Female graduate student decision-making and graduate student loan debt

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Content Running head: FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 1

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENT DECISION-MAKING AND
GRADUATE STUDENT LOAN DEBT

by

Levis Francis

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2015

Copyright 2014 Levis Francis

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my darling daughter Leila, you are the light of my life.
And to every woman that strives to provide a better life for their family.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 3
Acknowledgements
I profoundly thank my dissertation chair Dr. Kristan Venegas and my dissertation
committee members Dr. Tatiana Melguizo and Dr. Luis Dorado. Thank you for your support,
guidance and confidence in pursuing this research.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2

Acknowledgements 3

List of Tables 6

List of Figures 7

Abstract 8

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9

Background of the Problem 10

Purpose of the Study 12

Overview of the Theoretical Framework 12

Overview of the Methodology 13

Purposeful Sampling 14

Snowball Sampling 14

Interview Structure and Data Analysis 14

Significance of the Study 15

Chapter Two: Literature Review 17

Student Perceptions about Debt 20

Student Debt as a Burden 21

Perceptions about the Value of a Degree 23

Return on Investment 23

Selective Majors that Influence Earning Potential 24

Barriers in the Workplace 26

The Decision-Making Process 27

Stages of Decision-Making 28

Decision-Making Frameworks 28

Decision-Making Factors 29

Conceptual Framework: Gilligan’s Theory of Women’s Moral Development 31

Level 1: Orientation to Individual Survival 32

First transition: From Selfishness to Responsibility 33

Level 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice 33

Second Transition: From Goodness to Truth 33

Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolence 34

The Theoretical Framework and the Proposed Study 34

Summary 35

Chapter Three: Methodology 37

Definition of Research Approach 38

Sample and Population 38

Site Selection 39

Instrumentation 39

Data Collection 42

Data Analysis 42

Validity 43

Limitations 45

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 5

Chapter Four: Results and Analysis 48

Review of Data Collection Methods 48

Description of the Participants 49

Connection of the Moral Development Theory to the Study 52

Theme One: Women Rely on Support from Others When Making Important Decisions 56

Reliance on Multiple Sources during Decision-Making 57

Reliance on Family Members during Decision-Making 58

Reliance on Friends 60

Self-Reliance 61

Theme Two: Women are not Concerned with the Details of their Loan Obligations 61

Reliance on Financial Support from Others 62

Lack of Understanding about Loan Repayment Terms 62

Attaining Debt as the Only Option 63

Students are Unsure about How Much to Borrow 64

Theme Three: Women Do Not Factor in their Future Salaries When Deciding to Incur
Graduate Student Loan Debt 66

Unaware of Career Starting Salaries 66

Passion for Career Path 68

Summary of Themes 69

Theme One Summary 69

Theme Two Summary 70

Theme Three Summary 70

Reflection on the Results 71

Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications and Reccomendations 73

Summary of Findings 74

Reflection 76

Implications for Practice 77

Future Research 79

Conclusion 80

References 84

Appendix A: Key Definitions 94

Appendix B: Masters of Debt Interview Protocol 100

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Mapping of the Moral Development Theory against the Protocol 41

Table 2: Overview of Research Participants 50

Table 3: Overview of Research Participants 50

Table 4: Total Debt Held by Borrowers 52

Table 5: Key Definitions 99

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. 2012 U.S. Department of Education Student Loans in Default 19

Figure 2. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014 Earnings and Unemployment Rates by
Educational Attainment 24

Figure 3. Average Earnings One Year after Graduation, by Gender and
Undergraduate Major 25

Figure 4. Average Annual Earnings One Year after College Graduation, by Gender 26

Figure 5. Resources Participants used for Support during the Decision-Making Process 56

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 8
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine factors that influence a woman’s decisions to incur
graduate student loan debt. This study incorporates qualitative research methods and Gilligan’s
(1977) theory on women’s moral development to interpret an existing data set. Data collected
from 50 female graduate students pursuing a master’s degree in the disciplines of education and
health sciences were coded and analyzed. The findings revealed: (a) women rely on support
from others when making decisions (b) women are not concerned with the details of their loan
obligations (c) women do not factor in future earning potential when deciding to incur graduate
debt. The following implications for practice were identified: (a) women must take into
consideration that the advice they receive may be influenced by an individual’s perception of a
woman’s role within society (b) women need to be encouraged to pursue majors with high
earning potential (c) women should be empowered to understand the full scope of their loan
obligations (d) women must be informed of the earning potential for their selected disciplines.
Future research that will build upon the findings include: (a) examining factors that influence
men to incur student loan debt, and determining if they are pushed to select careers based on
interests or earning potential, (b) analyzing whether expected societal roles influence the advice
that females receive when incurring graduate debt, (c) examining the decision-making process of
women that enter majors in the social sciences, engineering, computer sciences.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Student loan debt exceeds credit cards as the largest source of consumer debt in America
and is expected to continually rise as the cost of tuition increases (Lewin, 2011). As of 2012, it
reached the $1.2 trillion mark with 40% financing graduate and professional degrees and private
student loans representing $150 billion (Chopra, 2012; Delisle, 2014; Rader, 2014). Conversely,
850,000 individuals carrying student loans are in default, translating to $8 billion dollars
(Chopra, 2012). For graduate students in particular, Delisle (2014) reports a significant increase
in debt. In 2004, the median level of debt for an individual who obtained a master’s degree was
$38,000. In 2012, that number increased to $59,000. For students seeking a master of science or
a master of education degree at the 75
th
percentile level of indebtedness, the number increased
from $54,000 in 2004 to $85,000 in 2012. Furthermore, the average combined undergraduate
and graduate debt at the median level in 2012 was $57,600, $99,614 at the 75
th
percentile, and
$153,00 at the 90
th
percentile. Unfortunately, this research does not disaggregate the data by
gender, which would be beneficial, as this research sought to understand the borrowing decisions
that women make. Delisle (2014) further argues that the problem of student loan debt is more
related to expensive graduate degrees than to undergraduate degrees (see Appendix A for key
definitions).
Traditionally, concern with student loan debt was offset by the notion that income
realized over time will outweigh the initial costs (The College Board, 2012). Though this may
be relevant for those who earned a bachelor’s degree and are employed, the same cannot be
implied for students who decide to continue their education and further accumulate debt.
Additionally, post-graduate students who decide to engage in lower-paying disciplines such as
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 10
social work or education can take a much longer time to repay their loans versus students in
disciplines such as business and health sciences (Glazer, 2014).
Although there is a fair amount of research on student loan debt, there is limited research
regarding graduate student debt and even less pertaining to women. However, viewing
undergraduate trends can help to predict females’ graduate spending and their attitudes towards
student loan debt. This study sought to answer the research question: What factors influence a
woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt? The research was conducted through the
use of qualitative methods and Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women's Moral Development to
interpret an existing data set.
Background of the Problem
Research suggests that the United States (U.S.) is heading towards an “educations crisis
bubble” (Cunningham & Kienzl, 2011). The number of students taking out loans is steadily
increasing; however, they are borrowing at amounts that exceed their ability to repay. In 2008,
the United States Department of Education (2010a, 2010b) reported that 3.4 million student loan
borrowers defaulted on their loan(s) within the first two years of repayment. These numbers
convey the severity of the federal student loan indebtedness crisis.
This debt has a strong impact on the decisions that students make post-graduation,
affecting personal choices regarding starting a family or business, buying a home, and saving for
their children’s future education (Akers, 2014b; Glazer, 2014; Lewin, 2011). Akers (2014b)
revealed that people with student loan debt by the age of 30 are less likely to take on a mortgage.
In addition, the long-standing trend that people with student loan debt tend to be more educated
and wealthy in comparison to people without student loans has been reversed (Akers, 2014b).
This is due to the large amount of student loan debt incurred and the impact it has on household
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 11
finances (Akers, 2014b). Individuals use a considerable portion of their salaries to pay off their
student loans, which affects their ability to fund other ventures. Furthermore, Lewin (2011)
explains that student loan debt can be viewed as the anti-dowry, delaying the transition from
adolescence to adulthood. As a result, the younger generation takes longer to marry and delays
buying a home or having children (Lewin, 2011). Consequently, the larger the loan, amount the
slower the transition into adulthood.
Women can be seen as being more affected by the weight of student loans than men for a
number of reasons. Though tuition is the same for men and women, Glazer (2014) states that
women have a more difficult time repaying student loans due to the fact that they earn lower
salaries. Though there have been great strides within the workplace, there is still a wage gap
(Hall, 2014). According to a 2009 study conducted by the American Association of University
Women (AAUW), women made 82% of men’s salaries one year after graduation (Glazer, 2014;
Hall, 2014; Kurtzleben, 2012). Some factors that contributed to this problem are that women can
be discriminated against in the workplace. They do not negotiate. However, if they do, they
may be penalized (McGregor, 2014). As a result, they may encounter being labeled as pushy,
self-serving or demanding. They can also face receiving fewer promotions due to being
outspoken or may even be fired. Jill Abramson, a former executive editor for the New York
Times, felt that she was fired when she asked questions regarding her pay after she learned that
she made less than her predecessor did (McGregor, 2014).
Another factor that can contribute to the ability of women to repay their student loans is
they tend to choose fields such as teaching and social sciences, which pay less than other fields
(Glazer, 2014; Kurtzleben, 2012). The AAUW controlled for these factors within their study
and, discouragingly, the wage gap still exists (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Lauren Asher, President of
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 12
The Institute for College Access and Success (TICAS) explains that these factors ultimately have
an impact on a woman’s ability to pay for student loans, and the more someone struggles with
student debt, the less likely s/he is to cover other expenses (Glazer, 2014).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand and examine factors that influence a
woman’s decisions to incur graduate student loan debt. There is limited research available that
clearly conveys how women make decisions regarding financial aid, their perceptions about debt
and the decision-making process. This study incorporates qualitative research methods, and the
data was viewed through Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development to consider
how women might take on debt, or not, for graduate school. The findings from this study will
provide women, practitioners, and policy makers with the information needed to make well-
informed choices regarding their careers and incurring graduate student loan debt. This study
sought to answer thee research question, “What factors influence women’s decisions to incur
graduate student loan debt?”
Overview of the Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework used to study this problem is Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of
Women’s Moral Development. The central concept of this theory focuses on Gilligan’s care
orientation, which asserts that, when making decisions, women view the importance of
relationships with others equally with self-care (Gilligan, 1977). Gilligan (1977) further
expressed that women identify care and responsibility as their moral compass when making
decisions. She developed a model that explains women’s development through a sequence of
three levels and two transition periods. Moving fluidly from one level to the next involves
developing a deeper relationship between self and others.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 13
Level 1 is Orientation to Individual Survival (Gilligan, 1977). The main concept in this
stage is that the individual is unable to decipher between desire and necessity due to
preoccupation with survival and is self-centered (Gilligan, 1977). Level 2 is Goodness as Self-
Sacrifice (Gilligan, 1977). Individuals at this level display traditional feminine values (Gilligan,
1977). They move away from an independent and self-centered view to become more reliant on
others and desire richer engagement (Gilligan, 1977). Level 3 is the Morality of Nonviolence.
In this stage, the individual has a transformed understanding of self and has redefined morality.
They apply morals and non-violence to situations that governs moral judgment and action.
Overview of the Methodology
A qualitative approach was utilized to examine factors that influence a woman’s
decisions to incur graduate student loan debt. It was important to utilize qualitative methods
versus quantitative, as numbers alone cannot gain the rich and thick descriptions needed to
understand the choices that women make. Merriam (2009) further explains that qualitative
research can provide an understanding of the meaning that people construct of their world.
Qualitative research seeks to “describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the
meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social
world” (as cited in Merriam, 2009, p. 13). A secondary analysis was performed on the data
obtained from Decision-Making and Grad School Debt (Cooper et al., 2013). For the purposes
of this study, the data from 50 female graduate students pursuing a master’s degree in the
disciplines of education and health sciences were analyzed. The methods originally used to
obtain participants were snowball and purposeful sampling.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 14
Purposeful Sampling
Merriam (2009) states that purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the
researcher seeks to gain “information-rich” cases for in-depth study. During this process,
Cooper et al. (2013) implemented criterion-based selection to purposefully select a sample from
which the most information can be learned. The following criteria were used: (a) current
attendance at an accredited public or private non-profit college or university in California, (b)
enrollment in a master’s degree program in one of two fields (education or health sciences), and
(c) must be a woman.
Snowball Sampling
Cooper et al. (2013) implemented snowball sampling in locating participants for this
study. This strategy involves identifying key participants who specifically match the research
criteria and then asking them for referrals (Merriam, 2009). As the researcher continually does
this, s/he begins to gain new leads on potential information-rich cases, thus creating a snowball
effect (Merriam, 2009). This is one of the most utilized forms of purposeful sampling (Merriam,
2009).
Interview Structure and Data Analysis
Cooper et al. (2013) applied a semi-structured interview approach to the initial study.
The interviews were guided by a specific set of questions; however, flexibility was incorporated
in the delivery method based on the developing data received from the participants. The
interviews included 23 open-ended questions and were recorded using an audio recording device
(Appendix B). Merriam (2009) suggests that the more organized and complete recordings of the
data are, the easier analysis becomes.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 15
Creswell’s (2009) six-steps were used as a guide during the analysis portion of this study
in addition to Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development to interpret the data.
This includes consolidating, reducing and interpreting the research and observations (Merriam,
2009). During this phase, the interviews were coded into themes and analyzed. Glesne (2011)
explains that coding allows for organizing the data and for beginning the analytical process of
distinguishing the data to be used in text. Corbin and Strauss (2008) explain that, prior to
analysis, it is recommended that researchers focus in on the research process, which involves
mining the data for topics that can eventually become themes.
Significance of the Study

Cunningham and Kienzl (2011) express that the increasing levels of federal student loan
debt will have a direct and long-term impact on life choices and consumption patterns. In 2011,
1.6 million graduate students took out an average of $26,960 in subsidized and unsubsidized
Direct Loans (The College Board, 2012). Research also shows that women are greatly affected
by student loan debt and have more difficulty than men do in repaying their loans (Hall, 2014).
Women, on average, tend to be paid less than their male counterparts in almost every occupation,
contributing to the struggle that women face during repayment (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Cultural
and gender norms in the workplace also play a role in this issue (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Women
are expected to follow their established societal roles, and, when they exhibit different behaviors,
can face myriad consequences (McGregor, 2014).
The career choices that women make can have an impact on their ability to repay their
student loans (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Women are less likely to enter into higher-paying careers
such as in science, technology, engineering and math and are more disposed to enter careers in
the social sciences (Glazer, 2014). As a result, it is extremely important that women are well
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 16
informed about career options and salary information, so they can make knowledgeable choices
regarding their future and student loan debt.
These factors highlight the importance of continued research in understanding the
decision-making process that women go through when incurring student loan debt and
educational choices. The barriers that women encounter during loan repayment and in the
workplace contributed to the development of the research question, “What factors influence a
woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt?” Having a better understanding of this
process can ultimately provide women with the tools needed to make well-informed choices.
The following chapter presents a literature review to substantiate these claims and further
explore issues related to student loan debt. The chapter includes (a) student perceptions about
debt, (b) perceptions about the value of a degree, (c) the decision-making process, and (d) the
study’s conceptual framework.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this study was to examine factors that can influence a woman’s decision
to incur student loan debt for a master’s degree in education or health sciences. This study was
inspired by research that revealed that, due to the pay gap, women make 82% of men’s salaries,
thus having a more difficult time repaying their student loans (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Two of the
factors that have been linked to this problem are the specific fields of study that women enter and
the discrimination that can occur in the workplace (Glazer, 2014). Viewing student loan debt
from a broader perspective, roughly two-thirds of students take out loans to pay for college
(Hillman, 2014). On the graduate level, student loan debt increased 43% in eight years. In 2004,
the average graduate student loan debt was $40,200, and, in 2012, it increased to $57,600
(Liberto, 2014).
State and government agencies also encouraging individuals to enroll and persist in
college as part of the completion agenda initiated by President Obama in 2009 (Akers, 2014a;
Humphreys, 2012). This initiative will create more opportunities for under-represented students
by increasing access to educational opportunities (Akers, 2014a, Humphreys, 2012). However, it
will also increase the number of individuals relying on financial-aid and student loans as tuition
costs outpaced lower and middle-class family income levels (Hillman, 2014). With the high cost
of tuition creating a financial strain for borrowers post-graduation, graduate advising related to
financial aid decision-making is extremely important. Students need to become well informed
about the repayment terms and the implications this debt may have on their future life choices.
Akers (2014a) suggests that government intervention in the form of creating new policies
that ration student loans can prove beneficial for borrowers. She states, “policymakers must
balance the mission to increase enrollment among low-income students with the responsibility to
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 18
ensure that students do not take on more debt than they can reasonably expect to repay” (p. 4).
Debt can be used as a tool for gaining access to education, leading to greater earning potential in
the future. The main concern with student loan debt is that it is not driven by increased
investment, but by spending that does not contribute to higher future earnings. Akers (2014a)
suggests that rationing federal credit in a system that assesses the likelihood of an individual to
repay debt versus borrowing caps could be more effective in protecting consumers.
Today’s graduate student is expected to accrue more than 26,000 dollars in student loans
(Avery & Turner, 2012). This debt can have a lasting impact on the decisions that students make
regarding their professional and educational choices (Lewin, 2011). There are several factors
that contributed to the increase in student loan debt. One factor is the governmental policy shift
away from grant-based aid, which does not require an individual to repay awards, to the
abundance and availability of private and federal student loans (Hearn & Holdsworth, 2004).
Another factor is the rising costs of education, which left lower-income and middle-class
students with no option but to take out student loans to realize their educational goals (Doyle,
2013). This choice was labeled by Doyle (2013) as “the best bad option for many students” (p.
50).
As the number of student loan borrowers increases, so does the number of individuals
defaulting on their loans. One in every 10 student loan borrowers (graduate and undergraduate),
defaulted on their loans within 3 years, and the number of students defaulting within 2 years is
steadily rising, as shown in Figure 1 (Hillman, 2014). This increase in default is partly related to
the fact that individuals are borrowing at amounts that exceed their ability to repay their loans
(Hillman, 2014). It is important to know this information because these numbers illustrate that
the increase in tuition contributed to higher amounts of borrowing (Sanchez, 2014).
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 19
Furthermore, the inability of many students to secure jobs, particularly those with high earning
potential which can support students during loan repayment, contributed to the increase in loan
default (Gross, 2014). Graduate advisors can use this information to support their students in
making better decisions when incurring student loan debt.

Figure 1. 2012 U.S. Department of Education Student Loans in Default
Note: Number of borrowers entering default within two years of repayment, by cohort year
Source: U.S. Department of Education (2012).
There is limited data disaggregating default rates by gender. However, research shows
that women have more difficulty repaying student loans due to the existing wage gap (Glazer,
2014). Even though a woman may have student loans in amounts equal to her male peers, the
fact that she earns less money means a larger percentage of her income goes towards student loan
repayment (Henderson, 2014). Thus, student loan debt becomes a burden for many women
(Corbett & Hill, 2013). Corbett and Hill (2013) revealed, in their 2009 study, that nearly 50% of
women were paying more than 8% of their salaries towards student loans as compared with 38%
of men. These statistics further highlight the necessity to examine factors that influence a
woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt in order to support them in making better-
informed decisions. This chapter focuses on three areas of student loan debt: (a) perceptions
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 20
about student loan debt, b) perceptions about the value of a degree, and (c) understanding the
decision-making process.
Student Perceptions about Debt
Students’ perceptions about debt fall into two main categories: (1) students
borrow too much to pay for their education and (2) students can be debt-averse (Avery &
Turner, 2012; Baum & Steele, 2010; Dwyer, Hodson, & McCloud, 2012; Kim & Eyremann,
2006; Lewin, 2011; Malcom & Dowd, 2012; Millett, 2003). In the first category, student loan
debt is seen as a barrier because individuals take out more loans than they will be able to pay
back post-graduation (Avery & Turner, 2012). This can have a great impact on a student’s life in
terms of their professional, personal and educational choices (Lewin, 2011). This has an even
greater impact on women as they earn considerably less than their male counterparts (Corbett &
Hill, 2013). Carnevale, Rose and Cheah (2010) stated that, over a lifetime, women earn more
than a half million dollars less than men, which can have an impact on the educational
opportunities provided to their children, the neighborhoods they choose to live in and the food
that they can afford to buy for their families (Corbett & Hill, 2013). Single mothers, as sole
providers for their families, can experience even more hardships resulting from pay gap
differences, and student loan debt only further compounds their problems.
In the second category, students are debt-averse and unwilling to incur student loan debt
(Avery & Turner, 2012; Burdman, 2005). The unwillingness to borrow student loans can
potentially undermine educational and professional advancement (Avery & Turner, 2012;
Burdman, 2005). An individual can limit his/her educational opportunities by not attending a
college s/he is qualified for, because it is deemed as too expensive, or by not attending college at
all. Another perception is that students do not have the information or access to resources that
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 21
can provide them with the knowledge needed to make informed decisions regarding student loan
debt (O’Connor, Hammack & Scott, 2010; Tierney & Venegas, 2009). The lack of knowledge
and understanding about student loan debt can contribute to an individual’s being debt averse.
Student Debt as a Burden
Akers (2014b) suggests that student loan debt has the potential to curb future
opportunities. Akers (2014b) explains that students are pushed to take on large amounts of
student loans, which makes them less likely to take on a mortgage by the age of 30. Using the
rational choice theory, Avery and Turner (2012) developed a framework for determining if a
student is borrowing the right amount to fund their educational needs. This framework helps to
understand whether or not a student is making rational decisions when borrowing. It views the
decisions that students make when borrowing based on a comparison of the benefits of a college
education versus the costs of attending college. Their study found that, over time, the value of a
college education has increased. The researchers also found that, for individuals who choose
majors or programs that have lower earning potential or who drop out of school, the value of a
degree is not the same. In this case, it is difficult for a student to make rational decisions when
enrolling in programs that have lower earning potential, as they may end up over-borrowing.
When examining students with high student loan debt, The College Board Advocacy and
Policy Center (Baum & Steele, 2010) found that these students did not fully comprehend the
breadth of their student loan obligations. In addition, low-income students are more likely to
graduate with higher amounts of debt (Baum & Steele, 2010). Regarding women in particular,
Chen and Volpe (2002) found that women are generally less eager to learn about personal
finance topics and have lower confidence and less enthusiasm than men do, concluding that
women are less knowledgeable about personal finances than are men (Chen and Volpe, 2002).
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 22
Baum and Steele (2010) examined characteristics of undergraduate students whose debt
levels are the largest and who may be at risk for loan default. They observed data from these at-
risks students and made assertions based on the information collected. Baum and Steele (2010)
found that students with high debt levels had limited understanding of their student loan
obligations and that students with four-year degrees had higher levels of debt overall. However,
the higher level of debt was not a determining factor as to whether they would default on their
loans because they had increased earning potential. Furthermore, the researchers found that
students in associate degree or certificate programs may have as much difficulty repaying their
student loans. This is because, even though they incurred less debt than did their four-year
counterparts, they also have lower earning potential. For both populations, the highest predictor
of student loan default was failure to complete a degree. Examining these trends on the
undergraduate level can allow us to better understand the borrowing patterns of graduate students
and their attitudes towards accumulating student loan debt.
Research from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth found substantial
differences in borrowing between male and female college students (Dwyer et al., 2012). The
data revealed that men were more likely to drop out of school than were women after incurring
large amounts of student loan debt. As both men and women continued in their studies over the
years, they both displayed concerns regarding debt accumulation, but they did not fully
understand the requirements for repayment (Dwyer et al., 2012). Dwyer et al. (2012) found that,
over time, pressure from the burden of student loans contributed to a student’s decision to drop
out of school, and dropping out of school has a significant impacts on an individuals' ability to
pay off student loans (Avery & Turner, 2012; Baum & Steele, 2010; Cunningham & Kienzl,
2011; Hillman, 2014).
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 23
Perceptions about the Value of a Degree
Over the last 10 years, student loan debt increased from $10,000 to $25,000 (Millett,
2003). Despite this increase, graduate programs have steadily been able to matriculate students
into their programs (Millett, 2003). However, Millett (2003) argues some individuals with high
levels of debt from their undergraduate studies may be less inclined to pursue enrollment in
graduate school. The following section examines research on how students assess the value of a
graduate degree based on (a) return on investment, (b) selective majors that influence earning
potential, and (c) barriers in the workplace.
Return on Investment
Attaining a graduate degree is seen as the next logical step for many undergraduates who
finish school and struggle to find jobs. In addition, the U.S. Department of Labor (2014)
suggests that individuals with graduate degrees tend to earn more money and have lower
unemployment rates, as shown in Figure 2. The average weekly salary for and individual with
less than a high school diploma is $472 versus $1,329 for an individual who earned a master’s
degree. The unemployment rate for an individual with less than a high school diploma is 11% in
comparison to 3.4% for an individual who earned a master’s degree. The U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics does not disaggregate that this data by gender, which highlights the need for further
research to identify the differences in earnings between women and men.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 24

Figure 2. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014 Earnings and Unemployment Rates by
Educational Attainment
Note: Data are for persons age 25 and over. Earnings are for full-time wage and salary workers.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor (2014)
Hwang, Liao, and Huang (2013) found that many students decide to attend graduate
school because they felt they would not be able to earn a living having only a bachelor’s degree.
This can be attributed to the current economic climate, as undergraduate students face low job
prospects and underemployment. Discouragingly, the fluctuating economy may mean many
individuals with graduate degrees will find themselves competing for positions that require only
a bachelor’s degree, further challenging the expected return on their school investment (Hwang,
Liao, and Huang, 2013).
Selective Majors that Influence Earning Potential
One year after graduation, women, on average, made 82% of men’s salaries (Glazier,
2014). A woman’s earning potential is heavily influenced by her selected field of study in
addition to the pay gap she may experience in the workplace. Women who major in education,
humanities, physical sciences and biology earn less money than individuals who enroll in
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 25
business engineering and computer sciences (Kurtzleben, 2012). Although women may attend
the same universities as men, and in Corbett and Hill’s (2012) study, earn slightly higher grades
on average, they still earn less money. Likewise, male and female graduates who enter into
female-dominated careers tend to earn less than those in male-dominated careers. For example,
as illustrated in Figure 3, one year after graduation, a female social science major earned 66% of
what a female engineering major earned (Corbett & Hill, 2012).

Figure 3. Average Earnings One Year after Graduation, by Gender and Undergraduate Major
Source: Corbett & Hill 2012
Furthermore, men who majored in a social science field earned 70% of what men who
majored in engineering earned. Research also shows that, even when men and women select the
same major, women still tend to earn less (Corbett & Hill, 2012). These statistics highlight the
fact that women may have more of a hardship during loan repayment than do men due to lower
wages and spending a larger portion of their income on loan repayment. Conversely, there is
limited data available that conveys graduate student earnings by gender, thereby highlighting the
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 26
importance of examining undergraduate earnings post-graduation to gain a perspective of
possible outcomes for graduate students.
Barriers in the Workplace
The Federal Equal Opportunity Commission received 28,000 sex discrimination
complaints in 2011. Corbett and Hill (2012) state that gender discrimination accounts for a
portion of the wage gap, which ultimately contributes to a woman’s ability to repay her student
loans. The National Center for Education Statistics (2012) revealed that, in a 2008– 2009
Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study, women who worked full-time earned an average
amount of $35,296 while men made $42,918, which means women made 82% or what men
made (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Average Annual Earnings One Year after College Graduation, by Gender
Source: Corbett & Hill, 2012
There are many factors that influence the wage gap, and one of them is traditional gender
role stereotypes (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Research shows that women have learned societal
behaviors and expectations that contribute to lower pay. In addition, an employer may assume
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 27
that a woman prefers positions that are typically held by women and may not consider them for
higher- paying jobs (Corbett & Hill, 2012).
Another factor is women do not know how to negotiate. However, if they do, they may
be penalized (Glazer, 2014). Oftentimes, when a woman does try to negotiate, she can meet
great opposition from her employers and be perceived negatively (Glazer, 2014). Women, on
average, tend to have lower expectations regarding pay, will accept lower wages, and are unable
to see opportunities for negotiation (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Many women are also unaware of
the pay gap and the importance of their salaries after college (Corbett & Hill, 2012). By the
same token, studies show that men are more likely to negotiate, and employers are likely to
favorably view negotiation by men (Corbett & Hill, 2012). Overall, lower pay presents more
challenges for women, especially graduate students during loan repayment, as they hold larger
amounts of student debt an earn less money (Liberto, 2014), further proving that student loan
debt can be more of a burden for women than men. For this reason, exploring the choices that
women make to incur graduate student debt is necessary to supporting women during the
decision-making process.
The Decision-Making Process
To gain a better understanding of how women make decisions when seeking financial
aid, it is necessary to explore the various decision-making frameworks. Many students
encounter challenges when attempting to navigate the financial aid process. There are numerous
steps and procedures that an individual must complete and lacking a general understanding of the
system can have an impact on student enrollment and completion (Baum & Schwartz, 2013). The
following section provides theories that can be used to further understand the decision-making
process.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 28
Stages of Decision-Making
A critical stage in the decision-making process is the information-seeking behavior of an
individual. For the purposes of this study, information-seeking behavior can be identified by
understanding whom a student reaches out to for help when making decisions regarding student
loans. Is it her family, friends or counselors? This information-seeking component is necessary
to assist an individual in completing a task. Prior knowledge about the task, in addition to
availability of time and resources, can have an impact on someone’s behavior and approach
(Kim, 2009). The stages of decision-making are as follows: (a) Problem or task recognition,
(b) Information search, (c) Evaluation of the alternatives, (d) Making a decision, and (e)
Evaluation of the decision (Kim, 2009). These steps are very important and can support a
student in completing a task or arriving at a decision. How an individual finally makes a
decision is heavily influenced by his/her background and experiences (Kim, 2009).
Decision-Making Frameworks
The previous section discussed decision-making stages, which provides the process or
steps an individual takes when making a decision. This section examines decision-making
frameworks, which provide the structure and theories to further understand the decision-making
process. Both are equally important in gaining a clearer picture of how women make decisions.
Analyzing student debt decision-making behavior using psychological, behavioral, social
and economic theoretical frameworks provides deeper insight into the decisions that women
make to incurring debt. With this in mind, looking at decision-making through economic and
socio-economic perspectives, both women and men can be influenced by four contexts: (a) the
student’s own internal knowledge, (b) experience and motivation, (c) the school, community and
higher education, and (d) Social, economic and political factors (Perna, 2007).
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 29
The experiences that women have socially and their economic standing, in addition to how they
are perceived and treated within their communities, will have a profound effect on their decision-
making process. These components work jointly in shaping a woman’s view of the world and in
ordering the steps they take when making decisions.
When examining decision-making through sociological and economic perspectives,
Chudry, Foxall and Pallister (2012) suggest grouping students into four debtor types: less
involved adaptors, more involved adaptors, less involved innovators, and more involved
innovators. The debtor types assist in predicting students’ attitudes towards borrowing and were
designed to measure consumer innovativeness and involvement. Chudry et al.’s study included
28 undergraduate students from business and education majors at a university. The sample had
even gender representation and undergraduates representing all years of study.
Chudry et al.’s research was developed to explore application of the planned behavior
theory, including decision-making and involvement style, to predict undergraduate borrowing
attitudes. Their research suggests that there is a causal link between behavioral intentions,
attitudes, and subjective norms. It is also grounded in a cognitive behavioral model. Through
the use of interviews and questionnaires, Chudry et al. found that female students viewed money
management with greater importance than did men. Furthermore, women expressed feeling less
control over their ability to reduce debt and borrowing. They also exhibited higher financial
prudence than did men. Overall, men displayed more tolerant attitudes towards borrowing. This
data was derived through the use of quantitative measures analyzing past behaviors.
Decision-Making Factors
There are many factors that can influence an individual’s decision to enroll in graduate
school and take on student loan debt. Research found that social relationships and personal
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 30
attributes also play a part in the decision-making process. As a result, the relationships among
ethnicity, parents’ college completion, economic status, expected income, return on investment
and many other variables was explored to understand the impact they have on the decision-
making process (Bourdieus, 1986; Hua-Yu, Calarco and Kao, 2012Hurtado, Eagan, Cabrera, Lin,
Park, & Lopez, 2008; Kimmel, Gaylor, Grubbs & Hayes, 2012; Mbilinyi, 2006; Mullen, Goyette
& Soares, 2003;). Conversely, there is limited research that separately views the decision-
making process pertaining to graduate student debt by gender.
Lin (1999) and Bourdieu’s (1986) research revealed that under-represented minority
students expressed that social and cultural capital in the form of student-faculty interactions are
very important to them. They can heavily influence the decision-making process for students.
Consequently, the lack of institutional agents to support minority students in attaining college
access can also have an impact on the decision-making process. Further expanding on
Bourdieu’s (1986) social capital model, Stanton-Salazar (2010) explains that under-represented
students from working class backgrounds do not have the same level of engagement with
institutional agents, and this limits their abilities to attain social capital and further expand their
educational opportunities.
Male and female students entering in to our educational systems from racial minority
groups have conflicting and contradictory social systems (Stanton-Salazar, 1997), which are not
congruent to the system that our educational institutions operate (Chavez & Guido-Dibrito,
1999). This makes the socialization experience a difficult transition for minority students within
our schools and also makes it difficult for them to establish help-seeking behaviors whereas
students from the dominant culture are able to socially traverse through our educational system
with ease, as it reinforces the social behaviors they have encountered in their homes (Stanton-
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 31
Salazar, 1997). They experience learning that is grounded within their cultural norms (Chavez &
Guido-Dibrito, 1999). For a student who has no experience in this environment, schooling can
be a daunting and challenging experience, which makes the student-faculty interactions
extremely important. This experience can heavily influence and individuals’ decision-making
process and desire to further pursue graduate degree attainment.
Conceptual Framework: Gilligan’s Theory of Women’s Moral Development
The framework that will be utilized to analyze how women make decisions to incur
graduate student loan debt is Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development. This
framework contributes to our understanding of a woman’s moral development and will be used
to understand how it influences their decision-making process. Gilligan developed this theory
from her research that examined 29 women contemplating making decisions related to abortion.
This was the basis for creating a developmental sequence that traces progressive differentiations
in moral development.
The Theory of Women’s Moral Development examines how women understand and
judge conflicts between self and others and will be used to answer the research question, “What
factors influence a woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt?” Women identify care
and responsibility as the guiding factors applied when making decisions (Gilligan, 1977). When
deciding to incur graduate student debt, women may factor in moral obligations including
familial, financial, societal or other personal responsibilities prior to making a decision that
reflects their needs. Prior research on graduate student loan debt views the decision-making
process through Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) Model of Human Development to understand factors
that can affect an individuals’ likelihood of incurring student debt (Cooper et al., 2013).
Bronfenbrenner’s research reveals that human development involves interaction between
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 32
interdependent environmental systems. Furthermore, it infers that the development and
management of complex relationships are a key component in human development. Other
research analyzes student loan debt using rational choice theory, which assumes that decisions
regarding debt are made relative to the best possible outcome of a cost benefit analysis (Avery &
Turner, 2012; Malcom & Dowd, 2012; Youngclaus, Koehler, Kotlikoff & Wiecha, 2013).
Viewing the graduate student loan debt decision-making process from a women’s perspective
using moral development theory further extends and reframes the way we look at student loan
debt. It highlights the fact that women make decisions in association with the impact these may
have on others.
A woman’s moral development evolves through a sequence of three levels and two
transitional periods, with each level building a more complex relationship between self and
others (Gilligan, 1977). The protocol was originally designed based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
theory, and, because of this, Gilligan’s framework was mapped against the protocol to establish
how a connection can be made between the framework and the protocol (Table 1). Questions
five through twenty-two in the protocol were aligned with the corresponding level of the moral
development theory. Questions one to four were not included, as they were demographics-
related and question 23 was omitted because it asked for additional comments. The following
section provides an explanation of the moral development theory.
Level 1: Orientation to Individual Survival
In this stage, the individual is focused on survival and becomes self-centered (Gilligan,
1977). She is unable to differentiate between necessity and desire. Women tend to isolate
themselves in this stage as a protection against the pain affiliated with unfulfilled intimacy; their
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 33
relationships fail to meet their expectations. At this level, the main goal is self-preservation and
satisfaction of internal needs and desires.
First transition: From Selfishness to Responsibility
Attachment and connection to others is an important issue that individuals face during
this transitional period. When judging moral dilemmas, the criterion shifts from independence
and selfishness to connection and responsibility (Gilligan, 1977). More choices for moral
judgment are readily available as the conflict between necessity and desire become
distinguishable. Furthermore, patterns of moral decision-making become complex, as
responsibility and care are key components in this stage.
Level 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice
Survival is now connected to social acceptance in this stage as the individual diverges
from a self-centered, independent view of the world to one of richer engagement and reliance on
others (Gilligan, 1977). Riddled with striving to attain self-definition and care for others,
individuals lean towards reflecting conventional feminine values. In fact, an individual may give
up her own judgment in order to achieve consensus and remain in connection with others.
Confusion and anxiety arise over the issue of hurting others, and, although conflict exists, it is
typically not voiced in public but, rather, in private.
Second Transition: From Goodness to Truth
When transitioning from goodness to truth, individuals begin to question why they put
others first at their own expense (Gilligan, 1977). Individuals begin to evaluate their needs to
determine whether they can take on additional responsibility. However, they struggle “to
reconcile the disparity between hurt and care” (p. 498). Moral judgment then shifts from making
decisions that reflect the choices of their peers to include their needs aligned with others. The
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 34
examination of an individual’s needs for the first time is seen as her truth, not selfishness. She is
now able to take responsibility for her decisions as a result of being honest with herself. This
can also be a trying time for some, as they are caught between selfishness and responsibility.
Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolence
In an attempt to avoid hurt, the individual applies nonviolence to the principle governing
moral judgment and action. She then has a “transformed understanding of self and a
corresponding redefinition of morality” (Gilligan, 1977, p. 504). This transformation includes
respect for the self, which brings about the elimination of selfishness and responsibility. The
individual is now able to recognize her power due to reconciliation and can stay true to her needs
when faced with conflicting moral alternatives.
The Theoretical Framework and the Proposed Study
Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development allows us to understand how
women make decisions regarding student loan debt based on conflicting ideals between doing
what is best for themselves versus what may be more beneficial to others. The crux of this
theory is that the relationships that women have with others must have equal weight with self-
care when making moral decisions.
Women may struggle with conflicts between self and others when deciding to incur
student loan debt. For example, a woman can be struggling with the idea of attaining a graduate
degree and the value it may have in supporting her family versus the burden of being away from
them and missing important events during that time period. The extent to which a woman has
reached the pinnacle of her moral development is reflected in her ability to see the power in
herself to make competing choices and remain true to her needs. Gaining an understanding of
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 35
the process that women go through during moral development lends great insight as to how they
will make decisions regarding student loan debt.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature that exists on various aspects of
student loan debt and how it pertains to women. This includes perceptions about student loan
debt and the value of a degree, understanding how financial aid decisions are made and exploring
Gilligan’s (1977) theoretical framework on women’s moral development.
The literature review presented a summary of research related to student loan debt from
the perspectives of return on investment, selective majors that influence earning potential,
barriers in the workplace, and various aspects of the decision-making process. The literature
revealed that undergraduate student loan debt can have an impact on an individual’s decision to
pursue a graduate degree. It also showed that student loans can have a major impact on the
choices that students make post-graduation. Furthermore, studies have shown that, although
there has been a rise in college enrollment due to the increase of the value of a degree, certain
fields of study do not yield great earning potential in comparison to the associated cost of the
degree.
Referencing the theoretical framework, Gilligan’s (1977) theory on moral development
provides a framework for understanding the decision-making process that women go through
when deciding to incur student loan debt. From an early age, women begin to develop their
perspective of the world through observation and their experiences. This later dictates the type
of moral conflicts they may endure when making decisions. Utilizing this theory to analyze the
data will provides for an in-depth understanding of the decision-making process of female
graduate students. The following chapter provides a description of the methodological approach,
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 36
including a description of the sample population and strategy, site selection, instrumentation,
data collection, analysis, evidence of validity and limitations.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 37
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Student loan debt has become a trending topic in the media as the number of borrowers is
steadily increasing due to escalating tuition costs (Cunningham & Kienzl, 2011). Student loan
debt has become unmanageable for numerous individuals, as the price of tuition has exceeded
lower and middle class family income levels, thereby having an impact on the ability of many
Americans to repay their loans (Hillman, 2014). In 2010, one in five households had student
loan debt, and 374,940 people defaulted on their student loans two years post-graduation (Fry,
2012; Hillman, 2014). Although there is a great deal of empirical research on undergraduate
borrowing patterns, little is known about borrowing at the graduate level and even less when it
pertains to women in particular. One thing that is clear for all borrowers is that students often
misinterpret their financial aid packages and miscalculate their future earnings (Burdman 2005;
Long 2004; King 2002; Somers, Woodhouse, and Cofer 2004; Warwick and Mansfield 2000).
This study sought to answer the following research question: What factors influence a
woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt? This study involved a qualitative
secondary analysis of the data in Cooper et al.’s (2013) dissertation, Decision-Making and
Graduate School Debt: A Focus on Master’s Degree Students. Cooper et al.’s (2013) research
team included seven researchers from the University of Southern California. The main findings
from their study were that (a) graduate students exhibited a lack of understanding about student
loan borrowing and repayment options; (b) did not consult with their university’s financial aid
office and, instead, sought advice from trusted family members and mentors; and (c) consistently
viewed career mobility, networking, and institutional prestige as yielding a worthy return on
investment.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 38
This chapter provides an explanation of the methodology and research design and
provides information regarding selection criteria, data collection methods, and data analysis
procedures. It also addresses issues related to validity, identifies research biases and presents the
limitations of the study.
Definition of Research Approach
Previously, researchers utilized quantitative and qualitative methods to gain an
understanding of the problems related to student loan debt. Baum and Steele (2010) discovered
that students did not fully understand the long-term impact of their student loans. Malcolm and
Dowd (2012) revealed that, independent of ethnicity, undergraduate student debt served as a
barrier to graduate enrollment. Their findings are similar to Millett’s (2003) research that
indicated students with undergraduate debt greater than $5000 were less likely to enroll in a
graduate program than were students with no undergraduate debt. Despite all of this research, a
great deal still remains to be learned regarding women and the graduate student loan decision-
making process.
The current research sought to analyze this issue by specifically looking at the choices
that women make when incurring graduate student loan debt and utilizes Gilligan’s (1977)
theory on moral development as a lens to further interpret the data. The theoretical framework
was mapped against the protocol in order to illustrate the connection and to provide an
understanding of how the framework will be utilized during analysis.
Sample and Population
Using Gilligan’s (1977) theory of women’s moral development allows for better
understanding of how women make decisions regarding student loan debt by looking at the inner
conflict they endure between taking care of the needs of others versus taking care of themselves.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 39
Gilligan’s (1977) theoretical framework identifies that the relationships women have with others
must share equal weight with self-care when making moral decisions. Prior to this study, the
existing literature on the financial aid decision-making process focused on undergraduate
students and used econometric and college choice theories (Burdman, 2005; Choy, 2001;
Rasmussen, 2003; Venegas, 2004).
The method for identifying candidates was to disaggregate the 116 interviews by gender
and then extract the female graduate students who were enrolled in education and health sciences
master’s degree programs. As a result, 50 interviews were analyzed for the purpose of this
study. To participate in the study, the candidates must have been enrolled in an accredited public
or private non-profit higher education institution. Graduate students who recently finished their
programs did not qualify for this study. However, if, at the time of the interview, they were
enrolled in a program but had not started taking classes, they were eligible to participate in the
research.
Site Selection
All of the participants selected were enrolled in a California-based non-profit and private
universities. These universities were also accredited by the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges (WASC). The researchers broke up into groups of two to interview participants in
education and health sciences majors.
Instrumentation
The theory of moral development was mapped against the protocol to provide a clear
understanding of the association between the framework and the protocol. This was incorporated
because the original protocol was designed using Bronfenbrenner’s PPCT model to frame the
questions (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998). Mapping the new framework against the protocol
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 40
provides for a visual and more in depth understanding of how the framework is connected to the
protocol (Table 1).
The questions in the protocol were placed into the appropriate level. Transitional periods
were not included, as they are more or less a combination of two levels, and placing the
questions into each of the three specific levels provides for a better understanding of the theory:
orientation to individual survival, (Level 1), goodness as self-sacrifice (Level 2), and the
morality of nonviolence (Level 3).
Questions in Level 1 reflect an individual’s beginning stage in moral development in that
they are unable to decipher between desire and necessity and make decisions purely based on
survival. Women in this stage lack an understanding of the choices they are making and select
options based on immediate need. Questions placed in Level 2 illustrate reliance on others when
making moral decisions. The individuals shift from an independence viewpoint and place
importance on their connection with others. The questions placed in Level 3 represent the ability
of the individuals to make the best choices for themselves in the midst of competing moral
alternatives. The individuals are more self-reliant and knowledgeable about the choices they are
making.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 41
Table 1
Mapping of the Moral Development Theory against the Protocol
Level 1:
Orientation
to individual
survival

(The
individual
makes
decisions
based on
survival
needs)

5. Describe your
undergraduate
experience with
financial aid. Did you
rely on the same
resources this time?
Why or why not?
6. What is your
current amount of
outstanding
educational loan debt
from your
undergraduate work?
Tell me about your
understanding of
financial aid and loan
indebtedness during
that time.
a. How has your
undergraduate student
aid experience shaped
your choices now?
7. Why did you
choose to go
graduate school at
this time?
a. Did you apply
to any other
graduate schools
or programs?
Why did you
choose this
school?
9. How are you
paying for this
program? How
were you able to
secure this
funding?
13. Are you a full
time or part time
student? Why did
you decide to
take courses at
this pace?
16. What is your
current amount of
outstanding
educational loan debt
from your current
degree, if any?
17. Are you
borrowing student
loans to cover
expenses beyond
tuition and fees? How
did you decide how
much to borrow?
15. Do you work
full time, part
time, or as an
intern or
volunteer? How
does this job,
connect to your
master’s degree
goals, if at all?
18. How long
will it take to
pay your loans
off? Do you
know if there
are any ways to
reduce or
change your
loan payments?
19. Did other
outstanding debt
impact your
borrowing
decisions? Either
to borrow or not
to borrow?
Level 2:
Goodness as
self-sacrifice

(reliance on
others when
making moral
decisions)
11. Did you contact
the financial aid office
during your decision-
making? If so, how
did you contact them
and what kinds of
information did you
seek?
12. Who did you talk
to when making the
decision to take on
debt for graduate
school? What did you
talk about?
10. Please
describe your
decision-making
process (i.e. Do
you weigh pros
and cons or
positives and
negatives? Do
you get advice
from family and
friends?)
14. Do you
financially
support anyone,
besides
yourself?
a. What are your
living
arrangements?
b. Do you pay or
share bills with
others? i.e. cell
phone, utilities
etc.

Level 3: The
morality of
nonviolence

(the individual
is capable of
making the
best choices
for
themselves)
8. How does this
degree fit into your
next steps
professionally?
20. Have you looked
at the average salary
for someone in your
proposed profession
who has a master’s
degree?
21. Do you see
yourself
continuing with
additional
education? Like
another Master’s,
Professional
Degree or PhD?
Why or why not?
22. If you were
to give advice to
your sibling or
cousin who was
considering your
degree program
goals from a
financial aid
perspective,
what would you
tell them?

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 42
Careful consideration was given when placing the questions into the categories. Reflection of
the purpose of the study, the research question, the theoretical framework and protocol was
conducted when completing this task.
Data Collection
Access to the interview protocol was obtained by the researcher from the dissertation
chair. There were 116 interviews in the data set: 81 females, 34 males and one person who did
not conform to a specific gender. The 81 female interviews were then disaggregated by field of
study, and only graduate students in education and health sciences programs were selected,
leaving 50 interviews to be analyzed for this study. Individuals who were business majors were
not selected for this study, as they had higher earning potential and may not be as affected by the
burden of student loans. In addition, their reasons for incurring student loan debt may differ and
can skew the findings.
Data Analysis
Creswell’s (2009) six steps for analyzing data were implemented during the analysis
portion of this study. Creswell explained that data analysis involves moving into deeper
understanding of the data received. It is an ongoing process that requires reflection about the
data and developing an analysis from the information supplied by the participants. Creswell also
infers that qualitative inquirers utilize a general procedure in the steps of data analysis, and the
ideal situation is to blend these steps with specific research strategy steps. Utilizing the six steps
analyzing research, data from the interviews was analyzed:
The first step was to organize and prepare the data for analysis. During this phase, data
was arranged in the order necessary to review and assess the information. The second step
entailed reading through all of the data. To gain meaning from the data obtained, a thorough
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 43
reading through all of the transcripts and time for reflection were necessary. The third step was
to begin detailed analysis with a coding process. During this process, interviews were analyzed
and coded. This allowed main ideas, tone and overarching themes of the data to emerge.
After the initial analysis, the fourth step involved using the coding process to generate a
description of the setting. During the coding process, codes were created for the details about the
respondents setting collected during the interviews. Awareness regarding recurrent themes was
maintained. The fifth step was to advance how the description and themes will be represented in
the narrative. A narrative was created to present the findings of the analysis. Lastly, the sixth
step called for making an interpretation of the data. This process involved reflection on the
information learned about how the interviews were analyzed. Findings and information from the
interviews were compared and the data was correlated.
In addition, labels were created for various aspects of the data. Merriam (2009) explains
that this process makes the data easily accessible during the analysis phase. Furthermore, Glesne
(2011) explains that, while coding, not only is the data being organized, but this is also the
beginning of the analytical process of distinguishing data to use in the text. During this process,
as a constant reminder to correlate the coding to the research topic, the research question was
included as a header on the categories and themes documents.
Validity
Validity is an important component in a research design and distinguishes between
credible and non-credible accounts of information (Maxwell, 2013). If a study does not include
measures to check for validity, the credibility of the research will be called into question. One of
the threats to validity is researcher bias. Being cognizant of this, the researcher realized that she
shared comparable experiences with the participants. The research will examine factors that
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 44
influence a woman’s decisions to incur student loan debt and the researcher is a woman who also
has student loan debt. As a result, it is important, when analyzing the transcribed data, to remain
neutral to the responses received from the participants in order to provide a clear presentation of
the data. Although there may be similarities, it is essential to understand that the participants’
experiences are, in fact, different in that there are varying factors motivating and guiding an
individual’s decision-making process. Being aware of this, the best way to present the findings
and expand the breadth of knowledge on this subject is to convey it from the participants’
perspectives and remain conscious of potential biases.
Validity and reliability in this study were accomplished through careful consideration of
the way the data was collected, analyzed, and interpreted (Merriam, 2009). To ensure the
credibility of the collected data, it was stored and secured in a safe place to safeguard the
integrity of the research. The data was examined and interpreted through the lens of the
participant, incorporating her voice and withholding the researcher’s viewpoints on the subject
matter. In addition, analysis each of the interviews was coded using the same techniques to
ensure pertinent information was not overlooked or omitted. Furthermore, all of the data was
analyzed without an expected or desired outcome.
Triangulation of the data was accomplished by analyzing and comparing the findings
from the 50 female interviews conducted. Each interview was treated as an individual source of
data to crosscheck the emerging themes and similarities. The interviews can then be viewed as a
triangulation tool. Merriam (2009) explains that using multiple sources of data, collected at
different times and places from people with varying perspectives is a form of triangulation.
Furthermore, Merriam (2009) states “triangulation remains a principal strategy to ensure for
validity and reliability” (p. 216).
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 45
Limitations
The generalizability of the findings in this research presents a limitation, which is not
uncommon for qualitative research (Creswell, 2009). Another limitation of the study is that data
was not collected from the people who may have influenced a graduate student’s decision to
incur debt, such as family members, counselors and mentors. In addition, data was not collected
from those who choose not to enroll in a master’s degree program, but was collected only from
those currently enrolled. Moreover, the participants self-reported the amount of their student
loan debt, presenting a limitation, as the researchers were unable to verify their statements.
Researcher bias is always a limitation in any study. Maxwell (2013) explains that
qualitative research is interested in how researchers’ expectations can have an impact on the
research conducted. An individual’s culture, gender, or socioeconomic background can
influence how the research is conducted, hence shaping the results. This study examined
graduate student loan debt from a woman’s perspective, and the researcher is a woman, graduate
student and has student loans. This may have an impact on how the data is viewed and analyzed.
When examining the data, the researcher remained cognizant of her biases.
A limitation observed within the study is the participant’s honesty when answering some
of the questions. Reviewing the transcripts, there were a few questions participants may not
have answered truthfully. For example, question 17 on the protocol asked. “Are you borrowing
student loans to cover expenses beyond tuition and fees?” Forty-four percent of the participants
explained that they were taking out loans to cover additional expenses. The researcher believes
that number is much higher. Many of the students explained that they were not working full-
time, or they were interning. With the high cost of living in California, especially for
participants not living at home, the researcher questioned whether they were answering these
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 46
questions truthfully. Money and finances can make for an uncomfortable conversation, and
some of the participants may have withheld certain information. Furthermore, it could have been
startling for some individuals to engage in this interview, as they may have been coming to terms
with the realities of their financial situation.
Another question that participants may not have answered honestly was number 16 on the
protocol, “What is your current amount of outstanding educational loan debt from your current
degree, if any?” The responses received were generally whole numbers rounded up to 10,000.
For example, a participant may have said she owes $20,000 or $40,000 but not necessarily
$45,600. There was additional lack of clarity in the answers to question number 15, “How long
will it take to pay your loans off? Do you know if there are any ways to reduce or change your
loan payments?” Some of the participants responded that it may take two years or five years.
These responses revealed that the participants did not think fully about the details regarding loan
repayment.
Another limitation of the study is that it is a secondary analysis of the data, and the
researcher was not present during the interviews. During analyzing and coding of the interviews,
there were times when the researcher would have liked to have been sitting in on the interviews
to observe the participant’s body language and expressions. This would have allowed for
observation of displays of comfort or whether the respondent appeared to be reserved and
withholding information. In reading some of the transcripts, at times, some of the participants
answered the questions with a “yes” or “no.” It seemed as if they were being short and may have
felt uncomfortable. Sitting in on the interviews would have allowed for better analysis of their
behaviors and assessment of the validity of their statements.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 47
Lastly, the protocol can be viewed as a limitation because it was not specifically designed
for this theoretical framework. The previous researchers designed the protocol based on
Bronfenbrenner’s (2005) ecological framework for human development. Because this study
represents a secondary analysis on the data collected, the researcher was not able to create the
protocol based on Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development. Nevertheless, to
provide a connection between the current research and the protocol, deep thought and careful
consideration were taken to map the theoretical framework against the protocol, and it appears as
though there is a realistic opportunity to use this data set to consider this research question using
the theory presented. This was done by aligning the questions in the protocol with the different
levels and transitional phases of the moral development framework.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 48
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to understand and examine factors that influence a
woman’s decision to incur graduate student loan debt. This study was inspired by research that
revealed that, due to the pay gap, women earn less money than men; thus, they have more
difficulty during loan repayment. There is limited research available that explores how women
make decisions regarding student loan debt. The findings from this study will contribute to the
scholarly literature available on the financial aid decision-making process for women at the
graduate level. The information gained can be used to support women, their families,
practitioners, and policy makers with the information needed to make well-informed choices
regarding student loan debt. The research question that this study sought to answer is “What
factors influence women’s decisions to incur graduate student loan debt?”
This chapter provides an overview of the data collection methods in addition to a
description of the participants. Following, there is a discussion on the framework used to
interpret the data and an in-depth discussion of the themes that emerged during data analysis.
Review of Data Collection Methods
A qualitative approach was implemented to examine factors that influence a woman’s
decisions to incur graduate student loan debt. The data was captured through the use of a semi-
structured interview protocol that contained 23 open-ended questions (Appendix A). The
protocol was originally designed using Bronfenbrenner’s PPCT model to frame the questions
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). To provide a connection to the protocol and the moral
development theory used in this study, the theory was mapped against the protocol to provide a
visual and more in-depth understanding of how the data was analyzed.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 49
A criterion-based selection method was implemented to purposefully select a sample
from which the most information can be learned and, concluding each interview, the snowball
method was employed to identify potential candidates (Merriam, 2009). The criteria used to
select the participants included (a) current attendance at an accredited public or private non-
profit college or university in California, (b) enrollment in a master’s degree program in one of
three fields (education and health sciences), and (c) a must be a woman. The interviews were
conducted in person or by telephone and were recorded and then transcribed in preparation for
data analysis.
Description of the Participants
The following section provides a description of the participants’ demographics. It
presents details including status as either first-generation on non-first-generation, whether they
attend a public or private university, their major, their race, their marital status and their number
of children. There were 50 female graduate student interviews selected for this study (Tables 2
and 3).
All of the participants selected were enrolled in an accredited public or private non-profit
university in California, and were enrolled in education and health science majors. There were
27 graduate students enrolled in education and 23 in health science programs. Graduate students
in the health science field studied occupational therapy, nursing or nutrition. Seventy-eight
percent of the participants were non-first generation students while 22% were classified as first
generation students. Their ages ranged from 58 to 21 with 27 being the average age. The racial
demographics of the participants were such that 8% were Asian, 10% were bi-racial, 4% were
Black, 16% were Hispanic, and 62% were White.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 50
Regarding marital status, 35% were single, 24% married and 6% were divorced. Eighty-
four percent of the participants reported not having any children, while 16% had between 1 and 3
children. The participants included both part-time and full-time students. The majority of the
participants attended graduate school within the greater Southern California area, reflecting 99%
of the students, and 1% of the students attended graduate school in Northern California.
Furthermore, 28% of the students studied at a public university, and 72% studied at a private
university.
Table 2
Overview of Research Participants
Female First-
Generation
Non-first
Generation
Public
University
Private
University
Education
Major
Health
Science
Number 50 11 39 14 36 27 23
Percentage 100% 22% 78% 28% 72% 54% 46%

Table 3
Overview of Research Participants
Single Married Divorced No
Children
1-3 Children
Number 35 12 3 42 8
Percentage 70% 24% 6% 84% 16%

Asian Bi-Racial African
American
Hispanic White
Number 4 5 2 8 31
Percentage 8% 10% 4% 16% 62%

The total amount of graduate debt incurred by the 50 participants is $1,638,600. The
average debt is $32,772. The highest amount of debt held by a participant is $175,000 and the
lowest amount is $4,200. There was not a significant difference in the amount of debt incurred
between education and health science majors in this study (Table 4). The 27 participants
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 51
enrolled in education programs accumulated loans totaling $876,400 versus $762,000 for the 23
health science majors, creating a difference of $114,200. The larger amount of debt held by
education majors can be attributed to their having four more participants. To place the amount
of debt incurred by the participants into perspective, the starting salaries for an education major
is $40,337 and, for health science majors, is $54, 000 (National Association of Colleges and
Employers, 2013).
There are 13 students who reported having no debt. These students explained that they
were trying to avoid incurring student loan debt. They secured funding for their studies through
other sources including grants, tuition remission, borrowing from family members (so they do
not have to pay interest), and savings. One participant explained, “I didn’t take any loans for my
Master’s this time. I just worked and saved enough money so that I could do my Master’s
without having to go into debt.” Another participant explained that she and her husband worked
and saved money to pay for her tuition. Additionally, another participant expressed that she was
debt-averse, and her parents suggested that she take a loan from them so she will not have to pay
interest fees. The remaining 74% of students who did choose to incur student loan debt
explained that taking out loans enabled them to attain a degree and advance their careers. One
participant referred to it as a “necessary evil” because she felt that obtaining an advanced degree
was the only way to move up the corporate ladder. The table below provides a visual description
of the total amount of debt held by those in each major.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 52
Table 4
Total Debt Held by Borrowers
Amount of Debt Health Sciences Education Total
No Debt 12% 14% 26%
$1-9,999 4% 6% 10%
$10,000-19,999 4% 4% 8%
$20,000-29,999 6% 4% 10%
$30,000-39,999 2% 4% 6%
$40,000-49,999 4% 4% 8%
$50,000-59,999 4% 6% 10%
$60,000-69,999 4% 6% 10%
$70,000-79,999 0 0 0
$80,000-89,999 2% 2% 4%
$90,000-99,999 0 0 0%
$100,000+ 4% 4% 8%

The following section provides a description of how the moral development theory was used to
understand and interpret the findings. Afterwards, an analysis presenting the three themes that
emerged from the data will be addressed.
Connection of the Moral Development Theory to the Study
Gilligan’s theory on moral development was used to understand the decision-making
process of the female participants within the study. The central concept of Gilligan’s theory
asserts that, when making decisions, women view the importance of relationships with others as
equal to self-care, suggesting that, when making decisions, women take into consideration how
their choices may affect others (Gilligan, 1986). This model views women’s development
through a sequence of three levels and two transitional periods. The ability to transition from
one level to the next is achieved by developing a deeper relationship between self and others,
concluding with the ability to make the best decisions for oneself as the highest level. For the
purposes of this study, the three levels, excluding the transitional phases, were used to interpret
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 53
the data. The transitional phases were excluded for greater clarity, as these phases are
combinations of one or more phases.
Implementing Gilligan’s (1977) framework to analyze the data provided a better
understanding as to how women make decisions to incur student loan debt. In Level 1,
orientation to survival, the individual is so focused on survival that she becomes self-centered
and is unable to differentiate between necessity and desire (Gilligan, 1977). Many of the
participants exhibited behaviors that reflected this stage. They accepted loans and grants and did
not have a clear understanding of loan terms or how they were able to qualify for the grants they
received. The details were unimportant to them because obtaining a loan was their only way of
financing their education. Obtaining a loan can be viewed as their means of survival. One
student expressed,
I honestly didn’t really think about it [student loans]. I just knew that I wanted to be at
Delano State and I would be willing to take out loans to make that happen so I did. I
wasn't very educated about loans or like what that actually meant. Like I knew I would
have to pay them back. But I was not informed about like interest rates and all that stuff.
Another student stated, “I am not really sure why we’re getting it [grant] and I have to tell you
the financial office at Zuma, they are not greatest with information.” The inability of some
students to quantify the amount of their loans or even explain how they qualify for the grants
they were receiving displayed Level 1 behaviors.
Level 2 is goodness as a self-sacrifice. In this stage, survival is connected to social
acceptance and the individual diverges from a self-centered, independent view of the world to
one of richer engagement and reliance on others. The participants exhibited this behavior as they
expressed seeking advice from family members, mentors, counselors, professors and the
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 54
financial-aid department within their schools. One student discussed relying on her family for
advice because she needed to stop working in order to complete an internship. She explained,
For instance, I was helping them with rent [parents] and I asked them if I were to get into
this internship, would you be okay if I don’t pay you for that time, if I don’t pitch in, and
they said of course. I live with my parents but they are also dependent on me as well to
contribute. That’s something I also considered as well. I ask friends as well, what they
did, some past interns, or a past graduate student, what they did. Sometimes it always
kind of different, their living situation as well. Sometimes I feel like their parents kind of
helped them a little more. Sometimes at the end it all depends on what my situation is.
With friends, even though I ask for the advice, it ends up really being what my situation
is.
This participant expressed that she relied on her parent’s during the decision-making process.
Their willingness to support her during the program allowed her to enroll in school. She also
sought advice from her peers to gain a different perspective on the choices she was considering.
Another student revealed that the support and advice received from her peers, encouraged her to
go back to school: “So after doing research and talking to people that I worked with, then I
decided I wanted to do it now and be able to start my career and just move forward.” The advice
that these students received from their family and peers supported them in making the decision to
incur student loan debt. These participants also displayed Level 2 behaviors of the moral
development theory where the reliance of others becomes an important factor when making
decisions.
In Level 3, the morality of non-violence, the individual is now able to recognize her
power and has the ability to stay true to her needs when faced with conflicting moral alternatives.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 55
Some participants expressed that, after accumulating undergraduate loans and nearing the end of
their programs, they had a better understanding of student loans and would make better choices if
they had the opportunity to do things differently. One student commented, “I rely more on
myself for the information than the financial aid department.” This student expressed that she
did not understand how financial aid worked and took out more loans than needed because she
was unaware of how to take out the exact amount needed. Now that she has learned more about
her loans, she said she will no longer rely solely on the financial aid office for help. She further
commented, “I definitely do pros and cons [of taking out more money than needed]. I now like to
look up as much information as I can get. I try to gear my decisions towards my goals.” Another
student displayed Level 3 behaviors when reflecting on making the right decision to stay in state
and attend school in California versus going away to college and accumulating a larger amount
of debt:
I would say that if you can, trying to choose choices that minimize your debt would be
really worthwhile. I just think of my friends who chose to go to TYU for undergrad and
then to Colon for their grad school. I mean it’s great, but I don’t think that they’re really
doing better in their careers than my friends who went to state schools. I went to state
schools for my undergrad and my grad school. I think that was really a good decision in
terms of debt. I don’t have any debt because of it. Then for my particular field I would
say that, once again I would urge them to go to a public school unless they are able to get
funding in a private school; because, I think there are really good public school programs.
I think it’s a promising field. I don’t know how many people are having employment
issues. I would encourage someone to do it. I’ve really enjoyed it.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 56
Individuals demonstrating Level 3 behaviors reached the highest level of moral development and
can make decisions that best reflect their needs versus trying to be accommodating of others.
The following presents a narrative analysis of the three emerging themes: (a) women rely on
support from others when making important decisions, (b) women are not concerned with the
details of their loan obligations, and (c) women do not factor in their future salaries when
deciding to incur graduate student loan debt.
Theme One: Women Rely on Support from Others When Making Important Decisions
The female participants in this study expressed the importance of seeking advice from
individuals who were either knowledgeable about their selected field of study, or held a
significant role i their lives during the decision-making process. The participants explained that
they would consult their parents, husbands, other family members, mentors, professors,
counselors and the financial aid office.

Figure 5. Resources Participants used for Support during the Decision-Making Process

Advisors,
10%

Family,
78%

Financial

Aid,

30%

Friends,
28%

Multiple
Sources,

76%

No
One,
8%

SigniDicant
other,

26%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 57
A breakdown of whom the participants consulted when making decisions regarding student loans
is as follows: 10% relied on advisors (including, professor and mentors), 78% on family, 76% on
multiple sources, 26% on significant others (spouse or committed partner), 8% on no one, 28%
on friends, and 30% on the financial aid department.
Reliance on Multiple Sources during Decision-Making
A woman’s reliance on others and a need for richer engagement is characterized in the
Level 2 stage of Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral development. Participants readily
sought advice and relied on several sources during the decision-making process. Seventy-six
percent of the participants conveyed that they conferred with multiple sources when deciding to
incur student loan debt. For example, one student consulted with several people, including her
advisor, professor, friends and family:
I probably rely on other people’s advice a lot, especially in terms of academic. My
undergraduate advisor was a very close mentor and continues to be a very close mentor.
I run all these things by her because I know she’s been through this before and so she
gave me lots of advice on these things and also just other professors, friends and family.
I rely a lot on advice.
Ten percent of the participants stated that they relied on advisors, professors and mentors for
advice. Other students expressed that they consulted with friends and family and wanted to hear
different perspectives. Another student commented that speaking with friends and family helps
her to stay focused, “I like to listen to like friends and family. It's more like making sure I’m
working towards my goal.” A third student discussed relying on the financial aid office, which
was vastly different from her under-graduate experience where she did not contact the financial
aid office at all. She explained,
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 58
This time around, I actually called financial aid and told them how many classes I was
looking into taking, determine the fee for that, and then kind of did a little bit more
research, as far as, how much I would need. I think that was just more specific because I
knew that this time it was going to be straight from student loans, so I had to be more
knowledgeable about how much I was going to actually borrow and if I needed to borrow
everything, they offered. So I think I took a little bit more time and I knew who to call. I
felt more comfortable asking questions because in my freshmen year, everything was just
so new to me.
Thirty percent of the participants stated that they consulted with the financial aid department
regarding their loans.
Reliance on Family Members during Decision-Making
Many of the participants stated that they consulted with their family members when
making decisions to incur debt. Relying on family members for advice was the most common of
the resources that students used during the decision-making process, totaling 78%. One student
stated,
Well I just kind of knew college debt was a thing. It’s just kind of what you do when you
go to college, especially coming from a working class family. So when I first went to
undergraduate, my parents sat me down and said we can afford for you to go to Cal State
but we can't afford for you to go to these other institutions. So I made the decision to go
to a Cal State purely on that. But then coming here, knowing it was going to be more of a
financial burden, I had the expectation that my income would eventually - like my goal is
to make more than how much this program cost. So knowing that long-term effects that
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 59
my pay would be more than this program, I figured it was a necessary evil to get that
degree.
Another student expressed how thinking about starting a family influenced her decision to go
back to school and incur student loan debt. She explained,
I don’t have any children, but I do want to have children and so it was kind of a decision I
made that it was now or, most likely, never. And so it just seemed like the best time in
my life for me to finish.
A few other participants shared the same sentiments and disclosed that attaining a degree was
important to the sustainability of their families. They believed that an advanced degree would
help them to better support their families financially. With this in mind, the participants
disclosed that they consulted with their mothers, fathers, aunts, husband and partners. One
student discussed talking it over with her partner:
We just talked about the smartest way to go about it, because we are looking, we’re a
serious couple, so… um, basically we talked about what that would mean for our future,
and if it, you know, this is a smart bet and we need to do the wisest so that I can get my
education and you can work. And then after I finish he will pursue his PhD. So he’s kind
of waiting till I get my degree and then he can start his.
The participants vehemently expressed the importance of making the decision to incur student
loan debt as a collaborative process and valued the input from their families and significant
others. Twenty-eight percent of the participants stated that they relied on their significant others
for support during the decision-making process.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 60
Reliance on Friends
Friends were viewed as “reliable sources,” as one student explained, and 28% of the
participants expressed relying on them for advice. Participants said that they spoke to friends
within their master’s programs for assistance with financial aid. Others stated that they spoke
with their colleagues to find out some of the choices they made during the financial aid process.
One woman explained, “So after doing research and talking to people that I worked with, then I
decided I wanted to do it now [enroll in school] and be able to start my career and just move
forward.”
Another student explained that she sought advice from her best friend. They have
different majors, but, since she went through the financial aid process, the participant relies on
her for support. The participant stated,
It’s my best friend and she just got her masters in school psychology. She’s kind of like
an advisor and confidant with a lot of things in my life. She is very intelligent. She does
her homework. I tend to trust the information I get from her. Like I know that sounds like
you’re relying on one person for these big decision but if you knew her, you would know
that she has it all together. Talking to her and just knowing what was out there for people
at the level that we’re at and knowing. I got a good idea of what I would be taking on
versus what my career prospects are going to be in the future.
A third student expressed, “As far as general decision making process, I ask for advice from
people that have been in a similar situation.” Obtaining advice from friends who went through
the financial process, classmates and work colleagues were the three main categories of friends
on whom participants relied for advice when incurring student loan debt.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 61
Self-Reliance
Four students stated that they did not rely on anyone when making decisions regarding
student loan debt. Two of these students had no debt; one was a health science major, and the
other was an education major. The other two students had debt amounts of $50,000 and $10,000.
Again, one was a health science major, and the other was an education major. The students’ ages
were 49, 58, 32 and 29. They exhibited a better understanding of student loan debt, which can be
attributed to the knowledge they acquired over the years. One of the students stated, “I rely more
on myself for the information than the financial aid department.” Two of the students are nurses
and one of them pays for the program with her savings. The other nurse expressed that she relies
on a combination of a tuition assistance program at her job and student loans.
One of two education majors stated that she pays for the program via student loans, and
the other works at the university and is using the tuition remission program to cover her
expenses. These students exhibited Level 3 behaviors according to Gilligan’s (1977) moral
development theory in that the individual is self-reliant and knowledgeable about the choices she
makes and can stay true to her needs when making conflicting decisions.
Theme Two: Women are not Concerned with the Details of their Loan Obligations
More than half of the students, 54%, stated that they were unclear of their loan
requirements, including how soon they will go into repayment post-graduation, the amount they
will be paying monthly, what their salaries should be in order to offset loan costs, and how much
they should borrow. For some, their lack of knowledge was related to feeling that incurring loan
debt was the only way they will be able to attain an advanced degree.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 62
Reliance on Financial Support from Others
Some of the participants exhibited Level 2 behaviors of moral development by relying on
others to help pay back their loans. As a result, they were not as concerned about understanding
their loan repayment terms or options to reduce their debt. For example, when one student was
asked if she understood her loan repayment options, she stated,
No. And I don’t really expect it to. I guess another thing that’s worth mentioning is that
I’m engaged to be married to someone. It was recent. And of course in those talks you
have to speak about all of your financial situations. My fiancée is an attorney who makes
far more than I do, and he’s offered to pay my loans. So that’s also something that’s on
the table.
Another student whose parents are paying for her undergraduate loans explained that she never
made a connection between the money she received and the fact that her parents had to actually
repay the money. She commented,
Honestly, in my undergraduate career I never thought about it. I would get that
reimbursement check the beginning of every semester. I just sort of, you know, budgeted
that accordingly. I never thought about, oh my gosh, my parents have to pay this back or
this is you know, what the interest rate, or I never thought of the terms of those.
Lack of Understanding about Loan Repayment Terms
Some of the participants expressed and exhibited behaviors that indicated they did not
have a clear understanding of loan repayment options. A few mentioned options they may have
heard from friends or read online, but they did not understand the details of the plans they
mentioned. One student explained, “I know there's like something like - on the internet, like on
the fed loans. I don’t know if you can change it [loan repayment options]. It’s more like a
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 63
deferment and something else, but I can’t remember.” When another student was asked if she
knew ways to reduce her loan payments, she stated, “I think for changing your loan payments, I
don’t know exactly how you go about doing that but I know if you’re in some sort of problem
you can talk with your lender and negotiate something.”
Another student expressed,
I don’t know exactly, but I have heard of things like - and I don’t even know if I would
qualify for this, but if you work for a nonprofit for at least 10 years, and you pay for that
10 years like a certain amount and then the rest, after the 10 years, like it goes away.
That’s just something I’ve heard of, but I haven’t looked into it or anything.
A third student commented that she was unaware that she was accruing interest, “One thing that I
never knew about my loans, I didn’t realize during the entire time I was accruing interest, while I
was in school. This entire time I had been accruing interest and had no idea.” The lack of
understanding that these students exhibited can lead to poor decision making when incurring
debt and can have a lasting impact on their future finances.
Attaining Debt as the Only Option
Many students expressed that incurring debt was the only option they had in order to
obtain a degree. Furthermore, many felt that it was necessary for career advancement. One
student explained,
Working in student affairs, they pretty much won’t hire you unless you have a Master’s
degree. So I mean, I guess I could have really tried, but every one of my mentors was
saying you need to get a Master’s if you want to go into this field. So because it wasn't
really an option to find a job afterwards, I knew this was my next step.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 64
A few other students conveyed that their decisions to incur debt were based on necessity. One
student revealed, “Basically, my borrowing decision is made on necessity. I think even if I had
those debts, I would probably borrow more to pay for outstanding debt.” Another student
commented,
I felt like I didn't really have a choice to take out any more or less loans. So looking at the
average salary and what I was taking out, it just made me feel a little helpless or maybe a
little bit of buyer’s remorse. But I didn't really feel like I didn’t have any other option.
These students revealed that taking out loans to pay for their education was a necessity and the
only way that they would be able to afford the high costs of their tuition. Some participants
expressed concern regarding the amount of money they borrowed; however, felt that loans were
their only option.
Students are Unsure about How Much to Borrow
Forty-four percent of the students explained that they borrowed money to cover expenses
beyond their tuition. Many of them also explained that they were unsure of how much money to
borrow. They also stated that they used the extra money to pay for other expenses including
school supplies, living costs and other outstanding debt. One student expressed,
I always just accepted the maximum because I just thought that was what I should do just
in case something happened. My husband has been working full time right now and can
pay for tuition. When I first started my DPD, four years ago, he was in no position to do
that then. I would just take the maximum. It wasn’t really ever discussed or thought
about. If that’s what I have to do then that’s what I will do.
Another student explained that she did not feel that she needed to take out as many loans out as
she did:
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 65
It was just the fact that I didn’t really necessarily need to, I probably did still need to use
some of the student loan money, but I didn’t understand the concept that you can actually
choose how much you wanted from what they offered. And I accepted the whole, what
they offered, the whole amount. That was one thing that I think that was not needed that
extra amount, but I did still need some student loan for that. I don’t remember how much
I needed. I didn’t have much knowledge that I could actually tailor it too partially. I just
accepted the full amount.
A few other students also expressed regret in taking out too much money; however, at that time,
did not understand how to take out the exact amount needed. None of them stated that they
sought help in understanding how to specify the amount needed. Furthermore, another student
explained that she would accept the full loan amount, but she felt that she could always return a
portion of what she did not use. She explained,
This time around I just accepted the full loan they that they offered me. I felt like
whatever I don’t use I could just pay it back. Especially, because I am not working, you
never know what might come up. I felt like this time I was a little bit more free spirited
and want to accept. I can’t really be too specific about. I felt like I didn’t really need to
plan too much, just take what you get.
Many students expressed taking out more loans in case something happened and they
needed the additional money. Some of these students were not working due to their program
requirements, which may have contributed to their fear of not having enough money to cover
additional expenses. Others stated that they always accepted the maximum amount simply
because that was an option.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 66
Theme Three: Women Do Not Factor in their Future Salaries When Deciding to Incur
Graduate Student Loan Debt
The participants displayed a lack of understanding between the amount of debt they were
incurring and the salaries they will be making. Thirty percent of the participants stated that they
were unaware of the starting salaries within their profession. For the 70% who did know the
starting salaries, some expressed that the money was not as important to them because they were
doing something they enjoyed.
Unaware of Career Starting Salaries
The participants who were unaware of their professions’ starting salaries displayed Level
1 moral development behaviors. This includes a lack of understanding between necessity and
desire. This was evident in their incurring large amounts of debt without understanding or
considering the amount of time or money monthly it would take to repay their loans. These
individuals appeared be in a survival mode; they were doing what they felt was the best for
themselves without thinking about the impact it may have on their future finances. When one
participant was asked if she knew the starting salary for her discipline she expressed, “It varies. It
depends on ... it’s not the salary, it's hourly and it depends on the condition. If you’re a beginner,
you’re getting less compared to somebody who’s been in the market for 10 years.” Another
student explained, “Yes, I have [though about my starting salary] but I just don’t remember the
exact number. I know that for me it’s just kind of like, it’s going to be a lot more than what I was
making before. That’s how I kind of see it. A third student explained,
I know the starting salary. I know what they tell us that we should try to accept $25
dollars an hour. I am not sure what that comes up annually, but I know obviously it
ranges hugely, depending on how you end up, along the decades.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 67
These students did not have a clear understanding of their starting salaries, which may indicate
that they have not fully considered or budgeted how they will repay their loans or the impact of
their loans on their salaries. In contrast to this, there were some students who did realize that the
salaries that they were making in relation to the amount of loans they incurred was relatively
low. One student explained, “I know this is bad but I know my husband is able to support us so
my salary would just be supplemental at this point.” Another student explained,
As I said, I consider this job as a service. Yes, I looked at the salary. It’s very low. I’m
surpri-I'm not surprised. I mean, I knew, but when you start thinking that people actually
have to support their families on this salary, it’s becoming painfully evident why we have
so many problems with education, because I feel, how long can you just live on this
salary and be inspired by helping kids. I think 5 years. After 5 years you’d be like, OK I
need to buy a house and find another job. But for me it was, I don’t look at the salary as
… I want to have ultimately a goal of opening my own school. And then I get to decide,
do I want to make money or do I want to just help people. It’s up to me. It’s like your
own business, you decide how much salary you want to take. Maybe for the first five
years you won’t take any salary and you will be in the zero or in the negative. But
ultimately, again, I’m not opening a school to make money, but if it’s your business and
it’s successful, then you can decide how much salary you put for yourself.
Another student who has thought about her starting salary explains that her boyfriend, who is
good with finances, has questioned her decision to enroll in a school that is expensive relative to
her starting salary. She explains,
So although it was - it is quite a bit of money - and then even my boyfriend yells at me.
He's really into finances, so he's always talking to me about that. But he even says, “Why
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 68
did you apply to a school that costs you $67,000 when all you are going to make when
you get out is…” Well I just kind of knew college debt was a thing. It's just kind of what
you do when you go to college, especially coming from a working class family. So when
I first went to undergraduate, my parents sat me down and said we can afford for you to
go to Cal State but we can't afford for you to go to these other institutions. So I made the
decision to go to a Cal State purely on that. But then coming here, knowing it was going
to more of a financial burden, I had the expectation that my income would eventually -
like my goal is to make more than how much this program cost. So knowing that long-
term effects that my pay would be more than this program, I figured it was a necessary
evil to get that degree.
This student is very aware of the impact her loan can have on her finances. However, she felt
that, coming from a working class family, incurring debt was a way to afford to tuition costs.
Passion for Career Path
The term passion was mentioned several times by the participants. They stated that they
made the decision to incur student loan debt based on passion for the field they would be
working in. One of the participants explained, “I guess I would say if you really love the
profession, if you really know what you want, then definitely go for it.” Many students
expressed the importance of passion and that it was a major factor when selecting their field of
study, which led them to incur student loan debt. Furthermore, many participants expressed that
earning potential was not a factor in their decision-making process. One student explained,
I did look at that [starting salary], and I got a range between 50-70,000 depending on the
position. It didn’t really influence me. I just want to do something that I’m going to love
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 69
regardless of the salary I make. So I was fine with the range that I would be making once
I made the position.
This student and many others did not thoroughly analyze the details of their selected careers and
how the large amount of debt that they incurred can have an impact on their future decision-
making. For some, their motivating factor to incur debt was passion. Reviewing the data, it
revealed that many women are concerned with pursuing a career in a field they are interested in
and have a passion for.
Summary of Themes
This research sought to understand what factors influence a woman’s decision to incur
student loan debt. The data revealed three emerging themes: (a) women rely on others for
support when making important decisions, (b) women are not concerned with the details of their
loan obligations, and (c) women do not factor in their future salaries when deciding to incur
graduate student loan debt. Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral development was used
to interpret the data.
Theme One Summary
The participants’ reliance on others for advice regarding their student loans reflect Level
2 behaviors according Gilligan’s (1977) moral development theory. The data revealed that 92%
of the women relied on some type of support when deciding to incur student loan debt. The
participants expressed that they relied on their families, significant others, friends, advisors and
the financial aid office for advice. Only eight percent of the participants revealed that they did
not rely on any source for advice. These participants were older than the majority of the
participants and exhibited a good understanding of student loan debt.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 70
Theme Two Summary
The data conveyed that women were not concerned with the details of their loan
obligations. This is reflective of Level 1 behaviors where the individual is more preoccupied
with survival and unable to clearly distinguish between desire and necessity. Individuals in this
stage are in survival mode and do what is best for them in that moment without thinking of long-
term effects. The results revealed that 54% of the women were unclear about loan repayment
terms. Some of their lack of knowledge can be attributed to their reliance on family members
and significant others to repay their loans, rendering them less concerned about the details of
their loan obligations. Others felt as though debt was their only option and the details were
unimportant. They viewed loans as a “necessary evil,” or something that is associated with
education. Another similarity among participants in this category is that 44% reported
borrowing money to cover expenses beyond their tuition. A few of them explained that they
were unaware of how much to borrow, so they borrowed the maximum amount in case of an
unforeseen emergency.
Theme Three Summary
Among some of the participants, there appears to be a gap in understanding in reference
to the amount of money they will be earning and the realities of the impact that their loan
payments will have on their income. This can be classified as survival behavior, which is
represented in Level 1 of the moral development theory. Thirty percent of the participants stated
that they were unaware of the starting salaries within their respective fields. Several of the
participants were very aware of the impact of their loans on their future earnings and expressed
concern because they felt that their starting salaries were low. Despite this, they expressed that
attaining their masters and incurring loan debt was necessary for career advancement. Others
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 71
explained that the passion they had for their respective career choice outweighed the amount of
debt that they were incurring.
Reflection on the Results
The participants explained that, when making decisions to incur student loan debt, they
heavily relied on advice from sources they perceived as reliable. The type of advice given by
their supporters generally pertained to how much they should borrow and/or if they should incur
student loan debt. Out of 50 participants, only one stated that her partner was concerned about
the cost of tuition relative to the salary she will be earning. None of the other participants stated
that their supporters cautioned them or informed them of the earning potential of their selected
fields of study. With starting salaries of $40,337 and $54,700 for education and health science
majors, respectively, the participants should be concerned when they are holding debt upwards
of $200,000 with their undergraduate and graduate debt combined. A question that developed
from the results of these findings is whether men receive advice regarding earning potential and
their selected fields of study prior to incurring student loan debt. An additional question is
whether the advice that women receive gender-based and influenced by societal roles and
expectations. If so, this may explain why these women did not consider their discipline’s
starting salaries relative to the amount of debt they held and may explain why women tend to
enter into female-dominated careers,
The findings inspired more thought-provoking questions, such as whether women are
unconsciously pushed to not be concerned about loan repayment or earning potential. Some of
the women explained that their families or spouses were going to help them during loan
repayment, and they did not understand the details of their loan obligations. Furthermore, it
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 72
would be interesting to know if men rely on their families and spouses to financially support
them during loan repayment.
Corbett and Hill (2012) found that women have learned societal behaviors and
expectations that contribute to lower pay. It could be possible that these societal behaviors may
influence the type of advice that women receive when deciding to incur student loan debt.
Lastly, many of the women in the study also explained that following their passion was more
important to them than was earning potential. Again, it would be interesting to know if men are
persuaded to pursue their passions as they embark upon their careers and incur student loan debt.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 73
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS
This study was designed to answer the research question, “What factors influence a
woman’s decisions to incur graduate student loan debt?” There is limited research available that
conveys how women make decisions regarding financial aid, their perceptions about debt and
their decision-making process. The findings from this study can provide practitioners and
women the tools needed to support them in making informed decisions for themselves and their
families when incurring graduate student loan debt.
Student loan debt can have a strong impact on the decisions that women make post-
graduation, affecting personal choices regarding family, businesses, or even buying a home
(Akers, 2014b; Glazer, 2014; Lewin, 2011). Research has shown that women are more affected
by the weight of their student loans. Glazer (2014) states that women have a more difficult time
repaying student loans due to the fact that they earn lower salaries than do their male
counterparts. Though there have been strides made within the workplace, there is still a wage
gap.
To further analyze this issue, this study was conducted through the use of qualitative
methods and Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development to interpret an existing
data set. The data was captured through a semi-structured interview protocol that contained 23
open-ended questions. The participants were 50 female graduate students in health science and
education majors. The criteria used to select the participants was (a) current attendance at an
accredited public or private non-profit college or university in California and (b) enrollment in a
master’s degree program in one of two fields (education, and health sciences). The interviews
were conducted in person or by telephone and were recorded and then transcribed in preparation
for data analysis.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 74
The three themes that emerged from the data are that (a) women rely on others for
support when making important decisions, (b) women are not concerned with the details of their
loan obligations, and (c) women do not factor in their future salaries when deciding to incur
graduate student loan debt. The findings from Cooper et al.’s (2014) study are similar. They
suggest that graduate students (a) lack an understanding of student loan borrowing and
repayment options; (b) did not consult with their university’s financial aid office and, instead,
sought advice from trusted family members and mentors; and (c) consistently viewed career
mobility, networking, and institutional prestige as a worthy return on investment.
A lack of understanding regarding loan repayment was evident in both studies. It was
also very apparent that, although some participants sought advice from the financial aid office,
the participants heavily relied on other sources. Thirty percent of the students relied on the
financial aid office, and 70% percent relied on sources including their families, friends, and
advisors. Additionally, this study found that the participants did not factor in the earning
potential of their selected majors when deciding to incur student loan debt. Many of the
participants expressed that career advancement was a major factor when deciding to incur debt.
Cooper et al. (2014) found that the participants viewed career mobility, networking, and
institutional prestige as influential factors to incurring graduate student loan debt.
Summary of Findings
The findings from this research extend the understanding of what factors influence a
woman’s decision to incur student loan debt. This chapter provides a brief analysis of the
findings including implications for practice and future research.
Ninety-two percent of the participants relied on others for advice when making important
decisions. They sought out individuals who were knowledgeable about student loan debt or who
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 75
held a significant role in their lives. Reliance on others and a need for richer engagement is
characterized in the Level 2 stage of Gilligan’s Theory of Women’s Moral development. The
data revealed that 10% of the participants relied on advisors (including professor and mentors),
78% on family, 76% on multiple sources, 26% on significant others (spouse or committed
partner), 8% on no one, 28% on friends, 30% and on the financial aid department. A reoccurring
theme among the participants was the collaborative nature of making the decision to incur
student loan debt.
Fifty-four percent of the participants stated that they were unclear of their loan
requirements. When probed further, it became evident that their lack of understanding was more
related to their being unconcerned, as they were still in school and not faced with having to repay
their loans at that point. For others, their lack of understanding was due to their reliance on
family members and significant others to repay their loans while others felt as though debt was
their only option and the details were unimportant. Level one of Gilligan’s (1977) moral
development theory helps in understanding that their disposition was reflective of survival
behaviors. These participants are focused on doing what is best for them at the moment. As
they transition into the loan repayment phase, they will then become more concerned with the
details of their loan obligations. The 43% of the participants who were already concerned about
loan repayment explained that, as graduation gets closer, they have sought out more information
about their options.
Thirty percent of the participants were unaware of the starting salaries within their
respective fields. This can be classified as survival behavior as well. These participants did not
take into account their future earnings relative to the amount of debt they were incurring. They
explained that passion for their respective career choices was more important than the amount of
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 76
money they would be earning and, as a result, were not concerned about the cost of tuition and
the debt they were incurring. However, 70% of the participants were aware of the impact of
their loans on their future earnings and were concerned. They expressed concern about low
starting salaries, but deemed it necessary to incur graduate loan debt for career advancement.
Reflection
A majority of the participants explained that they heavily depended on advice from
sources deemed reliable when deciding to incur graduate student loan debt. The type of
guidance received pertained to how much to borrow and or whether they should borrow. Only
one out of the 50 participants stated that her partner was concerned about the cost of the degree
in relation to the salary she would be making. None of the other participants reported concern
from their supporters regarding the amount of debt they were incurring relative to their future
earning potential. This leads to questions regarding whether women receive gender-based
advice from others, which could be influenced by societal roles and expectations. Secondly, this
gives rise to questions regarding whether this contributed to the participants’ lack of concern and
understanding regarding loan repayment terms. Some of the participants explained they would
be receiving support from their families during loan repayment. Hence, they did not fully
understand the details of their loan obligations. Furthermore, questions arise regarding the type
of advice and support that men receive from their support systems when incurring student loan
debt and whether they are pushed to become aware and understand their loan repayment options.
Thirty percent of the participants conveyed that, despite the amount of debt they were
incurring, it was more important that they were following their passion versus being concerned
about earning potential. The thought of following one’s passion is idyllic; however, if the cost of
the degree is relatively high in comparison to the degree’s earning potential, an individual may
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 77
experience difficulties during loan repayment. In this case, we must reconsider how important
passion is. Women can pursue their passions, but they must be aware of the financial impact it
may have on their future. Women should fully research their selected fields of study, including
their starting salaries. Additionally, their supporters should encourage them to not only select
careers based on their interests and passion but also on what will provide them with the ability to
create a better future for themselves and their families. Again, this leads to question whether
men are persuaded to pursue their passions as they embark upon their careers and incur student
loan debt or if they are pushed to think about earning potential and being able to support their
families.
Implications for Practice
The data provided rich information that can support women during the decision-making
process regarding incurring graduate student loan debt. Listed below are suggestions that
women, their support systems and practitioners can use to facilitate them in making well-
informed decisions:
First, as women generally seek advice from multiple resources, they must take into
consideration that the advice that they receive may be influenced by the individual’s perception
of a woman’s role within society. As a result, women must be proactive and do their own
research when deciding to incur graduate student loan debt and become well informed of the
details pertaining to their loan obligations. Furthermore, they should seek advice from
individuals who are progressive and will give them information that is not gender biased.
Second, women need to be encouraged to pursue majors that have a high earning
potential. Accumulating graduate debt is necessary for many students, as it is their only means
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 78
for obtaining a degree. However, women should be presented with career options that will enable
them to become self-reliant.
Third, women should be empowered to understand the full scope of their loan
obligations. Even when a woman’s family or partner will be responsible for paying off her
loans, they should still empower her to be knowledgeable about her loan requirements. Not
holding women accountable and having them used to others’ taking care of their finances can
perpetuate expected social behaviors, which can lead to gender discrimination.
Fourth, women must be informed of the earning potential of their selected disciplines.
Research has shown that women experience a pay gap in the workplace, which can lead to
difficulty during loan repayment (Corbett & Hill, 2012). As a result, when a woman is deciding
which career path to take, a discussion of starting salaries must be included.
Lastly, women should be encouraged to think rationally and to fully assess the choices
they will make, as these will have an impact on their future. One of the participants expressed
that she selected her major because it is her passion but is now concerned due to the amount of
her loans and future earning potential. Pursuing one’s passion is important; however, women
must be provided with the information needed to make the best choices for themselves.
The findings revealed that women will look towards others for advice, so providing them
with information that can support them in becoming self-reliant is the key. Our society needs to
shift from attempting to take care of women by handling the details of their loan obligations or
allowing them to pursue their “passions” when it will not serve them well if they are left without
any support from others. Women need to be held accountable for understanding the details of
their commitments, so they can know how to make choices that best suit their interests.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 79
Future Research
Future research that will build upon the findings of this study include further
understanding how women experience the decision-making process pertaining to student loan
debt, major selection and help-seeking behaviors in addition to what type of advice women
receive from their support system. Furthermore, viewing the differences between the decision-
making process for men versus that for women and the type of advice given to them can yield
great information. Described below are several suggestions for future research.
One of the areas that will provide better understanding of the decision-making process is
an examination of factors that influence men to incur student loan debt and whether they are
pushed to select careers based on interest or earning potential. This study would potentially
reveal the differences in expectations that are placed on men versus those placed on women.
Another area that would yield great results an analysis of whether expected societal roles
influence the advice that females receive from their families peers and advisors when incurring
graduate debt. It is important to understand the various factors that may have an impact on
decision-making for women. Some of the participants displayed behaviors that were reflective
of typical gender-based roles, such as being unconcerned about loan repayment because a
supporter would take care of their loans. Understanding whether societal roles influence the
advice given to women can expand our understanding of how to better support women.
Furthermore, piloting a study that examines the decision-making process of women who
decide to enter majors in the social sciences, engineering, computer sciences, and business fields
is needed. It is important to understand what motivates them to select certain majors and to find
out if they are influenced by their families and peers or, on a deeper level, if they are persuaded
by expected societal behaviors. It would also be beneficial to conduct research that attempts to
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 80
understand if women include salary as a factor when selecting their majors. This would provide
an understanding as to the motivating factors behind career selection.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine, through qualitative methods, factors that
influence a woman’s decision to incur student loan debt. The data revealed three emerging
themes that (a) women rely on support from others when making decisions (b) women are not
concerned with the details of their loan obligations (c) women do not factor in their future
salaries when deciding to incur graduate student loan debt. Ninety-two of the women revealed
that they relied on their support systems for advice, 54% of the women revealed that they were
not concerned with the details of their loan obligations, and 30% conveyed that they did not
factor in their future salaries when making decisions to incur student loan debt.
Relying on Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development to interpret the
findings suggests that a majority of the participants fell between Levels 1 and 2. In Level 1,
orientation to individual survival, women are focused on survival and unable to distinguish the
difference between necessity and desire. This stage was reflective in the participant’s behaviors
as they were unconcerned with the details of their loan obligations. Having the ability to enroll
in a program and pursue a degree was their main concern. The inability to distinguish between
necessity and desire was apparent in their lack of understanding regarding how much to borrow.
Again, in survival mode, the details are unimportant and the ability to enroll in school takes
precedence.
In Level 2, goodness as self-sacrifice, an individual leans towards reflecting conventional
feminine values and may give up her own judgment in order to achieve consensus and remain in
connection with others. Many of the participants stated that they relied on the advice of others.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 81
Some stated that they made the decision jointly with their spouses or parents, suggesting that, if
there were not a consensus on their decision, they may not have enrolled.
During the interviews, when reflecting on some of their past behaviors, the participants
exhibited behaviors characteristic of Level 3, the morality of non-violence, wherein the
individual has a “transformed understanding of self and a corresponding redefinition of morality”
(Gilligan, 1977, p. 504). The individual in this stage is now able to recognize her power due to
reconciliation and can stay true to her needs when faced with conflicting moral alternatives.
Many of the participants, near the conclusion of the interview, were asked, “If you were to give
advice to your sibling or cousin who was considering your degree program goals from a financial
aid perspective, what would you tell them?” The participants were able to reflect on their
decision-making process and provide examples of the steps that they would have liked to take.
In hindsight, a few participants stated that they wish they would not have taken out as much
money as they did or selected their current majors. Some participants may have been influenced
by others or lacked the understanding to make informed decisions. Despite this, they have now
moved into Level 3 in that they are able to make better decisions for themselves in the midst of
competing alternatives. Furthermore, 8% of the participants did not seek advice from others
when deciding to incur debt and relied on themselves to make decisions. They reflected Level 3
behaviors as they researched their financial options and learned from their past experiences.
Using Gilligan’s (1977) Theory of Women’s Moral Development to interpret the data
allowed for a deeper understanding of the decisions that women make regarding incurring
graduate student loan debt. This theory complemented this study and provided a unique way to
view student loan debt. All of the levels and transitional phases were relevant to the participants
within the study. This theory methodically breaks down the experiences that women encounter
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 82
when incurring debt from the beginning stages of lack of knowledge as a means of survival to
their final stage of awareness, which the ability to make the best choices for themselves among
conflicting alternatives.
Gilligan’s (1977) theory is commonly discussed within the student development realm
and a required piece in many programs. However, whether it is used to analyze problems or
implemented into common practice is unknown. Applying this theory to common issues that
may arise can yield great results. The participants of this study could have greatly benefited
from being made aware of the woman’s moral development theory and/or by receiving help
structured through the moral development framework.
Understanding some of the decisions that women make regarding student loan debt can
provide women with a better way to take care of themselves and their families. In this day and
age where graduates are having a difficult time finding jobs, being cognizant of loan repayment
terms is extremely important. Graduate student loan debt can have a lasting impact on future
family, business and financial decision-making. Furthermore, the findings of this study can be
extremely beneficial to women of color as research has shown that Latina and Black women earn
even less due to the wage gap. Corbett and Hill (2012) revealed that women make 82% of men’s
salaries. Kerby (2012) explains that black women earn 69.5% percent of a man’s salary and
Latinas make 60.5%. These numbers indicate that student loan debt can have more of a financial
burden on women of color. Furthermore, single women of color earn less than men, women and
single women (Kerby, 2012). This further confirms the need for women, when deciding to incur
graduate loan debt, to (a) fully understand their loan obligations and the impact it can have on
their future finances, (b) know the starting salaries for their selected majors, and (c) not solely
rely on passion when making career decisions. In this study, women of color made up 20% of
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 83
the sample population, and there were no significant differences in their borrowing amounts or
decision-making behaviors.
What is evident from the findings of this study is individuals should start viewing school
and student loans as a purchase that is not returnable if the desired results are not achieved and
cannot be refinanced or cleared with bankruptcy. Furthermore, the decisions that individuals
make today can have a lasting impact on their finances for decades. As a result, individuals must
tread lightly and conservatively when making the decision to incur graduate student loan debt.

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 84
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FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 94
Appendix A
Key Definitions
Cost of Attendance (COA): The cost of attendance or “budget” is determined by the college or
university that the student is attending. This figure must be derived based on reasonable costs to
attend the student’s program of study (subject to federal guidelines). The COA usually includes
tuition, fees, books, housing, travel, childcare and other expenses that can be directly related to
the cost of attending school. Non-school-related costs cannot be included in the COA. This value
typically sets the maximum amount that a student can borrow in student loans (federal or
private).
Direct Consolidation Loan (Consolidation loan): This is a federal program that allows students
to combine multiple federal student loans into one loan. This is typically done after a student
leaves school. The benefits are that the student has one loan payment to make each month and
their monthly payments may go down because the payment period for the loan is 30 years.
However because of the extended payment period, the student may end up paying more in
interest than they would with a shorter payment period. If the loans being combined have special
borrower benefits (such as interest rate discounts or early cancellation terms), those will be lost
when the loan is consolidated.
Direct PLUS Loan (PLUS): This loan program was initially created for parents of
undergraduate student to borrow for their child while they were in school. The original name of
the program was the Parent Loan for Undergraduate Students (PLUS). In 2006, congress created
the GRAD PLUS loan program, which allowed graduate students to borrow a loan that is similar
to the original PLUS loan. Both of these loans are now referred to as “Direct PLUS Loans.”
Graduate students do not need to demonstrate financial need to borrow a PLUS loan, however,
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 95
they do have to pass a credit check and the interest rates are higher than those of the Direct
Unsubsidized Loan program. Like the Direct Unsubsidized Loan, the PLUS loan accrues interest
while the student is in school. The maximum amount that a student can borrow in this loan
program is capped by their Cost of Attendance. No payments are required on this loan until after
the student leaves school (however interest does accrue as noted above). This loan has a ten-year
repayment period (although that can be extended under certain repayment programs).
Direct Subsidized Loan (Subsidized loan): These are a type of Direct loan that is made to
students who demonstrate financial need. Under this program, interest accrued on the loan while
the student is in school is paid by the federal government. Since July 1st, 2012 these loans have
only been available to undergraduate students. Graduate students who borrowed after July 1st,
2012 are no longer eligible for this loan program.
Direct Unsubsidized Loan (Unsubsidized loan): These are a type of Direct loan that is made to
any eligible student, financial need is not required to be eligible for this loan. Interest accrues on
this loan while the student is in school and that interest is then added to the principle that the
student borrowed when they leave school and are required to repay the loan. After the student
leaves school, they are charged interest on both the principle and the interest that accrued while
they were in school. Graduate students are eligible to borrow up to $20,500 in this loan program
each year. No payments are required on this loan until after the student leaves school (however
interest does accrue as noted above). This loan has a ten-year repayment period (although that
can be extended under certain repayment programs).
Expected Family Contribution (EFC): This figure is calculated using a formula set by the
federal government. The EFC is based on the student’s income and some assets as reported by
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 96
the student on their FAFSA. The EFC is the amount that the student is expected to contribute to
their education.
Federal Perkins Loan (Perkins Loan): This is a federal student loan program that is only
available to students with demonstrated financial need. Funds for this program are distributed to
the awarding colleges or universities who then determine which students at their institution are
eligible for the loan (within certain federal guidelines). The amount awarded to each student is
dependent upon what the institution has available, but can never exceed more than $8,000 per
year per student. Perkins loans have a 5% interest rate, they are subsidized (no interest is accrued
while the student is in school) and the school is considered the lender so payments are made to
the school directly after the student graduates (or drops below half time enrollment). This loan
has a ten-year repayment period and they are subject the cancellation for teachers who serve in
certain school districts or teach certain subjects.
Federal Student Loans: Student loans funded by the federal government. There are two types of
federal student loans: the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct loan) and Federal Perkins
Loans (Perkins loan). Federal student loans do not have to be repaid until the student leaves
school (graduates or drops to less than half-time enrollment). The interest rate is fixed each year.
Interest paid on federal student loans may be tax deductible. There are many repayment plans
including an option to tie the monthly payment to the student’s income and students can request
temporary postponements on their payments if they suffer economic hardship or return to school.
Federal student loans also have loan forgiveness programs depending on the student’s
occupation.
Federal Work-Study (FWS): The work-study program provides funds for a student to earn in
part-time employment while they are in school. Work-study employment is typically on-campus
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 97
with some exceptions. Funds for this program are distributed to the awarding colleges or
universities who then determine which students at their institution are eligible (within certain
federal guidelines). Students are awarded an amount of work-study, which they then earn by
working and receiving a regular paycheck. Once they have earned all of the funds awarded to
them, the work-study is exhausted. This is considered a need-based aid program, so students
must demonstrate high need to be eligible for the award.
Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA): All students must complete this
application to receive federal aid. Students submit demographic information, information about
their enrollment plans for the year and information on their income and assets from their
proceeding year’s federal income tax returns. The Department of Education uses this information
to calculate the student’s EFC and their eligibility for federal aid. This information is then passed
to the college or university which is then responsible for calculating what aid programs the
student qualifies for and notifying the student of their available funding for the year.
Need: A student’s “need” is a set value derived by a formula: the Cost of Attendance (COA)
minus the Expected Family Contribution (EFC) equals the student’s calculated “need.” If this
figure is high (i.e. close to the cost of attendance because the EFC is zero or very low), then the
student is considered to be “high-need.” If this figure is low (because the student’s EFC is higher
than their COA) then the student is considered to be “low-need.”
Need-based aid: This is any form of aid that is awarded to students based on their need. For
graduate students, need-based aid programs are typically only the Perkins Loan or Federal Work-
Study. Students with a high need can expect to receive need-based aid. Students with a low need
will not qualify for need-based aid.
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 98
Private Student Loans: Student loans made by a lender such as a bank, credit union, state
agency, school or private organization. Many private student loans require payments while the
student is in school. Private student loans can have variable interest rates and often have
significantly higher interest rates than federal student loans. Private student loans are not
subsidized; interest accrues while the student is in school. Most private student loans require an
established credit record on the part of the student or a credit-worthy co-borrower. Often the
interest rate of the loan is tied to the borrower’s credit-worthiness. The maximum amount that a
student can borrow in this loan program is capped by their Cost of Attendance. Interest on
private student loans may not be tax deductible and there may not be income-based repayment
plans or the option to request a postponement in payment due to economic hardship or returning
to school.
Student Loans: Loans offered to students to pay for educational costs. Student loans are funds
that are borrowed and must be paid back with interest. Student loans can come from two sources:
the federal government (see Federal Student Loans) and private student loans (see Private
Student Loans).
William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan (Direct loan): This is a type of federal student loan. The
U.S. Department of Education is the lender. There are four types of Direct loan: The Direct
Subsidized Loan (Subsidized loan), The Direct Unsubsidized Loan (Unsubsidized loan), the
Direct PLUS Loan (PLUS), and the Direct Consolidation Loan (Consolidation loan).

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 99
Table 5
Key Definitions
Loan Program Borrower Maximum
Amount
Must
Demonstrate
Financial
Need? (Y/N)

Credit
Check?
(Y/N)
Repayment
Starts
Repayment
length
Subsidized?
(Y/N)
Direct
Consolidation
Loan
Graduate or
undergraduate
student
None (can only
consolidate
federal loans)

N N n/a 30 years N
Direct PLUS
Loan
Graduate
student or
parent of
undergraduate
student

Cost of
attendance
N Y After
graduation
or leaving
school.
10 N
Direct
Subsidized
Loan
Undergraduate
student
$5,500/year Y N After
graduation
or leaving
school.

10 Y
Direct
Unsubsidized
Loan
Graduate or
undergraduate
student
$2,000/year for
undergraduate-s,
$12,000 per year
for graduate
students

N N After
graduation
or leaving
school.
10 N
Federal
Perkins Loan
Graduate or
undergraduate
student
$5,500/year for
undergraduate-s,
$8,000/year for
graduate students

Y N After
graduation
or leaving
school.
10 Y
Private
Student Loan
Graduate or
undergraduate
student
Cost of
attendance
N Y Varies but
usually
after
student
graduates.

Varies N
Note. All definitions from the Federal Student Aid website at: studentaid.ed.gov

FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 100
Appendix B
Masters of Debt Interview Protocol
The purpose of this study is to gain a better understanding of the decisions that you have made
about paying for graduate school. The interview should take about an hour to complete.
Demographics
Age:
Gender:
Relationship:
Status:
Parental Status and number of children, if applicable:
Race/Ethnicity:
Parent’s education level:
Veteran Status:
Current city:
1. What master’s degree program are you currently enrolled in?
2. When did you begin and when do you expect to graduate?
3. What are your career goals?
4. Where did you go to undergrad?
a. What was your major?
b. Why did you choose it?
5. Describe your undergraduate experience with financial aid. Did you rely on the same
resources this time? Why or why not?
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 101
6. What is your current amount of outstanding educational loan debt from your
undergraduate work? Tell me about your understanding of financial aid and loan
indebtedness during that time.
a. How has your undergraduate student aid experience shaped your choices now?
7. Why did you choose to go graduate school at this time?
a. Did you apply to any other graduate schools or programs?
b. Why did you choose this school?
8. How does this degree fit into your next steps professionally?
9. How are you paying for this program? How were you able to secure this funding?
10. Please describe your decision-making process (i.e. Do you weigh pros and cons or
positives and negatives? Do you get advice from family and friends? Do you act on
impulse, a hunch or gut feeling? etc.)
11. Did you contact the financial aid office during your decision-making? If so, how did you
contact them and what kinds of information did you seek?
12. Who did you talk to when making the decision to take on debt for graduate school? What
did you talk about?
13. Are you a full time or part time student? Why did you decide to take courses at this pace?
14. Do you financially support anyone, besides yourself?
a. What are your living arrangements? (at home, with roommates/others etc.)
b. Do you pay or share bills with others? i.e. cell phone, utilities etc.
15. Do you work full time, part time, or as an intern or volunteer? How does this job, connect
to your master’s degree goals, if at all?
FEMALE GRADUATE STUDENTS AND STUDENT LOAN DEBT 102
16. What is your current amount of outstanding educational loan debt from your current
degree, if any?
17. Are you borrowing student loans to cover expenses beyond tuition and fees? How did
you decide how much to borrow?
18. How long will it take to pay your loans off? Do you know if there are any ways to reduce
or change your loan payments?
19. Did other outstanding debt impact your borrowing decisions? Either to borrow or not to
borrow?
20. Have you looked at the average salary for someone in your proposed profession who has
a master’s degree?
21. Do you see yourself continuing with additional education? Like another Master’s,
Professional Degree or PhD? Why or why not?
22. If you were to give advice to your sibling or cousin who was considering your degree
program goals from a financial aid perspective, what would you tell them?
23. Are there other comments that you would like to share?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine factors that influence a woman’s decisions to incur graduate student loan debt. This study incorporates qualitative research methods and Gilligan’s (1977) theory on women’s moral development to interpret an existing data set. Data collected from 50 female graduate students pursuing a master’s degree in the disciplines of education and health sciences were coded and analyzed. The findings revealed: (a) women rely on support from others when making decisions (b) women are not concerned with the details of their loan obligations (c) women do not factor in future earning potential when deciding to incur graduate debt. The following implications for practice were identified: (a) women must take into consideration that the advice they receive may be influenced by an individual’s perception of a woman’s role within society (b) women need to be encouraged to pursue majors with high earning potential (c) women should be empowered to understand the full scope of their loan obligations (d) women must be informed of the earning potential for their selected disciplines. Future research that will build upon the findings include: (a) examining factors that influence men to incur student loan debt, and determining if they are pushed to select careers based on interests or earning potential, (b) analyzing whether expected societal roles influence the advice that females receive when incurring graduate debt, (c) examining the decision-making process of women that enter majors in the social sciences, engineering, computer sciences.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Decision-making and graduate school debt: a focus on master’s degree students