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The implications of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to clients

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The implications of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to clients

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THE IMPLICATIONS OF GOLF INSTRUCTORS
TEACHING GOLF FITNESS TO CLIENTS

By
Steven Trevar Lorick
A dissertation submitted to the graduate division of the University of Southern California in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Education
In
Educational Leadership
AUGUST 2015

Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Lawrence Picus, Chairperson
Dr. Dominic Brewer
Dr. Monique Datta

ii

Copyright © 2015
By
Steven Lorick

iii

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which golf instructors teach golf
specific strength and conditioning skills to their clients for: increased golf performance;
reduction of injuries associated with golf play; and to improve a client’s quality of life for
longevity in the sport. The study described the history of golf, its evolution to the modern game
and the current practices of golf instruction to identify the benefits of incorporating a golf fitness
program into the teaching of golf instruction and training.
This research study used the grounded theory to answer the two research questions. “Data
in grounded theory studies can come from interviews, observations, and a wide variety of
documentary materials (Merriam, 2009, p. 30). For this reason, the target number of participants
for this study needed to be manageable for the researcher and the target number of contacts
needed to be large enough to garner a decent sampling that was statistically significant. Seven
golf instructors filled the sampling size in the study.
Snowball sampling was employed for the purposes of this study. Merriam (1998, p. 61)
stated that “purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to
discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most
can be learned.” The participants were PGA golf teaching professionals who work with clients
to improve their golf performance with ages ranging from twenty two to seventy two years of
age. To analyze the quantitative data, the constant comparative method of data analysis was
incorporated. The overall object of this analysis was to identify patterns in the data. These
patterns were arranged in relationship to each other in the building of a grounded theory.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………….. iii
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………………… viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………….. ix
DEDICATION …………………………………………....................................................... x
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………….. 1
Background …………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Evolution …………………………………………………………………………… 1
Business of Golf ……………………………………………………………………. 3
Golf Instruction …………………………………………………………………….. 7
Statement of Problem …………………………………………………………………... 9
Context of Problem ………………………………………………………………… 10
Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………………… 12
Research Questions ………………………………………………………………… 12
Hypothesis …………………………………………………………………………. 13
Qualitative Method: Grounded Theory ……………………………………………. 13
Importance of the Study ……………………………………………………………….. 14
Limitations and Delimitations …………………………………………………………. 17
Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………………………. 19
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………….. 23
Background …………………………………………………………………………….. 23
Body: Synthesis of the Literature ……………………………………………………… 26
Golf Tradition ……………………………………………………………………… 26
Golf Instruction ……………………………………………………………………. 29
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Golf Performance Improvement …………………………………………………… 31
Golf Related Injuries ………………………………………………………………. 35
Golf Longevity …………………………………………………………………….. 37
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….. 40
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………………………………………. 41
Purpose Statement …………………………………………………………………. 41
Research Questions ………………………………………………………………… 41
Hypothesis …………………………………………………………………………. 41
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………… 42
Qualitative Method: Grounded Theory ……………………………………………. 42
Interview Questions ……………………………………………………………….. 43
Description of Sites ……………………………………………………………………. 44
Research Design ……………………………………………………………………….. 46
Data Collection …………………………………………………………………….. 47
Procedures and Protocols …………………………………………………………... 48
Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………………... 50
Standards of Quality and Credibility …………………………………………………... 52
Role of Researcher ……………………………………………………………………... 54
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS ………………………………………………………………... 55
Part I: Overview of Participant Demographics and Profile ……………………………. 55
Military Owned Golf Course Golf Instructor: Sarah (M1) ……………………….. 58
Military Owned Golf Course Golf Instructor: Judy (M2) ………………………… 59
Resort-Style Golf Course Golf Instructor: Johnny (R1) …………………………… 60
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Resort-Style Golf Course Golf Instructor: Jimmy (R2) …………………………… 61
Public Golf Course Golf Instructor: Tom (P1) …………………………………….. 63
Public Golf Course Golf Instructor: Kim (P2) …………………………………….. 64
Private Golf Course Golf Instructor: George (PR1) ……………………………….. 65
Part II: Grounded Theory and the Four Emerging Themes ……………………………. 67
Theme 1: Golf Instructors Lack Golf Fitness Education …………………………... 70
Theme 2: Golf Instructors Use of Golf Fitness Improves Client Performance ……. 71
Theme 3: Golf Instructors Utilizing a Golf Fitness Program Can Prevent Client
Injuries ……………………………………………………………………… 73
Theme 4: Long Term Effects of Golf Instructors Teaching Golf Fitness Are
Beneficial …………………………………………………………………… 75
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSION ………………. 78
Discussion of Findings ………………………………………………………………… 78
Answer to the First Research Question ……………………………………………. 79
Answer to the Second Research Question …………………………………………. 80
Implications ……………………………………………………………………………. 81
Implications for the golf instructor and the client …………………………………. 81
Summary of recommendations for the golf instructor and the client ………….. 84
Implications for the Golf Industry …………………………………………………. 84
Summary of recommendations for the golf industry …………………………... 86
Implications for Research ………………………………………………………….. 87
Summary of recommendations for research …………………………………… 89
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………... 89
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Sample of Participant Consent Form ……………………………………. 91
Appendix B: Interview Protocol: Semi-structured and Guided Interview …………….. 95
Appendix C: Research Guide/ Crosswalk Table ………………………………………. 98
Appendix D: Recruitment Flyer ……………………………………………………….. 100
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………….. 101
viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Participants Demographic Data ……………………………………………….. 57

ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With sincere gratitude and the deepest appreciation, I would like to acknowledge the
individuals that helped make the completion of this dissertation a reality.
First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Lawrence Picus. I am
amazed by your work ethic and global presence. How did you find time to help me and many
other students achieve their goals? Not to mention, you are a full-time faculty professor who is a
highly sought-after consultant. You nurtured my dream to write a dissertation focused on golf
and you structured my presentation into scholarly writing. I never told you this, but you and I
clicked from day one because you remind me of my favorite uncle.
Second, I would like to thank my dissertation committee members, Dr. Dominic Brewer
and Dr. Monique Datta. I am aware that my dissertation topic was a non-traditional subject area
for a doctorate in education, but you supported my path with constructive guidance to help me
complete the dissertation on time. I respect the unique expertise that you both possess, and I was
honored to learn from you.
Third, I would like to thank a person that does not know I graduated, Dr. Dan Morgan.
He completed the USC Hawaii Cohort a few years before I began the program. He is responsible
for exposing me to the doctoral program at USC. We met at a sports curriculum initiative at a
college where I served as the head golf coach. Dr. Morgan encouraged me to pursue a doctoral
degree in the USC Hawaii Cohort and the rest is history.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Helen Au for inspiring me to accomplish this journey
and to the participants in this study for devoting their time and golf teaching experience.
x

DEDICATION
“Son, is this the best you can do? Is this your final station in life?” (Paula Lorick, 2004)
I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Lieutenant Colonel Paula Lorick, who
sacrificed her life to pay for my undergraduate education and to motivate me to earn a doctoral
degree. After 25 years of exemplary military service in the United States Army, my mother was
medically retired and bestowed the Legion of Merit at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. She
courageously battled cancer for a year before passing away in 2004. My mother was interred at
Arlington National Cemetery with military honors by my former military unit, the 3
rd
United
States Infantry Regiment, “The Old Guard”.
Shortly before my mother left this earth, she looked me directly in the eyes and said,
“Son, is this the best you can do? Is this your final station in life?” At the time of this
conversation, I vaguely understood the hardships she encountered as a single parent who gave
birth to me as a teenager. Of course I benefited from her wisdom and sacrifice, but it was not
until she died that I began to understand the true meaning of her words of wisdom and the
hardships she endured during her short lifetime. She embodied the military mantra of “self-less
service” by volunteering to fight in the Persian Gulf War to fund my undergraduate education.
In 2004, I had a Bachelor of Arts degree and I was working on Capitol Hill. I figured that
I was doing okay, but she envisioned a bigger picture. Her words shook me to the core and
propelled me to new heights of experience and learning. Since my mother’s passing, I have had
great progress towards a bigger picture. In fact, I followed my passion for golf by moving to
Hawaii. I started a sports performance and education consulting company, and I earned four
college degrees in the past ten years - an associate’s, two master’s, and one doctoral.
xi

Although my mother wanted me to be a lawyer which was her career ambition, I hope
that she doesn’t disagree with my current station in life. I cannot summarize into a dedication
the magnitude of my mother’s sacrifice for my success. It’s just not that simple to say she served
in the Persian Gulf War and my life is better as a result. I am positive that any great parent would
climb an endless mountain to help their children just like my mother did for me. I pray that my
mother is resting on top of the mountain and I wish to get there one day to say thank you.
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CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
Background
Evolution of Golf
Golf was previously considered a sport of technique and strategy rather than of physical
fitness (Hetu & Christie, 1998). Literally, the classical style of playing golf was leisurely and
conservative which enabled the masses of patrons to play uninjured. Conversely, the modern
style of playing golf is athletic and aggressive because golf courses are longer in distance and
golfers have to swing the golf club faster to increase their swing speed to hit the ball farther
which can lead to improper swing mechanics, muscle fatigue, overuse, and ultimately injury
(Palacios-Jansen, 2011). The current golf population is diverse because patrons of the game of
golf are global and golf swings are different; therefore, golf instruction cannot be taught the same
way, nor can it be implemented by amateur golfers without an understanding of the
biomechanics of the golf swing and the physical limitations of the golf student.
Rueda (2011) describes how the causes and solutions of performance gaps are often
presumed and not validated. According to the PGA Teaching Manual (1990), a golf instructor is
taught to identify the causes of swing flaws and then offer solutions to fix the problem.
Surprisingly, the PGA Manual does not teach golf teaching professionals how to assess a client’s
physical limitations to understand the cause of the client’s swing flaws. If a golf instructor
presumes to fix the client’s problem, but does not understand the physical limitations of the
client, then how could the golf instructor accurately identify the cause of the problem and
provide a valid solution?
A current trend in education is the professionalization of teachers to close the
achievement gap among students (Rueda, 2011). This gap can also be seen in the golf industry
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with the PGA certification of teaching professionals without adequate curriculum to assess the
physical limitations of clients. The PGA education for professional golf teachers needs the
addition of golf fitness assessments to learn the physical limitations of golfers to improve golf
performance and to prevent injuries. The gap between what golf instructors routinely teach their
clients and how they should be educating their clients to address their physical limitations to
improve their golf performance is wide. Case in point, the technological advancement of golf
equipment, clothes, and golf courses has revolutionized the game of golf to encourage golfers to
hit the ball farther, but the level of achievement among golfers – professional and amateur – is
the same due to the existing gap of current golf instructor knowledge and the lack of golf fitness
education among golf instructors (Roberts, 2009). If there is an argument that a direct association
exists between the teacher quality and the student outcomes, then an argument can be made for
the enhancement of the golf instructor’s education to include golf fitness for the improvement of
the amateur golfer’s playing performance. The teacher or instructor can advance student learning
only by influencing what the student does (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman,
2010). As the classic golf swing from the era of Bobby Jones evolved into the modern golf swing
of Tiger Woods, the methods of golf instruction are forced to change to improve the student’s
golf performance. According to Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, and Norman (2010), one of
the three components of learning involves change in knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, or attitudes.
In the golf industry, the change has been slow because of the strong influence of golf tradition by
the golf legends, but the modern impact of longer golf courses, better technology, and faster golf
swings, has affected the way students learn and golf instructors teach the golf swing. The
incorporation of golf specific conditioning and fitness training for golf performance
improvement has become a necessary teaching tool for golf instructors as the game of golf was
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revolutionized (Palacios-Jansen, 2011) from the classic swing to the modern swing. The key to
the evolution of golf is the instructor’s ability to increase the motivation of the student of golf to
improve their golf performance through golf performance training. A student’s motivation
determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn. In order for golf instructors to develop the
mastery needed to adapt to the evolution of the game of golf, they must acquire the component
skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned to improve
their student’s golf performance (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). A
pioneer of golf fitness and a winner of nine major golf championships, Gary Player, voices that
Tiger Woods’ physicality has revolutionized the business of golf and his golf performance has
changed the way golf instructors teach the game of golf (Palacios-Jansen, 2011).
Business of Golf
The major accrediting organization for golf instructors is the Professional Golfers
Association (Wiren, 1991). Golf teaching professionals learn the fundamentals of the golf swing
from the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) manual (Martino, 2002). PGA teaching
professionals teach swing mechanics to amateurs and professional players with the goal of
improving golf performance. History shows that the same organizational practices are not
maintained throughout a long life span if the organization wants to grow. This means that in
order for an organization or industry to grow, its behavior must grow and adapt to change
(Griener, 1998). The implementation of golf fitness into the training of golf instructors is
necessary to help golfers adapt physically to the improvements in golf equipment and golf
courses. The golf industry has patterned its practices after many businesses (SRI, 2005). Most
business practices liken their business models to the automation of performance to achieve
consistent results. If a company can train a person to do a job repetitively with success, then they
4

can train multiple employees to do the same job with repeated success. The standardization of
golf instruction has produced golf instructors that have a fixed mind-set. For instance: A golf
instructor represents the fixed mind-set because they have been taught to avoid the challenge of
addressing the underlying physiological problem of the student by giving them tips to avoid the
problem. The growth mind-set of a golf instructor would be the incorporation of golf fitness to
embrace the challenge of correcting the underlying physiological problem of the student by
teaching corrective exercise strategies to improve the student’s golf performance. Building on
the success of other golf instructors that are using golf fitness to improve the student’s golf
performance would help the golf instruction profession grow to higher levels of achievement
(Dweck, 2006).
Businesses have learned to improve performance by providing employees with more
knowledge, skills, and motivation to align with the organizational goals of the company’s future.
Golf is a business that generates more than 76 billion dollars in annual expenditures for golf
courses, golf equipment, and golf lessons (SRI, 2005). In 2003, it was estimated that there were
55 million golfers worldwide (Farrally, Cochran, Crews, Hurdzan, Price, Snow, & Thomas,
2003) and with the inclusion of golf as an Olympic sport in 2016, it can be hypothesized that the
number of people taking up the game will increase in the near future (Lynn, Noffal, Wu, &
Vandervoort, 2012). The golf business accommodates approximately 25-30 million golfers in the
United States (SRI, 2005). Golf is a global sport that is arguably more popular today than it was
30 years ago due to the achievements of its most accomplished player, Tiger Woods. Tiger
Woods embodies the image of the perfect golfer because he is physically fit and he performs
exceptionally well on the golf course by executing the proper golf swing fundamentals. Mr.
Woods and players of his generation have transformed the image of a golfer from that of a
5

heavyset, cigar-smoking, potbellied hacker, to a well-trained, physically powerful and talented
athlete (Roberts, 2009). How can a golf instructor teach the average golf student how to swing a
golf club like a superior athlete named Tiger Woods without understanding the physical
limitations of the student? PGA Golf educator Gary Wiren (1999) author of the Golf Magazine
Golf Fitness Handbook created a golf specific exercise system to enhance golf performance,
reduce the likelihood of injury, and to promote golf longevity.
Professional golfers including Tiger Woods are performing at higher levels than previous
generations (Mclean, 2003). Appropriately, more money is being spent on athlete endorsements,
brand name commercials, and improved golf course architectural designs which means that
amateur golfers are seeking ways to play like professionals, dress like professionals, and use the
best equipment to master challenging golf courses. Amateur golfers spend many hours on the
driving range practicing the techniques that they read about in the latest golf magazine like Golf
Digest (McLean, 2003). If the amateur golfer can afford lessons from a golf instructor, then they
will also spend countless hours on the driving range and the golf course trying to perfect the
fundamentals of the golf swing that they learned from the golf instructor (Wiren, 1991). But
what happens when the amateur golfer cannot swing the golf club like the professional golfer
they emulate, Tiger Woods? What happens when the golf student sustains an injury due to poor
swing mechanics? The golf business cannot afford to lose the interest of the amateur golfer. The
golf business generates more than 76 billion dollars in annual expenditures for golf instruction,
golf clothes, golf equipment, and golf course green fees (SRI, 2005). The viable and logical
solution to elevate the playing level of the amateur golfer is not more dollars spent on clothes
and equipment, but the education of golf teaching professionals in golf fitness for the
advancement of golf instruction. Golf fitness empowered golf instructors teaching the amateur
6

golfer how to improve their physical limitations will boost the competitive nature of the golf
industry; consequently, the amateur golfer will understand how to develop the physical
capabilities to swing the golf club fundamentally, advance their playing ability, and continue to
invest in golf instruction and the golf business. Studies have shown that the level of a student’s
development- intellectually, socially, emotionally- can directly impact a student’s climate for
learning (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). For instance, if a golf instructor
properly assesses the physical limitations of a golf student before teaching them to swing the golf
club in a biomechanically efficient manner, then the instructor has created a positive
environment for the student to learn; therefore, the student learning is energized.
Traditional golf lessons are limited by fixed positions and they do not address the
physiology of the student, nor do they incorporate the biomechanics of the student’s ability to
perform the rigid fixed positions of the golf swing. For instance, traditional golf lessons are
centered on the basic golf positions. The basic golf positions are the following: address,
backswing, top of the backswing, downswing, impact position, and the follow-through or finish.
Similar to a fixed-mind set, traditional golf instructors teach students to avoid obstacles or
limitations in their golf swing by not addressing the physical limitations. This mind set may
prevent the student from swinging the golf club efficiently and correctly. Instead, golf instructors
teach students tricks to compensate for the inability of the student to swing the golf club
correctly.
Addressing the underlying physiological problems of the student as a path to mastering
the golf swing is a growth mind-set that golf instructors can use to facilitate golf teaching. In
other words, the students’ understanding of why they cannot swing the golf club the way the golf
instructor is teaching them to swing is a way to embrace the challenge and fix the problem for
7

improved performance. Building on the success of other golf instructors that are using golf
fitness to improve the student’s golf performance would help the golf instruction profession
grow to higher levels of achievement (Dweck, 2006). Dweck (2006) believes networking is the
most important of the five discovery skills because it fosters the social connection of learning
between innovators. New ideas like golf fitness can improve the golf instruction business and the
field can continue to grow with networking to share the benefits.
Golf Instruction
If golf instructors teach a student to hit the golf ball without assessing the body for
physical limitations, the student could be injured and not return to the game of golf if their body
is not prepared to swing the golf club in three planes of motion (Loock, Grace, Semple, 2013).
The three planes of motion for the golf swing are the Sagittal (vertical plane), the Frontal (ventral
and dorsal planes), and the Transverse (horizontal plane). Although this may be easier for golf
instructors, it is important that instructors learn to assess the physical limitations of the student
golfer and build a golf specific training program for the student to implement to improve golf
performance, reduce injuries, and increase golf longevity. A research study by Gulgin, Schulte,
and Crawley (2014) examined thirty-six male and female golfers with an mean age range of 16-
35 to find the correlation between the Titleist Performance Institute (TPI) level 1 movement
screens and golf swing faults. The movement screens are research-based analysis of the
biomechanics of the golf swing to identify the physical limitations of the golfer. The golf fitness
practitioner can test the student through a series of movements based on the research conducted
by the Titleist Performance Institute to compare the student’s limitations and strengths with
previously tested golfers who move efficiently. Twelve physical tests of strength, flexibility, and
balance were assessed using the TPI level 1 golf fitness screening tool. The importance of the
8

research finding was that a golf teaching and fitness professional needs to address a golfer’s core
strength, balance, and hamstring flexibility to help avoid common golf swing faults, which affect
a golfer’s ball striking ability and ultimately their performance (2014). The Titleist Performance
Institute (TPI) is the primary certification organization that teaches golf instructors how to assess
the physical limitations of the golf swing utilizing a research-based methodology of movement
screens to find the common golf swing faults that inhibit golf performance and may cause injury
(Dave & Rose, 2010). Another organization that teaches health professionals and golf instructors
to properly assess the physical limitations of the human body that affect the golf swing, is the
National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) (Cochran, Garrison, & Sutton, 2012). NASM is
globally known for certifying personal trainers and health educators in various specializations,
most recently, golf fitness (2012).
Golf instruction is a service used by golfers around the world to improve their golf
performance and it is based on methods of teaching that are standardized but do not address the
physiology or biomechanics of the student (Diovisalvi, 2010). For example: A golf instructor
may give a lesson to a student who is experiencing a common problem, “slicing” the golf ball.
The golf instructor will teach the student tips to avoid the problem, but the traditional methods of
teaching are rigid and based on band-aid schemes to fix problems. The current methods do not
allow for the golf instructor to synthesize or think of new ways to address problems through
cognitive skill or to associate the problems with the solutions for the incorporation of golf fitness
to address the physiological structure of the student. By associating the identifiable swing flaw of
the student and the best method to treat the flaw, golf instructors are able to make a connection
between the problems of the student, “slicing”, to the idea of golf fitness to address the
biomechanical structure of the student to fix the problem. Although the cognitive skill of
9

associating is important, the behavioral skills of questioning, observing, experimenting, and
networking (Dyer, Gergersen, & Christensen, 2011) are imperative for innovative idea
generation. By questioning why the student is slicing the golf ball, golf instructors would become
innovators to question or challenge the traditional methods of golf teaching to better understand
the root of the problem. Golf instructors should routinely question the student for an
understanding of their common practices and to gain new insights about the infinite number of
possibilities for improving the student’s golf performance. It is also imperative that golf
instructors observe to learn better ways to give a lesson. The advantage of using golf fitness with
a golf lesson is the correction of the physiological problem that causes the student to “slice” the
golf ball. Observing is a skill that golf instructors should use to be innovators and thought leaders
in the field of golf performance. Once a golf instructor observes what the student is doing, then
he can collect data to experiment for new ways to improve his teaching.
Statement of Problem
Golf fitness should be instrumental to the teaching program of instructors to increase
their student’s performance, decrease injuries, and improve their overall quality of life for
longevity in the game of golf. Physical conditioning for golf is an essential component of
performance enhancement and injury reduction with scientific investigations providing evidence
demonstrating improvements in performance; however, information regarding the practical
application of appropriate strength and conditioning programming is limited (Read & Lloyd,
2014). A study by Smith (2010), showed that golfers routinely swing the golf club up to 300
times during a practice session which requires a significant amount of flexibility in the shoulders,
hips, and legs to be efficient. As a result of the golf swing, golfers are placing high demands on
their bodies with force and load movements through all three planes of motion – Sagittal,
10

Frontal, and Transverse. To execute the golf swing safely for a biomechanically efficient
outcome, the human body must be trained proprioceptively (Thompson, Cobb, & Blackwell,
2007). The golf swing is complicated to master because it requires a formidable level of skill
incorporating power, strength, endurance, flexibility, and timing. The average male golfer burns
approximately 620 kcals of energy during an 18-hole round of golf (Dear, Porter, & Ready,
2010). Golf is an athletic sport that is physically active and constitutes moderate levels of aerobic
and muscular conditioning and muscular endurance and strength. Research suggests that an
appropriately designed and closely supervised conditioning program may not only improve the
physical fitness of golfers but may also enhance golf performance (Hetu, 1998). Even though
golf does not require an inordinate amount of strength and flexibility, golf is a movement of
conditioned muscles throughout a large range of movement.
Context of the Problem
With the latest golf attire and the most sophisticated golf clubs, amateur golfers may look
the part, but they still cannot achieve the basic golf swing of a professional golfer. The golf
industry is supported by the teachings of golf instructors in magazines, on TV shows, and
commercials to target the amateur golfer for business (PGA, 2013). The major problem is that
amateur golfers are not improving their scores and getting injured because golf instructors have
been teaching the basics of the golf swing without addressing the physical limitations of the golf
students. Golf instructors teach amateurs how to improve their swing mistakes by analyzing the
symptoms of their flawed golf swing mechanics. Golf tips, drills, swing advice, and practice on
the driving range can only advance an amateur’s golf game to a level that will eventually become
stagnate because the underlying opportunity for growth exists within the causes of the golf swing
mechanics.
11

According to a PGA Tour Golf Fitness Expert, Diovisalvi (2010), a bad golf swing does
not always mean that you are doing something wrong, it is just that your body is not letting you
do something right. By understanding and changing your body, you will be able to correct your
mechanics naturally so you can take your game to the next level. Golf Instructors must learn how
to assess the golf student’s physical abilities and limitations to correctly address how to
fundamentally swing the golf club.
Where is a golfer’s swing path inflexible? Which part of the golf student’s body is weak
or unstable? How can the golf instructor teach the golf student to achieve a fundamental golf
swing without knowing how to address weaknesses or common injuries? Common amateur golf
swing injuries are associated with the back, shoulder, and wrist due to improper swing
mechanics, over-training with poor swing fundamentals, and the lack of knowledge for how to
treat musculoskeletal imbalances that exist in their golf swing (Sell, 2007). A golf teaching
professional must know the golf fitness solutions to enhance the golf performance capability of
the amateur golfer. Without this knowledge, golf instructors can damage the physical health of
the golf student due to the insufficient knowledge base of the amateur golfer. Moreover, the golf
instructor can be perceived as “used-car salesmen” who primarily teaches Band-Aid strategies
that are quick fixes to a golf swing that are not effective in the long run and may exacerbate golf
related injuries. It is imperative that golf instructors understand the limitations of established
methods of teaching golf, but unfortunately, the system is slow to adopt new training education.
Literature supports the benefits of golf fitness for improved golf performance (Hetu, Christie, &
Faigenbaum, 1998) studied the effects of an 8-week conditioning program focusing on
flexibility, plyometric training, and muscular strength on measures of physical fitness and golf
12

performance. The authors reported increases in flexibility, strength, and club head speed among
the experimental group after completion of the program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify the extent to which golf instructors teach golf
specific strength and conditioning skills for increased golf performance; reduction of injuries
associated with golf play; and to improve a student’s quality of life for longevity in the sport.
The study will describe the history of golf, its evolution to the modern game and the current
practices of golf instruction to identify the benefits of incorporating a golf fitness program into
the teaching of golf instruction and training.
An organizational problem in the golf industry is that golf instructors practice the
assembly line methodology to teach amateur golfers how to swing the golf club fundamentally.
An example of this teaching can be illustrated with a man going to buy a suit from the clothing
store. Does he buy the suit without getting it tailored or would it look and feel better if it were
tailored to fit his physical build? The answer will depend on the buyer, but if he wants to look
like a million bucks or resemble the celebrities on TV, then he needs to visit a haberdashery to
get the suit altered to contour properly to his body. Amateur golfers pay money to golf teaching
professionals to learn how to play at the level of the professionals on TV or simply to beat their
playing partners. Golf instructors must tailor a golf lesson for amateurs to include a golf fitness
assessment to build a program that fits the individual student. No one method of teaching is
applicable to all students without measuring the student’s physical limitations (Rotella, 1997).
Research Questions
1. Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf instruction?
2. How do golf instructors use golf fitness to improve instruction?
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Hypothesis
There are worthwhile benefits for a golf instructor to incorporate a golf fitness program to
train golfers to engage in the skilled movement patterns for the game of golf. It is hypothesized
that education empowerment of golf instructors with golf specific strength and functional
training will result in an increase in student’s golf performance.
Qualitative Method: Grounded Theory
This is a qualitative study to find out how golf instructors teach clients to improve their
golf performance. This research study will use a qualitative method to answer the two research
questions. Qualitative research produces data in details and words instead of statistics and
numbers, which is why this study will interview golf instructors to learn from golf professionals
in their daily setting at the golf course. It is necessary to record the experiences of golf
instructors in their habitat to understand what instructors do to help clients improve their
performance. Their commentary will provide elaborate verbal descriptions of the phenomena
being studied and the observations will provide evidence based examples of the effectiveness of
golf fitness for the improvement of golfer’s performance and the reduction of injury. The goal of
the different qualitative techniques is to give verbal descriptions that are rich and capture the
complexity of behavior that happens at the golf course from the perspective of the golf instructor.
The data will be collected and analyzed inductively (McMillan & Schumacher, 1989).
Grounded theory will be used to answer the two research questions. Creswell (1998, p.
55) stated, “The intent of a grounded theory study is to generate or discover a theory, an abstract
analytical schema of a phenomenon, that relates to a particular situation.” For the purposes of
this study, the golf instructors will be observed giving golf instruction to clients at the golf
course and interviewed to learn more about how golf instructors teach their clients to improve
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golf performance. Grounded theory is the best plan for answering the research questions set out
for this study; its strengths outweigh its limitations. It helps to study how people act and react to
the phenomenon; the researcher’s role is to collect primarily interview data, make multiple visits
to the field, to develop and interrelate categories of information, and to write theoretical
propositions or hypotheses or presents a visual picture of the theory (Creswell, 1998). By
observing how golf instructors teach and interact with their clients at the golf course, the data
will begin to show how golf instructors can develop their methodology of teaching to improve
golf performance. According to Merriam and Associates (2002), a grounded theory is a vehicle
for an in-depth description and analysis of a phenomenon: the process of conducting the research
will need to be carefully designed and the execution will be a complex, time-consuming, and
rewarding journey. To execute grounded theory, interviews will be conducted with golf
instructors on a one-on-one basis. As a consequence, the target number of participants for this
study will need to be manageable for the researcher and the target contacts will need to be large
enough to harvest a decent sampling that would be significant for analysis and interpretation.
Six will be the random target sample size of this qualitative study. Regardless of the final
participant number, the ultimate goal is to have enough personal stories to develop categories
and themes, to find deep and rich descriptive dialogs for analysis, and ultimately to answer the
research questions.
Importance of the Study
The golf business is constantly looking for ways to improve its golf courses and golf
equipment; conversely, golf lessons are still taught by instructors that have limited understanding
of the biomechanics of the golf swing and how the human body affects the student’s ability to
perform the fundamentals of the golf swing. Golf fitness training has become mainstream in the
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golfing industry, and a vast amount of information on the biomechanics of the golf swing and the
physiologic effects of golf now exist which can lead to new opportunities for golf instructors to
penetrate this market. In elite settings, less focus is attributed to golf technology as previous
generations, a greater emphasis has been placed on developing strength, flexibility, and balance
to enhance swing mechanics, optimize performance, and reduce injuries (Whitaker, 1998). The
process can begin with golf instructors taking a golf fitness workshop, seminar, or certification to
learn the biomechanics of the golf swing and how to assess the physical limitations of the human
body to perform the basics of the golf swing. The golf instructors can be certified by the
Professional Golfers Association (PGA), United States Golf Teachers Federation (USGTF),
Golf Academy of America (GAA), or the Titleist Performance Institute (TPI). The goal is for all
golf instructors to take a mandatory golf fitness workshop, seminar, or certification program
annually to progress their level of golf fitness education to elevate the quality of their instruction
to golf students. To summarize this idea briefly, golf instructors can emulate the medical doctor’s
approach to improving the health of a patient by providing their students with a biomechanical
golf assessment to prepare a lesson plan for students to improve physical ability, their golf swing
fundamentals, and overall golf performance to reduce injury and upgrade their quality of life to
play golf longer.
The main accrediting organization for golf teaching professionals is the Professional
Golfers’ Association (PGA, 2013) and for decades they have certified golf instructors to teach
golfers without mandating golf fitness. This methodology is antiquated because it does not assess
the current amateur golfer’s physical capabilities; instead, it has ensured that all golf instructors
learn the same base of knowledge and skills without adjusting the education to incorporate golf
fitness into the lesson plan. Essentially, amateur golfers have been treated like the guy that buys
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a suit off of the rack without getting it customized to fit his body type. This process might have
worked fifty years ago when the advancements of technology did not allow students to view
videos, watch golf on TV regularly, and professional golfers were not built like Tiger Woods,
they in fact resembled more in stature like Jackie Gleason from the 1950’s TV show, the
Honeymooners (Roberts, 2009).
Golf is an ever changing sport that requires athletic movements and golf instructors with
the knowledge, skill, and motivation to learn golf fitness to elevate the game of golf to the next
level of performance. Clark states that profit in companies causes performance management,
which justifies the motivation to learn more, but the industry has to first accept the change to
implement the process (2008). Change within the golf industry will come from the systematic
analysis of the performance gaps within the level of knowledge and skills of the golf instructor as
it relates to teaching the amateur golfer to get better through learning golf fitness. Pursuant to the
findings of Carson, Collins, and McNamara (2013), there is great scope for PGA professionals to
increase their coaching efficacy relating to skill refinement and conditioning; however, results
suggested no standardized, systematic, or theoretically considered approach to implementing
change, with pressure resistance as an obstacle for change. The study concluded that the change
appears most likely to be achieved through a collaborative approach between coach education
providers, researchers, and coaches.
Golf instructors with the knowledge of golf fitness principles and the basic golf swing
biomechanics will increase the demand for golf instruction from the amateur golfer because
fewer injuries will result from golfers practicing ineffective and improper swing techniques. The
amateur golfer spends many hours practicing the golf swing without understanding the basics of
the golf swing and the physical causes that prevent them from swinging the golf club
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fundamentally. Golf instructors empowered with the knowledge of golf fitness will assess the
amateur golfer and teach the proper swing mechanics to prevent injury and improve the golfer’s
scoring average or performance. Research has proven that an assessment of golfers can help golf
instructors correct swing faults in their clients and decrease the chance of golfers getting hurt
(Gulgin, Schulte, & Crawley, 2014).
One of the first organizational questions to be addressed by the golf industry to improve
the golf instructor’s current knowledge base is the following question: What is worth learning or
teaching (Anderson, 2001)? For a century the golf industry has answered these questions by
allocating no time or curriculum changes to allow for the implementation of golf fitness as a
teaching necessity for golf instructors. The golf instructor must realize the importance of golf
fitness for the advancement of the sport and for the amateur golfer because golf scores have not
changed for professional golfers and golf handicaps have not changed for amateur golfers. The
golf instructors of the future must be knowledge workers who can solve the complex problems
and assess the physical limitations that amateur golfers embody when they try to swing the golf
club like a professional golfer. What is worth learning is the underlying question for golf
instructors to answer for the advancement of the golf industry to include golf fitness as a
standard comprehensive tool to teach amateur golfers the fundamentals of the golf swing.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) describe state level standards as the answer to “what is worth
learning” and this will serve as the benchmark for the golf industry to deem golf fitness as a
standard tool for golf instructors to use for teaching amateur golfers the golf swing.
Limitations and Delimitations
As a novice researcher, there will be limitations in this study because of bias and
inexperience as the sole researcher. The researcher will be limited by time and resources
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available during the specified research period. The research institution will be limited to the four
types of golf courses (private, public, military, and resort); hence, the grounded theory study will
only reflect the voices of the participants recruited from the four golf course sites. First of all, the
researcher must set aside theoretical ideas or notions in order for the analytic, substantive theory
to emerge. Secondly, despite the evolving, inductive nature of this form of qualitative inquiry,
the researcher must recognize the study as a systematic approach to research with specific steps
in data analysis. Third, the researcher might experience difficulty determining when categories
are saturated or when the theory is sufficiently detailed. Finally, the researcher must recognize
that the primary outcome of this study is a theory or a model with specific components: a central
phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, and consequences. These are
prescribed categories of information in a theory.
Because the focus of the study is the effectiveness of golf instructors teaching golf
specific training for golf performance to their clients, the researcher will be limited to what the
results will yield from the recruitment or snowballing process. The golf instructors may be
influenced by the researcher’s background in golf fitness. The answers given by the golf
instructors may reflect their motivation to impress the researcher with golf fitness knowledge and
practice with their clients. In addition, the researcher might encounter difficulties in getting
commitment from potential participants during the recruitment process. For this reason, those
who sign up for this study will be the passionate ones who feel that the topic is meaningful to
them personally and they will see a value for their stories to be heard in the golf community for
educational purpose. In essence, the researcher will be limited by many variables that a new
researcher will not be able to plan for, predict, and prevent in this study.
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Inadequate fitness facilities at the golf courses for warm-up activities and golf fitness
conditioning and the lack of golf fitness education among golf instructors may be contributing
factors to the motivation of golf instructors teaching golf specific fitness training. Studies have
demonstrated improved golf swing performance as a result of exercise programs that comprise
both core and swing-specific exercises. Moreover, their experimental designs do not definitively
isolate the benefits of the core exercises for golf performance. The benefits observed could be
due predominantly to the core exercises or, to the contrary of core training advocates, due to the
swing-specific nature of the exercises (Lederman, 2010). For instance, the effectiveness of core
training and delay resisted golf swings on golf swing parameters were quantified and measured
improvements were observed (Lehman, 2006); To the contrary, the limitation is that it is not
possible to determine whether the benefits were acquired due to the loads or stresses placed on
the core or due to the swing-specific movements of the upper limbs or extremities. Another
limitation is the golf instructor’s ability to learn golf specific training for the education of golf
clients. The golf instructor is hired to educate the golf client on the proper golf swing mechanics
which are directly related to the biomechanics of the golf swing and the physical ability of the
client. The golf instructor may or may not know the importance of golf fitness to instruct the
fundamentals of the proper golf swing.
Definition of Terms
Biomechanical or Biomechanics of the golf swing is the analysis of the physical aspects or
kinematic sequence of the golfer’s swing.
Bobby Jones or Robert Tyre "Bobby" Jones Jr. (March 17, 1902 – December 18, 1971) was
an American amateur golfer who won 13 major golf championships and was a lawyer by
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profession. Jones founded and helped design the Augusta National Golf Club, and co-founded
the Masters Tournament. He is the most successful amateur golfer in golf history.
Classic golf swing means utilizing equal amounts of pelvic and shoulder rotation at the top of
the backswing; the whole body initiates the downswing; hips equal with shoulders at impact;
lower back is relatively neutral in the follow-through.
Frontal is the plane parallel to the long axis of the body and at right angles to the median Sagittal
plane, dividing the body into front and back portions.
Golf Fitness is the training of the golf specific muscles used during the phases of the golf swing
to improve golf performance and to prevent injuries to swing the golf club more efficiently
Golf Handicap is a numerical measure of a golfer's potential playing ability based on the tees
played for a given course. It is used to calculate a net score from the number of strokes actually
played during a competition, therefore allowing players of different abilities to play against each
other on somewhat equal terms.
Gutta-percha golf ball was created by Dr. Robert Adams and it was called a “Gutty”. The Gutty
golf ball was created from the dried sap of the Sapodilla tree. It had a rubber-like feel and it was
formed into ball shapes by heating it up. The arrival of the “Gutty" revolutionized the game of
golf. The Gutty period lasted from 1848 until the late 1890’s.
Harry Vardon (May 9, 1870 – March 20, 1937) was a 5’8’’ professional golfer and he called
the “World’s Greatest Play” of his era. He invented the Vardon Grip and was the first sports
product endorser in the late 19
th
and early 20
th
centuries. Within a few years he became golf's
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first superstar following the days of Young Tom Morris. Vardon won a still unmatched record
six Open Championships.
Links-style is the oldest style of golf course and it was first developed in Scotland. Links
courses remain most common in Ireland and in Great Britain, especially in Scotland. Links
courses tend to be on, or in close proximity to, a coast, and the term is usually associated with
coastal courses, with dunes, with hardly any water hazards or trees. The Links style refers back
to the original golf courses that were kept with limited machinery.
Modern golf swing means limited pelvic rotation compared to shoulder rotation at the top of the
backswing; hips initiate the downswing; hips ahead of the shoulders at impact; hyperextension
of the lower back during the follow-through.
Niblets were an historical golf club, probably the equivalent to a 7-iron today which was made
of a wooden-shaft and was used primarily before the 20th Century.
Proprioceptive means an individual’s perception of the relative position of neighboring parts of
the body and strength of effort being employed in movement related to the environment.
Sagittal plane is a vertical plane which passes from anterior to posterior, dividing the body into
right and left halves
Transverse is an imaginary plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
X-factor is the maximizing of the upper torso rotation while minimizing pelvic rotation during
the backswing which is a key trait of the modern golf swing.
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Young Tom Morris was a 5’8’’ professional golfer he was the first young prodigy in golf
history. He won four consecutive titles in the Open Championship and he accomplished this
“unmatched feat” by the age of 21. He died of a heart attack at the age of 24.

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CHAPTER II - LITERATURE REVIEW
Background
The goal of this study is to provide an evidence-based literature review pertaining to the
need for golf instructors to learn golf fitness to increase their student’s golf performance, reduce
injuries, and to improve a the student’s longevity in the sport and quality of life. Several research
studies have shown the effectiveness of a golf-conditioning program for amateur golfers on
various performance measures, including flexibility, muscle strength, core stability, and club-
head speed. A 2007 study measured flexibility, muscle strength, and balance characteristics of
golfers from three levels of ability based on their handicap (0 or better, 1–9, and 10–20) to
evaluate the physical swing characteristics of professional golfers (Sell, 2007). Two hundred and
fifty-seven male golfers aged 45 participated in this study. The testing included an assessment
for flexibility and strength of the torso, shoulders, hips, and the single-leg balance. The results
showed that professional golfers possess a higher level of strength, range of motion in the joints,
and better balance than amateur golfers. The researchers noted that golf instructors with an
understanding of the benefits of a golf fitness program, in addition to instruction, could teach the
characteristics of a fundamentally stable golf swing to amateurs and see considerable
improvements (Sell, 2007).
Because golf instruction has not changed over the years to include golf fitness, golf
scores are remarkably the same. The golf industry has advanced its technology, golf balls, golf
apparel for weather conditions, and golf courses to adjust to the golf professional’s level of
playing ability. Unfortunately, the amateur golfer’s average handicap is still 16.2 for men and 29
for women after 15 years of technological advancements (Rotella, 1997). In 1939, Ralph Guldahl
won the Masters with a score of 279. In 1994, fifty-five years later, Jose Maria Olazabal won the
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same tournament with the same score, 279. In 1958, Dow Finsterwald won the 1958 PGA
Championship with a score of 276. In 2005, Phil Mickelson won the same tournament with the
same score, 276. According to Rotella (1997), statistics do not lie: the pros scores are not getting
better with technological advances and neither are the amateur golfer scores. Rotella states that
golf is the only sport that tolerates stagnation unlike other sports- football and basketball. Golf
instructors teach the same methods to address the golf swing, but the problem is that students do
not swing the golf club the same. Why not learn the student’s physical limitations that inhibit
them to swing the golf club efficiently? For instance, if an owner of a football team saw no
improvement for fifteen years, he would fire the coach and recruit new players. In the golf
industry, golf instructors continue to teach students without an understanding of how to assess
their physical limitations to design a golf specific training program to improve their golf
performance. Clearly, golf handicaps have not changed much over the years even with
technological growth and it is directly correlated to the lack of golf fitness education within the
golf instruction community. Golf teaching professionals need to start teaching how to fix the
body before they teach how to swing the golf club. Fix your body; fix your swing (Diovisalvi,
2010).
Hank Haney (2013) did research to show golf is a sport that can result in injury and golf
injuries are most often associated with the repetitive stress of practice and play, especially for
amateur golfers. During an 18-hole round of golf, the average amateur golfer walks 4-5 miles,
executes more than 100 practice and actual swings, leans over 30-40 putts, and bends down more
than 50 times to either pick-up their golf ball, or place the golf ball on a tee (Roberts, 2009). The
golf instructor must understand that traditional teaching methods for amateurs in years past are
not adequate for amateur athletes today.
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Golf students today are older and more vulnerable to injury due to modern lifestyle
changes commensurate with sitting at the computer desk and watching TV for extended periods
of times with poor posture (Sell, 2007). Eighty percent of amateur golfers suffer from back pain
during a round of golf (PGA, 2013). Golf instructors are not medical doctors and they should not
diagnose clients; however, they must understand the physical limitations that students play with
and be able to build a golf fitness program to help the existing injuries heal and reduce the risk of
developing new problems.
The demographics of the average golf student have changed over time. For instance, 50
percent of the U.S. population in 2010 was over fifty years old, which means more people are
able to golf past their prime age group of 20- 40 years of age (Diovisalvi, 2010). Athletically, the
human body of a twenty-year-old golf student can be significantly different than a seasoned golf
student who is fifty-five years old. The golf instructor must evaluate a student’s ability to
perform the golf swing by analyzing their capabilities individually. The instructor must be able
to customize a physical fitness program that will address any existing physical limitations to
prepare the student for the routine golf experience of a round of golf.
The golf student does not practice the number of hours that a professional golfer does on
a regular basis; otherwise, the golf student would probably play golf for a living with the right
physical and mental attributes of a professional golfer. Conversely, the golf student typically
leads a sedentary lifestyle and develops muscle imbalances of strength and flexibility in their
body. The lifestyle of inactivity causes their muscles to shorten and pull on opposing muscles
that are weak during the golf swing, which is a common cause of injury. If a golf instructor does
not realize the causes of an improper golf swing, then the golf student may not be able to swing
the golf club correctly and repeatedly injure an area that is shortened or weak. For example, tight
26

abdominal muscles may cause a weakening of the back muscles. Tight hip flexors weaken the
opposing muscles of the gluteus. Golf instructors must not only teach the fundamentals of the
golf swing, but they must develop golf student’s opposing muscle groups to balance the golf
swing to improve performance and prevent injuries (Roberts, 2009).
Body: Synthesis of the Literature
Golf Tradition
In the beginning, commoners played the game of golf and its rich tradition could be
traced back to 1457 when King James II of Scotland banned the playing of golf in fear that the
Scotsmen would not practice their archery to fight the English (Cook, 2009). The ban was
eventually lifted by King James IV in 1502 with his purchase of the first official set of golf clubs
at Perth in Scotland (Laird, 2014). For centuries golf was played by the Dutchmen and the
Scotsmen in the open fields of their homeland, including the first known female golfer, Mary
Stuart, also known as the “Mary Queen of Scots” who famously played only days after the
murder of her husband, Lord Darnley.
The game of golf migrated to the New World with the founding of Dutch trading colonies
in 1609. The village of Beverwijck (now Albany), New York banned the playing golf in the
streets, but the Dutch settlers found creative ways to play golf on the frozen Hudson River using
skates. Although golf was becoming a global sport, the tradition was built by the British with the
first tournament in 1744, the creation of the first clubhouse in 1768, and the definition of a round
of golf as 18 holes by the Society of St. Andrews Golfers in 1764 (Cook, 2009). Notably, St.
Andrews is widely regarded by golf historians as the “Home of Golf” for their establishment of
golf course etiquette, maintenance, and links-style play. In 1857, St. Andrews became the first
18-hole golf course in the world. In 1868, the first hole in one was recorded by Young Tom
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Morris at Prestwick during the British Open. His father, Old Tom Morris, was appointed
“Custodier of the Links” by the Royal and Ancient Club of St. Andrews and he is credited with
designing the manicured links visible today at St. Andrews. By the twentieth century, the
prosperity of the Victorians, the growth of the railways, and the influx of tourism to St. Andrews,
solidified the golf tradition in Britain and elevated its appeal to the aristocratic and wealthy.
In 1839, a feathery golf ball was made by Allan Robertson, the first known golf
professional and teacher of Old Tom Morris was used by golfers until the invention of the
“gutty” or gutta-percha golf ball in the late 19
th
century. By 1900, the popularity of golf grew
with the British golf hero and golf swing legend, Harry Vardon, who traveled to America to
promote the gutta-percha golf ball sold by Spalding, the “Vardon Flyer”, which made Mr.
Vardon the first sports figure to endorse a product (Cook, 2009). In its early stages, golf was
played with wooden niblets and cleeks, or a shepherd’s crook to hit an early version of a golf
ball, which did not travel far when struck by a golf club (Davies, 2005). Based on historical
facts, the game of golf by the twentieth century became a gentleman’s sport and was not
regarded as an athletic endeavor by practitioners or observers (Bordieu, 1991).
Following the success of Harry Vardon, the game transcended to new heights with an
American Harvard educated amateur golfer named Robert Tyre “Bobby” Jones, who won 13
major championships in the early 1900s. Jones (1960) quipped that the game of golf is changing
with the standardization of golf balls, lighter golf clubs with steel shafts, and better golf course
maintenance. These advancements allowed golfers to hit the ball farther and produce lower
scores. In the era of the classic golf swing, Bobby Jones and Harry Vardon stated that hitting the
ball farther was not an advantage and golfers rarely swung the golf club hard or fast to achieve
distance because ball placement was more vital to lower scores. Conversely, with the
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introduction of the modern golf swing, better equipment and longer golf courses, players began
to swing harder and faster to score lower (Jones, 1960). Literature of this period began to
examine why golfers are hitting the ball farther as referenced in studies by Williams (1966), who
studied the sequence of Bobby Jones’ golf swing to understand how power is transferred to the
golf ball and by Jorgensen (1970), who studied the dynamics of the golf swing as it relates to the
golf club. These early studies showed how human power, if transferred efficiently through the
stages of the golf swing, directly correlates to the distance the golf ball travels. Bobby Jones did
more for golf than win major championships, in 1933 Jones and Alister MacKenzie designed
America’s version of St. Andrews, the Augusta National in Augusta, Georgia which is home to
the Masters Championship (Cook, 2009).
Inevitably, golfers began to evolve physically by hitting the golf ball harder and farther to
the take advantage of the improved golf balls, equipment and longer golf courses. The perception
of golf as a leisure sport for the aristocracy remained for almost a century. Harry Vardon was
quoted as saying, “When a golfer’s muscles develop hardness and size like a weightlifter’s, they
retard the ease and quickness of hitting, which count so much at the instant of impact” (Roberts,
2009). The concept that golfers must be well-conditioned athletes with strength and conditioning
training materialized as technology changed and the need for golfers to swing the golf club faster
and to hit the golf ball harder became a reality. How do golfers translate swinging the golf club
faster to hitting the golf ball harder? Dating back to the golf legend Bobby Jones and progressing
to golf prodigy Tiger Woods, golf champions have learned to play better golf from golf
instructors. However, a key observation to note is that golf scores have not changed over the
years, but the golf swing has evolved from the classic golf swing of Bobby Jones to the modern
golf swing of Tiger Woods. An efficient golf swing is the result of the upper body rotating
29

around the lower body, which remains stable. Regardless of how efficient your golf swing, the
biomechanics of the golf swing put a tremendous amount of stress on the body (Roberts, 2009).
Tiger Woods consulted golf instructor Hank Haney to elevate his golf performance and Tiger
won eight major championships (Haney, 2013). Hank Haney teaches that distance is the number
one factor that determines a player’s potential (Roberts, 2009). Research from the National Golf
Foundation showed that the United States had 27.3 million men and women golfers, but only 3.3
million golfers received golf instruction (National, 2005). If an elite golfer like Tiger Woods
hired a golf instructor to improve his golf performance, then why are only 12% of golfers in the
U.S. working with a golf instructor? The answer may exist within the teaching anatomy of golf
instruction.
Golf Instruction
In 1916, the PGA of America was founded to organize professional golfers for the
promotion of the game of golf and to elevate the standards of the golf professional’s vocation,
which included providing formal golf swing instruction to golf students (Wilson, 2007).
Research from the National Golf Foundation’s (NGF) Golf Business Almanac (2005) illustrates
that golf scores have not improved over the last ten years even though advancements have been
made in golf technology, golf course maintenance, and golf instruction (2005). Logically, if golf
technology and golf course conditioning have not improved golf performance, then lower scores
should come from golf instruction. Twelve percent of golfers in the U.S. hire a golf swing coach
to get better. Why is the percentage of golfers taking golf lessons only 12%? In 2003, NGF
conducted a research study of more than 1,000 adult golfers to find out what they liked and
disliked about golf instruction (National, 2005). According to the study, the golfers disliked golf
instructor’s inability to communicate effectively, relate to the student, and to adapt the
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instruction to the individual student (Manual, 1990). Since the aim of this literature review is to
show the benefits of golf fitness to golf instruction for better student golf performance, the focus
will concentrate on the adaptation of the golf instruction to the student.
According to the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) of America, over 28,000 golf
instructors provide golf swing lessons at more than 16,000 golf course facilities in the United
States. Golf instructors are paid $25 per half hour to over $3,000 per hour based on the
instructor’s reputation and experience (National, 2005). The PGA of America is the governing
body for golf instruction at golf courses, which means they are responsible for educating the
majority of golfers on the fundamentals of the game. In order for an instructor to receive the
PGA certification, they must successfully complete basic golf training through the Professional
Golf Management Program (PGMP).
A research study conducted by a PGA teaching professional with more than 20,000
lessons found that the teaching requirements of the PGMP fall short in comparison with
traditional teachers who instruct adults in formal post-secondary education programs (Wilson,
2007). The study revealed the lack of basic education and adult education principles, methods,
and skills for PGA golf professionals. The PGA Teaching Manual allocates less than ten
paragraphs focusing on how to effectively communicate and present information that is tailored
to the adult golf student (1990). Although the PGA’s PGMP training program uses this manual
as the number one resource for teaching, the amount of adult education principles and techniques
in this training manual are limited (Wilson, 2007). PGA teaching professionals must attend
seminars and workshops to learn additional teaching skills for communication and fitness.
Ultimately, the reason most students pay for golf instruction is to improve their golf
performance. The process to get better at the game of golf begins with an instructor’s
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understanding of the biomechanics or anatomy of the golf swing (McLean, 2003).
Predominantly, in the world of golf, there are two main types of golf swings – classic and
modern. The classic golf swing was exemplified by the Bobby Jones, incorporated a large body
turn, with an equal amount of hip and shoulder rotation in the backswing. This swing created a
flatter swing plane. The rotational kinematics of the hip turn in the classic swing is estimated to
be about 70 to 80 degrees (2009). In contrast, the modern golf swing, exemplified in the past by
Jack Nicklaus and today by players such as Tiger Woods, incorporates a steeper swing plane and
a large shoulder turn and torso rotation over a more stable lower body (Roberts, 2009). The
limited hip rotation in the modern swing is measured close to 45 degrees with less rotation of the
lower body (Haney, 2009). The modern swing generates resistance by a coiling action of the
spine and the shoulders; therefore, it creates a greater shoulder turn in relation to the stability of
the hips. In recent years, more golf swing types have been identified by golf instructors. For
example, stack and tilt, one-plane, and two-plane golf swings have become popular and viewed
as trendy for the next generation of golf (Smith, 2010). Regardless of the type of golf swing a
student displays, the ability of the golf instructor to understand the biomechanics or anatomy of
the golf swing will help them understand the student’s swing flaws and enable them to teach the
best method for golf improvement.
Golf Performance Improvement
To better understand the seriousness of golf instructors learning the benefits of golf
fitness to help their amateur golf students fundamentally swing the golf club, Doan conducted
research using college golfers (Doan, 2006). In 2006, Doan performed a longitudinal training
intervention assessing the adaptations of neuromuscular function, golf-ball launch conditions,
and putting distance control in response to a golf fitness program based on the research (Doan,
32

2006). Sixteen NCAA collegiate golfers were used in this study (10 men, 6 women). The 11-
week golf fitness program was constructed with exercises for resistance training and power.
Examples of these types of exercises are squats, lunges, and rotation medicine ball throws. For
the men and women, the strength, power, club-head speed, and flexibility measures significantly
improved between the beginning and the end of the golf fitness training program. For the men
and women, their club-head speed also improved significantly, which added length to their long
drives without losing accuracy or consistency. Doan highlights the importance of golf instructors
creating golf and individual specific conditioning programs and strength plus power appear to be
important factors in swinging the golf club fast. Additionally, the study recommends that skilled
men and women golfers should engage in weight training, stretching, and rotational power
training to improve golf performance (Doan, 2006).
A research study conducted in 2007 examined the effects of an 8-week golf-specific
exercise program on the physical characteristics, swing mechanics, and golf performance of the
average golfer (Lephart, 2007). Fifteen amateur male golfers participated in this study. The golf-
specific program consisted of flexibility and stability exercises performed in an unstable
environment similar to the movement of the golf swing. The results indicated that a golf-specific
exercise program consisting of stretching and strengthening exercises improves strength,
flexibility, and balance in golfers. The golf specific program for the amateur golfers increased
their upper-torso axial rotational velocity, improved their club-head speed and increased their
driving distance (Lephart, 2007).
Tsai, Sell, Myers, McCrory, Laudner, Pasquale, and Scott (2004) determined the
relationship between hip muscle strength and golf performance. According to their research, the
importance of hip musculature for stability of the trunk and overall performance golf
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performance is the balancing of forces between the lower and upper body during the golf swing.
The stronger the hip muscles of the golfer, the better trunk stability and the better golf
performance. Eighty-two golfers participated in the study and they were divided into three
groups based on their proficiency level: two groups with a golf handicap and one scratch group.
Although no correlation was shown in hip abduction strength between the groups, significant
differences were recorded in the strength of the left hip abduction strength in the scratch golfers
and improved golf performance was recorded.
A study on the effect of core strength and stability training on the x-factor stretch in
amateur golfers was conducted by Mingkumlert, Vanasant, Limroongreungrat, Chanchaiyakul,
and Wang (2010). Twenty four amateur golfers (16 males and 8 females) without injuries were
randomly assigned to a control group and a training group. The training group underwent a
prescribed core strength and stability exercise program for eight weeks that used exercise
postures such as prone, supine bridge, back extension with opposite arm and leg raise. The golf
swings of both groups were analyzed with four high speed cameras before, during, and after the
tests were conducted. The 3-D kinematic variables included in the tests were the club head
speed, the shoulder and hip rotation angle, and the use of motion analyzer software to measure
the x-factor and the x-factor stretch. The results showed that a core strength and stability training
program can improve golf performance because golfers have better skill to control shoulder and
hip rotation (2010).
Many golfers seek golf teaching professionals to improve their golf game to modify their
swing mechanics, but literature shows that a golf specific exercise program can significantly
improve golf performance safely according to a study by Tsai et al. (2005). The study was
conducted to validate the effectiveness of an 8-week golf specific exercise program that
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improves both the physical characteristics and the golf performance of golfers. The program was
designed to analyze fifteen golfers (age: 36-58, USGA handicap: 5-18) over the course of an 8-
week golf specific conditioning and fitness training program for the recreational golfer which is
different than the scratch golfer. The data were collected from more than 150 comprehensive
golf tests in a stratified population categorized by gender, age, and skill level. The assessment of
strength, balance, flexibility, swing mechanics, and golf performance were tested before and
after the training. The strength training included the hip, torso and shoulder. The analysis
included the use of multiple devices and experts, such as an isokinetic dynamometer to measure
strength, a physical therapist to measure flexibility, a force plate to assess balance, a 3D motion
analysis system to evaluate swing mechanics, and a launch monitor to measure golf performance
(2005). The results of the study proved that an 8-week golf specific exercise program improved
the golfer’s physical characteristics; for example, the shoulders, hip, and trunk flexibility
significantly improved, the hip abduction and adduction strength significantly improved, the golf
performance dramatically improved including an average driving yardage distance increase of
17.5, and the average club head speed improved by 5 mph.
Since golf’s inception in 1457, the majority of golfers avoided muscle strengthening and
conditioning exercises because they believed it would inhibit their ability to have a flexible and
fast moving golf swing. Research by Hetu, Christie, & Faigenbaum (1998) evaluated the effects
of an 8-week conditioning program on various measures of physical fitness and golf performance
in 12 male and 5 female golfers (mean age range 46-58 yr.). The conditioning program was
conducted two times a week and the program consisted of weight training, flexibility and upper
body plyometric exercises. The program was closely supervised and weekly changes were made
in intensity and volume levels. The results indicated that there are significant increases in
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muscular strength, flexibility, and club head speed. Researchers observed the characteristics of
highly skilled golfers, and determined that golfers with the most strength, flexibility, range of
motion, and balance possessed higher skill levels (Sell, Tsai, Smoliga, Myers, & Lephart, 2007).
Golf Related Injuries
Most golfers play the game for an enjoyable outdoor leisure activity, but most golfers do
not train their bodies for the body trauma that occurs on the golf course (Theriault, Lacoste,
Gadoury, Ouellet, & Leblanc, 1996). The game of golf is considered relatively benign in nature,
however, it has been well documented that injuries do occur (Fradkin, Cameron, Gabbe, &
Forbes, 2006). A research study conducted by Theriault et al. (1996) examined a group of 528
golfers (181 females, 347 males; aged from 12 to 70) from eight different golf clubs. The study
showed that approximately 30% of the golfers experienced golf related injuries and the average
recovery time was one month. The most common injuries were due to poor mechanics in the golf
swing (53.9%) and overuse of the muscles involved in the golf swing. Data suggests that injury
risks could be reduced by the improvement of poor mechanics and the levels of physical fitness.
A case study conducted by Takata and Bowen (1998) profiled a 67 year old male
recreational golfer who experienced severe back pain after hitting his first tee shot during a
match. The male golfer continued to play even though he experienced “spasms” or a “pulling
sensation” in his upper back. He was able to finish the match, but he experienced progressive
pain. The pain escalated to excruciating pain and he visited the ER for analgesia. The pain
remained unabated and required subsequent ER visits; therefore the male golfer reported to the
Mayo Clinic for treatment. He was diagnosed with a herniated disc and thoracic vertebral body
compression fracture with stenosis. Poor swing mechanics without proper muscular conditioning
can leave your body unequipped for the golf swing and lead to injury (Roberts, 2009). In a study
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by Eisenhart and Fradkin (2011), golfers aged above 18 years with a registered handicap
completed a questionnaire on their golfing habits and 12-month injury status. The study
consisted of 1170 golfers (714 women, 456 men) with a median age of 51 years and a median
handicap of 15. Of the 1170 golfers, approximately 30 percent of them experienced injuries due
to their participation in golf. The study indicates that golfers who accumulated more than 18
hours/week were at a higher risk of sustaining an injury playing golf and older golfers were less
likely to report an injury than younger golfers, which means a lot of injuries are not reported.
According to Eisenhart and Fradkin (2011), the study established an association between golf
participation and injury, but recommend that other avenues of injury prevention be investigated
before suggesting a golfer limits their golf participation. Could other avenues of injury
prevention be golf specific training for golf performance?
Golfers of all ages can suffer an injury with poor conditioning. Research conducted by
Sell, Abt, Tsai, and Scott (2008) showed that golfers of all ages frequently suffer shoulder, back,
and other orthopedic injuries that require surgical intervention and subsequent rehabilitation. The
study states that a golfer with an injury undergoing rehabilitation should target physical
characteristics that are important to injury-free performance. A study by Fradkin, Cameron,
Gabbe, and Forbes (2006) concluded that the incidence of injury in golfers using a golf-specific
warm-up program prior to play and practice was significantly reduced, especially the incidence
of severe injuries. In this study, a total of 344 golfers aged 18-66 years of age were randomly
allocated to either a control group of a warm-up group. Participation was conducted in practice
and games for an observation period of 6 months in 2004 and 2005.
A research study conducted in 2012 indicated a high occurrence of golfer injuries center
around the relationship between the core musculature and the extremities of the body utilized
37

during the golf swing (Shinkle, Nesser, Demchak, & McMannus, 2012). In a recent study by
Weston, Coleman, and Spears (2013), the researchers analyzed thirty-six club level golfers for an
8-week period to test the effect of isolated core training on selected measures of the golf swing
performance. The study randomly assigned the golfers to an exercise or control group with
eighteen golfers in each group. The baseline measures included club head speed, backspin,
sidespin, and core endurance testing. The evaluation indicated that when the body is
deconditioned and not trained to stabilize the core musculature, the efficiency of movement is
decreased and injuries will happen. The results of this study were similar to the previous
literature on the benefits achieved from a golf specific training program to improve golf
performance and prevent injuries.
A recent study by Read and Lloyd (2014) determined the significance of physical
conditioning for golf as it relates to longevity in the sport. Their research showed that physical
conditioning for golf is an essential component of performance enhancement and injury
reduction with recent scientific investigations providing evidence demonstrating improvements
in performance measures such as club head speed, following strength and power training
interventions. A big problem is that only limited information regarding the practical application
of strength and conditioning programming, i.e. golf fitness, is available according to literature
(2014).
Golf Longevity
Staying active and participating in a healthy and enjoyable outdoor activity can be
beneficial to your health and your lifespan according to a study from Vandervoort, Lindsay,
Lynn, & Noffal, 2012). The research suggests that golf professionals and health experts can
38

benefit from having a working knowledge about the aging process and how this will affect the
older golfer’s performance and participation level.
Another study by Westcott, Dolan, and Cavicchi (1996) showed strength training in older
adults produced significant health and fitness benefits in adults. Questions concerning the
potential for injury such as musculoskeletal problems from overly aggressive swings to gain
more yardage, and faulty body mechanics or improper equipment can be raised. A study
performed by Vandervoort in 2009 said that senior golfers aged 24 to 80 years experienced
significant decline in their musculoskeletal system through the growth and maturation phase of
the life span. The decline in muscle mass as the golfer’s aged was primarily due to decreased
muscle mass and flexibility. Vandervoort noted that a general complaint among the older golfers
was stiffness in several key joints (shoulders, wrists, hips, and knees). Scientifically, much of the
stiffness is caused by the significant water loss with age that promotes a reduction in the tissue’s
plasticity and functionally, these age-related occurrences in the connective tissues appear as a
loss in flexibility (2009). The focus of this research is on why the golf industry needs golf fitness
for golf performance. The sport of golf can be a valuable physical activity for older adults who
are trying to maintain a productive and healthy lifestyle.
According to Narici (2007), golf has the highest participation rate among the few sports
that seniors regularly play. In fact, older golfers account for a substantial proportion of the total
annual number of golf outings in the world and the major demographic trend of aging in the baby
boomers generation leads to a predication of an increasing number of senior golfers in the future
(Vandervoort, 2009). The literature by Vandervoort (2009, 2012) concluded that given the age-
related changes in the motor and skeletal systems that tend to inhibit the ability of senior golfers
to make a full repeatable swing with the optimal tempo and rhythm, an adequate warm-up and
39

physical activity session and program were shown to be beneficial. If participation rates do in
fact increase, it will be important that better instructional techniques are developed so that those
who take up the game can have a better chance of improving without injury and if people
experience success within the game, they will be more likely to continue their participation
playing the game of golf (Lynn, Noffal, Wu, and Vandervoort, 2012). Since it has been shown
that walking 18 holes of golf consistently exceeds the 10,000 steps per day generally
recommended as part of a general physical activity plan (Kobriger, Smith, Hollman, & Smith,
2006), having more people playing the game and reaping the associated health benefits would
have several positive effects throughout society (2012). Thus, an important aspect of keeping
individuals active in golf for the long term is to educate golf instructors with evidence-based golf
fitness programs that not only enhance their knowledge base of the biomechanics of the golf
swing, but also maximize their golf performance.
The effectiveness of a six-week strength and functional training program on golf
performance were evaluated in ten golfers who were randomly assigned to an experimental
group participating in a 6-week strength and functional training or a control group that continued
their regular activity and golf routine (Lamberth, Hale, Knight, Boyd, & Luczak, 2013). The
research noted that the six week program did not significantly affect the club head speed of the
participants for either group, but the group performing the strength and functional training
increased their bench press, leg press, vertical jump, and flexibility.
Recent research in 8-week studies reveals that strength, power, and flexibility training
can increase club head speed and driving distance (Doan et al., 2006). These results indicate that
a fitness program can improve your overall health. The Lamberth (2013) study did not examine
the effectiveness of the strength and functional training program on the participants overall golf
40

performance as it relates to golf scores and shot making ability, but other studies do evaluate
these variables for golf longevity and improved overall health. The ability to play golf and
improve golf performance was studied in older golfers for an eight-week functional training
program and the results showed increased club head speed by 4.9% and recordable
improvements in flexibility and strength (Thompson, Cobb, & Blackwell, 2007).
Summary
In summary, the literature analyzed has reported that golf specific strength and
conditioning training programs significantly increase golf performance in the instruction of golf
(Doan et al., 2006; Fletcher & Hartwell, 2004; Fradkin et al., 2004; Hetu, Christie, &
Faigenbaum, 1998; Lephart, Smoliga, Myers, Sell, & Tsai, 2007; Sell et al., 2007; Thompson et
al., 2007; Westscott et al., 1996). While most of the research suggests that further study is
warranted to understand the benefits of golf instructors implementing golf fitness to improve
their client’s golf performance, the available literature indicates that golf instruction should
include golf fitness; specifically, the studies conclude that a golf-specific 8-week conditioning
program will improve physical fitness, enhance golf performance, reduce injuries, and increase
longevity in the sport of golf. Previous studies have not investigated the relationship of general
strength training exercise in highly skilled golfers (Lamberth et al., 2013), but research does
provide compelling evidence for the benefits of the inclusion of golf fitness in golf instruction to
improve amateur golfers (Doan et al., 2006; Fletcher & Hartwell, 2004; Fradkin et al., 2004;
Hetu & Christie, 1998; Lephart, Smoliga, Myers, Sell, & Tsai, 2007; Sell et al., 2007; Thompson
et al., 2007; Westscott et al., 1996).; therefore, future studies in this population are warranted for
evidence-based literature to support the benefits of the inclusion of golf fitness in golf instruction
for recreational (amateur) and highly skilled golfers (professionals).
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CHAPTER III - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of golf instructors’ use of a
golf specific strength and conditioning training to increase the golf students’ performance,
reduce injuries associated with golf play, and to improve a student golfer’s quality of life for
longevity in the sport. The study will describe the history of golf, its evolution to the modern
game and the current practices of golf instruction to identify the benefits of incorporating a golf
fitness program into golf instruction and training. An organizational problem in the golf industry
is that golf instructors practice the assembly line methodology to teach amateur golfers how to
swing the golf club. The seven components of the chosen research methodology discussed in
chapter 3 are the following: 1) research questions; 2) data source overview; 3) description of site;
4) research design; 5) data analysis; 6) standards of quality and credibility; and 7) limitations of
the study.
Research Questions
The qualitative data produced from this study are created from the following research
questions:
1. Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf instruction?
2. How do golf instructors use golf fitness to improve instruction?
Hypothesis
There are worthwhile benefits for a golf instructor to incorporate a golf fitness program to
train golfers to engage in the skilled movement patterns for the game of golf. It is hypothesized
that education empowerment of golf instructors with golf specific strength and functional
training will result in an increase in a student’s golf performance.

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Data Collection
Qualitative Method: Grounded Theory
This research study will use a qualitative method to answer the research questions.
Qualitative research produces data in details and words instead of statistics and numbers. I plan
to interview golf instructors and observe them in action because the data to be collected is full of
elaborate verbal descriptions of the phenomena being studied. The goal of qualitative methods is
to give verbal descriptions that are rich and capture the complexity of behavior that happens
when a golf instructor is teaching the client from the perspective of the participant. The data will
be collected and analyzed inductively to create findings (McMillan & Schumacher, 1989).
According to Merriam and Associates (2002), a grounded theory is a vehicle for an in-
depth description and analysis of a phenomenon: the process of conducting the research will
need to be carefully designed and the execution will be a complex, time-consuming, and
rewarding journey.
To execute grounded theory, interviews were conducted with participants on a one-on-
one basis. As a consequence, the target number of participants for this study will need to be
manageable for the researcher and the target contacts will need to be large enough to harvest a
decent sampling that would be significant for analysis and interpretation. Seven golf instructors
will be the target sample size of this qualitative study of golf instructors. The goal is to have
enough personal stories to develop categories and themes, to record the dialog for analysis, and
to answer the research questions. According to Creswell (1998), the use of a grounded theory
study is a process that tracks information for the purpose of gathering, analyzing, and repeating
these steps to gain insight based on routine practices. The participants for this study or theoretical
sampling will help me best form the grounded theory. The repetition of observation and
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interview will depend on whether the categories of information become obvious through
patterns. This process is a constant comparative method of data analysis because it compares the
emerging categories of data collection by observing the golf instructors teach a lesson to a
student.
Four types of golf courses will be approached to discuss the logistics of harvesting
subjects from the target population of golf instructors. The four types of golf courses to be used
for this study are private, resort, public, and military owned. Purposeful and snowball sampling
will be employed in order to accomplish the recruitment goal. A recruitment flyer detailing the
purpose, process, and expectations of the research study will be used for recruitment of the
participants. Merriam (1998, p. 61) stated that “purposeful sampling is based on the assumption
that the investigators wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a
sample from which the most can be learned.” As a result, sampling criteria was established to
account for the variables, e.g., gender, age, level of golf proficiency, occupation, health
condition, etc. that are most directly linked to the purpose of the study. In addition, a snowball
sampling method will be employed to yield the target subjects. Snowball sampling is perhaps the
most common form of purposeful sampling because the strategy involves asking each participant
or group of participants to refer you to other participants (Merriam, 1998).
Interview Questions
Constructing useful interview questions will be another important component of the
research design. To ensure the interview questions will yield detailed stories from the golf
instructors, focus will be placed on the building a process and/or a theory, the purpose of the
study, and the research questions. All of the research components will be served as a guide for
me to clearly identify what I will have to ask the golf instructors.
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By using the “crosswalk” table, I will clearly validate whether my interview questions
would yield information for my research questions and will align with my proposed model or
theory. The crosswalk table that I developed (see Appendix B) consisted of the two research
questions and the keys concepts of proposed model or theory, which are listed on top of the table
as headings; and a set of questions, which are listed on the left hand side of the table as interview
questions. If an interview question could yield an answer for a specific heading, a check will be
marked within the cell under that specific heading of the table. For this reason, the more checks
identified inside the table, the higher the possibility that the interview questions will yield good
results for the research questions and will also be aligned with the proposed model or theory.
The crosswalk table will provide an “at-a-glance” visual display of the alignment of the
important aspects of the research and it is a form of data displays. In conclusion, the whole
alignment process will be an on-going revision, there will be modifications and adjustments to
make the three pillars —the proposed model or theory, the purpose of the study, and the research
questions—fit into the research foundation.
Description of the Sites
The Private Golf Club is located in Hawaii will serve as one of the four sites for this
study. Founded in 1927, the private golf course was designed by Seth Raynor and it is a par 72
championship course with yardage of 7, 125 from the back tee box. The private golf course hosts
the Sony Open in Hawaii annually and Sony is its title sponsor. The private golf club is
considered the premier private membership country club in Hawaii and they were honored for
the second time in 2012 as a Platinum Club of America. The private golf club is ranked in the top
100 of the most highly regarded private clubs in the United States. The selection is conducted
nationally every three years and the nominees are judged on five categories: Quality of
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Membership, Tradition and Culture, Amenities, Governance and Quality of Management and
Staff. This is the second time that this private golf club has received the prestigious honor. The
private golf club employs a PGA and LPGA staff of golf teaching professionals. The golf course
is not open to the public for play.
The resort golf club is located in Hawaii will serve as the location for two of the
interviews where I will be conducting the research for this study. The resort golf club was
designed by Arnold Palmer and Ed Seay and it is considered unique in Hawaii because it offers
27 holes- 3 nine-hole tracks of golf – The resort golf club is the only golf course of its kind in
Hawaii. Three interchangeable nine-hole golf courses create different playing conditions for
every skill level. The golf course occupies over 270 acres of land with Waianae Mountains. The
long fairways are lined with white sand bunkers and 10 lakes for water hazards. The resort golf
club employs a full PGA staff of teaching professionals and hosts a golf academy by Brian
Mogg. The golf course is open to the public for play and the cost for 18 holes of golf varies from
$57-$160.
The public golf club is located in Hawaii and it will serve as the location for two of the
interviews where I will be conducting the research for this study. The public golf club was
designed by Dick Nugent and it was once rated the most difficult golf course in the world by
Golf Digest Magazine. The world record for the longest par-4 hole-in-one was executed on the
18
th
hole by Bret Melson in 2007. It is the only golf course of its kind in Hawaii due to its
“jungle-type environment”. The golf course occupies over 400 acres of land with the Ko’olau
Mountains. The long fairways are lined with jungles and ravines from the tee box. The public
golf club employs a full PGA staff of teaching professionals and hosts a golf academy by for
46

junior golfers. The golf course is open to the public for play and the cost for 18 holes of golf
varies from $25-$110.
The military-owned golf club is located on a military base in Hawaii. It will serve as the
location for two of the interviews where I will be conducting the research for this study. The
military-owned golf club was designed by William Bell and it is considered the most beautiful
military-owned golf club in the United States due to the ocean front property. The golf course
occupies over 200 acres of land with beachfront scenic holes. The long fairways are surrounded
by cultural hazards and high ranking military personnel in the adjacent fairways. The military-
owned golf club employs a full PGA staff of teaching professionals and hosts a golf academy
open to military personnel and the public. The golf course is open to the public with proper
military sponsorship and to military personnel for play. The cost for 18 holes averages $50
depending on your military rank or sponsorship.
Research Design
This research study will use a qualitative approach. Qualitative research produces data in
detailed words rather than statistics and numbers. The data collected contain in-depth and rich
verbal descriptions of the phenomena. While there are different qualitative techniques that can be
used to provide verbal descriptions, the goal of each is to capture the richness and complexity of
behavior that occurs in natural settings from the participants’ perspective. According to Merriam
and Associates (2002), grounded theory is an intensive description and analysis of a phenomenon
or social unit such as an individual, group, institution, or community. As grounded theory is a
vehicle for an in-depth description and analysis of a phenomenon, the process of conducting the
research needs to be carefully designed and the execution was a complex, time-consuming, and a
rewarding journey. Since limited data exists to determine the significance of fitness and strength
47

training to improve golfer’s performance, I designed a research study utilizing the parameters of
the grounded theory method. Once the parameters are collected, the data will be analyzed
inductively to generate findings (McMillan & Schumacher, 1989).
Data Collection
This research study will use the grounded theory to answer the two research questions.
“Data in grounded theory studies can come from interviews, observations, and a wide variety of
documentary materials” (Merriam, 2009, p. 30). For this reason, the target number of participants
for this study needed to be manageable for the researcher and the target number of contacts
needed to be large enough to garner a decent sampling that was statistically significant. Six golf
instructors will be the target sampling size in the study. To accomplish this goal, a request will
be made to the University of Southern California’s Office of Research Compliance Human
Studies program to acquire official permission to conduct research with human participants at the
two target golf courses (see Appendix C for the application for new approval of a study
involving human subjects. Furthermore, purposeful and snowball samplings will be employed.
The two targeted golf courses will be approached to discuss logistics for harvesting from the
target population. A recruitment flyer detailing the purpose, process, and expectations of the
research study will be used for recruitment of the participants (see Appendix D). Merriam (1998)
stated that sampling is based on what the investigator is seeking to discover for insight and
discernment. The sampling criteria will be established to account for the variables that are most
directly linked to the purpose of the study. The participants will be PGA golf teaching
professionals who work with students to improve their golf performance. Creswell (2007)
defines this approach as determining selection criteria that differentiates the sites or participants
in advance and then choosing sites or participants that are different and diverse based on the
48

criteria. In addition, Merriam (1998, pp. 62-63) remarks that snowball sampling is arguably the
most common form of purposeful sampling and it involves asking each participant or group of
participants for referrals to other participants.
The attributes of the golf instructors will consist of 1) direct experience in the golf
industry for ten years as an instructor or player, 2) direct or indirect experience in fitness, 3) age
18 or older; and 4) a willingness to participate in the study.
Procedures and Protocols
Incorporating several procedural protocols is necessary to the outcome of this study and
they are: 1) built rapport with participant, 2) provided clear and concise communication tools to
participants, and 3) conducted the interviews and documented any relevant information.
Building rapport and trust with the participants will be the first steps that I will take at the
procedure stage. I acknowledge that the relationship I will endeavor to cultivate with the
participants in this study will be a complex and rewarding one. I understand that as the
researcher of the study, I will be the instrument of the research, and the research relationships
that I will establish with the participants will enhance the research to be done with quality. I
understand that these relationships will have an effect not only on the participants in this study,
but also on me and other aspects of the research design. Therefore, I will encourage a
professional working research partnership with the participants during the research period, the
participants and I will take professional ownership of the study. My ultimate goal is to make the
participants feel that the research study is a beneficial experience for them individually and for
the golf industry at large—if new knowledge can be created from this research study. Weiss
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(1994) explains that the main focus of interviewing is to maintain a working research partnership
that removes unnecessary questions that are awkward.
Providing clear and concise communication tools to participants will be the second
procedural protocol that I will need to execute. It is fair to say that what is a research project for
me as the researcher will be always, to some degree, an intrusion into the lives of the participants
in my study. They are all volunteers who will take directions from the researchers. Thus, the
more information that I will provide to the participants as to what they will need to do in the
study, the better the results I will yield from their sharing. A consent form (see Appendix A)
detailing the purpose, timeline, and scope of work of the study will be provided to the
participants prior to the actual interview, so surprises, questions, and awkward moments will be
cut down to the minimal. Designed by Creswell (1998), the consent form that participants
completed in this study addressed the following:
 The participant’s right to voluntarily withdraw from the study at any time.
 The central purpose of the study and the procedures to be used in data collection.
 Comments about protecting the confidentially of the respondents.
 A statement about known risks associated with participation in the study.
 The expected benefits to accrue to the participants in the study.
 A place for participant and researcher to sign and date the form.
Conducting the interviews and documenting information from participants will be the
third important procedure that I will pay extra attention to. Although my final participant count is
unknown at this juncture, I will spend a lot of time on pre- and post-interview communications
with my participants via phone and email. I will develop an interview protocol and will construct
a set of open-ended and guided interview questions for the participants (see Appendix E). The
50

advantage of using an open-ended question is it explores a participant’s deep and first-hand
knowledge about the research subject. In addition, open-ended questions allow the interviewer
and interviewee to focus on life experience, which is an in-depth and intimate discussion beyond
what ordinary conversation permits. Note taking, voice recording, and observations will be the
primary tools to document the interviews in this study. My estimation is that it will take me one
to two hours long to conduct each interview as to gather in-depth information. The interviews
will be conducted at various locations, which will be convenient to the participants, but mainly at
the golf courses. A table (see Appendix E) listing all the interview questions, research questions,
and the proposed model or theory will be used as a guide for the interviews.
Data Analysis
Merriam (2009) states that data collection is guided by theoretical sampling that allows
the analyst to collect, code, and study the data for the purpose of understanding what data is
warranted for the development of an emerging theory. The constant comparative method of data
analysis will be used analyze the quantitative data. The constant comparative method involves
comparing one segment of data with another to determine similarities and differences. Data are
grouped together on a similar dimension. The dimension is tentatively given a name; it then
becomes a category. The overall object of this analysis is to identify patterns in the data. These
patterns are arranged in relationships to each other in the building of a grounded theory.
Following the research of Merriam (2009), the constant comparative method is widely used in
qualitative studies regardless whether or not the researcher is constructing a grounded theory.
More or less, the comparison is inductive and lays the foundation for a systematic strategy for
data analysis. Review of all interview transcripts, observational notes, and documents will be
conducted in search for themes to provide answers to the two research questions. Qualitative
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data analysis, Creswell (1998) posits, is not off-the-shelf; rather, it is custom-built, revised, and
choreographed. The initial step in qualitative analysis is reading the interview transcripts,
observational notes, or documents that are to be analyzed (Emerson et al., 1995, p. 142). To
initiate the data analysis process, the tapes will be reviewed prior to transcription by listening to
the interview tapes to get a general idea of the data. The notes and memos will be written based
on what is seen and heard in the data tentative ideas will be formulated about the data categories
and relationships. The research study data will need to yield core category. The core category
will need to be central and related to as many other categories and their properties as is possible,
it will need to appear frequently in the data and will eventually develop into a theory (Merriam,
2009). Finally, the categories and the properties will be neatly organized and illustrated during
the data analysis process.
The actual transcribing will be done via a third party individual. Verification of the
accuracy of the transcription will be done by listening to the audiotapes to ensure the data was
transcribed verbatim and properly. Additionally, member checks will be conducted with the
participants to ensure authenticity. The participants or golf instructors will be given an
opportunity to review and edit the transcripts to ensure the accuracy of their stories and input.
Once the transcriptions will be carefully checked and verified, the information will be analyzed
and dissected into preliminary categories and groups by hand, which will be a lengthy endeavor,
but a worthwhile process for me. Since the process of data analysis in grounded theory research
is systematic and follows a standard format, a coding system established by Creswell (1998) will
be implemented. Creswell also states that open coding guides the researcher to form initial
categories of information about the phenomenon being studied through segmentation of the
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information. An analysis of each category of information will be performed to look for properties
and subcategories by highlighting the possibilities.
The result of this process of data collection and analysis is a theory, a substantive-level theory,
written by the researchers close to a specific problem or population of people. This theory is
subjected to further empirical testing. Creswell (1998) stated that multiple perspectives exist
regarding the importance of verification in qualitative research, the definition of it, and
procedures for establishing it. Writers search for and find qualitative equivalents that parallel
traditional quantitative approaches to validity (Creswell, 1989).
Standards of Quality and Credibility
The standards of quality and credibility are important factors that contribute to the
success of the research process and outcomes of this study. Quality research will be employed
using procedures and methodology based on quantitative research standards. Merriam cited
Firestone’s 1987 statement, “The qualitative study provides the reader with a depiction in enough
detail to show that the author’s conclusion ‘make sense.’ Further, the qualitative study describes
people acting in events” (as cited in Merriam 2009, p. 210). Other benchmarks that will be
adopted to ensure adherence to the standards of quality and credibility include, the following
scholars’ statements: Creswell (1998) explains that qualitative researchers strive for
understanding and his research shows that the deepest levels of knowledge comes from speaking
with informants and observing them in their respective fields. Furthermore, Lincoln and Guba
(1985) explain the importance of triangulating the data by including multiple sources of data
collection; gathering thick, rich descriptions; and conducting member checks to uphold standards
of quality and credibility in qualitative research. In addition, Creswell (1998) stated that multiple
perspectives exist regarding the importance of verification in qualitative research, the definition
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of it, and procedures for establishing it. Creswell (1989) suggested that writers search for and
find qualitative equivalents that parallel traditional quantitative approaches to validity. “A
compelling whole” in this study will be derived from a detective style of the compilation of bits
and pieces of evidence. Moreover, Lincoln and Guba (1985, p. 300) use the terms “credibility,”
“transferability,” “dependability,” and “conformability” as the “naturalist’s equivalents” for
“internal validity,” “external validity,” and “reliability” when describing the standards of quality
in qualitative research and quantitative research. Lincoln and Guba (1985) also propose that
techniques such as engagement in the field and the triangulation of data sources, methods, and
investigators are used to establish credibility. To ensure that the findings are transferable
between the researcher and those being studied, content-rich description is warranted. Guba
explains that the results will be subject to change and instability; moreover, the naturalistic
researcher should look for conformability rather than objectivity in valuing the data because the
auditing process will establish the conformability.
Howe and Eisenhart (1990) suggest that only broad, abstract standards are possible for
qualitative and quantitative research. Howe and Eisenhart (1990, as cited in Creswell, 1998),
provided five standards to be applied to all research for quality measurement—benchmarks that
will be implemented throughout the study to ensure quality and credibility of the research study.
An overview of the Howe and Eisenhart model are listed below:
First, the research questions will guide the analyses of the data. Second, the extent of the
data collection and analyses techniques will be examined in a technical manner. Third,
the researcher must remain objective. Fourth, the researcher must have theoretical
explanations and merit. Fifth, the research must inform and improve practice while
protecting the confidentiality of the participants. (p.195)
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Role of the Researcher
The researcher must collect, gather, analyze, digest, and seek for a deeper meaning
throughout this research study. Like with all qualitative studies, the researcher will be heavily
involved in the research process. The researcher must try not to develop subjective views
towards certain procedures and individuals during the research study, which, in theory, will
create more mistakes; thus, it is important that the researcher handle this research subject with
care, by implementing standards of quality checks throughout the process, as well as
representing the participants with integrity and authenticity. To understand the role of a
researcher, he or she should reflect on and acknowledge the relevant aspects of their life that are
related to the research study, especially when the researcher works within the field being
analyzed. The relevant aspects included, but are not limited to, the researcher’s background
history, biases, assumptions, limitations, and expectations in this qualitative research study. To
accomplish this goal, the researcher will record and keep track of their personal reactions
towards the research activities and participants in a journal throughout the research period. The
goal is to create a channel for self-reflection and to provide standards of quality for assurance
throughout this study.
Through the researcher’s experiences in the military and traveling around the world as a golf
educator, he has learned the discipline to attain skills, and the importance of doing things right.
The research has also learned to respect the voice and opinions of other human beings.
Furthermore, because this study emphasizes the value of quality data and information, the
researcher must pay careful attention to details. The researcher must always document, record,
archive, analyze, and interpret data with a comprehensive thought and plan of action. These are
all attributes that the researcher will bring to this research study.
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CHAPTER IV - FINDINGS
The participants in this study were interviewed about the practice of golf fitness to gain
insight into whether or not it is beneficial to their work as teaching professionals. This chapter is
divided into two sections: Part one will describe the participant’s demographic information and
provide a brief profile. Part two will restate the grounded theory through a systematic approach
by identifying the implications of golf instructors using golf fitness and introduce the four
emerging themes and the research findings created by the data collected in this study. The four
emerging themes are the following: 1) the lack of golf fitness education for PGA instructors; 2)
the use of golf fitness training by instructors can improve the golf performance of their clients; 3)
the implementation of a golf conditioning program into a golf instructor’s lesson plan can
prevent injuries in clients, and 4) the long-term effects of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to
their clients is beneficial to the game of golf because it appears to prolong a golfer’s ability to
play the game.
Part I: Overview of Participant Demographics and Profile
A total of seven golf instructors were interviewed from February 2015 to March 2015.
The interviews occurred at a variety of golf courses that were convenient to the golf instructor
and the researcher. The environments were conducive to interviewing and recording the voice of
the interviewee. The participants are all certified golf instructors from the Professional Golfers
Association of America (PGA) and at least 18 years of age. The participants were identified
through purposeful and snowball sampling strategies or by their responses to participate through
communication by phone or in person at the golf courses. Among the seven participants, one
golf instructor was employed at a private golf course, two golf instructors were employed at a
public golf course, two golf instructors were employed at a resort-style golf course, and two golf
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instructors were employed at a military owned golf course. The participant age ranges were from
twenty-five (25) to seventy-three (73) and there were three women and four men. The self-
identified racial and ethnic backgrounds of the participants are listed in Table 4.
The data were collected by asking the golf instructors in-depth and open-ended questions
to engage dialogue with the seven participants. The participants were avid golfers with
experience playing golf that ranged from fifteen (15) years to sixty (60) years and expertise
teaching golf that ranged from three (3) years to forty-three (43) years. The main purpose of
conducting the interviews was to invite dialogue with the seven participants to record their
views, perceptions, and experiences in the golf industry as a player and as a golf teaching
professional (Appendix B). In particular, the study focused on their golf subject matter expertise
to identify the implications of teaching golf fitness to their clients. Do the golf instructors use
golf fitness? Why or why not? Does golf fitness improve their client’s golf performance, prevent
injuries, and increase their number of golf playing years? Table 4 is a summary of the seven
participants’ pseudonym names, identifying numbers, demographics, and diverse backgrounds
for this study. For the purpose of securing anonymity for the participants, I requested pseudonym
names from the golf instructors and I devised a numbering system to readily identify and label
the participants. For example, the first golf instructor from a military owned golf course is called
“Sarah” and I labeled her as “M1”. The second golf instructor from a military owned golf course
is called “Judy” and I labeled her as “M2”. The same labeling system applies for the two golf
instructors from the resort-style golf courses, the two golf instructors from the public golf
courses, and the one golf instructor from the private golf course. For instance: The first golf
instructor from a resort-style golf course is called “Johnny” and he is referred to as “R1”. The
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second golf instructor from a resort-style golf course is called “Jimmy” and he is referred to as
“R2”.
Table: 1
Participants Demographic Data
Pseudo
Name
Age /
Gender
Gender /
Ethnicity
Golf
Course
Learned
From
Years
Playing
Years
Teaching
Golf Fitness Use
Yes or No?
R1
Johnny
65
Male
Caucasian
German
French
Irish
Resort Father 60 43 No - Refer to
trainer
R2
Jimmy
50
Male
Asian
Japanese
Resort Father 40 28 No - Refer to
trainer
PR1
George
43
Male
Jewish
Irish
Native
American
Private Father 35 20 No - Refer to
trainer
M1
Sarah
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Female
Asian
Japanese
Korean
Military Father 56 3 Yes - Self taught
M2
Judy
25
Female
Caucasian
Spanish
Canadian
French
Military Father 15 5 Yes - Self taught
P1
Tom
73
Male
Hawaiian
Portuguese
Japanese
Spanish
English
Filipino
Public Father 63 41 Yes - Self taught
P2 30
Female
Asian
Japanese
Chinese
Public Father 25 5 Yes - Self taught

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Military Owned Golf Course Golf Instructor: Sarah (M1)
M1 is a sixty-four year old female retired attorney who decided to become a golf teaching
professional at a military owned golf course after playing golf for fifty-six years. She is of
Korean and Japanese heritage and she has been a golf instructor for three years as a PGA
teaching professional. She learned the game of golf from her father. M1 proudly quipped when
referring to her father as her first golf instructor, “My dad was a scratch golfer”. According to
M1, the game of golf today is not endeavored the way she was taught to play years ago. She
claims that golf is played more aggressively today. M1 is dedicated to a fitness regimen that
allows her to compete in triathlons and to play golf comparable to a much younger person. M1
is in good physical condition. M1 was asked about her perception on the changes in the golf
swing over the years as an avid golfer and more recently, as a golf instructor. She replied:
In the golden era of golf, one swing was taught to all. In this generation, everybody is
different, but one thing is the same for all. You need to work on your body to be or stay
healthy and play with today’s group of golfers. The golf swing is more aggressive I
think. (M1)
M1 is a fan of golf conditioning to play golf and she incorporates golf fitness into her lessons
with clients. When M1 was asked if she uses golf fitness as a lesson tool for her clients, she
responded that she can visually analyze whether or not her clients have been training. M1
believes that training and conditioning prevents injuries and will help her clients play better. M1
correlates the learning of golf fitness to continuing education as a professional in law. When she
was an attorney, she noted that in order to stay ahead of the curve, she was constantly looking for
ways to gain more education. M1 observes that golf instructors are learning golf fitness from
trainers to improve their client’s performance. M1 stated that “The best are training. I would like
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to learn more about golf fitness to teach clients how to hit farther and to stop getting injured from
poor swing techniques.” She believes there needs to be more golf conditioning and fitness
information training for PGA teaching professionals. M1 said she would incorporate more golf
fitness into her lesson plan if she had more knowledge about it. The extent of her golf
conditioning training is from triathlon and other sport training. M1 thinks golf fitness would
help clients get stronger and feel better. She says that her golf game is better when she trains for
a marathon or triathlon; therefore, she encourages her clients to train for a sport to improve their
golf game.
Military Owned Golf Course Golf Instructor: Judy (M2)
M2 is a twenty-five year old female golf instructor with fifteen years of golf playing
experience and five years of golf coaching and teaching expertise. M2 self identifies as
Caucasian with Spanish, French, and Canadian heritage and she credits her father for teaching
her the game of golf at an early age. M2 has been involved in the golf industry since she was ten
years old in different capacities. Previously, she worked as a caddie for her father, a golf shop
cashier, a golf tournament volunteer and scorer, and a golf cart employee. M2 also played
college golf and served as a college head coach prior to finishing the PGA teaching program.
M2 is an avid golfer who believes the golf swing is simple and her teaching mantra
reflects her view. Judy claims that golfers lose their posture when they try to swing the golf club
too fast. She teaches her clients to keep the golf swing simple. M2 uses golf fitness to help her
clients improve their golf swing. She explained why golf fitness is a necessary teaching tool for
golf instructors in the following statement:
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Golf conditioning or fitness is as important as learning the basics of the golf swing.
Biomechanically, the top golf swing’s source of power is generated from a well-
conditioned body. I will not instruct a lesson without the bread and butter of fitness. (M2)
M2 discussed the benefits of golf fitness for increased golf performance. She depicted the
golf swing as a machine of moving parts that are centered on the foundation of legs. M2
teaches her clients that golf fitness will build better stability and strength to hit the golf ball
farther. A golf fitness assessment is utilized by M2 to understand what her client’s physical
ability in the golf swing and to prevent injuries. She uses a golf fitness assessment to identify
what a client is able to do physically. M2 states:
Golf today is a violent sport for the body... twisting... and rotating against fixed positions
is not natural. Injuries can happen when the body is not ready. (M2)
M2 believes the golf industry is a reflection of what the best current players are doing to get
better. She disclosed that the PGA professionals are hiring trainers and working out in the gym to
elevate their playing level. M2 said golf fitness is the future building block for a golfer’s
longevity in the sport because it improves the many facets of the game (golfer ability, golf
instruction, golf technology, golf articles). M2 can envision the older golfers on the Champions
Tour competing at higher levels because they will be practicing golf fitness.
Resort-Style Golf Course Golf Instructor: Johnny (R1)
R1 is a sixty-five year old male golf instructor with sixty years of golf playing experience
and forty-three years of golf teaching expertise. He self identifies as German, French, and Irish.
He credits his father as his first teacher of the game of golf and Johnny worked for his father as a
caddie. R1 is the most seasoned golf instructor interviewed in this study and he attributes his
longevity in golf to his days carry the golf bag as a caddie for his father. R1 declares that golfers
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today are different than golfers from twenty years ago because of better equipment and longer
golf courses. He also mentioned that Tiger Woods changed the game of golf with a fitness
image. As reported in my interview with Johnny, he said that golf has become an athletic sport
and golfers condition their body to play better. He states that golf fitness is a prerequisite to
being a proficient golfer and he routinely refers his clients to a personal trainer for exercise
recommendations.
R1 praises golf fitness as the reason for his ability to hit the golf ball far. He notes that
golfer instructors need a physical assessment to identify the client’s golf swing problems. R1
said that golfers are playing at advanced ages and they must condition their bodies to stay
healthy. His staff is learning the benefits of using a golf fitness assessment for professional
development. R1 believes the golf industry would benefit from golf instructors using golf
fitness to teach the basics of the golf swing, he reiterated why it’s important to longevity. R1
said the golf industry needs more physical education for golf instructors to understand more
about why clients get injured. R1 claims the culprit for client’s inability to learn the basics of
the golf swing is their body and because of the client’s limitations, injuries occur on the golf
course.
After he indicated his support for golf fitness and why there is a need for golf instructors
to use it with clients, he revealed that he does not teach golf fitness to his clients.
Resort-Style Golf Course Golf Instructor: Jimmy (R2)
R2 is a fifty year old male golf instructor who has been playing golf for forty years and
he has been teaching golf for twenty-eight years as a member of the PGA. He self identifies as
local Japanese which means he is of Japanese heritage and he was born and raised in Hawaii. R2
proudly notified me that his father and uncle taught him the game of golf at the age of ten. R2
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was a golf instructor for the San Diego Golf Academy for three years and he taught the
fundamentals of the golf swing. He asserts that the fundamentals of the golf swing have been the
same for a long time, but not everyone who plays golf is the same. R2 postulates that the golf
swing will evolve from what he was taught into a more athletic swing. R2 shared his golf swing
hypothesis:
The golf swing is point A to point B to point C to point D. The problem is that we all
can’t get from A to D the same. Yes, I see the golf swing changing to a simplified A, B,
C golf swing with a more athletic routine. (R2)
R2 claimed he is not an expert on golf fitness, but he does try to manipulate or correct the
golfer’s physical problems based on his exposure to golf fitness literature and media. He claims
that golf fitness is not his area of expertise, but he is a student of fitness by learning from
seminars, gym trainers, and golf professionals on TV. R2 identifies golfers as athletes and he
affirms that golf instructors need to understand the importance of human body conditioning for
golf safety and lower golf scores.
Based on his teaching background with clients, R2 theorizes that athletic golfers learn
faster because the golf swing is complicated. He likened the biomechanics of the golf swing to a
Da Vinci painting when he declared the following:
The biomechanics of the golf swing is like a Da Vinci painting, it can be complicated
which is why an athlete can figure it out easier than someone who does not play a sport.
(R2)
According to R2, being an athlete not only makes learning the golf swing easier, but it prevents
injuries. He contributes the athletic ability of a golfer and the golf conditioning preparation to be
the preventers of golf related injuries; moreover, R2 concludes that a golfer must train their body
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to be good at the sport. He also adds that golfers want to stay healthy to play golf longer in life.
R2 believes fewer referrals from a golf instructor to a personal trainer are a way to make more
money. R2 expounds on the future of golf instructors practicing golf fitness with clients by
pointing out that elite golfers are golf conditioning like Tiger Woods and Gary Player. He claims
practice impacts the future of golf instruction because golfers will prepare as athletes for the
sport of golf.
Public Golf Course Golf Instructor: Tom (P1)
P1 is a seventy-three year old male golf instructor with forty-one years of golf teaching
expertise as a member of the PGA. P1 said he could retire from playing golf in two years
because he has been playing for sixty-three years. He began playing golf at the age of ten as a
caddie and he still carries the golf bag for himself and others as an occasional caddie. With
regards to his ethnic self identification, P1 stated that he is a local Hawaiian mix of
Portuguese, Japanese, Spanish, and Hawaiian.
At seventy-three years of age, P1 has seen a lot of changes in the game of golf. He
disclosed the following statement regarding golf changes over the years:
Golf was a gentleman’s affair and when you swing, the shirts don’t come out, ya know.
The swing was smooth and slow. The young men and women today swing so fast that I
need a computer to track or look at their swing and then I need my glasses and a young
Bruddah to read the computer screen…and they wear rubba shoes with rubba spikes, like
tennis shoes. Yea, the golf swing is faster today and players need to be stronger. (P1)
His statement points out changes in golf clothing, technology, and the speed of the golf swing.
P1 is a fit looking Hawaiian man with an eagerness to share his story about golf. He firmly
believes that fitness is the ticket to the fountain of youth in golf. P1 revealed that he uses many
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teaching tools and machines to teach the client how to get better at golf. He admits that fitness
was not a subject many years ago in the golf industry, but P1 advocates its use today in his junior
and adult clients. He believes push-ups and lifting weights can extend a golfer’s longevity and
improve their health. P1 credits golf professional Hall of Famer, Gary Player as a big influence
in his golf career. Gary Player is more than seventy years of age and Mr. Player is a lifelong
fitness advocate that continues to play golf professionally today.
P1 discussed changes in the golf industry and his views on the importance of golf
conditioning to improve golf performance. P1 said golf has evolved from a sport of gentleman to
a sport of athletes. He supports the golf fitness ideology for golf performance enhancement and
he uses it to help his clients play better golf and to prevent injuries. These key points are noted in
the following commentary by P1:
Golf swings were slower and the clothes were dressier in my day. Today everybody
wants to hit the long ball, buy the best equipment, and wear athletic shoes to play golf.
The swing has gotten faster and I see more injuries. To keep up with technology and
faster swings, this generation needs to exercise. (P1)
Public Golf Course Golf Instructor: Kim (P2)
P2 is a thirty year old female golf instructor who has been playing golf for twenty-five
years and she has been a member of the PGA for five years. She self identifies as a woman of
Japanese and Chinese heritage. She credits her father for teaching the game of golf to her at the
age of five. P2 appeared to be uncomfortable with answering the questions in English since
Japanese is her native language. P2 gave concise answers to the questions, but her response
length increased as the interview progressed.
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P2 explained that she was taught to swing the golf club fast and she trains her body to
improve her golf performance and to remain uninjured. She remarked the following comment as
proof:
Honestly, how do you say…we work out to be good? My swing coach in Japan taught me
to do things differently to be good. I don’t want to get hurt with fast swing, but I want a
fast swing. I want a fast swing. He says, “Swing fast, train hard. Work hard, stay health.
Be health, play long.” My coach is 85 and still carries his (golf) bag. No golf cart. (P2)
P2 is not only a practitioner of golf fitness, but she incorporates golf fitness into her lesson plan
with clients. She disclosed that her husband is a golf fitness writer and that she teaches golf
fitness classes. P2 contributed the following philosophy:
A golf swing is a better golf swing when it is fit. You cannot swing the club right if the
body is not right. (P2)
To aid with the determination of a golf client’s ability, P2 and her husband created a golf fitness
quiz as an assessment tool to build a golf performance program. She believes the future of golf is
equal components of golf instruction and golf fitness. P2 said that her clients are playing better
with fewer injuries due to golf fitness training.
Private Golf Course Golf Instructor: George (PR1)
PR1 is a forty-three year old male golf instructor who has been playing golf for thirty-
five years and he has been a member of the PGA for twenty years. He self identifies as a mixed
heritage of Jewish, Irish, and Native American. PR1 is an accomplished golfer who was taught
the game from an instructor at the age of seven. He has competed on many levels of golf- junior,
collegiate, and professional.
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The game of golf is changing according to PR1 and he believes the reason is the physical
nature of the golf swing is speeding up. At his golf course, the average age of golfer is sixty-five
and injuries are common due to golfers playing around the injuries instead of training their
bodies. He also adds that the golf course keeps extending its length and the older golfers are
trying to hit the ball farther. PR1 explained this rationale:
The course is longer for everybody and who wants to give up distance because they are
older? The basics of the point of impact during a golf swing are the same, but how you
get there is getting faster and faster with better golf clubs… you know, lighter golf clubs,
graphite, etc. I see golfers wanting to build their bodies to swing better. How can I help?
As a golfer and a golf instructor, umm…I know the golf swing is becoming more
physical which is why I think we see more injuries. Who doesn’t want to hit the ball
farther than their buddy? Undoubtedly, golf swings are quicker. (PR1)
PR1 refers clients to a trainer at the golf course’s private fitness center when he suspects an
injury or physical limitation. When I asked him why, he responded:
I am a golf instructor and not a trainer. I do think golfers should develop their
body…and…I know that a golfer can stop injuries with training stuff. I think it would
be easier to use golf fitness if the training were more available to instructors. I know
there is TPI [Titleist Performance Institute]. (PR1)
PR1 sees the importance of golf fitness to the biomechanics of the golf swing and he receives
gratification from happy clients that are losing weight and playing better golf.
PR1 believes the golf industry would profit from golf instructors using golf fitness with
clients. He even joked that the golf fitness education of golf instructors would put golf fitness
trainers out of business. PR1 said:
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Honestly, I think golf instructors will be more prepared teachers and players will be
happier and spend more money on top of the line clubs to hit longer and putt lower
scores. (PR1)
PR1 cites the PGA and time as a limitation for golf fitness education and training with clients,
but he notices that the combination of golf fitness and instruction improve golf performance
overall.
Part II: Grounded Theory and the Four Emerging Themes
According to Charmaz (2014, p. 1), “grounded theory methods consist of systematic, yet
flexible guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative data to construct theories from the
data themselves. Thus researchers construct a theory ‘grounded’ in their data.” The systematic
chosen for this study to expose the data was based on the golf fitness research and the interviews
conducted with the participants or golf instructors. In grounded theory, data are collected by a
variety of means. The most frequently collected types are interviews and observations. Data
collection is not limited to these options. Any type of written, observed or recorded material can
be used, including videos, journals, diaries, drawings, internal documents and memos, memoirs,
online postings, and historical records (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).
For the purpose of constructing the grounded theory for this study, data were acquired by
interviewing golf teaching instructors certified by the Professional Golfers’ Association of
America (PGA). In order to inductively analyze and systematically compare and reanalyze the
interview data to build the grounded theory, a system of coding and categorization was applied to
identify common themes and to assess the importance of golf fitness to the golf industry. Is golf
fitness needed? Does golf fitness help clients get better? What are the benefits of golf fitness? If
there is a golf specialist that would know the answers to these questions, then logically, a golf
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teaching professional that works directly with professional golfers and amateurs should know the
answers. Therefore, questions were asked of the participants to discern their use of golf fitness,
its relevance to their practice of golf instruction, and its impact on their clients and the golf
industry to build the grounded theory.
Four of the participants interviewed in this study incorporate some form of golf
conditioning into their teaching routine and three participants do not use golf fitness, but they
encourage their clients to seek the expertise of a trainer. Why don’t all of the golf instructors use
some form of golf fitness to help their clients perform if they admit that it can help clients play
golf at a higher level? This study identified the rationale for the golf instructor’s referral to a
trainer stems from their lack of golf fitness education. Golf instructors in this study unanimously
agree that golf fitness will improve their client’s golf performance overall, but they admit that
their fundamental learning from the PGA was based on methods of teaching that are standardized
and antiquated, and are not comprehensive enough to provide adequate golf fitness training. The
assembly-line techniques of the classic golf swing do not address the physiology or
biomechanics of the student, nor the modern swing of today’s golfer (Diovisalvi, 2010).
Most of the participants learned golf fitness through self-education methods by reading
books, watching TV, serving the internet, and attending seminars. To support this phenomenon,
the golf instructors shared their views in the following excerpts which were recorded during the
participant interviews:
From what I saw and I have learned through reading, there is a connection between the
body and the golf swing ability following research. An assessment of the client would be
very helpful to teach the golf swing. (M1)
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I pay attention to your workshops, read books, and I watch YouTube videos to
understand how to use the assessment. I think a golf fitness assessment gives a visual of
the real problem in a golf swing. It tells me how I can address the problem and
recommend a path like referring a client to a gym trainer. (R2)
We need to know what to look for in our clients to make them better? Give me the
assessment. All or most golfers want to do is get better and I suppose a test will do that if
used adequately and properly by golf instructors. (R1)
Corbin and Strauss (2015) explain the grounded theory process as a means to compare data by
breaking it down into manageable pieces to identify the similarities and differences. The analyses
of the interviews in this study were grouped based on the emergence of themes. The emerging
themes are supported by quotations from the golf instructors.
The concepts of the golf instructor comments were grouped and categorized. After
identifying the categories, four themes surfaced from the interviews to build the theory based on
the dialogue from the interviews, the follow-up case analysis and the cross-case analysis of the
dissection and coding. Creswell (1998) reports that the intent of a grounded theory study is to
generate or discover a theory, an abstract analytical schema of a phenomenon, that relates to a
particular situation. The four emerging themes are: 1) the lack of golf fitness education for PGA
instructors; 2) the use of golf fitness training by instructors improves the golf performance of
their clients; 3) the implementation of a golf conditioning program into a golf instructor’s lesson
plan can prevent injuries in clients, and 4) the long-term effects of golf instructors teaching golf
fitness to their clients are beneficial to the game of golf. Each of the emerging themes is
supported by the comments of the participants to provide the framework of the theory.

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Theme 1: Golf Instructors Lack Golf Fitness Education
The golf instructor teaches the client tips to avoid common golf swing faults, but the
traditional methods of teaching are rigid and based on band-aid schemes to fix problems without
identifying the underlying physiological problem (Rose & Phillips, 2010). Historically, the golf
teaching methods from the PGA do not educate golf instructors to assess the physical capabilities
of the client or offer instructors the resources to address physiological problems they see in their
clients. All seven participants in this study mentioned their lack of golf fitness education and its
use would be a valuable and constructive tool to help clients improve their golf game.
R1 said that the PGA is working to add golf fitness education to golf instructor
development. As a board member of the PGA in Hawaii, R1 commented that they are seeking
more education for their golf instructors because they believe more physical education [golf
assessment] for golf instruction would help their clients play golf longer and to spend more
money [buying golf equipment, paying for golf green fees, and buying golf lessons].
M1 believes golf instructors are searching for more continuing education to remain
knowledgeable about the best practices for client instruction. She implied that more education
would translate to more money for the golf industry. This viewpoint is also reflected in
comments from PR1. He stated that more golf instructors need more golf fitness education to be
more prepared to teach clients. As a result, PR1 feels that clients will be happier, play golf
longer, and spend more money on golf equipment for lower golf scores.
When an instructor has to refer a client to a personal trainer for exercises to correct a
physical impediment, it can be time consuming. R2 says more golf fitness education would
fortify the quality of instruction, save time, and he would not have to refer clients to a personal
trainer. M2 pointed out that the PGA hires fitness professionals to facilitate workshops for golf
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instructors [to learn golf fitness programming]. This statement indicates that the PGA recognizes
the need for golf fitness education for its instructors. M2 and P1 mentioned that golf fitness
education is the future of golf. In fact, P1 thinks golf instructors need golf fitness education to
train golfers because they are fit [a comparison between the younger generation of golfers to the
older generation of golfers].
The participants in this study seek avenues outside of the PGA to learn better ways to
give a golf lesson. An assessment is the second step to recognizing the client’s abilities within
the golf swing and a golf fitness education is the first step. The participants concede that the
advantages of using golf fitness as a teaching tool in a golf lesson are significant. Golf fitness
knowledge is a valuable and necessary skill that golf instructors need to be innovators and
thought leaders in the field of golf performance. Once a golf instructor can assess what the client
is doing physiologically, then he/she can collect data to design programs that improve golf
teaching and the client’s golf performance.
Theme 2: Golf Instructors Use of Golf Fitness Improves Client Performance
A study conducted by Mingkumlert, Vanasant, Limroongreungrat, Chanchaiyakul, &
Wang (2010) showed that golf conditioning program can improve golf performance. All seven
participants agreed that some form of golf conditioning will enhance the playing ability of their
clients. In other words, golf fitness training makes golf instruction easier for the clients to discern
and to grasp. The general consensus of the golf instructors is that the basics of the golf swing are
difficult to perform unless the client can maneuver their body into the correct position to execute
the golf swing. When a client is athletic and trains for golf in a manner that prepares them for the
sport, the golf instructors believe a golf lesson becomes clear to the client and the golf swing
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becomes effortless. Most of the golf instructors attributed the gain in golf performance to the
client’s capacity to perform the biomechanics of the golf swing. For instance:
Yesteryear, golfers wanted to play a gentleman's sport, not an athletic sport. I know
adequate training of the golf muscles makes a better swing with better results. (R1)
Two of the golf instructors indicated that success in playing golf is directly related to the client’s
athletic ability. The following comment below represents this sentiment clearly:
It can be complicated which is why an athlete can figure it out easier than someone who
does not play a sport. (R2)
I train for the marathon every year and I do ok. Golfers would absolutely do better with
golf fitness. During my training season for the marathon and triathlon, I always get
stronger and I feel better. My golf game always gets better. I encourage my clients to
train for a sport to improve their golf game. (M1)
The data from the interviews suggest the true benefit to a golf instructor is to see the
client’s enjoyment of the game because they are playing better. Case in point, several of the golf
instructors expressed the elation they feel when a client is enjoying the game of golf or hitting
the ball farther because they are developing their body and the results are illustrated in their
achievement on the golf course. For example:
I see smiles on the face of a woman who loses weight after working with the trainer, and
plays better golf. I spoke with a client last week that said he shot his best round of golf
because he is hitting the gym three times a week. A happy fit person is a better student to
teach hands down. (PR1)
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I don't know much about fancy biomechanical terms, but I do know what the golf swing
looks like - step by step. If a golfer can get his body in the right position, he can hit the
ball as far as his body will let him. (M1)
The answer is a better golfer… a healthy golfer. (P2)
The elite golfers are training. Tiger took what Gary Player did years ago and made it part
of golf culture, I think the future of golf instruction learning will include how to train
golfers to be better athletes. (R2)
They will want to know how I can hit the ball like the kid from China who works in the
gym more than he plays golf… It’s a tough, but rewarding task for golf instructors. (P1)
Theme 3: Golf Instructors Utilizing a Golf Fitness Program Can Prevent Client Injuries
The game of golf is considered relatively benign in nature, however, it has been well
documented that injuries do occur (Fradkin, Cameron, Gabbe, & Forbes, 2006). The pleasure of
the game is not only playing to the best of your ability, but it is being able to play at the best of
your ability. Most sports involve injuries and the leisure nature of golf does not prevent injuries
from happening. Moreover, the complex nature of the golf swing can encourage injuries if the
body is not able to perform the basics of the golf swing. A research study conducted by Theriault
et al. (1996) examined a group of 528 golfers (181 females, 347 males; aged from 12 to 70) from
8 different golf clubs. The study showed that approximately 30% of the golfers experienced golf
related injuries and the average recovery time was one month. The most common injuries were
due to poor mechanics in the golf swing (53.9%) and overuse of the muscles involved in the golf
swing.
The data from the seven golf instructor interviews showed similar results to the Theriault
study. The golf instructors concur that golf related injuries are dismantling to the golf swing and
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most likely occur due to their client’s poor swing mechanics. The majority of the injuries seen by
the golf instructors were preventable with a golf conditioning program as reported by the
following participants:
It’s tough because golfers are trying to do what their body cannot do…at least without
some type of training or something to manipulate the body…fix it, right? (R1)
Since the members are older, their bodies are breaking down - the back, the shoulder, the
wrist, the Achilles tendon, you name it. I ask the members to stretch and do some type of
yoga or conditioning to help stay injury free. (PR1)
Challenging because every part of the human body can be injured, but I see the back and
shoulder problems the most. Golf today is a violent sport for the body... twisting... and
rotating against fixed positions is not natural. Injuries can happen when the body is not
ready. (M2)
The most common golf related injuries as witnessed by the participants manifested in the back,
shoulders, wrist, and the Achilles tendon. P1 pointed out that the back is a major concern for
most golfers and the common injuries for women are the shoulders and the wrist. PR1 also said
that golfers can injure their back if they are not flexible and strong enough to execute a golf
swing. Some of the golf instructors provided the following evidence during our interviews:
I am not a doctor, but I think the shoulder and back play a big part of the injury story for
golf. The golf rotation can wreak havoc on the rotator cuff and the lower back. (R2)
Since the members are older, their bodies are breaking down - the back, the shoulder, the
wrist, the Achilles tendon, you name it. (PR1)
I think golfers hurt their shoulder, wrist, back, knees, calves or this thing (pointing at the
Achilles tendon). (P2)
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Challenging because every part of the human body can be injured, but I see the back and
shoulder problems the most. Golf today is a violent sport for the body... twisting... and
rotating against fixed positions is not natural. Injuries can happen when the body is not
ready. (M2)
The golf instructors agreed that golfers are prone to injury. The golf instructors admit that golfers
of all ages can suffer an injury with poor conditioning. These findings are supported by research
conducted by Sell et al. (2008) which showed that golfers of all ages frequently suffer shoulder,
back, and other orthopedic injuries.
Theme 4: Long Term Effects of Golf Instructors Teaching Golf Fitness Are Beneficial
Older age and playing with injuries can be limiting factors in most sports; especially, if
the sport involves a destructive rotation of the body around a fixed axis and repeated movements
that are contrary to a healthy biomechanical production. An argument can be made that the golf
swing is an aggressive movement that can be difficult to execute without the proper conditioning
and knowledge of the basics. Why would anyone put their body in harm’s way just to hit a little
white ball? An even more insightful question might be: Why would one continue to play a game
that is difficult to learn and it causes injuries? Many golfers leave the sport due to the injuries
sustained while playing golf. Noteworthy, the desire to continue playing a sport that can be
harmful to your body is perplexing, but research indicates that golfers continue playing the sport
because they want to get better (Wilson, 2007). How can they get better? The golf instructors
interviewed in this study disclosed that golf conditioning- in one form or another- is beneficial to
the game of golf because it boosts golf performance, lowers the incidence of injuries, and most
meaningfully, it optimizes their client’s longevity in the game.
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The older and younger participants disclosed their reasons for exercising and why it is
necessary for golf performance in the long term. The seasoned golf instructors claimed that
walking the golf course was an exercise habit that has prolonged their golf life. As a matter
of fact, the two oldest participants began their golf careers at a very young age caddying for
their family members. P1 said that carrying a golf bag as a caddy is similar to a gym workout
because it is hot, sweaty, and you are walking the uneven golf course for at least five miles
per round of golf. R1 was also a caddie and he claims that being a caddie kept him in shape
because it was both physically and mentally challenging. He attributes walking the golf
course to the reason he looks fit today at sixty-five years of age. A focal point for the older
golf instructors was to stay healthy in order to play golf longer. The sixty-five year old
participant mentioned that his friends want to play golf into their eighties and he believes that
golf fitness training is a prerequisite. R1 shared:
Golfers my age are trying to play into their eighties which mean they must train their
body with exercises, damn it, you have to get up and do something other than swing. Yes,
I am certain that a conditioned body makes a better swing, maybe better scores too. (R1)
Another participant, PR1, works at a private golf club and his golf membership clientele are
primarily over the age of sixty-five. He observes from working with older clients that age does
not deter them from wanting to hit the ball farther and play longer in life. Furthermore, the older
clients want to exercise for the added benefit to play golf longer in life.
Conversely, a golf instructor does not have to be past sixty-five years of age to applaud
the benefits of golf conditioning for prosperity in the sport. The youngest of the participants, M2
heralded the use of golf fitness for the welfare of golf longevity with the following prediction:
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Golf fitness is the future and I see it as more than trend, but a building block to golfer’s
playing longer. (M2)
M2 sees the world of golf instruction growing with the knowledge of golf fitness because it will
enrich the technology, scholarly work, and extend the playing abilities of golf professionals and
their clients over time. M2 maintains that older golfers will be able to perform at a higher level
and continue to compete with younger golfers. P2 also believes that golf instructors are learning
more golf fitness to keep clients playing the game longer. M2 stated:
Our clients will be healthier and hopefully take more lessons. We will probably grow
older golfing. I can see the Champions Tour being full of in shape golfers hitting the ball
as far as young players. (M2)
The future of golf instruction will be shaped by PGA golf instructors and the golf
industry will be impacted by the way golf instructors teach clients for golf performance. The data
analyzed from the interviews with the golf instructors presented four emerging themes: 1) the
lack of golf fitness education for PGA instructors; 2) the use of golf fitness training by
instructors can improve the golf performance of their clients; 3) the implementation of a golf
conditioning program into a golf instructor’s lesson plan can prevent injuries in clients, and 4)
the long-term effects of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to their clients is beneficial to the
game of golf because it appears to prolong a golfer’s ability to play the game. These themes
identify areas for growth in golf instruction education and they show the benefits of golf fitness
being taught to clients for golf performance.
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CHAPTER V - DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
Chapter 5 consists of five sections: 1) discussion of findings, 2) implications for the golf
instructor and the client, 3) implications for the golf industry, 4) implications for research, and 5)
conclusion. This research study, The Implications of Golf Instructors Teaching Golf Fitness to
Clients, shows research data and interpretations about the use of golf fitness to elevate a client’s
golf performance, reduce injuries, and to increase their longevity in the game of golf. The core of
this study captures the participant’s viewpoints on golf fitness with descriptive data to illustrate a
scholarly depiction of a golf instructor’s common practice to enhance their client’s golf
performance. In this chapter, an examination of the study results and the answers to the two
research questions will be discussed based on the research findings. This discussion will
highlight the implications for golf instructors, golf students, the golf industry, and golf fitness
research. Lastly, a concluding rationale for golf instructors and the golf industry to consider for
golf prosperity will be presented.
Discussion of Findings
The results of this study suggest there are benefits of golf instructors teaching golf fitness
to their clients. The participants unanimously expressed their belief in the auspicious tenants of
golf fitness for game improvement and overall health. Through analysis of the interviews, the
participant’s common golf backgrounds, shared need for more golf fitness education, and their
interest to elevate their client’s playing abilities with safe teaching practices are documented. The
participants reflected on their current golf teaching knowledge and their desire to incorporate
physiological techniques into their golf instruction routine. Unfortunately, a gap exists between
the fundamentals of PGA learning principles currently being taught to instructors and the reality
of what instructors need to holistically teach golfers how to correct swing deficiencies.
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According to the participants, golf clients need more than traditional tricks to fix a swing flaw.
What clients need is a golf instructor who can adequately assess the physical limitations of the
client’s body to prescribe a holistic solution that involves the design of a golf program with
instruction and golf conditioning. The two research questions guiding the study are listed below:
Research Questions:
3. Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf instruction?
4. How do golf instructors use golf fitness to improve instruction?
Answer to the First Research Question: Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf
instruction?
An organizational problem in the golf industry is that golf instructors practice the PGA
assembly line methodology to teach amateur golfers how to swing the golf club. The same
process has been taught to golf students for more than a century, but the golf swing has
rudimentarily evolved from the leisurely classical golf swing to the aggressively modern golf
swing. An understanding of the golf swing’s physiological transformation over the past century
is significant because golf scores have not changed, golf courses are longer in distance, golf
technology and apparel are more athletic, and the occurrence of golf injuries has elevated
substantially (Palacios-Jansen, 2011). As determined by the PGA Teaching Manual (1990), a
golf instructor is taught to identify swing flaws and then offer solutions to fix the problem. The
seven participants of this study identified the information gap between what is learned by PGA
teaching professionals and what is needed to be better instructors. The PGA Teaching Manual
does not educate golf teaching professionals how to asses a client’s physical limitations in order
to understand the cause of the client’s swing flaws. If golf scores are not changing, golf courses
are longer, golfer’s equipment is more athletic, and the number of golf injuries is rising, then one
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might argue that the curriculum of golf instruction is one possible reason golfers are not
improving overall.
Rueda (2011) describes how the causes and solutions of performance gaps are often
presumed and not validated. The participants in this study supported the conclusion that a major
cause of golfers getting injured is the lack of golf specific conditioning. Furthermore, the
participants unanimously agreed that some form of golf fitness training is a practical teaching
resource and game improvement solution to complement traditional golf instruction.
Answer to the Second Research Question: How do golf instructors use golf fitness to
improve instruction?
Four out of the seven golf instructors who participated in this study teach golf fitness to
their clients. The four practitioners of golf fitness noticed their client’s golf scores lowered, the
prevalence of injuries decreased, and their client’s quality of life appeared to improve. These
findings are consistent with research on the benefits of golf specific conditioning and training.
For instance: A research study conducted in 2007 examined the effects of an 8-week golf-
specific exercise program on the physical characteristics, swing mechanics, and golf
performance of the average golfer. The results of the independent study by Lephart concluded
that golfers undertaking a golf conditioning program could perform at higher levels with fewer
injuries (Lephart, 2007).
The three participants that do not use golf fitness as a teaching tool for their client’s golf
game improvement refer their clients to a gym trainer. The participants cited their lack of
education to assess the client’s physical capabilities and to design an impactful program for the
client’s game improvement as the number one reason they refer clients to personal trainers. The
sentiments of the three non-golf fitness practicing participants in this study are also consistent
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with research regarding golf fitness application and golf instruction learning principles. A
research study conducted by a PGA teaching professional with more than 20,000 lessons found
that the teaching requirements of the PGA Teaching Manual fall short in comparison with
traditional teachers who instruct adults in formal post-secondary education programs. The PGA
Teaching Manual allocates less than ten paragraphs on how to teach adults individually based on
their physical ability (Wilson, 2007). Ultimately, the reason most students pay for golf
instruction is to improve their golf performance. The process to get better at the game of golf
begins with an instructor’s understanding of the biomechanics or anatomy of the golf swing
(McLean, 2003).
Implications
Implications for the golf instructor and the client
Findings from this study provide a framework of reasons why golf fitness is beneficial for
golf instructors to teach their clients. Over the past century, the game of golf has grown from an
aristocratic event of casual recreation to an athletic sport of competition. The classic golf swing
taught by professionals to amateurs in the early 1900s was less destructive to the human body
due to a number of factors. First, the rotational kinematics of the hip turn in the classic swing is
estimated to be about 70 to 80 degrees (Roberts, 2009). The generous movement of the hips
along with the upper body during the backswing puts less stress on the thoracic spine. Second,
golf was previously considered a sport of technique and strategy rather than of physical fitness
(Hetu & Christie, 1998). The classical style of golfing activity was leisurely and moderate which
enabled the masses of patrons to play uninjured. At the turn of the century, golf course yardage
increased, golf equipment transitioned from hickory to graphite, and golf clothing transformed
from patrician to athletic. These modifications were mirrored by the modern swing movement of
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the new generation of athletic golfers. The modern style of playing golf is athletic and aggressive
because golf courses are longer in distance and golfers have to swing the golf club faster to
generate more swing speed to hit the ball farther. The participants in this study gave numerous
accounts of client injuries to the back, shoulders, and wrist due to poor swing mechanics caused
by physical limitations and swinging the golf club too fast. Research validates the participant’s
observations with clients. Studies prove that improper swing mechanics, muscle fatigue, overuse,
and ultimately injury can happen when golfers swing faster than their body can efficiently
perform (Palacios-Jansen, 2011). The limited hip rotation in the modern swing is measured close
to 45 degrees with less rotation of the lower body (Haney, 2009). The modern swing generates
resistance by a convoluting motion of the spine and the shoulders around an axis- the lower
body; for this reason, it creates a greater shoulder turn in relation to the stability of the hips. The
limited hip rotation in relation to the shoulder turn in the modern golf swing creates an
environment for injury if the body is not conditioned to twist repeatedly at a rapid pace.
Golf instructors today must be well-versed in not only the basics of the classic versus the
modern golf swings, but also the biomechanics of the golf swing. Which physical limitations
hinder the golf swinging competence of the client? Are the clients predisposed to an injury
because of their physical disadvantage? In recent years, more modern golf swing types have been
identified by golf instructors. The modern swing can be classified into different categories. For
example: The stack and tilt, one-plane, and two-plane golf swings have become popular and
viewed as trendy for the next generation of golf (Smith, 2010). Regardless of the type of golf
swing a student displays, the proficiency of the golf instructor to understand the biomechanics or
anatomy of the golf swing will help them understand the student’s swing flaws and enable them
to teach the best method for the client’s golf improvement. The participants in this study
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articulated their desire to learn more golf fitness techniques to adequately assess client’s physical
aptitude and to design a golf conditioning program for golf performance.
What is golf performance? In 1916, the PGA of America was founded to organize
professional golfers for the promotion of the game of golf and to elevate the standards of the golf
professional’s vocation, which included providing formal golf swing instruction to golf students
for golf performance (Wilson, 2007). The National Golf Foundation’s (NGF) Golf Business
Almanac (2005) defines golf performance as the continuum of lower golf scores through safe
practice and instruction. NGF research highlights that golf scores have not improved over the
last ten years even though advancements have been made in golf technology, golf course
maintenance, and golf instruction (2005).
If golf technology and golf course conditioning have not improved golf performance,
then lower scores should come from golf instruction. Conspicuously, only 12% of golfers in the
U.S. hire a golf instructor to elevate their golf performance. Why is the percentage of golfers
taking golf lessons only 12%? In 2003, NGF conducted a research study of more than 1,000
adult golfers to find out what they liked and disliked about golf instruction (National, 2005). The
report stated that the golfers ‘disliked golf instructor’s inability to communicate effectively,
relate to the student, and to adapt the instruction to the individual student (Manual, 1990). The
latter cause for golfer’s aversion to golf instruction, the inability of golf instructor’s to adapt
instruction to the student, presents an opportunity for golf instruction to grow by integrating golf
fitness into an instruction lesson plan. Based on research and the answers from the golf
instructors who participated in this study, Golf fitness appears to be a pathway for golf
instructors to individually teach clients and students how to address their physical hindrance. The
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participants in this study unanimously cited golf fitness as the tool needed to positively assist
clients to lower their golf scores, preclude injuries, and to extend their duration playing golf.
Summary of recommendations for the golf instructor and the client
o Golf instructors need to proactively seek golf fitness education through
seminars, workshops, and certification organizations
o PGA of America needs to upgrade its training curriculum for all instructors to
include a golf conditioning module which includes biomechanical
assessments, identification of physical limitations, and fitness program design
o Clients should become more knowledgeable about the basics of the golf swing
by taking golf lessons from a certified PGA instructor
o Golf media needs to focus more attention on the benefits of golf fitness
training for golf instructor and client golf performance
Implications for the Golf Industry
The golf business produces more than 76 billion dollars in annual expenditures from golf
instruction, golf apparel, golf technology, and golf course revenues (SRI, 2005). Recently, the
number of new golfers to the industry has declined and golf analysts are searching for innovative
ways to capture a new market of golf learners (National, 2005). If the golf scores are not
changing with technological advances, then how can the industry continue to grow? Findings
from this study suggest that the golf industry would benefit tremendously from an upward surge
in the utilization of golf fitness by golf instructors to add value to client learning. The
participants of this study recognize the intrinsic value of golf fitness application and
implementation for client golf performance. Based on the comments from the participants in this
study, the solution to garner new golfers to the game and to elevate the playing level of the
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amateur golfer is not more financial investments in clothes and equipment, but the education of
golf teaching professionals in golf fitness. Golf fitness empowers golf instructors to teach the
amateur golfer how to fix their physical limitations before trying to correct their golf swing. This
trend would boost the competitive nature of the golf industry professionals; consequently, the
amateur golfer would figure out how to develop their physical capabilities for golf swing
efficiency. An efficient golf swing will advance a client’s playing ability and the client will
continue to invest in golf instruction and the golf business. Studies have shown that the level of a
student’s development- intellectually, socially, emotionally- can directly impact a student’s
climate for learning (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). For instance, if a
golf instructor properly assesses the physical limitations of a golf student before teaching them to
swing the golf club, then the instructor has created a positive environment for the student to
learn; therefore, the student learning is energized.
Research indicates that Golf fitness has become a necessary part of training in the
professional world of golf. The top players on the PGA and LPGA circuit are golf conditioning
their bodies to safely perform at the highest level. According to golf instructors from this study,
the golf professional athlete is influencing the amateur athlete’s preparation for playing golf. The
impact of professional golfer’s fitness training seems to support new opportunities for golf
teaching professionals to penetrate this new market. Golf instructors can capitalize on the
ascension of golf fitness by learning the biomechanics of the golf swing and the physiological
effects of the golf swing on the body.
Several barriers exist that limit the number of golf teaching professionals from
implementing golf fitness into their lesson plan with clients. First, the PGA of America does not
provide adequate golf conditioning training during their certification process. Second, the most
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recommended method for golf instructors to become golf fitness practitioners is to become
certified by an evidence-based educational organization. The participants in this study mentioned
the Titleist Performance Institute (TPI) as the gold standard for golf fitness education. Of the
seven participants, three use some form of golf fitness during instruction with clients, but only
one golf instructor is TPI certified. TPI is the primary certification organization that teaches golf
instructors how to assess the physical limitations of the golf swing utilizing a research-based
methodology of movement screens to find the common golf swing faults that inhibit golf
performance and may cause injury (Dave & Rose, 2010). Lastly, golf courses in the past were
designed for playing golf and not for exercising. Most golf courses do not offer the facility
resources for traditional health and fitness programs for members and guests of the golf course.
Inadequate facilities at most golf courses for warm-up activities and golf fitness conditioning
contribute to the general lack of health knowledge among golf instructors.
In general, the golf industry may be a contributing factor to the lack of motivation for
golfers to implement golf specific training. Some golf courses today are being built with
complimentary fitness centers to address the growing influence of athletic preparation to improve
golf achievement and to reduce the incidence of golf injuries.
Summary of recommendations for the golf industry
o The PGA of America should include the TPI program with their certification
o Golf instructors must learn to assess the client’s physical ability before teaching
client’s to the golf swing basics
o The golf instructor must realize the importance of golf fitness for the
advancement of the sport and for the amateur golfer because golf scores have not
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changed for professional golfers and golf handicaps have not changed for amateur
golfers.
o Newly designed golf courses should include a space for fitness conditioning
Implications for Research
Findings from this study provided support to show that more research on the implications
of golf instructors teaching golf fitness need to be conducted. Golf is traditionally a sport of
routine that involves hitting golf balls, but not training the body to hit golf balls. Golf is a game
that commands a high level of skill, strength, dexterity, rhythmic timing, muscular coordination,
and endurance. Studies show that golfers routinely swing as many as 100 swings during a lesson
of golf, which makes a golfer more susceptible to injury. How can a golf instructor help a client
get better without knowing how to prevent physiological injuries due to the client’s limitations?
Data supports that golf is a sport that can result in injury and golf injuries are most often
associated with the repetitive stress of practice and play, especially for amateur golfers. During a
normal round of golf, the average amateur golfer can walk up to 5 miles, swing upwards of 300
practice and real swings, bend down more than 80 times to putt and to pick-up the golf ball or
place it on the tee (Roberts, 2009).
Golf clients today are older and struggle with injuries due to sedentary lifestyle
adaptations compatible with sitting for prolonged periods of time at a desk or watching TV for
with poor posture (Sell, 2007). Eighty percent of amateur golfers experience back pain while
playing golf (PGA, 2013). Golf instructors must understand the physical limitations that students
play with and be able to build a golf fitness program to help the existing injuries heal and reduce
the risk of developing new problems. More research needs to involve how golf instructors teach
to facilitate an informed comprehension of how to improve golf instruction.
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The demographics of the average golf client have changed with the evolution of the golf
swing. For instance, 50 percent of the U.S. population in 2010 was over fifty years old, which
means more people are able to golf past their prime age group of 20- 40 years of age (Diovisalvi,
2010). Athletically, the human body of a twenty-year-old golf client is statistically different than
an avid golf client who is fifty-five years old. The golf instructor must know how to evaluate a
client’s ability to complete the golf swing by evaluating their capabilities separately and not
utilizing the assembly-line approach to teaching one style for every client. The instructor must be
able to customize a physical fitness program that will address any current physical limitations to
develop the student for a round of golf.
The average golf client does not practice the number of hours that a professional golfer
does on a regular basis; otherwise, the golf client would probably play golf for a living with the
right physical and mental attributes of a professional golfer. The golf client typically leads a
sedentary lifestyle and develops muscle imbalances of strength and flexibility in their body. The
lifestyle of inactivity causes their muscles to shorten and pull on opposing muscles that are weak
during the golf swing which is a common cause of injury. The participants in this study named
the most common areas of injury in their clients and those areas can be correlated to the
sedentary lifestyle. If a golf instructor does not realize the causes of an improper golf swing, then
the golf student may not be able to swing the golf club correctly and repeatedly injure the muscle
group that is shortened or weak. For example: Tight abdominal muscles may cause a weakening
of the back muscles. Tight hip flexors weaken the opposing muscles of the gluteus. Golf
instructors must not only teach the fundamentals of the golf swing, but they must develop the
golf client’s opposing muscle groups to balance the golf swing to improve performance and
89

prevent injuries (Roberts, 2009). The need for further research on the topic of golf fitness is
needed to make the subject a more visible component of golf performance for golf instruction.
Summary of recommendations for research
o PGA of America conducts a longitudinal study following a large sample of
golf instructors teaching golf fitness to clients to understand how golf
conditioning can prevent injury and improve golf performance
o PGA of America provides quantitative and qualitative data that focuses on the
cost of injuries to the golfer and the cost-savings from a golf fitness program
Conclusion
Golf instructors are revered in the golf industry as the gatekeepers to golf information for
clients and students. To learn the fundamentals of the game of golf, patrons have traditionally
hired a golf instructor to teach them the basics of the golf swing. Over the past century the golf
swing has become more athletic and it requires golf conditioning in addition to golf instruction to
perform at a high level. Professional golfers and amateur golfers are suffering from golf related
injuries and research points to the lack of golf fitness educated instructors as the primary reason.
Although an abundance of literature does not exist to promote the benefits of golf fitness
for elevated success in the game of golf, most golfers in studies showed golf performance
improvement with a golf conditioning program. The motivation for golf instructors to learn how
to teach golf fitness is apparent since the practice not only boosts golf performance, but it helps
prevent injuries, and prolongs a golfer’s life in the game. The implications of golf instructors
teaching golf fitness are a more informed golf instructor equipped with the tools to assess the
client for physical impediments and the capability to design a conditioning program to enhance
the golfer’s playing ability without injuries. The return on the golf fitness education investment
90

for the golf industry is the growth of the game with repeat golf lessons and more golf patrons
playing the game longer. Golf industry could find ways to attract new golfers to golf instruction
for revenue and longevity with advancements in golf equipment, technology, and clothing to
promote golf as an athletic sport that encourages conditioning. This study showed that golf
fitness is an underutilized option for golf instructors to improve their client’s golf scores and to
keep them healthy.

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APPENDIX A (1 of 2)
Sample of Participant Consent Form
My name is Steven Lorick, and I am a doctoral student enrolled in the Hawaii Cohort program in
Educational Leadership at the University of Southern California. As a fulfillment of the doctoral
program, I will serve as the principal investigator of a research project that is related to golf
fitness. My research topic is “The effectiveness of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to
clients”. You are invited to participate in this study because you fit into the participant’s
attributes that I established for this study. Your insight and feedback will be of great help in this
study and I sincerely appreciate your participation and commitment.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of golf specific strength and
conditioning training for increased golf performance, reduction of injuries associated with golf
play, and to improve a golfer’s quality of life for longevity in the sport. The two research
questions addressed in this study are:
1. Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf instruction?
2. How do golf instructors use golf fitness to improve instruction?

Project Description - Activities and Time Commitment: If you participate, I will interview
you once in person, whichever is more convenient to you. The interview will last for about 30
minutes in a face-to-face meeting. I will record the interview using a computer. I will summarize
what you dictate in a word document of what we talked about during the interview, and analyze
the information from the interview. I will conduct a post-interview meeting for about 15 to 20
minutes with you in person when the interview is completed. The purpose of this meeting is to
afford you the opportunity to check on the accuracy of your answers and what I typed. If there is
any error identified, I will make sure the information will be corrected. If you participate, you
will be one of a total of twelve participants who I will interview individually. As this research is
related to golf fitness in the golf industry, the interviewing questions will touch base on your
opinions and experience on golf instruction and golf performance at the golf club. A couple
92

examples of the types of question I will ask are: How long have you been playing golf and how
long have you been teaching in the golf industry? As a golfer and golf instructor, have you
noticed a change in the golf swing since you began playing the game? If you would like to
preview a copy of all of the questions that I will ask you, please let me know.

Benefits and Risks: I believe there are no direct benefits to you in participating in my research
project. However, the results of this project will help me and other researchers learn more about
the impact golf fitness has on golf performance. I believe there is little or no risk to you in
participating in this project. If, however, you are uncomfortable or stressed by answering any of
the interview questions, we will skip the question, take a break, stop the interview, or withdraw
from the project altogether. Your comfort is very important to me as the interviewer.
93

APPENDIX A (2 of 2)
Sample of Participant Consent Form
Confidentiality and Privacy: During this research project, I will keep all data from the
interviews in a secure location. After I complete formulating this project and present the findings
to my professor, all research records will be destroyed upon completion of the project. When I
report the results of my research project, and in my typed transcripts, I will not use your name or
any other personally identifying information. Instead, I will use a pseudonym (fake name) for
your name. If you would like a summary of the findings from my final report, please contact me
at the number listed near the end of this consent form.

Voluntary Participation: Participation in this research project is voluntary. You can choose
freely to participate or not to participate. In addition, at any point during this project, you can
withdraw your permission without any penalty.

Questions: If you have any questions regarding this research study, please contact me via phone
at 703-629-8326 or email at slorick@usc.edu. For questions about the purpose of this dissertation
project, please contact my dissertation chair at lpicus@usc.edu.

If you agree to participate in this project, please sign the following signature section of this
consent form and return it to Steven Lorick at 4348 Waialae Avenue #662 Honolulu, HI 96816
by using the attached self-addressed envelope OR email it to slorick@usc.edu

Please acknowledge your willingness to participate in this research study by signing below.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Signature(s) for Consent: I agree to participate in the dissertation study entitled “The
effectiveness of golf instructors teaching golf fitness”. I understand that I can change my mind
about participating in this project, at any time, by notifying the researcher.
94

Your Name (Print): ______________________Your Signature: _________________

Date: _____________________________ Contact Phone: ______________________

Contact Email: ____________________Skype Address: ________________________

Your attention and prompt reply to this request is greatly appreciated!
95

APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol: Semi-structured and Guided Interview
Purpose of Interview
This research will utilize a qualitative case study to answer the three research questions. I
expect the process of conducting this research will be carefully designed and the execution will
be an opportunity to learn more about the impact of golf fitness on golf performance. My intent
is to learn the effectiveness of golf specific strength and conditioning training on golf
performance. The Case study process is an intensive description and analysis of a phenomenon
or social unit such as an individual, group, institution, or community (Merriam & Associates,
2002). Utilizing the research question posed in this case study; my goal is to yield an in-depth
description, analysis, and understanding of the impact of golf fitness on golf performance. In
summary, a semi-structured and guided interview protocol with open-ended questions will be
used to provide many opportunities for participants or interviewees to elaborate their thoughts
and experiences. My findings would hopefully create greater awareness and conversation of
sound leadership in the sports and fitness industry.
Research Questions
1. Why is understanding golf fitness important to golf instruction?
2. How do golf instructors use golf fitness to improve instruction?

Attributes of Participants
The target size of this study is seven participants and the attributes of the participants will consist
of the following:
1. Indirect or direct experience in golf and fitness in the last ten years
2. Age 18 or older and a PGA Certified Golf Instructor
3. A willingness to participate in the study

96

Guided Interview Questions

1. Since your identification is private for the purposes of
this study, what would you like for your pseudonym
or fake name to be and what is your golf profession?

2. What is your age, gender, and how do you self-
identify for racial or ethnic classification?

3. How long have you been playing golf and how long
have you been teaching in the golf industry?

4. As a golfer and golf instructor, have you noticed a
change in the golf swing since you began playing
the game?

5. Do you currently use golf fitness as a teaching tool
for your clients? If yes, then why and if no, then
why not?

6. Do you believe training a golfer's body is important
to the biomechanics of the fundamental golf swing?
If yes, then why?

7. What is a golf fitness assessment and how does it
relate to the golf swing?

8. How would the golf industry benefit from golf
instructors learning golf fitness before teaching the
basics of the golf swing to their clients?

9. Why do you think students have difficulty learning
the basics of the golf swing?

10. What are the common injuries associated with
playing golf?

11. How do you incorporate golf conditioning into
your lesson plan?

97

12. How will golf fitness training improve golf
instruction for increased golf performance for
clients?

98

APPENDIX C
Research Guide/ Crosswalk Table
Interview Questions Research Questions

*Descriptive words and properties will be generated
from the interview questions and research
questions. The aim of this Crosswalk table is to find
core categories and a theme from the answers — an
inductive process that illuminates the repeated
words, which eventually will form into a process, a
model or a theory.
1. Why is
understanding
golf fitness
important to
golf
instruction?

2. How do
golf
instructors
use golf
fitness to
improve
instruction?

1. Since your identification is private for the purposes of
this study, what would you like for your pseudonym
or fake name to be and what is your golf profession?

2. What is your age, gender, and how do you self-
identify for racial or ethnic classification?

3. How long have you been playing golf and how long
have you been teaching in the golf industry?

4. As a golfer and golf instructor, have you noticed a
change in the golf swing since you began playing
the game?

5. Do you currently use golf fitness as a teaching tool
for your clients? If yes, then why and if no, then
why not?

6. Do you believe training a golfer's body is important
to the biomechanics of the fundamental golf swing?
If yes, then why?

7. What is a golf fitness assessment and how does it
relate to the golf swing?

8. How would the golf industry benefit from golf
instructors learning golf fitness before teaching the

99

basics of the golf swing to their clients?

9. Why do you think students have difficulty learning
the basics of the golf swing?

10. What are the common injuries associated with
playing golf?

11. How do you incorporate golf conditioning into
your lesson plan?

12. How will golf fitness training improve golf
instruction for increased golf performance for
clients?

100

APPENDIX D
Recruitment Flyer
The University of Southern California (Hawaii Cohort) is
conducting a research study titled, “The effectiveness of golf
instructors teaching golf fitness to clients ”.
Do you have the following attributes?
1) Have direct and indirect experience in golf and fitness in the
past ten years,
2) Age 18 or older, and a PGA Certified Golf Instructor
3) A willingness to participate in the study.
If the answer is YES to ALL three attributes…You are invited to
participate in a research study. The purpose of this research study
is to look at the correlations between golf and fitness and how fitness
enhances golf performance.
 There will be two meetings for this research study. One will be an
approximately 30 minutes of semi-structured interview questions via Skype
or face-to-face meeting at the golf course. The other will be 15-20 minutes
via email and phone to verify transcripts. The actual meeting location will be
determined.
 There are no direct benefits of participating in this research study.
 A summary of the results of this research study will be available to
participants.
To learn more about the research study, please contact Steven
Lorick, Principal Investigator, at 703-629-8326 or slorick@usc.edu.
Steven Lorick is a graduate student enrolled in the Ed.D. Program at the University of
Southern California in the Hawaii Cohort. This research study is related to golf fitness
education and it is a partial fulfillment of his doctoral program.
101

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which golf instructors teach golf specific strength and conditioning skills to their clients for: increased golf performance

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lorick, Steven Trevar (author)

Core Title The implications of golf instructors teaching golf fitness to clients

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/06/2015

Defense Date 04/18/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Core,golf conditioning,golf fitness,golf performance,golf swing,OAI-PMH Harvest,sports performance,Strength,Training

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Brewer, Dominic J. (committee member), Datta, Monique C. (committee member)

Creator Email slorick@usc.edu,stevenlorick@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-586206

Unique identifier UC11299045

Identifier etd-LorickStev-3550.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-586206 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LorickStev-3550.pdf

Dmrecord 586206

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lorick, Steven Trevar

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA