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Differential characteristics of beginning teachers

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Differential characteristics of beginning teachers

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DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEGINNING TEACHERS
by
Marsha A. Brown
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2001
Copyright 2001 Marsha A. Brown
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UMI Number: 3054716
Copyright 2001 by
Brown, Marsha Ann
All rights reserved.
___ __ J®
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
M arsha A. Brown
under the direction o f h ^^D issertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
o f Education in partialfulfillment o f the requirementsfor
the degree o f
Do c to r o f E d u c atio n
" ~ ! Se an
D issertation C o m m iyte
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
LIST OF TA BLES-------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
LIST OF FIGURES------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION: EXPOSITION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM AND PURPOSE------------------- 1
Background of the Problem ----------------------------- 1
Statement of the Problem -------------------------------- 9
Purpose of the S tu d y ------------------------------------- 10
Theoretical Framework---------------------------------- 1 1
Importance of the S tu d y --------------------------------- 14
Scope of the S tu d y --------------------------------------- 14
2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE----------------------------- 22
Teacher Variables----------------------------------------- 22
Factors Leading to Poor Teacher Retention 31
Policy O ptions--------------------------------------------- 32
Conclusion------------------------------------------------- 46
3 RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURES-------------- 47
Research D esign------------------------------------------- 47
V ariables---------------------------------------------------- 47
Population-------------------------------------------------- 49
Instrumentation-------------------------------------------- 50
M ethods----------------------------------------------------- 56
Data A nalysis----------------------------------------------- 58
Assumptions------------------------------------------------ 59
4 FINDINGS------------------------------------------------------------ 60
Mortality of Subjects------------------------------------- 60
Job Satisfaction Scales Development----------------- 62
Reasons for Leaving Teaching
Scales Development---------------------------------- 63
Study Population------------------------------------------- 64
First Year and Veteran Teacher Findings------------------- 80
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER Page No.
4 First Year Teachers---------------------------------------- 101
Emergency and Clear Credentialed
First Year Teachers----------------------------------- 112
Sum m ary---------------------------------------------------- 125
5 CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH — 127
Summary of Findings------------------------------------- 128
Conclusions------------------------------------------------ 134
Discussion-------------------------------------------------- 140
Suggestions for Future Research----------------------- 147
REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 148
APPENDIX A ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 158
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page No.
1. Alpha Reliabilities of the USC Teacher Characteristics
Survey, Form 797st.--------------------------------------------------- 53
2. Descriptive Statistics for Demographic and
Process V ariables------------------------------------------------------ 65
3. Descriptive Statistics of Scales-------------------------------------- 67
4. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by Scales — 69
5. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception o f ‘Prepared to Teach’ ---------------------------------- 72
6. One-way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of
‘Prepared to Teach’ ---------------------------------------------------- 73
7. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception of Effectiveness of Teaching--------------------------- 75
8. One-way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of
Teaching Effectiveness------------------------------------------------ 76
9. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching--------------------------------- 77
10. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching Study Population---------- 78
11. Descriptive Statistics of Study Scales by
Teaching Experience--------------------------------------------------- 82
12. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by Scale -
Veteran T each ers------------------------------------------------------ 85
13. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by Scale -
First Year Teachers---------------------------------------------------- 88
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
TABLE Page No.
14. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales
of Study Population by Teaching Experience------- 90
15. One-way ANOVA of Scales of Study Population by
Teaching Experience------------------------------------- 91
16. Two -Way ANOVA of Internal Conditions Scale by
Perception of Prepared to Teach and Teaching Experience----- 92
17. Mean Scores on Internal Conditions Scale by
Perception o f ‘Prepared to Teach’ and Teaching Experience — 93
18. Two -Way ANOVA of Overall School Effectiveness
Scale by Perception of Teaching Effectiveness and
Teaching Experience----------------------------------------------- 94
19. Mean Scores on Overall School Effectiveness
Scale by Perception of Teaching Effectiveness and
Teaching Experience----------------------------------------------- 95
20. Two -Way ANOVA of Conscientious and Responsible
Scale by Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and
Teaching Experience----------------------------------------------- 96
21. Mean Scores on Conscientious and Responsible
Scale by Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and
Level of Experience------------------------------------------------------ 97
22. Two -Way ANOVA of Collaborative and Team Player
Scale by Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and
Teaching Experience----------------------------------------------------- 98
23. Mean Scores on Collegial and Team Player Scale by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and Teaching Experience — 98
24. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception of Adequately Prepared to T each ----------------------------103
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
TABLE Page No.
25. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of
Adequately Prepared to T each--------------------------------------------- 104
26. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales
by Perception of Teaching Effectiveness---------------------------------106
27. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of
Teaching Effectiveness------------------------------------------------------ 107
28. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching------------------------------------ 109
29. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Overall Satisfaction
with Teaching------------------------------------------------------------- 110
30. Descriptive Statistics of Scales for First Year Teachers by
Credential S tatus---------------------------------------------------------- 116
31. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Matrix of Scales
for First Year Teachers--------------------------------------------------- 119
32. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Matrix of Scale
for First Year Teachers--------------------------------------------------- 121
33. One-Way ANOVA Differences------------------------------------------ 133
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FIGURE
1.
2.
3.
LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching
Experience and Prepared to Teach on Internal
Conditions S cale.------------------------------------------------------ 93
Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching
Experience and Perception of Teaching Effectiveness
or Overall School Effectiveness S cale.---------------------------- 95
Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching
Experience and Overall Satisfaction with Teaching on
Conscientious and Responsible S cale.----------------------------- 97
Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching
Experience and Overall Satisfaction with Teaching on
Collaborative and Team Player S cale.----------------------------- 99
vii
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION:
EXPOSITION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND PURPOSE
Background of the Problem
California, and the nation to a lesser extent, has been experiencing a severe
teacher shortage for the past few years.
Even using the most conservative estimates of future vacancies suggests a
need for two million teachers over the next ten years (NCTAF, 1996). While this
trend is occurring nationwide, the greatest demand for teachers will occur in the
southern and western parts of the United States, primarily due to population
migration (both from other states and from other countries) and dramatically
increasing school enrollments (NCES, 1997). California alone is estimated to need
another 200,000 new teachers by the year 2004 (PACE, 1996).
The need for teachers varies widely across the state. Four counties are
projected to account for about 50% of the total growth in demand for teachers from
1994-2004: Los Angeles alone will need almost 11,000 teachers with San
Bernardino and Riverside counties requiring approximately 5,000 teachers each
(PACE, 1996).
In Los Angeles alone, the estimated number of teachers needed for the 1996
school year was 4,098 or 6.8% prior to the enactment of California's class size
reduction (CSR) initiative (LACOE, 1997).
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This trend o f increased demand for teachers and fewer qualified candidates is
expected to continue well past the year 2000 (Darling-Hammond, 1990).
As a result o f teacher shortages in California, more than 15,000 individuals
were hired on emergency permits or waivers of credential requirement in 1994-95
(Shields, Marsh & Powell, 1998). That number increased to 15,400 in 1995-96, and
rose to over 19,000 in 1996-97 (Shields, et al., 1998). More specifically, there was a
100% increase in the number of emergency multiple-subject permits issued to
elementary teachers from 1995-96 to 1996-97 (CTC, 1998). During the 1997-98
school year, California hired over 31,000 (close to 10% of all public school teaching
staff) teachers on emergency credentials, many in response to the second year of the
class size reduction (CSR) initiative implementation (EdSource, 1999).
Approximately 12% of the K-3 teachers in the state were on emergency credentials,
up from 1% prior to CSR (1995-96) (EdSource, 1999). Of these, 10,000 are not
expected to return. For the 1998-99 school year, more than 30,000 emergency
credentials are expected to be issued in order to meet the demand for classroom
teachers. According to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC),
one out of every 10 teachers in California lacks the necessary credential for their
teaching assignment (including emergency credential holders). Even worse statistics
are found by the Institute for Education Reform (IER), which estimates that nearly a
fourth of all the teachers in the state are teaching without a regular credential
(EdSource, 1997).
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Most of California’s emergency credentialed teachers work in the lower
grades. Since 1995, primary-level emergency credentials have increased 240%, and
secondary level credentials 22% (CTC, 1998). This, too, is likely due primarily to
the CSR initiative.
Urban and rural areas have recorded the highest need for new teachers, and as
a result, have hired the most teachers with emergency credentials. In 1994-95, 60%
of all emergency credentialed teachers were hired in Los Angeles County alone, and
40% in Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) (CSU IER, 1996). EdSource
took a survey of districts with 20,000 or more students, and determined that nearly
33% of all new hires for CSR held emergency credentials (EdSource, 1997).
Contributing Factors
Increasing Pupil Enrollments
Pupil enrollments are estimated to grow from approximately 50 million in
1995 to 54.3 million by 2007 (NCES, 1997). As a result, the ranks of teachers are
estimated to swell from 2.5 million in 1982 to 3.3 million by 2007 (NCTAF, 1996).
The California Department of Finance predicts that K-12 enrollment in California’s
public schools will grow to approximately 6.4 million by the year 2005, an increase
of about 20% (EdSource, 1997). This translates into 4,150 new teachers each year,
just to accommodate growth in student enrollment (EdSource, 1997).
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Class Size Reduction
In addition to increased student enrollment, reduced pupil-teacher ratios have
exacerbated the need for teachers. Recent reform initiatives in some states, including
California, have included smaller class size in at least some grades. California’s
class size reduction (CSR) program has involved grades K-3, with another initiative
that reduced the size of 9th grade classrooms in targeted subjects (English/Language
Arts and Mathematics). During the first year of implementation (1996-97), 18,400 to
19,500 new teachers were hired (Shields, et al., 1998; EdSource, 1997). This is in
addition to about 16,000 elementary teachers hired in the normal process of
replacement and growth (SB 1422 Advisory Panel on Teacher Education, Induction
and Certification for 21st Century Schools, 1997). This represents a 115% increase
in the demand for new elementary teachers over the previous year (LAO, 1997).
Complete implementation of CSR could involve approximately 7,800 additional
teachers (EdSource, 1997; LAO, 1997).
Twenty-one percent of those hired in 1996-97 were non-certificated,
emergency credentialed teachers (EdSource, 1997). Fewer than 15% of the total
number of teachers hired had more than five years’ experience in the classroom. The
data is even more discouraging for large urban districts that were forced to hire
almost 33% of their new teachers on emergency permits or waivers (EdSource,
1997).
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Aging Teaching Population
To further complicate matters, a large group of teachers is nearing retirement
age. Nationally, the average age of teachers has increased from 40 in 1994 to 43 in
1998 (NCES, 1994). Approximately 25% of all public school teachers are 50 years
of age or more - another sign that teacher retirement rates will be on the rise (NCES,
1997). The United States Department of Education estimates that over the next ten
years almost one million teachers will retire, necessitating approximately 2.2 million
teachers to replace them (NCES, 1997b). These federal figures indicate that of all
teachers leaving the profession, the largest percentage leave to retire (30%) (NCES,
1997b).
In California, the picture is even bleaker. Half of the state’s teachers are over
45; and one in six is over 55 (EdSource, 1997). A large percentage of California’s
teachers can be expected to retire in the next decade.
Declining Supply of Credentialed Teachers
While demand is increasing, the supply of newly credentialed teachers has
been declining since the early 1970s (Darling-Hammond, 1990). From 1972 through
1986, the number of bachelor degrees in education fell by over 50%. Those holding
bachelor degrees represent about 75% of all new, certificated teachers. In addition,
between 30% and 40% of those who received a teaching certificate do not actually
enter the profession after graduation (Haggstrom, Darling-Hammond & Grissmer,
1987). Other estimates indicate that only 50% of newly credentialed teachers
actually enter the teaching profession each year (Cohen & Das, 1996; Fetler, 1997).
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In California, the 200,000 new teachers needed by 2004 averages out to 25,000 per
year, more than 2.5 times the number of credentials (9,000) issued to new teachers in
1995 (PACE, 1996). This estimate does not include the additional teachers needed
to staff the classrooms in grades affected by CSR.
Poor Teacher Retention
Even more troubling is the poor teacher retention rate in public schools. New
teachers often begin their career under difficult conditions, including challenging
classrooms, professional isolation and little or no feedback about their teaching
performance. It is during this period that teachers make the decision to either
continue in or leave the profession. Many choose not to stay. Nationally, more than
30% of new teachers leave within the first five years (NCES, 1997). Attrition rates
among California’s new teachers is extremely high, with estimates o f about 30% of
new teachers leaving the profession within their first three years of service. Figures
go as high as 50% in certain parts of the state (CTC, 1998; Bartell & Ownby, 1994;
Darling-Hammond, 1997; Pearson, 1992; CSUIER, 1996). Other estimates arrive at
substantially higher attrition rates for less than fully credentialed new teachers
(EdSource, 1999). For California, that means a loss of between 11,000 and 15,000
teachers annually, a loss the system can ill afford.
National data show that proportionately male and female teachers tend to stay
and leave teaching at approximately the same rates. Attrition rates of white, African-
American and Hispanic teachers are reported to be similar nationally, with African-
American teachers being slightly more likely to leave the profession. Asian and
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Pacific Islanders teachers leave at higher rates than any other group, and Native
American teachers leave at the lowest. Other national data indicate that when school
conditions are taken into consideration, African-American teachers are actually less
likely to leave than white teachers (US Department of Education, 1994).
Teacher age also provides a telling indicator of retention. Teachers under the
age of 30 are more likely to leave the profession than those aged 30-59. Attrition
tends to be highest in the early years of teaching, particularly among teachers who
are new to the profession (US Department of Education, 1994).
Salary plays an important role in the rates of teacher attrition. Teachers who
were paid at comparably lower rates were more likely to leave than those who were
paid at an average or higher rate (Mumane, Singer, Willett, Kemple, & Olsen, 1991).
The teachers in the lower salary groups were actually one and one-half times more
likely to leave at the end of their first year teaching than those in the higher salary
groups. Chance and Rice (1999) found salary to be the third highest district
condition causing teachers to leave (after district and site communication). These
findings are contradicted by other studies which have found no correlation between
salary and new teacher retention (Sclan, 1993).
Neither the level of education attained by teachers (exclusive of doctoral
degrees) nor the subject taught has been found to influence teacher attrition (US
Department of Education, 1994). Teachers holding master’s degrees are no more
likely to leave than are their counterparts with bachelor’s degrees. The same is true
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for math and science teachers, who are no more likely to leave than teachers of other
subjects such as English or Social Science.
The United States Department of Education (1994) found that those teachers
with the highest standardized test scores tended to have shorter teaching careers.
This was in keeping with a longitudinal study of teachers in North Carolina that
found a strong positive relationship between high test scores on the National
Teachers Exam (NTE) and the likelihood of leaving the profession (Murnane et al.,
1991). In contrast, Texas teachers with higher scores on the ExCET (a state teacher
exam) were no more likely to leave the profession in their first five years than were
teachers with average or lower scores (Texas Education Agency, 1995). It is thus
unclear as to whether a high score on standardized tests is a factor in teacher
attrition.
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) data for school level
indicates that elementary teachers are somewhat more likely to leave than secondary
teachers; however, those who teach in combined elementary and secondary schools
move at the highest rate (US Department of Education, 1994). School size does not
seem to play a significant role in the loss of teachers (NCES, 1994).
Nationally, the percentage of minority students at a school appears to be
related to the rate of teacher attrition, with schools having 50% or more minority
students reporting teacher attrition at almost 14%, compared with approximately
10% for campuses with less than 5% minority students (NCES, 1994). In Texas,
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there was less of a relationship between minority students and teacher attrition
(Texas Education Agency, 1995).
Texas also found little relationship between the type of community districts
serve and teacher attrition rates (Texas Education Agency, 1995). Gonzales & Sosa
(1993), however, found that 50% of new teachers in urban districts leave within five
years. This may help to explain why a typical urban school district hires between
10-20% of its teaching force each year (NCES, 1997b).
Statement of the Problem
There have never been such large numbers of emergency and substitute
teachers employed full time in classrooms (CDE, 1996).
Whereas there is a sizable body of research around the characteristics,
concerns, attitudes, morale and stress of fully credentialed first year or beginning
teachers, there is a dearth of comparable information on those individuals teaching
full time with an emergency credential. Very little is known about the characteristics
of these teachers, and about the factors that influence their job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
As a result, there is also little, if any, research comparing characteristics of
the two groups of beginning teachers; namely, preliminary and clear credential
holders and emergency credential holders.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was as follows:
1. to collect demographic, personal characteristics and job satisfaction information
on beginning K-3 teachers, regardless of credential status;
2. to conduct an analysis of the data collected, comparing K-3 preliminary and clear
credential holders with emergency credential holders;
3. to determine what similarities and/or differences, if any, exist between the two
groups of beginning K-3 teachers; and
4. to compare the new K-3 teachers with their more experienced counterpart to
determine what similarities and/or differences, if any, exist.
Research Questions
1. What are the individual demographic and process variables of emergency and
credentialed first year teachers? Are they different?
2. Are newly credential teachers and new emergency credentialed teachers’
personal characteristics different from each other?
3. What are the items of significance for job satisfaction?
3.1 What are the items leading to higher job satisfaction for first year
credentialed and emergency credentialed teachers?
3.2 What are the items leading to lower job satisfaction for first year
credentialed and emergency credentialed teachers?
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4. Are there differences in the beginning credentialed and emergency credentialed
teachers’ job satisfaction perceptions within each of the individual demographic
and process factors?
5. Is there a relationship between the beginning credentialed and emergency
credentialed teachers’ perceptions of job satisfaction when controls are imposed
for personal characteristic variables?
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Hypotheses
The theoretical framework of the personal characteristics portion of this study
was founded on the research concerning the Five Factor Model (FFM), also known
as the "Big 5" personalities. The work of Fiske (1949) and Tupes and Christal
(1961), through analysis o f trait ratings, resulted in the descriptive dimensions now
almost universally accepted as the basis for continuing work in the personality
development (Furman & Lanthier, 1996; Howard & Howard, 1995). Throughout the
1980's and continuing through the present, a plethora of personality researchers have
established the FFM as the basic paradigm for personality research (Howard &
Howard, 1995).
Personality theories are metaphors for describing the human personality. The
history of the study of personality has been one o f minimizing vagueness. The FFM
is the latest evolution in the study of personality to narrow the descriptive efforts,
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and is essentially the most recent attempt to find the "lowest common denominators"
among personality words across all languages (Howard & Howard, 1995).
This new paradigm involved five major components that differentiate it from
prior theories and paradigms:
1. five dimensions of personality;
2. a normal distribution of scores on these dimensions;
3. an emphasis on individual personality traits (no longer based on type);
4. preferences indicated by strength of score; and
5. a model based on experience, not theory.
Each of the "Big Five" dimensions contains a set of traits that tend to occur together.
Costa and McCrae (1992) developed the most commonly accepted names for these
dimensions. These names include: Extraversion; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness;
Neuroticism (also known as Negative Emotionality); and Openness to Experience.
By examining the "types" of people, or personal characteristics of those
individuals entering the teaching profession (either through a credential program or
on an "emergency” basis), information may be gathered that may assist districts
and/or schools in predicting those who may experience greater success in the
teaching profession (job performance) prior to employment. This information may
also assist in designing support and intervention programs based on an individual's
profile to improve and retain qualified, competent teachers.
In the area of job satisfaction, four main theoretical frameworks have
emerged: Content theories; Process or Discrepancy theories; Dispositional factors;
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and Situational models of job satisfaction. The Content theories explain job
satisfaction in terms of needs that must be satisfied or values that must be achieved
(Locke, 1976).
Another set of theories, known as Process or Discrepancy, attempts to explain
job satisfaction by linking categories of variables (such as values or needs) to
satisfaction with one’s job. An outgrowth of Process theories, Discrepancy theories
posit that job satisfaction is the difference between an individual’s desired work
outcomes and what that individual actually receives on their job or from their
organization (Locke, 1976) or an individual’s motivation at work and the
organizational incentives (Hoy & Miskel, 1996).
Factors within the individual, separate from the specific attributes of the job.
affect the degree of job satisfaction experienced. This is known as the Dispositional
hypothesis of job satisfaction (Hoppock, 1935; Locke, 1976). From this basis,
research has been conducted focused on the psychological processes underlying the
dispositional source of job satisfaction. Brief, Butcher & Roberson (1995)
demonstrated that the individual’s dispositional tendencies affect how they interpret
job attributes. A clear link between affective temperament and job satisfaction has
been established in the past decade of research (Judge, Locke, Durham & Kluger.
1998).
Situational models of job satisfaction form the fourth theoretical framework.
Categories of variables are examined to see how they combine to relate to an
individual’s job satisfaction (Hoy & Miskel, 1996).
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Importance of the Study
The information garnered from this study will assist site administrators and
district central office administrators in the selection of teacher candidates and in the
design and implementation of site and district support programs for new teachers of
any kind.
Such knowledge is critical to understanding the causal factors underlying the
ways teachers respond to the experiences they are having, and to the creation of
appropriate professional development programs tailored to address the potentially
unique needs of emergency credentialed teachers. It might also assist in the effective
identification, recruitment and retention of individuals eligible for an emergency
credential for teaching positions. Some of the data may prove helpful to human
resource personnel as they continue to develop strategies to attract, recruit, and retain
qualified teacher candidates.
Scope of the Study
Beginning K-3 general education teachers in thirteen school districts and one
Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA) consortium located in southern
California were surveyed in four areas: 1) demographics (both personal and school
related); 2) personal characteristics; 3) job satisfaction; and 4) reasons for leaving
teaching.
Because only K-3 teachers were surveyed, the results of this study may not
be applicable to all elementary teachers, since grades 4-6 have not experienced class
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size reduction. However, some of the K.-3 teachers included in the survey had also
not experienced class size reduction (it had not yet reached their grade level at their
school). The results are also not applicable to elementary teachers of specialized
programs (e.g., special education, Title I), since that population was specifically
excluded from the study.
Teachers entering their second year or more of teaching were not originally
intended to be included in the study. However, enough surveys from "experienced"
teachers were received to allow for a cohort comparison group of experienced
teachers to use in addition to the group of new teachers, and the results may shed
some light on the differences between the two groups. However, the results of the
study should be interpreted with caution when looking at experienced teachers.
Definitions
For the purpose of this study, some definitions need to be established.
Assumption Program o f Loans fo r Education (APLE) - A loan forgiveness program
aimed at recruiting K-12 teachers.
Beginning Teacher - Also First Year teacher, New teacher and Novice teacher. A
teacher who is experiencing his/her first full year of teaching in a K.-3 general
education classroom, regardless of certification status.
Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA) - A California state program
designed to ensure the professional success and retention of new
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(credentialed) teachers. Emergency credentialed teachers do not participate
in BTSA.
Bilingual Teacher Recruitment Program (BTRP) - A teacher recruitment program
which emphasizes pre-collegiate recruitment as well as the expansion of
training opportunities for language minority students at the community
college and university levels, and for bilingual paraeducators interested in
teaching careers.
California Aerospace and Defense Worker Placement Assistance Program - A
teacher recruitment program that provides assistance to displaced aerospace
and defense workers interested in a career in public education.
California Department o f Education (CDE) - The state agency charged with
developing recommendations and regulations in response to legislation and
State Board of Education actions.
California Mathematics Initiative fo r Teaching (CMIT) - A proposed state program
to provide monetary incentives for prospective and current elementary and
secondary teachers.
California State University (CSU) - A system of publicly funded, four year
California State Universities, originally designed to train teachers in
California.
CalTeach - A California statewide recruitment effort to provide a one-stop
information and referral recruitment center.
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The Center fo r the Future o f Teaching and Learning (CFTL) - A public, nonprofit
organization focused on strengthening the capacity of California's teachers
for delivering rigorous, well-rounded curriculum, and ensuring the
intellectual, ethical and social development of children.
Class-size reduction (CSR) - A legislative effort in California, beginning in 1996-97,
which offered monetary incentives to districts to reduce their K.-3 classes to
20 or less students.
Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC) - A state-appointed body that sets
policies regarding teacher credentialing in California.
Community College (CC) - Any publicly funded two-year institution of post
secondary study.
Comprehensive Teacher Education Initiative (CTEI) - Collaborative efforts in
California in the areas of teacher recruitment, pre-service education and
beginning teacher professional development and retention.
Content theory - A theory o f job satisfaction that looks at needs that must be satisfied
or values that must be achieved.
Discrepancy theory - Also Process theory. An outgrowth of Process that proposes
that job satisfaction is the difference between an individual's desired work
outcomes and what that person actually receives on the job.
Dispositional theory - A theory of job satisfaction that posits that factors within the
individual, separate from the attributes of the job, affect the degree of job
satisfaction.
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Emergency credentialed - A teacher working under a credential that requires him/her
to hold a bachelor degree and to have passed the CBEST (California Basis
Education Skills Test) in California. There are two varieties: i) a 30-day
substitute which authorizes the holder to work in a single classroom for up to
30 consecutive days per school year; and ii) a long-term substitute which
requires the holder to complete at least six units towards a regular teaching
credential and authorizes the holder to work up to one school year in the
same assignment.
Experienced teacher - Any teacher with more than one full school year of teaching in
the same classroom, excluding substitute teaching experience of less than one
full school year in the same classroom.
First Year teacher - Also Beginning teacher, New teacher and Novice teacher. A
teacher who is experiencing his/her first full year of teaching in a K.-3 general
education classroom, exclusive of both student teaching and long-term (less
than one school year or multiple assignments in a full school year) substitute
experience. The teacher holds either a preliminary or an emergency
credential.
Five Factor Model - Also "Big Five". A personality paradigm that places
personality traits into five dimensions: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Neuroticism, Openness and Extraversion.
Fully credentialed - A teacher who holds either a preliminary or clear teaching
credential. The holder has completed all requirements to teach in California.
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Institutions o f Higher Education (IHE) - Any four-year institution of post-secondary
study, including both public and private universities and colleges.
Instructional Assistant (LA) - Also Paraeducator and Instructional Assistant. A
district-classified employee assigned to assist a classroom teacher for all or
part of the day. Qualifications vary from district to district, but usually
require a minimum of a high school diploma or its equivalent.
National Board fo r Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) - A national board
focused on developing and disseminating information regarding acceptable
and/or recommended teaching standards for teachers.
New teacher - Also Beginning teacher, First Year teacher and Novice teacher. A
teacher who is experiencing his/her first full year of teaching in a K-3 general
education classroom, excluding substitute teaching for one full school year in
the same classroom, regardless of certification.
Novice teacher - Also Beginning teacher, First Year teacher and New teacher. A
teacher who is experiencing his/her first full year of teaching in a K-3 general
education classroom, excluding substitute teaching for one lull school year in
the same classroom, regardless of certification.
Paraeducator - Also Teaching Assistant and Instructional Assistant. A district-
classified employee assigned to assist a classroom teacher for all or part of
the day. Qualifications vary from district to district, but usually require a
minimum of a high school diploma or its equivalent.
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Pre-Intern Program - A California state program designed to provide training and
support to teachers with little or no experience.
Process theory - Also Discrepancy theory. A theory of job satisfaction which links
categories of variables (such as values or needs) to satisfaction with one's job.
Recruiting New Teachers (RNT) - A national, non-profit organization focused on
raising esteem for teaching, expanding the pool of prospective teachers and
improving teacher recruitment and development policies and practices.
Situational theory - A theory of job satisfaction that looks at how categories of
variables combine to relate to an individual's job satisfaction.
Southern California Math and Science Teacher Corps (SCMSTC) - A recruitment
program that prepares retired and laid-off aerospace workers for teaching
careers in high school math and science departments.
Teacher Diversity Program (TDP) - A teacher recruitment program that encourages
universities to work collaboratively with community colleges and school
districts to recruit diverse candidates into teaching.
Teaching Assistant (TA) - Also Paraeducator and Instructional Assistant. A district
classified employee assigned to assist a classroom teacher for all or part of
the day. Qualifications vary from district to district, but usually require a
minimum of a high school diploma or its equivalent.
Troops to Teachers - A teacher recruitment program funded by the Department of
Defense to encourage Defense personnel to enter the teaching profession.
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University o f California (UC) - A system of publicly funded California universities
originally created to conduct research and provide higher education.
Veteran teacher - Any teacher with more than one full school year of teaching in the
same classroom, excluding substitute teaching experience of less than one
full school year in the same classroom.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The previous chapter discussed the research problems, questions, and
hypotheses. The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of the literature which
reveals information regarding beginning teachers' attitudes toward teaching, stress,
self-efficacy, personal characteristics as well as how these issues relate to
demographic factors and reasons that might lead teachers to leave the profession.
Teacher Variables
Teacher Characteristics
Demographic Factors
Demographic factors include descriptive information about teachers such as
age, gender, race, and marital status. Older new teachers, especially women, have
been found to have higher morale (Thomson & Schuck, 1987), strong and positive
self-efficacy (Chester, 1992), and are more likely to remain in teaching (Sclan,
1993). However, Karge (1993) found that older female teachers were more
susceptible to the stresses of elementary teaching. Mature-age students (ages 24-52)
also scored higher in psychological maturity and demonstrated higher levels of self-
realization (Haipt, 1990).
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No relationships between gender and work commitment, career choice,
retention (Sclan, 1993) or stress (Sacks & Brady, 1985; Butler & Smith, 1989) have
been found. No age or grade level taught, GPA, subject area, or personality was
found to differentiate stress levels in new teachers. Pigge & Marso (1995) found no
relationship between new teacher concerns and basic academic skills, major, family
characteristics, ACT scores, or locus of control.
When looking at work commitment, career choice, and retention, Sclan
(1993) noted no distinctions between White and Black teachers. Generally speaking,
only age (more mature) and gender (female) had positive effects on the experience of
beginning teachers.
Teacher Attitudes
Teacher attitudes toward teaching have been studied to see if they have an
effect on teacher effectiveness and retention. Teacher morale, stress and self-
efficacy are additional factors that have been studied to determine if they affect
teacher effectiveness and retention. Attitudes and self-efficacy have been looked at
in relation to the hiring process as well. All have implications for ongoing
professional development for educators.
Teachers who were certain about their choice of careers have been found to
be twice as likely to complete their certification program and go on to actually teach
(Marso & Pigge, 1997). They also found that those with a high external locus of
control had more positive attitudes towards teaching after their first year’ s
experience. Teacher autonomy, school leadership, and perceptions of principal
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support and encouragement have positive effects on new teacher views of their work
commitment, career choice, and retention (Sclan, 1993).
Elementary teachers are generally less discouraged and more likely to stay in
the profession than are middle and secondary teachers (Sclan, 1993; Marso & Pigge,
1997). This finding is contradicted by the US Department of Education's (1994) data
which indicated that elementary teachers are somewhat more likely to leave than
secondary teachers.
Stress
It is well documented that teaching is a stressful job. For some, the stress is
invigorating. For others, it is too much and they leave the profession.
Highly idealistic new teachers experience more stress than their otherwise
equal counterparts (Sacks & Brady, 1985), although the overall stress level was low
for these new teachers (Sacks & Brady, 1985; Chester, 1992).
Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy, the belief that one is a good teacher and is doing a good job,
also has implications for effective recruitment, professional development, and
retention. Efficacy, in general, involves the capability in which cognitive, social, and
behavioral skills are organized into integrated courses of action (Bandura, 1982).
Bandura (1982) has posited that the higher the level of self-efficacy, the higher the
performance. An individual's self-efficacy judgements influence their choice of
activities and environmental settings. Bandura (1982) also found evidence that
changes in self-perceptions of efficacy predict coping in self-regulatory behaviors.
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This has implications for the perseverance of new teachers individually, and the high
attrition rate of beginning teachers in a challenging profession.
The level o f instructional support and an individual's personal view of self-
efficacy are important factors in the overall consideration of self-efficacy and new
teachers (Chester, 1992). Contrary to general opinion, new teachers experience a
change in their self-efficacy, but it is variable and not necessarily negative (Chester,
1992).
Personal Characteristics
The literature is somewhat fragmented when examining the personal
characteristics of beginning teachers, in large part due to the diversity of instruments
used to measure such characteristics.
One personality type, "Sensing" as measured by the Myers-Briggs
Personality Type Indicator, has been found to be related to changes in the concerns
of new teachers (Pigge & Marso, 1995; Marso & Pigge, 1997). Someone considered
to be a "Sensor", tends to be practical, realistic, factual and specific (Northouse,
1997). Active, enthusiastic, and flexible first year teachers were found to have
higher morale (Thomson & Schuck, 1987). Teachers who were determined to be
original and divergent demonstrated lower morale. Those new teachers with a high
external locus of control demonstrated greater satisfaction with teaching. Those who
were more internally controlled experienced significant declines in their attitude
toward teaching (Marso & Pigge, 1997).
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Baker, Grayson, Colyar & Guarino (1998) looked at student characteristics,
hoping to describe those aspects that would predict a successful student teaching
experience in an urban setting. Being "efficacious & confident" (a measure of self
esteem and self-efficacy) contributed the most to direct (positive) clinical measure of
job performance. This suggests that if student teachers have a positive self-image,
they would probably be happier and feel more in control, and thus see more
challenges and intrinsic value in their work.
When looking at stress levels, the literature is somewhat contradictory.
Butler & Smith (1989) found no relationship between personality type and stress
level while Sacks & Brady (1985) found that the more idealistic a new teacher was,
the higher their stress.
Overall, the literature is varied when examining the personality
characteristics of new or prospective teachers.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction has been of interest to researchers since Hoppock’s work in
1935. Educational researchers have examined a number of job classifications,
including special educators (Abelson, 1986), teachers (Kreis & Brookopp, 1986),
school custodians (Young, 1982), superintendents (Bacharach & Mitchell, 1983),
and principals (Friesen, Holdaway & Rice, 1981) among others. A multitude of
variables as they relate to job satisfaction have also been explored, including gender
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(Sweeney, 1981), age (Lowther, Gill & Coppard, 1985), race (Davis, 1985) and
length of experience (Avi-Itzhak, 1988).
The education literature reveals that job satisfaction studies have taken, at
minimum, three forms. First, it has been studied as the criterion variable of interest
(e.g., Conley et al., 1989). Secondly, it has been investigated as one of a group of
criterion variables (e.g., Hollon & Gemmill, 1976). Researchers have also looked at
it as a predictor variable in relation to some other criterion of interest (e.g., Feuille &
Blandin, 1976).
Thompson, McNamera & Hoyle (1997) conducted a meta-analysis of 41
articles referring to job satisfaction, which appeared in Educational Administration
Quarterly. They concluded that the current research supports the Situational models
of job satisfaction. They also determined that three categories of variables were
important: 1) characteristics of the job task(s); 2) characteristics of the organization;
and 3) characteristics of the employee. Their final conclusion was that job
characteristics contributed the most to the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of teachers.
Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger (1998) determined that how individuals see
themselves affects how they experience their jobs and even their lives, thus
supporting the Dispositional model. They found that self-esteem and self-efficacy
contributed the most to a person’s core self-evaluation (how they view themselves,
other people and the world as a whole). Locus of control was highly correlated with
self-efficacy. Those with a positive self-concept saw their jobs and lives more
positively because they possessed the disposition that allowed them to do so. As a
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result, they posited that when people describe the attributes of their work, their focus
is not just external, but also, at least implicitly, internal.
New teachers who felt that they had received adequate support during their
first year of teaching demonstrated positive reactions to teaching, satisfaction with
their employment, indicated low on-the-job stress and planned to remain in teaching
(Villeme, Hall, Burley & Brockmeier, 1992). This study provides additional support
that dispositional factors may influence perceptions of job satisfaction. Perceptions
were not related to academic ability.
Darling-Hammond (1984) reported that the primary item giving teachers
satisfaction with their job is that of being instrumental in their students' learning
achievements - an intrinsic reward. In other words, teachers derive the greatest
satisfaction from working with students and seeing them learn and succeed; not from
any extrinsic system of rewards, such as salary, benefits or specific working
conditions.
Administrative, material, and public supports for teachers have been
examined (Fruth, et al., 1982). Building on Maslow’s five levels of human need
(physiological, safety, a sense of belonging and love, self-esteem and self-
actualization), it was determined that it is necessary, but not sufficient, to meet the
first levels (physiological and safety) of need in order to have high and sustained job
satisfaction. The authors concluded that teaching has two parts: 1) the extrinsic and
structured context in which the job is performed; and 2) the intrinsic (which parallels
the self-actualization level of Maslow).
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Communication emerged as both the lowest (district communication) and
second lowest (site communication) district condition leading teachers to leave a
district (Chance & Rice, 1999). However, job satisfaction increased where there was
effective vertical communication, according to Kombluh & Cooke (1982). Job
dissatisfaction was related to unpleasant work environment, excessive work hours,
the desire for better fringe benefits, inadequate resources, poor mobility, and
decreasing job security.
Current and former teachers generally agreed on what constitutes important
sources for job satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) (Rydell, Gage & Coines, 1986). The
primary reason was the intrinsic factors related to the mission of teaching (working
with young people). A second source involved the structural level of the profession
(working conditions, resources, etc.). Finally, extrinsic factors, such as salary and
the opportunity to have summers off, were also important.
The two groups differed in how much satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) a
particular aspect generated. Active teachers were generally more satisfied on most
items than were former teachers, a finding that surprised no one. The most
interesting differences occurred in the area of the structural factors or working
conditions, particularly around professional growth and autonomy. While both were
interested in being treated as professionals and expanding their professional
knowledge, former teachers derived less satisfaction from these areas, perhaps due to
personal dispositional factors.
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Current research supports both the Situational and Dispositional models of
job satisfaction. Three variables are particularly important: 1) characteristics o f the
job task(s); 2) characteristics of the organization; and 3) characteristics (disposition)
of the employees. Where teachers are involved, job characteristics and disposition
appear to contribute the most to job satisfaction. Included in the category of job
characteristics would be the intrinsic reward related to the mission o f teaching
(working with young people) which teachers regularly report as being critical for job
satisfaction.
The lack of administrative support, particularly at the site level, has been
cited as a primary reason for teacher attrition (Jenkins, Jenkins, Hall, Ware &
Heintzleman, 1998; Natale, 1993; NCES, 1995). Teachers with one year or less of
teaching experience rated their supervisors significantly lower than those with 2-3
years experience (Chance & Rice, 1999). Those with four or more years rated their
supervisor more like the first year teachers. Supervision and support were the
second most frequently cited area of dissatisfaction in this study (after district growth
issues). Thus the role of the site administrator has a great impact on teacher
satisfaction.
Teachers report that the rewards from working with children and observing
student progress (Ayalon, 1989; Shepston & Jensen, 1997), recognition and help
from administrators and teachers (Karge, 1993; Ayalon, 1989; Marso & Pigge, 1987)
and having adequate resources (Karge, 1993) are important sources of job
satisfaction. Other findings include teacher autonomy (having input in determining
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curriculum, texts, teaching strategies, etc.) and a collaborative school culture as
having a positive effect on teacher retention (Sclan, 1993).
According to the NCTAF (1996), the major areas of dissatisfaction concerned
student motivation and discipline, lack of recognition, and support from
administrators. To a lesser degree, salaries were also of concern. Shepston & Jensen
(1997) cited politics, personnel, and parents as significant sources of dissatisfaction.
Teacher attrition rates were higher in high poverty schools, and those who left high
poverty schools were more than twice as likely as those in low poverty schools to
leave because of dissatisfaction with teaching (NCTAF, 1996).
Those who left teaching in 1994 were more satisfied with all aspects of their
new, non-teaching positions than were those who stayed (NCTAF, 1996). These
former teachers indicated higher satisfaction than their teaching peers with their
influence over policy, professional prestige, resources available, support from
administrators and manageability of work. Those who left also viewed their salaries,
general working conditions and opportunities for advancement as much more
favorable than did those who remained teaching.
Factors Leading to Poor Teacher Retention
Researchers have developed a framework of three categories to help explain
reasons why teachers stay, transfer, or leave the classroom: external factors;
employment factors; and personal factors. External factors, including such
considerations as societal, economic, and institutional pressures and influences, are
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considered indirectly related to the career decisions made by teachers. General
employment factors are more often directly related to the decision to stay or leave
the profession. Subcategories include professional qualifications, work conditions
and work rewards, commitment and employability (the ability to find a career
outside of education).
Personal factors compose the third category. These include issues of
demographics: age, gender, family matters including child rearing, and
cognitive/affective issues (such as interests, expectations, personal characteristics
and motivation).
Policy Options
A variety of strategies for addressing the teacher shortage have been
proposed or implemented across the nation and in California. They generally focus
on recruitment strategies, which include attracting qualified individuals early,
lowering or removing barriers to the profession and establishing programs to attract
specific populations. Other policy considerations involve: 1) strengthening the
teacher preparation system, with a lesser focus on retaining all qualified teachers,
which includes new teacher induction programs; and 2) ongoing and sustained
professional development for all and restructuring schools so that teachers can teach
and collaborate and students can leam.
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Policies Implemented
Recruitment
1. Attracting individuals early.
Career choices are often, but not always, generated early in life. Research
findings have indicated that over 50% of new teachers decided to enter the teaching
profession while in high school or even earlier (California Education Policy Seminar,
1994). Recruiting New Teachers, Inc. (RNT) has identified 40 pre-collegiate teacher
recruitment programs in California, which served 4,800 students from 1992*95
(California Statewide Task Force on Teacher Recruitment, 1997). These programs
include Future Educator Clubs, teacher academies or magnet schools and the
Summerbridge program (provides comprehensive teaching experiences for high
school students attending private schools).
RNT has also launched recruitment efforts in the state by sponsoring public
service announcements promoting a toll-free inquiry hotline focused on teaching as a
career. In conjunction with the California Center of Teaching Careers (CalTeach),
RNT also operates a toll-free Urban Helpline, which provides counseling for
individuals interested in teaching careers.
CalTeach, a partnership between CSU IER and RNT in conjunction with the
Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC), California Department of Education
(CDE) and independent colleges has recently been opened as one recruitment effort.
A one-stop information and referral recruitment center, CalTeach is designed to
assist individuals interested in a career in teaching. It is developing public outreach
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activities, including those aimed at high school and college students, such as
brochures, on-line databases and media outreach campaigns. The center also plans
to assist in matching new teachers with regional hiring needs (Shields, et al„ 1998).
The CTC conducted a survey in 1992 to identify recruitment efforts at
California college campuses. It found that most colleges and universities recruit
students into their teacher preparation program who are already enrolled on the
campus through informational meetings, mailing and posted notices on or around
campus. Ninety percent of the responding institutions also reported recruiting
candidates from outside the campus by pursuing one or more of the following
groups: 1) career change professionals: 2) school paraprofessionals; and/or 3) high
school students. Many campuses also indicated convening task forces focused on
recruiting diverse teacher candidates, adopting special policies to attract, admit and
support candidates from underrepresented groups, and offering support programs for
students.
2. Lowering/removing barriers.
An additional policy strategy for recruiting qualified individuals into the
teaching profession focuses attention and efforts on removing barriers to entering
education. These efforts include providing more flexible options for earning a
credential, lowering or removing unnecessary barriers for credentialed teachers from
other states or prospective teachers from other professions, and providing financial
incentive to potential teachers.
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In an effort to attract potential teachers from a larger pool of candidates,
California has developed a number of alternative certification routes to a teaching
credential. Recently (1998), California embarked on a comprehensive overhaul of its
teacher education requirements. The past emphasis on a fifth year of study has been
replaced by a two year internship for novice teachers. As a result of new legislation
(SB 2042), teacher candidates can get a preliminary credential three ways: going
through a four-year undergraduate program; completing a one-year graduate
program; or participating in a district-sponsored internship program (Bradley, 1998).
Credentialed teachers from other states represent a large pool of potential
California teachers. A recent CTC study found that more than 40% of out-of-state
teachers decide not to renew their credentials in California (CTC, 1997). This
represents a significant loss of qualified teachers for local school districts. The CTC
is currently conducting a survey of these teachers to determine why they have left
teaching and identify ways to remove any barriers to continued teaching. The CTC
recently voted to permit qualified out-of-state elementary teachers to request a one-
year preliminary credential without renewal requirement so that they can have time
to settle into their new environments without immediate credentialing requirements
(CTC, 1998).
Yet another large source of potential teacher candidates is the military and
other professions. Several state programs target both military personnel as well as
professionals in other sectors. Troops to Teachers, funded by the Department of
Defense (DOD), provides assistance to DOD personnel interested in education
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careers. This program has recently developed a partnership with the California
Aerospace and Defense Worker Placement Assistance Program, which dispenses
similar assistance to displaced aerospace and defense workers (Shields, et al., 1998).
The Southern California Math and Science Teacher Corps prepares retired and 1 aid-
off aerospace workers for teaching careers in high school math and science
departments. There are currently 32 students in this program (CA Statewide Task
Force on Teacher Recruitment, 1997).
Paraprofessionals, many of whom are already working in schools and
classrooms, are a logical source of teacher candidates, and a number of programs
provide support for the transition from paraprofessional to teacher. These programs
tend to provide a career ladder whereby the paraprofessional accepts increased
responsibility in the classroom while engaging in staff development and coursework
leading to a credential. The promise of such programs is that these individuals have
already shown an interest in education, are generally more representative of the
student population in the school, and most live in the community in which they work
(CSEA, 1996). The challenges have included the length of time it takes for a
paraprofessional to achieve a credential, due in part to the fact that they are part-time
students.
3. Financial incentives.
Much research has been conducted which has identified the financial
considerations of teacher preparation programs (and college, in general) as one of the
most significant barriers to an increased supply of teachers (CTC, 1994). A number
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of state and local programs have been initiated in California to address this problem
by offering financial incentives for new teacher candidates.
The Assumption Program of Loans for Education (APLE) is a loan
forgiveness program aimed at recruiting K-12 teachers. It currently serves up to 400
students (Shields, et al., 1998). Many entities have called for the expansion of this
program (California Education Policy Seminar, 1994; California Statewide Task
Force on Teacher Recruitment, 1997; SB 1422 Advisory Panel, 1997), and the CTC
has sponsored legislation (SB 2042) to increase the awards to 1,000 per year.
4. Attract specific populations.
Many recruitment programs in California include a focus on attracting ethnic
minorities in an effort to increase the diversity of the teacher workforce. Two such
programs are: 1) the Teacher Diversity Program (TDP), which encourages
universities to work collaboratively with community colleges and school districts in
their region to recruit diverse candidates; and 2) the Bilingual Teacher Recruitment
Program (BTRP), which emphasizes precollegiate recruitment as well as the
expansion of training opportunities for language minority students at the community
college and university levels and for bilingual paraeducators interested in teaching
careers. Five main strategies are involved in TDP, namely:
• academic support and basic skills preparation;
• academic advisement on course selection;
• career counseling (for high school and undergraduate students);
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• early exposure to teaching (tutoring, internships, etc.); and
• financial incentives.
There has been no statewide evaluation of either program’s effectiveness, nor is there
any longitudinal data indicating what number or percentage of participants actually
become teachers, to date. Implementation of the TDP has been found to be uneven
across the state (CSU IER, 1996).
S. Strengthening the teacher preparation system.
By strengthening the connections among high school, community colleges,
undergraduate programs, and teacher preparation experiences, policy makers believe
that more qualified candidates can be attracted to the profession (California
Statewide Task Force on Teacher Recruitment, 1997). Efforts have been made in the
following areas: precollegiate recruitment; increasing the diversity of the workforce:
paraprofessional training programs; community college recruitment; and connections
between universities and schools (see discussion above).
California has also initiated a number of efforts designed to bridge the
traditional gaps between teacher preparation institutions and the districts and schools
in which teachers work. The Comprehensive Teacher Education Initiative (CTEI)
encompasses collaborative efforts in the areas of teacher recruitment, pre-service
education and beginning teacher professional development and retention. Twelve of
these collaboratives currently operate throughout the state (Shields, et al., 1998).
There are many programs in place to strengthen the pipeline into the teaching
profession, with outreach efforts to high school students, programs or proposals
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targeted at the community college and undergraduate levels, and mentoring and
induction efforts focused on bridging the gap between teacher preparation and the
classroom. In general, however, these efforts remain piecemeal, exist in isolation
from each other, serve only a small number of potential teacher candidates, and
provide little data on either their effectiveness or impacts.
6. Retention of all teachers.
Once qualified individuals have been attracted and supported in gaining
entrance to the teaching profession, policy efforts are needed to ensure that those
teachers remain in teaching. One approach to the increasing need to retain new
teachers has been induction programs. Common features of these programs
nationally include: 1) orientation; 2) support and assistance from a mentor or coach;
and 3) training (Fideler, 1997). California established the Beginning Teacher
Support and Assessment (BTSA) Program in 1992, in part to ensure the professional
success and retention of new teachers (SDCOE, 1997). The various programs
throughout the state include a university partner, one or more school districts and/or
a county office of education and at least one local teacher organization. BTSA
programs offer ongoing, consistent support from one or more experienced
colleague(s) at the school site as well as formative assessments of the beginning
teacher.
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Proposed Policies
A number of policies have been proposed by various entities to improve the
recruitment and retention of teachers in general.
1. Federal/National level.
At the federal level, action could be taken by Congress to support and
improve the caliber of education professionals, create and strengthen teaching
institutions, provide scholarships and loans to education students and create
incentives for teachers to train in shortage specialties and to locate in under-served
area. This is exactly what Congress did to respond to a severe shortage of physicians
in 1963 (Darling-Hammond, 1990).
In addition, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards could
develop and/or support partnerships between and among the Board and colleges and
universities, focused on continuing professional development of in-service teachers.
To the extent that these activities strengthen the teacher preparation enterprise, they
may also make teacher education a more welcome environment for talented teachers,
thus enhancing both recruitment and retention (Darling-Hammond, 1990).
Gratch (1992) summarized nine major reports published since 1984, and
identified the following policy recommendations for improving teacher education:
• broaden and make more rigorous the liberal arts component;
• extend the length of teacher education programs;
• increase collaboration: between liberal arts and teacher education faculties, and
between teacher educators and school staffs;
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• recruit academically talented individuals;
• improve the professional studies courses, connecting theory and research to
actual classroom practice;
• improve field and practice teaching experiences, such as a one-year internship or
induction program; and
• regulate teacher preparation more rigorously.
Two other policy recommendations, increasing the involvement of classroom
teachers in the preparation of new teachers and restructuring and revitalizing teacher
preparation programs have been included in a number of reports and documents
(Gratch, 1992).
2. Strengthening the teacher preparation system.
One consistent suggestion has been to strengthen the capacity of the teacher
preparation system as well as the connections between recruitment efforts, institutes
of higher education (IHE) and the schools and districts where the teacher candidates
ultimately land. Gratch (1992) identified the following suggestions:
• improve general/liberal education;
• improve subject matter competence;
• improve professional coursework;
• extend the length of teacher preparation programs;
• improve student teaching and the induction process;
• support alternative and experimental certification programs;
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• identify and recognize exemplary teacher education programs;
• increase and improve collaboration between teacher education faculty, liberal
arts faculty and school district staff;
• restore the teacher education mission to schools, colleges and departments of
education with accompanying support and appropriate resources; and
• improve standards for teacher certification.
Many of these recommendations appear in the suggestions for improving teacher
education.
Community colleges, with their 1.4 million students at 106 campuses,
represent another significant (with some overlap with previously mentioned sources)
pool of potential educators. Coupled with the fact that many CSU and UC students
get their start at a community college, there is increasing interest in improving
coordination among and between the academic programs of the various institutions,
and easing the transfer process among them. Improving the dissemination of
information about the teaching profession at the community colleges is also of
interest. A number of proposals have been made in California to enhance and
improve these links, including:
• improving the articulation between 2-year and 4-year institutions (California
Statewide Task Force on Teacher Recruitment, 1997);
• better articulation between community colleges and high schools (CSU IER and
California Education Policy Seminar, 1997);
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• improved articulation between community colleges and the CSU system,
including cross enrollment opportunities (CSU President’s Commission on
Teacher Education, 1998); and
• easing the transfer of community college students to the UC system, which has
resulted in a memorandum of understanding between the two systems outlining a
series of steps intended to achieve that goal (UC and California Community
Colleges, 1997).
There is no current outcome data on any of these efforts available, since their
implementation is either in progress or so recently initiated.
3. Lowering/Removing barriers.
New legislation is pending which would begin the process of streamlining
and easing the process of obtaining a California teaching credential for holders of
credentials from other states. This is a step in the right direction towards reducing
unnecessary barriers to the profession.
4. Recruiting from other professions .
Additional legislative proposals by the CTC have included the California
Mathematics Initiative for Teaching (CMIT), intended to address the math teacher
shortage by providing monetary incentives for prospective and current elementary
and secondary teachers. It would also expand the APLE program for secondary
math teacher candidates.
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5. Financial incentives.
California’s governors, both Wilson and Davis, have proposed additional
funding for financial incentives targeted at prospective teacher candidates. These
included a Cal Grant “T” Program which would support tuition grants to 3,000
students to enroll in a fifth-year teacher preparation programs (Governor’s Press
Office, 1998).
6. Alternative credentialing options.
In addition to district and university internship programs, the CTC has piloted
a performance-based licensure process designed to streamline the certification
process for experienced teachers who do not hold a public school credential (such as
private school and Head Start teachers, and early childhood educators).
Other proposals include a fast track alternative credential option for potential
teacher candidates that would allow for the completion of the program in four years
in one case, and in less than S years in another. Both proposals involve integrating
coursework and possibly fieldwork.
Efforts and Results
Careful attention and support provided to teachers during the first year of
teaching can reduce attrition rates and enhance teachers’ performance. Formal
induction programs that provide systematic and sustained assistance in the form of
guidance from experienced teachers, additional training, and individualized
feedback, produce the long term benefits of reduced frustration, isolation, burnout
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and ultimately attrition (Mitchell, Scott, Takahashi & Hendrick, 1997; Smylie, 1994;
Darling-Hammond, 1997; Pigge & Marso, 1992; Villeme, et al., 1992).
Recent reforms appear to be improving teacher satisfaction with at least some
aspects of their work. A significant increase in the proportion of teachers saying that
they are satisfied with the intellectual challenges of teaching and with their
opportunities for advancement was noted from 1988 to 1995 by the NCES (1997).
Teachers are also reporting that they feel more positively about the quality of
their preparation for teaching, as well as their salaries and recognition (Darling-
Hammond, 1997). Darling-Hammond (1997) also reports that fewer teachers
indicate that they have seriously considered leaving teaching. She attributes this, in
part, to a feeling of more control over classroom decisions.
New teachers who plan to remain in teaching report higher levels of support
compared with those who are considering quitting (Villeme, et al., 1992). Those
new teachers who felt they had experienced inadequate support were more likely to
be negative in their overall reaction to teaching, less satisfied with their employment,
and more sensitive to on-the-job stress.
Progress is being made on the national, state and local levels in the
recruitment, training, and retention of qualified teachers. Efforts at all levels must
continue if the nation, and California, expect to fill the estimated 3.5 million teaching
positions needed by 2007 (Darling-Hammond, 1997).
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Conclusion
The literature reveals that a number of characteristics are known about new,
credentialed teachers. Beginning teachers who were older, female, certain of their
career choice, had a positive self-concept, or exhibited a high external locus of
control, were more likely to be satisfied with teaching and were more likely to
remain in the classroom.
There is also evidence to indicate that adequate support, as defined by the
new teachers, positively effects the retention of beginning teachers. The intrinsic
factors of teaching, along with structural supports for teachers (working conditions,
materials, resources, etc.), are important sources of job satisfaction for teachers in
general.
While the literature reveals some general characteristics of beginning
teachers, little is known about those entering the profession under an emergency
credential. This study was designed to determine if emergency credentialed new
teachers were similar or different to fully credentialed beginning teachers in the areas
of demographics, personal characteristics, and job satisfaction.
Known factors of beginning teachers were used to design the questionnaire
used in this study to determine if beginning emergency credentialed teachers are
similar or different to beginning credentialed teachers, and in what ways and to what
extent. The results have implications for recruitment strategies as well as
professional development strategies and designs for both populations of teachers.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURES
Research Design
This study employed a correlational design. It aimed to predict demographic
and process variables, personal characteristics, job satisfaction, and reasons that
might lead a new teacher to leave teaching individually and interactions between any
two of the variables for beginning teachers, regardless of credential status. As a
result of the respondents who completed the questionnaire, this study also looked at
differences between first year teachers and experienced teachers in the areas of
individual demographics and process variables, personal characteristics, job
satisfaction, and reasons that might lead teachers to leave the profession.
Novice teachers from 13 school districts and one BTSA consortium in
general education grades K-3 were surveyed. Due to the manner in which districts
identified first year teachers, a number of experienced teachers (63) were also
surveyed. Four different parts of an individual questionnaire were used: individual
demographic and process factors; personal characteristics; job satisfaction; and items
around teacher retention.
Variables
A review of the current literature on beginning teachers revealed that while
there is a growing body of research around characteristics o f first year teachers,
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virtually nothing is known about first year teachers holding emergency credentials.
Few demographic factors have been found to differentiate groups of teachers. No
published research has looked at demographic factors that might separate beginning
credentialed teachers from new emergency credentialed teachers. The available
information on new teacher personal characteristics reveals considerable variability,
due in large part to the variety of instruments used to measure such characteristics.
In contrast, many studies have looked at factors that contribute to teacher job
satisfaction. To date, none of the research had included emergency credentialed
teachers. Factors related to credentialed new teacher job satisfaction included
general working conditions, items associated with working with children,
recognition, school culture, and workplace politics, other personnel, parents and
administrative support.
The variables investigated in the present study included:
1. personal demographic and process information (age, gender, educational
background, bachelor degree institution, where enrolled now, grade level taught,
prior employment experience, etc.);
2. personal characteristics;
3. job satisfaction;
4. credential status (clear/preliminary v. emergency); and
5. reasons which might lead teachers to leave the profession.
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Population
The population of interest for this study was composed of full time, first year
teachers, regardless of credential status, assigned to general education grades
kindergarten through third.
Sampling Techniques
Thirteen school districts and one BTS A consortium in the greater Los
Angeles area were identified as representative of all districts in the county. The
districts included two large, urban districts (average daily attendance [ADA] from
33,000), four medium-sized urban districts (ADA from 5,500 to 16,600), four
medium-sized suburban districts (ADA from 5,200 to 21,100) and three small
suburban districts (ADA from 950 to 2,700). The BTSA consortium was comprised
of five small and medium-sized urban and suburban districts and the Los Angeles
County Office o f Education's Educational Programs division (including new teachers
in special education, alternative education and juvenile court, and community
schools). The total ADA represented in this study was 204,395. All general
education K-3 first year teachers in these settings were included in the study.
Districts were responsible for determining which of their teachers met the qualifying
criteria, and identified 511 new teachers in grades K-3.
Subjects
The parent population was all first year, full time, K-3 general education
beginning teachers, regardless of type of credential. Personal demographic factors
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such as age, gender, race, reason for entering teaching, highest level of education,
and previous employment were gathered. Included in the demographic survey were
items addressing how the individual became interested in teaching, how they
obtained their current teaching position, and the perceived nature of their current
assignment (e.g., “Compared to the other classes on my school campus, my class is:
a) easier than others to teach; b) similar to others to teach; or c) harder than others to
teach.”).
Questionnaires were sent to a total of 511 teachers. The subjects were
identified by their district as being in their first year of full time teaching in the same
classroom. However, 63 of the subjects indicated, and the district later verified,
more than one year of teaching experience. Special educators, teachers in grades
higher than third grade and part-time teachers were excluded.
Instrumentation
A questionnaire was designed based on the findings in the literature in the
areas of personal demographics, process information, personal characteristics, job
satisfaction and reasons that might lead teachers to leave education.
Personal Demographic and Process Information
Few demographic and/or process factors have been linked in the literature to
personal characteristics, job satisfaction, or conditions leading to teacher attrition.
Personal demographics and process variables were obtained through a participant
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questionnaire, based on several found in the literature (Runyan, 1990; Sacks &
Brady, 1985, Haipt, 1990). The general demographic and process information items
were designed to gather information on the respondent’s age, gender, race,
educational background, credential status, grade taught, employment experience,
district “new teacher” support, perceptions of preparedness to teach and teaching
effectiveness, and when the subject knew they wanted to become a teacher. Grade
taught, credential status, length of teaching experience, and prior teaching experience
(if any) were verified with each district.
Personal Characteristics
The investigations around teacher personal characteristics have included a
variety of instruments measuring personal characteristics or personality “types.” As
a result, the findings have generally not been comparable among the studies.
University of Southern California (TJSO Teacher Characteristics Survey. Form 797st
Personal characteristics were determined through the University of Southern
California (USC) Teacher Characteristics Survey, Form 797st (Baker, et al., 1998).
This survey was designed to identify differential characteristics of pre-professional
student teachers and teachers who had successfully completed one or more years of
teaching. It was selected for the current study due to its strong connection with the
FFM, and the applicability to the subject population (new teachers).
The original survey consisted of 68 items, many of which were heavily
influenced by Clifton & Nelson (1990), who identified nine personal “themes” or
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reappearing patterns of behavior in specified settings that were hypothesized to be
associated with “expert” teachers. They were further influenced by the FFM (Fiske,
1949; Costa & McCrae, 1992; John, 1990).
Each item utilized a Likert five-point scale, from Strongly Disagree to
Strongly Agree. Subjects were asked to indicate the extent to which each statement
accurately described them. The initial form was designed to provide insight into
those characteristics that might be useful when making professional choices for
students and their academic advisors. The original sample of students included both
teacher education majors and non-majors.
The present form, 797st, was designed to identify differential characteristics
of pre-professional student teachers who had recently completed their final semester
of student teaching and were about to enter their first year of teaching. Of the
original 68 items, 42 were selected to ensure that the general characteristics being
sampled were embedded in an education context. These items were subjected to a
principal components factor analysis. Three reliable factors were identified, which
were transformed into rating scales. These scales were consistent with both the FFM
(Costa & McCrae, 1992) and the “theme” theory (Clifion & Nelson, 1990). The
scales were labeled: Scale 1, Efficacious and Confident; Scale 2, Conscientious and
Responsible; and Scale 3, Collaborative and Team Player. The items appear to
reflect “types of people” as opposed to single “themes” or personality characteristics.
All three scales were used in the present study. Reliabilities for these three scales in
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the current study mirrored the original study, and are presented in Table 1. As a
result, no factor analysis was conducted.
Table 1. Alpha Reliabilities of the USC Teacher Characteristics Survey, Form 797st.
Scale Alpha Scale Title
1 .82 Efficacious and Confident
2 .82 Conscientious and Responsible
3 .86 Collaborative and Team Player
Each item was assigned to the scale on which it had its highest correlation. The
intercorrelations of the three scales ranged from r = 54 between Scale 2
(Conscientious and Responsible) and Scale 3 (Collaborative and Team Player) to r =
59 between Scale 1 (Efficacious and Confident) and Scale 3 (Collaborative and
Team Player). As expected, there was considerable collinearity among items and
scales.
School Status Survey. Experimental Form 997
Since Form 797st has a high degree of social desirability, the Overall School
(Program) Performance and Effectiveness (OSE) scale from the School Status
Survey, Experimental Form 997 was included in the questionnaire (Baker &
Matakovich, 1999). It was posited that the responses on this survey would be a more
accurate reflection of the environment in which the subjects worked, and the
respondents’ perceptions of that environment.
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This instrument is an outgrowth of a doctoral dissertation which used the
California Distinguished School criteria and the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges standards as the bases for examining staff participation in school reform
and improvement efforts. The original survey, developed in 1995-96, was based on
the CDE Distinguished High Schools’ Scoring Rubric. It was administered to all
secondary school faculty in a California Central Coast school district.
Approximately 400 staff participated. The pilot project revealed that staff felt the
survey was too lengthy, taking over one hour to complete, and that many
descriptions in the items were too general, abstract, and not easily understood.
The current version of the School Status Survey is a reconstruction of the
original, developed in 1997-98, with a reduced number of items. The wording was
also edited for increased clarity. The initial sample used in its development
consisted of two high schools in a unified school district in California’s Central
Coast. The socioeconomic status of the two schools was similar, and above the state
average.
The scoring procedure utilized a Likert numeric value system, assigning a
value between one and five for each item response. The original 72 items and 13
criterion areas were reduced to six scales. Alpha reliability coefficients were
computed for each of five scales. The sixth dimension was eliminated due to the
limited number (two) of items. The magnitude of the remaining five scales’ alpha
reliabilities were adequate for most purposes, ranging from .75 to .83.
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The items were also subjected to an exploratory principal component factor
analysis, in an attempt to identify empirically the underlying dimensions as
perceived by the sample group of teachers. When the scales and their member items
were identified, each scale was subjected to a test of internal-consistency reliability.
The reliabilities ranged from .82 to .85, which is well above the level required for
this type of analysis. As a result, the number of items necessary to use in the
analyses was reduced from 71 to 48. Four empirically derived factor-based scales
emerged from this analysis. Only one scale, the Overall School (Program)
Performance and Effectiveness, was used in the current study.
The results from the current study were subjected to a reliability analysis, and
resulted in r = 92 which is the same level of the originally developed scale. As a
result, there was no need to do a factor analysis.
Job Satisfaction
Findings in the current body of research support both the Situational and
Dispositional models of job satisfaction. Items pertaining to the characteristics of the
job were the focus of this portion of the questionnaire. Characteristics, or the
disposition, of the respondents was elicited through both the Overall School
Effectiveness scale from the School Status Survey, Experimental Form 997 and the
USC Teacher Characteristics Survey, Form 797st.
Perceptions of job satisfaction were obtained through a survey similar to that
used by Rydell, et al. (1986) (see Appendix A). In addition to the selections from the
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Rydell et al. (1986) survey, other items were developed based on findings in the
literature. Subjects indicated the degree to which each factor contributed to their
current level of job satisfaction on a Likert five point scale, with 1 indicating Great
Dissatisfaction to 5 representing Great Satisfaction. The twenty-six items reflected
factors such as working conditions, and helping children or young people.
Methods
This was a quantitative study using a correlational design involving 13 school
districts and one BTSA consortium. A survey, including items related to individual
demographic and process information, personal characteristics and job satisfaction
was administered to all first year emergency and fully credentialed teachers and a
sample of veteran teachers. The superintendents of the participating districts and the
BTSA consortium director were contacted and permission and support to conduct the
study using their district information was obtained.
Once superintendent permission and support was received, a database from
each district of all their first year K-3 credentialed teachers, including their school
assignment, was obtained. For those districts with policies prohibiting the release of
teacher names, district personnel kept the database.
Upon receipt of the database, a cover letter informing each teacher of the
study (and their district’s support, and how it will help future teachers) was mailed,
along with a copy of the survey and a pre-addressed stamped envelope for the return
of the survey. A copy of the letter was sent to the site principal as well. For nine
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districts, the letter was co-signed by the district superintendent, indicating his support
of the study. One superintendent wrote personal notes to his new teachers,
encouraging participation. Two of the districts had an assistant superintendent co
sign the letter. District letterhead was used with three districts. The county
superintendent co-signed the letter for two districts. A pencil was included in the
mailing, as a token of appreciation for completing the questionnaire. A flyer was
also placed in the mailing, indicating that the name and/or number of all respondents
would be placed in a drawing for a $100 certificate to the restaurant or store of the
winner's choice. A coding system was devised so that the investigator knew who
returned the packet and who did not, yet still preserved anonymity. The cover letter,
explaining the study, indicated a deadline for receipt of the questionnaires.
One district required that the questionnaires be sent to the teachers' home
address after school adjourned in June. Another district provided the questionnaires
and a database of the new teachers to their elementary principals at a regularly
scheduled meeting. Those principals then took the questionnaires to their school,
and asked their new teachers to complete the survey. All other districts sent the
questionnaire through district mail. Follow-up packets were mailed after the
deadline with a letter encouraging participation, providing another deadline (and
another pencil).
When an incomplete questionnaire was received, the incomplete portion was
copied, highlighted and resent to the respondent with a cover letter indicating the
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need for the highlighted information. An addressed, stamped envelope for the return
of the incomplete portion was included.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were compiled for individual demographics, process
variables and general and specific retention factors. A Chi-square analysis was
conducted on the demographic and process factors in order to compare the
emergency credentialed new teachers with the credentialed ones. The same analyses
were performed to compare the beginning teachers with their experienced
counterparts on the same factors. In order to determine how the ten scales were
related to one another, a Pearson product-moment correlation analysis was
performed for the entire study population as well as for each subgroup (veteran
teachers, novice teachers, first year clear credentialed and beginning emergency
credentialed teachers) and the results analyzed.
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine
significant differences between preliminary/clear and emergency credentialed first
year K-3 general education teachers in selected process variables, all ten scales, and
overall job satisfaction. A two-way ANOVA was also conducted to determine if
there were significant interactions on the ten scales based on a selected process
variable (e.g., perception of teaching effectiveness) and teaching experience.
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Assumptions
The responses from the surveyed first year and veteran K-3 general education
teachers were assumed to be representative of the general population of first year and
experienced K-3 general education teachers.
Limitations
Only first year teachers in general education grades K-3 were targeted in this
study. Thus, the findings may not be generalizeable to all new general education
teachers, or even those in elementary schools.
The vast majority of these new teachers were experiencing their first year of
teaching with smaller classes, of twenty or less. Some, however, did not have a
reduced class size. The experiences of the two groups may not be comparable.
The thirteen districts served 204,395 pupils during the 1997-98 school year
(CDE, 1998), and they represented both suburban and urban districts, as well as the
full range of socioeconomic status. Since no rural districts participated in the study,
the findings may not be applicable to teachers in rural settings.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to collect and analyze characteristics of first
year teachers, regardless of credential status in the areas o f individual demographic
and process variables, personal characteristics, job satisfaction, and retention factors.
The results of the study provided differential characteristics of first year emergency
credentialed teachers, as compared with their fully credentialed counterparts in the
designated areas. The study also identified similarities and differences between first
year and experienced teachers on the same variables.
Mortality of Subjects
A total of 511 questionnaires were sent to beginning teachers in 13 school
districts and one BTSA consortium. The questionnaires were mailed over a three-
month period, from March through June, 1999. Of the 511 originally sent out, 231
were delivered to teachers’ home addresses using the United States mail, and 280
were sent to teachers at their school site via district mail. The U.S. Post Office
returned six questionnaires as undeliverable, leaving 225 actually delivered to
teachers’ homes by U.S. mail, and a total of 505 possible participants.
Of the 505 possible respondents, 261 were received by August 1999 for an
overall return rate of 52%. Of the districts surveyed, the highest return rate was
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100% for the three small districts with one or two new teachers. Two of these
districts were suburban and one was urban. After those small districts, the next
highest return rate was 82% (20 out of 22), from a medium-sized urban district. The
lowest return rate was 41% for two urban districts: one medium sized (18 out of 44)
and one large (94 out of 225).
There were a total of 17 surveys returned which were not eligible to
participate in the study. The majority of the ineligible surveys indicated current
assignments in areas or grades other than K-3 general education or that they were not
fully completed. Additional 63 respondents indicated and were verified as having
more than one year of teaching experience. These respondents were determined to
be veteran teachers. As a result, 181 of the original 505 surveys were useable for the
initial part of the study (differences between clear and emergency credentialed first
year teachers), for an adjusted return rate of 36%. A total o f 244 surveys were used
in the study, for an overall adjusted return rate of 48%.
Of the useable 181 surveys from first year teachers, 92 held emergency
credentials, 88 held either a preliminary or clear credential, and one could not be
determined. Among the experienced teachers, 36 held emergency credentials and 26
had either a preliminary or clear credential. One teacher’s credential could not be
verified, for a total of 63 veteran teachers. Due to the significant number of
experienced teachers who returned the questionnaire, it was decided to include these
respondents in the study, and to compare their responses with those o f first year
teachers in the same areas being examined originally with just novice teachers.
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Job Satisfaction Scales Development
Twenty-six items related to job satisfaction were developed from a review of
the literature. Since no technical history existed for these 26 items, a factor analysis
was conducted to determine if it was possible to create some reliable scales that
would accurately reflect the dimensions of job satisfaction.
As part of this study, the items were administered to 244 new and
experienced teachers. The responses to the 26 job satisfaction items were entered
into a factor analysis. Four substantive areas of job satisfaction emerged from the
analysis:
1. Collegial and Administrative Support— the kind and amount of support teachers
received from both their principal and their teaching peers (alpha = .84).
2. Parent and Student Relationships— the interactions teachers had with both their
pupils and the parents of their students (alpha = .77).
3. Time Demands and Stress— the amount of time demanded by teaching and the
amount of stress generated by the job (alpha = .83).
4. Job Security and Fringe Benefits— the security of a teaching job, along with the
pay and benefits it provided (alpha = .71).
The instrument (see Appendix A) consisted of 26 questions related to job
satisfaction. Each scale was comprised of between four and seven items. A Likert
format was used (i.e., Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree or Strongly
Agree) to which points 1,2, 3,4, or 5 were assigned respectively.
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Each item was assigned to the scale on which it had its highest correlation.
The inter-correlations o f the four scales ranged from r = 24 between Scale 2 and
Scale 3, and r = 42 between Scale 1 and Scale 4. As expected, there was
considerable colinearity among items and scales.
Reasons for Leaving Teaching Scales Development
Eight items related to why teachers might leave the profession were
developed from a review of the literature, and reflected issues related to general
employment conditions (such as class size and amount of materials provided) and
professional concerns, including amount of support and teacher politics.
The items were administered to 244 new and experienced teachers. The
instrument (see Appendix A) consisted of eight questions related to conditions which
might lead to teacher attrition. Each scale was comprised of four items. A Likert
format was used (i.e., A Little, Somewhat, Neutral, Quite a Bit, or A Lot) to which
points 1,2, 3,4, or 5 were assigned respectively.
No technical history existed for these eight items. As a result, these items
were subjected to a principal components factor to determine if it was possible to
create some reliable scales which would accurately reflect the dimensions around
teacher attrition.
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Two substantive areas of job satisfaction emerged from the analysis:
1. Professional Concerns— concerns teachers have regarding aspects of their
profession, such as teacher politics and administrative feedback and support
(alpha = .84).
2. Internal Conditions— concerns teachers have around resources, students, parents,
and class size (alpha = .78).
Each item was assigned to the scale on which it had its highest correlation.
The inter-correlation of the two scales was r = 46. As expected, there was
considerable colinearity among items and scales.
Study Population
Descriptive Statistics
The responses of the study population were analyzed using descriptive
statistics for the individual demographic and process variables, scales and retention
factors.
individual Demographic and Process Variables
Table 2 presents a summary of the entire study population of 244 teachers by
selected demographic and process variables. As a group, these teachers were young
(65% were under 30), ethnically diverse, and new to the teaching profession. A large
majority had a mentor or coach assigned to them, and most felt adequately prepared
to teach. Slightly fewer, but still a majority (69%) felt that their teaching was
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effective. Nearly three-fourths were satisfied with teaching in general, and with their
current teaching assignment.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Demographic and Process Variables.
Study Population
Factor N Percent
1. Age
20-24 51 20.9
25-29 108 44.3
30-35 34 13.9
36-39 22 9.0
over 40 29 11.9
Total 244 100.0
2. Ethnicity
Non-white 120 49.2
White 123 50.4
Missing 1 .4
Total 244 100.0
3. Highest Degree Earned
BA 197 80.7
MA/MS 46 18.9
Missing 1 .4
Total 244 100.0
4. Credential
Emergency 128 52.5
Preliminary 61 25.0
Clear 53 21.7
Missing 2 .8
Total 244 100.0
5. Grade Level Assigned
Kindergarten 61 25.0
1st 60 24.6
2nd
44 18.0
3rd 58 23.8
Combination 19 7.8
Missing 2 .8
Total 244 100.0
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Table 2. (continued)
Factor N Percent
6. EHE Attending/Attended
Community college 147 60.2
Vocational education institution 11 4.5
CSU 175 71.7
UC 58 23.8
Private college or university 95 38.9
7. Length of Teaching Experience
12 months of less 181 74.2
Over one year 63 35.8
Total 244 100.0
8. Mentor or Coach Assigned
Yes 194 79.5
No 50 20.5
Total 244 100.0
9. Perception of Adequately Prepared
to Teach
Somewhat prepared (1-3) 63 25.8
Adequately prepared (4-5) 181 74.2
Total 244 100.0
10. Perception of Teaching Effectiveness
Effective (a) 168 68.9
Somewhat effective (b-c) 76 31.1
Total 244 100.0
11. Satisfaction with Present Teaching
Position
Not Satisfied (1-3) 70 28.7
Satisfied (4-5) 174 71.3
Total 244 100.0
12. Satisfaction with Teaching in General
Not Satisfied (1-3) 67 27.5
Satisfied (4-5) 176 72.1
Missing 1 .4
Total 244 100.0
Scales
The frequency, mean score, and standard deviation for each scale used in
study is presented in Table 3. For ease of interpretation, the five point Likert
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numeration for each scale was converted to a standardized scale score with 50
indicating a 5.0,45 reflecting a 4.5, etc.
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Scales.
Study Population (N = 244)
Scale Mean S.D.
Overall School Effectiveness (OSE) 36.4 7.6
Personal Characteristics
Efficacious and Confident (EAC) 37.3 5.3
Conscientious and Responsible (CAR) 42.5 5.3
Collaborative and Team Player (CTP) 42.8 5.3
Job Satisfaction
Collegial and Administrative Support (CAS) 36.2 8.7
Student and Parent Relations (SPR) 40.0 6.5
Time Demands and Stress (TDS) 26.8 9.0
Job Securitv and Fringe Benefits (JSFB) 36.5 7.5
Reasons to Leave Teaching
Professional Concerns (PC) 31.6 10.3
Internal Conditions (IC) 26.9 10.3
The ‘Overall School Effectiveness’ shows that the higher the mean, the
higher the perceived effectiveness of the individual school. On the ‘Personal
Characteristics’ scales, the higher the mean, the higher the characteristic is perceived
to be present. For the ‘Job Satisfaction’ scales, the higher the mean, the higher the
level of satisfaction with that factor. And finally, for the ‘Reasons to Leave
Teaching’ scales, the higher the mean, the more likely that factor would lead a
teacher to leave education.
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As a group, the respondents perceived their school to be generally effective,
and themselves as efficacious, conscientious and collaborative. They were the most
satisfied with their relations with students and parents, and the least satisfied with the
time demands of teaching. Professional concerns were more likely to lead them to
leave education than were internal teaching conditions.
Teacher Retention
Factors related to the retention of teachers were also examined using
descriptive statistics (see Appendix A, Table 1). The overwhelming majority (79%)
of these teachers intend to remain in teaching until retirement. A smaller majority
(57%) hopes to become master teachers. Only 23% indicated an interest in
administration, leaving the remaining 77% planning to remain in the classroom in
some capacity.
Of the individual factors which might lead a teacher to leave education,
teacher politics was the aspect of least satisfaction, closely followed by the amount
of administrative support (see Appendix A, Table 2). Parent attitudes, student
behaviors, class size, amount of materials/equipment, and level of control over those
materials were not major factors in teacher attrition.
Scale Correlations
A Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was performed on all ten scales to
determine if any of the scales were correlated, and if so, if those correlations were
significant. Twenty-three positive correlations emerged at the p < .001 level of
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significance and four positive correlations at the p < .01 level. There were no
significant negative correlations between scales. These relationships are summarized
in Table 4.
The scales measuring perceptions of school effectiveness (OSE), personal
characteristics (EAC, CAR, CTP) and job satisfaction (CAS, SPR, TDS, JSFB) were
all highly correlated with one another. There was no significant correlation between
Collegial and Administrative Support and Efficacious and Confident, the one
exception. The two Reasons to Leave Teaching scales were highly correlated with
each other, but with no other scale.
Table 4. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by Scales.
Study Population
Scale EAC CAR CTP OSE CAS SPR TDS JSFB PC IC
EAC 1.000
CAR .5574** 1.000
CI'P .5921** .5599** 1.000
OSE .1890* .3705** .2819** 1.000
CAS .0374 .2442** .2808** .6076** 1.000
SPR .1731* .3513** .3155** .1939* .2315** 1.000
TDS .3008** .3988** .3004** .3240* .4087** .2847** 1.000
JSFB .1188 .2270** .3152** .4601 •• .4704** .2427** .3817** 1.000
PC .0108 -.0590 .0151 -.0890 -.1333 .0643 -.1673 -.0365 1.000
1C -.1572 -.0734 -.1106 .0950 .0769 -.1150 -.0814 -.0202 .445 1.000
N = 206
* 1 -tailed significance: .01
** 1 -tailed significance: .001
The Overall School Effectiveness scale was highly correlated with all three of
the Personal Characteristics scales. The relationship between OSE and Efficacious
and Confident was slightly weaker than with the other two scales. The way a teacher
69
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viewed their school was correlated with the way they saw their own personal
characteristics.
A similar relationship emerged among the three Personal Characteristics
scales. Each scale was all highly correlated with the other two. Thus, how teachers
rated themselves on one scale was strongly related to how they perceived themselves
on the other two scales.
The majority of the Job Satisfaction scales were strongly correlated with
OSE, the three Personal Characteristics scales, and among each other. The single
exception was for Collegial and Administrative Support, and Efficacious and
Confident, which demonstrated no significant correlation. The relationships between
Student and Parent Relations and OSE, and with EAC, were slightly weaker than the
other correlations. Time Demands and Stress was also only correlated with OSE at
the g < .01 level. The level of a teacher's job satisfaction on one aspect or another
was correlated to the way they view their school and themselves, as well as to other
aspects of job satisfaction.
Since the Reasons to Leave Teaching scales were only significantly
correlated with each other, this indicated that a teacher’s view of professional
concerns was related to their view of internal conditions.
Analysis o f Variance
A one-way ANOVA was conducted on a number of individual demographic
and process variables, including age, degree, assignment of a mentor, perception of
70
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teaching effectiveness, and satisfaction with teaching in general. There were no
significant findings for age, credential or degree attained.
Mentor Assigned
The assignment of a mentor had a significant correlation with the satisfaction
teachers indicated with the professional support they received. Those teachers who
had a mentor teacher or coach assigned to them were satisfied with their collegial
and administrative support to a greater extent than did those who did not have a
mentor assigned to them (M = 37, SD = 8 and M = 33, SD = 10 with p < .05).
Perception of * Prepared to Teach*
A teacher’s perception of being prepared to teach was significantly correlated
with eight of the ten scales used in this study. This finding is summarized in Tables
5 and 6.
Those teachers who felt prepared to teach rated the effectiveness of their
school higher than those who did not feel adequately prepared to teach. All three of
the ‘Personal Characteristics’ scales were significantly correlated with feeling
adequately prepared to teach. Those teachers who felt adequately prepared to teach
rated themselves as significantly more ‘Efficacious’ and more ‘Conscientious’ than
those who felt less adequately prepared to teach. The correlation was less strong, but
still significant between feeling prepared to teach and rating oneself as
‘Collaborative’. When the respondent feels more prepared to teach, the higher the
rating on the ‘Collaborative and Team Player’ scale.
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Table 5. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception o f ‘Prepared to Teach’.
Study Population
Scale Group N M SD
Overall School Effectiveness
Not Much
Very Much
Total
62
175
237
33.6228
37.4110
36.4200
6.8808
7.5685
7.5667
Efficacious and Confident
Not Much
Very Much
Total
63
181
244
34.7302
38.1768
37.2869
5.5422
4.9218
5.2977
Conscientious and Responsible
Not Much
Very Much
Total
63
181
244
39.6825
43.4254
42.4590
5.1111
4.9846
5.2691
Collaborative and Team Player
Not Much
Very Much
Total
63
181
244
41.4462
43.1983
42.7459
5.2064
5.2374
5.2749
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Not Much
Very Much
Total
61
174
235
33.7158
37.0019
36.1489
8.4074
8.7037
8.7301
Student and Parent Relations
Not Much
Very Much
Total
61
177
238
39.9727
40.0000
39.9930
5.8886
6.6714
6.4677
Time Demands and Stress
Not Much
Very Much
Total
62
172
234
24.5968
27.5581
26.7735
8.7332
8.9179
8.9470
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Not Much
Very Much
Total
62
178
240
34.7177
37.1770
36.5417
6.6392
7.6284
7.4506
Professional Concerns
Not Much
Very Much
Total
61
166
227
34.5492
30.4970
31.5859
8.8448
10.6359
10.3247
Internal Conditions
Not Much
Very Much
Total
61
167
228
28.1148
26.4820
26.9189
9.5923
10.5324
10.2940
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Table 6. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of Prepared to Teach.
Study Population
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
656.9587
12855.2476
13512.2063
1
235
236
656.9587
54.7032
12.01**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
555.1628
6264.7552
6819.9180
1
242
243
555.1628
25.8874
21.45**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
654.6963
6091.8939
6746.5902
1
242
243
654.6963
25.1931
26.01**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
143.4610
6618.0195
6761.4805
1
242
243
143.4610
27.3472
5.246**
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
487.7132
17346.5185
17834.2317
1
233
234
487.7132
74.4486
6.55*
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.0339
9913.8434
9913.8772
1
236
237
.0339
42.0078
.001
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
399.6578
18251.8380
18651.4957
1
232
233
399.6578
78.6717
5.08*
Job Security and Fringe
Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
278.0973
12988.9860
13267.0833
1
238
239
278.0973
54.5756
5.1*
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
732.4739
23359.1010
24091.5749
1
225
226
732.4739
103.8182
7.06**
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
119.1061
23935.1428
24054.2489
1
226
227
119.1061
105.9077
1.13
* E < 05
** E < .01
Three of the four Job Satisfaction scales were significantly correlated to a
teacher’s perception of being adequately prepared to teach. Those who felt
adequately prepared to teach were more satisfied with their Collegial and
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Administrative Support, the Time Demands of the job, and Job Security and Fringe
Benefits. There was no significant finding for Student and Parent Relations. The
Job Satisfaction correlations were the weakest of the significant findings.
Of the ‘Reasons to Leave’ scales, only Professional Concerns was
significantly related to feeling adequately prepared to teach. Those teachers who felt
adequately prepared were less likely to indicate that Professional Concerns would
lead them to leave the profession than those who felt only somewhat prepared to
teach.
Perception o f Teaching Effectiveness
There were seven significant findings when looking at perceptions of
teaching effectiveness. These are presented in Tables 7 and 8.
Those teachers who perceived their teaching to be effective were more likely
to judge their school as effective and themselves as efficacious, conscientious, and
team players than their counterparts who perceived their teaching to be somewhat
effective. Those “effective” teachers were also more likely to be satisfied with their
relations with students and parents as well as the time demands of the job than their
“somewhat effective” peers. A similar, but slightly weaker relationship existed
around satisfaction with internal teaching conditions: “somewhat effective” teachers
were more dissatisfied with internal teaching conditions than the “effective”
educators.
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Table 7. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception of Effectiveness of Teaching.
Study Population
Scale Group N M SD
Overall School Effectiveness
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
164
72
236
37.2702
34.5406
36.4374
7.7582
6.8293
7.5780
Efficacious and Confident
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
168
74
242
38.4686
34.5946
37.2840
4.6824
4.8570
5.0535
Conscientious and Responsible
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
168
75
243
43.4656
39.8074
42.3365
5.1499
5.1093
5.3993
Collaborative and Team Player
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
168
75
243
43.8155
40.6933
42.8519
4.9411
5.0830
5.1805
Collegial and Administrative Support
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
160
74
234
36.5729
35.4505
36.2179
8.6517
8.7642
8.6843
Student and Parent Relations
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
163
74
237
40.7975
38.1982
39.9859
6.3135
6.5268
6.4804
Time Demands and Stress
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
159
74
233
27.7201
24.8311
26.8026
8.5424
9.5474
8.9552
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
165
74
239
36.6364
36.4527
36.5795
7.7186
6.8372
7.4431
Professional Concerns
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
156
70
226
31.3141
32.1429
31.5708
10.1419
10.8371
10.3451
Internal Conditions
Effective
Somewhat Effect.
Total
158
69
227
26.0601
28.8768
26.9163
10.2255
10.3304
10.3166
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Table 8. One-way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of Teaching Effectiveness.
Study Population
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
372.780
13122.433
13495.224
I
234
235
372.780
56.079
6.647**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
770.991
5383.534
6154.515
t
240
241
770.991
22.431
34.371**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
693.904
6360.945
7054.849
1
241
242
693.904
26.394
26.290**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
505.440
5989.226
6494.667
1
241
242
505.440
24.852
20.338**
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
63.750
17508.579
17572.329
1
232
233
63.750
75.468
.845
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
343.874
9567.190
9911.064
1
235
236
343.874
40.711
8.447**
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
421.484
18183.934
18605.418
I
231
232
421.484
78.718
5.354**
Job Security and Fringe
Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1.723
13183.266
13184.990
I
237
238
1.723
55.626
.031
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
33.187
24046.680
24079.867
1
224
225
33.187
107.351
.309
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
381.028
23672.882
24053.910
1
225
226
381.028
105.213
3.621*
*p<.05
**B<.01
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Satisfaction with Teaching in General
There were eight significant findings when looking at overall satisfaction
with teaching. These are summarized in Tables 9 and 10.
Table 9. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching.
Study Population
Scale Group N M SD
Overall School Effectiveness
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
67
169
236
33.7199
37.5558
36.4668
7.6322
72537
7.5484
Efficacious and Confident
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
67
175
242
34.5590
38.3221
37.2802
5.6872
4.3842
5.0579
Conscientious and Responsible
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
67
176
243
39.0216
43.6237
42.3548
5.5607
4.7483
5.3837
Collaborative and Team Player
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
67
176
243
40.4925
43.7614
42.8601
5.3495
4.8214
5.1727
Collegial and Administrative Support
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
64
170
234
32.7083
37.4314
36.1396
9.0973
8.2771
8.7476
Student and Parent Relations
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
66
171
237
36.7172
41.2378
39.9789
7.4820
5.5787
6.4777
Time Demands and Stress
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
64
169
233
22.0313
28.6538
26.8348
8.2960
8.4779
8.9170
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
66
173
239
35.0379
37.1243
36.5481
6.7865
7.6489
7.4655
Professional Concerns
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
63
163
226
33.5317
30.8589
31.6040
9.2090
10.6841
10.3440
Internal Conditions
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
61
166
227
26.9672
26.8976
26.9163
9.9699
10.4707
10.3166
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Table 10. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching Study Population.
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
705.965
12683.946
13389.911
1
234
235
705.965
54.205
13.02**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
686.086
5479.190
6165.276
1
240
241
686.086
22.830
30.05**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1027.799
5986.447
7014.246
1
241
242
1027.799
24.840
41.38**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
518.519
5956.724
6475.243
1
241
242
518.519
24.717
20.9**
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1037.185
16792.255
17829.440
1
232
233
1037.185
72.380
14.33**
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
973.179
8929.494
9902.672
1
235
236
973.179
37.998
25.61**
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
2035.951
16410.938
18446.888
1
231
232
2035.951
71.043
28.66**
Job Security and Fringe
Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
207.963
13056.733
13264.697
1
237
238
207.963
55.092
3.78*
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
324.615
23750.191
24074.806
1
224
225
324.615
106.028
3.06
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.216
24053.693
24053.910
1
225
226
.216
106.905
.00
* g < .05
** g < .01
Those teachers who were satisfied in general with teaching were more likely
to rate their school as effective and themselves as efficacious, conscientious and
collaborative than their dissatisfied peers. Teachers who were satisfied with the
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profession were also more likely to be satisfied with the support they received from
colleagues and administrators, their relations with students and parents, the time
demands of teaching, and the benefits of their job than those educators who were
dissatisfied with teaching. There was no significant interaction between satisfaction
with the profession and neither of the ‘Reasons to Leave’ scales.
The study population of teachers was generally young, ethnically diverse,
new to teaching, had a mentor assigned, felt adequately prepared to teach, perceived
their teaching to be effective and were satisfied with teaching in general. This group
of teachers judged their schools to be effective and themselves to be efficacious,
conscientious and collaborative. They were the most satisfied with their relations
with students and parents, and the least satisfied with the time demands and stress of
teaching. Professional concerns were more likely to lead them to leave the
profession than the internal teaching conditions. As a group, these teachers intended
to remain in teaching until they retired, and most planned to become master teachers.
They were generally not interested in going into administration. Of possible 45
correlations between scales, this group of teachers’ responses resulted in 27 positive
correlations. In general, the OSE, ‘Personal Characteristics’ and ‘Job Satisfaction’
scales were all significantly associated with one another. The ‘Reasons to Leave’
scales were correlated with each other only.
The assignment o f a mentor was significantly related to satisfaction with
professional support (CAS). Perception of being adequately prepared to teach was
notably related to all except for relations with students and parents, and internal
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teaching conditions. A teacher’s perception of the effectiveness o f their practice
(teaching) was significantly associated with their scores on seven of the scales (OSE,
EAC, CAR, CTP, SPR, TDS and IC). Overall satisfaction with teaching was
significantly related to all but the Reasons to Leave scales.
First Year and Veteran Teacher Findings
The group of 244 teachers included in this study was divided by teaching
experience into two groups— first year teachers and veterans. Veterans included
those teachers with more than one year of teaching experience regardless of
credential status. When broken out in this manner, there were 181 novice and 63
experienced teachers. The same research questions, proposed in Chapter 1 for first
year emergency and clear credentialed teachers, were used to compare veteran and
novice teachers in the now-expanded study population.
There were significant differences between the first year and veteran teachers
surveyed in all five areas: personal demographics and process variables, perceptions
of school effectiveness, personal characteristics, job satisfaction, and reasons to leave
the profession.
Data Analysis
The responses of both veteran and first year teachers were analyzed using
descriptive statistics for individual demographic and process variables, scales, and
retention factors. A Chi-square test was performed on the individual demographic
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and process variables to determine if there were any significant differences between
the two groups of teachers based on the amount of their teaching experience.
Individual Demographic and Process Variables
An analysis of the individual demographic and process variable statistics was
conducted (see Appendix A, Table 3).
Age
Veteran teachers tended to be somewhat older than first year teachers, a
finding that should surprise no one. The majority of experienced teachers fell in two
age groups: 25-29 and 30-34. The majority of the new teachers were found in the
two youngest age groups: 20-24 and 25-29. This overall category was significant at
the p < .01 level.
Mentor Assigned
A large majority (85%) of first year teachers was assigned a mentor, while a
smaller majority (65%) of veteran teachers had the same support. The significance
of this finding fell at p < .01.
Perceptions o f Teaching Effectiveness
First year teachers were less likely to perceive their teaching as effective than
their more experienced colleagues. Only 64% of new teachers felt their teaching was
effective as compared to over 82% of experienced teachers who indicated that their
teaching was effective. This was highly significant statistically (p < .01).
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Other Factors
There were no significant differences between new and experienced teachers
in ethnicity, degree earned, credential held, grade taught, IHE attended/attending,
feeling adequately prepared to teach, satisfaction with present position, nor
satisfaction with teaching in general. The findings indicate that beginning teachers
differed from experienced teachers in the areas of age, mentor assignment, and
perception of teaching effectiveness.
Scales
A descriptive comparison of veteran and beginning teachers’ responses on all
ten scales is summarized in Table 11. Veteran and new teachers held similar
perceptions of the general effectiveness of the schools where they worked.
Table 11. Descriptive Statistics of Study Scales by Teaching Experience.
First Yea
Teaching Exnerience
i t Veteran
Scale N Mean S.D. N Mean S.D.
Overall School Effectiveness 175 36.5 7.2 62 36.3 8.5
Personal Characteristics
1. Efficacious and Confident 180 36.7 5.0 63 38.9 5.0
2. Conscientious and Responsible 181 42.0 5.5 63 43.4 5.0
3. Collaborative and Team Player 181 42.9 5.1 63 42.8 5.4
Job Satisfaction
I. Collegial and Administrative Support 173 37.1 8.3 62 33.6 9.4
2. Student and Parent Relations 175 39.9 6.5 63 40.2 6.6
3. Time Demands and Stress 172 26.7 9.0 62 26.9 9.0
4. Job Security and Fringe Benefits 177 36.8 7.4 63 35.8 7.7
Reasons to Leave Teaching
1. Professional Concerns 167 31.0 10.5 60 33.3 9.6
2. Internal Conditions 168 27.7 10.3 60 24.8 10.2
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There was little difference between the two groups of teacher on the three
scales reflecting personal characteristics. First year teachers perceived themselves as
slightly less efficacious than their more experienced counterparts. The two groups
were very similar in their perceptions of their level of conscientiousness and
collaboration.
Of the four ‘Job Satisfaction scales’, only one proved to reflect a noticeable
difference between experienced and first year teachers. First year teachers were
more satisfied with the Collegial and Administrative Support that they received than
veteran educators. Both sets of teachers were generally satisfied with their Parent
and Student Relations and slightly less satisfied with their Job Security and Fringe
Benefits. Time Demands and Stress Level was a source of dissatisfaction for both
the experienced and beginning teacher. Thus, the dissatisfaction with the time
requirements and stress of teaching does not decrease with experience.
On the two scales of Reasons to Leave Teaching, there were no significant
differences between veteran and new teachers. The two groups of teachers were
slightly more satisfied with Professional Concerns than they were with Internal
Conditions. There was wide variability in the responses, as indicated in the large
standard deviations on both scales.
These findings indicate that in general, experienced and first year teachers
share the same perceptions of their school, their personal characteristics, factors
influencing job satisfaction, and aspects of teaching, that might lead them to leave
the profession. The single descriptive difference fell in the area of professional
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support: beginning teachers were more satisfied with the support they received from
colleagues and administrators than their more experienced peers.
Teacher Retention
Descriptive statistics were compiled and a Chi-square test performed on all
factors related to teacher retention to determine if there were any significant
differences between veteran and novice teachers. There were no significant
differences between veteran and beginning teachers on general retention factors (see
Appendix A, Table 4). The vast majority of new and veteran teachers in the present
study intended to remain in teaching until they retire (83% and 85% respectively).
There were also no significant differences between the two groups on their future
plans. Again, this is an overwhelming majority plan to remain in the classroom in
some capacity.
O f the individual factors that might lead a teacher to leave the profession,
only class size differed significantly between the two groups (see Appendix A,
Table 5). Class size was a bigger factor that might lead first year teachers to leave
the profession (34%) than it was for veteran teachers (20%). This was significant at
the p < .05 level. None of the other factors differentiated the two groups of teachers.
New teachers were more alike than different from their more experienced
counterparts in the area of teacher retention factors.
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Scale Correlations
A Pearson product-moment correlation was performed on all ten scales using
both veteran teachers and beginning teachers to determine if any of the scales were
correlated, and if so, the degree of that correlation. The majority of the scales were
highly correlated.
The correlations for the experienced teachers were neither as frequent nor as
strong as they were for the new teachers. The correlations are summarized in
Table 12 for the veterans and Table 13 for the beginning teachers.
Table 12. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by
Scale - Veteran Teachers.
Scale EAC CAR CTP OSE CAS SPR TDS JSFB PC IC
EAC 1.000
CAR .4847** 1.000
CTP .654 .5016** 1.000
OSE .1308 .3036* .1163 1.000
CAS .0842 .3206* .1574 .6436** 1.000
SPR .0649 .3359* .3139* .2630 .3165* 1.000
TDS .0682 .2823 .1179 .3201* .5638** .2890 1.000
JSFB .1970 .0902 .2723 .5249** .5142** .1187 .4358** 1.000
PC .1094 .0789 .0296 -.1954 -.1892 -.0124 -.1323 -.0204 1.000
IC .0446 .1354 .0193 .1007 .1756 -.0564 -.0889 .0506 .3289* 1.000
N = 72
* 1 -tailed significance: .01
** 1 -tailed significance: .001
At the p < .001 level of significance, veteran teachers’ responses on the scales
indicated eight high correlations between the scales. There were also seven
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significant correlations at the g < .01 level of significance. There were no significant
negative correlations present.
Overall School Effectiveness was strongly correlated with two Job
Satisfaction scales (Collegial and Administrative Support and Job Satisfaction and
Fringe Benefits,) and to a lesser, yet significant degree with one other Job
Satisfaction (Time Demands and Stress). How an experienced teacher viewed their
school is related to their positive regard toward three job satisfaction aspects
measured in this study. There was no significant correlation between the view of
one’s school effectiveness and satisfaction with student and parent relations.
The three Personal Characteristics scales were all strongly correlated with
each other. Conscientious and Responsible was significantly correlated at a lesser
level with two Job Satisfaction scales: CAS and SPR. A veteran teacher’s view of
one personal characteristic measure was strongly correlated with their ratings on the
other two scales. Their view of their personal characteristics was also related to their
level of job satisfaction in the areas of professional support (CAS) and relationships
with students and parents (SPR).
In addition to the Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction scale
correlations noted above, strong correlations emerged between CAS and Time
Demands and Stress and Job Security and Fringe Benefits, as well as between TDS
and JSFB. The level of satisfaction indicated on professional support (CAS) was
related to the amount of satisfaction with the time demands and the security and
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benefits that accompany teaching. The degree of satisfaction with the stress of the
job was also related to the amount of satisfaction with job benefits.
The only significant finding that emerged with the Reasons to Leave scale
was the correlation between the two scales (Professional Concerns and Internal
Conditions). How a veteran teacher views concerns with the profession was related
to their perception of internal teaching conditions. There were no other significant
correlations for these two scales for experienced teachers.
The picture is somewhat different for first year teachers as a group. There
were many more (19 at g < .001 and 8 at g < .01 for a total of 27) significant positive
correlations for this group than for the veteran teachers, and one negative correlation
(at g < .01) among the ten scales. Beginning teachers mirrored their more
experienced counterparts on 11 correlations and had either stronger or weaker
correlations in another four instances. There were also 12 additional significant
correlations present among the scales for novice teachers. These are all summarized
in Table 13.
For first year teachers, Overall School Effectiveness was correlated to all of
the Personal Characteristics scales and three of the four Job Satisfaction scales. It
was not correlated at any significant level to Collegial and Administrative Support,
nor to either of the scales related to the reasons teachers might leave the profession.
As seen with the veteran teachers, all three Personal Characteristics scales
were strongly correlated with each other. The response of a new teacher to one
aspect of personal characteristics had a high correlation with their perception of the
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other factors. Strong correlations were present between CTP and all four ‘Job
Satisfaction’ scales. A beginning teacher’s perception of their degree of
collaboration was related to their level of satisfaction with all four aspects measured.
CAR had a slightly weaker relationship with CAS. The satisfaction with
professional support (CAR) was related to all other factors of job satisfaction. EAC
only correlated strongly with TDS, and to a lesser extent with SPR. Only the levels
of satisfaction with TDS and SPR appear to be related to a novice teacher’s view of
their efficacy.
Table 13. Pearson Product-Movement Correlation Matrix by Scales - First
Year Teachers.
Scale EAC CAR CTP OSE CAS SPR TDS JSFB PC IC
EAC 1.000
CAR .5802** 1.000
CTP .5936** .5901** 1.000
OSE .2313* .4075** .3591* 1.000
CAS .0745 .2437* .3326** .5970** 1.000
SPR .2221* .3600** .3157** .1612 .1965* 1.000
TDS .3894** .4406** .3735** .3284* .3605** .2834** 1.000
JSFB .1249 .2859** .3274** 4357** .4392** .2883* .3685** 1.000
PC -.0479 -.1143 .0175 -.0407 -.0832 .0947 -.1816 -.0236 1.000
IC -.2106* -.1401 -.1718 .0866 .0027 -.1417 -.0783 -.0083 .5099** 1.000
N = 150
* I-tailed significance: .01 Same as veteran teachers: underlined
* * I -tailed significance: .001 Stronger o r weaker than veteran teachers: italicized
The four scales of Job Satisfaction were all correlated with each other to
some degree. The strongest correlation emerged between: CAS and TDS and JSFB;
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SPR and TDS; and TDS and JSFB. The level of job satisfaction on one factor is
related to the level of satisfaction on another factor for first year teachers.
Professional Concerns and Internal Conditions were significantly correlated
with each other. Internal Conditions demonstrated a negative correlation with EAC.
The more IC would lead a teacher to lead the profession, the lower the perception of
being efficacious.
It is evident that the inter-scale correlations are more frequent and more
significant for first year teachers than they are for those with more than one year of
teaching experience. Perceptions of school effectiveness, ratings on personal
characteristic factors and aspects of job satisfaction are more frequent and highly
correlated for novice teachers than for their more experienced peers.
Analysis of Variance
A one-way ANOVA was conducted on each scale for both first year and
veteran teachers to determine if there were any significant differences between the
two groups. The results are summarized in Tables 14 and IS.
There were two significant differences between veteran and first year
teachers on the scales used in this study. Veteran teachers rated themselves as more
efficacious than did first year teachers. Veteran teachers were also less satisfied with
the support they received from colleagues and administrators than their new
counterparts.
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A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine if
there were any significant interactions between teaching experience and one of four
process factors (having a mentor, feeling prepared to teach, perception of teaching
effectiveness or overall satisfaction with teaching) and the ten scales.
Table 14. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales of
Study Population by Teaching Experience.
Scale Group N M SD
1 5 1 year 175 36.4615 7.2189
Overall School Effectiveness Veteran 62 36.3027 8.5350
Total 237 36.4200 7.5667
I5 * year 181 36.6961 5.2006
Efficacious and Confident Veteran 63 38.9841 5.2471
Total 244 37.2869 5.2977
Is * year 181 42.1105 5.3280
Conscientious and Responsible Veteran 63 43.4603 5.0027
Total 244 42.4590 5.2691
I “ year 181 42.7686 5.2137
Collaborative and Team Player Veteran 63 42.6808 5.4893
Total 244 42.7459 5.2749
1 “ year 173 37.0713 8.3040
Collegial and Administrative Veteran 62 33.5753 9.4225
Support Total 235 36.1489 8.7301
I “ year 175 39.9238 6.4446
Student and Parent Relations Veteran 63 40.1852 6.5795
Total 238 39.9930 6.4677
I “ year 172 26.7151 8.9693
Time Demands and Stress Veteran 62 26.9355 8.9559
Total 234 26.7735 8.9470
l“ year 177 36.7938 7.3659
Job Security and Fringe Benefits Veteran 63 35.8333 7.6990
Total 240 36.5417 7.4506
1 “ year 167 30.9731 10.5277
Professional Concerns Veteran 60 33.2917 9.6165
Total 227 31.5859 10.3247
1 “ year 168 27.6637 10.2482
Internal Conditions Veteran 60 24.8333 10.2187
Total 228 26.9189 10.2940
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Table 15. One-way ANOVA of Scales of Study Population by
Teaching Experience.
Scale Sum of
Squares
Mean
Squares
df F
Ratio
F
Prob.
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1.1546
13511.0517
13512.2063
1.1546
57.4938
I
235
236
.02 .8874
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
244.6466
6575.2714
6819.9180
244.6466
27.1705
1
242
243
9.00 .0030
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
85.1493
6661.4408
6746.5902
85.1493
27.5266
I
242
243
3.09 .0799
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.3602
6761.1203
6761.4805
.3602
27.9385
1
242
243
.01 .9097
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
557.8511
17276.3806
17834.2317
557.8511
74.1476
1
233
234
7.52 .0066
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
3.1647
9910.7125
9913.8772
3.1647
41.9945
1
236
237
.08 .7839
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
2.2131
18649.2826
18651.4957
2.2131
80.3848
1
232
233
.03 .8684
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
42.8602
13224.2232
13267.0833
42.8602
55.5640
1
238
239
.77 .3807
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
237.3003
23854.2746
24091.5749
237.3003
106.0190
I
225
226
2.24 .1360
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
354.1671
23700.0818
24054.2489
354.1671
104.8676
1
226
227
3.38 .0674
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Mentor assigned
There were no significant interactions between teaching experience and
having (or not having) a mentor assigned on any of the ten scales.
Perception o f 4 Prepared to Teach *
There was one significant interaction between feeling prepared to teach and
amount of teaching experience on one of the scales: Internal Conditions. This
finding is presented in Tables 16 and 17 and Figure 1.
Table 16. Two -Way ANOVA of Internal Conditions Scale by
Perception of ‘Prepared to Teach’ and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Source SS df MS F Significance
Main Effects 288.586 2 144.293 1.41 .248
Teaching Experience 242.587 1 242.587 2.36 .126
Prepared to Teach 33.609 1 33.609 .33 .568
2-wav Interactions
Teaching Experience 517.148 1 517.148 5.03 .026
Prepared to Teach
Explained 805.734 3 268.578 2.61 .052
Residual 21676.825 211 102.734
Total 22482.558 214 105.059
Missing cases: 29 (11.9%)
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Table 17. Mean Scores on Internal Conditions Scale by
Perception of ‘Prepared to Teach’ and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Internal Conditions Scale Scores
Percention of Prepared to Teach
Teaching Experience Somewhat Prepared Very Prepared
First Year 29.43 26.54
Number 44 112
Veteran 20.77 26.09
Number 13 46
Figure 1. Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching Experience and
Prepared to Teach on Internal Conditions Scale.
Prepared Somewhat
Prepared
Level of Preparedness
Veteran teachers who felt somewhat prepared to teach indicated that Internal
Conditions were not likely to lead them to leave the profession. Experienced
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teachers who did feel prepared to teach indicated that those same Internal Conditions
were more likely to lead them to leave teaching.
The opposite was true for the first year teachers. Beginning teachers who felt
somewhat prepared to teach indicated that Internal Conditions were more likely lead
them to leave the profession than those novice teachers who felt adequately prepared
to teach.
Perception o f Teaching Effectiveness
One significant interaction between teaching experience and a teacher’s
perception of the effectiveness of their practice emerged on Overall School
Effectiveness. This finding is summarized in Tables 18 and 19 and Figure 2.
Table 18. Two -Way ANOVA of Overall School Effectiveness Scale by
Perception of Teaching Effectiveness and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Source SS df MS F Significance
Main Effects 381.911 2 190.956 3.39 .035
Teaching Experience 20.134 I 20.134 .36 .550
Teaching Effectiveness 380.682 1 380.682 6.76 .010
2-wav Interactions
Teaching Experience 242.026 1 242.026 4.3 .039
Teaching Effectiveness
Explained 623.937 3 207.979 3.69 .013
Residual 12670.412 225 56.313
Total 13294.349 228 58.309
Missing cases: 15 (6.1%)
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Table 19. Mean Scores on Overall School Effectiveness Scale by
Perception of Teaching Effectiveness and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Overall School Effectiveness Scale Scores
Perception of T < machine Effectiveness
Teachine Experience Effective Somewhat Effective
First Year 37.90 34.00
Number 107 61
Veteran 35.98 37.83
Number 50 11
Figure 2. Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching Experience and
Perception of Teaching Effectiveness or Overall School
Effectiveness Scale.
Effective Somewhat
Effective
Perception of Teaching Effectiveness
Experienced teachers who felt that their teaching was somewhat effective
rated their school as being more effective than those veteran teachers who indicated
that their teaching was effective.
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The exact reverse was true for the new teachers. First year teachers who
rated their teaching as somewhat effective judged their school as being less effective
than their counterparts who felt that their teaching was effective.
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching
There were significant inter-correlations between teaching experience,
overall satisfaction, and two of the ten scales (Conscientious and Responsible and
Collaborative and Team Player). Tables 20 and 21 and Figure 3 summarize the
finding for Conscientious and Responsible.
Table 20. Two -Way ANOVA of Conscientious and Responsible Scale by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Source SS df MS F Significance
Main Effects 844.745
98.981
786.693
2
1
1
422.372
98.981
786.693
17.73
4.16
33.02
.000
.043
.000
Teaching Experience
Satisfaction with Teaching
2-wav Interactions
145.618 1 145.618 6.11 .014 Teaching Experience
Satisfaction with Teaching
Explained 990.363 3 330.121 13.86 .000
Residual 5360.493 225 23.824
Total 6350.856 228 27.855
Vfissing cases: 15 (6.1%)
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Table 21. Mean Scores on Conscientious and Responsible Scale by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and Level of Experience.
Study Population
Conscientious and Resnonsible Scale Scores
Overall Satisfaction with Teachine
Teaching Experience Dissatisfied Satisfied
First Year 38.46 43.66
Number 46 122
Veteran 42.50 43.87
Number 22 39
Figures 3. Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching Experience and
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching on Conscientious and
Responsible Scale.
Dissatisfied Satisfied
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching
Experienced teachers who were not satisfied with the teaching profession
were slightly less likely to rate themselves as conscientious than were their more
satisfied peers.
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There was a greater difference between the two levels of satisfaction for the
beginning teachers. New teachers who were not satisfied with the profession rated
themselves considerably less conscientious than did their more satisfied counterparts.
While the direction was the same for both the experienced and novice
teachers, there was a much larger difference between the two groups of new teachers
than there was for the two sets of veteran teachers. The results for Collaborative and
Team Player are presented in Tables 22 and 23 and Figure 4.
Table 22. Two -Way ANOVA of Collaborative and Team Player Scale by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Source SS df MS F Significance
Main Effects
Teaching Experience
Satisfaction with Teaching
521.657
.663
514.208
2
1
1
260.829
.663
514.208
10.37
.03
20.45
.000
.871
.000
2-wav Interactions
Teaching Experience
Satisfaction with Teaching
129.759 1 129.759 5.16 .024
Explained 651.416 3 217.139 8.63 .000
Residual 5658.703 225 25.150
Total 6310.119 228 27.676
Vlissing cases: IS (6.1%)
Table 23. Mean Scores on Collegial and Team Player Scale by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching and Teaching Experience.
Study Population
Conscientious and Responsible Scale Scores
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching
Teaching Experience Dissatisfied Satisfied
First Year 38.46 43.66
Number 46 122
Veteran 42.50 43.87
Number 22 39
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Figure 4. Plot of Two-way Interaction Involving Teaching Experience and
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching on Collaborative and Team
Player Scale.
Dissatisfied Satisfied
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching
The interactions for Collaborative and Team Player were similar to those for
Conscientious and Responsible. Veteran teachers who were less satisfied with the
teaching profession rated themselves slightly lower on the CTP scale than their more
satisfied counterparts.
The difference between the satisfied and dissatisfied first year teachers was
much more dramatic. Beginning teachers who were not satisfied with teaching rated
themselves noticeably lower on the CTP scale than their more satisfied peers.
Summary
There were some significant differences between experienced and first year
teachers in all areas examined in this study. In the area of demographics, significant
differences were found in the areas of age, assignment of a mentor, and perception of
teaching effectiveness. Veteran teachers tended to be older and judged their teaching
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to be more effective than did novice teachers. Beginning teachers were more likely
to have a mentor assigned than their more experienced peers.
Experienced and new teachers held similar views of the effectiveness of their
school and of their own personal characteristics. Veterans tended to perceive
themselves as more efficacious and were less satisfied with the professional support
(CAS) they received than their beginning counterparts. Novice teachers were more
likely to indicate that Internal Conditions might lead them to leave teaching than the
experienced teachers.
There were no significant differences between the two groups of teachers on
general retention factors and future plans. Class size emerged as the only individual
factor to separate the veterans from the novices. The new teachers indicated that
class size was more likely to lead them to leave the profession than the experienced
teachers.
Correlations among the ten scales were stronger and more frequent for the
first year teachers than they were for the veterans. There were 15 significant
correlations among the scales for the experienced teachers and 17 for the first year
teachers.
Finally, there were some significant two-way interactions between level of
teaching experience and three process variables: perception of prepared to teach;
perception of teaching effectiveness; and overall satisfaction with teaching.
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First Year Teachers
The demographic and process statistics for first year teachers were
summarized in a prior section, beginning on page 75 (also see Appendix A, Table 3).
As a group, the beginning teachers were young (70% were under 30), held a BA
degree (81%), had a mentor or coach assigned to them (85%), adequately prepared to
teach (72%), perceived their teaching to be effective (64%), were satisfied with their
present teaching position (74%), and were satisfied with teaching in general (74%).
They were evenly split between white and non-white, and nearly evenly split
between emergency (51%) and clear (49%) credentials.
On the scales used in this study, new teachers rated their schools as generally
effective (M = 36.5) and they rated themselves as conscientious (M = 42.1), team
players (M = 42.8), and only moderately efficacious (M = 36.7). Beginning teachers
were the most satisfied with their relationships with students and parents (M = 39.9)
and the least satisfied with the time demands and stress of their job (M = 26.7). Of
the two Reasons to Leave scales, Professional Concerns (M = 31.0) were more likely
to lead them to leave teaching than were Internal Conditions (M = 27.6).
The vast majority (83%) of first year teachers intended to remain in teaching
until they retire. Of the individual factors that could lead new teachers to leave the
profession, teacher politics was cited the most often (55%) and parent attitudes the
least (27%).
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Analysis of Variance
A one-way ANOVA was conducted on the ten scales using a number of
individual demographic and process factors such as assignment of a mentor, to
determine if there were any significant correlations. There were no significant
findings for age, degree, credential status, or having a mentor assigned.
Perception o f ‘ Prepared to Teach ’
The correlations for new teachers between feeling adequately prepared to
teach and the ten scales used in this study are summarized in Tables 24 and 25.
Feeling adequately prepared to teach was strongly correlated to four scales:
Overall School Effectiveness; Efficacious and Confident; Conscientious and
Responsible; and Professional Concerns. The perception of how well □ prepared
teachers were for teaching was strongly related to their perceptions o f themselves
and how effective they felt as teachers. This is also related to their perceived level of
responsibility, how they worked with others, and issues related to the profession in
general which might lead them to leave teaching. Those who felt adequately
prepared to teach rated their school as being more effective than those who felt
“somewhat” prepared to teach. The teachers who indicated that they felt adequately
prepared also tended to rate themselves as more efficacious and more conscientious
than their less prepared counterparts. Finally, for those who felt their preparation to
teach were sufficient, professional concerns were less likely to lead them to leave the
profession than were their “somewhat” prepared peers.
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Table 24. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Perception of Adequately Prepared to Teach.
First Year Teachers
Scale Group N M SD
Overall School Effectiveness
Not Much
Very Much
Total
49
126
175
33.9560
37.4359
36.4615
6.0854
7.4096
7.2189
Efficacious and Confident
Not Much
Very Much
Total
50
130
180
34.0545
37.6853
36.6768
5.2472
4.5038
4.9814
Conscientious and Responsible
Not Much
Very Much
Total
50
1 3 1
181
39.2444
42.9856
41.9521
5.1407
5.2643
5.4793
Collaborative and Team Player
Not Much
Very Much
Total
50
131
181
41.6300
43.4122
42.8453
4.9312
5.1033
5.1260
Collegial and Administrative Support
Not Much
Very Much
Total
48
125
173
35.0347
37.8533
37.0713
7.8135
8.3838
8.3040
Student and Parent Relations
Not Much
Very Much
Total
48
127
175
39.9306
39.9213
39.9238
6.1690
6.5696
6.4446
Time Demands and Stress
Not Much
Very Much
Total
49
123
172
24.7449
27.5000
26.7151
8.6489
9.0082
8.9693
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Not Much
Very Much
Total
49
128
177
34.9490
37.5000
36.7938
6.2810
7.6462
7.3659
Professional Concerns
Not Much
Very Much
Total
48
119
167
34.9479
29.3697
30.9731
8.5442
10.8545
10.5277
Internal Conditions
Not Much
Very Much
Total
48
120
168
30.1042
26.6875
27.6637
9.0794
10.5578
10.2482
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Table 25. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of Adequately
Prepared to Teach.
First Year Teachers
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
427.219
8640.237
9067.456
1
173
174
372.780
56.079
8.55**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
476.034
3965.821
4441.855
1
178
179
770.991
22.431
21.37**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
506.489
4897.590
5404.079
1
179
180
693.904
26.394
18.51**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
152.408
4577.260
4729.669
1
179
180
505.440
24.852
5.7*
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
275.534
11585.031
11860.565
1
171
172
63.750
75.468
4.07*
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
3.010E-03
72256.759
7226.762
1
173
174
343.874
40.711
.000
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
265.979
13490.561
13756.541
1
170
171
421.484
78.718
3.35
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
230.601
9318.622
9549.223
1
175
176
1.723
55.626
4.33*
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1064.278
17333.851
18398.129
I
165
166
33.187
107.351
10.13**
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
400.238
17139.010
17539.249
1
166
167
381.028
105.213
3.88*
* E < 05
** E < -01
Beginning teachers’ perception of their preparedness to teach was
significantly correlated to a lesser degree with being Collaborative and Team Player,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
satisfaction with Collegial and Administrative Support, Job Security and Fringe
Benefits, and Internal Teaching Conditions. For those new teachers who felt
adequately prepared to teach, scores on CTP tended to be higher, and they tended to
be more satisfied with both CAS and JSFB than those who indicated feeling less
prepared. Internal teaching conditions were less likely to lead an adequately
prepared novice teacher to leave education than a “somewhat” prepared beginning
teacher. The degree to which first year teachers felt prepared for the job was
significantly related to their view of their school, themselves, several job satisfaction
factors, and variables which might lead them to leave teaching.
Perception of Teaching Effectiveness
The relationship between how effective a new teacher feels, and their scores
on the ten scales are reflected in Tables 26 and 27.
Perceptions of the effectiveness of their teaching were strongly correlated
with four scales: Overall School Effectiveness; Efficacious and Confident;
Conscientious and Responsible; and Collaborative and Team Player. Those new
teachers who felt that their teaching was effective rated their school’s overall
effectiveness higher than those who felt their teaching was somewhat effective.
While this might appear obvious, there is now data to support this perception.
New teachers who rated their teaching as effective were also more likely to
rate themselves higher in the areas of being efficacious, conscientious and
collaborative than those beginning teachers who perceived their teaching as only
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somewhat effective. The perception of teaching effectiveness was strongly correlated
with ratings of the quality of the school along with the three “types” of people.
Table 26. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by Perception of
Teaching Effectiveness.
First Year Teachers
Scale Group N M SD
Effective 113 37.8557 7.2244
Overall School Effectiveness Somewhat Effect. 62 33.9206 6.5312
Total 175 36.4615 7.2189
Effective 116 38.1379 4.7198
Efficacious and Confident Somewhat Effect. 65 34.1231 5.0544
Total 181 36.6961 5.2006
Effective 116 43.4569 5.0620
Conscientious and Responsible Somewhat Effect. 65 39.7077 4.9646
Total 181 42.1105 5.3280
Effective 116 43.9464 4.8296
Collaborative and Team Player Somewhat Effect. 65 40.6667 5.2477
Total 181 42.7686 5.2137
Effective 109 37.8746 8.3206
Collegial and Administrative Support Somewhat Effect. 64 35.7031 8.1585
Total 173 37.0713 8.3040
Effective 111 40.9459 5.9528
Student and Parent Relations Somewhat Effect. 64 38.1510 6.9142
Total 175 39.9238 6.4446
Effective 108 27.8472 8.7839
Time Demands and Stress Somewhat Effect. 64 24.8047 9.0227
Total 172 26.7151 8.9693
Effective 113 36.9027 7.6055
Job Security and Fringe Benefits Somewhat Effect. 64 36.6016 6.9774
Total 177 36.7938 7.3659
Effective 106 30.2594 10.3448
Professional Concerns Somewhat Effect. 61 32.2131 10.8118
Total 167 30.9731 10.5277
Effective 108 26.4583 10.2088
Internal Conditions Somewhat Effect. 60 29.8333 10.0409
Total 168 27.6637 10.2482
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Table 27. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Perception of Teaching Effectiveness.
First Year Teachers
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
619.9278
8447.5278
9067.4556
1
173
174
619.9278
48.8296
12.7**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
671.4788
4196.8085
4868.2873
1
179
180
671.4788
23.4459
28.64**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
585.5594
4524.2306
5109.7901
1
179
180
585.5594
25.2750
23.17**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
448.0838
4444.8020
4892.8859
1
179
180
448.0838
24.8313
18.05**
Collegial and Administrative
Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
190.1416
11670.4236
11860.5653
I
171
172
190.1416
68.2481
2.79
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
317.1019
6909.6601
7226.7619
I
173
174
317.1019
39.9402
7.94**
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
372.0029
13384.5378
13756.5407
1
170
171
372.0029
78.7326
4.73*
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
3.7041
9545.5190
9549.2232
1
175
176
3.7041
54.5458
.07
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
147.7837
18250.3451
18398.1287
1
165
166
147.7837
110.6082
1.34
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
439.3527
17099.8958
17539.2485
1
166
167
439.3527
103.0114
4.27*
* E < .05
** e < .005
Also correlated, but at a weaker level of significance, were Student and
Parent Relations, Time Demands and Stress, and Internal Conditions. Those new
teachers who rated their teaching as effective were more likely to be satisfied with
their student and parent relationships than those new teachers who rated their
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teaching as somewhat effective. The same held true with respect to the time
demands of the job; those who perceived their teaching as effective were more
satisfied with the level of stress than their counterparts who rated their teaching as
somewhat effective. A surprise to no one, those novice teachers who felt that their
teaching was effective were also less likely to indicate that internal teaching
conditions would lead them to leave teaching. The reverse was true for those who
judged their teaching to be only somewhat effective. The level of effectiveness new
teachers perceived themselves as exhibiting was correlated to their perceptions of
themselves and their school, the quality of their interactions with students and
parents, the time demands of the job, and their feelings regarding internal conditions.
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching
Finally, a new teacher’s overall satisfaction with the teaching profession and
how their scores on the ten scales are presented in Tables 28 and 29. Overall
satisfaction with teaching was significantly correlated to seven of the ten scales.
Overall School Effectiveness, Efficacious and Confident, Conscientious and
Responsible, Collaborative and Team Player, Collegial and Administrative Support,
Student and Parent Relations, and Time Demands and Stress were all related to a
beginning teacher’s overall satisfaction with their chosen profession.
Those new teachers who were satisfied with teaching in general rated their
school’s overall effectiveness higher than their less satisfied counterparts. The same
relationship held for the same teachers when looking at how they rated themselves
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on personal characteristics. The new teachers who were generally satisfied with the
profession also rated themselves higher on all three of the personal characteristics
scales than those who were less satisfied with teaching.
Table 28. Number, Means, and Standard Deviations of Scales by
Overall Satisfaction with Teaching.
First Year Teachers
Scale Group N M SD
Overall School Effectiveness
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
46
128
174
33.4783
37.6202
36.5252
7.6335
6.7236
7.1903
Efficacious and Confident
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
46
133
179
33.1225
37.9426
36.7039
5.3856
4.1913
4.9821
Conscientious and Responsible
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
46
134
180
38.1159
43.3167
41.9877
5.6746
4.7395
5.4736
Collaborative and Team Player
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
46
134
180
40.1304
43.8209
42.8778
5.0535
4.8120
5.1216
Collegial and Administrative Support
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
43
129
172
34.1473
38.0362
37.0640
8.8220
7.9562
8.3277
Student and Parent Relations
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
45
129
174
36.4444
41.1111
39.9042
7.7329
5.4896
6.4580
Time Demands and Stress
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
43
128
171
20.9884
28.7500
26.7982
7.5620
8.5170
8.9289
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
45
131
176
35.0556
37.4046
36.8040
6.9595
7.4576
7.3857
Professional Concerns
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
43
123
166
32.6163
30.4268
30.9940
8.9800
11.0314
10.5561
Internal Conditions
Unsatisfied
Satisfied
Total
41
126
167
28.6585
27.3413
27.6647
10.0638
10.3670
10.2790
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Table 29. One -Way ANOVA of Scales by Overall Satisfaction with Teaching.
First Year Teachers
Scale Source SS df MS F
Overall School Effectiveness
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
580.530
8363.523
8944.052
1
172
173
580.530
48.625
11.94**
Efficacious and Confident
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
794.073
3624.044
4418.117
1
177
178
794.073
20.475
38.78**
Conscientious and Responsible
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
926.257
4436.678
5362.936
1
178
179
926.257
24.925
37.16**
Collaborative and Team Player
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
466.392
4228.919
4695.311
I
178
179
466.392
23.758
19.63**
Collegial and Administrative Support
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
487.731
11371.232
11858.963
1
170
171
487.731
66.890
7.29**
Student and Parent Relations
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
726.552
6488.519
7215.070
1
172
173
726.552
37.724
19.26**
Time Demands and Stress
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
1939.045
11614.244
13553.289
1
169
170
1939.04
5
68.723
28.22**
Job Security and Fringe Benefits
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
184.819
9361.168
9545.987
1
174
175
184.819
53.800
3.44
Professional Concerns
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
152.734
18233.260
18385.994
1
164
165
152.734
111.178
1.37
Internal Conditions
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
53.677
17485.545
17539.222
1
165
166
53.677
105.973
.51
* e < .05
** g < .01
When the Job Satisfaction scales were analyzed, the same general
relationship between perception of overall job satisfaction and the three significant
scales emerged. Those new teachers who were satisfied with the profession in
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general also indicated higher satisfaction with relations with students and parents,
time demands and stress and the professional support that they received than their
peers who indicated dissatisfaction with teaching in general. The overall level of
satisfaction with teaching was strongly correlated with the level of satisfaction with
individual factors related to job satisfaction for new teachers. Job Security and
Fringe Benefits, Professional Concerns, and Internal Conditions were not
significantly related to a first year teacher’s overall job satisfaction. New teachers’
perceptions of their school and themselves were strongly correlated with their
satisfaction with teaching as a profession; as were their perceptions of the
professional support they received, their relations with their students and parents, and
the demands and stress of the job.
Summary
First year teachers in this study were generally young, ethnically diverse, had
a mentor assigned, felt adequately prepared to teach, and were satisfied with the
teaching profession. On the scales used in this study, beginning teachers rated their
schools as being effective and also rated themselves as being conscientious and
collaborative, as well as being only moderately efficacious. Overall, they were
satisfied with their relations with students and parents, the professional support they
received (CAS), and the benefits associated with the job. They were not satisfied
with the time demands required of teaching. Professional concerns were more likely
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to lead this group of teachers to leave teaching than were internal teaching
conditions.
There were no significant interactions on the scales for age, degree attained,
credential held, or mentor assignment. There were seven significant findings on the
scales for each of the following process variables: perception of being adequately
prepared to teach; perception of teaching effectiveness; and overall satisfaction with
teaching.
Emergency and Clear Credentialed First Year Teachers
As a group, the 181 beginning teachers were more similar than they were
different. However, there were some significant differences between the 92 new
teachers with emergency credentials, and the 88 with clear or preliminary credentials
(one teacher’s credential was not verified at the time of this report).
Descriptive Statistics
Personal Demographic and Process Variables
Individual demographic and process variables were analyzed using
descriptive statistics pertaining to emergency and clear credentialed first year
teachers. A Chi-square test was performed on all of these variables to determine if
there were any significant differences between the two groups of novice teachers
(see Appendix A. Table 6).
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The most significant differences involved ethnicity, level of education, and
attendance at CSU campuses. Grade level taught, attendance at private college or
university, feeling adequately prepared to teach, and perception of the effectiveness
of their own teaching, were also significant. Assignment of a mentor, satisfaction
with present teaching position, and overall satisfaction with teaching, were not
significant.
Ethnicity
While the group of beginning teachers in the current study was split exactly
in half between white and non-white respondents, emergency credentialed teachers
were significantly more likely to be non-white than were their credentialed
counterparts. Non-white emergency credentialed new teachers comprised 66% of
the responding group as compared to 33% for clearly credentialed new teachers.
This finding was significant at the p < .01 level.
Highest decree earned
As a group, the majority of beginning teachers (81%) held a bachelor degree
as their highest level of education, with 18% holding degrees above the bachelor
level. However, level of education was significantly different (p < .01) between the
two groups; a finding that is of no surprise considering the qualifications required for
each type o f credential. Emergency credentialed teachers were most likely to
indicate having a BA degree, while new teachers with clear credentials were more
likely to indicate having an additional degree. Only 6.5% of holders of emergency
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credentials had attained a Master’s degree or higher, compared with 31% of the clear
credential holders.
IHE attended
The type of IHE attended was significant in two ways (both p < .0 IE-
emergency credentialed new teachers were more likely to be attending or have
attended a CSU while the clear credentialed beginning teachers were more likely to
be attending or have attended a private college or university. Almost 86% of
emergency credentialed teachers indicated that they had attended or were attending a
CSU campus as compared with 57% of those with a clear credential. When looking
at attendance at private college or university, only 28% of emergency credential
teachers indicated such experience as compared to 48% of the clear credentialed new
teachers.
Grade level assignment
Grade level teaching assignment also proved to be a significant difference
between the two groups. Emergency credentialed teachers were more likeiy to be
teaching kindergarten (41%) than their clear credentialed counterparts (12.5%).
Clear credentialed teachers were more likely to be teaching third grade (28%) than
those with emergency credentials (16%). This was significant at the g < .01 level.
Perception of prepared to teach
As a group, the majority of these beginning teachers (72%) felt adequately
prepared to teach. However, a significant difference (g < .05) was found between the
two groups’ feeling of being adequately prepared to teach; another finding that is of
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no surprise considering the requirements for both credentials. Holders of clear
credentials felt more prepared to teach (81%) than those with emergency credentials
(64%).
Perception of teaching effectiveness
The final significant finding in the area o f demographics and process was in
the perception of the individual educator’s teaching effectiveness (g < .01). As a
group, the majority (64%) of these teachers felt that their teaching was effective
compared to 35% who perceived their teaching to be somewhat effective.
Emergency credentialed teachers evaluated the effectiveness of their practice
significantly lower than their cohorts with clear credentials. Almost 54% of
emergency credentialed teachers perceived their teaching as somewhat effective,
while only 25% of those with clear credentials indicated the same rating.
Other factors
Emergency and clear credentialed first year teachers did not differ
significantly on age, assignment of a mentor, satisfaction with their present position,
nor overall satisfaction with the teaching profession.
Scales
Descriptive statistics were used to compare emergency credentialed new
teachers with their clear credentialed counterparts on all ten scales used in this study.
There were no significant differences between the two groups of beginning teachers
on any of the scales used in this study. These findings are summarized in Table 30.
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Table 30. Descriptive Statistics of Scales for First Year Teachers by
Credential Status.
Tvue o f Credential
Emergency Clear
Scale N Mean S.D. N Mean S.D.
Overall School Effectiveness 90 36.5 6.6 84 36.4 7.9
Personal Characteristics
I . Efficacious and Confident 91 36.9 5.0 88 36.5 5.0
2. Conscientious and Responsible 92 42.1 5.6 88 41.9 5.4
3. Collaborative and Team Player 92 43.2 5.3 88 42.6 4.8
Job Satisfaction
1. Collegial and Administrative 86 37.4 7.3 87 36.8 9.2
Support
2. Student and Parent Relations 88 40.4 6.4 87 39.4 6.5
3. Time Demands and Stress 87 28.0 8.9 85 25.4 8.9
4. Job Security and Fringe Benefits 90 37.7 6.7 87 35.8 7.9
Reasons to Leave Teaching
I. Professional Concerns 88 31.5 9.6 78 30.3 10.5
2. Internal Conditions 87 26.6 10.8 80 28.6 9.6
There was no significant difference between the two groups of new teachers
when evaluating the professional environment in which they worked. Perceptions of
overall school effectiveness by the entire group of teachers was generally positive.
No significant differences emerged between emergency credentialed first
year teachers and their credentialed peers on the three scales of Personal
Characteristics. This set of teachers was highly collaborative, conscientious, and
moderately efficacious. There were no significant differences between emergency
credentialed first year teachers and their credentialed peers on the four scales of Job
Satisfaction.
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No significant differences emerged between emergency credentialed first
year teachers and their credentialed peers on the two scales of Reasons for Leaving
Teaching. Overall scores on all scales were more similar than they were different.
Retention factors
A Chi-square analysis was performed on all teacher retention items to
determine if there were any significant differences between new teachers based on
the credential they had earned (see Appendix A, Tables 7 and 8). The retention rate
for both groups of first year teachers was remarkably similar. The vast majority of
both emergency credentialed new teachers (82%) and first year clear credential
holders (84%) intend to remain in education until retirement.
In general, both groups of teachers held similar future plans. The only
significant difference between the two types of credential holders emerged in the
area of future plans. Clear credentials beginning teachers were significantly more
likely to indicate an intent to become a master teacher than their emergency
credentialed peers (j> < .05). However, over three-fourths (76%) of these new
teachers held a career goal of becoming a master teacher and thus remaining in the
classroom.
While there were no significant differences between the two sets of novice
teachers, there were some interesting findings. Of the individual factors that teachers
indicated might lead them to leave the profession, teacher politics was the most
commonly indicated influence for both groups, although the emergency credential
holders felt somewhat more strongly about this factor (56%) than did their clear
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counterparts (52%). The amount of administrative support was second for both
groups. The factor with the least influence on teacher retention for emergency
credentialed new teachers was parent attitudes with only 22%; while clear
credentialed beginning teachers indicated that the level of control of materials and
equipment (30%) was the least influential for them.
Scale Correlations
A Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was performed on all ten scales
using both clear and emergency credentialed new teachers to determine the degree of
correlation between each of the scales for each group. Many of the scales were
highly correlated.
The significant correlations for novice clear credential holders were neither
as frequent nor as strong as they were for emergency credentialed first year teachers.
The correlations are summarized in Table 31 for the clear credentialed beginning
teachers and in Table 32 for the emergency credential holders.
At the g < .001 level of significance, clear credentialed new teachers’
responses on the scales resulted in 12 strong positive correlations among the scales.
There were also six positive correlations at the p < .01 level of significance for a total
of 18 significant positive correlations. There were no negative correlations of any
significance.
Overall School Effectiveness was strongly correlated with Collaborative and
Team Player, and less strongly correlated with Conscientious and Responsible. It
was also correlated with Collegial and Administrative Support, Time Demands and
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Stress, and Job Security and Fringe Benefits. The way clear credentialed first year
teachers viewed their school was related to how they perceived themselves in the
areas of collaboration and responsibility. School effectiveness ratings were also
correlated with three of the four aspects of job satisfaction.
Table 31. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Matrix of Scales for
First Year Teachers.
Clear Credential Holders
Scale EAC CAR CTP OSE CAS SPR TDS JSFB PC IC
EAC 1.000
CAR .5358** 1.000
CTP .489 .5337** 1.000
OSE .2287 .3204* .4168** 1.000
CAS .0541 .2229 .4081 •• .7039** 1.000
SPR .0719 .3847** .2723 .1584 .2058 1.000
TDS .3861 •• .3755** .2812* .3442* .2355 .2131 1.000
JSFB .1176 .2689 .3001* .4401** .3591 •• .3001* .2776* 1.000
PC -.0650 .0015 .0933 -.0788 -.1024 .0913 -.1405 -.0114 1.000
IC -.1824 -.0670 -.1008 .1028 .0384 -.0764 .0945 .0382 .4275** 1.000
N = 72
* I -tailed significance: .01
** I-tailed significance: .001
The three Personal Characteristics scales were all strongly correlated with
one another. There were also significant correlations between CAR and Student and
Parent Relations as well as with TDS. Thus, how much newly credentialed first year
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teachers rated themselves as responsible was correlated to both their satisfaction with
their relationships with students and parents, and with the time demands of their job.
CTP was correlated with three of the scales mirroring job satisfaction. Novice
credentialed teachers’ scores in the area of collaboration were related to their
satisfaction with professional support, time demands, and the benefits associated
with teaching. Scores on EAC were only correlated with TDS. How efficacious a
beginning credentialed teacher perceived him or herself as being was correlated to
their satisfaction with the stress of the job.
In addition to the Job Satisfaction scale correlations noted above, JSFB was
strongly related to CAS, and to a less degree to SPR and TDS. The level of
satisfaction recorded for the benefits of teaching was associated with the degree of
satisfaction attained for professional support, relations with students and parents, and
the time demands of the teaching profession. The two Reasons to Leave scales were
strongly correlation to each other, but to none of the other scales.
The results for emergency credentialed beginning teachers are similar, but
slightly different. For this group of novice teachers, there were 16 strong positive
correlations between the scales and seven slightly weaker positive correlations. Like
their clear credentialed peers, there were no significant negative correlations.
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Table 32. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Matrix of Scale for
First Year Teachers.
Emergency Credential Holders
Scale EAC CAR CTP OSE CAS SPR TDS JSFB PC IC
EAC 1.000
CAR ,6 1 ft'* 1.000
CTP .6737" .6345" 1.000
OSE .2394 .4992** .3141* 1.000
CAS .0967 .2670' .2702* • 4 7 ft" 1.000
SPR .3453" .3363* .3452" .1718 .1939 1.000
TDS .3886" .4973" .4398** .3333* .5029" .3284* 1.000
JSFB .1271 .3025' .3504** .4397" .5405" .2667* .4499** 1.000
PC -.0414 -.2183 -.0555 .0023 -.0609 .0849 -.2489 -.0509 1.000
IC -.2292 -.1978 -.2220 .0671 -.0356 -.1891 -.2076 -.0436 .5981" 1.000
N = 78
* I-tailed significance: .01 Same as clear credentialed: underlined
** 1-tailed significance: .001 Stronger or weaker than clear credentialed: italicized
Overall School Effectiveness was strongly correlated with Conscientious and
Responsible, and a weaker relationship was present with Collaborative and Team
Player. How emergency credentialed first year teachers viewed the effectiveness of
their school was strongly related to their perceptions of themselves as conscientious,
and to a lesser degree, their perceptions of being team players. This is the exact
reverse of the situation with clear credential holders. OSE was also strongly
correlated with Collegial and Administrative Support as well as Job Security and
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Fringe Benefits, and a slightly less significant relationship was present with Time
Demands and Stress. The rating emergency credentialed new teachers gave their
school was strongly associated with their satisfaction with the professional support
they received and the benefits of the job, and to a less significant degree, with their
level of satisfaction with the time demands of teaching.
As with the clear credentialed new teachers, all three of the Personal
Characteristics scales demonstrated strong positive correlations. The perception of
having one personal characteristic was strongly correlated to the perception of
having the other characteristics. In addition, both CAR and CTP were correlated
with all four Job Satisfaction scales to one degree or another. How emergency
credentialed novice teachers rated themselves as responsible and as collaborative
was related to the satisfaction derived from professional support, relations with
students and parents, the stress of teaching, and the benefits that accompany the job.
Only SPR and TDS were correlated with Efficacious and Responsible.
There were more significant correlations between and among the Job
Satisfaction scales for emergency credential holders than there were for their clear
credentialed counterparts. Collegial and Administrative Support was strongly
correlated with Overall School Effectiveness, which held true for clear credentialed
new teachers as well; and demonstrated a slightly weaker correlation with both
Conscientious and Responsible as well as Collegial and Team Player. Clear
credentialed beginning teachers produced a stronger relationship between CAS and
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CTP and no relationship between CAS and CR than did their emergency credentialed
peers.
Student and Parent Relations was correlated with all three of the Personal
Characteristics scales. Strong correlations were present between SPR and both
Efficacious and Confident and Collaborative and Team Player. The correlation was
slightly weaker for SPR and Conscientious and Responsible. The latter correlation
was stronger and the single significant one for the clear credentialed beginning
teachers.
Time Demands and Stress was strongly correlated with all three of the
Personal Characteristics scales, as well as with Collegial and Administrative
Support. A weaker significant correlation was present between TDS and Student and
Parent Relations. There were more and stronger correlations of significance for
emergency credentialed new teachers than there were for their clear credentialed
counterparts.
Job Satisfaction and Fringe Benefits was strongly correlated with four scales
and less strongly with two others for emergency credential holders. JSFB was
strongly correlated with Overall School Effectiveness, Collaborative and Team
Player, Collegial and Administrative Support, and Time Demands and Stress.
Weaker correlations were present between JSFB and Conscientious and Responsible
as well as Student and Parent Relations. The correlations were the same for both
groups of new teachers between JSFB and OSE, CAS and SPR. Emergency
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credentialed teachers evidenced stronger correlations between JSFB and CR, CTP
and TDS than clear credentialed first year teachers.
As with their clear credentialed peers, emergency credentialed novice
teachers demonstrated a strong correlation between the two ‘ Reasons to Leave’
scales. There were no negative correlations of significance for emergency
credentialed teachers.
Overall, there were more and stronger correlations among the 10 scales for
emergency credentialed first year teachers than there were for their clear credentialed
counterparts.
Summary
The only significant differences between first year clear and emergency
credentialed teachers were found in the areas of individual demographic and process
variables and future plans. Emergency credentialed first year teachers tended to be
more ethnically diverse, have less education, attend a CSU, teach kindergarten, feel
less prepared to teach and feel that their teaching was less effective than their clear
credentialed counterparts. They also were less likely to indicate that becoming a
master teacher was a future goal. There were no significant differences between first
year clear and emergency credentialed teachers in the areas of personal
characteristics, job satisfaction and reasons to leave teaching. In general, there were
no significant differences between the two sets of first year teachers, indicating that
both groups held similar perceptions of their schools, themselves and their
profession.
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Summary
The study population o f244 teachers was deemed a representative sample of
the teaching population as a whole. When divided by level of teaching experience,
181 of the sample were designated first year teachers and 63 were determined to be
experienced educators.
There were a number of significant differences between veteran and novice
teachers in all categories of variables examined. In the demographic and process
variables, experienced teachers were found to be older, less likely to have a mentor
and perceived their teaching as more effective than the beginning teachers. The only
difference in personal characteristics emerged on the scale of Efficacious and
Confident. Experienced teachers rated themselves as being more efficacious than
their novice counterparts. Internal conditions were less likely to lead veteran
teachers to leave the profession than they were for first year teachers. Class size was
a significant factor leading to teacher attrition for the beginners only. Finally, three
of the process variables (perception of prepared to teach, perception of teaching
effectiveness, and overall satisfaction with teaching) had significant interactions with
one or two of the scales for both groups.
There were minimal differences between first year clear and emergency
credentialed teachers. Those significant differences that emerged were clustered in
the individual demographic and process variable area. Emergency credential holders
were more likely to be ethnically diverse, have less education, attend a CSU, teach
kindergarten, feel less prepared to teach, and feel that their teaching is less effective
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than their clear credentialed peers. Becoming a master teacher was not a goal for
many of the emergency credentialed new teachers as it was for the clear credential
holders. There were no significant differences between the two groups of novice
teachers in the areas of personal characteristics, job satisfaction factors, and reasons
that might lead them to leave teaching. There were significant differences between
veteran and novice teachers, and minimal differences between first year clear and
emergency credentialed teachers.
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CHAPTERS
CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This study was undertaken to determine if there were characteristics that
would separate emergency credentialed first year teachers from fully credentialed
first year teachers in the areas of personal demographics, process information,
personal characteristics, job satisfaction, and reasons for leaving the profession. The
results of the study have led to several conclusions regarding the similarities among
and differences between the two sets of beginning teachers.
In addition, as a result of the high number of experienced teachers who
responded to the questionnaire, this study also looked at similarities and differences
between novice and veteran teachers in the same areas for that o f emergency and
clear credentialed first year teachers. The areas of personal demographics, process
information, personal characteristics, job satisfaction, and reasons for leaving
teaching, were examined for experienced teachers and compared with the same
information for their first year counterparts. The results have led to some
conclusions regarding the similarities among and differences between new and
experienced teachers.
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Summary of Findings
Those teachers in this study who felt adequately prepared to teach were more
likely to give high ratings to themselves (personal characteristics), their school
(OSE), the support they received (CAS), the time demands of teaching (TDS), as
well as the salary and fringe benefits that accompany a teaching position (JSFB).
This group also rated professional concerns as less likely to lead them to leave
education than their less-prepared peers.
Teachers who perceived their teaching to be effective tended to rate
themselves and their school higher, and were more satisfied with their student and
parent relationships (SPR) and the time demands of teaching (TDS) than their
somewhat effective peers. Internal Concerns (IC) was a weaker factor leading them
to leave the profession for those “effective” teachers than it was for those who felt
their teaching was only somewhat effective.
There was a similar trend related to overall satisfaction with teaching in
general. Those teachers who were more satisfied with teaching overall, also gave
higher ratings to themselves and their school, the support they received (CAS),
student and parent relations (SPR), time demands and stress (TDS) and salary and
benefits (JSFB) than their less-satisfied peers.
First year teachers were more similar to than different from their veteran
peers. There were only a few significant differences between the two groups in the
areas of demographics and process information, personal characteristics, job
satisfaction, and reasons for leaving teaching.
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New teachers tended to be younger than experienced teachers, an obvious
finding by definition. Beginning teachers also tended to be more satisfied with the
support they received (most had a mentor assigned to assist them), and to rate their
teaching as less effective than did veteran teachers. These two findings also come as
no surprise, considering current efforts to support new teachers and the impact
experience has on perceptions of teaching effectiveness.
How teachers rated their school on an effectiveness scale (OSE) interacted
significantly with both level of teaching experience and perception of teaching
effectiveness. Those novice teachers who feit that their teaching was only somewhat
effective perceived their school to be less effective than those first year teachers who
rated their teaching as effective. The exact opposite was true for the veteran
teachers. Those experienced teachers who judged their teaching to be somewhat
effective tended to rate their schools as more effective than the veteran educators
who felt themselves to be effective teachers.
In general, both sets of teachers rated themselves similarly on the scales of
personal characteristics. The only significant difference that emerged was that
experienced teachers rated themselves higher on Efficacious and Confident than the
beginning teachers; again, a finding of no surprise considering how experience
effects perceptions of competence.
There were two significant scale interactions with level of teaching
experience and overall satisfaction with the profession. Beginning teachers who
were dissatisfied with teaching rated themselves as significantly less conscientious
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(CAR) than their more satisfied counterparts. The relationship was similar but much
less dramatic for the veteran teachers. Those experienced educators who were
dissatisfied with the profession also tended to judge themselves as less conscientious
than their more satisfied peers. The difference between the two groups of veteran
teachers was small.
Novice teachers who were dissatisfied with teaching also perceived
themselves to be less collaborative (CTP) than their more satisfied counterparts.
There was no difference in the way veteran teachers rated themselves on
collaboration based on satisfaction with teaching.
Overall job satisfaction and specific aspects of job satisfaction were similar
for both groups of teachers. Only Collegial and Administrative Support
differentiated the two groups, with new teachers being more satisfied with the
professional support they received than their more experienced counterparts.
Of the Reasons to Leave Teaching scales, only Internal Conditions emerged
as a differentiator between first year and experienced teachers. Beginning teachers
indicated that they would be more likely to leave teaching due to IC than the veteran
educators. There was also a significant 2-way interaction between level of teaching
experience, perception of being prepared to teach and IC. Novice teachers who felt
somewhat prepared to teach were more likely to indicate that IC might lead them to
leave teaching than their peers who felt adequately prepared to teach. The exact
reverse held true for the more experienced teachers. Veteran teachers who felt only
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somewhat prepared to teach were less likely to respond that IC might lead them to
leave the profession than their more prepared counterparts.
Class size was the single individual retention factor that separated first year
teachers from experienced teachers. Only beginning teachers responded that class
size might lead them to leave the profession. This was not a significant factor for
veteran teachers. The ten scales used for this study had more significant correlations
for first year teachers (27) than for the veteran teachers (15).
New Teachers
The group o f new teachers as a whole rated themselves as strong team
players, and conscientious people, and moderately efficacious. They also rated their
school’s overall effectiveness as moderate to somewhat strong. Teacher politics was
the strongest single factor contributing to new teachers’ dissatisfaction (55%) and
parent attitudes was the least (26%). Perception of prepared to teach, perception of
teaching effectiveness, and overall satisfaction with teaching, all had significant
interactions with a majority of the scales.
New teachers who felt adequately prepared to teach rated themselves and
their schools higher on both the personal characteristic scales (EAC, CAR, CTP) and
overall school effectiveness (OSE) as well as the support they received (CAS) and
salary and benefits (JSFB) than their somewhat prepared counterparts. Professional
teaching concerns (PC) and internal conditions (IC) were less likely to lead those
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who felt adequately prepared to teach to leave the profession than for those who felt
only somewhat prepared.
Those first year teachers, who rated their teaching as effective, tended to rate
themselves higher on personal characteristics. These teachers also rated their school
as more effective. They are more satisfied with student and parent relationships
(SPR) and the time demands of teaching (TDS) than those novice teachers who rated
their teaching as somewhat effective. Internal conditions were less of a factor
leading to teacher attrition for these “effective” beginning teachers than for their
somewhat effective peers.
A similar trend held true for new teachers who were satisfied with teaching in
general. Those who were satisfied also indicated higher ratings of themselves and
their school, as well as higher satisfaction with their support (CAS), student and
parent relations (SPR) and the time demands of teaching (TDS) than their less
satisfied counterparts. The differences between the study population, and the new
teachers as a group are summarized in Table 33.
A total of five scales were differently affected based on a group’s perception
of being prepared to teach. The study population had significant findings for CAS,
JSFB and PC. SPR and IC were significant for the beginning teachers. The two
groups mirrored each other when looking at perceptions of teaching effectiveness on
the ten scales.
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Table 33. One-Way ANOVA Differences.
Study and First Year Teacher Groups
Process Variable Scale Affected by readier Group
Study Population 1“ Year Teachers
I. Mentor Assigned CAS
2. Perception of Prepared to Teach OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
CAS. TDS. JSFB
PC
OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
SPR. TDS
IC
3. Perception of Teaching Effectiveness OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
SPR, TDS
IC
OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
SPR, TDS
IC
4. Overall Satisfaction with Teaching OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
CAS, SPR, TDS, JSFB
OSE
EAC, CAR, CTP
CAS, SPR, TDS
Differences between Study Population and 1st Year Teachers: underlined
Only one scale differentiated the two groups when looking at overall
satisfaction with teaching. The study population had one additional scale, JSFB,
than did the novice teachers as a group.
Clear and Emergency Credential Differences
First year holders of emergency credentials are more similar to than different
from their clear credentialed peers. Only a few differences were discovered, and
those differences tended to fall in the areas of personal demographics and process
information.
Emergency credentialed beginning teachers were more likely to be non
white, hold a bachelor degree and attend or have attended a CSU than their clear
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credentialed counterparts. Conversely, first year holders of clear credentials were
more likely to be white, hold more than a bachelor degree, and attend or have
attended a private college or university than their emergency credentialed peers.
Another difference between the two groups of new teachers was the grade
level teaching assignment. Emergency credentialed beginning teachers were much
more likely to be teaching kindergarten than clear credentialed new teachers. First
year clear credential holders were more often assigned to third grade than those
holding an emergency credential. Emergency credentialed first year teachers were
less likely to feel prepared to teach, and were less likely to perceive their teaching as
effective than those holding clear credentials. Finally, new teachers with a clear
credential were more likely to indicate a desire to become master teachers than those
beginning teachers with an emergency credential. There were no significant
differences between emergency and clear credentialed novice teachers on any of the
scales used in this study.
Conclusions
Those teachers in this study, who indicated a positive attitude in general, also
tended to rate themselves high on personal characteristics, rate their school as
effective and are satisfied with most aspects of the profession. These kind of
teachers are the ones who felt adequately prepared to teach, felt their teaching was
effective, were satisfied with teaching in general. These findings provided support
for the Dispositional theory of job satisfaction. Teachers bring their personal
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characteristics or their disposition into their job. Their evaluation of their school
(OSE) is also their evaluation of the characteristics of the job of teaching. Thus, the
more positive an individual teacher feels about him/herself, the higher the ratings of
the job characteristics (OSE) and the higher the satisfaction with that job. These
findings held true for both the entire study population as well as for the individual
groups (veteran teachers, novice teachers, emergency credentialed beginning
teachers and clear credentialed first year teachers).
Beginning and experienced teachers were more similar to each other than
different from one another in this study. Of the differences, several were explained
simply by the difference in experience between the two groups. New teachers were
younger than veteran teachers, a finding that should surprise no one. This is likely
due to the fact that the novice teachers are just embarking on their career, while
experienced teachers have been teaching for two or more years. Novice teachers
were more likely to have a mentor assigned to them, a finding that is related to the
growth of BTSA programs throughout California. It also indicated that districts are
taking at least this step (of providing a mentor or coach) to support their first year
teachers. Beginning teachers perceive their teaching as only “somewhat” effective
than their more experienced peers. This finding is obvious, due to the impact more
than one year of teaching must have on an individual teacher’s perception of the
effectiveness of their craft. However, there is no data to support this perception.
Novice teachers differed from veteran teachers in how they viewed the
effectiveness of their school. It appeared that beginning teachers who perceived their
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teaching to be “somewhat” effective felt similarly about their school. It may be that
these first year teachers were more critical of their own efforts and the efforts of their
school than were the “effective” new teachers. Perhaps they judged their school
more harshly because they were a part of the school, and they felt only somewhat
effective. It could also be true that these “somewhat” effective first year teachers
were assigned to only “somewhat” effective schools. The reverse held true for the
experienced teachers. Those who felt “somewhat” effective rated their schools as
“effective” while the veterans who felt “effective” judged their schools to be less
effective. Effective teachers may have higher expectations for their schools than
those who are “less” effective. Another possibility could be that the “somewhat”
effective veterans were more critical of themselves and less of their school than the
“effective” group of experienced teachers.
The single difference between novice and veteran teachers as it related to
personal characteristics was the higher rating experienced teachers gave themselves
on ‘Efficacious and Confident’ than the new teachers. This is most likely due to the
fact that as teachers gain experience with their profession, they feel more successful
and effective.
A similar reason may be responsible for at least one of the two-way
interactions on a ‘Personal Characteristics’ scale and satisfaction with teaching in
general. Those teachers, regardless of level of teaching experience, who were
dissatisfied with teaching also tended to rate themselves as less conscientious (CAR).
Being unhappy with the profession may have affected how these teachers viewed
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themselves, or perceiving themselves as only “somewhat” responsible may have
influenced how they felt about teaching. The difference was more dramatic for the
beginning teachers than it was for the veterans. This finding also supports the
Dispositional theory of job satisfaction. The personal characteristics a person brings
to their job may influence how they perceive that job and the satisfaction they derive
from performing the tasks associated with their employment.
The level of satisfaction with teaching also had an impact on how novice
teachers rated themselves on collaboration (CTP). This did not apply to the
experienced teachers. New teachers who were dissatisfied with the profession rated
themselves as “somewhat” collaborative. Those who were satisfied judged
themselves to be team players. Being unhappy with teaching may have affected how
the first year teachers felt about themselves, at least in the area of collaboration.
Another interpretation could be that when beginning teachers perceive themselves as
“somewhat” collaborative, that affects how they feel about teaching in general.
Again, this finding supports the underlying theoretical constructs of the Dispositional
theory of job satisfaction.
The fact that novice teachers were more satisfied with the professional
support (CAS) they received is probably due to the fact that they were also more
likely to have a mentor or coach assigned to them than veteran teachers. This
finding supports the efforts of districts and the State to expand the BTSA program,
and in particular, the concept of a mentor for new teachers.
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Internal teaching conditions (IC) were more likely to lead first year teachers
to leave the profession than veteran educators. Over time, experienced teachers may
have become accustomed to the general conditions under which most teachers work.
Another consideration is that as teachers gain experience in the classroom, factors
such as student behavior become more manageable or satisfactory. IC was also a
source of two-way variance between the two groups based on perception of
adequately prepared to teach. Beginning teachers who felt “somewhat” prepared to
teach were more likely to leave the profession due to IC than were those who felt
adequately prepared to teach. It stands to reason that feeling inadequately prepared
for a job might affect how long one stays in that job. However, the reverse held true
for the experienced teachers. Those who felt the most prepared to teach were more
likely to leave due to IC than their counterparts who felt only “somewhat” prepared
to teach. Perhaps those who felt the most prepared also held the highest expectations
of what conditions should be present to facilitate teaching, and were thus the least
satisfied with their present situation.
As one o f the more interesting findings in the current study, class size was an
important factor that might lead new teachers to leave the profession. This was not a
consideration for the more experienced teachers. The vast majority of the first year
teachers in this study had no experience with classes larger than the current limit of
20. On the contrary, most of the veteran teachers had taught prior to the California
CSR (or in other states without a CSR initiative), and were generally satisfied with
the now smaller size of their classes.
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New Teachers
Newly credentialed teachers are more similar to than different from their
emergency credentialed peers. Their personal characteristics, level of job
satisfaction, retention rate, and reasons to leave teaching were comparable. Only
factors related to individual demographics and process information distinguished the
two groups from each other, as well as one future plan item.
The face of new teachers is changing. More and more first year teachers are
non-white. This fact directly contradicts recent findings in the area of ethnicity for
all of California’s teachers. As a group, California teachers were 78% white and
22% non-white (CDE, 1998). The majority of these beginning teachers also felt
adequately prepared to teach, and rated their teaching as effective.
First year teachers in the present study rated themselves highest on
collaboration and conscientiousness, and felt somewhat less efficacious. They
generally perceived their school to be effective, but not strongly so.
The majority of beginning teachers was satisfied with the profession, and
with their current teaching assignment. They derived satisfaction from their student
and parent relationships, and found the most dissatisfaction in the time demands and
stress of their position.
The fact that emergency credentialed new teachers were more likely to be
assigned to kindergarten may reflect the perception that kindergarten is a less
stressful or rigorous assignment. Students attend school for only part of the day
(currently three hours and 15 minutes) which leaves additional time for training and
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support of the novices. Clear credentialed first year teachers tended to be assigned
third grade, where the academic expectations are higher. Clear credential holders
may have been assigned upper primary grades due to the perception that they are
better prepared to implement the academic and behavioral expectations at higher
grade levels.
The fact that novice holders of emergency credentials tended to perceive their
preparation as “somewhat” adequate and their teaching as “somewhat” effective,
should come as a surprise to no one. These teachers often have a bachelor degree
and no training in pedagogy or effective teaching strategies. These two findings
would be expected, given the circumstances that apply to their entry into the teaching
profession, and there is now data to substantiate this expectation.
Beginning emergency credentialed teachers were not nearly as interested in
becoming master teachers as their clear credentialed peers. This may be due in part
to the fact that emergency credentialed holders are focused on learning how to teach
on a daily basis, and taking classes to clear their credential. Becoming a master
teacher may seem out of reach as a goal during their first year of teaching.
Discussion
The Dispositional theory of job satisfaction found support in this study. How
an individual perceives him/herself is posited to influence how that individual
experiences a job. Thus, someone with a positive view of her/himself will also have
a positive outlook on life and his/her experience on the job. The teachers in this
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study bore that out in a number of instances. Those who rated themselves high on
personal characteristics (positive outlook) also tended to be more satisfied with the
effectiveness of their school (OSE, the job milieu in which they worked). Perhaps as
a result of this positive outlook, these teachers were more satisfied with their
preparation, their teaching and the profession in general (job satisfaction).
There was also a correlation between how teachers judged themselves on
efficacious and their job satisfaction. This, too, may indicate a relationship between
one’s disposition (level of efficaciousness) and satisfaction with the aspects of one’s
job. While novice and veteran teachers are more similar than they are different, the
significant differences that did emerge from this study have implications for school
districts and school sites.
Several of the significant findings which differentiated first year from
experienced teachers appeared to be due to differences in teaching experience. For
the beginning teacher, this included age, having a mentor and feeling only somewhat
effective as a teacher. The experience factor may also apply to the perception of
school effectiveness. New teachers do not have the years of experience that veteran
teachers have, nor have they taught in other schools or grades; hence, novice teachers
have no basis for comparison. For the first year teacher, most schools may initially
seem to be effective. In addition, feeling efficacious may also be related to the
experiences gained over several years of teaching. As teachers gain experience, they
may begin to feel more and more competent in the classroom.
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The level of satisfaction with teaching appeared to affect how teachers rated
themselves in the area of conscientiousness. This interaction was much stronger for
the new teachers than for the veterans. Satisfaction with teaching also impacted how
beginning teachers rated themselves on collaboration. This did not hold true for the
experienced teachers.
Professional support was an area of higher satisfaction for novice teachers
than for their more experienced counterparts. This is likely related to the mentor or
coach assigned to the majority of first year teachers.
Internal teaching conditions had a much higher effect on new teachers than
experienced educators. Again, this is likely due to the amount of experience with
teaching that each group had. IC consisted of four items: parent attitudes, student
behaviors, class size, and materials/equipment. As a teacher gains experience, it can
be expected that student behaviors will decrease, parent attitudes will improve and
the teacher collects additional materials and equipment for the classroom. Class size
by itself was an area of discontent among the new teachers, and affected this scale as
well.
The two-way interaction between level of experience and perception of
adequately prepared to teach on IC was one of the most intriguing findings of this
study. It is logical that a new teacher who feels only “somewhat” prepared to teach
might be more likely to leave the profession due to IC. It also stands to reason that
the beginning teacher who feels adequately prepared to teach would be less likely to
leave due to the same factor. It is unclear why the reverse held true for the veteran
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teachers. Perhaps as experience is accrued, teachers begin to have higher
expectations of their working conditions and become less satisfied with them over
time.
New Teachers
The composition of California’s new teachers is changing, at least in southern
California. In the present study, new teachers were considerably more diverse than
the teachers in the State as a whole (CDE, 1998). They also appeared to be more
satisfied with the profession (83%) than prior research (75%, Runyan, 1990) has
indicated.
dear and Emergency Credential Differences
More emergency credentialed teachers were non-white, held a bachelor
degree and attended or were attending a CSU campus. These may all be related to
the economic means of non-white individuals interested in pursuing a teaching
career. Clear holders of elementary credentials were likely to be white, hold a
degree beyond a bachelor and attend or have attended a private college or university.
These, too, may all be related to the economic means available to white teaching
candidates.
Emergency credential holders also felt less adequately prepared to teach,
holding a bachelor degree, but no additional coursework in teaching pedagogy or
towards a credential. This finding is obvious on its face but there is now data to
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indicate that a teaching credential may have some influence on a new teacher’s
perception of feeling adequately prepared to teach.
The same holds true for perceptions of teaching effectiveness. Emergency
credentialed new teachers perceive their teaching as less effective than their clear
credentialed counterparts. This may be a function of the additional coursework and
preparation required for a clear credential.
More and more non-white individuals are making their way into teaching,
through a variety of routes including the use of an emergency credential. While this
holds promise in addressing the current imbalance in teacher and student ethnicity, it
may be an area of concern when related to new teacher satisfaction and retention.
New teachers are generally satisfied with both their profession and their
present teaching assignment. This is good news for the profession as a whole, and
runs counter to the current rate of 30-50% for teacher attrition (CTC, 1998; Darling-
Hammond, 1997).
The first year teachers in the present study were the most satisfied with their
student and parent relationships. This finding substantiates previous findings
(Ayalon, 1989; Shepston & Johnson, 1997) that interactions with students were the
most frequently cited source of satisfaction for teachers in general. Beginning
teachers were the least satisfied with the time demands and stress of their jobs,
another finding that is verified in the literature (NCTAF, 1996).
No surprising findings emerged from the current study with regard to how
new teachers were the same or different from experienced teachers. New teachers
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were younger and rated their teaching effectiveness lower than did their more
experienced colleagues. These factors are all potentially related to experience and
overall preparation.
New teachers were more satisfied with the professional support that they
received than veteran teachers. It is possible that this is related to the assignment of
a mentor or coach to the first year teachers, or the presence of “new teacher” support
programs at school sites or districts.
Implications
It is generally accepted that there are significant differences between first
year and experienced teachers. These differences have necessitated different training
and support for the two groups of teachers.
The fact that the majority of the teachers in this study were interested in
remaining in the classroom in some capacity, is a positive finding for children,
classrooms, schools and districts. This is, however, somewhat troubling for those
interested in recruiting school administrators from the ranks of teachers.
The level of administrative and collegial support tended to be a source of
satisfaction for the teachers in this study (more so for the novices than for the
veterans). This supports the efforts that districts and site administrators have made
to provide a mentor or coach or some other methods of support for the beginning
teacher.
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There were only a few significant differences between emergency and clear
credentialed beginning teachers, with the majority of those differences among the
demographic and process variables. At least for the variables examined in this study
(personal characteristics, perception of school effectiveness, job satisfaction
components, and reasons contributing to teacher attrition), new teachers were
indistinguishable from each other based on credential status. The implication for
school sites and school and district administration is that this group of teachers (first
year, regardless of credential status) should be supported in the same manner.
Providing additional avenues of financial support may assist in the
recruitment effort of districts. The majority of the non-white, emergency
credentialed teachers were attending CSU campuses or programs. These institutions
are less expensive than the UC system and private colleges. By inference, financial
considerations may affect how non-white teacher candidates enter the profession and
receive their training. Creating or adding additional paths of financial support may
assist in the recruitment of a more diverse teaching staff.
This lack of differences indicated that districts in southern California are
doing a good job of recruiting diverse candidates for the classroom. Their level of
satisfaction and retention rates also point to districts making an effective effort to
support their first year teachers. No significant implications emerged in the areas of
differentiated training or support needs for the two groups of novice teachers.
However, new teachers continue to indicate a need for support from their
146
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administrators and their colleagues as well as strategies to address the time demands
of their chosen profession.
Suggestions for Future Research
Based on the findings in the current study, several areas for further
investigation emerged. A more in-depth look at the perceptions and needs of first
year teachers based on the credential held might elicit differences that were not
present in this study.
Teacher politics was repeatedly listed as a source of dissatisfaction with
teaching. Further study into what exactly comprises teacher politics, and how each
of the components of this factor affects teacher satisfaction, would be helpful in
counteracting the negative influences of teacher politics.
Further research into additional grade levels (4-5,6-8,9-12), as well as
including specialized teachers (special education, alternative education, etc.), would
bring additional information and possibly differentiate training and/or support needs
of other groups of teachers.
Recruiting and supporting new teachers holding all types of credentials is
critical to the students, schools, and teaching profession. As research expands in this
field, more information will be amassed to ensure that the highest possible number of
effective teachers remain in the profession of teaching.
147
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APPENDIX A
SUPPLEMENTAL TABLES
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Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for General Retention Factors.
Study Population
Factor Number Percent
I . Intend to remain in teaching until retirement
l.a. Yes 193 79.1
Lb. No 38 15.6
Missing 13 5.3
Total 244 100.0
2. Future plans
2.a. remain in current position 110 45.1
2.b. change schools 69 28.3
2.c. move to another grade 87 35.7
2.d. become a master teacher 140 57.4
2.e. move to administrative position 57 23.4
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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Individual Retention Factors.
Study Population
Factors that might lead to leaving the profession Number Percent
1. Parent attitudes
l.a A little (1-3) 172 70.5
1 .b. Yes (4-5) 58 23.8
Missing 14 5.7
Total 244 100.0
2. Student behaviors
2.a A little (1-3) 162 66.4
2.b. Yes (4-5) 69 28.3
Missing 13 5.3
Total 244 100.0
3. Class size
3.a A little (1-3) 161 66.0
3.b. Yes (4-5) 69 28.3
Missing 14 5.7
Total 244 100.0
4. Amount of materials/equipment
4.a A little (1-3) 163 66.8
4.b. Yes (4-5) 67 27.4
Missing 14 5.7
Total 244 100.0
160
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Table 2. (continued)
Factors that might lead to leaving the profession Number Percent
5. Teacher politics
5.a A little (1-3) 106 43.5
5.b. Yes (4-5) 129 52.9
Missing 9 3.7
Total 244 100.0
6. Amount of administrative support
6.a A little (1-3) 118 48.3
6.b. Yes (4-5) 116 47.5
Missing 10 4.1
Total 100.0
7. Amount of administrative feedback
7.a A little (1-3) 142 58.2
7.b. Yes (4-5) 91 37.3
Missing 1 1 4.5
Total 244 100.0
8. Level of control over materials and supplies
8.a A little (1-3) 157 64.4
8.b. Yes (4-5) 71 29.1
Missing 16 6.6
Total 244 100.0
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Table 3. Chi-Square Test of Demographic and Process Statistics of Study
Population by Teaching Experience.
Teaching Experience
First Year Veteran
Descriptor N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
1. Age
1.a. 20-24
l.b. 25-29
I.e. 30-34
l.d. 35-39
1 .e. over 39
Total
46
80
19
18
18
181
25.4
44.2
10.5
9.9
9.9
100.0
5
28
15
4
11
63
7.9
44.4
23.8
6.3
17.5
100.0
15.67** 4
2. Ethnicity
2.a. White
2.b. Non-White
Missing
Total
90
90
1
181
49.7
49.7
.6
100.0
33
30
0
63
52.4
47.6
0
1 00.0
.11 1
3. Highest Degree Earned
3 .a BA
3.b. MA
Missing
Total
147
27
7
181
81.2
14.9
3.9
100.0
50
13
0
63
79.4
20.6
0
100.0
.86 1
4. Credential
4.a. Emergency
4.b. Preliminary
4.c. Clear
Missing
Total
92
50
38
1
181
50.8
27.6
21.0
.6
100.0
36
11
15
1
63
57.1
17.5
23.8
.6
100.0
2.46
2
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Table 3. (continued)
Teaching Experience
First Year Velteran
Descriptor N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
5. Grade Level Taught
5.a. Kindergarten
5.b. 1st
5.c. 2n d
5.d. 3rd
Missing
Total
49
44
34
40
14
181
27.1
24.3
18.8
22.1
7.7
100.0
12
16
10
18
7
63
19.0
25.4
15.9
28.6
11.1
100.0
2.25 3
6. IHE Attended/Attending
6.c. CSU
6.e. private college or university
Missing
Total
92
68
21
181
50.8
37.6
11.6
100.0
33
27
3
63
52.4
42.9
4.8
100.1
.11 1
7. Mentor or Coach Assigned
7.a. Yes
7.b. No
Total
153
28
181
84.5
15.5
100.0
41
22
63
65.1
34.9
100.0
10.85** 1
8. Perception of Adequately
Prepared to Teach
8.a. Not Much (1-3)
8.b. Yes (4)
8.c. Very Much (5)
Total
50
84
47
181
27.6
46.4
26.0
100.0
13
24
26
63
20.6
38.1
41.3
100.0
5.27
2
163
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Table 3. (continued)
Teaching Experience
First Year Velteran
Descriptor N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
9. Perception of Effectiveness of
Teaching
9.a Effective (a)
9.b. Somewhat Effective (b-c)
Total
116
65
181
64.1
35.9
100.0
52
11
63
82.5
17.5
100.0
7.42** 1
10. Satisfaction with Present Position
lO.a. Not Satisfied (1-3)
lO.b. Satisfied (4-5)
Total
48
133
181
26.5
73.5
100.0
22
41
63
34.9
65.1
100.0
1.61 1
11. Satisfaction with Teaching in
General
1 l.a. Not Satisfied (1-3)
ll.b. Satisfied (4-5)
Missing
Total
46
134
1
181
25.4
74.0
.6
100.0
21
42
0
63
33.3
66.7
0
100.0
1.414 1
* E < .05
** E< .01
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Table 4. Chi-Square Test of General Retention Statistics of Study Population by Teaching Experience.
Teaching Experience
First Year Veteran
Yes No Yes No
Retention Rate N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
Intend to remain until
retirement
142 83.0 29 17.0 51 85.0 9 15.0 .02244 1
Future Plans N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
1 Remain in Current Position
2 Change School
3 Change Grade Level
4 Become a Master Teacher
5 Go into Administration
80
51
68
105
42
56.3
36.2
49.3
76.1
31.8
62
90
70
33
90
43.7
63.8
50.7
23.9
68.2
30
18
19
35
15
60.0
39.1
42.2
72.9
31.3
20
28
26
13
33
40.0
60.9
57.8
27.1
68.8
.08064
.03436
.42362
.05969
.00000
1
1
1
1
1
* p < .05 significance
o\
U l
Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table S. Chi-Square Test of Individual Retention Statistics of Study Population by Teaching Experience.
Teaching Experience
First Year Veteran
A Littie (1-3) A Lot (4-5) A Little (1-3) A Lot (4-5)
Individual Factors for Leaving N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-Square df
Teaching
1. Parent attitudes 124 72.4 46 27.1 48 80.0 12 20.0 .82734 1
Total: 230
2. Student behaviors 117 68.4 54 31.6 45 75.0 15 25.0 .63052 1
Total: 231
3. Class size 113 66.5 57 33.5 48 80.0 12 20 3.24813* 1
Total: 230
4. Amt. of materials/equipment
Total: 230
117 68.8 53 31.2 46 76.7 14 23.3 .96883 1
5. Teacher politics
Total: 235
79 45.4 95 54.6 27 44.3 34 55.7 .00002 1
6. Amount of admin, support 93 53.4 81 46.6 25 41.7 35 58.3 2.02846 1
Total: 234
7. Amount of admin, feedback 110 63.6 63 36.4 32 53.3 28 46.7 1.55951 1
Total: 233
8. Level of control over 117 69.6 51 30.4 40 66.7 20 33.3 .07020 1
materials/equipment
Total: 228
*p < .05 significance
Table 6. Chi-Square Test of Demographic and Process Statistics of
First Year Teachers by Credential Status.
Type of Credential
Emergency Clear
Factor N Percent N Percent Chi-Square df
1. Age
1. a. 20-24
l.b. 25-29
I.e. 30-35
l.d. 36-39
I .e. over 40
Total
Missing case: 1
22
39
11
11
9
92
23.9
42.4
12.0
12.0
9.8
100.1
24
40
8
7
9
88
27.3
45.5
9.1
8.0
10.2
100.1
1.37398 4
2. Ethnicity
2.a. White
2.b. Non-White
Total
Missing case: 1
31
61
92
33.7
66.3
1 00.0
59
29
88
67.0
33.0
100.0
18.69812** 1
3. Highest Degree Earned
3 .a. BA
3.b. MA +
Total
Missing case: 1
86
6
92
93.5
6.5
100.0
61
27
88
69.3
30.7
100.0
15.95857** 1
4. Credential Status
4.a. Emergency
4.b Preliminary/Clear
Total
Missing case: 1
92
0
92
100
0
100.0
0
88
88
0
100
1 00.0
180.00000**
2
5. Grade Level Teaching
Assignment
5.a kindergarten
5.b. first
5.c. second
5.d. third
5.e. combination
Total
Missing case: 1
38
17
15
15
7
92
41.3
18.5
16.3
16.3
7.6
100.0
11
27
19
25
6
88
12.5
30.7
21.6
28.4
6.8
1 00.0
20.11884** 4
167
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 6. (continued)
Type of Credential
Emergency Clear
Factor N Percent N Percent Chi-Square df
6. IHE Attending/Attended
6.a CSU
6.b. Private College/University
Total
Missing case: I
79
26
105
86
28
104
50
42
92
57
48
105
17.29129**
6.44633**
I
1
7. Mentor or Coach Assigned
7.a. Yes
7.b. No
Total
Missing case: I
80
12
92
87.0
13.0
100.0
72
16
88
81.8
18.2
100.0
.90404 1
8. Perception of Adequately
Prepared to Teach
8.a. Adequately prepared
8.b Somewhat prepared
Total
Missing case: 1
59
33
92
64.1
35.9
100.0
71
17
88
80.7
19.3
1 00.0
5.34452* 1
9. Perception of Teaching
Effectiveness
9.a. Effective
9.b. Somewhat Effective
Total
Missing case: 1
42
49
92
46.2
53.7
100.0
66
22
88
75
25
100.0
8.29514** 1
10. Satisfaction with Present
Teaching Position
I0.a. Not Satisfied (1-3)
lO.b Satisfied (4-5)
Missing
Total
Missing case: 1
26
66
0
92
28.3
71.7
0
100.0
20
67
1
88
22.7
76.1
1.1
99.9
.65097 1
11 ■ Satisfaction with Teaching in
General
I l.a. Not Satisfied (1-3)
II .b Satisfied (4-5)
Total
Missing case: 1
27
65
92
29.3
70.7
100.0
21
67
88
23.9
76.1
100.0
.69176 I
* E < 05
** E < .01
168
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 7. Chi - Square Test of General Retention Statistics for First Year Teachers by Credential Status.
Type of Credential
Emergency Clear
Yes No Yes No
Retention Rate N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
Intend to remain until
retirement
Total: 170
72
88
82.0 16 18.0 69
82
84.0 13 16.0 .6868 1
Future Plans N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-
Square
df
1. Remain in Current Position
2. Change School
3. Change Grade Level
4. Become a Master Teacher
5. Go into Administration
41
27
37
48
25
55.4
38.0
52.1
68.6
37.3
33
44
34
22
42
44.6
62.0
47.9
31.4
62.7
39
24
31
57
17
57.4
34.3
46.3
83.8
26.2
29
46
36
1 1
48
42.6
65.7
53.7
16.2
73.8
.05464
.21383
.47101
4.41004*
1.89394
1
1
1
1
1
* p < .05
Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 8. Chi-Square Test of Individual Retention Statistics for First Year Teachers by Credential Status.
Type of Credential
Emergency Clear
A Little (1-3) A Lot (4-5) A Little (1-3) A Lot (4-5)
Individual Factors for Leaving Teaching N Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent Chi-
square
df
1 . Parent attitudes 69 78.4 19 21.6 55 67.9 26 32.1 2.38368 1
Total: 169
2. Student behaviors 65 73.9 23 26.1 52 63.4 30 36.6 2.15990 1
Total: 170
3. Class size 60 69.0 27 31.0 53 64.6 29 35.4 .35744 1
Total: 169
4. Amount of materials/equipment
Total: 169
63 71.6 25 28.4 54 66.7 27 33.3 .48011 1
5. Teacher politics 39 43.8 50 56.2 40 47.6 44 52.4 .25134 1
Total: 173
6. Amount of administrative support 45 50.0 45 50.0 48 57.8 35 42.2 1.06528 1
Total: 173
7. Amount of administrative feedback 52 58.4 37 41.6 57 68.7 26 31.3 1.94305 1
Total: 172
8. Level of control over materials/equipment 62 70.5 26 29.5 55 69.6 24 30.4 .01381 1
Total: 167

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brown, Marsha Ann (author)

Core Title Differential characteristics of beginning teachers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, administration,Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee chair), Baker, Robert (committee member), Ferris, Robert (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-144022

Unique identifier UC11334458

Identifier 3054716.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-144022 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3054716-0.pdf

Dmrecord 144022

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Brown, Marsha Ann

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA