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The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

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The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION, ECONOMICS, AND EDUCATIONAL
POLICY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS AND
EDUCATION IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING,
AND MATHEMATICS IN COSTA RICAN SCHOOLS
by
Michael D. Bertram
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2015
Copyright 2015 Michael D. Bertram
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2

Dedication
Getting an education in my family has always been a top priority. Direct from my
grandmother, Esther, this statement has resonated with me my entire life. She would be
so proud of me today if she were to see me at graduation. This journey was both chal-
lenging and rewarding, with so many peaks and valleys along the way. If it were not for
the love and support of my wonderful wife and children, I do not believe that I would
have made it.
Lynn has been my biggest fan and never once complained about my time away
from her and our kids. Life has thrown us so many curveballs lately, and she is the one
person who I am fortunate to have by my side. I thank my children−Dakota, Molly, Alex,
Steven, and Nathaniel−for their excitement and encouragement during this process. I
appreciate their wanting to read my dissertation even if they were just trying to be nice. I
enjoyed the evenings when we would do our own homework together at the kitchen table.
The saying, “It takes a village,” is an understatement. Without the leadership and
guidance from my friend, professor, and chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, this achievement
would not be possible. Dr. E. has been a great supporter of me throughout my profes-
sional career and personal life. I have been blessed to have him in my life.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3

Acknowledgments
I thank my dissertation committee: Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Pedro Garcia, and
Dr. John Garcia. This amazing group lent their time, guidance, and expertise in education
and in organizational leadership to me. Each had an influence on me that will last a life-
time, both as an educational leader and as a person.
Dr. Jan Britz, my district superintendent, has been my number one fan. She has
been extremely supportive in my return to Burbank High School. I will miss her. Without
the mentoring of Dr. John Garcia and Dr. Dick Sheehan, I do not believe I would be
where I am today. I thank my colleagues and Ed.D. classmates, Drs. John Paramo,
Thomas Crowther, Oscar Macias, and Melissa Kistler, for their support and friendship.
My Sixaola group—Douglas Rynerson, Jude Lucas-Rynerson, and Emy Flores—
shared some memorable moments on our journey across the beautiful country of Costa
Rica. Their support and teamwork will never be forgotten. Together we laughed, ran from
bugs, suffered in extreme heat, ate some incredible food, and met some amazing people.
This has etched a memory that will never be forgotten. My entire dissertation group has
been so supportive and provided a great deal of insight. Each person was able to bring
strength to the table that was valuable in this process.
Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft was the glue that held this process together. I have such high
admiration for this woman who has faced adversity and obstacles in her life. Her love of
life and fight for life is incredible. She has inspired me through the entire process. I am
proud to call her my friend. Finally, I acknowledge the wonderful people of Costa Rica.
They opened their doors and provided insight to a different culture that one cannot
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4

always experience. The students and teachers at Liceo Académico de Sixaola will forever
have a special place in my heart.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5

Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 13
Limitations of the Study 14
Delimitations of the Study 15
Assumptions of the Study 15
Definitions of Terms 16
Organization of the Dissertation 17
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 19
Globalization 20
Theoretical Perspectives of Globalization 24
History of Costa Rica 28
Economics of Costa Rica 33
CINDE 36
Foreign Direct Investment 38
Intel 40
Intel’s Selection of Costa Rica 42
Intel’s Impact on Costa Rica 43
Other Foreign Direct Investment 51
Education 53
21st-Century Skills 56
STEM 60
Project-Based Learning 65
Science and Technology Fairs 68
Conclusion: Education in the 21st Century 71
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 72
Frameworks 73
Research Design 74
Research Team 76
Population and Sample 76
Political Leaders and Education Policymakers 77
Multinational Corporation Executives 77
Costa Rican Educators and Students 78
Instrumentation 78
Interview Protocol 79
Survey Protocol 81
Observation Protocol 87
Documents 87
Data Collection 88
Data Analysis 90
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 91
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6

Assumptions 92
Ethical Considerations 92
Chapter 4: Research Findings 94
Globalization 95
STEM/PBL 96
Purpose of the Study 97
Participants 98
Location 100
Instrumentation 102
Results: Research Question 1 102
Business Officials 104
Government Officials 106
School Sites 109
Student 110
The ISEF Challenge 112
Results: Research Question 2 113
Business Officials 114
Government Officials 117
School Sites 119
Student 122
Results: Research Question 3 123
Business Officials 124
Government Officials 126
School Sites and Liceo Académico de Sixaola 128
Student 130
Discussion and Summary 130
Chapter 5: Findings and Recommendations 133
Summary of Findings 135
Limitations of the Study 139
Implications 140
Recommendations for Future Research 142
Conclusion 143
References 145
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter: English and Spanish Versions 156
Appendix B: School Leader Interview Protocol 158
Appendix C: Policy/Government Agency Interview Protocol 160
Appendix D: Business Leaders Interview Protocol 162
Appendix E: Student Interview Protocol 164
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Teachers and Administrators 166
Appendix G: Survey Protocol for Students 168
Appendix H: Classroom Observation Protocol 169
Appendix I: Science and Technology Fair Observation Protocol 172
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7

List of Tables
Table 1: Costa Rican Educational Cycles 55
Table 2: Alignment of Interview Protocol to Research Question (RQ)
and Theoretical Framework 82
Table 3: Alignment of Teacher/Administrator Survey Protocol Items to
Research Questions (RQ) and Theoretical Frameworks 84
Table 4: Alignment of Study Survey Protocol Items to Research Questions
(RQ) and Theoretical Frameworks 86
Table 5: Summary of Interviewees for Case Study 99
Table 6: Frequency of References to 21st-Century Skills in the Interviews 115
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8

Abstract
The past several decades have proven to be challenging to the educational system
of Costa Rica. The Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education has charged educators to
educate students who are technically literate and possess 21st-century skills. Globaliza-
tion and technological advances have created an environment of competition and an
increased challenge for countries to participate on a level playing field. Multinational
corporations (MNCs) have invested money and resources at all levels of the educational
system to develop students who are prepared for a global economy. The attraction of
foreign direct investment is greater than ever, as countries such as Costa Rica rely on
these investments to develop human capital.
Costa Rica has responded to the need to develop 21st-century learning skills in
their students. The country instituted a national mandate for all schools to participate in
the national science fair. The results of this study reveal that the country has focused on
increasing human capital through the use of Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) education. This study followed students who advanced from the
Costa Rican national science fair to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
in May 2014 in Los Angeles, California. The study examined the experiences of those
students in the local, regional, and national educational system and national economy.
The leaders of Costa Rican schools have faced pressures to ensure that their
students are adequately prepared to be productive citizens in a challenging global econ-
omy by ensuring that they have knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a labor
market that demands a new and specific set of skills, which most educational systems
around the world are not providing for their students. Specific shifts must occur to ensure
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9

that students possess 21st-century skills. In order to make these shifts, leaders in govern-
ment, industry, and education must play an active role.
Together with successful partnerships among government, business, and educa-
tion systems and the examination of a policy regarding STEM education curriculum,
including the national science mandate, the goal for students to thrive in the current
global economy will hopefully be achieved.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Globalization and MNCs have changed the way business and education are
conducted around the world (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). As the world becomes
more interconnected with the ease of accessibility to information and advancement in
technology, the workforce must be adequately prepared to respond to the demands of the
ever-changing global market. As the phenomenon of globalization expands around the
globe, so does its capitalist counterpart: MNCs. With foreign direct investment (FDI)
playing a role in developing nations, it is clear that the alignment of preparedness of
human capital and advances in technology provide the structure from which a nation’s
economic potential can derive (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009).
Over the past several decades, the country of Costa Rica has evolved due to
changes in economic and educational policy. Costa Rica was originally established as a
colony in the 1500s, and its economy was based in agricultural trade for many years
(Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). In order to compete in an increasingly globalized
economy, la Coalicion Costarricense de Iniciativas de Dearoollo (CINDE; 2006), a
private, nonpolitical, nonprofit organization, was formed in 1984 (Cordero & Paus, 2008;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). CINDE’s purpose was to promote FDI in Costa Rica, with the
goals of improving conditions for its citizens, increasing the appeal of the investment
environment in Costa Rica, and encouraging a global view by Costa Ricans. The Costa
Rican government worked in conjunction with CINDE to change Costa Rica’s economic
strategy and further develop the country’s resources.
The work by CINDE and the Costa Rican government paid off in 1996 when the
MNC Intel chose to invest in the country. To attract Intel, the highest levels of Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11

Rican government and organizations worked quickly and resourcefully to enhance the
country’s technical education, incentives law, regulation, and infrastructure (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). Intel’s choice to invest in Costa Rica immediately created a “signaling
effect” for other corporations, and Costa Rica’s economy was affected in its FDI inflows,
gross domestic product (GDP), trade, investment climate, and industry. Costa Rican soci-
ety was also greatly altered by Intel through social development and education (World
Bank Group, 2006).
As in many developing countries, the Costa Rican leadership discovered a
complex relationship between the country’s economic model and domestic learning
(Bruton, 1998). MNCs such as Intel that invested in Costa Rica required knowledge
workers to sustain the corporate investment. Moreover, Costa Rican leaders understood
the many externalities produced by education, which are the benefits that spill over and
help others in society (McMahon, 2010). While Costa Rica has always been recognized
for having a strong commitment to education, having a well-educated labor force has
become increasingly significant as globalization has spread and the world has become
more “flat” (Friedman, 2007). As a result, schools have begun to focus on the 21st-
century skills that are needed to keep the country competitive in the global economy.
One notable method that Costa Rican leadership has employed for increasing
21st-century skills has been the promotion of science and technology fairs. As early as
the 1960s, Costa Rican leadership promoted science fairs as a method to enhance science
education in the country. In 1987, the University of Costa Rica (UCR) developed the first
national science fair, and in 1990 the science fair process was formalized through passage
of the Science and Technology Development Promotion Act No. 7169 (Valencia, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12

By 2004, the Costa Rican government had asserted the importance of the science fairs via
a national decree (#31900 MEP-MICIT) that mandated institutional science fairs. The
science and technology fair concept has grown exponentially in Costa Rica, and it has
also become popular throughout the world as interest in engaging students in hands-on
research and learning has increased in the 21st century. The Costa Rican Ministry of
Education clearly sees science and technology fairs as a tool for leading their country into
the next century. A national emphasis on science and technology fairs fosters education
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and project-based learning
(PBL) strategies that can help students to develop 21st-century skills and create
knowledge workers for the global economy in today’s flat world.
Statement of the Problem
Since the early 1980s, the country of Costa Rica has undergone many changes due
to economic, political, and educational factors. To compete in an evolving global market,
a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-technology FDI. These
MNCs have brought new job opportunities to the country that require educational institu-
tions to produce knowledge-ready employees. Schools now face the challenge of helping
students to develop 21st-century skills in STEM to prepare the next generation of
workers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility on the curriculum and practices in schools in Costa
Rica. The relationship between STEM education and Costa Rican economic growth was
also studied. This study also examined how the mandated national science and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13

technology fair influences the use of PBL to build human capital and to prepare students
for 21st-century jobs, particularly in the TEM fields.
Research Questions
Three research questions were addressed in this study:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their prac-
tices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent are the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating national science and technology fair participation influ-
enced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and technology by
teachers across all curricular areas? How has it affected curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value of
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
Three frameworks were chosen to assist in addressing the research questions: (a)
Friedman’s (2007) framework of globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2010) seven survival skills
for the 21st century, and (c) Slough and Milam’s (2013) four design principles for PBL in
the STEM fields. This final framework was especially useful in understanding the use of
science and technology fairs in Costa Rica.
Significance of the Study
The impact of globalization can be seen in the economic and educational systems
of countries around the world. Costa Rica has revised its economic strategies over time to
attract FDI and engage in this global economy. Educational policy has also evolved to
meet the new demands of globalization. Wagner (2010) suggested seven survival skills
that today’s students must develop to adapt to the changes resulting from globalization.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14

One method for supporting the development of these 21st-century skills that Costa Rica
has used is implementation of a science and technology fair policy. This study analyzed
the impact of this policy by studying the 21st-century skills that are taught in schools, as
well as the impact of STEM PBL, using the framework provided by Slough and Milam
(2013).
The findings of this study may influence all stakeholders, such as political leaders
and policymakers, educational leaders, and science and technology fair leaders and par-
ticipating students throughout Costa Rica. The findings should influence the leaders of
the science and technology fair initiative, as well as political and educational leaders of
Costa Rica, regarding how to prepare students for the global market in the 21st century.
The findings can provide insight for future researchers as they seek to understand the
impact of globalization on schools and the methods that schools have used to implement
21st-century teaching and learning.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations are matters and circumstances that are beyond the control of the
researcher (Simon & Goes, 2011). One limitation of a qualitative study is the difficulty in
replicating research that occurs in a natural setting. The validity of the interviews and
surveys were limited to the responding participants and the reliability of the instruments.
Researchers should be aware of any bias that might occur during the study, as implica-
tions from the findings affect various financial and dependent relationships (Merriam,
2009).
Another limitation of this case study is that the findings were limited to a group of
people and are not generalizable. Time and distance posed additional limitations of this
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15

study. The study took place in an international setting over the course of a week, limiting
the interaction of the researcher and the participants. Working only with Intel schools
limited the data that were collected, as well as the diversity of the sample.
A final limitation of the study was a language barrier, requiring translation of
documents and interviews. To address this limitation, the research team worked in pairs
to ensure that an interpreter was present to support communication and collection of data.
Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations are limitations that result from specific choices made by the
researcher (Simon & Goes, 2011). The researchers in this study made choices about the
people and places to be studied, based on previous relationships established by the uni-
versity. Schools for the study were delimited to those in proximity to the city of San José
that had partnered with Intel. This study focused on a student who had participated suc-
cessfully in the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair and the teachers and
schools that influenced this student. The study focused on secondary schools, with no
consideration for socioeconomic status, race, or other demographic data.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions were made:
1. Globalization and MNCs are influencing the education system in Costa Rica.
2. The science and technology fair policy is being implemented at schools in
Costa Rica.
3. Students are being prepared with 21st-century skills through the use of STEM
PBL, influenced by the science and technology fair policy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16

4. The interview, survey, and observation protocols provided the research team
with accurate, reliable, and valid information about the practices and beliefs of schools
and leaders in Costa Rica.
5. A qualitative approach was appropriate for this study.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are utilized throughout the dissertation.
21st-century skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global, knowledge-
based economy: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leadership, agil-
ity and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, oral and written communication
skills, the ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination
(Wagner, 2010).
Corporate responsibility: Ethical corporate behavior that allows businesses to
reduce risks and costs, protect brands, and develop new market opportunities (Intel Cor-
poration, 2013).
Costa Rican Trade and Development Board (CINDE): A private, nonpolitical,
nonprofit organization created to promote FDI in Costa Rica to improve conditions for
Costa Ricans, increase the appeal of the investment environment in Costa Rica, and
encourage a global view for Costa Ricans (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Foreign direct investment (FDI): A cross-border investment by a company into
another economy with the purpose of obtaining a lasting interest; an important element in
international economic integration.
Globalization: The process of increasing connectivity and interdependence of the
world’s businesses and trade; the political, economic, and societal forces that continue to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17

push the world and its education system toward more international involvement (Altbach,
2004).
Project-based learning (PBL): One method for integrating STEM education and
supporting student development of 21st-century skills. PBL is a teaching method in
which students engage in a rigorous, extended process of inquiry focused on complex,
authentic questions and problems. PBL questions should be highly engaging and moti-
vating, and students must work collaboratively to solve the problem (Bender, 2012).
Science and technology fairs: A form of PBL used to promote interest in STEM
fields. In Costa Rica, participation in these fairs was mandated in 2006 through a national
decree (#31900 MEP-MICIT). The science and technology fair processes are ruled by the
guidelines of the National Science and Technology Fairs Program (PRONAFECYT), and
national science fair winners participate in the Intel International Science and Engineer-
ing Fair (ISEF).
STEM: The acronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
STEM is an integrated approach that relies on replacing traditional lecture-based teaching
strategies with approaches that are more project based and inquiry driven (Breiner,
Harkness, Johnson, & Koehler, 2012).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the study and
provides an overview. A statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research
questions, the significance of the study, and the definitions of key terms are presented.
In Chapter 2, the literature related to the study is reviewed. This chapter consists
of four major sections. The first section introduces the concept of globalization based on
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18

the framework provided by Friedman (2007). In the second section, the background and
history of Costa Rica are discussed, particularly the country’s evolution toward participa-
tion in globalized society. In the third section, the economic history of Costa Rica is dis-
cussed. This section describes the changes in policies and practices that have moved
Costa Rica from an agricultural economy to a knowledge-based economy. Specifically,
the work of CINDE in attracting FDI and the Intel Corporation is discussed and its eco-
nomic impact is analyzed. The fourth section describes educational practices in Costa
Rica and how they have been influenced by globalization and the country’s shift in eco-
nomic strategy. Practices such as 21st-century skills for teaching and learning, STEM
education, and PBL are discussed. Wagner’s (2010) framework of 21st-century skills and
Slough and Milam’s (2013) framework of STEM PBL are used to analyze these class-
room practices. The section concludes with a description of Costa Rica’s science and
technology fair practices and the country’s policy that mandates student participation.
Chapter 3 describes the research methodology used in the study. The qualitative
design of the research is discussed, as well as the specific methods used in a case study.
The research team, the population and sample of the study, and the instrumentation are
explained. Methods for collecting and analyzing data are described, as well as the ethical
considerations used in the study.
Chapter 4 presents the research findings, identifies themes, and analyzes data with
regard to each research question and the conceptual frameworks. Chapter 5 presents a
summary of the study, conclusions, possible implications for practice, and suggestions for
future research opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (Giuliani, 2008: Monge-González, Rosales-Tijerino, & Arce-
Alpizar, 2005). Due to a developed education system and increased cost of living, a new
economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to compete with an
ever-evolving global market (Ferreira, 2009; Larraín, Lopez-Calva, & Rodríguez-Clare,
2000). The resulting growth in technology as a major export has given new direction and
opportunity to this small Central American country. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica,
the school and university systems’ responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in
students has become increasingly challenging. These MNCs provide resources to schools
and train teachers on how to use technology effectively in the classroom to make learning
more dynamic and interactive (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
This literature review explores five key areas pertaining to the history of Costa
Rica and its evolution over the course of the globalization process. The first section
defines globalization, presents a discussion on the four major theoretical perspectives of
globalization (Spring, 2008), examines the impact of globalization on education, and
highlights the relevance of the language of commerce (Spring, 2008). The second section
highlights the history and development of Costa Rica and government, with an early
emphasis on education and the changing economy. The third section provides insight on
education in Costa Rica, including a close look at the Ministry of Public Education
(MEP), the decision-making process within the education system, the allocation of
resources, and reform efforts and conflicts that have arisen within the system. The fourth
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20

section identifies the companies that have invested in Costa Rica and the impact of that
investment on Costa Rica’s economy and education system. The fifth section is an over-
view of 21st-century skills, with details regarding the Framework for 21st-Century
Learning (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2012).
Globalization
Globalization is the process of international integration by which worldview,
products, ideas, and other aspects of culture have become more interconnected (Spring,
2008). Wagner (2010) asserted that central to globalization is the idea of education, or
providing societies with the knowledge and skills to compete in a more global market-
place. Chief executive officers of America’s most successful business firms have
declared that high schools must prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based
global economy. They assert that students must develop critical 21st-century skills and
understand globalization and its effects on societies, cultures, and the world’s economy
(Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2010).
This section describes the concept of globalization that was applied in this
research study. The four major perspectives identified by Spring (2008) are presented.
Once these two aspects are developed, the literature review details how globalization has
affected education and encouraged a language of commerce among participating nations.
Theodore Levitt was credited with coining the term globalization in 1985 to explain
changes in global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment
(Stromquist, 2002). Many technological advancements have occurred since 1985 that
have caused these global interrelationships to grow exponentially, increasingly affecting
the definition of globalization (Bradley, Hausman, & Nolan, 1993).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21

The historical conceptualizations of globalization and its theoretical perspectives
help in understanding the context in which MNCs in Costa Rica are creating new
demands and pressures to reform education (Spring, 2008). The new role of the educa-
tional professional establishes a foundation for responsibilities that school leaders and
educators must face to prepare students for the knowledge-based global economy
(Bottery, 2006).
Globalization began centuries ago as people traded with or conquered other
peoples or settled in places across world regions. The trans-Saharan trade across Africa to
Arabia, the Silk Road across Asia to Europe, and the Atlantic trade in humans from
Africa to the Americas were precursors of current global political and economic networks
and the issues of human rights, cultural imperialism, and exploitation of the environment.
As an economic force, globalization means increased power for organizations, people,
and investors who create and take advantage of global markets and new technologies.
Although globalization can provide economic benefits through access to new technolo-
gies and products that improve the quality of people’s lives, it can also increase eco-
nomic, environmental, and technological dislocations and inequities (Friedman, 2007).
According to Spring (2008), globalization is a change in economics that affects
production, consumption, and investment, which in turn affects large segments of the
world’s population. Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social
changes, of which education is a part. This direct impact is brought about by globaliza-
tion’s flattening of the world or flattening of the playing field, resulting in a need for an
educational system to prepare students to compete with students around the world and to
innovate and create rather than perform predesigned tasks (Friedman, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22

Friedman’s The World is Flat (2007) explained how the world has changed and
continues to transform at a constant, fast-moving pace that demands that educational
systems be responsive to these changes. Friedman (2007) argued that advances in tech-
nology have allowed corporations to expand into markets throughout the world and to tap
into human resources beyond national borders. Friedman used outsourcing as an example
of the need to be prepared to communicate and work with people around the world.
Daggett and Pedinotti (2005) expanded on Friedman’s idea about the need to
prepare students to compete at an international level. Daggett argued for the importance
of focusing on the sciences and leadership. He cited China and India as examples of
countries whose educational systems have excelled by focusing on the sciences and lead-
ership and who now rival countries such as the United States that have traditionally been
at the forefront of the global marketplace. Skills and competencies that must be devel-
oped to compete in the globalized 21st century include the ability to work with diverse
groups, leadership, and science and technology expertise (Daggett & Pedinotti, 2005;
Friedman, 2005).
Cabrera and Unruh (2012) noted that the world economy today barely resembles
that of 20 years ago. A handful of wealthy countries, mostly trading with each other or
importing raw commodities from poorer ones, no longer dominate global trade. Global
growth is not solely determined by innovations or industriousness of developed nations,
just as global health cannot be affected solely by the actions of a few. The world today is
truly global: inclusive, multidirectional, interlinked, and complex.
Globalization benefits have been distributed unevenly. International commerce
has consequences that are not always positive, many people have been excluded from
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23

global trade networks, and the very act of trade puts a burden on limited natural resources
and the climate. Despite unprecedented growth in world economic output and advances
in medicine and technology, billions of people still do not have access to clean water,
quality health care, a good education, or the opportunity to participate in the institutions
that will dramatically affect their lives and futures (Cabrera & Unruh, 2012).
Economists since David Ricardo (who first articulated the theory of comparative
advantage in 1817) have documented how market connections can bring significant bene-
fits, often in the form of economic growth and technological innovation. International
trade can bring about advances in personal productivity, health, efficient use of energy
and resources, and food production by allocating work to places where it can be carried
out comparatively better, faster, or cheaper. International investments can help to expand
markets for existing products, optimize use of existing capital, and transfer innovations
and technologies to locations where they can be best leveraged.
However, economic expansion and integration also bring challenges. Many of
those challenges are more extreme today than in the past, expressly because of increased
interconnection (even more than during the often-cited 19th-century wave of British-led
globalization). The global financial crisis that began in 2007 offers a case in point of how
seemingly local issues such as increased personal savings in China and rising U.S. home
values, low interest rates, and a large third-party market for securitized loan packages
could lead to a speculative bubble that, upon bursting, could reverberate around the world
to affect economies as distant as Iceland and Belgium. In 2011, a possible double-dip
global recession and a repeat of the contagion of a crisis that started with the public
finances of tiny Greece put the euro on the brink of insolvency.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24

The natural environment is taxed by increased connectivity and growth. People
have put severe pressure on supplies of resources and energy (Cabrera & Unruh, 2012),
resulting in dangerous levels of greenhouse gas emissions that are altering established
climate patterns. In efforts to slake hunger for more and more affordable fuel, nations
have incurred massive risks, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil rig catastrophe in the
Gulf of Mexico and the escape of radioactivity from the Fukushima nuclear reactor fol-
lowing the Japanese earthquake and tsunami of 2011. Global pressures extend beyond
energy. Increases in disposable income push demand for animal protein, in turn driving
demand for grains, commodities, and water. Mass urbanization challenges the supply of
fresh water, energy, and open space. HIV/AIDS, bird flu, swine flu, and other infectious
diseases can now spread at the speed of commercial aviation, turning local epidemics into
regional or even global pandemics. Poverty and hunger, security, universal education,
affordable public health care, equality, and human rights are at once global and local,
interlinked, multifaceted, and complex.
The world needs leaders to capture global opportunities and solve global prob-
lems, sometimes with the same vision. Global leaders are needed to engage with busi-
nesses, governments, and nongovernmental organizations, to bridge the distances
between these disparate players, all of whom have something to contribute on the path to
shared prosperity and sustainability.
Theoretical Perspectives of Globalization
Spring (2008) identified four major theoretical perspectives from the impact of
globalization on education: the world culture view, the world systems approach, a post-
colonial analysis, and a culturalist approach. According to Spring (2008), the world
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25

culture view is based on the premise that contains Western ideals of mass schooling,
centered on the idea that schooling is based on a belief that all children have the right to
an education and that education is of utmost importance in maintaining economic and
democratic rights. The central beliefs in a world educational culture are based on educa-
tional rights, equality, and freedom. Meyer, Kamens, and Benavot (1992) argued that one
single global curriculum for K–12 schools should be developed because educators
already draw from the best models in various nations. The world systems approach sees
the world as integrated but as with two major unequal parts: the United States and the
European Union and Japan comprising the powerful half.
World systems theorists (Chase-Dunn, 1999; Wallerstein, 2004) have focused on
economics, arguing that countries do not have domestic economies but rather are part of a
world economy system that is built on integration of capitalism across the globe.
Wallerstein (2004) argued that the world system consists of core nations (i.e., the devel-
oped and industrialized parts of the world) and periphery nations (i.e., the poor and unde-
veloped parts of the world). In the world system, core countries exploit the periphery
nations through dominance of trade and the world’s financial resources. These core
countries provide international educational assistance to the periphery nations in the form
of MNCs, aid agencies, and corporate foundations while maintaining an inequitable class
system (Clayton, 1998). Although the core countries provide international educational
assistance, they do so to support their own values, ideologies, and interests (Clayton,
1998; Wallerstein, 2004). World systems theorists view Costa Rica as a periphery nation
and the United States as a core nation because the majority of MNCs in Costa Rica began
operation in the United States.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26

Postcolonialists see globalization as a tool to set economic and political agendas
that will benefit the rich at the expense of the poor (Brown & Lauder, 2006). Through
this lens, MNCs are seen as exploitative and everything they do is considered to be done
for their economic benefit. Analysts have concluded that European cultural imperialism
has resulted in establishment of Western-style schools around the world (Spring, 2008).
Apple, Kenway, and Singh (2005) argued that postcolonial analysis sees globalization as
a process by which wealthy nations impose their political and economic agendas on the
global society at the expense of poor nations.
According to Becker (1994) and Spring (2008), postcolonialism appeared after
World War II in the form of trade agreements, international governmental organizations,
and MNCs. Crossley and Tikly (2004) explained that the postcolonial perspective views
education as an economic investment with a purpose to serve MNCs through human
capital development. Issues such as inequity, race, culture, class, gender, and the never-
ending struggle of indigenous people to have their rights recognized are common in the
postcolonial perspective of globalization (Crossley & Tikly, 2004; Spring, 2008). Post-
colonial theorists view Costa Rica as a poor nation in which wealthy MNCs are imposing
their economic agendas to develop human capital for their benefit.
The culturalist perspective draws from anthropology and presumes an exchange
between local and foreign educational systems to create a new global culture. This per-
spective conceives that, in addition to human capital, facets of education such as envi-
ronmental, religious, and human rights contribute to this new global culture, which
extends beyond the educational system (Anderson-Levitt, 2005). In this view, the best
education involves studying the interactions between local cultures and world cultures
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27

(Baker & LeTendre, 2005; Hayhoe & Pan, 2001). Hayhoe and Pan (2001) argued that the
greatest importance of education is the study of other cultures throughout the world and
students gaining the ability to learn lessons from them. Banks and Wasley (2005) sug-
gested a global framework to educate students about the importance of globalization.
Their framework includes principles, such as global interconnectedness and student par-
ticipation, as well as various related concepts such as democracy, diversity, identity, and
multiple perspectives. Educators are charged with the difficult task of helping students to
gain awareness and understanding of peoples and cultures beyond their national borders.
This task includes familiarizing students with people closer to home whom they view as
different, such as peers, teachers, and other members of the school community.
These four theoretical perspectives of globalization offer different insights into
how MNCs are influencing the education system in Costa Rica. World culture theorists
perceive the impact as positive because school curricula are enhanced through support
from MNCs and new technology. These theorist have concluded that the country’s edu-
cational equity is improving due to rapidly improving resources and technology provided
by MNCs in hundreds of schools. On the other hand, many world system theorists would
argue that MNCs are exploiting Costa Rica to support their own interests, including
decreased costs of labor and overall operation of facilities. Consistent with the world
system perspective is the postcolonial analysis that views the impact of MNCs as ex-
ploitive and negative. Postcolonial theorists contend that the presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica causes more inequity and widens the gap among classes, especially with the nearly
forgotten indigenous people of the country. The culturalist theorists’ perspective offers
important insight into how the role of the educational professional has evolved to include
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28

new responsibilities essential for development of 21st-century skills in students. Which-
ever view one espouses, it is obvious that globalization has played and continues to play a
major role in shaping national education systems. It is important to acknowledge these
four perspectives as background knowledge because this study focuses on the Costa
Rican culture that may have a different perspective on education from that held in the
United States.
History of Costa Rica
To understand the current education system in Costa Rica, it is important to
understand the political, economic, and academic history of this nation. This background
information provides a platform from which the study builds perspective and under-
standing of the education system’s origination. Compared to other developing countries
in Central America, Costa Rica is the exception to many characterizations that depict its
neighbors. Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica eliminated its army in 1949, its illiteracy and
infant mortality rates are among the lowest in the region, it has a strong healthcare
system, and it has a history of peace and stability (Sick, 1999). These characteristics have
often resulted in Costa Rica being referred to as the Switzerland of Central America. This
comparison expands even more when it is considered that Costa Rica was the first coun-
try in the area to attract MNCs and significant FDI (Mirchandani & Condo, 2005).
Costa Rica, the Spanish term for “rich coast,” was named either by Christopher
Columbus, who sailed to the country’s eastern shores off the Caribbean Sea in 1502, or
by conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the country’s west coast off the
Pacific Ocean in 1522 (Booth, 2008). The country, located south of Nicaragua and north
of Panama in Central America, is the original home to eight indigenous ethnic groups that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29

date to pre-Columbian times, before the 16th century (Molina & Palmer, 1998). Today,
the country’s indigenous people comprise less than 2% of the total population. The
Spanish colonial period lasted for more than 3 centuries: from 1502, when Columbus
arrived, to 1821, when Costa Rica declared independence from Spain (Booth, 2008;
Molina & Palmer, 1998).
During the colonial period, Costa Rica was known as the poorest colony in Span-
ish America and had a population of only approximately 2,000 (Booth, 2008). Despite its
being named “rich “coast by Columbus or Dávila, the Spanish found little to no gold or
other valuable minerals. Costa Rica was an isolated region within the Spanish empire due
to its distance from the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Guatemala to the
north. In addition, Spanish law, which prohibited trade with Costa Rica’s neighbors to the
south in the Viceroyalty of New Granada (present-day Colombia), further isolated the
region and led to increased conditions of poverty (Booth, 2008; Molina & Palmer, 1998).
Spanish expeditions conquered part of the indigenous population from 1502 to 1560
(Booth, 2008). The lack of a large indigenous labor force caused most Spanish settlers to
work on their own land and prevented establishment of any type of hacienda system,
which was prevalent throughout Spanish America. Costa Rica became a “rural democ-
racy,” where landowners lived in relative poverty in an autonomous and individualistic
agrarian society (Molina & Palmer, 1998). According to Booth (2008), this civilian-ruled
society evolved with few disputes and no conflicts with armed forces until the mid-19th
century.
Gudmundson (1986) noted that Costa Rica’s democracy developed further after
the region joined other Central American provinces in a joint declaration of independence
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30

from Spain in 1821. As the population began to grow to 270,000, the coffee boom began
and drove Costa Rica’s economic growth and social change during the 1800s. The period
from 1821 to 1905 was also known as a time of instability, conflict, and militarism
(Booth, 2008; Gudmundson, 1986). Large-scale coffee producers and exporters formed
an aristocracy that began to dominate politics. In the resulting inequality, politicians from
the coffee elite competed for power. Elections were manipulated and military force was
used to seize power; 17% of Costa Rica’s presidents were toppled by coups (Booth,
2008). Between 1824 and 1905, 36% of the period was spent under military rule (Booth,
2008; Gudmundson, 1986). According to Molina and Palmer (1998), the armed forces
became more powerful after the Central American War of 1857, and laws establishing
free and honest elections were passed in 1848 and 1861.
In 1889, the first presidential election with political parties was held; both the
church and political parties campaigned for social justice (Booth, 2008; Molina &
Palmer, 1998). The election was the start of an era of peaceful democracy that has con-
tinued until today, with only two disruptions: (a) 1917–1919, when the country was under
a dictatorship led by Federico Tinoco due to a recession and labor turmoil; and (b) 1948,
when the 44-day Costa Rican civil war was led by José Figueres Ferrer.
During the early 20th century, the country’s economy grew for several decades as
coffee and banana exports soared. However, during the Great Depression from 1929 to
1940, class conflict and political turmoil among the growing working and middle classes
and the nation’s aristocracy became widespread. In 1931, a new Communist party orga-
nized successful strikes among banana workers and further divided the country’s growing
political parties (Booth, 2008; Molina & Palmer, 1998).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31

According to Kantor (1954) and López (1996), Costa Rica experienced a period
of crisis and reorganization due to new classes and political parties coming to power in
the 1940s. After the 6-week civil war in 1948, José Figueres abolished the army and
created a fair electoral system while passing a revised version of the 1871 Constitution in
1949 (Booth, 2008; López, 1996). The 1949 Constitution introduced female and Black
suffrage, encouraged citizen participation in voting during elections, and laid the founda-
tion for the most stable democracy in Latin America (Booth, 2008; Kantor, 1954). When
José Figueres was elected president in 1953, he set out to transform Costa Rica into an
industrial country under his “New Deal” democratic government (Kantor, 1954).
In 1951, President Don Pepe carried out his mission to turn Costa Rica into a
welfare state. Many public programs were supported, such as education, urban develop-
ment, and state agricultural programs. However, to pay for such programs, income taxes
were again increased on the wealthy, notably the coffee barons and the United Fruit
Company (Mosheim, 2002). The completion of the Pan-American Highway in the 1950s
provided a system of infrastructure from which the country greatly benefited. Export
prices were favorable during the first 2 decades of the post-World War II period, and
local manufacturing grew rapidly during the 1960s after Costa Rica joined its four neigh-
bors to establish the Central American Common Market (CACM; Nathan Associates,
2003). Due to seemingly strong export conditions, the Costa Rican government turned its
focus on internal problems. However, this strategy failed to keep abreast of the multiply-
ing international debt that Costa Rica was accruing. The full crisis began in 1971 when
the United States decided to stop inflation using tight monetary policy and Costa Rica
was bankrupt. It was not until the 1980s, with a change in governmental power, that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32

Costa Rica entered into agreements with the International Monetary Fund and began to
pull itself out of the economic crisis (Rosenberg, 1979).
During the 1950s, Figueres’s government encouraged a strong middle class by
stressing the importance of education (Kantor, 1954). The new middle class was able to
compete with the traditional aristocracy through opportunities made available to them in
education (Kantor, 1954; Molina & Palmer, 1998). In addition to educational opportuni-
ties and the value placed on them, the abolition of the army and Figueres’s pledge to
intensify the economic development of Costa Rica further solidified the country’s history
of democratic stability (Kantor, 1954; López, 1996). According to Kantor (1954),
Figueres’s “New Deal” government modernized production of coffee and other agricul-
tural resources, jump started the tourist industry, and improved the social security system,
public healthcare system, and education system. Since then, Costa Rica has had 13 con-
secutive presidential elections held in a peaceful and fair manner (CINDE, Department of
Research, 2011). Most recently, the first woman president, Laura Chinchilla, was elected
in 2010.
Today, Costa Rica has a population of more than 4.6 million and spends 6.3% of
its GDP on education (CINDE, Department of Research, 2011). Once an economy based
solely on coffee and bananas, Costa Rica now thrives on technology exports and eco-
tourism. Companies such as Intel and Microsoft have established operations in Costa
Rica and have invested hundreds of millions of dollars (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The presence of
more than 200 MNCs emphasizes the need for the country’s education system to prepare
students to compete in the knowledge-based global economy. Although Costa Rica has a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33

95% literacy rate, school leaders and educators are faced with the challenge of develop-
ing 21st-century skills in students and teaching them how to use technology effectively.
Economics of Costa Rica
The economy of Costa Rica has changed dramatically over the past 50 years.
Costa Rica was an agricultural country historically, with coffee and bananas as its main
exports. Coffee was introduced to Costa Rica at the end of the 18th century. Because
Costa Rica’s conditions were perfect for its growth, by 1829 coffee surpassed cacao,
tobacco, and sugar as the nation’s major source of foreign revenue. In 1836, Braulio Car-
rillo became head of state and greatly encouraged the cultivation of coffee. Carrillo
donated publicly owned land to anyone who would plant coffee trees on it, and he built
roads to bring coffee to the market (Biesanz et al., 1999). In 1843, the foreign market was
enhanced when an English captain took sacks of coffee beans, known as grano de oro, or
grain of gold, back to England, where it was well received.
In 1940, coffee represented 53% of Costa Rica’s total exports and bananas made
up 25% of the total exports. During the 1960s, the country’s economic development
focused on the internal market and the CACM (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Gua-
temala, and Nicaragua). When the CACM was established in 1963, most tariffs on
international trade were eliminated and the five countries agreed on a common tariff for
goods imported from outside Central America (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008).
At this time, the country’s economic development strategy was the import substi-
tution model, which was used by many developing countries during the mid-20th century.
The import substitution model is founded on a plan for low-income countries to compete
with high-income countries through industrialization. In this economic strategy, in order
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34

for low-income countries to industrialize in light of the existence of other highly produc-
tive, high-income countries, the low-income countries must protect their economies from
imports from wealthier countries. Instead, the developing country must focus on putting
new activities in place that will produce a variety of manufactured products that are cur-
rently imported. The goal of this process is to allow the low-income country to engage in
trade globally (Bruton, 1998). However, due to the internal structural issues of the import
substitution model, Costa Rica began to suffer a reduction in GDP per capita, an increase
in the level of unemployment, an increase in currency problems, and a decrease in private
investments.
As a result of Costa Rica’s economic struggles, a shift was made from the import
substitution model to an export promotion model. The export promotion model repre-
sented increased confidence in the market and a strong commitment to exporting nontra-
ditional products (Bruton, 1998). In developing countries around the world, an emphasis
was placed on eliminating price distortions and recognition of the power of comparative
advantage. Private foreign investment was accepted and encouraged, and the goal of
becoming globally competitive grew in importance for these low-income countries
(Bruton, 1998).
For Costa Rica, the export promotion model was based on trade liberalization,
including access to the U.S. market through the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) and
systems of fiscal incentives. The first incentive was the Export Processing Zone regime,
which permitted companies to import equipment and inputs tax free. It also allowed them
to avoid paying income tax for 8 years and pay only half of the due taxes for the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35

following 4 years. This was the first system in Costa Rica designed to attract FDI
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The second fiscal incentive of Costa Rica’s export promotion model was the
export contract, which allowed companies to receive a subsidy equivalent to 10% of their
export value. This system helped domestic companies to change their strategy from one
designed for domestic and CACM to one of competition in open world markets. This new
economic strategy also helped to diversify the country’s exports from dependence on
bananas and coffee (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The subsidy incentive was also designed to
compensate exporters for Costa Rica’s inefficiencies in public services needed for busi-
ness, such as telecommunications, electricity, and travel, and for the high cost of financial
services in the country. At that time, many monopolistic structures in the finance indus-
tries of insurance and banking kept costs high (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
As Costa Rica shifted its economic strategy, the country diversified its exports by
sending more nontraditional products to more non-CACM countries. Competitive prices,
on-time production, and quality control became important aspects of the country’s new
political philosophy for success. As a result, Costa Rica’s standing in the international
community began to improve, and the country’s economy grew moderately at the end of
the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Unfortunately, although there were benefits to the new economic strategy, it also
placed a heavy burden on the country’s fiscal system. By the 1990s, a public debate had
developed in Costa Rica around trade liberalization, the economic incentives, and struc-
tural reform. Organized producers argued for incentives and protection of local industry
to compensate for the country’s inefficiencies in areas of the financial sector,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36

telecommunications, and infrastructure (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Some policymakers and
economists argued for elimination of incentives and distortions through structural reform.
However, reform progress was extremely slow as a result of strong opposition from
public-sector unions. Congress faced challenges in passing bills due to a lack of a strong
majority by the governing party and Congressional procedures that encouraged filibuster
practices (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Throughout this time of debate about structural reform, politicians discussed poli-
cies and programs to support science and technology. However, due to a lack of sub-
stance and funding, the existing programs were small and had very little influence on the
economy. The first true impact on the Costa Rican economy did not develop from these
initiatives, but from CINDE (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
CINDE
Founded in 1982 and made a public interest by the Costa Rican government in
1984, CINDE is a private, nonpolitical, nonprofit organization. CINDE was created by
prominent business people, supported by the Costa Rican government, and financed by
grants from USAID (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). CINDE’s purpose
is to promote FDI in Costa Rica to improve conditions for its people, increase the appeal
of the investment environment in Costa Rica, and encourage a global view for Costa
Ricans. Over time, CINDE has gained expertise regarding promotion of Costa Rica
abroad and attraction of FDI to the country. CINDE has achieved success because it is
nonpolitical and nongovernmental, which has allowed it to utilize a long-term strategy
with continuous programs without the impact of government changes (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37

In the early 1990s, CINDE recognized that Costa Rica was not as competitive as
other members of the CBI in industries that were unskilled labor intensive. The North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) also provided Mexico with better access to
the U.S. market, and CINDE began to lose some of its USAID funding. As a result of
these circumstances, CINDE chose to focus its efforts to attract FDI to the country by
working with fewer, better-matched sectors for Costa Rica’s higher education levels and
skilled-labor-intensive industries (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In 1993, CINDE’s strategic plan concentrated on sectors associated with the elec-
trical, electronic, and telecommunication industries. These sectors were experiencing fast
growth in the United States and had begun to search for low-cost locations around the
world. CINDE believed that these industries were a good match for Costa Rica because
the country could provide a large supply of technicians and engineers at a relatively low
cost. Moreover, Costa Rica could offer widespread knowledge of the English language, a
political system that was well known for being democratic and stable, and a developed
legal system with low levels of corruption. The high quality of life in the country, good
access to health care for residents, cultural amenities and entertainment, and natural
resources were also selling points for CINDE. Costa Rica could show past success with
FDI through the companies in the electronics sector that had already been established,
including Motorola, Trimpot, Espion, and Sylvania (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). By 1995, CINDE’s strategy for attracting FDI paid off when the DSC
Communications Corporation chose to make the largest industrial investment in the
country to that point and establish a manufacturing plant in Costa Rica. Companies such
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38

as Sawtel Inc., Merrimac Industries, and REMEC also chose to invest in Costa Rica
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
As CINDE achieved success in attracting FDI, it also grew in its understanding of
the industry. The organization soon realized that, although it had a competitive advantage
with other members of CBI, Costa Rica now needed to compete with other regions of the
world, including countries such as Ireland, Chile, Israel, and Thailand. The economy of
Costa Rica had grown stagnant by 1996 as a result of an advantage loss in apparel manu-
facturing and tumbling banana and coffee prices. CINDE knew that, more than ever, FDI
would be the catalyst for revitalizing the country. CINDE saw the need to be intentional
in growing the electronics sector and attracting “big fish” investors (World Bank Group,
2006).
Foreign Direct Investment
Despite growth in FDI in Costa Rica since the time of CINDE’s creation, in the
mid-1990s CINDE recognized persistent weaknesses in Costa Rica’s economy that had to
be addressed if the country were to attract FDI in electronics. CINDE needed to develop a
deeper understanding of the electronics industry in order to clearly define its high-
technology FDI attraction strategy. As a result, in 1996, CINDE hired the Foreign
Investment Advisory Service (FIAS) to develop “A Strategy for Foreign Investment in
Costa Rica’s Electronics Industry” (FIAS, 1996; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The FIAS (1996) study revealed a basis for expansion of FDI in the electronics
industry in Costa Rica. FIAS recommended that the country focus on products with
smaller production runs requiring extensive input of skilled labor for set-up and testing,
rather than mass-marketed products. FIAS grouped the most attractive niches for the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39

country to focus on into four basic areas of technology: power technologies, personal
computer cards and surface mount technologies, system integration technologies, and call
centers (FIAS, 1996). According to FIAS, these products best matched the main
advantage of Costa Rican industry: a labor force that is well educated in relation to its
cost. In addition, FIAS pointed out that Costa Rica’s educated labor force covered a wide
range of skills, from technicians to operatives to engineers, and had widespread
knowledge of the English language. FIAS recognized industries that were already in
place in Costa Rica that were doing some work in the electronics industry and encour-
aged the country to take advantage of the substantial opportunity to develop call centers
to support this growing industry.
In addition to creating call centers to support the electronics industry, FIAS
(1996) suggested that Costa Rica promote other sectors that provide for electronics, such
as metalworking, mold making, plastics, and equipment service and repair. By doing this,
the country would develop clusters and increase its competitiveness with other nations.
FIAS recommended that Costa Rica not only concentrate on attracting FDI in these areas
but also use backward linkage programs for domestic growth in these industries.
FIAS (1996) identified several obstacles that Costa Rica faced in development of
the electronics sector. FIAS recommended improvements in Costa Rica’s intellectual
property rights laws. It also noted weaknesses in the country’s telecommunications and
transportation infrastructure. FIAS contended that Costa Rica still did not graduate
enough technicians and engineers with English proficiency from its educational centers.
The FIAS (1996) study was accepted by CINDE and used as the basis for its
strategic plan in the following years. CINDE defined its objective as positioning Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40

Rica to be the center for electronics manufacturing in the Americas, and it reinforced the
idea suggested by FIAS of developing clusters in certain skilled-intensive sectors to
increase competitiveness (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). For the remainder of President
Figueres’s time in office (1997–1998), the attraction of FDI, an orientation toward high-
technology companies, and the cluster strategy became national priorities (Nelson, 2005;
World Bank Group, 2006). Important connections were made between Harvard Business
School, INCAE (the Costa Rican business school), the Costa Rican government, and
CINDE. President Figueres met with Michael Porter, a renowned business strategist and
father of the cluster development theory, on several occasions to discuss Costa Rica’s
strategy. Costa Rican officials visited countries such as Singapore, Japan, Malaysia, and
the Philippines to learn about the Local Industry Upgrade programs in these countries
(World Bank Group, 2006).
These collaborative efforts helped Costa Rica to develop a strategic plan and
create an appealing environment for MNCs. In what was known as transnational learning
capacity, the Costa Rican government grew in its ability to learn about prospective
foreign investors, global business trends influencing investors, and benefits that the
investors could offer to the country (Nelson, 2005). In turn, Costa Rica developed its own
assets that could be offered to MNCs in which the country had an interest.
Intel
As the Costa Rican government and CINDE grew in understanding of the elec-
tronics industry and developed FDI attraction strategies, the country learned that Intel
was starting a site selection process to build an assembly and testing plant for one of its
new chips. At the start of the process, Costa Rica was not on Intel’s list of potential
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41

places for investment. Intel had annual revenues of more than $20 billion, and its gross
sales were nearly two times the GDP of Costa Rica. Costa Rica is a relatively small
country, with a population of only 3.5 million at the time. Intel’s plan required a campus
accommodating four plants and employing 3,500 people over time, eventually reaching a
total investment of over $500 million (World Bank Group, 2006). Despite the odds,
CINDE began to work on a campaign to attract Intel to the country. By November 1995,
CINDE had put together an effective presentation of Costa Rica and entered the list of
countries for Intel’s site (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In April 1996, Intel visited Costa Rica, and Costa Rica joined the countries at the
top of Intel’s list, which included Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, India, Indonesia,
Korea, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Intel dropped the Asian countries from the list because it already had plants in three
Asian countries (China, Malaysia, and Philippines) and wanted to diversify. As Intel con-
ducted research and made additional visits to the countries on its list, it eventually nar-
rowed its options to Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Chile was eliminated due to
its air transportation logistics and lack of emphasis on the electronics sector, Brazil’s
business environment at the time was not seen as a good fit for Intel’s operation, and
Mexico was rejected due to its union rules and overly specific incentives (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). Therefore, as a result of Costa Rica’s meticulous research and demonstra-
tion to Intel regarding its ideal investment climate, Intel announced its choice to establish
operations in Costa Rica in November 1996.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42

Intel’s Selection of Costa Rica
In order to attract Intel, the highest levels of Costa Rican government and organi-
zations worked quickly and resourcefully to enhance the country’s technical education,
incentives law, regulations, and infrastructure. Several factors contributed to Intel’s
choice to invest in Costa Rica. First and foremost, the general characteristics of the coun-
try provided a favorable environment to attract a skill-intensive FDI such as Intel. The
country boasts political and social stability, high quality of life, and a stable legal system
with low levels of corruption (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998). Thanks to the shift in
economic strategy, Costa Rica also provided an environment with relatively high levels
of economic freedom, particularly in capital flow and international trade. The country’s
focus on education produced acceptable levels of English and relatively high education
levels among its citizens, including engineers and technical operators, at low cost. The
pro-business environment was also an asset for Costa Rica. Much of the work environ-
ment was nonunion and the business industry had a favorable attitude toward FDI.
Finally, Costa Rica boasted a good location and transportation system, and procedures
and conditions were established that created incentives for the corporation (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998).
The second factor that influenced Intel’s choice to invest in Costa Rica was the
country’s emphasis on attracting FDI and its growing achievement in this area. Former
successful FDI investments provided credibility to the proposal that CINDE and the
Costa Rican government presented to Intel, revealing that the country had both the pro-
fessional human capital and the resources that Intel needed for its operations. During its
site selection process, Intel spoke with representatives of several high-technology
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43

multinational organizations that already had plants in Costa Rica. Glowing reports about
Costa Rica from executives of companies such as Baxter and DSC helped Costa Rica to
rise to the top of Intel’s list of investment sites (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998).
CINDE played a major role in convincing Intel to consider Costa Rica as the site
for its plant as it helped Intel to conduct research and obtain credible and consistent
information. CINDE demonstrated that it was a knowledgeable, aggressive, and effective
foreign promotion agency in its work with Intel. Moreover, its credibility and connections
with the Costa Rican government allowed it to play an important role in linking Intel
executives and government officials (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998).
Like CINDE, the Costa Rican government was a vital part of Intel’s decision to
invest in Costa Rica. The government collaborated with CINDE and showed that it also
understood the significance of an Intel investment. Costa Rica’s president coordinated
and motivated other areas of government to help Intel as much as possible within the
laws of the country. The Costa Rican government was diligent in responding to areas of
concern that Intel presented, such as the country’s taxes, electricity, and education
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998). The President was personally involved in meeting
with Intel’s executives and discussing these concerns. Unlike Mexico, the Costa Rican
government addressed Intel’s issues in a very generalizable way that could also meet the
needs of other MNCs. Reforms improved Costa Rica’s overall competitiveness and
garnered support throughout the country (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998).
Intel’s Impact on Costa Rica
Although Costa Rica at first appeared to be an unlikely match for Intel, collabora-
tion by the highest levels of government and CINDE to conduct meticulous research and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44

use precision to demonstrate how the country’s climate would meet the project’s
requirements paid off. Construction on an A&T plant began in April 1997 and validated
Intel’s satisfaction in the investment climate that Costa Rica had created (World Bank
Group, 2006). The first project that Intel established in Costa Rica was a $300 million
“Greenfield,” a 52-hectare assembly and tester campus for Intel’s server uP, desktop
computer CPUs, and chipsets. This project required about 2,000 employees in two plants.
In 2003, Intel’s volume of products assembled and tested in Costa Rica was 22-25% of
total sales. Intel then invested $260 million in expansions, including a new building and
new services. The Costa Rican campus reflected an cumulative investment of $770
million, 2,900 employees, and 2,000 indirect jobs (World Bank Group, 2006).
Intel Costa Rica also expanded into services with its Latin America Engineering
Services group in 2000. This move incorporated more than 100 engineers to provide
global engineering support in circuit design and validation and included about 40 engi-
neers to develop enabling code for microprocessors. In 2004, a financial services group
was established to provide services for the corporation in Costa Rica. Intel Costa Rica
expanded its services unit by adding procurement and technical assistance, which now
comprises five areas referred to as the “shared services group” (World Bank Group,
2006). A one-person venture called Intel Capital for Latin America has been established
in Costa Rica to identify and invest in technology companies that complement Intel’s
work (World Bank Group, 2006).
Overall, the most immediate strategic impact of Intel’s investment was a signifi-
cantly better image for the country’s FDI. The choice by Intel to invest in Costa Rica
created a “signaling effect,” a concept that is recognized and appreciated by investing
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45

companies (World Bank Group, 2006). Intel had done a great deal of research before
choosing Costa Rica, and this paved the way for other investors to follow Intel’s lead.
The investment made international headlines and immediately put the country on the map
for companies around the world. In a survey conducted in 1999, 72% of potential
investors had heard, seen, and read more about Costa Rica as a prospective investment
following Intel’s decision (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rican media began to cover
FDI and exports, Intel and other investment projects, and foreign investment matters that
had not been a focus before Intel’s arrival in the country. This increased flow of infor-
mation within Costa Rica and around the world helped to establish the importance of FDI
in Costa Rica (World Bank Group, 2006).
Both the Costa Rican government and CINDE recognized the power of Intel’s
signaling effect and used the opportunity to attract other companies. Intel’s decision
raised confidence in Costa Rica as a place to invest, and in a short time, CINDE attracted
the attention of other top technology companies that had previously not been receptive to
Costa Rica (World Bank Group, 2006). In fact, on the day Intel announced its investment
decision, Costa Rica’s Minister of Foreign Trade predicted that the country could attract
about 40 Intel satellite companies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel also worked in coopera-
tion with Costa Rica by meeting with potential investors and discussing their decision-
making process (World Bank Group, 2006). Between 1997 and 2000, a strong working
relationship was forged by the Costa Rican government, CINDE, and foreign investors. A
private-sector team made up of the country’s President, various ministers, top industry
executives, and CINDE cooperated to promote the country for investment. Confidence
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46

was raised within the country and abroad as a result of this cohesion, which showed
strong leadership involvement and high investor satisfaction (World Bank Group, 2006).
In addition to the signaling effect that Intel produced for Costa Rica in attracting
FDI, Intel’s choice to invest in Costa Rica began a ripple effect across several dimensions
of the country’s economy and society. Costa Rica’s economy was influenced in its FDI
inflows, GDP, trade, investment climate, and industry. Costa Rican society was also
greatly altered by Intel through social development and education (World Bank Group,
2006).
The economy of Costa Rica underwent significant changes as a result of Intel’s
disproportionately large investment in the small economy of the country. Economists
began to measure the economy both with and without Intel, resulting in a dual set of
macroeconomic statistics dubbed the “Intel effect” (World Bank Group, 2006). In addi-
tion to the investment inflows from Intel that began in 1997 and skyrocketed in 1998 and
1999, Costa Rica received more than $600 million in new FDI, an increase of approxi-
mately 50% over the 1996-1997 average. By 2004, Intel had invested more than $510
million in Costa Rica, which helped the country to survive the economic downturn in the
region better than the other Latin American countries. Between 1999 and 2003, Costa
Rica’s economy fell just 7%, compared to the average in the region of 55% (World Bank
Group, 2006).
Costa Rica’s GDP and import/export rates have also been tied to Intel. In 1997 to
1999, GDP and GDP per capita surged in Costa Rica as a result of Intel’s economic
impact. In 1999, the country’s GDP grew only 3% without Intel. Intel contributed to
more than 60% of the GDP growth that year, bringing it to an 8.4% growth rate (World
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47

Bank Group, 2006). During this time, imports and exports also increased dramatically
due to the high level of free zone activity. Intel’s import of high-value intermediate mate-
rials and plant equipment boosted the country’s overall import rate. In addition, in 1996-
1997, free zone exports surpassed Costa Rica’s traditional export leaders: bananas and
coffee (World Bank Group, 2006). By 1999, Intel exported approximately $2.4 billion in
products, which was about 36% of Costa Rica’s total exports. The country reached a
record rate of $6.6 billion in total exports that year (World Bank Group, 2006). Intel’s
chips were the top export and electronic components were the top export category, repre-
senting a major shift from the country’s previous focus on agricultural and agro-industrial
products and apparel. In 1999, Costa Rica recorded a trade surplus for the first time in 20
years, making the country the leader in per capita income in Latin America at the time
(World Bank Group, 2006).
Intel’s value-added factor has been estimated at $90-500 million per year in Costa
Rica (World Bank Group, 2006). Intel has employed an average of 2,000 direct workers
in the country. In 1995, it was estimated that Intel paid $44 million in gross payroll to its
employees, which included base salary, social security, and workers’ compensation
insurance (World Bank Group, 2006). These jobs pay 50% more than the traditional
apparel or agro-industrial positions in Costa Rica, and they offer an alternative to highly
skilled workers who have graduated from technical programs. Prior to Intel’s investment
in Costa Rica and development of the country’s electronics cluster, the only option for
electrical and electronic engineers and technicians was to work for ICE, the country’s
power and telecommunications provider (World Bank Group, 2006). According to
Clifton (2011) and research by Gallup, the priority of any nation should be creation of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48

good jobs, without which societies fall apart and countries suffer. Intel’s addition of good
jobs to Costa Rica has had a major impact on the country and has allowed the nation to
progress in numerous ways.
Intel spurred development of Costa Rica’s logistics, communications infrastruc-
tures, permits, and construction in addition to its economic influence on the country.
Before fully investing in Costa Rica, Intel had established a conditional agreement that
was dependent on improvements in these areas. This required CINDE and the Costa
Rican government to work quickly and efficiently to make major changes by March
1997, only 4 months after Intel’s initial announcement to invest in Costa Rica; this action
has provided an impetus for later development (World Bank Group, 2006).
Intel’s initial requirements for improved logistics and communications infra-
structure spurned exponential growth in these areas of the country. Spending on both
areas nearly doubled between 1995 and 2003. In 1998, the government passed the Public
Concessions Law, which allowed private investors to participate in construction and
operation of public works. The country’s major airport was upgraded and remodeled to
improve facilities and logistics for passengers and cargo. Flights were added and leading
international service providers, such as FedEx, UPS, DHS, Danzas, and AIG, were estab-
lished in the country. The airport used the Internet to speed its customs procedures that
resulted in a 24-hour lead time (World Bank Group, 2006). A company with close ties to
Intel, AirExpress International, invested in Costa Rica through a joint venture. This inter-
national logistics and transportation company also improved transportation and logistics
for Costa Rican business (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49

Costa Rica installed new equipment and used new techniques shared by Intel to
improve the quality of its power infrastructure. Intel financed a new power substation in
Belen, the site of Intel’s operations, and formed a private-public partnership with Costa
Rican power supplier ICE to manage and supervise the plant. Other high consumption
users of hydroelectric power were provided a “high tension” discounted rate (World Bank
Group, 2006).
With the help of Intel, Costa Rica updated its processes for permits and construc-
tion in the country. Although Intel’s requirements for project construction were initially
viewed as impossible by both government and private construction companies, Intel
worked with the companies to develop world-class methods for building design. The
project, that normally would have taken 2 years to complete, was finished in 11 months
with no accidents at the construction site (World Bank Group, 2006). This project helped
Costa Rica to develop faster, better, safer construction and became the model for other
projects in Costa Rica. Throughout the process, permits and environmental regulatory
procedures were fast tracked to meet Intel’s deadlines. This led to comprehensive
national legislation that simplified procedures for establishing a business in Costa Rica
(World Bank Group, 2006).
Intel was a major catalyst for change in the way in which the government of Costa
Rica worked with investors. For the first time, a focus on FDI and serving the needs of
investors was a high-level national priority. Led by President Figueres and his involve-
ment in the Intel project, other government officials and public entities, such as UCR, the
Technological Institute of Costa Rica (ITCR), the power and telecommunications author-
ity (ICE), and the National Training Institute (INA), were motivated to support FDI and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50

developed a more service-oriented attitude (World Bank Group, 2006). These groups
committed to climate-building initiatives to ensure that the promises made to Intel were
delivered on time and to create a culture for future investment in the country. The univer-
sities updated curricula and added classes in response to Intel’s recommendations. Road
construction was completed in months and airport personnel developed a faster clearance
process through customs. ICE created investor accounts for Intel executives, initiated
service-level agreements, and conducted service quality improvement training (World
Bank Group, 2006). This united effort to support Intel’s needs created a culture that bene-
fitted all investors in the country.
Intel can be credited for helping Costa Rica to develop core business values and a
culture of global competitiveness. As Intel worked with Costa Rica, it emphasized long-
term planning, ethics, discipline, and innovation. In what is generally called corporate
responsibility, Intel committed to using ethical behavior in Costa Rica to reduce risks and
costs, protect brand value, and develop new market opportunities (Intel Corporation,
2013). Intel also brought specific programs, such as Young Entrepreneurs and Sharing
the Values and Culture of Intel, to the country, and it heavily invested in ongoing training
of its employees (World Bank Group, 2006). Intel sent employees to be trained at other
plants for an extended period of time. Much of this training was firm specific, helping
Intel to maintain a very low level of employee turnover (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Overall,
it can be argued that Intel succeeded in transferring its business culture and values to its
workers and other companies, leading to increased productivity and competitiveness and
extending this knowledge base across the country (World Bank Group, 2006).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51

Intel’s business practices and commitment to corporate responsibility not only
created an ideal investment for outside corporations but also developed domestic compa-
nies through backward linkages. These domestic companies supplied Intel with special-
ized goods and services (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Many of Intel’s suppliers have received
training from Intel or have reported that they have changed their organizational practices
or product variety because of Intel. Even Intel’s competitors in input markets recognize
that Intel has had a positive impact on their own operations (Larraín, Lopez-Calva, &
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In the same way, Intel helped to develop better practices across Costa Rica in the
area of worker health and safety. Following Intel’s practices, Costa Rica’s National
Insurance Institute (INS) created the first job safety and health standards for the country.
In addition to creating high standards for its own employees, Intel required strict worker
safety practices for its suppliers and subcontractors. In recognition of these efforts, INS
awarded Intel the Preventico award for 5 consecutive years (World Bank Group, 2006).
As a result of the joint efforts of CINDE and the government, Costa Rica’s
improved investment climate, including its infrastructure, incentives, and business
processes, has created an ideal environment for foreign and domestic investors.
Other Foreign Direct Investment
Following the signaling effect that Intel produced in Costa Rica, as well as the
subsequent improved investment climate, there was an increased willingness by other
foreign companies in diverse sectors to choose Costa Rica as a site for operations. Sup-
pliers to Intel and pre-Intel investments allowed the electronics cluster to flourish in the
country. Corporations such as Sawtel and REMEC have helped to support this cluster.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52

Although Intel has had a positive impact on Costa Rica in many ways, the coun-
try’s initial dependence on the corporation also had a negative impact when Intel suffered
downturns in activity. For instance, in 2000, Intel’s activity level dropped significantly,
which affected Costa Rica’s GDP. In that year the country’s GDP growth was just 1.4%,
whereas the growth would have been 3% without Intel. As a result, Costa Rica recog-
nized a need to diversify so it could weather the severe cycles that corporations such as
Intel are likely to experience (World Bank Group, 2006).
Thanks to the decision to diversify, Costa Rica achieved growth in the medical
devices cluster. Both Abbott Laboratories (now Hospira) and Proctor & Gamble (P&G)
set up operations in Costa Rica (World Bank Group, 2006). Abbott Laboratories was the
first major investor, establishing an advanced $60 million manufacturing plant in the
country. In 1998, Baxter invested $30 million to expand its presence in Costa Rica
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Beginning in 1998, satellite offices for global suppliers were established in Costa
Rica, which became building blocks for the growing electronics support industry. These
firms helped to provide technical support for manufacturing and testing equipment used
in the country (World Bank Group, 2006).
In the past 10 years, Costa Rica has seen dramatic growth in FDI. Since 2002,
FDI inflows have grown an average of 13.1% each year. By 2012, FDI represented 5% of
GDP and FDI per capita had reached $485 million. As a result, Costa Rica currently
ranks among the top Latin countries in both indexes. Inflows from FDI have financed
more than 90% of the current account deficits in the 21st century.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53

Education
As a result of the Constitution of 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first coun-
tries to make education compulsory and free. The public school system was originally
supported with funds diverted from the abolished military and funds from the state’s
share of the country’s earnings from the sale of coffee. Currently, Costa Rica is constitu-
tionally required to allocate at least 6% of the country’s GDP to educational programs
(CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica spends a higher share of GDP on education than the majority
of Latin American countries but often has worse outcomes in terms of enrollment rates,
dropouts, and retention, especially at the secondary level. In the past decade, the MEP has
taken the greatest share of the central government’s budget (just over 28%, increasing
from 24% in 1997 to 31% in 2006). The MEP has the largest number of employees
(28,000) of any department in the country, with almost 80% of educational expenditures
allocated to salaries and wages. At the general education level—preprimary, primary
school, and secondary school—90% of expenditures are for salaries and wages (World
Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008).
In 1751, the Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica supervised the first school in
Costa Rica, located in Heredia (Molina & Palmer, 1998). At that time, the church over-
saw education and ran the schools. Many of Costa Rica’s early leaders were teachers.
Thus, a large investment in education was made and the schooling became paramount
early in Costa Rica’s history (Ferrer, 2006). In 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first
countries to make education free and obligatory. According to Haglund (2006), “The
establishment of free and obligatory education was fundamental to the early consolida-
tion of its democracy and continues to stimulate intellectual discourse among relatively
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54

large segments of the population” (p. 9). Even in a free education system, many students
cannot afford uniforms, and rural schools have no books and technology for students.
Costa Rica’s high school graduation rate is an alarming 50% (Consejo Nacional de
Rectores [CONARE], 2012). Even more concerning is the fact that only 25% of high
school graduates, or 12.5% of all high school students, pursue a college degree at one of
the five national universities or 51 private universities (CONARE, 2012).
With the new Constitution and dissolution of the military came a renewed focus
on education and the “Army of Teachers” (Stough & Aguirre-Roy, 1997). To date, Costa
Rica boasts more teachers than military personnel and continues to uphold the vision for
education set forth by the MEP when it was established in 1949 as the entity in charge of
education in Costa Rica. The mission of the MEP is to ensure universal access to quality
education centered on personal development and promotion of a Costa Rican society
united through opportunity and social equality.
The MEP oversees the national system of education. There is a national curricu-
lum in Costa Rica, but schools have autonomy to adapt curriculum to meet their goals
and student needs. For example, schools that have a population that is at least 25%
indigenous is considered an Indigenous School and has the option to add indigenous
history and indigenous languages to its curriculum (MEP, 2010). Similarly, some schools
have strong ties to private institutions that influence their curriculum, such as schools that
participate in the Iniciativa Intel Educatíon Program. Intel provides these schools a range
of services and resources, and schools at all levels of education participate (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Among the services and resources that Intel
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55

provides to certain elementary schools are teacher professional development, teaching
resources, and technology.
The Costa Rican educational system consists of preschool and four subsequent
cycles (Table 1). To obtain a secondary education diploma, students must complete
Cycles III and IV. In the first and second cycles, the following subjects are taught:
Spanish, social studies, science, mathematics, agricultural education, foreign language,
laboratory of computer science, religion education, physical education, home education
or industrial arts, music education and plastic arts. Secondary education is divided into
two opportunities: academic or technical schools. Academic schools require 5 years of
study encompassing Grades 7–11. Technical high schools require 6 years of study,
including Grades 7–12. High school education is focused on achieving new competitive
skills, including the English language and computer science, both of which were declared
mandatory in all public schools in 1994 (CINDE, 2011).
Table 1

Costa Rican Educational Cycles

Cycle Grades Mandated

Cycle I Grades 1–4 (Elementary) Mandatory
Cycle II Grades 5–6 (Elementary) Mandatory
Cycle III Grades 7–9 (Secondary) Not mandatory
Cycle IV Grades 10–12 (Secondary) Not mandatory

The Costa Rican MEP requires testing of all students at the sixth- and ninth-grade
levels, as well as upon completion of high school. The sixth-grade examination tests
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56

students in mathematics, social studies, Spanish, and science. The ninth-grade
examination tests students in mathematics, social studies, science, Spanish, English, and
civics. To receive a high school diploma, students must pass six examinations with a 65%
score in each of the following subject areas: mathematics, foreign language (English),
science (biology, physics, or chemistry), social studies, Spanish, and civic education.
Assessment instruments are content based, not competency based, which, according to
Castro (2010), leads teachers and students to tend to spend their class time in rehearsing
sample questions and answers to multiple-choice items instead of learning and internal-
izing important skills such as reading, writing, speaking, critical thinking, or quantitative
reasoning. To attend a university, students must receive a high school diploma and pass
the chosen university’s entrance examination (InfoCostaRica, 2012).
After graduation from secondary school, students have many options for univer-
sity and college. In 1940 UCR was the first university established in Costa Rica.
Currently, in addition to UCR, there are three other public universities and approximately
55 private universities and colleges (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
Combined, these institutions offer more than 1,500 degree programs, including
diplomado, bachelor, licenciatura, master’s, and doctoral programs (Monge-Gonzalez &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). At the university level, degrees in education are typically
awarded (especially to women), followed by economics and social sciences (Castro,
2010).
21st-Century Skills
Across the globe, countries have begun to recognize the importance of education
in their ability to compete with other nations. As the world becomes more flat, schools
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57

are being required to shift their practices to provide students with the skills that they need
in the 21st century. Just as Costa Rica has committed to investing in its educational
system, the American government is doing the same. Countries must continuously create
good jobs to maintain healthy economies, and schools must help students develop the
skills that are necessary to create and attain these good jobs as they are created (Clifton,
2011). Although there are many ideas about these skills in the literature, Wagner (2010)
clearly provided a framework of seven survival skills that students need to compete in the
kind of global knowledge economy in which countries such as the United States and
Costa Rica are engaged.
The first survival skill described by Wagner (2010) is critical thinking and
problem solving, which means that students should learn to analyze the roots of a
problem, understand how the problem evolved, and take a systematic approach to solving
the problem. The second survival skill is collaboration and leadership, which includes
global interaction, strategic thinking, cultural awareness, and helping students to become
influential citizens. Wagner’s third essential skill for the 21st century is agility and adapt-
ability, which means that students must learn to be flexible, resourceful, lifelong learners,
and adaptable to disruptions. Wagner’s fourth suggested skill is initiative and entrepre-
neurialism, which means that students should learn to seek new ideas, opportunities, and
improvements. Wagner’s fifth suggested skill involves oral and written communication
skills, or the ability to communicate one’s views, opinion, and ideas in a global economy.
The sixth survival skill is the ability to access and analyze information, which means that
students have the critical thinking skills to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate data.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58

Wagner’s seventh skill is curiosity and imagination, which means that students should
have analytical skills, should be inquisitive, and should be motivated.
Other authors and researchers have supported Wagner’s (2010) belief that schools
must help students to develop new skills for success in the 21st century. According to
Friedman (2007), this is the only way that countries will be able to compete globally.
Like Wagner (2010), Friedman (2007) argued that students in the 21st century must be
taught how to learn.
In the flat world that Friedman (2007) described, people must constantly absorb
new information and find new ways to do things. This skill is especially important as
many jobs continue to be digitized, automatized, and outsourced and many new jobs are
created. In this way, schools should be less concerned about what students know and
more concerned about how they learn (Friedman, 2007).
Schleicher (2011) supported this assertion, explaining that the currently world is
changing very quickly, which means that the knowledge and skills that are traditionally
taught in school will not address the challenges of the future. Instead, education today
should be more about creative and focused on critical approaches to thinking and
problem solving. Using technology, communicating, and collaborating will be important
skills for students to develop in the 21st century (Schleicher, 2011).
As students are taught to be learners, rather than simple receptors of information,
schools should also teach them how to navigate information. In this flat world there is a
constant flow of knowledge, information, and news, particularly with the growth of the
World Wide Web. Teaching students how to sift through the information to find facts and
real sources of knowledge is critical as they move forward into college and careers
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59

(Friedman, 2007). Another term for this 21st-century skill is research and information
fluency (Pappas, 2009). Although today’s students are considered digital natives and are
often very comfortable with most forms of technology, Pappas referred to students in a
classroom as digital immigrants. To support student success in the 21st century, schools
must help students to move beyond finding information by providing skills to evaluate
the information for accuracy and usefulness (Pappas, 2009).
Friedman (2007) argued that education in the flat world must support student
learning in nontraditional ways. Passion and curiosity are two important characteristics
that people must have to set themselves apart in the global job market. Wagner and
Compton (2012) stated that these characteristics are a way to build immunity against
automation, digitization, and outsourcing in the global knowledge economy of the 21st
century. While Friedman (2007) stated that promoting a liberal arts education is one way
to develop these skills, Wagner and Compton (2012) argued that students simply need a
forum in which to engage in interesting and challenging work. When they have purpose
and the opportunity to play, students develop skills that are necessary for future success.
To summarize, changing education and helping students to develop 21st-century
skills is not just about improving students’ chances of having successful future careers. It
is also about developing knowledge workers to keep a nation globally competitive. In
order to compete in the flat world (Friedman, 2007), countries must have innovators who
develop ideas to solve a wide range of problems and develop new technologies and better
products, services, and processes (Wagner & Compton, 2012). Citizens need to know
how to solve new problems and adapt to an ever-changing job market.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60

Friedman and Mandelbaum (2011) stated that the success or failure of countries to
change their education systems and develop students with 21st-century skills will deter-
mine whether or not they will continue to develop good jobs and stay economically
viable. In a 2011 survey conducted by General Electric of a thousand senior business
executives in 12 countries, 95% of the respondents stated that innovation is the main
determinant of a competitive national economy and 88% said that innovation is the best
way to create jobs in a country (Wagner & Compton, 2012). For this reason, Costa Rica
has committed to investing in its educational system and has begun, with the support of
Intel and other FDI sources, to change the educational system to align with the learning
goals of the 21st century.
STEM
A method for helping students to develop the skills necessary for success in the
21st century is use of STEM education. Many have contended that creating a STEM-
literate citizenry is the key to a country’s success on the global level (Bybee, 2010). The
STEM acronym was invented in the 1990s when the American National Science Founda-
tion began using “SMET” as shorthand, which later evolved to STEM (Sanders, 2008).
For at least a decade, very few people were familiar with the term until work such as that
by Friedman (2007) introduced the concepts of global competition and a “flat” world.
People began to understand that, in the 21st century, technology and engineering will
play a critical role in a country’s global standing, and a shift has been made from simple
science and mathematics to an integrated STEM approach (Sanders, 2008).
In general, STEM education means replacing traditional lecture-based teaching
strategies with approaches that are more project based and inquiry driven (Breiner et al.,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61

2012). Some contend that STEM curriculum should closely parallel the work done by
real-life scientists and engineers, while others maintain that STEM education should
simply improve students’ use of technology and increase their understanding of how
things work (Bybee, 2010; Breiner et al., 2012). PBL is an instructional strategy that is
closely related to STEM education. PBL is discussed in detail in the following section.
An important aspect of STEM that is often overlooked is the engineering compo-
nent. Students who are engaged in engineering curriculum during their precollege educa-
tion can develop many of the skills necessary for the 21st century. Two of the identified
skills for global competition are innovation and problem-solving skills. These skills are
important to the economic success of a country and are emphasized in engineering
(Bybee, 2010). Moreover, the use of engineering in the classroom supports the integra-
tion of the other aspects of STEM: science, mathematics, and technology (Capraro,
Capraro, & Morgan, 2013). An engineering curriculum requires higher-order thinking,
provides a good structure for breaking down problems, allows students to develop
creativity, and offers a realistic context for the application of mathematics and science.
Engineering education also prepares students for careers, as the skills developed in class-
rooms help students to increase their business sense and identify connections between
industries. Ownership of the learning is promoted as students make discoveries and
develop unique solutions, much as they would in a real-life setting. Engagement in engi-
neering projects cultivates students’ skills of collaboration and teamwork, which is also
important for their success in future careers (Capraro et al., 2013).
Technology education is an important aspect of STEM that has traditionally been
overlooked in the K–12 classroom. According to the National Center for Education Sta-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62

tistics (2008), the average 2005 high school graduate earned only 0.08 technology credits
in high school, compared to the average of 3.67 credits in mathematics and 3.34 credits in
science. Technology education is important for students, as it nurtures the teaching and
learning process and helps students to access other areas of STEM (Capraro et al., 2013).
The use of technology can also be a motivational tool for students. Unlike traditional
modes of teaching, technology has the potential to address specific student learning needs
and match individual learning paces and styles (Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2011).
Technology can support schools in creating student-centric classrooms in which all
students have the opportunity to succeed. When a country’s students succeed, the entire
nation can compete globally (Christensen et al., 2011; Sanders, 2008).
Costa Rica has recognized the importance of STEM education. Not only has the
nation made a commitment to develop knowledge workers to fill the jobs that have been
created through FDI; the country’s leaders also know that economic growth in the 21st
century will be driven by the ability to generate ideas and translate them into innovative
products and services. Improving high school graduation rates and ensuring that all
students are ready for college and the workforce is vital to Costa Rica’s ability to
compete in the global economy. Leaders increasingly view STEM achievement as a
critical component of success in college, career, and life.
Science education has been highly regarded in Costa Rican education since early
in the nation’s history. José María Castro Madriz, who served two separate terms as
president of Costa Rica in the 1800s, is quoted as saying, “Sad is the country that does
not take to science for guidance in their business and jobs” (as cited in Varela & Villegas,
2010, p. 12). At that time, it was common practice to teach botany, zoology, mineralogy,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63

and geology so students could approach the study of the natural environment in which
they learned. This required the study of the fundamentals of the basic sciences of biology,
chemistry, and physics (Varela & Villegas, 2010).
In the early 1970s, specific areas of biology, chemistry, and physics were taught
in Costa Rica based on teaching guidelines that were being used in the United States.
Programs and books were created for this curriculum. However, research continued to
show that, despite the efforts of secondary education, students were unprepared for
success in science courses at the university level, particularly chemistry. This gap in
student learning forced university faculty to collaborate with the MEP. In the late 1980s,
support programs were created to improve teaching of general science. The Higher Edu-
cation Council approved changes in the content of the program to focus on the basic dis-
ciplines of science. Physics was added to the seventh-grade curriculum, chemistry was
taught in eighth grade, and biology was taught in the ninth grade to ensure that students
would be prepared for more advanced science courses at the college level. This change
led to the curricular structure that is in place for science education in Costa Rica today
(Varela & Villegas, 2010).
In addition to the curricular changes made in the 1980s, a new law, N 7169, was
enacted to promote scientific development (Varela & Villegas, 2010). From this law,
CienTIC, or the Foundation for the Development of Science, was created to serve as a
basis to support legislation establishing the Scientific College system of Costa Rica. It
was also at this time that the Costa Rican Science Fair program was created (discussed
later in detail). The science fair program was designed to create an enriching educational
experience for students in the area of science (Varela & Villegas, 2010).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64

Science education is not limited to secondary and postsecondary students in Costa
Rica. The curriculum is designed to include aspects of natural science from as early as
preschool. The goal is for the curriculum to move beyond simple scientific themes and to
imbed scientific attitudes, values, and procedures in relevant aspects of the content of all
disciplines. The foundation of scientific study in Costa Rica is built on discussions and
interactions related to the environment. As a result of this concentrated effort to empha-
size science education and create real-life applications for students, Costa Rican students
outperform other countries in the region on the international standardized test for science,
called SERCE (Varela & Villegas, 2010).
In addition to the country’s focus on science, Costa Rica has dedicated resources
to technology education. Each year, programs throughout Costa Rica train 7,500 educa-
tors in the use of technology tools (Borthwick & Lobo, 2005). A dedicated effort to
install computers in Costa Rican classrooms began in the 1980s. By the late 1990s, 1 or
every 2 elementary students had access to technology in school, which was an impressive
feat considering the many rural areas throughout Costa Rica. Today, Costa Rica has one
of the highest concentrations of computers in Latin America and is often regarded as a
pioneer in technology development in Central America (Borthwick & Lobo, 2005).
According to research by the Foundation Omar Dengo, the results of Costa Rica’s
investment in education technology have been an increase in student attendance,
improved teacher and student self-esteem, a growth in student interest in technology, and
an expansion of the technology infrastructure in the country (Borthwick & Lobo, 2005).
STEM education is vital to the success of both the United States and Costa Rica
in the global economy. Corporations such as Intel have recognized this and have invested
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65

in K–12 and higher education in order to support Costa Rica’s production of knowledge
workers. As countries continue to update their educational systems, STEM education and
development of 21st-century skills will be increasingly important.
Project-Based Learning
One method for integrating STEM education and supporting student development
of 21st-century skills is PBL, a teaching method in which students engage in a rigorous,
extended process of inquiry focused on complex, authentic questions and problems. PBL
questions should be highly engaging and motivating, and students must work collabora-
tively to solve the problem (Bender, 2012). PBL requires students to demonstrate in-
depth understanding of academic knowledge and skills, and PBL is used to help students
to build 21st-century skills such as collaboration, critical thinking, and communication
(Bender, 2012).
PBL originated in Europe, growing out of agriculture and the industrial arts. In
America, PBL’s roots extend back to John Dewey’s constructivist learning theory, which
promoted experiential, hands-on, and student-centered learning. William Heard Kil-
patrick, who studied with Dewey, built on this theory by indicating that the projects in
which students engage should be purposeful and that the teacher should not dictate
students’ actions. Kilpatrick advocated for cooperative methods in solving real-life
problems. Unfortunately, success in the projects was difficult to measure and did not
satisfy teachers or theorists; therefore, PBL methods diminished throughout the 1900s
(Capraro et al., 2013).
Today’s PBL model is based on several theoretical frameworks, and advocates
have developed methods for measuring student learning. According to Capraro et al.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66

(2013), the PBL frameworks include the idea that PBL happens over time and in stages.
Unlike the PBL of the past, today’s teachers of PBL utilize comprehensive rubrics to
provide structure and evaluate students’ learning (Bender, 2012). Rubrics can be used to
provide students with both formative and summative feedback about their learning
processes and to provide opportunities for students to engage in self- and peer assess-
ments (Capraro et al., 2013). Some proponents of PBL specify students’ roles in a project
to organize the work and allow for individualized accountability (Bender, 2012).
The use of inquiry-based teaching and PBL is supported by research in the learn-
ing sciences (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Donovan & Bransford, 2005). Several
principles can be seen in the design of the learning environment when students engage in
STEM PBL that provide a useful framework for observation. Slough and Milam (2013)
identified four design principles: making content visible, making thinking visible, helping
students to learn from others, and promoting autonomy and lifelong learning. In a class-
room where students are participating in PBL, content is made accessible as learners
engage with problems and examples that connect new ideas with the students’ prior
knowledge. Effective instruction provides students opportunities to ask questions,
conduct investigations, evaluate evidence, develop theories, and participate in scientific
learning (Slough & Milam, 2013). Scaffolding and feedback from the instructor support
the students through this process.
The second classroom design principle, making thinking visible, includes three
pedagogical dimensions: modeling scientific thinking, helping students to make their
thinking visible through scaffolding, and providing multiple models (Slough & Milam,
2013). In a STEM classroom, it is important that students have the opportunity to engage
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67

in the scientific process. Students should be exposed to models of cutting-edge science
through computer animation, scientific visualizations, modeling programs, and dynamic
representations (Slough & Milam, 2013). When students make their thinking visible
through the scientific process, they build metacognitive skills. Teachers can provide
effective feedback to facilitate interaction between the worlds of learning and STEM.
The third design principle, helping students to learn from others, is built on the
ideas of cooperative learning and social constructivism. As students work collaboratively,
they are given opportunities to develop communication skills and to engage in reciprocal
teaching. Students are often required to design in STEM PBL, which immerses them in
the scientific process and encourages them to utilize scientific criteria and create scien-
tific explanations. Through this process, students engage in higher-level thinking and
develop 21st-century skills of communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical
thinking (Slough & Milam, 2013).
The STEM PBL classroom should promote autonomy and lifelong learning for
students. This type of learning environment should be student centered; however, the
teacher should play an important role in monitoring students and providing effective
feedback. Throughout the process of a project, students should be encouraged to develop
personal goals, seek feedback, and adjust accordingly. As students engage in this process,
they have the opportunity to monitor their own progress and success, which will support
their development as lifelong learners (Slough & Milam, 2013).
PBL is frequently recognized as a 21st-century teaching technique (Bender,
2012). PBL has the potential to increase motivation to learn as it emphasizes the 21st-
century skills of collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking. In PBL,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68

students identify and seek to solve real-world problems that they consider important.
Students are also likely to be better prepared to use technology and solve problems in
college and their careers when they have participated in PBL. As students apply new
knowledge to solve their problem, they are working with higher-level thinking skills
(Bender, 2012; Capraro et al., 2013). Many researchers have asserted that this method of
teaching and learning fosters motivates learners who become better prepared for the
unforeseen challenges in their jobs and their world in the future.
Science and Technology Fairs
Perhaps the best example of STEM and PBL in Costa Rica is the use of science
and technology fairs to help students to build 21st-century skills. As far back as the
1960s, Costa Rica promoted science and technology fairs as a way to enhance science
education. In the 1970s, UCR organized a science fair with some of its students; by 1987,
the university had developed the first National Science Fair (NSF; Ministry of Science
and Technology [MST], 2012; Valencia, 2008). The NSF was supported by the MST, the
Office of the First Lady, the MEP, the National Board for Scientific and Technological
Research (CONICIT), UCR, and the Organization of American States (Valencia, 2008).
Although the first NSF mainly included students from private high schools in metropoli-
tan areas, by the 1990s, the NSF had been expanded to elementary schools and to other
areas of the country. The purpose of the science fairs was to stimulate students’ creativ-
ity, investigative spirit, and scientific thinking (MST, 2012; Valencia, 2008).
The science and technology fair process was formalized in 1990 by approval of
the Science and Technology Development Promotion Act No. 7169. The Act outlined the
purpose of the science and technology fairs and stipulated when they would be held
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69

(Valencia, 2008). Throughout the 1990s, Costa Rica continued to develop the science and
technology fairs to include younger students and to formalize the process. By 1996, UCR,
in conjunction with the MST, had begun a program that provided opportunity for teachers
to be inducted into the science fair process and allowed the NSF to become more institu-
tionalized (Valencia, 2008). The NSF became affiliated with ISEF in 1999, and by 2000
there were 20 regional science fairs in Costa Rica that fed into ISEF (MST, 2012).
In 2004, the Costa Rican government identified the importance of the science and
technology fairs in a national decree (#31900 MEP-MICIT) that mandated institutional
science fairs. The fairs became part of the National School Calendar, and Intel launched
the Students as Scientists (SAS) teacher training program. The program was further
developed in the following years, and in 2007 scientific research was integrated into the
school curriculum. A separate engineering fair was added (MST, 2012; Valencia, 2008).
The organization of the science and technology fair in Costa Rica came through a
joint effort by the MEP, the MST, CONICIT, and the public universities. Under Execu-
tive Decree No. 31.900, MEP-MICIT, the science and technology fair processes are ruled
by the guidelines of PRONAFECYT. The program includes students from preschool
through high school; its objective is to promote the culture of science and technology,
beginning with the development of scientific knowledge as a stimulus to new generations
of Costa Ricans (MST, 2012; Valencia, 2008).
Each level of the science and technology fair has appointed work committees that
are coordinated by a central organizing committee. The central committee then creates
subcommittees to complete the work for each level of science fair. According to the
Science and Technology Fair Manual (MST, 2012), the fair is organized into these levels:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70

Institutional Science and Technology Fairs, Circuit Science and Technology Fairs,
Regional Science and Technology Fairs, National Science and Technology Fairs, and the
ISEF. At the top level, the winners of the best science project or the best technology
project in Grades 9 through 12 compete. All science and technology fair projects must be
based in the areas of biology, environmental science, computer science, earth and space
science, social and behavioral sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering and tech-
nology, chemistry, or health and medicine (MST, 2012).
In addition to the Science and Technology Fair, Costa Rica launched a National
Engineering Fair in 2008. The MST and MEP coordinate the Engineering Fair, the target
population of which is high school students from technical, academic, and scientific
schools. The goal of the Engineering Fair is to stimulate interest in engineering through
observing, designing, and developing prototypes or services, testing, analysis, and
research. The fair also allows students to present their research or inventions to specialists
and to the community (MST, 2012).
The science and technology fair concept has grown exponentially in Costa Rica,
and it has become popular throughout the world as interest in engaging students in hands-
on research and learning has increased in the 21st century. Since 2004, several Costa
Rican students have received awards at the ISEF in areas such as botany and environ-
mental sciences (Valencia, 2008). The MEP clearly sees science and technology fairs as a
tool for leading the country into the next century. A national emphasis on the fairs fosters
STEM education and PBL strategies that can help students to develop 21st-century skills
and create knowledge workers for the global economy in today’s flat world.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71

Conclusion: Education in the 21st Century
Education is inextricably tied to a country’s economic security and ability to
produce and attain good jobs. However, many argue that the education that students have
traditionally received does not prepare them for success in the flat world. Across the
globe, countries are recognizing the need to make changes in their educational systems so
that students can be provided with 21st-century skills for success. STEM education, PBL,
and science and technology fairs are strategies that schools are now using to address this
issue. Costa Rica has made a notable effort to increase the nation’s economic security
through attracting FDI and investing in schools that use these methods. Most notably, the
implementation of Costa Rica’s science and technology fair policy has supported these
efforts and emphasized the use of STEM PBL in schools. As Costa Rica makes STEM
PBL and the science and technology fair process in the educational system a top national
priority, the country is sure to reap benefits in the 21st century.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research methodology used to analyze how globaliza-
tion and MNCs have affected Costa Rica’s education system and economy. In addition to
reviewing the research questions that guided this project, the chapter provides an over-
view of the design and in-depth descriptions of the participants, instrumentation, and pro-
cedures for collecting and analyzing data.
Globalization and MNCs have had several impacts on the world market that have
influenced changes in education. These changes are derived from the need to create
human capital capable of succeeding in a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). In
addition to globalization, MNCs have had significant impact on the structure of educa-
tion. Costa Rica has witnessed changes in its education system as a result of the impact of
FDIs (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). Costa Rica, with the help of CINDE (2013), has
attracted several MNCs to invest in its infrastructure and economy. Of these MNCs,
several technology-focused companies such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have entered
into partnerships with the MEP to provide resources to Costa Rican schools and universi-
ties (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Since the early 1980s, Costa Rica has undergone many changes due to economic,
political, and educational factors. In order to compete in an evolving global market, a
new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-technology FDI. These
MNCs have brought new job opportunities to the country that require educational institu-
tions to produce more knowledge-ready employees. Schools now face the challenge of
helping students to develop 21st-century skills in STEM fields to prepare the next gener-
ation of workers.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization, FDI, and
MNCs on curriculum and practices in Costa Rican schools. This study also examined the
methodologies that educators in Costa Rica are using to build human capital and to
prepare students for 21st-century jobs, particularly in STEM fields.
The University of Southern California (USC), in conjunction with various
schools, representatives from MNCs, and government officials in Costa Rica, collabo-
rated in this study to address three research questions:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their prac-
tices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent are the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating national science and technology fair participation influ-
enced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and use of technol-
ogy by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it affected curriculum and
instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value of
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
Frameworks
This study utilized multiple sources of information from multiple sites for data.
To identify common characteristics and commonalities, the study used conceptual
frameworks (Maxwell, 2013). The researchers approached the study using three frame-
works: (a) Friedman’s (2007) explanation of the 10 “flatteners” that have led to globali-
zation, (b) Wagner’s (2010) description of 21st-century skills for learning, and (c) Slough
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74

and Milam’s (2013) theoretical framework for the design of STEM and PBL in the class-
room.
Creswell (2009) identified six explicit steps in research design: (a) identification
of a research problem, (b) review of the current literature, (c) identified the purpose for
the research, (d) collection of data, (e) analysis of data, and (f) reporting the evaluation of
the research. Guided by Creswell’s (2009) model, every effort was made to keep the
research questions at the center of the research design. Thus, the research questions
informed every decision related to the methodology selected for the study. Wagner’s
(2010, pp. 14–41) approach to 21st-century skills included several characteristics outlined
by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012): (a) “critical thinking,” (b) “collabora-
tion and leadership,” (c) “agility and adaptability,” (d) “initiative and entrepreneurial-
ism,” (e) “effective oral and written communication,” (f) “accessing and analyzing
information,” and (g) “curiosity and imagination.” Wagner (2010) stated that these neces-
sary skills originated in response to three transformations: (a) the rapid evolution of the
new global “knowledge economy,” (b) the access and abundance of information, and (c)
the profound impact of the media and technology on how young people learn and relate
to the world and to one another. These frameworks provided structure to the study’s
protocols and outlined standards for analyzing the findings to lead to conclusions.
Research Design
A qualitative research design was used to address the research questions. This
research project was developed to elicit feedback from people involved in government,
educational, and economic and corporate sectors of Costa Rica. By using the researcher
as the primary instrument of data collection and analysis, an inductive investigation was
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75

carried out to gather a rich description of the impact of globalization, FDI, multinational
corporate responsibility, and the national science and technology fair policy on schools in
Costa Rica (Creswell, 2009).
One benefit of utilizing a qualitative research method is that the data may be col-
lected in the natural setting. Instead of conducting research in a laboratory or dissemi-
nating instruments, information is gathered by observing and speaking with people in the
natural environment (Creswell, 2009). According to Merriam (2009), there are several
approaches to qualitative research: phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, qual-
itative case study, critical qualitative research, and narrative analysis. This study focused
on the school system in Costa Rica and the ways in which policymakers and MNCs have
affected this entity. The schools in Costa Rica are a bounded system that was analyzed,
allowing the researchers to conduct a case study (Merriam, 2009).
Creswell (2009) defined case study as including detailed and in-depth data col-
lection from multiple sources of information. Merriam (2009) identified three types of
case studies: historical and observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. Multi-
site case studies involve collecting and analyzing data from multiple cases or sites. This
type of case study can be particularly compelling because of the range of cases studied.
Collecting information from multiple sites or cases strengthens the external validity or
generalizability of the study’s findings (Merriam, 2009).
This chapter contains six sections. The first section discusses the research team
and defines the roles and responsibilities of each group member. In the second section the
sample population is described and participation selection is explained. The third section
outlines the instrumentation that were used to collect data. The fourth and fifth section
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76

describe the processes of data collection and data analysis. In the sixth section the study’s
ethical considerations are outlined and the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB) process
is explained, focusing on requirements for conducting research in a different country and
on involving human participants in the study.
Research Team
The research team consisted of 14 doctoral students from USC, with Dr. Michael
Escalante as the lead researcher and supervisor of the study. The team was supported by
Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, who served as a teaching assistant to Dr. Escalante and a mentor to
the team. Dr. Wiedoeft’s experience in working on a similar study, her established con-
nections in Costa Rica, and her passion for the project made her a valuable asset for the
team.
Population and Sample
The population and sample for this study included Costa Rican government offi-
cials and educators, as well as business executives of MNCs that have invested in Costa
Rica. In order to understand the impact of the country’s science and technology fair
policy on the educational system, business leaders from Intel, educators, and former
students who participated in the science fair curriculum participated in the study.
According to Merriam (2009), the type of sampling most often used in qualitative
research is nonprobability or purposeful sampling. This kind of sampling allows the
researcher to conduct an in-depth study based on information-rich cases. Therefore, the
research team gathered data through interviewing, surveying, and observing these pur-
posefully chosen participants.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77

In fall 2013 the research team started the process of communicating with various
people in positions of authority to gain access to participants at the research sites
(Creswell, 2009). Dr. Wiedoeft was instrumental in building these connections based on
her relationship with many of the gatekeepers of the sites and participants. The team
worked together to create a list of participants from education, business, and Costa Rican
government and invite them to participate in the study (Appendix A).
Political Leaders and Education Policymakers
In order to gather data about the impact of globalization on Costa Rica and on its
educational policy, the research team interviewed several government officials in June
2014. Costa Rica was currently in an election season, which meant that there would likely
be new leadership in place when the team traveled to Costa Rica to collect data. The team
interviewed the current Minister of Public Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, who was
replaced by the newly elected Minister of Public Education in June 2014. Similarly, the
research team interviewed the current Minister of Science and Technology, Dr. Alejandro
Cruz, who was replaced by the newly elected Minister of Science and Technology in
June 2014.
Multinational Corporation Executives
The research team interviewed several executives of MNCs in June 2014.
Gabriela Llobet, the Director General of CINDE, was interviewed because CINDE has
played a vital role in attracting MNCs to Costa Rica. Mary-Helen Bialas, the Director of
Educational Programs and Outreach for Intel Costa Rica, played a vital role in the
research team’s data collection process. Ms. Bialas was interviewed regarding the part-
nerships between Intel and Costa Rican schools and universities. Ms. Bialas was also
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78

interviewed about the many initiatives that Intel has implemented to promote science,
engineering, and technology in the country. Ms. Bialas has been instrumental in helping
the team to make contact with various Intel schools and participants in the science and
technology fair of interest in this project.
Several other leaders of Intel who work with education and science and technol-
ogy fairs were interviewed. Sharon Snyder is Manager of International Fairs and Volun-
teer Recruitment for ISEF. The team first met with Ms. Snyder in January 2014 to discuss
volunteering to support the Intel ISEF competition when it is held in Los Angeles in May
2014. The team also interviewed Patricia Chico, Director for Community Outreach for
Intel Costa Rica; Nathalie Valencia, Director of Costa Rica’s National Science Fairs; and
Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel’s Teach the Future Program in Costa Rica.
Costa Rican Educators and Students
In June 2014 the research team studied schools in Costa Rica that had worked in
partnership with Intel. The team interviewed and surveyed educators and conducted
classroom observations to gather data about the impact of globalization, MNCs, and the
science and technology fair policy on education in the country. An important part of the
case study was to interview a specific student who participated in the Intel ISEF, along
with the educators who had worked with that student while he/she was in school. This
included the student’s science teacher and the administrator who oversees the school that
the student attended while involved in the science and technology fair competitions.
Instrumentation
The researcher was the primary instrument in this qualitative study. This allowed
for an inductive investigation to produce rich data regarding the impact of MNCs and the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79

science fair policy on schools in Costa Rica (Creswell, 2009). The instrumentation proto-
cols included interviews, observations, and a survey.
The primary instrument for data collection was be the interview protocol, which
was used to gather information from educators, public officials, and business community
members. All members of the research team worked collaboratively to develop the inter-
view protocol. Discussions about the content of the interview protocol began in fall 2013
and interview questions were finalized in spring 2014. Four distinct data collection
methods were used to generate a thick description of the case and allow for triangulation
to increase the validity of the findings (Merriam, 2009).
Data were collected through surveys, interviews, document collection, and class-
room observation. Prior to administering any of the instruments, approval was secured
from the USC IRB, and all participants signed a consent letter. As indicated in the IRB,
the real names of all individuals, sites visited, and organizations participating in the study
were used. The team triangulated data via an observation protocol used primarily for
classroom and science and technology fair observations, as well as a survey that was
administered to educators and former students who had participated in the Intel ISEF.
The research team developed the observation protocol and survey in spring 2014. All
research instruments were approved by the USC IRB in spring 2014, which allowed the
team to perform an exempt study on human participants in a country other than the
United States.
Interview Protocol
The interview protocols developed for this study were semistructured, a mix of
more- and less-structured interview questions (Merriam, 2009). For example, the first two
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80

questions were highly structured because they were intended to obtain demographic data:
the participant’s position at the respective organization and number of years in that posi-
tion. The other questions were experience and behavior questions and opinion and value
questions (Merriam, 2009). These questions were open-ended to allow for variability in
responses. All questions were asked of all respondents in the order in which they are
listed. It was estimated that each interview would be completed in approximately 60
minutes.
When developing interview questions, the research team worked collaboratively
to include six types of questions that Patton (2002) identified as necessary to stimulate
responses from the interviewee: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values
questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background/
demographic questions.
Merriam (2009) pointed out that the best way to get good data in interviewing is
to ask good questions. The team developed several types of questions patterned on Mer-
riam’s recommendations: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values ques-
tions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background/
demographic questions. Merriam (2009) also recommended avoiding the use of multiple
questions within a question on a protocol, the use of leading questions, and the use of yes/
no questions. Instead, good interview questions should be open-ended, should elicit
descriptive data, and should use probes to seek more information or clarification (Mer-
riam, 2009).
In spring 2014 the research team developed the interview guide to be used with all
participants. The interview questions were developed to address each research question,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81

and a separate interview protocol was developed to gather data from each participating
group: educators (Appendix B), political leaders and education policymakers (Appendix
C), business leaders (Appendix D), and former ISEF participants (Appendix E). Table 2
indicates the alignment of the interview protocol with the research questions. Table 3
indicates the alignment of the survey protocols with the research questions. Table 4 indi-
cates the alignment of study survey protocol items to research questions and theoretical
frameworks.
Survey Protocol
To triangulate data collected by other means, the research team developed a brief
survey to be completed by participants in the educational setting. According to Creswell
(2009), survey data can be used to generalize from a sample population to support infer-
ences. The survey protocol for teachers and administrators (Appendix F) and the survey
protocol for students (Appendix G) were aligned to the research questions to gather in-
formation about the educators’ knowledge and feelings about globalization, the impact of
MNCs on education, and the influence of the science and technology fair policy on
schools in Costa Rica. Fink (2013) noted that conducting surveys is a good method of
data collection when researchers want to evaluate the effectiveness of a program or to
change people’s knowledge, attitudes, health, or welfare. In the case of this study, the
survey utilized forced-choice questions to elicit specific information regarding the impact
of globalization and MNCs and 21st-century skills in Costa Rica. A 5-point Likert-type
scale was used to identify level of agreement with each statement, detailing a specific
piece of Wagner’s (2008) framework and its alignment with Costa Rican education.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82

Table 2

Alignment of Interview Protocol to Research Question (RQ) and Theoretical Framework

Slough/
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman
a
Spring
b
Wagner
c
Milam
d

Section I
1 X X
2 X X X
3 X X X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X X X
Section II
1 X X X
2 X X X
3 X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X X
6 X X X X X
7 X X X
Section III
1 X X X
2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
4 X X X X X
5 X X X X
6 X X X

a
The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, by T. L. Friedman,
2007, New York, NY: Picador.
b
Globalization of Education: An Introduction, by J.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83

Table 2 (continued)
Spring, 2009, New York, NY: Routledge.
c
The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our
Best Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need and What We Can
Do About It, by T. Wagner, 2008, New York, NY: Basic Books; Creating Innovators:
The Making of Young People Who Will Change the World, by T. Wagner & R. A.
Compton, 2012, New York, NY: Scribner Books.
d
“Theoretical Framework for the
Design of STEM Project-Based Learning” in R. M. Capraro, M. M., Capraro, & J.
Morgan (Eds.), STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach, 2013 (pp. 15-27) Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: Sense.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84

Table 3
Alignment of Teacher/Administrator Survey Protocol Items to Research Questions (RQ)

and Theoretical Frameworks

Slough/
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman
a
Spring
b
Wagner
c
Milam
d

Section I
1 X X
2 X X X
3 X X X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X X X
Section II
1 X X X
2 X X X
3 X X X
4 X X X
5 X X X X
6 X X X X X
7 X X X
Section III
1 X X X
2 X X X X X
3 X X X X X
4 X X X X X
5 X X X X
6 X X X

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85

Table 3 (continued)
a
The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, by T. L. Friedman,
2007, New York, NY: Picador.
b
Globalization of Education: An Introduction, by J.
Spring, 2009, New York, NY: Routledge.
c
The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our
Best Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need and What We Can
Do About It, by T. Wagner, 2008, New York, NY: Basic Books; Creating Innovators:
The Making of Young People Who Will Change the World, by T. Wagner & R. A.
Compton, 2012, New York, NY: Scribner Books.
d
“Theoretical Framework for the
Design of STEM Project-Based Learning” in R. M. Capraro, M. M., Capraro, & J.
Morgan (Eds.), STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach, 2013 (pp. 15-27) Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: Sense.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86

Table 4

Alignment of Study Survey Protocol Items to Research Questions (RQ) and Theoretical

Frameworks

Slough/
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Friedman
a
Spring
b
Wagner
c
Milam
d

1 X X
2 X X
3 X X
4 X X X X
5 X X
6 X X X X
7 X X
8 X X
9 X X
10 X X X X
11 X X
12 X X
13 X X X X X
14 X X X X

a
The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, by T. L. Friedman,
2007, New York, NY: Picador.
b
Globalization of Education: An Introduction, by J.
Spring, 2009, New York, NY: Routledge.
c
The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our
Best Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need and What We Can
Do About It, by T. Wagner, 2008, New York, NY: Basic Books; Creating Innovators:
The Making of Young People Who Will Change the World, by T. Wagner & R. A.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87

Table 4 (continued)
Compton, 2012, New York, NY: Scribner Books.
d
“Theoretical Framework for the
Design of STEM Project-Based Learning” in R. M. Capraro, M. M., Capraro, & J.
Morgan (Eds.), STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach, 2013 (pp. 15-27) Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: Sense.
Observation Protocol
Observations can contribute a great deal of data to a qualitative study. Observa-
tions are important because they take place in the setting where the phenomenon of inter-
est occurs, and first-hand data can be collected this way (Merriam, 2009). To collect data
in the natural setting, the research team developed an observation protocol to be used in
classrooms in Costa Rica (Appendix H) and at the ISEF (Appendix I). The research team
developed the observation protocol using the elements recommended by Merriam (2009):
the physical setting, the participants, activities and interactions, conversation, subtle
factors, and the researcher’s behavior.
Documents
This study included collection and review of three of the four types of documents
cited by Merriam (2009): public records, popular culture documents and visual docu-
ments. Specific examples of these documents include but were not limited to mission
statements, videos, master schedules, official websites, partnership agreements, pictures,
staff bulletins, organization calendars, and textbooks.
Some of the documents were gathered in the process of selecting study partici-
pants. Others were obtained once the researcher was in Costa Rica to gather the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88

information from the site personnel. Documents were used to assess the degree of
alignment of what the site participants said happens and what actually happens.
Data Collection
For the purpose of this study, most data were collected in Costa Rica in June
2014. As Creswell (2009) pointed out, the ability to gather data in the participants’ natu-
ral setting is one benefit of using qualitative methods in a research study. The research
team conducted all interviews in person throughout various regions of Costa Rica. All
participants completed and signed a consent form. Names and locations of students who
were interviewed or surveyed remain confidential. Interviews were recorded and
transcribed, and the researchers took notes during the interviews to highlight significant
responses. The observation and survey protocols were used at science fairs and at the
school sites. The research team conducted the survey with educators in Costa Rica, and
data were coded and shared by team members.
According to Merriam (2009), the process of data collection has three states: entry
to the site, data collection, and exit from the site. Equally important are the field notes or
raw data that are written or mechanically recorded during observation (Merriam, 2009).
Field notes include verbal descriptions of people, settings, activities, possible direct quo-
tations, and possible observer comments (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). Observers should
start with a wide angle and then narrow the angle to focus on a specific person,
interaction, or activity (Merriam, 2009). Observers may summarize notes if there is no
time to recall every detail. However, in this study all interviews were taped and tran-
scribed to minimize loss of detail and to maximize accuracy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89

It is important for the researcher to gain participation by all participants by being
humble and respectful (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The researcher can put observed par-
ticipants at ease by thinking ahead about the observer’s role, the degree to which obser-
vation will be disruptive, and why the particular site has been selected for study
(Merriam, 2009). Equally important is the action of informing participants about how
findings will be used (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The first observation should be relatively
passive and unobtrusive (Merriam, 2009).
The data collection methods—interviews, survey, observation, and document
review—were intended to provide a depth of data that would allow for triangulation of
data. Triangulation is the act of collecting data from a diverse range of individuals and
settings by utilizing a variety of methods. By using different methods with varying
strengths, the researchers reduce the risk that the conclusions will reflect only the biases
of a specific method, and the possibility of a secure understanding of the issues under
investigation is enhanced (Maxwell, 2013). Observations of classrooms were conducted
to gain first-hand knowledge of the implementation of 21st-century skills and either vali-
date or negate the survey responses from classroom teachers. According to Merriam
(2009), “Observations can be used as a first-hand encounter with the phenomena of inter-
est rather than a second-hand account of the world obtained in an interview” (p.117). Due
to the limited time available to spend in Costa Rica, the research team employed a survey
to collect data on teachers’ perspectives on how globalization and MNCs have affected
education in Costa Rica. Fink (2013) concluded that surveys are best used when one
needs information directly from people about what they believe, know, and think in rela-
tion to the effectiveness of a particular program. Utilizing these various methods is valu-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90

able in providing divergent perspectives, leading to a complex understanding of the
phenomena under study (Greene, 2007).
Data Analysis
Data analysis is best accomplished by following a comprehensive process that
ensures that analysis is done as effectively and efficiently as possible. In analyzing the
data collected for this research study, Creswell’s (2009) six-step approach for data analy-
sis in qualitative research was utilized: (a) organizing and preparing data for analysis, (b)
reading through all the data, (c) coding the data, (d) generating a description and themes
of the setting or people, (e) representing descriptions and themes in the qualitative narra-
tive, and (f) interpreting the data.
1. Data were prepared for analysis through transcribing interviews, scanning
materials, and typing field notes.
2. Synthesis of the data began when individual pieces of information, gathered
from multiple data sources, were synthesized into general ideas, thoughts, or impressions.
Typically, at this stage these general statements are still rather informal and are often
captured as marginalia in the field notes.
3. Coding data entails chunking isolated pieces of information into broader cate-
gories and labeling those categories. For this study the coding process began by attempt-
ing to identify some of the topics that were expected to be presented based on the litera-
ture review, for example, 21st-century skills as defined by Wagner (2010). Coding then
focused on categories that were not anticipated at the beginning of the study. Using this
two-pronged approach to coding added structure to the coding process, which is essential,
especially when there are multiple researchers (Creswell, 2009), as in this study
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91

conducted by a thematic dissertation team of 12 researchers. However, allowing for unex-
pected codes keeps the study true to the inductive nature of qualitative studies, where the
data are allowed to speak and create conclusions.
4. Coding was used to develop a detailed description of the setting and events and
to identify a relatively small number of categories and even fewer themes. These themes
eventually transformed into the major findings as the “big ideas” surfaced repeatedly in
the data throughout the analysis of data from various sources.
5. Pieces of data and labels for groups of data pieces were transformed into a nar-
rative aimed at telling a comprehensive story about the people and setting under study.
This narrative was intended to paint a rich picture and convey deep understanding of the
people and setting.
6. In the final step, data were interpreted to produce meaning. In essence, these
findings were the lessons that were learned or answers to the question “Why does all this
matter”?
Limitations and Delimitations of the study
Limitations of the study included the distance from southern California to San
José, Costa Rica. A language barrier was a challenge for half of the researchers, as both
researchers and interviewees lacked ability in the second language (Spanish or English).
Since the data collection was conducted in Costa Rica during a 10-day span, some inter-
views with potential participants could not be conducted due to scheduling conflicts.
A key delimitation of the study was that, of the schools studied, all had active
partnerships with Intel Costa Rica, which prevents generalizability of findings. Several of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92

the studied schools were located in impoverished communities in the San José area and
one was located at the southern end of the country along the border with Panama.
Assumptions
Assumptions were made in developing the study. First, it was assumed that 21st-
century skills are needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor force to compete in the
diverse knowledge-based global economy. Second, it was assumed that STEM skills are
needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor force to compete in the innovation sector
of the diverse knowledge-based global economy. Third, it was assumed that globalization
and Intel have had an impact on the educational system in Costa Rica. Fourth, it was
assumed that all participants would provide accurate information. Fifth, it was assumed
that the interviews, surveys, and observation protocols would provide information
required to assess the impact of globalization and MNCs on primary and secondary
schools in Costa Rica. Sixth, it was assumed that the collected data would lead to under-
standing of the relationships among MEP, CINDE, and Intel on the development of 21st-
century skills and STEM education in Costa Rica’s K–12 public schools.
Ethical Considerations
All 14 members of this study, including the research leader, Dr. Escalante, com-
pleted the IRB application process, which included completion of the Collaborative
Institutional Review Board Training Initiative (CITI), an online training program that
explains ethical conduct toward human participants in research projects. After viewing
four modules, each researcher took a quiz individually and received a score of at least
80%. All instruments, including interview protocols, the observation protocol, and the
survey protocol, were approved by the USC IRB. The IRB process ensured that all
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93

aspects of the research project were in line with necessary ethical considerations and that
the project would not cause harm (mental, physical, or otherwise) to study participants.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS
The current and future work force depends upon students being prepared with
21st-century skills. Fierce competition in the job market has created a global market has
that requires educators to challenge students to increase their ability to communicate,
become innovators, be critical thinkers, be creative, and collaborate. Globalization is a
phenomenon that involves changes in global economy that influence production, con-
sumption, and investments, which in turn impacts larger segments of the world’s popula-
tion. Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes of
which schooling is a part (Spring, 2008). Costa Rica is a small Central American nation
that has seen many social, political, and economic changes due to the impact of globali-
zation and the presence of MNCs.
Over the past three decades, Costa Rica has changed significantly. An economy
once dominated by agriculture has changed into a diverse and creative portfolio of
foreign investment and manufacturing, consisting of technology and medical manufac-
turing, as well as other fields. Companies such as Intel and Microsoft have invested
millions of dollars in Costa Rica, largely in the education system.
With an increase in global influence, many students lack the skills necessary to
compete in a global economy. Therefore, it is important to understand whether MNCs are
contributing to the development of a qualified workforce (Rotherham & Willingham,
2010). Costa Rica has taken full advantage of the competitive global market by entering
into partnership with CINDE, a private, nonpolitical, nonprofit organization formed in
1984 with the purpose of promoting and attracting high-technology FDI and improving
conditions for the people living in the country (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95

2001). Schools in Costa Rica adopted educational practices to develop 21st-century
skills, particularly in STEM, to prepare its people for the jobs brought by MNCs.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of this study through analy-
sis of interviews, surveys, observations, and literature review. This chapter is divided into
three main sections: (a) a restatement of the study’s purpose and research questions, (b)
an overview of the methodology and participants, and (c) presentation of the findings as
related to each of the research questions. Four theoretic frameworks were utilized in the
analysis of the collected data: (a) Spring’s (2008) theory of globalization, (b) Friedman’s
(2007) theory of globalization, (c) Wagner’s (2008) theory of necessary 21st-century
learning skills, and (d) Slough and Milam’s (2013) theory of STEM PBL.
Globalization
Globalization is the dynamic process of increasing interactions and interde-
pendencies among people and systems (Sassen, 1998). According to Spring (2008), “Dis-
course about the knowledge economy focuses on the necessity of educating students with
skills for the global workforce” (p. 337). Preparing students to meet the high demands of
the global economy is another vital example of Spring’s (2008) perspective on globaliza-
tion. As the world shrinks through the transfer of ideas, pollution, services, products,
people, and problems, globalization raises new issues and challenges the ways in which
people have traditionally understood environmental control, job security, cultural change,
and national sovereignty (Lechner & Boli, 2000). Wagner (2010) asserted that central to
globalization is the idea of education, or providing societies with the knowledge and
skills to compete in a greater global marketplace. As an economic force, globalization
means increased power for organizations, people, and investors who are able to create
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96

and take advantage of global markets and new technologies. Costa Rica is set to position
itself as a market to bring industries in high technology. If they fail to educate children
from a young age in these areas, they will not have professionals to supply the companies
that want to position themselves in the region.
STEM/PBL
A method for helping students to develop the skills necessary for success in the
21st century is use of STEM education. Many have contended that creating a STEM-
literate citizenry is the key to a country’s success in the global level (Bybee, 2010). Very
few people were familiar with the term until work such as that by Friedman (2007) intro-
duced the concepts of global competition and a “flat” world. People began to understand
that, in the 21st century, technology and engineering will play a critical role in a coun-
try’s global standing, and a shift has been made from simple science and mathematics to
an integrated STEM approach (Sanders, 2008). In Costa Rica, significant economic
growth is evident in the knowledge-based sector, with significant growth in STEM fields
(CINDE, 2013).
Slough and Milam’s (2013) “Theoretical Framework for the Design of Stem
Project-Based Learning” provided the frame for the purpose of analysis of the data. The
four principles in the frame used for this analysis were (a) making the content accessible,
(b) making thinking visible, (c) helping students to learn from others, and (d) promoting
autonomy and life-long learning. An important aspect of STEM education that is often
overlooked is the engineering component. Students who engage in engineering curricu-
lum during their precollege education can develop many of the skills necessary for the
21st century. Two of the identified skills for global competition are innovation and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97

problem solving. These skills are important to the economic success of a country and are
emphasized in engineering (Bybee, 2010). Moreover, the use of engineering in the class-
room supports integration of other aspects of STEM: science, mathematics, and technol-
ogy (Capraro et al., 2013).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility on the curriculum and practices in Costa Rican K–
12 schools. This study also sought to understand the relationship among Ministry of Edu-
cation, CINDE, and Intel with respect to the development of 21st-century skills and -
interest in STEM PBL in the nation’s K–12 schools. Furthermore, this study examined
how the mandated national science fair influences the use of PBL to build human capital
and prepare students for 21st-century jobs, particularly in the STEM fields.
This chapter reports the findings and results of analysis of qualitative data col-
lected individually and collectively by a group of 14 research students from USC. The
research team was divided into three groups to study the three teams of Costa Rican
students who had competed in the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
(IISEF). The groups of students were from school sites across major regions of the
country. Each researcher focused research on one student. For the purpose of this disser-
tation study, interviews were conducted, transcribed, and translated; literature was
reviewed; surveys were distributed and inventoried; and observations were analyzed to
triangulate the data. All of this information was used to address the three research ques-
tions that guided the study:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98

1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their prac-
tices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation
influenced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and use of tech-
nology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted curriculum and
instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
This chapter presents a discussion of the findings as they relate to the research
questions. Research participants are introduced, results are reported for each question,
and themes are highlighted as found in the research by connecting the data from surveys,
interviews, and observations.
Participants
This section provides an overview of each interviewed participant to give per-
spective on the collected data that led to the findings for the study. Table 5 summarizes
the participants of the study. Participants were divided into four groups: students, educa-
tional leaders, business leaders, and government leaders. Students identified in this case
study were either current or former students at Liceo Académico de Sixaola. In addition,
three anonymous current students were interviewed. Classroom observations were con-
ducted at the school sites to support the survey data collected by the research team to
develop a clearer understanding of the data related to the research questions. Educational
policymakers and government leaders were interviewed to gain insight regarding
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99

Table 5

Summary of Interviewees for Case Study

Name Position

Daylin Bryan Rodríquez Student (participant in Intel international fair)
Marcello Guerro Student (participant in Intel international fair)
Veronica Bustos Guido Student (participant in Intel international fair)
Adriana McCarthy Former student
Edwon Rodríguez Former student
Hefte Cordoba Former student
Daryl Parker Cortes Former student
Greidin Medina Former student
Laura Castillo Mejias Teacher at Liceo Académico de Sixaola
Alejandro Torres Teacher at Liceo Académico de Sixaola
Ronald Silva Teacher at Liceo Académico de Sixaola
Sonia Cortés Leal Principal at Liceo Académico de Sixaola
Carlos Valerio University professor
Luis Pocasangre University professor
Sonia Mora Escalante Minister of Public Education
Nathalie Valencia Chacon Coordinator, National Science & Tech Fair Program
Sylvia Arguello Vargas Director, Human Capitol, Ministry of Science & Technology
Alica Fonseca Elizondo National Assessor, Ministry of Public Education
Ligia Mejia Murray Regional Assessor
Nelson Campos National Science Assessor
Cecilia Calderón National Science Assessor
Mary Helen Bialas Former Director, Educational Outreach, Intel Costa Rica
Vanessa Gibson Director of Post-Establishment, Costa Rican Investment
Promotion Agency
Alicia Fonseca National Advisor, Technical Education, Ministry of Public
Education
Luis Rodríguez (Don Luis) Volunteer, local scientist and engineer

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100

development and implementation of the IISEF in Costa Rica. Understanding the political
framework and impact of MNCs on the educational system was vital to the team’s
research. Business leaders were interviewed to understand how the MNCs influence the
educational system and their impact on economic development and human capital in
Costa Rica. Interviews were conducted with family members of the students who
participated in the IISEF to gain a perspective when determining the support provided by
teachers, MNCs, and other support systems.
Location
The focus of this research study was Liceo Académico de Sixaola, a school
located in Sixaola, a small town in the province of Limón, Costa Rica, along the north
edge of the Panama border and the Caribbean side of Costa Rica. The town is located on
the Rio Sixaola (Sixaola River), which forms the Costa Rica-Panama border. Highway 36
ends at Sixaola. Sixaola is directly across the river from Guabito, Panama. Both towns
consist of homes, banana farms, and small businesses for locals. Sixaola is the main
banana-producing region of the country; most of the bananas from there are imported
around the world. Many of the people who live in Sixaola are banana farmers who work
on plantations owned by large banana production companies. The Rio Sixaola is also the
boundary between the Central and Eastern time zones. The surrounding area is home to
indigenous Bribri Indians.
Floods devastate the region several times per year. In fact, a major flood had
ravaged the school just months before the research team arrived, causing major damage
and closing the school for days. The education community, along with local firefighters,
cleaned the school of mud that was beyond head high in all first-floor classrooms and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101

facilities. There was still evidence of the damage in the exposed light fixtures and ceiling
rafters/sub floor from the second floor above. There were no glass windows, just rebar to
keep the window area secure; lower floor doors were iron gates. Local wildlife roamed
the grounds of the school; while researchers observed a classroom, a reptile crawled up
the wall and across the ceiling.
The poor conditions of the campus were evident as the research team approached
the school. The school is located on a dirt road adjacent to a banana farm. A building next
to the campus had once been used for prostitution. A glance around the facility revealed
overgrown grounds with a grass playing field in the middle. Buildings needed repair;
there was evidence of recent flooding. Water was brought in and electricity was inter-
mittent. In fact, power went out on the campus during the research team’s visit. There is a
computer lab on the top floor, containing a class set of laptop computers. When the
power is working, students have access to the Internet. As the school is located adjacent
to the jungle, the heat and humidity are a challenge for both teachers and students. The
computer lab is the only room with air conditioning—when the power is working. Keep-
ing the students’ attention and motivated is a challenge for the teachers.
Despite of the poverty-stricken environment, students appeared happy, evidenced
by constant laughter and smiles. The school has focused on STEM education and has
produced National Science and Technology Fair and IISEF winners for the past 9 years.
Students at Liceo Académico de Sixaola have won top awards at both the national and
international levels of the science fairs. This year, three students from the school placed
third in their category at the IISEF in Los Angeles, California. The researcher focused on
the three students and the school to determine why students from such a poor region in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102

Costa Rica experience success and are part of a high graduation rate and pursue higher
education.
Instrumentation
The research team conducted 43 interviews, surveyed 45 teachers/administrators
and 237 students, and observed classrooms at each of the schools. Whenever needed, the
Spanish-speaking members of the research team conducted the interviews in Spanish. All
interviews were translated and transcribed. The team focused the interviews on three
IISEF 2014 students, five former IISEF student winners, four policy/government offi-
cials, four school leaders, and two business leaders. All participants answered questions
related to the three research questions. In order to analyze the survey data, the responses
were tabulated by assigning numerical values on a 4-point Likert-type scale: Strongly
Agree = 4, Agree = 3, Disagree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 1. Responses of I Don’t Know
were omitted from numerical analysis. Scores were analyzed by question and by question
clusters related to the three research questions.
Qualitative research studies require the researcher to be the instrument for data
collection (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). An inductive research study was imple-
mented to determine a conclusion based on the data collected and the analysis of patterns
discerned when examining the school sites, school and government leaders, and corpora-
tions of Costa Rica. All scores were also disaggregated by school as well as combined,
while educator and student data were analyzed separately.
Results: Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, To what extent do teachers implementing STEM cur-
riculum trace their practices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103

To what extent is the economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related? This
question was designed to focus on Costa Rica’s education system and practices and eco-
nomic growth. Globalization and MNCs played a major factor in the Costa Rican
schools. STEM education is vital to the system in Costa Rican schools with the involve-
ment of all students in the mandated science fair and the impact on how schools approach
instruction. With some traditional lecture-based teaching strategies and approaches
replaced, doors are opened for more project-based and inquiry-driven strategies (Breiner
et al., 2012). The impact of globalization, educational policy, and MNCs on implementa-
tion of STEM practices and the influence of STEM education on the improved state of
Costa Rica’s economy proved to be a valuable theme in this study.
To compete in today’s global market, there is a need to develop strong human
capital. Supporting economic growth through FDI, Costa Rica has positioned itself as one
of the top competitors through STEM education with MNC support. Their involvement in
national and international science fairs has demonstrated that Costa Rica is developing
high-level skills in STEM areas, resulting in economic growth, success, and improved
instructional practices. Education is a key determining factor of economic well-being and
growth, as it serves to increase human capital, increase productivity and quality of output,
increase the innovative capacity of the economy, promote growth in new technologies,
process and products, and support implementation of new technologies (Brewer &
McEwan, 2010). Globalization, MNCs, FDI, and STEM practices have influenced Costa
Rica as a whole. This research question is closely aligned to Spring’s (2008) postcolonial
definition of globalization.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104

Business Officials
Responding as a University Professor, Sylvia Arguello stated,
Costa Rica is a very important investment since the army was abolished and now
we invest all the money we don’t use in armament construction, now we use that
in education and that’s a great investment and we can see education rates and I
can tell you Costa Rica is an example in the Latin American level in relation to
the human talent, the area of science, technology, engineering and mathematics
too are very important for us because we not only want an economy based in
knowledge and in that order we need a good base in these areas but because this
allow people to develop an analytical thinking in every work or profession, a
critical thinking, how to face a problem and give solutions to that problem.
Mary Helen Bialas, former Director of Educational Outreach for Intel Costa Rica,
stated that companies benefit in the long run if they support education. She maintained
that STEM education is vital to the future growth of Costa Rica.
STEM education is extremely important, because it’s part of our future. I think we
need to have scientists, and we need to have people who can use science to help
improve the quality of life. That is definitely a very low . . . insufficient enough
amount of graduates at this time, in the world, to be able to help solve our
problems. We have huge, big problems to solve.
When asked about the observed effects on students and teachers and educational leaders
who have participated in the science and technology fairs, she responded,
Teachers love working with the kids, because children inspire them. They love the
opportunity to explore more of their own interests in research or science, and that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105

has motivated them to be better teachers. The love the opportunity for having the
students being recognized . . . what I’ve seen is extremely positive results with all
the teachers that participate in a level of the organization of the fair. It’s very
stimulating, and it’s an activity that brings in the community, and the people of
Costa Rica are very proud of.
She has seen a positive teacher impact on STEM education in the classroom, from
the kinds of activities that they want to dedicate the time to help the kids to what is actu-
ally helping them to become better teachers. They have found new ways of teaching to
support the national science fair. She noted that that the fair is still not integrated in the
sense that activities are not coming out of the classrooms. She recognized extra classroom
time and the teachers’ need to determine they will use it best.
Vanessa Gibson, Director of Post-Establishment at CINDE, shared many of the
views that Mary Helen Bialis expressed with regard to STEM education and how it
relates to globalization. She emphasized that a country such as Costa Rica must put edu-
cation first and must believe in its people. She cautioned that there may not be a well-
developed strategy from the government, specifically the Ministry of Education, in the
area of STEM education;
Costa Rica is lacking from not just the fundamentals of STEM, but also actually
the vocational orientations towards STEM. It’s a double problem that we have.
We have a new system of kids that are actually running away from math, they are
running away from science, so we need to definitely work well in those areas and
it’s a challenge for the country right now.
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When addressing resources such as staffing, equipment and structure, Vanessa’s views
were quite general. She described a much larger problem, that the list of resources is
quite great when in identifying the needs to support STEM education. She stated that,
with the support of FDI and MNC, there have been great gains in student motivation,
interest, and pursuit of STEM education in Costa Rica.
Government Officials
Officials from the educational system, including regional and national fair direc-
tors, the Minister of Education, and directors from MICIT were interviewed. Based on
their responses, it was clear that involvement by MNCs and STEM education play a
major role in the success of Costa Rican students. Alicia Fonseca, National Advisor in
Technology Education at the Ministry of Public Education, expressed her opinion
regarding the importance of STEM education:
STEM education is extremely important for us that about science, and above all
the technical part . . . even though fairs are managed in engineering, that is tech-
nology education, in engineering. It began 5 years ago, the first thing I initiated
here when I began. The National Science and Technology Fair come from the
schools, so other educators manage them. It has been a turnaround since 5 years
ago . . . it has been very valuable because today almost all schools participate in
the fair.
Fonseca was confident that more students are interested in continuing their studies
in STEM education as a result of the fairs. She stated that students tend to be more
involved and interested when they bring projects from all over the country to be judged
by members of MNCs. This has created a growing trend of involvement in the fairs and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107

increased teacher involvement. The teachers are interested because the students partici-
pate and students tend to be more committed as teachers become more involved and sup-
portive.
Ligia Mejia Murray, regional director for the Limon province, which includes
Sixaola, stated that contributions by Intel and other MNCs are not only instrumental in
student success but also a major factor in the future success of Costa Rica and the work-
force. She stated that STEM education has helped students in Costa Rica to develop skills
and abilities by providing an arena where they can demonstrate their experience and
begin a scientific vocation.
As you know, we have to work in a gathered manner, it is a very interdisciplinary
approaches not just math but Spanish and other studies because the fair requires
all of those subjects. . . . There has been a complete infatuation with regards to the
science and technology fairs. We have observed that people, not just teachers, but
parents who are a very important complement to this important development once
they participate . . . it takes a great deal of hard work and commitment . . . but you
feel the satisfaction and gratitude when you manage to participate in that entire
process . . . when our students participate at an international level, there is a union
there and a positive attitude and a complete support on behalf of the region.
Curriculum designs and educational policies have changed as a result of the fairs.
When the research team visited Liceo Académico de Sixaola, they realized that there
were limited resources but the school has managed to advance to impressive levels of
success, even up to an international level. When asked whether students might be able to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108

achieve more with additional resources, Ligia Mejia Murray replied that she had always
dreamed of a good laboratory at the school site.
Yes, of course they could. We could achieve more. If I had a laboratory I could
teach the teachers a lot more things. We have done it in an ambulatory laboratory
because sometimes we do get the materials but we finish them so the laboratory is
ambulatory, but we could do so much more.
Nathalie Valencia Chacon, Coordinator for the National Science and Technology
Fair Program, and Sylvia Arguello Vargas, Director of Human Capitol at MICIT, shared
that economic development for the country is based on achieving a knowledge-based
model rather than an export model; they stated that this has been greatly influenced by
involvement of FDI and MNCs. Interviewed together, they complemented each other and
provided valuable information and evidence to address Research Question 1. Sylvia
shared that, as a result of science fairs and other programs, many changes in mathematics
curriculum have occurred. She noted some concern regarding maintaining support from
Intel and other MNCs. She stressed the importance of education to create workers who
will support the government’s strategy of attracting FDI through development of a
knowledge-based economy.
Nathalie Valencia expressed concerns and ideas regarding the lack of resources
and what areas should be a focus for the schools.
We are generating a seedbed for future citizens with scientific and creative skills
who could be more sensitive to their reality and who are looking to solve the
problematic affecting their communities in the educational and social level. . . .
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We have the professors who are involved in a greater level and that’s a learning
process which is very valuable for the teachers.
Having never participated in the fair, Nathalie shared that she is very passionate
about the fair and remarked that people know her passion. There are many challenges, but
Costa Rica serves as a model with the scientific fair at the regional level and international
levels. They have been following international standards. For her, the most important
challenge is to provide support to professors and teachers to advance STEM education;
she noted that, unfortunately, future teachers are not experiencing the education that is in
line with what is required to achieve a useful level of development in Costa Rica.
School Sites
Interviews with administrators, teachers, students, and former students reflected
an understanding that STEM education practices are established in the government
science fair policy and are influenced by MNCs. Laura Castillo Mejias, teacher at Liceo
Académico de Sixaola (interview, June 18, 2014) described an organizational structure
that she has in place to involve all of her students and to encourage them to participate
and challenge themselves when creating projects for the fair. She considers STEM edu-
cation a crucial piece of the overall educational puzzle to prepare students for the future
job market.
I consider that STEM education is a crucial resource for the academic training of
our young people . . . with this we will achieve that our students broaden their
aspirations and to have a more helpful vision of this global world. . . . it is
extremely necessary their knowledge to achieve the development of our country.
. . . I feel that through the science and technology our students will be on their
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way to an employment source for the future, since the increase of these in recent
month with the re-opening of Intel, Toshiba soon, the laboratory that Franklin
Chang has in Liberia, among others.
She shared that her supervisor, site principal Sonia Cortes Leal, loves the process of the
science fair and is always willing to help. Both Laura Castillo Mejias and Sonia Cortes
Leal have a clear commitment to the students of Liceo Académico de Sixaola. They
encourage students to create a vision that will allow them to fulfill their goals. However,
to reach those goals, they must work hard and with dedication. STEM education and the
involvement of MNCs are vital to the future success of Costa Rica. Sonia Cortes Leal
shared that the support at their level is not at a level that other regions experience.
When students get to the international fairs, there is support. It needs to go further
than that. There has not been any follow up since their success at the international
level . . . the students deserve that through these organizations [MNCs] or trans-
national companies or the Ministry of Education itself guarantees them maybe a
benefit that may help them continue their secondary studies, something that I
haven’t seen.
She reported that involvement by MICIT and Intel has strengthened and motivated
students to do research and study science and technology. According to Sonia Cortes
Leal, the current educational policy exists due to globalization. Students now have more
opportunities and they lean more in science and technology areas of study.
Student
This researcher followed Daylin Bryan Rodríguez, current student at Liceo
Académico de Sixaola and 2014 IISEF winner. The researcher met her at the IISEF in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111

Los Angeles, California. When asked about the involvement of MNCs and the
importance of STEM education, she responded,
More than anything, it has been the Universidad de Costa Rica, Universidad
Nacional, Intel, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications in
the country . . . . they have given incentives to the schools to participate so the
kids find more interest in science and also technology. . . . So in their free time
they do not do improper things, and stay busier in things that help the world.
(interview, May 12, 2014)
The students at Liceo Académico de Sixaola face serious challenges. Despite a
lack of heating and air conditioning, running water, and reliable electricity, the students
are involved, engaged, and active participants in their classrooms. The Internet has given
the students access to connect to worlds that they have never seen. For Daylin, participa-
tion in the IISEF has been valuable in guiding her as she pursues the field of naval engi-
neering.
STEM education has been what I need to strengthen my math and technology
skills as I pursue a career in the navy. I am thankful for the opportunities that the
people in the Universidad de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional, Intel, the Minis-
try of Science, Technology and Telecommunications in this country have given
me. They give incentives to the schools to participate so the kids find more
interest in science and technology, so in their [students’] free time they do not do
improper things, and stay busier in things that help the world.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112

The ISEF Challenge
Intel has backed Costa Rica at a national level for several years. Daylin shared
that, because of STEM education, the economic future of Costa Rica looks promising.
Having mentioned that Costa Rica is a third-world country, she stressed that, with the
infusion of technology, the country has already advanced, evidenced by the planned
launching of a satellite “Andresito Americano” in the near future. She agreed with the
other students that Intel and MICIT have helped them in many ways. One of her fellow
students and IISEF 2014 winner, Veronica Bustos Guido, agreed that, “Programs like
science fair, the public education ministry, Intel, UNEP, UCR, promote science and tech-
nology at a national level and they promote quality education.”
To sum the importance of Costa Rica’s STEM educational focus on its economy,
Dr. Luis Pocasangre of Earth University explained,
I’ve been working in education since 20 years ago. I have been working in inter-
national organizations and international universities. I have had the opportunity to
receive students from several countries. It’s very clear that these students from
Costa Rica are the most advanced in the region. The best students I have are from
Costa Rica, Columbia, Brazil and Argentina. The government is trying to support
quite a lot of the basic science. This is an elite of very good students they are
selecting. For me, it’s also a very, very good approach.
The results related to Research Question 1 indicated that teachers who are imple-
menting STEM curriculum trace their practices back to the influence of policy,
globalization, and MNCs. Globalization has certainly changed Costa Rica, but
collaboration between government and CINDE allowed for high-technology FDI by
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MNCs such as Intel to provide educators with tools to enhance students’ chances in the
creation of future economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education.
Results: Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, How has mandating the national and technology fair
participation influenced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and
use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it impacted curricu-
lum and instruction? Research Question 2 focuses on whether the use of PBL/STEM
instructional practices has increased student interest in STEM fields, resulting in a higher
participation rate in the National Science Fair. Twenty-first-century skills are the major
educational thrust in most countries around the world. Wagner (2008) stated that the
global achievement gap is “fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and tech-
nological changes” (p. 9). Wagner’s (2008, pp. 14-41) seven key survival skills that
students must develop to succeed in the 21st century are identified as follows: (a) critical
thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration and leadership, (c) agility and adaptabil-
ity, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f)
accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
The National Science Fair policy has provided an avenue for schools to focus on
21st-century skills through STEM/PBL-focused instruction to provide students with
greater opportunities to compete in the future global market. As stated in Chapter 2, stu-
dents are taught to be learners, rather than simple receptors of information; schools
should also teach them how to navigate information. In this flat world there is a constant
flow of knowledge, information, and news, particularly with the growth of the World
Wide Web. Teaching students how to sift through the information to find facts and real
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114

sources of knowledge is critical as they move forward into college and careers (Friedman,
2007). Students in Costa Rica have become innovators; they are being taught how to
solve new problems and adapt to an ever-changing job market.
Two themes emerged from the analysis of results. First, the national science and
technology fair mandate has influenced student participation in the national science fair
and 21st-century skill development. Second, classroom instruction and curriculum have
not significantly changed as a result of the national science fair. Government officials had
views of the science fair and how it affects curriculum and instruction that were different
from those of the school site and business leaders. There was a significant level of identi-
fication of 21st-century skills throughout the interviews. Language that either identified
or described in students one or more of the seven skills identified by Wagner (2008)
occurred 91 times in the 26 interviews. All skills were mentioned at least once (Table 6).
Business Officials
The business community in Costa Rica has been affected by the national science
fair. Vanessa Gibson, Director of Post-Establishment at CINDE, stated that the science
fairs provide opportunities for students that they would not necessarily experience in their
schools due to the low poverty levels in the country. Funding is a major concern through-
out the country.
CINDE doesn’t have a budget; the most we have is a room, cookies and sodas, to
bring everyone together, which are the most we contribute to some of the initia-
tives. Resources are scarce in Costa Rica, everything is limited. We’re a fiscal
deficit economy. CINDE, however, has been able to navigate around bureaucracy,
lack of resources, I would say, lack of new ideas and thinking out of the box.
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Table 6

Frequency of References to 21st-Century Skills in the Interviews

Education Business Government
21st-century skills Students leaders leaders leaders

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving 7 6 4 5
Collaboration and Leadership 2 1 1 1
Agility and Adaptability 1 1 1 2
Initiative and Entrepreneurship 9 5 2 2
Effective Oral and Written Communication 8 2 5 2
Accessing and Analyzing Information 2 1 4 6
Curiosity and Imagination 1 5 1 4

Student participation in the science fair provides opportunities to improve com-
munication skills, participate in leadership roles, and work collaboratively with students
from areas. Vanessa continued,
The availability of STEM related jobs has changed students’ vision and their per-
spective in life, generally. Most of these students, if you already meet them you
see they’re coming from very challenged communities where their parents are
immigrants in some cases, they didn’t have an idea, not even about education
what are STEM and whatsoever the impact of these opportunities. Students are
being challenged to have a global view of the opportunities, one impacting their
communities, because they become a referral in their high school and in their
community. In the STEM perspective again, with the right and appropriate guid-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116

ance they’re the next generation of engineers, physicians and whatsoever, but
again, tracking them as well is the missing point.
She did not see much change in the actual curriculum utilized in schools as a result of the
science fairs:
I haven’t seen such change, the last former President, the former minister did
something with math, but STEM has been a discussion with Intel for the last 15
years and we haven’t seen that structural change in STEM. It is just an extra, it is
just and externality. The fairs are just something they’re happening by itself,
which it’s own life, but not necessarily already embedded in the system.
STEM education is vital to the success of Costa Rica in the global economy. The
involvement of corporations has contributed to the students’ accomplishments and pro-
vided new opportunities to improve curriculum and instruction. Their investments in K–
12 and higher education are invaluable as Costa Rica updates the educational system to
provide STEM education and development of 21st-century skills.
Mary Helen Bialas, Former Director of Educational Outreach for Intel Costa Rica,
rated STEM education as an extremely important part of Costa Rica’s future. She stressed
that they need people who can use science to improve the quality of life. When asked
about the effects of the science and technology, she responded,
We ask teachers how did it impact them. Most teachers shared that they would be
tutors for the fairs again. In essence, what they’re saying is that they love the stu-
dents. They say they love working with the kids, because the children inspire
them. They love the opportunity to explore more of their own interests in research
or science, and that has motivated them to become better teachers.
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The theme of 21st-century skills developing from participation in the science fair
emerged from the data quite frequently. There was a significant level of incidence in the
identification of 21st-century skills throughout the interviews. Language that either iden-
tified or described students in one or more of the seven skills identified by Wagner
(2008) occurred 47 times in the 21 interviews conducted for this study. Business officials
most frequently mentioned oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and critical thinking and problem solving. The frequency and consistency of
the identification of 21st-century skills indicate a strong influence of the development of
21st-century skills through participation in the national science fair.
Government Officials
Nathalie Valencia Chacon, Coordinator for the National Science & Technology
Fair Programs, and Sylvia Arguello Vargas, Director of Human Capitol at MCIT, were
interviewed together. When asked how mandating the national and technology fair par-
ticipation has influenced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL
and use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas, they had similar responses.
Sylvia Arguello said,
We can’t say everything is wonderful, right? There are teachers, students, con-
sultants who can really understand the importance of the project, right? They
know about science and technology but we still have to solve certain challenges.
One hurdle is we have professors during their education career in Costa Rica
don’t have a training to know how to develop an investigation project. So we see
some cases in the scientific fair about very good projects, which can’t pass to the
next stage. Because the professors are, in many cases, judges of many of these
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118

projects. In other regions like in the center of the country we have the great
advantage of having university experts participating as judges.
She added that the process of student research should be integrated into the curriculum
and that teachers do not often see the value of the fair, either due to their own experience
or lack of education:
The science fair needs to be integrated into the curriculum to have full impact.
This must be accomplished if Costa Rica is to see the effects of the integration. In
addition there needs to be a formal study to implement changes in public policy,
which will impact the process and education of the students in the end.
Alicia Fonseca Elizondo, National Assessor for the Ministry of Public Education,
was instrumental in the development of the technology fairs and has worked with tech-
nical schools throughout Costa Rica. She stated that the fairs are integrated into the cur-
riculum. She reported that teachers collaborate with the fair and are committed to having
students participate. In her opinion, the curriculum has changed. In response to whether
participation in the fair supports the curriculum, she responded,
I would say no in the way nowadays is structured. We need to treat the process of
students’ research, which is the essence of the fair, should be integrated into the
curriculum. Because not all teachers due to their education or because they
haven’t had an optimal experience of the process, they don’t see the importance of
the science and technology fairs or the student research process as an ideal teach-
ing tool for learning so if they don’t have an education on that, we go back to the
essential part, so when they don’t have that kind of training, I don’t know how to
address physics, biology, chemistry topics as a research project. . . . We have to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119

go back to the same question, in many cases when something is not a guideline,
then nothing is done. We have a lot of professors committed with the process, but
there are many others who say, “If we don’t have fair this year, better for us!” For
example, this year we had a teachers strike.
School Sites
Based on survey responses, the research team concluded that the national science
and technology fair mandate has affected teacher practice, depending on the individual
school sites, resulting in a focus on 21st-century skills through use of PBL. The integra-
tion of science research is an important component of the science fairs. Marco Juarez,
Principal at Colegio Cientifico San Carlos, a public school that accepts students who
excel in science, stated,
The national policy of science and technology fairs has created graduates with the
21st-century skills in the STEM fields. In the last two years we have noticed that
the continuity of students who enroll in the system have greater difficulties
adapting in science education and the difficulties adjusting when they enroll to
our institution is not because their skills, but because of the academic foundation
they bring, this creates an exponential curve of adaptation that in many circum-
stances leads to frustration in students that from being the best in their origin
schools now they have grades never seen in science school.
Juarez agreed that the fairs have affected curriculum, although not significantly. A
particular problem is that the fairs are immersed in a rural area; they are a public institu-
tion that is financed by the state, which is his responsibility. It was his opinion that they
must have an impact in areas where education is lagging. He expressed the need to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120

influence students where there are academic gaps to break the poverty cycle, violence
cycle, and aggression.
Changes in curriculum have been made to a certain extent in several subject areas
in Costa Rican schools. Encouragement for use of 21st-century skills is now prominent
due to efforts by the MEP. The MEP has begun to push schools to incorporate PBL
because implementation involves the use of all of Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills
for the 21st century. It was evident in support that there is an emphasis on 21st-century
learning. Survey, interview, and observation data indicated significant use of technology
as a resource in the classroom. Data, including observational data, also showed evidence
of student collaboration.
The research team focused on the impact of the national science fair on curricu-
lum and instruction in the classroom at the Liceo Académico de Sixaola, a public school
near the southeast coast of Costa Rica and on the north side of the Panamanian border.
School Principal Sonia Cortez Leal shared that she was concerned that there was very
little integration currently:
Similar to American education system, the curriculum guides the instructional
changes. The main thing is the interest is high more than anything in young
people. Because when they go out and participate in these fairs, they go out to
study something related to them. For example, in 2011 from the young people
who participated and won at a national level, one of them leaned towards engi-
neering and others towards technology.
Instructional practices change with curriculum changes. Student participation
relies on teacher interest and focus. Resources are scarce in this part of the country but
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121

there is support from outside professors, teachers, community members, and other offi-
cials. Cortez Leal explained:
I feel that the learning is–as it’s more about research it becomes more dynamic at
the same time. In the classroom, and then . . . I see the partner working a lot
researching. So, it’s more dynamic, it’s less of a routine. Because many times the
kids get out of the environment at go further. So, it’s more enriching.
She did not acknowledge a change in the system. She noted very little support for the
high school. The resources are few, and the institutions work with limited resources:
The curriculum doesn’t vary, the only thing that changes–according to the cur-
riculum, is what the kids want to research, where they want to move to, and what
type of research they want to do. Scientific or technological, but the curriculum is
the same, it doesn’t vary. The school has one classroom with access to the Inter-
net, and that’s not consistent. No lab access for research or experiments. This
restricts our students from moving forward.
Fortunately for the students at Liceo Académico, de Sixaola a local scientist and
engineer, Dr. Luis Rodríguez has opened his home for students to conduct research. His
ranch is home to hundreds of plant species. This allows students to conduct research for
their projects. Dr. Rodríguez is a firm believer in STEM education and a strong supporter
of having institutionalized the science fairs. He contended that this is strong support
because everything is done with volunteering and private company contributions, but
there must be a whole structure in the MEP that takes care of strengthening the system.
Dr. Rodríguez commented on how the science fairs have affected curriculum and
instruction:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122

A lot depends on the teachers who get involved. Because many of them see it only
. . . and some students even see it as a requirement to earn 10 points. They don’t
commit and without commitment nothing is achieved. So it’s not a general com-
mitment that you know, because I’ve worked with this school, with microalgae to
produce biodiesel and the school has not contributed with anything. There is a
central lab, the Bri Bri, and they don’t use it because they’re missing a capable
science staff. They are simply teachers of physics and mathematics or any other
science, but they don’t have developed skills. It’s incredible to teach a teacher
how to use a microscope because they don’t know how to use it.
According to Rodríguez, there has not been much change related to teachers. The
daily projects do not represent the traditional subjects and curriculum at the high school.
A positive feature is that students continue in the fields of STEM. Dr. Rodríguez noted
that life is full of challenges for the students at Liceo Académico de Sixaola, given the
resources that they have. They are enthusiastic and working hard to achieve positive
results, strengthen their individual experiences, and continue to find new and challenging
ways to succeed.
Student
During the interview of Daylin Bryan Rodríguez, current student and IISEF
winner, she reported that she had experienced instructional time outside of the classroom,
going to libraries in Limon and conducting research at Dr. Rodríguez’ lab. Curricular
support existed outside of the school day, although the teacher, Laura Castillo, was very
involved in instructional support. She stated that her teacher took them to Limon to study:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123

I felt that I am a stronger student because of my participation in the IISEF. My
teacher has been so supportive with all of us during our projects. There are many
things that we do in the classroom that helped us with our projects. We learned to
investigate, to speak in public, and not be afraid of anything. During classes we
used the books available for the study of botanic science and Mrs. Castillo would
give us data so we could investigate more for the project. (interview, May 12,
2014)
Daylin explained that the Internet was a valuable tool for them in the classroom. It
has given them access to connect to worlds that they have never seen. She also shared
that her participation in the Science and Technology Fair has motivated her to study for a
college degree within a major related to STEM education. She is most interested in
studying naval engineering.
Results: Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has the national science and technology fair
policy changed the value for STEM education for students, teachers, and educational
leaders? Several themes emerged related to this question, two of which are the focus of
this section. First, science and technology fair participation helps students to gain a
greater appreciation and interest in STEM-related fields. Second, the science and tech-
nology fairs have prepared students with skills to compete in the global job market.
A predominant theme that emerged was that science and technology fair partici-
pation helps students to gain a greater appreciation and interest in STEM-related fields.
At Liceo Académico de Sixaola, administrators and teachers have been promoting
science and technology for the past 10 years. While conducting a school visit, the
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research team learned that the only way the school is able to finance student participation
in the science and technology fairs is through ongoing work by Sonia Leal Cortez, the
school principal, who actively raises funds for students. She explained that students keep
her motivated to want to do as much as possible for them so they can achieve the highest
level of success.
The second emerging theme was that the science and technology fairs have pre-
pared students with skills to compete in the global job market. According to Friedman
(2007), globalization and the knowledge-based economy will be increasingly driven by
individuals who are products of a transformed educational system. Developing human
capital upgrades the educational level of students. Globalization in the 21st century pro-
duced needs in STEM as the new order for skill-based workers. The work by Slough and
Milam provided the frame for the purpose of this analysis. The four principles presented
were (a) making the content accessible, (b) making thinking visible, (c) helping students
learn from others, and (d) promoting autonomy and life-long learning. Data were
acquired through surveys, interviews and observations and were used to identify themes
that were supported by findings in the research.
Business Officials
According to Vanessa Gibson of CINDE, participation in the National Science
and Technology fairs has influenced a new generation of leaders. Students participate in
the fairs; they are exposed to something new and return to their environment:
Participation in the fairs has changed students’ vision and perspective in life.
Most of these students, if you already meet them you see they’re coming from
very challenged communities where their parents are immigrants in some cases,
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they didn’t have an idea, not even about education, what is STEM and how
students would be impacted as a result of the possible opportunities. Students
have been challenged a great deal to have a more global view of their opportuni-
ties, one impacting their communities, because they become a referral in their
high school and in their community. In the STEM perspective, with the right and
appropriate guidance, they’re the next generation of engineers, physicians, and
scientists.
She expressed very strong comments about how teachers are affected:
To be honest and I’m going to be very mean here, I think teachers take this as just
part of their job. There are few with passion, at least that’s my experience and I
could be completely wrong so this is perception obviously and I could be wrong
and I apologize if I’m wrong. Most of these cases we have teachers in every
place, it’s not just in this area, but in every profession you have people that do
their work with passion and some of them don’t. So far, most of these students are
impacted with good professors that are the reason they get so far. Most of the
teachers see that as an extra effort, they’re not paying me for this . . . the reason I
know that, because they come to you and they complain, oh yeah, again whatever.
Regardless of some of her negative opinions, she added that students had no idea of pur-
suing STEM careers before the fairs. Participation in the fairs has changed their vision
and perspective on life.
Mary Helen Bialas of Intel stated that students enjoy the opportunity to be recog-
nized. Engineers like the students’ innovations. This tends to motivate the teachers and
they recognize opportunities that students can explore for their careers in the future.
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What I’ve seen is extremely positive results with all the teachers that participate.
It doesn’t matter what level they’re participating in. They can participate in a level
of the organization of the fair. It’s very stimulating, and it’s an activity that brings
in the community, and the people are very proud of.
She has seen a positive impact with students, teachers, and educational leaders. Motiva-
tion is a key issue:
With the students, our data will also show, whether they win or not, most of the
kids that participate in the fair don’t know that they can win. They think they’re
just participating. Some kids, when they are interviewed, they say, “What, I can
win something?” It’s very motivating.
She reported that, through private and public partnerships, they have created an
embedded process to provide opportunities for students to participate in the science fairs
and grow into the STEM population of future engineers and technicians. It has been a
systemic change that allows the ministry to build on it. A common theme that has
emerged from the research is that students experience increased motivation through par-
ticipation in the science fair. This motivation helps them through the science fair and
provides opportunities for increased interest in STEM-related jobs and graduate-level
work. Success in motivating students to study STEM subjects at the university level is in
line with national goals for development of human capital. It is a major indicator that the
National Science Fair Policy is effective.
Government Officials
Sylvia Arguello Vargas, Director of Human Capitol at MICIT, shared that
students are motivated to study in the fields of science and engineering in Costa Rica. In
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addition to the science fairs, students participate in the science Olympics. Within the
MICIT, there is a great deal of young talent:
We call it a club of young talent, we call it that way which includes all the activi-
ties that we do here but we also do science and technology camps, where the stu-
dents have to face some challenges and not only in the area of science and
technology, they also do some activities which reinforce team work, for example;
leadership. This is motivating to students. Costa Rica is a very small country in
science and technology, the budget is very small even though it has always been
said that science and technology should be the engine of development for the
country, the budget is the smallest among the ministries in the country. MICIT
gets the smallest budget, always.
Ligia Mejia, the regional science assessor for Limon province stated, “Students
are not only motivated to participate in projects during their school term, but return to act
as judges and mentors for younger students.” She has seen changes in many of the
students because of a great deal of competition. This is also a motivating factor for
students as they continue to grow in the areas of STEM education:
With so much competition available in acquiring knowledge and we have to be
careful because our kids can get to know more than we do with the Internet. So
more than ever, the teachers must remain updated. The teacher cannot be static,
and use only one book for instructional purposes. They must use several resources
and promote the research with the students.
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The country is promoting a platform for future citizens with creative and scientific skills
who are more sensitive to their reality and who are looking to solve the problems affect-
ing their communities in both the educational and social levels.
Nathalie Valencia, coordinator for the National Science and Technology Fairs,
emphasized that the key to motivation is to provide a better incentive system for teachers
because they are not receiving that education, neither in colleges nor from the Ministry of
Education.:
I feel it is most important to improve the quality in our processes. We have to
provide proper training to teachers who are going to be in the process and we
hope these changes could be supported by a change in the curriculum and instruc-
tional area.
With regard to support, Ms. Valencia stated,
We definitely need more support in education, keep on this track in order to keep
going but more specifically in this line and we need to start from the very begin-
ning, I mean not only at the university level but from the base so in that case the
initiatives of science and technology fairs or Olympics are focused on providing
students with an area where they can develop their skills and using opportunities
of vocation in the future.
School Sites and Liceo Académico de Sixaola
The students and staff from Sixaola recognized the change as a result of the
science fairs. Former students Darryl Parker Cortes and Hefte Cordobasaid that they were
motivated to achieve. They had never participated in a science fair and did not know their
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true potential. Their teacher, Laura Castillo, recognized their potential and encouraged
them throughout the entire process. Hefte said,
Participation in the science fair motivated him to study veterinary medicine; I
even enrolled in biology too but I don’t have the time to take it. I love everything
in science and the fair has a major part in why I am doing what I do today.
Darryl added,
My phone motivated me. I admire the technology from my phone. I compare it
with the technology of other phones and I’m always like; my phone is better than
theirs because it has more technology, it has this . . . mine is an android and I love
android. If I could work with android, I’d work with android in cell technology.
Sonia Cortés Leal, Principal at Liceo Académico de Sixaola, discussed how the
national policy of science and technology fairs has created more graduates with 21st-
century skills and more interest in future careers in the areas of STEM education. She
said that, for the most part, students are leaning toward areas of technology because they
sense that it is where they will have more opportunities:
The future of the country of Costa Rica is right here . . . we are a country merely
agrarian, right? We are simple laborers, we produce at the fields, but we have to
. . . . we are involved in globalization and free trade and if you want to get out of
poverty actually and to get these young people out of where they are planting
bananas and plantains, because that’s what we plant here, we have to motivate
them to study science and technology. Because I think that staying there planting
bananas and plantains will not get us out of poverty. Education though [pause],
it’s through education that we can overcome poverty.
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She concluded by sharing that, when students leave this community after participating in
the fairs, they start looking far beyond.
Student
The perception of the fairs has been a positive one among students, according to
Daylin. She shared that fairs have changed the value among her classmates in the areas of
STEM education:
Knowing Costa Rica is a third world country, and I think that on technology we
have already advanced a lot. Next year, if I am not wrong, we are going to launch
our first satellite into space. So I feel that sciences are very important at a Costa
Rican level, and at a Central American level. For the economic future we have,
well there are already several companies that also have created cell phones and
iPads. Young people, 22 years old, that nobody ever imagined but they have
developed objects in the technology area that have helped handicapped people, or
things like that. So it is something very important in the Costa Rican economic
future. (interview, May 12, 2014)
Discussion and Summary
Data gathered in relation to Research Question 3 present the perception of the
value of STEM education. There is high value attributed to STEM education and how the
national science and technology fair policy has changed the value of STEM education for
students, teachers, and educational leaders. The primary theme for this question was that
participation in the fairs has had a positive impact on student motivation. This motivation
has led to an increased interest in STEM fields and students pursuing graduate studies in
STEM education and has provided students from low-income areas opportunities that
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they generally may not have had for a successful future. Teacher practices have changed
as a result of the fairs. They provide additional resources and opportunities for students to
engage in PBL, which increases motivation and student interest to continue with STEM
education in the future. At the national level, the fair is seen as a means to development
of human capital. The students see these opportunities as a way to improve not only the
country’s economic future but the future of their own communities.
Chapter 4 presented information and research findings related to how globaliza-
tion and MNCs influenced the Costa Rican educational system in its implementation of
the mandated National Science and Technology fair. The examination of whether there
was a direct impact on STEM education in business, government, and policy makers,
educational leaders, and students in Costa Rica was explored from the base of three
research questions:
1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their prac-
tices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent is the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating the national science and technology fair participation
influenced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and use of tech-
nology by teachers across all curricular areas?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
Several themes emerged from the data. The data show that there is clearly more
work to be done in this area, as many stated that the fair policy does not influence cur-
riculum and instruction. The mandate for participation in the National Science Fair is a
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significant educational policy to address the need for knowledge-ready workers. Two
themes that emerged related to Research Question 1 were the influence of globalization
policy and MNCs’ significant influence on implementation of STEM practices. The
respondents maintained that the future growth of the Costa Rican economy is signifi-
cantly related to STEM education. Related to Research Question 2, the National Science
Fair has had a significant effect on the development of 21st-century skills in students who
participated in the fair but the fair has not had a direct impact on curriculum and instruc-
tion in the classroom. Related to Research Question 3, participation in the national
science and technology fairs is highly valued as a means to escape poverty and broaden
future opportunities in STEM subjects, and participation in the national science and tech-
nology fairs has resulted in increased student motivation and teacher practice in the class-
room.
For the purposes of this study, the researchers focused on several areas of repre-
sentation: government officials, business leaders, and participants in the education field
(administrators, teachers, and students). This researcher targeted educators and students,
both current and former, in the town of Sixaola in the Limon Province. The main goal
was to focus on the primary participants who were most influenced by the national
mandate.
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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents a discussion of the findings and recommendations. Globali-
zation, economics, and educational policy on development of 21st-century skills and
STEM education have changed due to an increase in globalization, influenced by MNCs
and FDI. These MNCs have changed the way business and education are conducted
around the world (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). As the phenomenon of globalization
expands, so does its capitalist counterpart: MNCs. With FDI playing a role in developing
nations, it is clear that alignment of preparedness of human capital and advances in tech-
nology provide the structure for a nation’s economic potential (Mughal & Vechiu, 2009).
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility on curriculum and instructional practices in Costa
Rican schools. The relationship between STEM education and economic growth was
considered. The study also examined how the mandated National Science and Technol-
ogy Fair influences the use of PBL as schools work to develop human capital and prepare
students for 21st-century employment, specifically in the fields of STEM. The research
team examined the problem through three theoretical frameworks: (a) Friedman’s (2007)
explanation of the 10 “flatteners” that have led to globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2010)
description of 21st-century skills for learning, and (c) Slough and Milam’s (2013) the-
oretical framework for the design of STEM and PBL in the classroom.
The above frameworks were utilized to provide guidance in addressing three
research questions:
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1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their prac-
tices back to the influence of policy, globalization, and MNCs? To what extent are the
economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?
2. How has mandating national science and technology fair participation influ-
enced implementation of 21st-century skills through the use of PBL and technology by
teachers across all curricular areas? How has it affected curriculum and instruction?
3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value of
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?
A qualitative case study was selected as the most appropriate design, given the
study’s research questions that called for exploration of an issue with clearly established
boundaries and multiple sources of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2009). Quali-
tative data allowed for collection of rich information to inform the researchers regarding
the experiences of the study participants (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). A case study
is a comprehensive description and analysis of a bounded system (Merriam, 2009).
The study relied on multiple sources of data. The researcher conducted structured
interviews with students, teachers/administrators at Liceo Académico de Sixaola, gov-
ernment officials, and business leaders in Costa Rica, and conducted observations of
classroom practice and classroom environments. This chapter is divided into four
sections: (a) an overview of the study’s purpose, research questions, and methodology;
(b) a summary of the findings; (c) implications and recommendations for practice; and
(d) recommendations for future research.
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Summary of Findings
Through analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys,
six findings emerged, two for each of the three research questions. The findings are
closely related as they address each research question and are discussed in tandem in the
context of the research question. Significant findings addressed (a) the effects of overall
globalization on the workplace, (b) how education has affected economic well-being and
growth, (c) the alignment of curriculum as it relates to the National Science Fair, (d) 21st-
century skills and STEM PBL, (e) student motivation for participating in the National
Science Fair, and (f) views and opinions of students from Sixaola regarding competing in
the National Science Fair.
The first significant finding was that overall globalization and MNCs are a
growing influence on workplace demands. The education system has had to respond to
demands of competitive employees possessing English and technological and collabora-
tive skills. The developmental shift was a focus from kindergarten through the university.
The National Science Fair was implemented to develop and encourage more students in
STEM-related fields. Spring (2008) discussed how the roles played by globalization,
MNCs, and the need for human capital influence national education policies. Globaliza-
tion and the need to develop human capital to support FDI by MNCs have influenced
Costa Rica’s educational policies. Globalization and MNCs have had a positive and sig-
nificant impact on establishing a new vision for Costa Rica that is focused on meeting the
demands of the global society with the resources and support to be successful. Moreover,
this impact has permeated the educational platform and supported the process of creating
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more knowledge-ready workers to meet the demands of the evolving Costa Rican tech-
nical labor market.
The second finding was that education is a key determining factor in economic
well-being and growth, as it serves to increase human capital, increase productivity and
quality of output, increase the innovative capacity of the economy, and promote growth
in new technologies, thereby promoting economic growth. The need for STEM-trained
professionals continues to grow as the country moves from an agrarian economy to a
skills-based economy to a knowledge- and innovation-based economy. The influence of
globalization and the resulting investment by MNCs in Costa Rica have had a significant
impact on implementation of STEM practices.
Globalization leads to lowering barriers to entry, increases speed of shipping and
communication, and creates a global economy. These combine to allow smaller countries,
such as Costa Rica, to compete to attract business operations of MNCs, who look to
reduce labor, avoid tariffs, and centralize production and warehousing in relation to their
customer base (Friedman, 2007). In order to attract MNCs, Costa Rica offered many
incentives, such as tariff reductions, tax incentives, and free trade zones; the nation also
attracted MNCs through the quality of their workforce (CINDE, 2013).
The MNCs created new, better-paying jobs and the overall economy and standard
of living were elevated. The government responded to develop more students in STEM
fields by creating a national mandate for participation in the science fair (MEP, 2007).
For the economy to continue to grow, the next phase of the cycle must begin, character-
ized by attraction of higher-technology FDI, loss of lower-paid original operations, and
renewed efforts to increase the quality and quantity of educational outputs as human
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capital. This is the pathway that Costa Rica is traveling and the respondents were clearly
aware that the focus on STEM education in Costa Rica was directly driven by the forces
of globalization, MNCs, and educational policies. The respondents were unanimous in
agreement that the economic future of the country depended on widespread development
of STEM competencies in their students. Student Daylin Bryan Rodríguez stated, “We
will not grow, we will continue to live in low income areas if we do not advance our-
selves.”
The third significant finding was that, while the National Science Fair supports
development of 21st-century skills, it does not seem evident that the curriculum has
support or is influenced by the nationally mandated science fair. Integration of curricu-
lum and science fairs was not evident. The 21st-century workforce must now have skills
and proficiency in what is acknowledged as the soft skills of the 21st century as identified
by Wagner (2008).
Wagner (2008) suggested that, with a growing global economy, there is an
increased need to develop 21st-century skills. He highlighted seven essential skills that
were used to develop the research protocols used in this study. The research team drew
correlations between the national goals and objectives for education and Wagner’s seven
essential skills. One objective of this study was to determine whether the presence of
MNCs was evident in schools and whether there has been a shift in development of 21st-
century skills. One significant observation was the presence of Intel on school campuses.
The data showed an overall positive impact of this relationship, with the exception of
Liceo Académico de Sixaola.
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The fourth finding focuses on proficiency and the ability to utilize these skills and
the resulting technological knowledge that are imperative in the development of human
capital for 21st-century needs. All respondents stated that the science fair has been effec-
tive in developing 21st-century skills. STEM PBL as implemented in the creation of
science fair projects develops 21st-century skills as defined by Wagner.
Respondents from the several schools where interviews and surveys were admin-
istered did not view the National Science Fair as having changed the curriculum. While
members of the MEP offered that the curriculum taught the scientific method, this was
not a change related to the science fair. Many agreed that the curriculum does not support
the fair mandate. Those closest to the fairs from MICIT, business leaders, the regional
assessor, educators, former students, and students described a lack of integration of the
fair into the curriculum and noted the countless hours that must be invested outside of the
regular school day by both students and their teachers or mentors. Laura Castillo, science
teacher at Liceo Académico de Sixaola shared, “The curriculum in the science fair
process is not included. We are working to make it a stronger educational activity in the
regular school day” (interview, June 18, 2014). Students from Sixaola also expressed a
lack of integration as they told stories of late after-school hours in an attempt to under-
take research and complete projects. The mandated national science and technology fair
has promoted acquisition of 21st-century skills, but work toward a broader impact by
implementation into the curriculum and instructional practices has not been undertaken.
The fifth finding was that the National Science Fair has motivated students to
engage in PBL for their projects, with resulting increased motivation and a desire to
pursue STEM disciplines at the university level. Participation in the fair also influenced
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use of PBL to build human capital and prepare students for 21st-century jobs in STEM
fields (Capraro et al., 2013).
The sixth finding, as it related to the students from Sixaola, was that participating
in the fair causes students to change their views of their own abilities and potential,
thereby increasing motivation. Sixaola is in an impoverished area near the Panama
border. Students growing up in this area have little view of a future outside of this eco-
nomic reality. For students who participate in the fair, however, this reality is altered. As
the students travel to the regional fair in Limon, the national fair in San Jose, or to IISEF
in the United States, they gain a broader worldview and envision a place for themselves
as professionals. The fair has been a major turning point in some students’ academic
careers. Participation was seen as a transformative experience. While government and
educational leaders reported an increase in motivation and STEM studies, students were
most engaging when describing their experiences and how the fair had changed their
overall goals, even with countless hours and sacrifices. These students work hard, chal-
lenge themselves, and are committed to come to school every day, despite the many hard-
ships that they experience at home and in the community.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of this study included time and distance due to the international set-
ting and travel time allotted to Costa Rica. The time allotted for research was only 10
days, of which only 6 were regular business days. As a result, some potential participants
could not be interviewed due to scheduling conflicts. In addition, not all of the research-
ers were Spanish speakers. They relied on the Spanish-speaking researchers to conduct
the interviews in Spanish when necessary and then have hours of recordings sent for
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translation. Travel to Sixaola, the subject school of this study, took an additional day. The
technology classes could not be observed due to power outages. Since the study focused
on the schools that produced IISEF participants, Sixaola was the only regular public
school in the study, with the other two schools, Don Bosco and San Carlos, being private
technical high schools. This made it difficult to draw solid conclusions based on compar-
isons of schools. Sixaola was also a poor school and did not have resources available to
students equal to those in the private schools.
Implications
Analysis of findings of this study confirmed the positive impact of globalization
and MNCs on Costa Rica and the Costa Rican education system. The study provided
evidence that 21st-century learning is a critical skill set necessary for students to be pre-
pared to enter the current global workforce. Skills such as how to access and analyze
information, how to be an effective oral and written communicator, and how to think
critically and solve problems are necessities for students who wish to succeed in today’s
market place. This case study identified two challenges faced by the educational system
in Costa Rica as it relates to the implementation of the nationally mandated Science Fair
policy. First, the National Science Fair policy should be revised to integrate support for
the national science fair. Second, allocations of resources that support the fair should be
distributed more evenly.
The first challenge was that, based on responses from the select few school sites,
the national science curriculum does not support participation in the National Science
Fair and the national policy should be revised to integrate more support for the NSTF.
With a national imperative to develop human capital in STEM fields and with the NSTF
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showing the capacity to motivate students to pursue STEM studies, Costa Rica is missing
the opportunity to have an impact on a larger number of students. Teachers and students
either do a compliance project or face long after-school hours in research, development,
and presentation preparation. The teaching staff becomes the first line of defense with
regard to student engagement.
This is an indicator of a disparity in how the science fair is implemented through-
out the country: It is dependent on the commitment and training of the teachers. With a
national imperative to develop human capital in STEM subjects and a program that has
shown itself to be successful in motivating students to study STEM subjects, the nation
loses the ability to reach many important human assets due to this challenge. A curricu-
lum that supports and prepares students for participation in the national science fair
would begin to address this challenge.
The second challenge was the allocation of resources among the schools in Costa
Rica. The researcher visited two schools: Liceo Académico de Sixaola, and Cedes Don
Bosco, a private technical school. The first is a standard, public high school in a rural
area and the second is a private, technical high school in the capital, San José. Liceo
Académico de Sixaola does not contain a science lab, nor does it own a microscope. Its
library consists of one small bookcase with outdated science materials; the science class-
room posts a 20-year-old periodic table of elements. At Cedes Don Bosco, there were
several computer labs, traditional science labs, media labs, a design studio, and a robotics
lab.
The students from these two schools compete as equals in the national science fair
despite the disparity in resources. Students at Liceo Académico de Sixaola work with a
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local scientist at his home laboratory. He mentors them and assists their teacher in devel-
oping student research and projects, often for many hours after school and on weekends.
It is difficult to understand how two schools, so opposite in resources, can be judged on
the same criteria.
Recommendations for Future Research
A 14-member team of researchers conducted this study. The researchers shared
data collected from schools in Costa Rica that had established partnerships with Intel.
Government officials, education leaders and teachers, and former and current students
were interviewed and surveyed, and several classrooms were observed. The research
revealed two areas for further study that could support STEM instruction in Costa Rica:
(a) teacher training, education, and preparation; and (b) equitable distribution of
resources and support. It became clear through the interviews that there was no system in
place to track participants in the science fairs as they continued through education and
into careers. Only anecdotal evidence emerged during inquiry about the impact of the
science fair in leading students to matriculate in STEM fields in higher education.
While interviewing teachers, science fair assessors, and university professors, it
was evident that the view of one of the teachers was different from that of others who
were participating in the mandate. Often, teachers in elementary grades do only what is
necessary to meet a national mandate. It would be useful to conduct a study to identify
what particular practices and competencies lead to repeated student success. This study
could become the basis of teacher training to develop and leverage a national science
curriculum that supports the science fair. It would be of particular use to outlying rural
areas with low-socioeconomic students and few resources to discover how Liceo
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Académico de Sixaola consistently performs well in the National Science Fair. The dis-
parity of resources was very evident in the visit to Liceo Académico de Sixaola. The
difference in facilities and support between the private and public institutions presents a
challenge for development of human capital. Not only is there a disparity in facilities and
training; schools with resources also have connections with and support from universities.
Conclusion
The impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica and its education system
was evident throughout this study. The findings indicated positive impacts, including
emphasis on 21st-century learning and curriculum development. The National Science
Fair has been implemented unevenly across the country. One problem is that the fairs are
not integrated into the national science curriculum. In locations that have embraced the
fairs with commitment and passion, such as Liceo Académico de Sixaola, results have
been positive. There is strong evidence of development of 21st-century skills, an increase
in interest in STEM fields, and increased motivation for students to continue with
university-level education and careers in STEM fields. In other locations, lacking such
commitment and passion, there is anecdotal evidence of surface, repetitive projects that
do not develop the necessary 21st-century skills.
The development of knowledge-based workers is a goal shared by the national
government and educational and industrial leaders, as well as MNCs. The partnerships of
governmental, educational, and industry leaders to promote development of 21st-century
skills and interest in STEM fields in Costa Rica and the efficacy of the partnerships in
developing human capital for the knowledge-based economy have been the subject of this
study. Costa Rica has been successful in attracting FDI in response to globalization and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 144

has made the shift from an agrarian economy to a knowledge-based economy. The need
to develop human capital to support a knowledge-based economy is important for contin-
ued growth and competitiveness. The nationally mandated science fair is a response to
this need as education strives to create student interest in STEM fields toward the devel-
opment of human capital.
It will be essential for Costa Rica to build on the current success of the National
Science Fair, create meaningful access through integration into the curriculum, provide
appropriate teacher training, and utilize resources to reach all students with the National
Science Fair experience. This study explored the influence of globalization, FDI, and
multinational corporate responsibility on the curriculum and instructional practices in
Costa Rican schools. The relationship between STEM education and economic growth
was considered. The study also examined how the mandated NSTF influences use of PBL
as schools work to develop human capital and prepare students for 21st-century employ-
ment, specifically in the fields of STEM. By investing in human capital in Costa Rica, all
stakeholders hope that this impact will create a more qualified workforce in a growing
global economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 145

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Appendix A
Recruitment Letter: English and Spanish Versions

Dear XXX,

On June 16, 2014, a group of 14 doctoral students from the University of Southern Cali-
fornia Rossier School of Education will be traveling to Costa Rica as part of a research
team lead by Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The purpose of our research
is to understand the effects of globalization and multinational corporations on the schools
of Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in science, technology, engineering, and
math (STEM) education and the country’s national science and technology fair as a
means of producing knowledge ready workers for 21st-century jobs.

As part of our study, the following questions will guide our research:

1. To what extent do teachers implementing STEM curriculum trace their practices
back to the influence of policy, globalization, and multinational corporations? To
what extent are the economic growth of Costa Rica and STEM education related?

2. How has mandating participation in the national science and technology fair influ-
enced implementation of 21st-century skills through use of project-based learning
and use of technology by teachers across all curricular areas? How has it influ-
enced curriculum and instruction?

3. How has the national science and technology fair policy changed the value for
STEM education for students, teachers, and educational leaders?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of
Education, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to con-
duct surveys, interviews, and observations to gather data to address our research ques-
tions. Your input will be invaluable to our study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you anytime
between June 16 and June 23. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if
you have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 157

Estimado(a) XXX,

Por este medio me permito presentar a nuestro grupo de 14 estudiantes de Doctorado en
Educación de la escuela Rossier, de la Universidad del Sur de California, conocida como
USC. Nosotros integramos un grupo de estudio, bajo la dirección de los Dr. Michael
Escalante y Dra. Oryla Wiedoeft, que viajará a Costa Rica el día 13 de junio, con el
propósito de investigar los efectos de la globalización e inversiones de corporaciones
multinacionales en el sistema educativo de Costa Rica. La razón de la investigación,
presta atención a las siguientes materias académicas: ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería, y
matemáticas (materias conocidas como STEM en inglés) de igual interés, nuestro estudio
es el programa de Ferias Nacionales de Ciencia y Tecnología, el cual es utilizado como
un vehículo para promover una fuerza laboral capacitada con el conocimiento y
destrezas necesarias para los empleos del siglo 21.

Las siguientes preguntas nos guiarán en la investigación:

1. ¿En qué medida docentes que implementan el currículo STEM pueden trazar
sus prácticas de enseñanza en la influencia de corporaciones multinacionales,
globalización, y política nacional? ¿Hasta qué punto está relacionado el
desarrollo económico de Costa Rica con la educación basada en STEM?

2. ¿Cuál ha sido el impacto del decreto nacional, del que se requiere la
participación de escuelas en las ferias nacionales de ciencia y tecnología, para
promover las destrezas para el siglo 21, a través del aprendizaje basado en
proyectos y el uso de la tecnología por los docentes, sin importar el área de
estudio? ¿Cuál asido el impacto en el currículo y la enseñanza?

3. ¿Cuánto ha cambiado el valor de la educación STEM para los estudiantes,
docentes, y lideres educativos basado en la política nacional de las ferias
nacionales de ciencia y tecnología?

Como parte de la investigación, nos gustaría tener la oportunidad de entrevistar a
miembros del ministerio de educación, y/o líderes en el área de la educación a nivel
regional, local, y/o a nivel de planteles educativos. El propósito de nuestra visita será
recopilar valiosa información a través de encuestas, observaciones y entrevistas; dicha
información será de insumo en la investigación.

De ante mano, le extendemos nuestro mas sincero agradecimiento por considerar nuestra
propuesta. Estaremos a su disposición para una reunión entre las fechas de junio 16 a
junio 23. Para cualquier pregunta o inquietud, usted puede contactar a cualquier miembro
de nuestro grupo investigativo.

Atentamente,

Los estudiantes de doctorado
Universidad de el Sur de California (USC)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 158

Appendix B
School Leader Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: ________________________
Length of time in current position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experience with regard to changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to understand how schools are helping students to develop 21st-century
skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous?
We would like to record this interview to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we
have your consent?

This interview will last approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM)
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering,
and math education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who
participate in science and technology fairs?
3. Please describe science, technology, engineering, and math-related changes
and interests that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science and
technology fair policy?
4. For students who participate in science and technology fairs, what changes
have you noticed in their interest in science, technology, engineering, and
math-related fields? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational
system in Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 159

II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How has the science and technology fair affected science instruction?
3. How has the science and technology fair affected curriculum?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for the science and
technology fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of project-
based learning?
6. How has technology prepared students for the science and technology fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for
postsecondary instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, and Multinational Corporations on
Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in science and technology
fairs? If so, how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in
science, technology, engineering, and math education?
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates
with 21st-century skills, particularly those from science, technology,
engineering, and math fields?
5. What should be the role of Intel and other multinational corporations in
promoting science, technology, engineering, and math, as well as science and
technology fair participation?
6. Is science, technology, engineering, and math education important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 160

Appendix C
Policy/Government Agency Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: ________________________
Length of time in your position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to understand how schools are helping students to develop 21st-century
skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous?
We would like to record this interview to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we
have your consent?

This interview will last approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM)
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering,
and math education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who
participate in science and technology fairs?
3. Please describe science, technology, engineering, and math-related changes
and interests that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science and
technology fair policy?
4. For students who participate in science and technology fairs, what changes
have you noticed in their interest in science, technology, engineering, and
math-related fields? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational
system in Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 161

II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How has the science and technology fair affected science instruction?
3. How has the science and technology fair affected curriculum?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for the science and
technology fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of project-
based learning?
6. How is technology utilized to prepare students for the science and technology
fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for
postsecondary instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, and Multinational Corporations on Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in the science and
technology fair? If so, how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in
science, technology, engineering, and math education?
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates
with 21st-century skills, particularly those from science, technology,
engineering, and math fields?
5. What should be the role of Intel and other multinational corporations in
promoting science, technology, engineering, and math, as well as participation
in science and technology fairs?
6. Is science, technology, engineering, and math education important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 162

Appendix D
Business Leaders Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: ________________________
Length of time in current position: ___________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experience with regard to changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to understand how schools are helping students to develop 21st-century
skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous?
We would like to record this interview to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we
have your consent?

This interview will last approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM)
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering,
and math education?
2. What effect have you observed on students/teachers/educational leaders who
participate in science and technology fairs?
3. Please describe science, technology, engineering, and math education-related
changes and interests that have occurred nationwide as a result of the science
and technology fair policy?
4. For students who participate in science and technology fairs, what changes
have you noticed in their interest in science, technology, engineering, and
math education-related fields? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
5. Has the national science and technology fair policy changed the educational
system in Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 163

II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fair?
2. How does involvement in science and technology fairs affect the labor force?
3. Has the science and technology fair affected curriculum in schools?
4. Are schools preparing students adequately for the science and technology fair?
5. To what extent has the science and technology fair affected the use of project-
based learning?
6. How has technology prepared students for the science and technology fair?
7. How has the science and technology fair affected student preparedness for
postsecondary instruction?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, and Multinational Corporations on
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education
1. Does the science curriculum support participation in the science and
technology fair? If so, how?
2. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
3. How does science and technology fair participation influence participation in
science, technology, engineering, and math education?
4. Has the national science and technology fair policy created more graduates
with 21st-century skills, particularly those from science, technology,
engineering, and math education fields?
5. What should be the role of Intel and other multinational corporations in
promoting science, technology, engineering, and math, as well as science and
technology fair participation?
6. Is science, technology, engineering, and math education important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 164

Appendix E
Student Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________Location: __________________________
Grade/Level: _____________________Contact Information: ______________________
Number of Science and Technology Fairs Participated:________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experience with regard to changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to understand how schools are helping students to develop 21st-century
skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

Your comments will be anonymous, if requested. Would you like to remain anonymous?
We would like to record this interview to ensure the accuracy of our conversation. Do we
have your consent?

This interview will last approximately 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. National Science and Technology Fair Policy and Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM)
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering
and math education?
2. What effect have the science and technology fairs had on your life and your
academic career?
3. As a result of the mandate for all schools to participate in the science and
technology fairs, do you notice any changes in the science and technology
programs at the schools that you have attended?
4. Have your interests in science, technology, engineering, and math-related
fields changed as a result of your participation in the science and technology
fairs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 165

II. Curriculum and Instruction
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology fairs?
2. How has the education that you have received prepared you for the science
and technology fairs?
3. What did your teachers do in class that prepared you for the science and
technology fairs?
4. What did you do in class that prepared you for the science and technology
fairs?
5. How is technology utilized to prepare you for the science and technology
fairs?
6. Has your participation in the science and technology fairs encouraged you to
study a science, technology, engineering and math-related major in college?
III. Influence of Policy, Globalization, and Multinational Corporations on
Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) Education
1. How have schools promoted participation in science and technology fairs?
2. Are you aware of any type of programs or support that Intel has provided for
your school to improve science, technology, and education?
3. Is science, technology, engineering and math education important to the
economic future of Costa Rica? If so, how?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 166

Appendix F
Survey Protocol for Teachers and Administrators

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 167

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 168

Appendix G
Survey Protocol for Students

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 169

Appendix H
Classroom Observation Protocol

Date _____________________________ Time _______________________________
No. of Students ____________________ Males __________ Females __________
Class Title and Grade Level _________________________________________________
Class Topic ______________________________________________________________
Classroom Set-Up

Overview of Lesson (Objective for the Day):

Materials in Use:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 170

Additional Classroom Information:

21st-
Century
Skills
(Wagner,
2008)
STEM /
PBL
(Slough &
Milam,
2013)
Actions Observed Conversations Observer Comments
Critical
Thinking
and
Problem
Solving
Making
Content
Accessible

Collabor-
ating
Across
Networks
Making
Thinking
Visible

Agility
and
Adapta-
bility
Helping
Students
Learn from
Others

Initiative
and
Entrepre-
neurialism
Promoting
Autonomy
and
Lifelong
Learning

Effective
Oral and
Written
Commun-
ication

Accessing
and
Analyzing
Informa-
tion

Curiosity
and
Imagina-
tion

Other
Observa-
tions

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 171

RQ1: Does the teacher utilize elements of the national science fair/STEM curriculum?

RQ1: Do curriculum, subject areas, labs, and assessments align across classrooms and
schools?

RQ2: What is the teacher’s role in the learning process?

RQ2: How does student-led conversation influence participation in class?

RQ2: How is technology used in the classroom?

RQ3: Do the teacher (student) appear to be engaged in the STEM curriculum?

Are there additional questions for the teacher?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 172

Appendix I
Science and Technology Fair Observation Protocol

Date _____________________________ Time _______________________________
No. of Students ____________________ Males __________ Females __________
Grade Level of Student(s) __________________________________________________
Project Topic/ Theme _____________________________________________________
Facilities Set-Up

Overview of Events/Themes:

Materials in Use:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 173

Additional Classroom Information:

21st-
Century
Skills
(Wagner,
2008)
STEM /
PBL
(Slough &
Milam,
2013)
Actions Observed Conversations Observer Comments
Critical
Thinking
and
Problem
Solving
Making
Content
Accessible

Collabor-
ating
Across
Networks
Making
Thinking
Visible

Agility
and
Adapta-
bility
Helping
Students
Learn From
Others

Initiative
and
Entrepre-
neurialism
Promoting
Autonomy
and
Lifelong
Learning

Effective
Oral and
Written
Commun-
ication

Accessing
and
Analyzing
Informa-
tion

Curiosity
and
Imagina-
tion

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 174

Other
Observa-
tions

RQ1: Are there commonalities in the Costa Rican students’ science fair projects (e.g.,
process, procedures, subject areas of study)?

RQ2: Do students exhibit confidence in describing their projects?

RQ2: Is the presentation of the project clearly articulated?

RQ2: Do students express thoughtful ideas and answers?

RQ2: Do students relate their project to authentic application?

RQ3: Do students appear to be engaged in the science fair process?

Are there additional questions for the students or teacher?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The past several decades have proven to be challenging to the educational system of Costa Rica. The Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education has charged educators to educate students who are technically literate and possess 21st‐century skills. Globalization and technological advances have created an environment of competition and an increased challenge for countries to participate on a level playing field. Multinational corporations (MNCs) have invested money and resources at all levels of the educational system to develop students who are prepared for a global economy. The attraction of foreign direct investment is greater than ever, as countries such as Costa Rica rely on these investments to develop human capital. ❧ Costa Rica has responded to the need to develop 21st‐century learning skills in their students. The country instituted a national mandate for all schools to participate in the national science fair. The results of this study reveal that the country has focused on increasing human capital through the use of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. This study followed students who advanced from the Costa Rican national science fair to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair in May 2014 in Los Angeles, California. The study examined the experiences of those students in the local, regional, and national educational system and national economy. ❧ The leaders of Costa Rican schools have faced pressures to ensure that their students are adequately prepared to be productive citizens in a challenging global economy by ensuring that they have knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a labor market that demands a new and specific set of skills, which most educational systems around the world are not providing for their students. Specific shifts must occur to ensure that students possess 21st‐century skills. In order to make these shifts, leaders in government, industry, and education must play an active role. ❧ Together with successful partnerships among government, business, and education systems and the examination of a policy regarding STEM education curriculum, including the national science mandate, the goal for students to thrive in the current global economy will hopefully be achieved.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bertram, Michael D. (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/16/2015

Defense Date 03/17/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st‐century skills,Costa Rica,educational policy,Globalization,OAI-PMH Harvest,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Wiedoeft, Oryla (committee member)

Creator Email mbertram@usc.edu,mdbertram@sbcglobal.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-549748

Unique identifier UC11298814

Identifier etd-BertramMic-3307.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-549748 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BertramMic-3307.pdf

Dmrecord 549748

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Bertram, Michael D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA