teacher Other certificated staff Paraprofessional 13. To what extent do you agree with the following statements (4 = Strongly Agree; 3 = Agree; 2 = Disagree; 1 = Strongly Disagree)  I enjoy working with English learners.  I have met the parents of my English learners.  I feel that English learners have had experiences very different than my own.  An important part of succeeding in school is assimilating into American culture.  It is a good idea for English learners to speak English at home.  I feel prepared to help English learners succeed in my classroom and at school.  English learners fit in well with students of other cultural and language backgrounds.  I understand English learners and feel that I can relate to them.  English learners come from families where education is highly valued.  English learners have strong English skills. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 108  English learners have a strong work ethic.  I try to include different cultures and languages in my classroom.  English learners are doing what it takes to succeed in school.  I feel that I know and understand the parents of my English learners.  English learners are strong students.  English learners are well prepared for school.  English learners have had experiences very similar to my own.  Different languages have a place in my classroom.  I am actively interested in having English learners in their classroom.  It is the responsibility of English learners to adapt to American culture and school life.  My school openly welcomes English learners and embraces their native cultures and languages.  English learners bring needed diversity to my school.  As long as English learners can do the work, I have no problem with them being in my class.  I don’t have enough time to provide English learners the additional instruction they need.  Sufficient resources are provided to support the needs of English learners.  Teaching English learners is simply a matter of using “good teaching” strategies.  I don’t do anything different for my English learners than I do for my English-only students.  I have received professional development/training in working with English learners.  I am interested in receiving training in working with English learners. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 109 15. Scenario #1 Sarah is a 9 year old girl who has just moved to Southern California with her family from a small village in the mountains of Mexico. Her mother enrolled her in third grade at a local neighborhood elementary school. Sarah has had little education in the English language and only knows rudimentary English words and commands. During Sarah’s first week of school, she was given the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) and was identified as a Beginner English learner (Proficiency Level 1 (PL1)). If Sarah was your student, please indicate to what extent you agree with the following statements? (4=Strongly Agree; 3=Agree; 2=Disagree; 1=Strong Disagree)  Sarah should be taught in a separate classroom and not in the regular classroom until she progresses from L1 (Beginner) to L2 (Early Intermediate).  Instructional materials in Spanish should be provided to Sarah to support her learning.  Sarah should try to speak English immediately.  Sarah can use her native language during classroom activities.  It is critical to build a meaningful connection with Sarah beginning on the first day she enters your class.  Sarah should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long. (  Adjusting to a new country should be a fun and exciting experience for Sarah. 16. Scenario #2 Joseph is a 10 year old boy who was born in Mexico and then moved to the United States when he was 2 years old. Joseph's parents speak little English. Joseph is in the 4th grade and his proficiency level on the CELDT is L3 (Intermediate). Joseph rarely speaks during class, but when he does, he speaks English. On the playground, Joseph usually speaks Spanish when playing with his friends. Joseph struggles in class TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 110 with all academic subjects, especially reading and writing. His homework is often incomplete and his nightly reading log is often blank. Recent tests scores indicate that Joseph is 2 years below grade level. If Joseph was your student, please indicate to what extent you agree with the following statements? (4=Strongly Agree; 3=Agree; 2=Disagree; 1=Strong Disagree)  Joseph should be retained to improve his reading and writing scores.  Joseph should receive modified homework and classwork assignments.  Joseph can use his native language with peers during classroom activities.  Effort is more important to me than achievement when I grade Joseph’s work.  Joseph should be fully engaged in academic activities all day long.  Joseph should be allowed extended time to complete his homework and classwork.  Joseph should avoid speaking Spanish at school.  Modifying classwork and homework for Joseph would be hard to justify to the other students. 17. Please indicate how often you use the following instructional strategies to support the academic achievement of your English learners. (4 = Daily; 3 = Frequently; 2 = Sometimes; 1 = Never)  Build on prior knowledge.  Use different modes of instruction: oral, written, videos, demonstration, multimedia presentations.  Use meaningful “realia”.  Provide multiple opportunities for peer-to-peer interactions.  Provide graphic organizers and meaningful visuals.  Provide explicit ELD instruction.  Provide regular and structured opportunities to write. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 111  Provide extended time to complete assignments and take tests.  Model classroom activities and tasks.  Teach academic vocabulary.  Provide immediate feedback.  Front load key concepts and vocabulary prior to instruction.  Use manipulatives, illustrations and other hands-on experiences during instruction. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 112 Appendix B Dr. Sherry Marx Email Linda Moffatt <lbmoffat@usc.edu> Survey used in the article "Not Blending In" Linda Moffatt <lbmoffat@usc.edu> Mon, Sep 29, 2014 at 3:41 AM To: sherry.marx@usu.edu Good morning Dr. Marx, My name is Linda Moffatt and I am in the doctoral program at the University of Southern California. I am currently working on my dissertation. My research will look at the relationship between teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they chose to scaffold instruction. USC has a data base of surveys for students to use. I came across the survey you created and then analyzed in the article, "Not Blending In": Latino Students in a Predominantly White School. Your survey is perfect for my research with one exception, which is the reason for this email. I have attached a copy of the survey as it is found in my school's database. There is a note indicating that "test content may be reproduced and used for non-commercial research and educational purposes without seeking written permission." Although 87% of the English learners in California are of Hispanic/Latino decent, my focus is specifically on English learners. I am seeking your permission to alter your survey in the following manner: I would like to use your survey in its entirety; however, I would like to change Latino/Latina students to English learner. In my methodology chapter I would credit your survey and your analysis, as well as provide an explanation for changing Latino/Latina to English learner. Also, your work would be appropriately cited in my references. Thank you very much for your time. I hope you will consider my request. I look forward to hearing from you soon. Best. Linda Moffatt Survey - Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey.pdf 315K Linda Moffatt <lbmoffat@usc.edu> TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 113 Survey used in the article "Not Blending In" Sherry Marx <sherry.marx@usu.edu> Mon, Sep 29, 2014 at 9:49 AM To: Linda Moffatt <lbmoffat@usc.edu> Thank you for your kind message Linda. Sure, I think it's great to keep adapting the survey for new uses. If you site the original survey and they describe how you've altered it, I think that is continuing the scholarly tradition of building on the work of others. Glad you find it helpful. All the best, Sherry Marx Sherry Marx, PhD Associate Professor ESL Education, Multicultural Education, Qualitative Research & ESL Program Coordinator School of Teacher Education and Leadership Utah State University 2805 Old Main Hill Logan, Utah 84321 sherry.marx@usu.edu (435) 797-2227 TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 114 Appendix C Dr. Sherry Marx Survey Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey Version Attached: Partial Test Note: Test name created by PsycTESTS PsycTESTS Citation: Marx, S. (2008). Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey [Database record]. Retrieved from PsycTESTS. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/t15339-000 Instrument Type: Survey Test Format: The Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey includes 22 questions in Likert-type scale format (1 = strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree), followed by 5 open-ended questions. Source: Marx, Sherry. (2008). "Not blending in": Latino students in a predominantly White school. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Vol 30(1), 69-88. doi: 10.1177/0739986307311906 © 2008 by SAGE Publications. Reproduced by Permission of SAGE Publications. Permissions: Test content may be reproduced and used for non-commercial research and educational purposes without seeking written permission. Distribution must be controlled, meaning only to the participants engaged in the research or enrolled in the educational activity. Any other type of reproduction or distribution of test content is not authorized without written permission from the author and publisher. TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 115 doi: 10.1037/t15339-000 Teachers' Beliefs about Latino Students Survey Items______________________________________________________________________________ I enjoy working with Latino students. I have met the parents of my Latino students. I feel that Latino students have had experiences very different than my own. An important part of succeeding in school is assimilating into American culture. It is a good idea for Latino kids to speak English at home. I feel prepared to help Latino students succeed in my classroom and at school. Latino students fit in well with students of other cultural and language backgrounds. I understand Latino students and feel that I can relate to them. Latino students come from families where education is highly valued. Latino students have strong English skills. Latinos have a strong work ethic. I try to include Latino cultures and languages in my classroom. Latinos are doing what it takes to succeed in school. I feel that I know and understand the parents of my Latino students. Latinos are strong students. Latinos are well prepared for school. I feel that Latino students have had experiences very similar to my own. Spanish has a place in my classroom. PsycTESTS™ is a database of the American Psychological Association

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Asset Metadata

Creator Moffatt, Linda B. (author)

Core Title Teacher perceptions of English learners and the instructional strategies they choose to support academic achievement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/08/2015

Defense Date 03/11/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic,achievement,English learners,instructional strategies,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kaplan, Sandra N. (committee chair), Gallagher, Raymond John (committee member), Green, Alan Gilford (committee member)

Creator Email lbmoffat@usc.edu,moffattlinda@ymail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-587453

Unique identifier UC11298911

Identifier etd-MoffattLin-3560.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-587453 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MoffattLin-3560.pdf

Dmrecord 587453

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Moffatt, Linda B.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA