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African American airmen and the CCAF degree: a mixed methods study conducted on joint base Pearl Harbor-Hickam

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African American airmen and the CCAF degree: a mixed methods study conducted on joint base Pearl Harbor-Hickam

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Content Running head: AFRICAN AMERICAN AIRMEN AND THE CCAF DEGREE

AFRICAN AMERICAN AIRMEN AND THE CCAF DEGREE:
A MIXED METHODS STUDY CONDUCTED ON
JOINT BASE PEARL HARBOR-HICKAM

by

Jenise D. Stewart

______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015

Copyright 2015 Jenise D. Stewart
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE ii

Dedication

“Trust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto thine own understanding. In all
thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths” Proverbs 3:5-6.
“I can do all things in Christ who strengthens me” Phillipians 4:13
I give all praise, glory and honor to my heavenly Father without whom this journey
would not have been possible. I am in awe and incredibly thankful for the many blessings that
you continually bestow upon me. My cup has overflowed; I now drink from my saucer.
I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Beverly Stewart and Richard & Carolyn
Stewart. Your unconditional love, support and encouragement provided me with persistence and
determination throughout my academic pursuit. Your unwavering faith inspired me; your
ceaseless prayers sustained me. I love you!

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE iii

Acknowledgements
Thank you to my dissertation chair member, Dr. Lawrence Picus, I appreciate your
suggestions as well as the flexibility and autonomy given to me throughout the dissertation
process. Also thanks to committee members Dr. Monique Datta for your support throughout the
program and to Dr. Dominic Brewer for agreeing to be my outside committee member at the last
minute as well as your recommendations and well wishes.
To the Force Development Flight team of Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, William
Jones, William Kono and Flora Wood, thank you for sharing your personal communication input
about the CCAF program. To Colonel Dexter Harrison, thank you so much for approving the
study to be conducted on JBPHH. Also thank you to Richard Graham and CMSgt Michael
Andrews for providing me with the enlisted race demographics and CCAF graduation data. In
addition, my heartfelt gratitude to the participants who volunteered to be a part of the dissertation
study. I appreciate your perspective, honesty and trust. Most importantly, I respect your
commitment and service to this country, thank you!
Lastly, hugs to family, friends, church members and co-workers who provided me with
an abundance of moral support throughout this program. I do not want to list names for fear that
I may forget someone. Your love, encouragement, prayers and well wishes motivated me more
than you will ever know. Also to my USC 2012 Hawaii Cohort classmates, I have been
privileged to meet and be associated with such a diverse and talented group of people, a few of
whom I have grown quite fond of. Many memories have been captured during our matriculation
with one another; I wish you all the absolute best in your professional and personal endeavors.

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE iv

Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 2
Background of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 6
Voluntary Education ................................................................................................................ 7
Community College of the Air Force ...................................................................................... 8
Tuition Assistance ................................................................................................................... 9
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 10
Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................................. 11
Research Questions................................................................................................................ 12
Importance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 13
Delimitations ......................................................................................................................... 13
Assumptions .......................................................................................................................... 13
Organization of the Study ...................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 15
Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................... 16
Higher Education ................................................................................................................... 17
Military Enlistment ................................................................................................................ 23
Military Education ................................................................................................................. 24
United States Air Force Enlisted Airmen .............................................................................. 27
Community College of the Air Force .................................................................................... 29
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE v

Educational Benefits .............................................................................................................. 36
Social Support........................................................................................................................ 41
Barriers .................................................................................................................................. 46
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 48
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 49
Research Design .................................................................................................................... 49
Sample and Population .......................................................................................................... 51
Instrumentation ...................................................................................................................... 52
Data Collection/Location Site ............................................................................................... 54
Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 57
Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................................... 58
Ethics/Confidentiality/Consent .............................................................................................. 59
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 60
Quantitative Data ................................................................................................................... 61
Findings ................................................................................................................................. 66
Summary of Quantitative Findings........................................................................................ 70
Qualitative Data ..................................................................................................................... 72
Findings ................................................................................................................................. 75
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 99
Chapter Five: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 100
Findings and Interpretations ................................................................................................ 100
Implications for Practice ...................................................................................................... 103
Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................... 104
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE vi

Recommendations for Future Studies.................................................................................. 105
Summary and Conclusion .................................................................................................... 106
References ................................................................................................................................... 107
Appendix A Air Force Enlisted Rank Chart ............................................................................. 117
Appendix B Glossary ................................................................................................................ 118
Appendix C Request for Participants ........................................................................................ 119
Appendix D Informed Consent Form ....................................................................................... 121
Appendix E Interview Questions .............................................................................................. 122

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE vii

List of Figures and Tables

Figure 2.1 Department of Defense TA Participants ..................................................................... 40

Table 4.1 Demographics and Conferred CCAF Degrees FY 2010-2014 ..................................... 62

Table 4.2 Enlisted Airmen Representation & Earned CCAF Degrees FY 2010-2014 ................. 64

Table 4.3 Five Year Trend 2010-2014 .......................................................................................... 65

Table 4.4 Description of Participants ........................................................................................... 73

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 1

Abstract
This mixed method study determined if enlisted African American airmen (E3-E6)
stationed on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam (JBPHH) during fiscal years 2010-2014 were
underrepresented or overrepresented in earning the Community College of the Air Force (CCAF)
degree. This study compared African American’s enlisted population to their group
representation for earning the CCAF degree. The percentages of earned CCAF degrees from
Black airmen were compared to the percentages of earned CCAF degrees of their White,
Hispanic, Asian and Pacific Islander counterparts from fiscal years 2010-2014. In addition
interviews were conducted to reveal the perceptions that Black airmen had regarding the CCAF
program and the value of the CCAF degree.
The quantitative findings from this study revealed that Black airmen were an
overrepresented group for earning the CCAF degree on JBPHH. The findings showed that
Black airmen earned the CCAF degree at higher rates than White, Asian and Pacific Islander
airmen. Hispanic airmen earned the CCAF degree at higher rates than all aforementioned
groups thus a recommendation for a future study would be to determine the reasons why
Hispanic airmen are an overrepresented group on JBPHH.
The qualitative findings revealed that participants joined the military to take advantage
of educational benefits offered by the military. Participants also revealed that they perceived
the CCAF degree to be very valuable in the Air Force and how intrinsic and extrinsic
motivating factors drove them to earn the CCAF degree. The majority of the participants did
not however perceive the CCAF degree to be valuable in the civilian sector. Therefore a
recommendation for a future study would be to use a larger sample size in addition to surveys
to capture and measure factors related to airmen and their perspective of the CCAF degree.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 2

Chapter One: Introduction
The presence of African Americans in the armed forces began during the
Revolutionary War where freed slaves fought on the side of the British as well as the colonists
(Lutz, 2008). During the last 35 years of the nineteenth century, Blacks
1
made up a larger
fraction of the U.S. military than they did of the general population. Military service has
historically played an important political role for African Americans (Lutz, 2008). While
segregation was prevalent, voluntary enlistment of African Americans in the military grew
slowly. Shortly after World War II the military had begun to rely on the enlistment of young
African Americans and therefore on July 26, 1948, Executive Order 9981 was issued
prohibiting racial discrimination and outlawing segregation in the armed forces (Lutz, 2008).
After an unpopular Vietnam War, White Americans were reluctant to volunteer,
causing military enlistment to decline. Due to the large demand for military manpower,
recruitment efforts began to focus on minority groups. This action further magnified the
importance to integrate the services with military members who were willing to fill ranks and
serve their country. Consequently, in 1973 the U.S. military became an all-volunteer force
(AVF) (Burk & Espinoza, 2012).
In order to actively recruit African Americans to an AVF, an atmosphere free of
discrimination and guaranteed equal opportunity had to be agreed upon; and in order for
Blacks to reenlist, the military had to abide by those promises (Lutz, 2008). Racial problems
continued to exist in the military however not at the magnitude that Black civilians had to
endure. While some branches were more averse to complying with integration than others,

1
African American and Black is used interchangeably
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 3

race relations in the armed services began to make progress by implementing institutional
practices that protected the rights of minority service members (Burk & Espinoza, 2012).
Since the conversion to an AVF, African Americans have served in the U.S. military
in numbers greater than their percent of the general population (Segal, Thanner & Segal,
2007). African Americans are also considered the “majority-minority” in that they serve in
the military at higher rates than their Latino, Asian, Native American and Pacific Islander
counterparts (Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, 2012; Kleykamp, 2010).
Black representation in the military doubled between 1972 and 1981 to become 22 percent of
the enlisted population. During the 1990s, Black representation in the military leveled to 20
percent of the force and dropped as low as 13 percent in 2006. In 2012 African Americans
made up 13.1 percent of the general civilian population while at the same time representing
16.2 percent of the enlisted population (United States Census Bureau, 2014; Office of the
Deputy Under Secretary Defense, 2012). The percentage of African Americans continues to
remain below 20 percent of the enlisted force yet higher than the Black civilian population
(Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, 2012).
Many Black Americans have observed the military as more egalitarian than civilian
society, particularly in terms of advancement opportunities and economic stability. Research
also shows that disadvantaged groups seek the military for economic equality, social mobility
and educational opportunities (Leal 2005; Harris, 2009; Kleykamp, 2006). African
Americans in particular are attracted to the service as it provides steady employment,
numerous benefits and a less discriminatory surroundings (Kleykamp, 2006; Kelty,
Kleykamp, & Segal, 2010). Enlisted Black members perceive the military to be a more
meritocratic environment that will provide opportunities for career advancement. Due to
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 4

economic conditions combined with the increased cost of college tuition, many view military
enlistment as an attractive alternative. Since the military has been recognized for changing
the economic and educational status for African Americans it is for these reasons, according
to the research, why African Americans are an overrepresented population in the services
(Leal, 2005; Kelty, et al., 2010; Harris, 2009; Kleykamp, 2006).
The United States Armed Forces is committed to a climate of equal opportunity and a
bridging environment that allows minorities to integrate into a socially representative force
that is acceptable of all racial and ethnic backgrounds (Burk & Espinoza, 2012; Leal, 2005).
Many young men and women whose opportunities are constrained by socioeconomic barriers
and educational disparities are likely to consider military service. Elder, Wang, Spence,
Adkins, and Brown (2010) describe the decision to enlist as “According to theory and
evidence, these choices and actions are influenced by socioeconomic origins and school
achievement; by the absence and presence of social support; and by a history of aggressive
behavior” (p. 457). Other factors that contribute to enlistment is the access to financial
support, advanced education and skill development (Elder et al., 2010; Kime & Anderson,
2000; Harris, 2009; Leal, 2005; Kleykamp, 2006). With the availability of these types of
benefits and social support factors, the military has become particularly accessible to those
from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Studies report that recruitment into the military is linked to low socioeconomics, less
educated parents and larger sized family (Kleykamp, 2006; Leal, 2005). Youth who come
from lower socioeconomic origins are often marginalized and therefore do not have access to
the socioeconomic advantages associated with social mobility. They are less likely than
others to do well in school as they receive less structure in terms of preparing for higher
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 5

education and they also receive less social support; consequently the military becomes the
path of choice (Leal, 2005). There is however additional research that indicates that there are
those who come from poor backgrounds who do have positive family influence and receive
positive social support and thus are encouraged to enlist (Kleykamp, 2006; Harper, Patton, &
Wooden, 2009). Bachman, Segal, Doan and O'Malley (2000) conducted a study that found
the highest rates of military enlistments from high school graduates came from single-parent
families, and the lowest came from students with two parents; overall the evidence suggests
that young men and women from nontraditional families received the greatest influence to
enlist in the military.
Historically, African American military members reenlist at higher rates than their
white counterparts. However research shows that the propensity to enlist for Black
Americans had significantly dropped down in 2006 to as low as 9 percent which was less than
their representation of the general population (Armor & Gilroy, 2009). Several factors
contributed to this phenomenon such as increased educational opportunities, low
unemployment rates, an unpopular Gulf War and young Black youth who sought higher
wages in various genres. However, in 2008 African American enlistment had risen to nearly
15 percent as the state of the economy in general and labor market conditions in particular
were shown to be a significant factor. Black enlistment in 2009-2014 remained around 15
percent showing once again African Americans to be overrepresented in the military (Amor &
Gilroy, 2009). The research continues to show that while the retention rates of enlisted
African Americans are less than their predecessors whose representation was as high as 35
percent, there continues to be a demographic of African Americans who seek the military.
The desire to increase social stratification along with having access to educational benefits
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 6

have been identified as primary reasons as to why African Americans enlist in the military
(Armor & Gilroy, 2009; Harris, 2009; Kelty et al., 2010).
Background of the Problem
Black students who have been disenfranchised or Black students who are of a low
socioeconomic status, the aspiration of earning a college degree may be hindered by college
admissions criteria and/or the financial costs associated with going to college. Research
shows that the U.S. military is an alternative for a number of Black high school graduates;
many African American students who graduate high school view the military as an alternate
choice to the civilian labor force as it provides a source of socioeconomic advantages and
social mobility (Wang, Elder & Spence, 2012). The military offers full-time employment
opportunities and is also the means of building human capital through skill building, training
and education. In turn, many Black military members have been able to transfer those skills
into the civillian work force or continue a desirable career path in the military (Kleykamp,
2010). For many young African Americans, the military is also an opportunity to pursue
higher education and obtain a college degree. The issue of access and equity becomes less
pervasive as everyone in the military are entitled to educational benefits which can lead to
successful educational achievement and improve socioeconomic status and social mobility
(Harris, 2009; Kleykamp, 2010).
While the military service historically has been male dominated, the number of
females who serve continues to rise. For women, gender based occupations are less
pronounced in the military than in the civilian sector, this is due to the military’s commitment
to equal opportunities (Burk & Espinoza, 2012). Specifically, research shows that Black
women are more likely to serve in the military than their male peers and constitute a
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 7

significant proportion of the overall female enlistment in the military. In 2006 African
American women made up 31.3 percent of enlisted women compared to 17.2 percent of
enlisted black men (Segal et al., 2007). This is due in part that Black women are a double-
minority in the civilian force. Many young African American females are likely to be
attracted to the military to elude the two edge sword of wage discrimination in the civilian
economy based on both race and gender. Compared to their White counterparts, Black
females are more likely to remain in the military, especially if they are married. Black
women are also more likely than other women to hold nontraditional jobs which contributes
to a more representative distribution of women and men across military occupations (Burk &
Espinoza, 2012).
Voluntary Education
The Department of Defense (DoD) Voluntary Education program provides off duty
educational opportunities for all service members seeking to enhance their professional and
personal growth (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). The purpose of military
education is to enhance training and development and prepare service members for military
and civilian careers (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). Voluntary education
programs are required to provide active duty members with high-quality programs
comparable to on-campus programs offered to traditional students (Kime & Anderson, 2000).
Military members are encouraged to be autonomous learners and in doing so they are to be
empowered with knowledge, skills and abilities that is needed for military performance and
society in general (Kime & Anderson, 2000). Voluntary education programs are available to
all branches of the military. Specifically, the U.S. Air Force is the only branch that has a
federally chartered degree-granting institution exclusively serving enlisted personnel
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 8

(Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). African Americans who enlist with the U.S.
Air Force can pursue a Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) degree.
Community College of the Air Force
The Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) is a federally charted and regionally
accredited by the Southern Association of Accredited Colleges and Schools (SACS). The
CCAF program evolved in the early 1970s as a means of gaining recognition for Air Force
training. Representatves from Air University and the Air Force Academy met with
representatives from the Air Training Command to discuss the need for increased
development of noncommissioned officers and as a result the Air Force Community College
was established as an institution that offers the Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degree
for active duty Air Force enlisted personnel (Community College of the Air Force Catalog
2014-2016, 2014).
While the CCAF does not have a traditional campus, it has administrative offices
located on Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base in Alabama. There are approximately 6,300
CCAF faculty members who provide instruction toward the personal and professional
development of enlisted members. Civilian collegiate institutions provide the course work to
satisfy general education requirements. The CCAF offers 68 degree programs and has more
than 300,000 registered students and since issuing its first degree in 1977, it has awarded
more than 400,000 Associate in Applied Science degrees and is the largest multi campus
community college in the world (Community College of the Air Force Catalog 2014-2016,
2014).
There are core academic requirements that must be fulfilled by completion of college
courses or successful completion of college level examinations such as CLEPS or DANTES.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 9

The CCAF degree program requires that 64 credit hours be taken in five specialized areas:
electronics and telecommunications, allied health, logistics and resources, and public and
support services. Service members of the United States Air Force earn credit hours of
physical education when they report for Basic Military Training (BMT). In addition to BMT,
technical school, career development courses (CDCs) and professional military education
(PME) such as Airmen Leadership School (ALS) allow for airmen to earn college credit. It is
at this point in their career that they are eligible to take classes toward their CCAF degree.
General education requirements such as English, math, social science and humanities are
taken at most colleges and universities. The CCAF program is partnered with more than 106
affiliated Air Force schools, 256 worldwide education services offices and more than 1,500
civilian academic higher education institutions. Each Air Force base is supported by an
Education Services Center staffed with administrators, education specialists and test
examiners. Air Force members may use tuition assistance to fund their courses (DANTES
Information Bulletin, 2014).
Tuition Assistance
Enlisted service members are afforded opportunities for pursuing and financing their
education. From the perspective of the Department of Defense (DOD) an educated force
should be able to increase productivity, increase retention and increase morale (Thirtle, 2001).
Therefore the United States Air Force (USAF) offers tuition assistance (TA) in the amount of
$4,500 per year to enlisted personnel. Specifically, Enclosure 2 to DOD 1322.25 states that
“tuition assistance shall be available for service members participating in high school
completion and approved post-secondary education programs” (Thirtle, 2001, p. 50). Tuition
Assistance is provided to use towards courses that are offered by post-secondary institutions
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 10

that are regionally or nationally accredited and recognized by the Department of Education
(DOE) as well as the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (Thirtle, 2001).
The Air Force provides TA for active duty airmen to pursue college degrees in CCAF,
yet general figures across the armed forces show low utilization of the Tuition Assistance
Program. The DOD Voluntary Education Management System reflects that in fiscal year
2012 only 26.3 percent of active duty members participated in military tuition assistance
programs (DANTES Information Bulletin, 2014). Given the importance of successful CCAF
completion to promotion, retention, and lifetime earnings, this raises questions as to the
reasons for the low rates. A primary concern is whether outreach efforts are adequately
informing African American airmen about the availability of TA and of its use to pursue a
college degree through CCAF. Relationships between institutional agents cultivate an
expectation that they will act on behalf of the recipient to insure that they are aware of
available resources needed to assist in success (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Statement of the Problem
While the 21
st
Century is an era in which colleges and universities are more diversified
in the areas of race, ethnicities and socio economic status, studies show that equity and access
to higher education for underrepresented students continue to be problematic (Gurin, Dey,
Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002; Iverson 2007). At the same time, community colleges provide
access for those who would not be able to afford more selective institutions; unfortunately
financial constraints for many low income students also hinders them from attending these
institutions as well. To help bridge the gap, The United States Armed Forces support
continued education by providing all service members with financial benefits to be used
towards various degree programs. Specifically the USAF provides a community college for
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 11

active duty Air Force enlisted personnel. Although financial benefits such as tuition
assistance are available to active duty members to use towards post-secondary education,
graduation rates for African Americans appear to be low (DANTES Information Bulletin,
2014).
According to the Air Force Personnel Center (2014) in 2013 the enlisted Air Force
population composed of 261,848 airmen. The number of White airmen made up 73 percent
(191,149.04) of the enlisted force while African American airmen made up 14 percent
(36,658.72) of the enlisted force. That same year the number of enlisted airmen who earned
their CCAF degree was 50,599. White airmen consisted of 68.2 percent (34,520 of the
50,599) who earned their CCAF; in contrast African American airmen were 24 percent (8,850
of the 50,599) who were awarded the CCAF degree. Despite the availability of tuition
assistance, the numbers suggest that a disproportionate number of black airmen remain
underrepresented as CCAF graduates.
The initial appeal of military enlistment for many Black servicemen is to gain access
to better economic opportunities. The military recruitment process emphasizes
socioeconomic advantages to the potential recruit such as a less discriminatory environment,
steady employment and educational benefits (Kleykamp, 2006). Despite the broad range of
career and educational opportunties that the military service offers and given the graduation
rate of the overall enlisted USAF population, low graduation rates are of concern as degree
completion for Black service members appears to be problematic.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this mixed method study is to ascertain if CCAF graduation rates for
African American airmen are representative of the overall percentage of Black airmen while
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 12

stationed on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam for fiscal years 2010-2014. This study will also
compare their graduation rates to those of their peers (Whites, Hispanics, Asians and Pacific
Islanders). Research shows that many African Americans who enlist in the Air Force come
from low income and poor backgrounds and most likely do not have access to socioeconomic
advantages associated with college degree attainment (Harper et al., 2009). Educational
benefits and college opportunities have been used as tools to recruit young men and women of
particular demographics. Yet according to the Air Force Personnel Center (2014) it appears
that African Americans who pursue the CCAF degree are underrepresented. If evidence
reflects that this is the case on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam, educational and military
leaders would need to examine structural and institutional factors to improve graduation rates
for the CCAF degree by Black airmen.
Research Questions
The purpose of a research question is to state clearly what is to be known, learned, or
understood (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Corbin and Strauss (2008) state that research
questions help structure the foundation of the research project. The following research
questions were developed to guide the study.
RQ (1) Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam during 2010-2014 fiscal years?
RQ (2) What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
RQ (3) What is the internal and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by the
participants?
RQ (4) What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 13

Importance of the Study
Military students have access to financial resources that are specifically allocated for
educational purposes. The goal of degree attainment for Black military students is
particularly important in that opportunities become available where career advancement is
more probable both in the military and later in the civilian workforce.
This study is important as the literature does not suggest if African American airmen
are earning the CCAF degree at a rate that reflects their proportion to the enlisted population.
The representation of enlisted African Americans in the Air Force speaks to the need of their
representation as CCAF graduates as it appears that they are underrepresented. Thus, it is
important to examine the CCAF graduation rates of African Americans on JBPHH as it will
give indication on whether or not social support factors are implemented and what, if any,
structural barriers are preventing Black airmen to earn their CCAF degree.
Delimitations
Airmen who are E-7 and above most likely have a CCAF degree as they usually hold
supervisory positions, therefore they are not included in the study. Air Force reservists and
Air National Guard who are classified as part-time do not qualify for tuition assistance and
thus were not included in the study.
Assumptions
One of the assumptions going into the study is that most airmen who enlist in the
military have not earned a college degree. According to the research airmen from
disadvantaged backgrounds are attracted to the educational benefits provided by the military.
Therefore an assumption is that most African American service members desire to earn a
degree while on active duty status.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 14

Organization of the Study
Chapter one provided an overview of how minority youth from disadvantaged
backgrounds continue to be marginalized and social class inequalities remain problematic for
those who want to pursue higher education. Chapter One explained how the military services
provides a bridge for educational and degree attainment. Chapter Two reviewed literature that
focused on military education, specifically the Community College of the Air Force, as well as
benefits and various social support services that are provided through the Air Force. Chapter
Three described the research design, analysis and methodology that was used in this mixed
method study. Chapter Four presented the findings of CCAF graduation rates for African
American airmen on JBPHH. Chapter Five provided a discussion of those findings and their
implications along with suggestions for future studies.

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 15

Chapter Two: Literature Review
The goal of the study examined the representation of African American enlisted
airmen who earned a Community College of the Air Force degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor
Hickam during 2010-2014. The previous chapter provided the essence of the foundation as
the focus is African Americans who enlist in the Air Force and the importance for them to
earn a CCAF degree. Chapter two will present a review of the literature to include an
overview of access and equity of higher education, military education, human capital and the
Community College of the Air Force. Furthermore, the literature will also expand and
integrate factors contributing to social support, internal/external barriers and opportunities
through military education for service members.
A search for scholarly literature regarding military graduation rates produced
minimum results. In addition, there was no literature specific to African Americans who
earned a CCAF degree. Kim (2011) noted that “the Community College of the Air Force is
not open to the public, and therefore is excluded from the calculation of national higher
education data” (p. 4). Available studies that pertained to CCAF participation and completion
were conducted by doctoral students who had an affiliation with the Air Force and Air Force
education service programs; the information however was used sparingly in the literature
review as they are not peer reviewed publications. In addition, while there is a vast amount of
information regarding veterans and the use of the GI Bill, there seems to be a gap in the
literature regarding active duty military members who use tuition assistance (TA).
Furthermore, literature specific to active duty members’ reasons for pursuing or not pursuing
a postsecondary education was also scarce. In addition in-depth literature pertaining to the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 16

CCAF program was minimal. Therefore personal communications were conducted to receive
insight on the operations of the Community College of the Air Force.
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework, also known as conceptual framework, is described as a lens
that allows us to view things in a way that prompts our own individual curiosity, questions
and perspectives; it is the scaffolding or frame of the study and helps to identify what is
known about the topic (Maxwell 2013; Merriam, 2009). The theoretical framework used in
this study is social capital; it provides themes and common elements throughout the literature.
Social Capital Theory. Stanton-Salazar (1977) defines social capital as the
development of supportive relations with institutional agents for the advancement of social
mobility. It is through these relationships and networks that allow a segment of society to
gain access to economic and non-economic resources, information and support systems that
may lead to social progression. The theoretical concept of social capital is attributed to the
French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu, who believed that educational systems in advanced
capitalistic societies work in favor of those who are of a higher class culture. Thus, the
majority of those who do not have access to social capital would inevitably develop inequities
in academic achievement as they are at a disadvantage in the social structure (Dika & Singh,
2002 ). Bourdieu’s concept of social capital is used in educational settings to promote and aid
social groups’ access to resources.
There are three primary components of capital: economic, cultural and social. (1)
Economic capital has the potential to change one’s socioeconomic status, create social
mobility and profit; (2) Cultural capital is acquired by one’s social class and is the
accumulation of non-financial social assets. Various skills such as mannerisms, intellect,
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 17

physical appearance and credentials can promote social mobility; (3) Social capital are how
relationships can convert into socially valued resources and opportunities (Harper, 2008;
Stanton-Salazar, 1977).
Social capital provides the opportunity for groups to acquire various forms of capital
through relationships between people or groups; skills and knowledge are shared and passed
from one group to another, it may be intentional or unintentional. According to Stanton-
Salazar (2004) the learning, development and persistence process towards degree attainment
are co-dependent on social capital. One of the values of social capital as it relates to military
education is that it allows disproportionate groups to gain equal access to social opportunity
and advancement through education (Harper, 2008). While research has confirmed that many
who are disenfranchised are offered limited access to socioeconomic opportunities associated
with college degree attainment, social capital within the U.S. military allows everyone to have
access to educational opportunities. Also social capital allows for military members to
establish relationships with educational support members who are essentially the gatekeepers
of educational benefits such as tuition assistance (TA). Therefore anyone who enlists in the
military, despite socioeconomic status can use social capital as a means to gain access to
institutional resources and opportunity. These supportive relationships are essential to
securing educational success (Harper 2008, Kelty, Kleykamp, & Segal, 2010).
Higher Education
Access and Equity. Throughout the evolution of American higher education, policy
proposals have been offered to promote African American access and achievement. While
legal segregation has been abolished and racial discrimination has been reduced, social-class
inequalities remain problematic in higher education; and although a number of policies have
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 18

been implemented through the legal system, there remains a constant struggle for access and
equity in the educational system between African Americans and their White counterparts
(Carter, 2009; Harper 2008). According to Gamoran (2001) socioeconomics continues to be
the primary reason for educational inequality in the 21
st
century. Educational opportunities
have progressed for all racial groups in America society; however racial equality is legally
and constitutionally protected whereas socioeconomic equality is not. While racial inequality
has become less predominant in educational outcomes, socioeconomic inequality continues to
be pervasive. Evans and Evans (2002) state that minority households continue to have lower
education and lower income levels which contributes to the gap in test scores for college
entry. Dominant groups in society maintain their socioeconomic advantage and continue to
seek ways to provide opportunities to those who share a similar economic status. Gamoran
(2001) further explains that institutions in the 21
st
century will continue to exist in a state of
socioeconomic inequalities as traditional universities are rooted in a system that continues to
embrace exclusionary practices that undermine cultural pluralism.
Research reflects that equity outcomes for minority students who attend traditional
institutions remain problematic. Inequalities continue to divide Latino and African American
students from Asian and White students in higher education; data reflects that Latino and
African Americans are at the lowest rate of attaining an undergraduate degree. Kezar,
Chambers and Burkhardt (2005) contend that the issue of access and equity should be of
major concern to policy officials as it poses negative implications for the economical social
and political welfare of African Americans and other disadvantaged groups. Hence it is
imperative for policymakers and administrators in public and institutional sectors to remain
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 19

cognizant of structural, cultural and institutional barriers that produce racial disparities in
college access and attainment (Harris, 2009).
Equity-mindedness. Bensimon, Rueda, Dowd and Harris (2007) describe equity-
mindedness as a theoretical construct that consists of concepts based on social justice and
fairness towards racial and ethnic students who have a history of exclusion and
marginalization. Many predominately white institutions lack equity-mindedness in that they
have not trained white faculty and staff on how to deal with circumstances when dealing with
a multi-ethnic student body as many staff and faculty members are not aware of prior history
involving discrimination (Carter, 2009). Bensimon (2004) affirms that many faculty and
administrators are not cognizant of stereotypical attributions, examples being equating deficit
qualities to Blacks and Hispanic students and equating achievement qualities to White and
Asian students. Lack of awareness on the part of faculty and staff can have a negative effect
on Black and Hispanic students. Harper and Hurtado (2007) found that some white university
faculty and staff members intentionally avoid conversations regarding race as they do not
want to show cultural ignorance or be misperceived as racist. Racial avoidance on university
campuses serves as a detriment to African American and Latino students; thus feelings of
isolation and lack of support are noted to be common and have a negative effect on academic
performance on Black and Hispanic students. Therefore it is important to provide students of
color with a multi-cultural environment that lends support, encouragement and the cross-
cultural connection that is needed to advocate and promote diversity (Kim, 2011).
According to Bensimon (2009) the admission requirements for numerous institutions
continue to be based upon culturally and economically biased standardized tests; students who
are at a socioeconomic disadvantage are often not considered for admissions at traditional
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 20

colleges and universities. A longitudinal study was conducted by Posselt, Jaquette, Bielby
and Bastedo (2012) that examined institutional stratification by race and ethnicity in 1972-
2004, a period in time where access and equity were important legal issues for college
entrance. The study reflects the changing dynamics of college and university admissions
standards along with the range of criteria to be more stringent and competitive throughout the
time period. Rising requirements for extracurricular leadership and increasing reliance of
SAT scores were found to be a dividing factor to the selective admissions process. While
African Americans and Latinos have shown improvement in academic preparation, the
selective admissions process continues to be more favorable towards Asian and White
students. Institutions will often use a comparative evaluation where admissions criteria are
not equally distributed across race and social economic status. To this point, Posselt et al.
(2012) comment “when evaluation is comparative, admissions becomes a competition and
“winner take all” market in which applicants try to present themselves with ever greater levels
of academic and personal distinctions” (p. 1105). Posselt et al. (2012) also point out the
importance of awareness to access and equity and the need for continued efforts to reduce pre-
college disparities and establish creative attempts with institutional agents that have the power
to make changes. An example of such inroads is the Diversity Scorecard, an initiative project
“designed to foster institutional change in higher education by helping to close the
achievement gap for historically underrepresented students” (Bensimon, 2004, p. 45).
Disaggregated data are used to examine and identify inequities in educational outcomes; the
Diversity Scorecard also examines the cultural and structural barriers that may hinder
institutions of higher learning from producing equitable educational outcomes for students.
While efforts such as institutional stratification and the Diversity Scorecard has shown to be
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 21

an effective process to measure systemic inequities, many institutions have yet to adopt these
policies (Bensimon, 2004).
The achievement gaps between African Americans and their White and Asian
counterparts have decreased over the years, however, there continue to be educational
disparities for African Americans in higher education (Gurin et al., 2002; Carter, 2009). In
2009, 58 percent of Asian Americans aged 25-29 earned a bachelor’s degree, followed by
White Americans at 36 percent and African Americans at 18 percent. In 2012, the American
College Testing (ACT) exam scores showed that Blacks in comparison to their racial
counterparts attained the lowest scores: Asians (23.6), Whites (22.4), Hispanics (18.9) and
African Americans (17.0). Due to the on-going issue of equity and access, the United States
military continues to be an important option for underprivileged men and women seeking
education opportunities and degree attainment (Kim, 2011; Kleykamp, 2010; Harris, 2009;
Burk & Espinoza, 2012).
Social Mobility. Researchers have portrayed the United States armed forces as a key
source of economic equality and social mobility for disadvantaged racial and ethnic groups. It
continues to be a major instituion that provides steady employment and numerous benefits
and compensation in comparison to civilian jobs. The U.S. military has recognized and
supported education and training throughout its history; it has also been an equal opportunity
employer in the recruitment, promotion and retention of minorities (Brown & Gross, 2011;
Harris 2009). Armor (1996) argues that although recruiting objectives do not distinguish race
or ethnicity, black representation is influenced by education and aptitude requirements. If it
were not for the aptitude test requirements African American representation would be higher;
African Americans tend to score lower than white applicants and therefore fewer black
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 22

applicants qualify for enlistment. None-the-less, most researchers agree that African
Americans perceive the military as a positive option in terms of advancement opportunities
and economic stability (Harris, 2009; Kleykamp, 2006).
Human Capital. Many view the military as an equalizing force in society due in part
for the need of human capital. Abilities and skills acquired through education and training is
most likely to enhance potential income earning for military members. The quality and
amount of human capital produced in the military can also contribute towards the
development of the economy. The quality and amount of human capital is based upon the
capacity to contribute to the development of the economy through earnings. An important
aspect of individuals as producers of human capital is life experience, training, skills and
education (Hisnanick, 2003). A higher level of education increases access to information and
empowers individuals; this often leads to higher earnings and stability. Stuart, Rios-Aguilar
& Deil-Amen (2014) assert that associate degrees yield higher earnings compared to high
school diplomas. The more education people have the more its communities are stable which
allows for societies to be stronger and better prepared in a changing labor market.
The military can have a positive impact on human capital as it affords service members
to acquire trades and skills that will transfer to civilian employment. In addition educational
benefits contributes towards the building of human capital as individuals who may not have
been able to get financial capital to attend traditional schools are able to do so as active duty
service members. Once separated from the military veterans who have a degree along with
post-military training can increase their post-service income (Kentor, Jorgenson, & Kick
(2012). Veterans who achieve higher levels of education often times have a positive effect on
post-service income. Black veterans are better able to transfer their educational achievements
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 23

into higher incomes versus their Black civilian counterparts. Also the military can provide
opportunities for non-White veterans to expand their social networks that can bridge the gap
and provide employment opportunities thus increasing human capital (Hisnanick, 2003).
Military Enlistment
DANTES Information Bulletin (2014) reports there are approximately 180,000 men
and women who enlist in the armed forces each year. Young adults who join do it for
patriotism, job training, educational benefits and self-advancement in society by acquiring
skills and training to be used after the service. The U.S. Department of Defense consists of a
large youth labor market and minority composition; one of the goals of American national
security policy is that the military force reflects all segments of society to maintain a socially
representative force (Kelty et al., 2010). Routon (2014) points out that young people with
high wage opportunities in the civilian sector are least likely to enlist in the armed forces.
Wang et al. (2012) on the other hand states that levels of unempolyment and other economic
conditions can highly contribute to military enlistment. Areas where the the military has a
strong presence is influencial with high enlistment as well as children of current or former
military parents disproportionaly serve in the military. Hence the exposure to military culture
and environment often leads to generational commitment to serve in some sort of fashion.
The combination of military experience along with education can be impactful and important
as it can improve both a career in the service or civilian sector. Kleykamp (2006) affirms
men and women who are economically and socially disadvantaged view the military to be an
opportunity for social and economic advancement. While the military is considered to be an
avenue to gain new skills and financial security studies also show that that there has been a
shift on the way individuals view the military’s rate of return. The economic returns as it
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 24

relates to military skills and training transferring to the civilian workforce has been challenged
(Kasworm, Polson, & Fischback, 2002).
Military Education
The military is viewed as a bridge to greater opportunity for education and career
development. Studies have shown that those who are from disadvantaged backgrounds are
able to increase their socioeconomic opportunities through military education (Radford,
2009; Brown & Gross, 2011).
Veterans and military students are a subpopulation of adult learners and as a
subpopulation they often have challenges that other traditional students do not face. Military
students fall under the category of non-traditional students as they are working adults, and for
most, attend classes as part-time students (Choy, 2002). Non-traditional military students
who are enlisted exhibit one or more of the following characteristics: married, have
dependents, work full-time, academically unprepared, first generation college students, come
from a lower socio-economic background or a member of a racial or ethnic minority;
approximately 20 percent are African American and about 10 percent are of Hispanic
ethnicity (Kelty, et al., 2010; Armor & Gilroy, 2009; Choy, 2002).
In 2012, the demographic profile of enlisted personnel showed that 98.9 percent of
active duty members had at least a high school diploma; a small number of members had
additional education but less than a bachelor’s degree (Office of the Deputy Under Secretary
Defense, 2012). Snead and Baridon (2010) state most active duty members pursue an
associate’s degree through community colleges as they have been known to provide support
for students who have been out of high school for several years. Wang et al. (2012) affirm that
with the exception of those who are high achievers, the military offers access to college but
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 25

for most it is at the associate’s degree level. According to Brown and Gross (2011) “Viewing
the military student population as just another student group to be targeted does not develop a
context for understanding the miltary student, the driving forces supporting miltary,
education, or the benefits associated with these students’academic success” (p. 45).
Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges. The military services in general, and the U.S.
Air Force in particular, have implemented education services programs to assist military
members in the pursuit of degree attainment. In the early 1970’s, in an attempt to promote
military retention efforts, military leaders wanted to implement educational opportunities to
support and assist service men and women to obtain academic credit for their military
experience (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). Military service responsibilities
and geographical locations often prevented military students from attending traditional
classroom courses with colleges and universities. It was important for military members who
moved to a new duty station every three to four years to avoid the excessive loss of previous
credit while in transition from one duty station to another (Radford, 2009). Thus in 1972 the
Carnegie Foundation funded the establishment of Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges
(SOC), a Department of Defense contracted agency supporting government-sponsored
educational programs and services for all military personnel (Servicemembers Opportunity
Colleges, 2014). The SOC criteria states that “institutional policies and practices be fair,
equitable, and effective in recognizing special and often limiting conditions faced by military
students” (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). In their report presented to the
Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL) International Conference, Kime and
Anderson (1996) specify the following three principles upon which SOC is founded:
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 26

1. In order to enhance their military effectiveness and achieve their educational,
vocational, and career goals, servicemembers should share in the
postsecondary educational opportunities available to other citizens.
2. Educational programs for servicemembers should rely primarily on programs,
courses, and services provided by appropriately accredited institutions and
organizations, including high schools, postsecondary vocational and technical
schools, colleges and universities.
3. To enhance access to undergraduate educational opportunities for
servicemembers, institutions should maintain a necessary flexibility of
programs and procedures, particularly in admissions, credit transfer, and
recognition of other applicable learning, including that gained in the military;
in scheduling and format of courses; and in academic residency to offset
servicemembers’ mobility, isolation from campuses, and part-time student
status. (p. 4).
The government estabilshed SOCAD-Army, SOCNAV-Navy, SOCMAR, Marine
Corps, SOCCOAST-Coast Guard and SOCGuard-Army National Guard. Due to the
Community College of the Air Force, the Air Force does not have a specific SOC program but
does fall under the general SOC program. The American Association of State Colleges and
Universities along with the American Association of Community Colleges collaborated with
SOC and military personnel to establish a consortium of two and four year regionally
accredited colleges and universities (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). The SOC
consortium agreed to work with the armed forces to assist military students with educational
opportunities. In addition, college credit from one institution may be accepted in similar
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 27

programs at other institutions that are part of the SOC agreement program. SOC was
instrumental in aiding military students to pursue and earn certificates, licenses,
undergraduate and graduate degrees SOC has been summarized as the structure and
framework of voluntary education that has helped to dismantle educational barriers for
military students (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014).
College Level Examination Program (CLEP). The College Level Examination is a
credity by examination progeram sponsored by the College Board. It consists of a group of
standardized tests that assess college-level knowledge in various subject areas. CLEP exams
are available to active duty members at no cost (Community College of the Air Force Catalog
2014-2016, 2014).
Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support (DANTES). The Defense
Activity for Non-Tradition Education Support (DANTES) is a nationally recognized agency
that is under the United States Department of Defense. DANTES is a testing program that
allows active duty members the opportunity to receive college credit for learning outside the
traditional college classroom (Community College of the Air Force Catalog 2014-2016,
2014).
United States Air Force Enlisted Airmen
The minimum requirements to join the United States Air Force are as follows:
 Must be a U.S. citizen or resident alien
 Must be between 17-39 years of age
(17 year old applicants require parental consent)
 Must have a high school diploma or meet the Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) examination
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 28

 Must meet specific scoring requirements on the ASVAB
 Must pass a physical exam and mental screening
An Air Force recruiter is the first point of contact in guiding individuals through the
enlistment process. Individuals are required to provide original documents of a birth
certitifcate, social security card, high school and or college transcripts. A legal agreement
(enlistment contract) is signed and obligates individuals to commit to serve their country for a
specific period of time. The enlistment contract also obligates the Air Force to provide the
enlisted member with specific agreed-upon job series, occupational training, enlistment rating,
housing allowance, medical, continuing education and other benefits (Department of the Air
Force, 2009).
Enlisted Force Tier Structure. The enlisted Air Force consists of a diverse group of
specialized airmen that is comprised of three tiers, each correlating to increased levels of
education, training and experience. The three tiers also correlate to increased leadership and
managerial responsibilites that best meets the mission requirements. The three tiers are Junior
Enlisted Airmen, Non-Commissioned Officers and Senior Non-Commissioned Officers.
Junior Enlisted Airman Tier. This tier consists of Airman Basic (E-1), Airman (E-2),
Airman First Class (E-3), and Senior Airman (E-4). Junior enlisted airmen adapt to military
requirements and learn how to be productive airmen. They continue to broaden technical
skills and pursue professional development through on-and off duty education. Junior
enlisted airmen must accept and execute all duties, instructions, responsibilities and lawful
orders in a timely and efficient manner; they must maintain the highest level of personal
readiness to meet mission requirements (Air Force e-Publishing, 2009).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 29

Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs). This tier consists of Staff Sergeants (E-5) and
Technical Staff Sergeants (E-6). The primary focus of NCOs is continued occupational
growth and become expert technicians while developing into leaders, supervisors, managers
and mentors. They are to increase competence though training and academic degree
programs as well as attain and maintain a skill level commensurage with their rank.
Additionally, they must train and develop their subordinates to ensure they are also technicall
ready to meet the requirements of the mission (Air Force e-Publishing, 2009).
Senior Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs). This tier consists of Master Sergeants
(E-7) and Chief Master Sergeants (E-9). The focus of this tier is mission accomplishment.
SNCOs serve as leaders, supervisors, managers and mentors and help to further develop
junior enlisted airmen and NCOs. Senior non-commissoned officers participate in decision
making processes and provide highly effective leadership. They are to inspire and develop in
others an internalized understanding of Air Force core values and promote a culture of airmen
capable of adapting to evolving Air Force requirements (Air Force e-Publishing, 2009).
Community College of the Air Force
Entrance and Admission Requirements. Prior to enlisting in the Air Force, the Armed
Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) must be completed to determine if an
individual meets the basic standards prior to being recruited into the Air Force. The ASVAB
exam is taken at most high schools during the junior year and at recruiting locations prior to
enlistment; the exam helps guide individuals to decide possible career paths. Composite
scores of the ASVAB indicate academic and career field aptitude which assists the Air Force
in matching an individual’s aptitude level, ability and skills with various career fields. These
scores are a strong indicator of the individual’s potential to make satisfactory progress in a
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 30

career-related degree program. There are a myriad of job series that members may choose
from, they are then allowed to choose their top three preferred career series and are
considered for one of the three choices. If the career field is not available or if the member
does not meet the aptitude or ability requirements then the member will be assigned an open
general job series and the Air Force will place the member where they feel they are best
suited. Once assigned to an Air Force career field and after six weeks of basic training has
been completed, enlisted members are automatically enrolled into the CCAF program and
registered to the degree program designed for their Air Force job specialty. At this point
members have already transferred four credits towards their CCAF degree from their basic
training. Although members have been enrolled into the CCAF program they are not able to
pursue courses as they are required to complete their technical education courses which
teaches them their job duties and responsibility in their chosen career field (W. Jones,
personal communication, December 15, 2014).
Similar to basic training, members also receive credit (a maximum of 24 depending on
the school) towards their CCAF degree for completing technical school. During this time
members are briefed regarding possible credit earned and are able to track their progression
through the Virtual Education Center. Once a member has completed technical school they
are then assigned to their first military base where they go through an in-process procedure
that involves checking themsleves on to the base to inform military personnel of their arrival
and to report for duty. While there is not a policy put in place that states that airmen are not
allowed to pursue education after technical school, supervisors exercise their right not to
approve airmen to attend classes as they want them to become proficient in their jobs. After
technical school is completed airmen are considered journeymen (E1-E4) and must be in
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 31

training for at least one year to learn the necessary skills and trade of their job. This is an
important period for airmen as they are receiving hands on training during this time; if they
are not able to perform on a satisfactory level and fail in their duties as a journeyman, they
can be separated from the military; therefore it is essential that airmen demonstrate
proficiency in their journeyman skills. Also while airmen are in training, as a journeyman
they are required to take their Career Development Courses (CDCs) that corresponds with
their job; it is a written test that requires for airmen to score a minimum of 65. This too is a
part of their training as it provides a base line of book knowledge in their career field. Overall
starting from basic military traing the typical time that it takes airmen to begin to pursue their
CCAF degree is approximately 18-24 months (W. Jones, personal communication, December
15, 2014).
Education Services. Education support centers are available for Air Force members to
receive counseling and advice about educational benefits, military training and testing as well
as the process and procedure to receive tuition assistance (TA) for courses. Education service
offices (Ed Centers) are located on Air Force military installations, educational
administrators, guidance counselors, training technicians and test examiners provide academic
and financial advice to airmen who plan to pursue educational goals. They assist and guide
CCAF students toward completing their degree and also work with civilian collegiate
institutions to arrange for course offerings needed to satisfty CCAF degree requirements.
More often CCAF students will request to use TA to fund their courses. At the time of this
study, TA covered $250/per credit hour. CCAF students are allotted $4500 for tuition
assistance per fiscal year.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 32

CCAF degree program. The CCAF degree is not a mandatory degree for enlisted
members to earn as they may pursue any degree program of their choice. However, the Air
Force does consider the CCAF degree to be critical as it is intrically related to Air Force
training and job series. The CCAF degree is designed to provide graduates with knowledge,
skills and a theoretical background that will enhance the performance of enlisted airmen. The
CCAF degree is strongly encouraged for non-commisioned officers (NCOs) to have earned if
they want to be considered for special assignments and promotions. While it is possible for
airmen and NCOs to be promoted without the CCAF degree, the chances are slim as the
competitive process is rigorous. The CCAF degree becomes mandatory for NCOs who are
ranked E7 and wish to be promoted to E8 (W. Jones, personal communication, December 15,
2014).
CCAF degree programs are developed in conjunction with Air Force technical experts
and civilian/military consultants. Programs are reviewed and approved by CCAF’s Policy
Council, Dean of Academic Affairs, Commandant, Policy Council and Board of Visitors. The
CCAF degree program combines Air Force education and training with a core of general
education requirments obtained from accredited civilian collegiate institutions and college-
level testing agencies. According to Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges (2014) the
general SOC agreement between collegiate institutions and the Air Force affirmed that
general education courses taken from an institution will be applicable towards the CCAF
degree. To determine if courses are applicable to the CCAF degree the registrar for the CCAF
program developed a civilian course conversion chart where a review of all programs and
courses are agreed upon to meet the needs of the Air Force (W. Jones, personal
communication, December 15, 2014).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 33

The CCAF programs are designed to provide graduates with knowledge, skills and a
theoretical background that will enhance the performance of airmen and noncommissioned
officers. According to the Community College of the Air Force Catalog 2014-2016 (2014) a
student must complete the following degree requirements to be awarded the Associate in
Applied Science Degree:
 Technical Education-24 semester hours
 Leadership, Management & Military Studies-6 semester hours
 Physical Education-4 semester hours
 Oral Communication-3 semester hours
 Written Communicatiion-3 semester hours
 Mathematics-3 semester hours
 Social Science-3 semester hours
 Humanities-3 semeser hours
 Program Elective-15 semester hours
 Total-64 semester hours
CCAF Students. Once Air Force members complete technical school and their CDCs,
they are able to pursue their CCAF degree as they have automatically been enrolled into the
program. CCAF students are able to take their general education courses with an accredited
collegiate institution or they may test through a national agency such as CLEP or DANTES.
Colleges and universities that have a memorandum of agreement are located on military
installations all over the world and are available to assist members with pursuing degrees
from their institution as well as providing general education courses for students who want to
earn their CCAF degree. Similar to traditional students, CCAF students must apply to the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 34

college/university of their choice and go through the admissions process; in doing so they
must choose a program (associate or bachelor) that they wish to pursue and pay the required
application fee. If they do not wish to pursue a program they may apply as a non-degreed
seeking student which will allow for them to take the maximum number of courses that the
instituion permits. Active duty members are not required to submit high school transcripts
however they must provide a copy of their militry service transcript as it verifies their active
duty status. In addition they are required to submit transcripts from previous attended
institutions. Similar again to traditional students, CCAF students must meet the admissions
requirements prior to being accepted. Once a CCAF student is accepted into the program of
choice they are able to pursue their CCAF degree as well as a degree from the institution (W.
Jones, personal communication, December 15, 2014).
Grading Policy. The Community College of the Air Force Catalog 2014-2016 (2014)
states that academic performance is determined and reported by using a pass or fail system.
While the grade of “D” is considered as passing by most traditional institutions, CCAF
students are required to earn a “C” or higher. If a grade lower than a “C” is earned it will not
count towards the student’s CCAF degree; also if the student used TA subsequently the
amount that was given to the student will be garnished from the member’s paycheck. Once
CCAF students have taken courses towards their CCAF program they must request for an
official transcript from the institution to be sent to the CCAF registrar’s office in Alabama.
Once the transcript is received, the passing grade (A,B or C) is recorded as an “S”
(satisfactory) on the CCAF transcript (Community College of the Air Force Catalog 2014-
2016, 2014). It should be noted that CCAF does not award general education courses that are
taught at military technical schools or leadership schools as the majority of instructors do not
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 35

have their credentials to teach courses for college credit. Thus the reason why airmen must
take general education courses at accredited civilian institutions and transfer the credits to
CCAF. Technical schools and leadership schools operate on a pass/fail system and not a GPA
system; when civilian courses are transferred to CCAF a GPA is not calculated on the CCAF
transcript. Therefore CCAF transcripts only indicate that an Associates in Applied Science
Degree (and specialization) was awarded. If grades are requested then a transcript must be
requested from the institution where the course was taken (F. Wood, personal communication,
March 19, 2015).
Graduation. Once a CCAF student has met all requirements pertaining to the CCAF
degree, the CCAF notifies the student’s current education services office. The student is then
notified by their CCAF advisor/trainer to confirm that they have reached candidacy status.
The student has six years from retirement, separation or commissioning to file for graduation.
Most Air Force bases conduct a graduation ceremony for CCAF students who have completed
their degree while stationed at the respective base. Two graduating classes are offered each
year, April and October. CCAF diplomas are mailed to the education services offices
approximately one week before graduation (Community College of the Air Force Catalog
2014-2016, 2014). The program development and design of CCAF degree intergrates Air
Force technical education with civilian related occupations making the CCAF degree career
relevant in the Air Force and civilian work force; the CCAF degree displays disversification
as it shows that individuals have a specialized skill as well as academic credit that can transfer
into the civilian job sector (Wojciechowski, 2001; W. Jones, personal communication,
December 15, 2014).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 36

Educational Benefits
There is a consensus in the literature that the military provides substantial benefits to
those who may not otherwise have access (Harris, 2009; Kentor, Jorgenson & Kick, 2012).
According to Wang et al. (2012) young people who enlist in the military receive a benefits
package that they may not easily have access to in the civilian sector. Healthcare, travel,
basic housing allowance and educational opportunities are fringe benefits that many
economically disadvantaged youth never had access to. There are those, however, who
describe military benefits as a camouglaged safety net, or a a substitute welfare program
(Elder et al., 2010).
Since the conversion to the All-Volunteer Force in 1973, educational benefits have
been a major incentive for recruiting military personnel (Office of the Deputy under Secretary
Defense, 2012; Kleykamp, 2010). Congress has held that service men and women should
have the same educational opportunities to advance academically as their civilian counterparts
therefore all branches of the U.S. military provide higher educational resources (access and
funding) for active duty members (DANTES Information Bulletin, 2014; Department of
Veterans Affairs, 2014; Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, 2012).
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill). The enactment of the Servicemen’s
Readjustment Act of 1944, or GI Bill, was due, in part, to address the influx of returning
soldiers (approximately 16 million veterans) from World War II back into the general
population (Murray, 2008). There was concern that many of the returning troops would need
financial and educational assistance to adjust back into society. Loans to purchase homes,
farms and business property was provided as well as the opportunity to pursue education or
training for up to four years (Murray, 2008). According to Field, Helbel and Smallwood
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 37

(2008) the GI Bill is argued to be the greatest societal shift in the history of the United states
as the education and training provisions completely reoriented and democratized higher
education. Field et al. (2008) state that historians see the bill as a moment when college was
transformed from a privilege to a right.
Montgomery GI Bill. The Montgomery GI Bill was enacted in 1985 and in contrast to
the original GI Bill, the new program allowed eligible veterans to enroll in an education
program to receive up to 36 months of benefits if they began usage within 10 years of
separating from the service. (Simon, Negrusa & Warner, 2010). For active members who
enroll and pay $100 per month for one year are entitled to receive educational benefits once
they have completed a minimum service obligation. The Montgomery GI Bill later became
problematic for military members as the tution costs of colleges and universities continued to
increase. According to Simon et al. (2010) the consumer price index (CPI) for tuition and
fees increased at an anuual rate of 7 percent. Unlike the original GI Bill that covered the
entire cost of tuition, the Montgomery GI Bill was never adusted to match tution costs.
Therefore a revised GI Bill was addressed and the newly Post-911 GI Bill was implemented
(Field, 2008).
Post-911 Veterans Education Assistance Act of 2008. On July 1, 2008, the Post 911
GI Bill was signed into law. Service members and veterans who are eligibile can choose to
receive their benefits under the Montgomery or the Post 911 GI Bill. The American Council
on Education (ACE) produced an extensive report written by Radford (2009), which includes
the Basic Eligibility Requirements for Benefits of the new Post 911 Veterans Education
Assistance Act of 2008. According to Radford (2009) military service members and veterans
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 38

may be eligible for benefits under the new GI Bill if they served at least 90 aggregate days on
active duty after September 10, 2001, and met one of the five following requirements:
1. Maintained active duty status
2. Honorably discharged from active duty
3. Honorably released from active duty and placed on the retired list or
temporary disability retired list
4. Honorably released from active duty and transferred to the Fleet Reserve or
Fleet Marine Corps Reserve
5. Honorably released from active duty for further services in a reserve
component of the Armed Forces (p. 14)
Sewall (2010) compares the Post 911 GI Bill as financially flexible as it offers
benefits that were not included in the Montgomery GI Bill such as better accessibility to four
year institutions. In addition Sewall (2010) explains that the Post 911 GI Bill offers three
kinds of educational benefits: tuition benefits, housing allowance and a stipend for books.
The amount of benefits received will be determined by the amount of time a veteran has
served in the military.
Yellow Ribbon Program. Sewall (2010) describes the Yellow Ribbon Program to be
an addendum of the Post 911 GI Bill. The program federally supports 100 percent of financial
aid pledged to a veteran that has served on actve duty for 36 months. Damast (2009) points out
that the Yellow Ribbon Program was designed to make out-of-state public colleges, private
institutions, and graduate programs more affordable for veterans. Under the program the federal
government matches dollar for dollar and financial aid that participting schools commit,
providing eligible student veterans with free or reduced cost tuition.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 39

Financial Aid. According to Field (2008) provisions in the Post 911 GI Bill has
allowed for financial aid benefits to be available for service member and veterans. For
example, veterans and active duty members are eligible to receive Pell Grants and college aid
in addition to military benefits.
Tuition Assistance (TA). Tuition Assistance is a military sponsored program that
provides military members financial assistance (no reimbursement) for the cost of college
classes while on active duty (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). The tuition
assistance program serves a variety of purposes, retention however seems to be the catalyst of
the program (Buddin & Kapur, 2002). Tuition assistance is described as a quality of life
program designed to make military service more attractive to youth and encourage them to
enlist and remain in the service; one of the primary ways the DOD supports active duty
members is through the tuition assistance program. The program enhances the ability of the
service to attract disadvantaged youth and encourages participants to reinlist (Kleykamp 2006,
Harris 2009; Kely et al., 2010). In their study of TA usage and retention, Buddin and Kapur
(2002) report that it is important to take into account what types of individuals are more likely
to use TA. For example, military responsibilities may be tied to using TA; a higher aptitude
or more educated person may also be more likely to use TA. Wang et al. (2012) agree that
young people with relatvely high-congnitive ability for academic achievement who come
from socioeconomiclly disadvantaged backgrounds will seek tuition assistance for educational
benefits. Students who have high educational aspirations are more likely to go on to college
however many aspiring college students do not want to accumulate debt thus they will seek
alternate means such as the GI Bill or tuition assistance (Kleykamp, 2006).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 40

The availability of 100 percent tuition assistance was found to be a positive influence
for airmen to complete their CCAF degree; the federal benefits program has been
characterized as one of the most viable benefits available to active military members and
veterans (Hauer 2006; Field, Helbel & Smallwood 2008). Research shows that the tuition
assistance program to be one of the benefits that greatly appeals to service members (Kelty et
al., 2010). However, a report conducted by DANTES Information Bulletion (2014) indicate
that in fiscal year 2012 only 26.3 percent of active duty service members participated in the
tuition assistance program. While there was an increase of participant usage from 2009, the
increase was of a minimum margin. Figure 2.1 provides a diagram to show the use of tution
assistance from 2009-2012
Figure 2.1 Department of Defense TA Participants

Data is based on information from the DoD Voluntary Education Information Management
System for FY09 to FY12. *Does not include Coast Guard personnel.

There is limited research conducted as to why service members choose not to pursue
educational benefits while in the military. DANTES Information Bulletin (2014), however,
provides the following possible reasons for active duty service members to not take advantage
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 41

of educational benefits: There are some service members who may have incongruent ideas
about colleges and universities, thus they may not believe that a degree is applicable to their
goals. There may be active duty members who may not have considered obtaining a degree at
all while serving in the miltary as it is not important to them. While there are active duty men
and women who find the educational benefits appealing, a lack of motivation may be
preventing them from pursuing a degree. Academic deficiencies and self-efficacy issues have
been identified as reasons why military members do not take advantage of educational
benefits (Kleykamp, 2006). Also due to low performance in high school there may be a lack
of confidence in one’s academic ability as well as an extended lapse in time since high school;
all may be contributors as to why military members choose not to pursue higher education.
Social Support
Connections to institutional agents such as administrators, faculty members and peers
help to cultivate an academic identity which will likely lead to desired academic outcomes. In
addition, academic success is contingent upon engaging with institutional agents who possess
dominion over vital educational resources (Harper 2008). The connections students make
with institutional agents will not only increase human capital but convey the importance of
establishing a strong educational support system that will result in receiving assistance with
academic planning (Engberg & Wolniak, 2010; Hill, Lawhorne & Philpott, (2011).
Specifically, school advisors and educational leaders have been identified as positive
influences on first time students; the most valued characteristics of an advisor are knowledge
of course requirements and the academic progress of students (Creamer & Scott, 2000).
A study conducted by Hausmann, Schofield and Woods (2007) showed how a sense of
belonging demonstrated a positive impact on student success, particularly for African
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 42

American students. The study revealed that the social support received is a positive
determinant and heightens students’ persistence to succeed. Interpersonal qualities such as
attentive, responsive, available, flexible, friendly and supportive are effective characteristics
that students are drawn to. Davis and Cooper (2001) concurs and state “Academic advising is
an important component of the college experience...academic advising is the only structured
service on college campuses that guarantees students interactions with concerned
representatives of the institution” (p. 53). Researchers recommend that academic institutions
emphasize the importance of the role of academic advisors as they are responsible for
nurturing student development. College advisors have valuable roles as they are the ones that
must recognize the strength and weaknesses of students and must guide them with making
appropriate academic choices. One of the most important roles that advisors play in a
student’s life is that of a mentor and friend, students are often confused and are in need of
guidance. Research continues to shows that academic success is correlated with educational
goals therefore it is important that college advisors are aware of students’ goals and that
students are achieving their goals (Davis & Cooper, 2001; Creamer & Scott, 2000).
The Air Force provides education offices known as Virtural Air Force Education
Centers on military installations around the world. These centers aid to promote social well-
being by providing military students access to take college courses through partnering
institutions toward the completion of the CCAF degree and beyond. Education counselors are
available to assist airmen with their educational pursuits (Community College of the Air
Force Catalog 2014-2016, 2014). The choice of study should be a positive influence on
students as it has a strong connect to student retention and graduation. If a student is career
focused on a specific study the probability of the success rate will be high (Nitecki, 2011).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 43

For education technician specialists who assist airmen in a variety of educational areas, it is
important for them to develop skills and techniques that will provide for them to better
understand the different needs and guidance that is unique for each military member.
Social Value. Despite educational opportunities and financial benefits, many military
members separate from the service with an educational deficit (Wilson & Smith, 2012).
Some college credit is expected from military students who wish to be eligible for promotion
in rank, job or for those who wish to remain in military service (DANTES Information
Bulletin, 2014). Studies show that some level of postsecondary education is necessary to
acquire the appropriate skills and knowledge to achieve economic self-sufficiency and social
benefits (Harper, 2008; Kelty et al., 2010). Additional studies have shown that the rate of
return for investing in higher education produces social and private economic benefits
(McMahon, 2009; Porter, 2002). Museus, Harper and Nichols (2010) note that it is
particularly important for racial minoirity groups to maximize educational attainment as
advanced social networks continue to remain limited. Conversely, Carter (2009) points out
how an education can have a positive impact on the broader society, for example, lower
unemployment and crime rates, higher academic wages for future generations and an
increased level of civic participation is more likely. In addition, college graduates tend to
have higher levels of savings and improved consumer habits.
McMahon (2009) elaborates on the social value received from higher education,
particularly as they relate to disadvantaged students. Earning a college degree also prepares
military members to be marketable in the civilian sector. The Department of Veterans Affairs
(2014) reports that enlisted service members between the ages of 18-24 serve the minimum of
three to four years; the average length of time for the majority of enlisted members is less than
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 44

ten years. Moreover, the small percentage of those who decide to make the military a career
and complete 20 years of service will most likely need to enter the civilian workforce as they
will only be in their early to mid-forties. While these veterans will receive a pension,
doubtfully it will not be financially sufficient to support themselves and a family. Thus
military students have extrinsic reasons to work on a degree whether it be to remain or exit the
armed forces (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2014; Kelty et al., 2010; Thirtle, 2001).
Self- Efficacy. Self-efficacy used in the construct of academics is defined as the
students’ confidence in their ability to do well in courses. Although students may have a
connection with a college/university and feel supported by advisors and faculty, if they do not
have a purpose or goal they may not feel motivated to pursue an academic program (DeWitz,
Woolsey, & Walsh, 2009). It is essential that the level of social support vary according to the
level of self-efficacy exhibited by students; for example, if a student is identified with having
a low level of self-efficacy, additional social support is needed to build relationships of trust
and respect (McKillip, Godfrey & Rawls, 2013; Caraway, Tucker, Reinke & Hall, 2003).
Research correlating self-efficacy and college success was used to predict some measures and
circumstances (Galyon, Blondin, Yaw, Nalls, & Williams, 2012). Gore (2010) conducted a
study which showed a student’s self-efficacy in the first year of college was a poor predictor
of academic success however as the student progressed, self-efficacy became stronger
throughout the matriculation of college. Taking the Gore study into consideration it is
important that military advisors be supportive of military students in their abilities to self-
regulate as this will help to guide them in taking control of their learning (Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2008).
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 45

Motivation. Williams and Williams (2011) describe student motivation as a key
element that is vital for quality education that has been shown to be a significant factor in
student persistence. Studies have shown student motivation to be a strong predictor of
persistence and an increase in self-efficacy in students. Common characteristics of motivating
factors for students are goal setting, high aspirations, self-discipline and determination. Goal
setting operate as motivators when there is an expectation that higher efforts will result in
gaining the achieved goal. Additional factors such as family influence, goal commitments
and pre-college educational experience also assist in student motivation. Intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation plays a role in student persistence and learning. Covington (2007)
defines intrinsic motivation as a personal goal or challenge that is self-authored and valued by
the student whereas extrinsic motivation is defined as performance unrelated to the value of
the action yet has a payoff or reward. Motivation is an important entity towards academic
success and degree completion. It is essential to understand that a student’s level of
motivation will either assist or deter them from being academically productive. Pew (2007)
asserts that the rule of motivation is to motivate others as they want to be motivated; for
advisors it is important to learn what external stimuli can be used such as graduation, job
promotion and money. Barbuto, Story, Fritz and Schinstock (2011) conducted a study that
comprised of three types of leadership behavior as they relate to the advisor-student
relationship: laissez-faire, advisors use hands off approach dealing with students;
transactional, reward contingency where mutual expectations are expected between advisors
and students; transformational, advisors show individual consideration towards students.
Results reflected favorably on the transformational approach which indicated that advisors
who are attentive, encouraging and show value to students’ needs were perceived as effective
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 46

advisors. Taking this approach into consideration, military support leaders would benefit
from learning about effective leadership styles when motivating students.
Studies have shown that tutoring increases motivation which has a positive impact on
academic performance and student retention (Reinheimer & McKenzie, 2011). Theall and
Franklin (1999) suggest using practical proposals for motivating students. The researchers
stress the importance of intrinsic motivation, minimize the fear of failure, assist students with
setting realistic goals and emphasize the value of academic goals. Glynn, Aultman and Owens
(2005) however argue that students who lack self-determination may not easily be
intrinsically motivated. Students who feel helpless and believe that they will not succeed will
most likely not be sparked by motivation. Therefore it is important for military educational
support staff to learn how to recognize students who may suffer from emotional problems
such as depression and anxiety; support teams and leaders are then able to better assist
students and doing so build a positive rapport and relationships that builds confidence.
Barriers
For many military members there are barriers that exclude or discourage participation
in adult education (DANTES Information Bulletin, 2014). Service commitment and being a
part-time student poses difficulty for active duty members. Family obligation and personal
challenges often hinder members from pursuing higher education. Researchers have
identified four primary categories of barriers that may affect military members’ participation
in adult education (DANTES Information Bulletin, 2014).
Institutional. An active duty member’s work mission may not be in alignment with
educational attainment in that military mission takes precedence (Wilson & Smith, 2012).
Higher education institutions that provide academic program for service members indicate
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 47

that military students on average take less than three classes per year. Also due to numerous
moves, many military students take college courses from multiple schools be it on base or
online. In a span of approximately six years, they may attend as many as five different
institutions and not have completed a degree (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014).
Brown and Gross (2011) explain how military students pose unique circumstances to
academic institutions and thus for many, pursuing a degree program may be challenging.
Active duty students must be military ready at all times. Frequent deployments and duty
assignments may cause the student to be removed from educational resources which often
interrupts the student’s academic progress. Faculty may also see these students as a high
maintenance population as they often have multiple TDYs (tour duty yonder), work late hours
and thus are unable to regularly attend class. Without appropriate consolation, many military
students are at risk of not completing their degree (Brown & Gross, 2011).
Situational. Enlisted members frequently relocate to new duty stations and many are
deployed in remote areas where internet access and receiving course materials is problematic
(Wang et al., 2012). O’Gara, Karp and Hughes (2009) state students face a mirage of barriers
to degree completion such as job obligation, devotion to family and low levels of academic
preparation. These are also similar barriers that military students are often faced with and
therefore attrition rates for prolonged enrollmen and degree completion have been challenging
(O’Gara et al., 2009; Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014).
Informational. According to Simon et al. (2010) there is an urgent need in higher
education to disseminate information to military students and veterans. Simon et al. (2010)
also state as the population enters academia, issues regarding the understanding and
disbursement of federal benefits will increase exponentially. The lack of information about
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 48

education programs while on active duty can be a missed opportunity for service members
who decide to leave the military early. Increased awareness of educational opportunities is
important for military education personnel to address (DANTES Information Bulletin, 2014).
Dispositional. Dispositional barriers can be connected to an individual’s beliefs and
attitudes towards education (Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges, 2014). Self-efficacy, test
anxiety and a history of low academic performance may prohibit military members from
seeking academic programs. According to Kelty et al. (2010) there are those who enlist in the
services who may have expectations about higher education and may perceive that a college
degree is not necessary for achieving their particular goals. Wang et al. (2012) assert that
there are some enlisted members who had did not perform well in high school and have a
negative opinion or dislike for education all together.
Summary
A gap in the literature exists regarding completion rates for active duty members. In
addition, the use of educational benefits, particularly tuition assistance as seen from the
perspective of the service member is missing. The literature does not provide information for
understanding this phenomenon thus it is not possible to determine why more members,
particularly African American service members, do not take advantage of military educational
benefits. It is evident through the literature review that social support is a strong predicator
for academic success. The literature also supports the theoretical framework that social
capital as it relates to the need for institutional agents to serve as a support system is relevant.
Therefore it is important that military students from disenfranchised backgrounds receive the
knowledge and support from military support staff regarding educational opportunities and
military educational benefits.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 49

Chapter Three: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this mixed method study was to determine if African American enlisted
airmen were an underrepresented or overrepresented group in earning the CCAF degree on
JBPHH for fiscal years 2010-2014. Specifically, this study examined the group
representation of the total population for African American enlisted airmen compared to the
overall completion rates of the CCAF degree by African American enlisted airmen. In
addition the percentage of Black airmen who earned the CCAF degree was compared to
percentage of other racial groups (Whites, Asians, Hispanics and Pacific Islanders) who also
earned the CCAF degree. This study also sought out the perspectives of African American
enlisted airmen to reveal how they viewed the CCAF program as well as their experience of
how they attained and built social capital as it related to degree completion.
This chapter will describe the methodology used to conduct the research for this mixed
study and is organized into the following sections: research design, sample and population,
instrument development, data collection and data analysis.
Research Design
A mixed method approach using a comparison analysis and thematic analysis were
used for this research study. According to Creswell (2009) mixed methods research is an
approach that uses both qualitative and quantitative designs where the overall strength of the
combination can be greater than the use of a single method. Quantitative research is a means
for testing theories by examining the relationship among variables and testing those variables
using statistical procedures (Creswell, 2009); whereas qualitative research is an inductive
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 50

approach that allows the researcher to understand the perspective, influence and experience of
the participants (Maxwell, 2013).
Quantitative approach. For this study, a quantitative approach was used to assess
completion rates of enlisted airmen enrolled in the CCAF degree program on JBPHH for
fiscal years 2010-2014. The population of enlisted airmen for 2010-2014 was used to
determine racial group representation from the total population. The total number of airmen
who received their CCAF degree for each fiscal used was also used to determine racial
groups’ percentage of conferred CCAF degrees. To determine if African American airmen
were over or under represented in earning the CCAF degree, the percentage of enlisted
African Americans airmen (group population) stationed on JBPHH in 2010-2014, all of whom
were automatically enrolled in CCAF, were compared to the percentage of African American
enlisted airmen who earned a CCAF degree during fiscal years 2010-2014. The enrollment
numbers and graduation rates of other racial groups were also compared to the completion
rate of African Americans. A final comparison was then made of the percentage rate of each
group who earned the CCAF degree.
Qualitative approach. A particularistic case study was used to investigate any
phenomenon that may be contributing factors as to why African American airmen earned or
have not earned the CCAF degree. According to Merriam (2009) a particularistic case study
focuses on a particular situation, event, program, individual, institution or phenomenon. A
case study as an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system. A bounded system is
a unit of analysis where one entity is selected on the basis of uniqueness, typicality and is
intrinsically interesting to the researcher. The unit of analysis must have a limit of the number
of people involved who can be interviewed and there must be a limit to the time for
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 51

observation; if there is no end to either then the phenomenon is not bounded enough to qualify
as a case study (Merriam, 2009).
Research Questions. The purpose of a research question is to state clearly what is to
be known, learned, or understood (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Corbin and Strauss
(2008) state that research questions help structure the foundation of the study therefore the
design of the research question is important. The following research questions were
developed to guide the study:
RQ (1): Are African American airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on JBPHH for fiscal years 2010-2014?
RQ (2): What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
RQ (3): What is the internal and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived
by the participants?
RQ (4): What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or
not to pursue a CCAF degree?
Sample and Population
Quantitative. For the quantitative purpose of this study, the research population
selected was enlisted airmen (E3-E6) stationed on JBPHH from 2010-2014. Airmen who
enlist in the Air Force complete basic training and then enter technical school to receive their
Three-Skill level training. After airmen complete technical school they are automatically
enrolled into the CCAF program. Airmen are then assigned to their first duty station and
enter their Five-Skill level Journeyman/Upgrade training. Upgrade training is a dual track
training process consisting of a Career Development Course and on the job training; the
upgrade training process may take as long as two years. Upon completion of their Five-Skill
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 52

level, it is at this time that airmen are eligible to pursue their CCAF degree (B. Kono, personal
communication, July 24, 2014). Enlisted airmen who were stationed on JBPHH for fiscal
years 2010-2014 were the population used to conduct the comparison of group representation
and CCAF completion rates.
Qualitative. For the qualitative purpose of this study the selection of respondents were
African American enlisted airmen stationed on JBPHH. The sample selection chosen for this
study was a purposeful sample as it is necessary to understand, learn and gain as much insight
as possible as to why African American airmen may or may not pursue their CCAF degree.
Merriam (2009) describes purposeful sampling as an opportunity for the researcher to study
and learn about the characteristics of a particular population in order to answer the research
question.
Instrumentation
Quantitative. Microsoft Excel was used to enter the disaggregate numbers of each
racial group (African American, Asian, Hispanic/Latino, Pacific Islander and White) of
enlisted airmen who were stationed on JBPHH for fiscal years 2010-2014. This data provided
the total population of enlisted airmen for each fiscal year. In Excel the disaggregate numbers
of each racial group was divided by the total population of enlisted airmen for each fiscal
year; this figure provided each racial group’s representation of the total enlisted population.
To determine each racial group’s representation of earning the CCAF degree, the disaggregate
number of CCAF degrees earned by each group was entered and added in excel. The number
of each racial group that earned the CCAF degree was divided by the total number of CCAF
degrees earned for each fiscal year. These figures reflected the percentage of each racial
demographic who earned the CCAF degree and determined if a racial group was
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 53

underrepresented or overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree. The same process was used
to show the percentage of each group’s representation in earning the CCAF degree for the
subsequent years. The outcome for African American airmen and the other racial groups
answered the following research question:
RQ (1): Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented
in earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam during 2010-2014 fiscal
years?
Qualitative. A semi-structured interview format was used for the particularistic case
study. Each participant was asked to speak freely about their up-bringing, education and
military experience. In addition a series of open-ended questions listed below were proposed
to the participants (not asked in any order). Depending on the direction of the interview not
all questions were posed to each participant.
1. Describe your community?
2. How was education perceived in your household?
3. Did you and your peers talk about higher education?
4. Why did you join the military?
5. Why did you choose the Air Force?
6. How important is tuition assistance?
7. How often do you use tuition assistance?
8. How did you hear about the CCAF program?
9. How important is for you to earn your CCAF degree?
10. How valuable is the CCAF degree in the Air Force?
11. How valuable is the CCAF degree in the civilian sector?
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 54

12. What do other Black airmen say about the CCAF degree?
13. Do you want to earn other degrees?
14. What (if any) type of barriers may prevent an airman from pursuing the CCAF
degree?
15. Do you visit the Education Center? If so what type of service is provided?
16. Does the education support team talk about the CCAF degree?
17. Would you recommend other airmen to visit the Education Center?
18. Do you work at a job where education is encouraged?
19. How supportive is your supervisor?
20. Do you plan to make the Air Force a career?
Overall the interview process assisted in answering the following research questions:
RQ (1) What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
RQ (2) What is the internal value and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived
by the participants?
RQ (3) What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
Data Collection/Location Site
Quantitative. After approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB), an email
granting permission to conduct this study was sent to a U.S. Air Force colonel located at the
Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) headquarters on JBPHH. The email explained the USC Ed.D.
program, the purpose of the study, the data needed to conduct the study and the letter from
IRB confirming approval to collect research data. The Colonel authorized permission for the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 55

study to be conducted on JBPHH and provided two points of contact to collect data for the
quantitative portion of the study.
To collect the demographics data, the Chief of Education Operations of the Force
Development Flight on Hickam AFB served as the first point of contact. A request was
submitted to the Military Resource Systems Manager of the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) for a
racial breakdown of the enlisted population on Hickam AFB for fiscal years 2010-2014. In
turn, a spreadsheet was submitted that showed a metric of numbers for various racial
descriptions and ethnic groups of the enlisted population that was represented on Hickam
AFB in 2010-2014. For the purpose of this study certain races and ethnicities were either
eliminated or combined. For example, American Indian, Native Alaskan and multi-racial
groups were not included in the demographics of the study; whereas ethnic groups that were
listed separately from racial groups such as Vietnamese and Asian American/other Asian
were included in the Asian race, Guamanian and Melanesian ethnic groups were added to the
Pacific Islander race while the numbers for ethnic groups labeled Latin Americans and
Spanish were included with the Hispanic racial group. The disaggregate numbers of each
group were entered into excel.
To collect the CCAF data a Command Master Sargent (CMSgt) on JBPHH served as
the second point of contact. The CMSgt retrieved CCAF data from the Interactive
Demographic Analysis System which showed a racial breakdown of the number of CCAF
degrees conferred for fiscal years 2010-2014. Similar to the demographics data, certain races
and ethnicities shown on the CCAF matrices were not included in the study.
Qualitative. For the qualitative portion of the study, African American enlisted
airmen were needed to participate in the interview process. The CMSgt also assisted with
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 56

contacting enlisted Black airmen to participate in the study. The CMSgt was sent an email
with two attachments (1) the approved letter from IRB (2) an official letter detailing the study
along with an invite for African American airmen (E3-E6) to participate in the study. The
letter stated for Black airmen who were interested in participating in the study to schedule an
interview by responding to the email indicated in the letter. The CMSgt sent the email to
members of the African American Heritage Association (AAHA), a private organization on
Hickam AFB (not affiliated with the Department of Defense) that promotes excellence,
equality and cultural awareness. The CMSgt explained that it would be easier to go through
AAHA as it would have taken far too much time to go through the Air Force Personnel Center
and separate enlisted airmen by race and rank.
For the sake of convenience participants were informed that all interviews would be
conducted on the second floor of Hangar 2 on JBPHH, a familiar venue in that it is also the
location of the Education Center where airmen are advised about the CCAF program and
tuition assistance. Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were conducted; the
average time of an interview was 40 minutes. Dimensions of a particularistic case study
approach was used to allow participants to speak freely of personal experiences growing up as
it relates to understanding their reasons for joining the military as well as shared perceptions
of the CCAF program. An iPhone was used as the recording device to ensure accuracy in
capturing the data. Pen and paper was also used to capture body language, tone and any other
significant information relevant to the study. To ensure safety and privacy of the data, the
interviews were sent to Dropbox, a cloud storage file hosting service; afterwards the
interviews were deleted from the mobile phone device.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 57

Data Analysis
Quantitative. The overall process of data analysis is the ability to identify data as it
relates to the research question (Merriam, 2009). For the quantitative portion of the data
analysis, a comparison of the group representation of the total population of enlisted Black
airmen was compared to their group population of enlisted Black airmen who earned the
CCAF degree for fiscal years 2010-2014. The analysis answered the first research question:
RQ (1) Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam during 2010-2014?
Qualitative. Maxwell (2013) recommends that the researcher listen to interview
recordings prior to analyzing the data and in doing so write notes on what is heard from the
data and develop themes. Afterwards, the interview data collected from the case studies were
transcribed and an open coding method was applied. Open coding is referred as any piece of
data that may be potentially relevant for answering the research questions (Merriam, 2009).
Key word association was used to identify ideas and themes; categories and sub-categories
were created to identify segments as it related to the relevance of the study. The following
common themes were identified and categorized: social mobility, tuition assistance, human
capital, social value, motivation and social support.
A comparison analysis approach was used to examine and determine how the data
might intersect with each other to the development of a theory. The analysis answered the
following research questions:
1. Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam during 2010-2014
fiscal years?
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 58

2. What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
3. What is the internal and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by the
participants?
4. What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to pursue a
CCAF degree?
Validity and Reliability
Quantitative. According to Maxwell (2013) methods and procedures do not guarantee
validity, they are however an important entity and imperative to the overall process of ruling
out validity threats thereby improving the credibility of the findings. The quantitative data
were retrieved from the Air Force Personnel Center and the Interactive Demographic Analysis
System; thus there does not appear to be any type of threat to the content validity of the data.
The instrument used, Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet application and is deemed reliable.
Qualitative. Designed construction of the population and sample ensured the data
were connected to the organizational culture of the Air Force; while enlisted African
American airmen contributed to the reliability of the research. Audio recordings of the
interviews were used to preserve the integrity of the data; thus for the purpose of transcribing,
the original data were not compromised and yielded credible qualitative research findings.
Prior to the interview protocol, participants were briefed on the purpose of the study and the
nature of the interview questions. To ensure an authentic account of the documented
testimonies, participants were given the opportunity to review their recorded interview
sessions to verify clarity and accuracy. Thick, rich qualitative description that emerged from a
shared view point of the participants added to the research reliability factor. Thus the analysis
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 59

and conclusions of the particularistic case study were based on a validated platform.
Developing context based on the literature review also aided to the validity of the study.
Ethics/Confidentiality/Consent
Ethical issues and practices were properly implemented as stated by the IRB for this
research study. When conducting qualitative research it is the responsibility of the researcher
to follow an ethical protocol that protects the confidentiality of the respondents (Fink 2013;
Merriam 2009). Participants were given a form to sign indicating anonymity and
confidentiality. They were informed that no identifiably information obtained would connect
them with the study. Refer to the informed consent form in Appendix D.

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 60

Chapter Four: Findings
Chapter four presents the data analysis and findings of this mixed method study. The
findings are presented categorically by the quantitative and qualitative research methods. The
quantitative portion offers a comparison analysis of the survey data whereas the qualitative
portion will present a thematic analysis of the data. The findings will be discussed as it
relates to the research questions, literature review and the thematic framework of social
capital. Chapter four will conclude with a summary of the findings.
Review
According to research African Americans are overrepresented in the military in
comparison to the Black civilian population, (Kleykamp, 2006). For many Black Americans,
the military provides socioeconomic advantages that may otherwise be more challenging to
obtain in the civilian labor force. In addition, the military has also allocated financial
resources for active duty members to pursue higher education opportunities. Education has
been identified in the literature as the primary reason as to why many people from
disadvantaged backgrounds enlist in the armed forces. Specifically, the United States Air
Force has established The Community College of the Air Force (CCAF), a federally charted
and accredited educational institution. For many African American airmen the CCAF
program may be an opportunity to earn a degree at minimal expense.
The research goal of this mixed method study is to determine if African American
enlisted airmen on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam (JBPHH) are proportionally or
disproportionally representative in earning the CCAF degree during fiscal years 2010-2014.
The study also seeks to reveal how Black airmen view the CCAF program provided by the
Air Force as well as their experience of attaining and building social capital as it relates to
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 61

degree attainment. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to answer
the following research questions:
1. Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam during 2010-2014
fiscal years?
2. What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
3. What is the internal and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by the
participants?
4. What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
Quantitative Data
Retrieving Data. Two types of data were needed for the quantitative portion of the
study, a racial breakdown of enlisted airmen who were stationed on JBPHH for fiscal years
2010-2014 as well as a racial breakdown of enlisted airmen who earned their CCAF degree
for fiscal years 2010-2014. The data for the enlisted race demographics was retrieved from
the Air Force Personnel Center by the Resource Systems Manager on JBPHH. These data
were provided on an excel spreadsheet and showed a disaggregated listing of each racial and
ethnic group who were stationed on JBPHH from 2010-2014. For the purpose of this study
only the total numbers of White, Black, Asian, Hispanic and Pacific Islander enlisted airmen
who were stationed on JBPHH during fiscal years 2010-2014 were used. Data that identified
groups as multi-racial or individuals that decline to identify to a racial/ethnic group were not
included in the study. The data for CCAF degree completion by enlisted airmen was retrieved
from the Interactive Demographic Analysis System. Similar to the enlisted race
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 62

demographics, a disaggregated listing of the racial components of airmen who earned a CCAF
degree on JBPHH from 2010-2014 was collected. Enlisted airmen who received their CCAF
degree outside of JPBHH were not included in the study.
Population and Sample. The population used for this research method were enlisted
airmen stationed on JBPHH from 2010-2014. The sample unit that was the point of focus for
this study were enlisted African American airmen also stationed on JBPHH from 2010-2014.
Before representation of a group can be determined, the total population numbers of enlisted
airmen were needed for each fiscal year. In addition, the total number of airmen who earned a
CCAF degree was also needed. After the demographic data were collected, the number of
airmen from each respective racial group was entered in excel as well as the collected data
that reflected airmen who earned their CCAF degree by their racial component. Table 4.1
below provides the demographic data of enlisted airmen stationed on JBPHH and CCAF
degrees conferred on JBPHH during fiscal years 2010-2014.
Table 4.1 Demographics and Conferred CCAF Degrees FY 2010-2014

Demographics of Enlisted Airmen on JBPHH 2010-2014
YEAR 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
African Americans 511 582 582 754 770
Asians 185 314 337 417 416
Hispanics/Latinos 213 241 249 272 278
Pacific Islanders 136 155 149 189 171
Whites 2205 2484 2654 3311 3337
Total Population 3250 3776 3971 4943 4972
CCAF Conferred Degrees on JBPHH 2010-2014
YEAR 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
African Americans 157 167 152 172 190
Asians 33 51 47 56 64
Hispanics/Latinos 83 91 113 131 168
Pacific Islanders 17 22 22 27 30
Whites 615 633 649 719 789
Total Conferred 905 964 983 1105 1241
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 63

Racial Group Representation. To determine racial group representation for each fiscal
year on JBPHH, the total sum of each racial group’s population was added in excel. The
disaggregate numbers of each racial group listed was then divided by the total population
number from the respective fiscal year. These figures showed each group’s representation of
the total enlisted population on JBPHH as well as their eligibility to earn a CCAF degree.
Racial Group Representation of Earning the CCAF Degree. To determine each racial
group’s representation of earning the CCAF degree, the number of CCAF degrees earned by
each group was added in excel. The number of each racial group that earned the CCAF
degree was then divided by the total number of CCAF degrees earned for that respective year.
These figures reflected the percentage of each racial demographic who earned the CCAF
degree.
Underrepresented/Overrepresented. To determine if a group was underrepresented or
overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree, a comparison was made between each racial
group’s representations of the total enlisted population on JBPHH to their respective racial
counterparts who received a CCAF degree on JBPHH. For the purpose of this study the
primary focus were African American airmen however percentage comparisons of each racial
group that earned the CCAF degree were also made. To determine each group’s percentage
rate of earning the CCAFF degree, the number of degrees earned from each group was
divided by their demographic population number from each fiscal year. Table 4.2 below
shows group representation stationed on JBPHH, group representation of conferred CCAF
degrees as well as the percentage of each group who earned the CCAF degree.

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 64

Table 4.2 Enlisted Airmen Representation & Earned CCAF Degrees FY 2010-2014

Five Year Trend
Each racial group’s representation of earning the CCAF degree was determined for
fiscal years 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. To determine a racial group’s overall
representation of earning the CCAF degree a five year trend was calculated in excel. Data
over a five year time period were computed to examine and determine a racial group’s trend
of being underrepresented or overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree. The five year
trend showed consistency of representation over time versus individual years as any given
fiscal year may be an outlier. To determine the consistency of a racial group’s representation
on earning the CCAF degree over a five year trend, two comparisons were made; a trend of
the 2010-2014 demographic of each racial group and the trend of the 2010-2014 CCAF
degree conferred by each racial group.
Group Representation of Total Population on JBPHH 2010-2014
YEAR 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
African Americans 15.72% 15.41% 14.66% 15.25% 15.49%
Asians 5.69% 8.32% 8.49% 8.44% 8.37%
Hispanics/Latinos 6.55% 6.38% 6.27% 5.50% 5.59%
Pacific Islanders 4.18% 4.10% 3.75% 3.82% 3.44%
Whites 67.85% 65.78% 66.83% 66.98% 67.12%
Group Representation of Conferred CCAF Degrees on JBPHH 2010-2014
YEAR 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
African Americans 17.35% 17.32% 15.46% 15.57% 15.31%
Asians 3.65% 5.29% 4.78% 5.07% 5.16%
Hispanics/Latinos 9.17% 9.44% 11.50% 11.86% 13.54%
Pacific Islanders 1.88% 2.28% 2.24% 2.44% 2.42%
Whites 67.96% 65.66% 66.02% 65.07% 63.58%
Percent of each Group that Earned a CCAF Degree on JBPHH 2010-2014
YEAR 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
African Americans 30.72% 28.69% 26.12% 22.81% 24.68%
Asians 17.84% 16.24% 13.95% 13.43% 15.38%
Hispanics/Latinos 38.97% 37.76% 45.38% 48.16% 60.43%
Pacific Islanders 12.50% 14.19% 14.77% 14.29% 17.54%
Whites 27.89% 25.48% 24.45% 21.72% 23.64%
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 65

Group Demographics. To determine the five year demographic trend for African
American airmen on JBPHH, their demographic sum for each fiscal year were added. To
receive the five year trend percentile for the group population of African American airmen,
their 2010-2014 demographic sum was divided by the 2010-2014 sum of the total population
of enlisted airmen. To receive the five year trend for the additional racial groups the same
procedure was conducted in excel.
CCAF Degrees Conferred. To determine the five year trend of CCAF degrees conferred
for African American airmen, their sum of CCAF degrees conferred for each fiscal year were
added. To receive the five year trend percentile for African Americans who earned the CCAF
degree the sum of their 2010-2014 CCAF conferred was divided by the sum of the 2010-2014
total population of airmen who earned the CCAF degree. Table 4.3 below reflects the five
year trend.
Table 4.3 Five Year Trend 2010-2014
Five Year Trend Five Year Trend
Group Demographics JBPHH 2010-2014 Conferred CCAF Degrees JBPHH 2010-2014
African
Americans
15.30%
African
Americans 16.12%

Asians 7.98% Asians 4.83%

Hispanics/Latinos 5.99% Hispanics/Latinos 11.27%

Pacific
Islanders
3.83%
Pacific
Islanders

2.27%

Whites 66.90% Whites 65.51%

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 66

Findings
RESEARCH QUESTION ONE:
Are African American airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in earning the
CCAF degree on JBPHH for fiscal years 2010-2014?
The literature states that African Americans have served in the U.S. military in numbers
greater than their percent of the general population (Segal, Thanner & Segal, 2007). African
Americans are considered the “majority-minority” in that they serve in the military at higher
rates than their Latino, Asian, Hispanic and Pacific Islander counterparts. Studies have
indicated that structural barriers in society such as low socioeconomic status and a poor
economic labor market as reasons why Black Americans seek opportunities to develop skills,
training and human capital in the military (Kleykamp, 2006). In addition, educational
benefits have been identified as a primary reason why Blacks enlist in the military. The
United States Air Force offers the Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) program and
provides enlisted members the opportunity to earn a CCAF degree. For many Black airmen,
enlistment in the Air Force provides them the opportunity to earn a CCAF degree that is
necessary for career advancement. Based on the tables above, the findings show that African
American airmen completed CCAF degrees just slightly above the same proportion as they
are represented in the total number of enlisted airmen. Therefore, African American airmen
who were stationed on JBPHH for 2010-2014 fiscal years were slightly overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree.
Fiscal Year 2010: The findings showed that enlisted African American airmen made
up 15.72% of the total enlisted population on JBPHH; their racial demographic representation
made up 17.35% for earning the CCAF degree while their percent as a group was 30.72%. In
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 67

comparison, Hispanics made up 6.55% of the total enlisted population, their racial
demographic representation for earning the CCAF degree was 9.17% and their percent as a
group to earn the CCAF degree was 38.97%. The enlisted population for Whites was 67.85%
and mirrored their racial demographic to earn the CCAF degree at 67.96%; their percentage as
a group to earn the CCAF degree was 27.89%. The findings for Asian airmen showed that
they made up 5.69% of the enlisted population, their racial demographic representation in
earning the CCAF degree was 3.65% and their percentage as a group to earn CCAF degrees
was 17.84%. Pacific Islanders made up 4.18% of the enlisted population, their racial
demographic representation of conferred CCAF degrees was 1.88% and their group
percentage to earn the CCAF degree was 12.5%. Overall, the findings showed that African
American enlisted airmen were overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree for FY 2010.
When compared to their racial counterparts their group percentage of earning the CCAF
degree was higher than White, Asian and Pacific Islander airmen but lower than Hispanics as
they showed to be significantly overrepresented.
Fiscal Year 2011: Black Airmen made up 15.41% of the total population while their
racial demographic of earning the CCAF degrees was 17.32%.and group percentage was
28.69%. In comparison, the Hispanics enlisted population was 6.38%, their racial
demographic percentage for earning the CCAF degree was 9.44%.and their group percentage
was 38.97%. White airmen represented 65.78% of the total population while their racial
demographics mirrored 65.66% of CCAF degree conferred and their group percentage came
to 25.48%. Asians were 8.32% of the enlisted population their racial demographic for earning
the CCAF degree was 5.29% and 16.24% in group representation. Pacific Islanders were
4.10% of the total population, their racial demographic for earning the CCAF degree was
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 68

1.88% and 14.19% for group representation. Overall, African Americans were found to be
overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree on JBPHH. In addition their group percentage
in earning the CCAF degree was higher than their White, Asian and Pacific Islander
counterparts, yet lower than the Hispanic group.
Fiscal Year 2012: Enlisted representation for Black Airmen was 14.66% whereas their
racial demographic percentage for conferred CCAF degrees was 15.46% and group
representation was 26.12%. In comparison, the Hispanic enlisted population was 6.27%, their
racial demographic percentage for earning the CCAF degree was 11.50% and group
representation was 45.38%. The White enlisted population was 66.83%, their racial
demographic representation for earning the CCAF degree was 66.02% and their group
representation was 24.45%. The Asian enlisted population was 8.49% while their racial
demographic representation for earning the CCAF degree was 4.78% and group
representation at 13.95%. Pacific Islanders were 3.75% of the total population, 2.24%
reflected their racial demographic for earning the CCAF degree and 14.77% for group
representation. Overall, African Americans were slightly overrepresented in earning the
CCAF degree on JBPHH; their White, Asian and Pacific Islander counterpart’s group
percentage were lower to earn the CCAF degree whereas the Hispanic group’s representation
was higher.
Fiscal Year 2013: African American airmen were 15.25% of the total population, their
racial demographic percentage of receiving CCAF degrees was 15.57% and their group
representation was 22.81%. In comparison, the Hispanic population was 5.50% yet their
racial demographic percentage for earning the CCAF degree was 11.86% and group
representation was 48.16%. Whites were 66.98% of the total population their racial
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 69

demographic representation earned 65.07% of CCAF and group representation was 21.72%.
The enlisted population for Asians was 8.44%, their racial demographic representation for
earning the CCAF degree was 5.07% and group representation at 13.43%. Pacific Islanders
represented 3.82% of the population, 2.44% of their racial demographic earned the CCAF
degree and 14.29% of their group representation. Overall, African American airmen on
JBPHH were shown to be neither underrepresent nor overrepresented for earning the CCAF
degree. Their percentage as a group however was higher than White, Asian and Pacific
Islander groups yet lower than the Hispanic group.
Fiscal Year 2014: African American airmen made up 15.49% of the enlisted
population, their racial demographic representation earned 15.31% of CCAF degrees and
group representation was 24.68%. Hispanics were 5.59% of the enlisted population their
racial demographic representation earned 13.54% of the CCAF degree and as a group
represented 60.43%. White airmen represented 67.12% of the population, their racial
demographic represented 63.58% of earned CCAF degrees and group representation was
23.64%. Asians were 8.37% of the enlisted population, their racial demographic
representation for earning the CCAF degree was 5.16% and group representation was 15.38%.
Pacific Islanders made up 3.44% of the enlisted population, their racial demographic
representation was 2.42% and group representation was 17.54%. Overall, African American
airmen showed to be neither overrepresented nor underrepresented for earning the CCAF
degree on JBPHH. Their group representation showed their percentage to be lower than their
Hispanic counterpart yet higher than their White, Asian and Pacific Islander counterparts.
Five Year Trend: The trend for African Americans for the past five years showed their
group demographic as it relates to the total population of enlisted Airmen to be 15.30%.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 70

Their trend for earning the CCAF degree within a five year period was 16.12%. Therefore for
fiscal years 2010-2014 African American airmen were a slightly overrepresented group who
earned the CCAF degree on JBPHH. The Hispanic airmen made up 5.99% of the total
enlisted population; they were 11.27% of conferred CCAF degrees and a consistently
overrepresented group who earned the CCAF degree. The five year trend showed White
airmen to be 66.90% of the total enlisted population. They represented 65.51% of earned
CCAF degrees thereby just slightly underrepresented in earned CCAF degrees. Asians and
Pacific Islander groups were consistently underrepresented.
For each fiscal year, the findings showed that as a group, Black airmen earned the
CCAF degree at a higher rate. With the exception of Hispanic airmen, the group percentage of
earning the CCAF degree for African American airmen on JBPHH showed to be consistently
higher compared to their White, Asian and Pacific Islander counterparts.
Summary of Quantitative Findings
Multiple studies have identified for many Black Americans that the military is a viable
option to the civilian work force as it offers career opportunities, educational benefits and aids
in increasing social mobility (Kleykamp, 2006). The literature indicates that educational
opportunities as a primary reason why African Americans enlist in the military. Social capital
has been signaled to be significant for Black military members, particularly those who come
from disadvantaged backgrounds as it allows them to gain equal access to social opportunities
and advancement through education (Harris, 2009). The use of social capital was successful
for African American airmen who were stationed on JBPHH from 2010-2014 as the findings
show that they were an overrepresented group who earned the CCAF degree.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 71

According to the literature African American’s participation in the military has
declined; in the early 2000s their overall representation had dropped below 20% (Office of the
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, 2012). Black youth who are able to earn higher wages in
the civilian workforce are less likely to enlist in the armed forces. An increased number of
African Americans attend institutions of higher learning as access and equity has become less
problematic. In contrast, the findings reflect that enlistment for Black airmen on JBPHH
remained steady; with the exception of fiscal year 2012, their representation on JBPHH
remained consistent as their five year trend showed them to have averaged 15.30% of the total
enlisted population. They also remained consistent in earning the CCAF degree to include
fiscal year 2012; while their group population declined slightly they remained an
overrepresented group.
In review, several key observations emerged from the findings as they relate to the
overrepresentation and underrepresentation of the racial groups on JBPHH. The CCAF
degree is the only degree in the Air Force that is required for airmen and NCOs to be
considered for promotion. Thus the findings suggest that African American airmen on
JBPHH value promotion and career opportunities in the Air Force. The Hispanic group while
small in demographic representation, the findings showed them to be exceptionally
overrepresented as a group to earn the CCAF degree; therefore the findings for this group
suggest that for unknown reasons they are highly motivated to earn the CCAF degree. White
airmen were only shown to be slightly underrepresented as a group and continue to earn the
CCAF degree at a high percentage therefore the findings suggest that they find value in
earning the CFAF degree. Asians and Pacific Islanders were consistently underrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree, several possible suggestions stand out for these two groups (1) they
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 72

are pursuing other degrees (2) they do not plan to remain in the military for a long period of
time thus the CCAF degree is not important or (3) they find no value in earning the CCAF
degree.
It should be noted while African Americans were shown to be a slightly
overrepresented group to earn the CCAF degree on JBPHH; it is unknown if they are also an
overrepresented group on other Air Force bases or if this phenomenon is distinct only to
JBPHH.
Qualitative Data
Structure and context were needed to provide balance to the qualitative portion of the
study therefore a particularistic-case study was conducted on African American enlisted
airmen stationed on JBPHH. Participants for this study responded to an email sent by a
Command Master Sargent (CMSgt) whose services to assist with this study were authorized
by a base commander on JBPHH. Using a purposeful sample, an email requesting African
American enlisted airmen who ranked E3-E6 (airmen and NCOs) to participate in this study
was randomly sent to members of the African American Heritage Association (AAHA), an
organization located on JBPHH. The CMSgt expressed the tedious and time consuming nature
of having to go through the Air Force Personnel system to retrieve and sort the emails of
enlisted airmen by race and rank, therefore suggested that the AAHA would be the best point
of contact to reach the desired demographic. The number of airmen to whom the email was
delivered is not known. Ten airmen responded and expressed interest to participate in the
study, dates and times were established to conduct interviews. The location of the interviews
took place on JBPHH in an office across from the Education Center; the scheduled times were
based on the schedule and convenience of each participant; individual interviews took
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 73

approximately 35-45 minutes. Once interviews were scheduled and conducted qualitative
thematic coding was used to identify relevant themes and categories. Qualitative data
revealed various perspectives from Black airmen on why the joined the military and the
significance or insignificance of the CCAF degree. The data provided an understanding of the
experiences of African American airmen on how they felt about the CCAF program. From
the ten participants, seven were female and three were male. All participants were NCOs (E5
& E6) with the average time of service being 13.5 years. Seven of the participants earned a
CCAF degree, two participants did not and one participant was two classes from earning the
CCAF degree. The participant information is found below in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Description of Participants

Participant
(Pseudonym)
Gender Rank Years of
Service
CCAF Degree
Earned
Career Field Plan to make the
military a career
Susan Female SSgt- E5 5 Yes Public Health Undecided
Anita Female SSgt- E5 11 Yes Medical
Administrator
Yes
William Male SSgt-E5 11 In progress Medical
Technician
Yes
Karla Female SSgt-E5 12 ½ Yes Mental Health
Specialist
Yes
Maureen Female TSgt-E6 12 Yes Field Medic Yes
Melinda Female TSgt-E6 13 Yes Medical
Technician
Yes
Robert Male TSgt-E6 13 ½ Yes Equal
Opportunity
Yes
Christie Female TSgt-E6 14 Yes Public Health Yes
Pamela Female TSgt-E6 18 No Administrative
Support
Yes
Thomas Male TSgt-E6 26 No Recruiter Yes
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 74

Research Questions (RQ) and Themes
The analysis of the data involved identifying recurrent themes and categorizing personal
experiences and individual perception. The following research questions were constructed to
gain an in-depth understanding of why African Americans joined the military and their views
and personal opinions of the CCAF program and earning the CCAF degree.
1. What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
2. What is the internal value and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by
the participants?
3. What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
After analyzing and coding the data, each identified theme was correlated to a research
question. Listed below are the themes that emerged from the data followed by a matrix that
shows the relationship of each theme to its respective research question.
1. Social Mobility
2. Tuition Assistance
3. Human Capital
4. Social Value
5. Motivation
6. Social Support

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 75

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND THEMES MATRIX
RQ (1) What factors
influenced the participants to
join the military?
Theme 1:
Social Mobility
Theme 2:
Tuition Assistance
RQ (2) What is the internal
value and external value of the
CCAF degree as perceived by
the participants?
Theme 3:
Human Capital
Theme 4:
Social Value
RQ (3) What primary factors
resulted in the participants’
decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
Theme 5:
Motivation
Theme 6:
Social Support

Findings
This portion of the study is rooted in understanding the perceptions and individual
truths based on personal knowledge and account. For each individual response direct quotes
are used as it provides the essence in capturing the full and complete richness of the
individual’s experience and truth. Seeking to understand the lived experiences of the
participants contributed to the importance of connecting them with the literature and research
questions.
RESEARCH QUESTION ONE:
What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
Theme One-Social Mobility: The first theme that emerged from the findings was social
mobility. Participants expressed the importance of wanting to improve their quality of life.
Kleykamp (2010) asserts that young Black adults who are from poor urban areas are more
likely to receive lower earnings and face higher rates of unemployment; therefore those who
desire to increase their economic opportunities are more likely to enlist in the military. The
research shows that due to the economic disadvantage in the civilian sector many African
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 76

Americans are attracted to the military; reasons include steady employment, numerous
benefits and career opportunities. Research also indicates that many African Americans view
the military as a pathway to increase socioeconomic opportunities and in doing so they are
able to develop skills and obtain career opportunities (Harris, 2009). The testaments of the
participants are consistent with the literature which shows that societal impediments such as
poor social conditions to be an indicator as to why the military is looked upon by many
African Americans. Studies from the literature also suggest that during economic calamity
the military is an appealing alternative for Blacks (Kleykamp, 2010). William shared how
being homeless placed him in an economic quandary:
William: I moved to D.C., got a job with Bank of America as a teller, I moved up
to another department, I was moving up but then one day they had to make cuts
and with me not having a degree in the position that I was in and even though I
was one of the top performers they couldn’t justify me being in the position that I
was in so I got laid off. After that I could not find work, I was over qualified for
this and under qualified for that. I ended up being homeless, living out of my car
for five months.
William chronicled his experience of being homeless as humbling, he expressed how he
put aside his pride and went back to his parent’s house. His mother informed him that his
high school ROTC recruiter called several times. The recruiter assumed that William had
completed college and asked him if he wanted to commission and go into the military,
William explained that he never finished college. The recruiter asked William if he wanted to
enlist, William said yes and three days later he was on a plane for basic training. William
stated joining the military was the best decision he could have ever made. Similarly for
Thomas, economic conditions in his home town were not ideal, he described the environment
as oppressed therefore the military was his opportunity to leave:
Thomas: Where I was working it wasn’t going to do what I needed it to do,
opportunities weren’t good plus I got married. I never wanted to stay in that town
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 77

so the military was an out for me; and I wanted to travel so the military was a way
for me.
Thomas continued to share how the military provided financial security and allowed for
him to see the world. He credits the military for exposing him to different cultures and does
not believe he would have had such a vast experience had he not joined. His testament
corresponds with the literature that individuals from of low socioeconomic status seek the
military to increase socioeconomic opportunities and establish career paths (Harris, 2009).
Burk and Espinoza (2012) assert that Black women are more likely to show interest in
the military as they not only have the double burden of race and sex but also wage
discrimination. Many Black women seek to escape daunting civilian economic prospects by
enlisting in the military. Maureen described her community as a low income area filled with
crime, gangs and violence thus those extrinsic factors influenced her to pursue the military.
Melinda described her neighborhood as not so great and where many people did not finish
high school. She joined the military because as a teen mother she wanted to financially be
able to take care of her child:
Maureen: We lived in low-income apartments, we didn’t have a vehicle, we were
on welfare and food stamps. I didn’t want to work with my mom in the local
casino so I wanted to do more and I knew I had to do something. I really thought
that the military was my only way out, that was the only way for sure that I would
get out.
Melinda: I was like I could still make money and not go to college so that was my
initial reason for joining the military. I joined the military because I was a single
teen mom so that was the easiest way to get a pay check, a steady job to take care
of my child.
Burk and Espinoza (2012) describe how many Black women who are single parents
view the military as an opportunity to improve their economic status; Melinda expressed that
the military was her only way out and she saw it as a way to earn a steady pay check. These
accounts by the participants align with the literature that states individuals who come from
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 78

economically disadvantaged backgrounds or due to economic mayhem view the military as a
reliant institution for social mobility.
Kleykamp (2006) indicate that family and friends who are current or former members
of the military often have a strong influence on military enlistment as they are able to provide
exposure and increase awareness of benefits and career opportunities. Kleykamp (2006)
suggests that communities that have a strong military presence have been associated with
enlistment decisions. The institutional presence of Ft. Bragg and family members who were in
the military was a strong influence in Pamela’s decision to join the military. For Pamela
exposure to military lifestyle and culture influenced her decisions to join in the military. Her
testimony supports the literature that a military community along with military family and
friends are key contributors on enlistment decisions:
Pamela: Ft. Bragg is a huge presence and all I saw were my aunties and uncles
coming home for 30 days leave in nice cars, nice houses. They always got money
so that’s what I saw, the nice cars. I didn’t know anything else but I saw that
everybody in the military had a nice car (laughter), so I wanted a nice car.
Theme Two-Tuition Assistance. The second theme identified in the findings as it
relates to the first research question was tuition assistance. The findings are linked to the
literature regarding the importance of educational benefits and how it is a strong indicator as
to why many African Americans enlist in the military. Educational benefits have been
extensively documented as a strong influence and as the primary reason why many African
Americans choose to enlist in the military (Harris, 2009). Part of the educational benefit
package in the military is tuition assistance; participants specifically stated that they were
influenced to join the military to gain access to such educational benefits. Tuition assistance
is a primary theme that surfaced from the data as it relates to the research question.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 79

Wang, Elder and Spence (2012) documents individuals who are from urban and low
income areas earning a degree may be hindered by the financial costs with attending college.
Susan was pursuing her bachelor’s degree before she decided to join the Air Force. When she
went to speak with the recruiter he told her that the military would pay for her education. That
notion appealed to her and she enlisted that same day. Anita said that she wanted to go to
college but she did not know how she was going to fund it. She did not want to take out loans
and acquire debt so she spoke with an Air Force recruiter about education benefits. Her sole
purpose of joining the Air Force was to take advantage of the education benefits. These
reasons for joining the military aligns with the research in that many African Americans view
the military as a way to gain access to educational resources that they may not easily have
access to in the civilian sector.
Susan: I saw the recruiter and he said the military pays for school and if you have
a degree already you can come in at certain ranks, he pushed school. It was
appealing.
Anita: I definitely wanted to go to college. I did not know how I was going to pay
for it, so that was my sole reason for joining the Air Force, to pay for my
education.
Wang et al. (2012) states that high quality recruits or those who aspire to go to college
are least likely to enlist, however the research also states that young African Americans with
high cognitive ability may seek the military to take advantage of the benefits to achieve higher
education. Karla explained that she excelled in school and received a full scholarship to
college. However due to personal issues she was emotionally tired and decided not to go.
Karla had made the military an option because she knew that once she decided to go back to
school that it would be paid for. Both Robert and Christie also received college scholarships.
Robert attended college for two years however there were issues with his scholarships and he
was unable to complete school. Robert states that his initial reason for joining the military
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 80

was to take advantage of military benefits as they relate to education. Similarly, Christie also
received scholarships for college however after one semester there was an increase in tuition
and her scholarships did not cover the costs. She ended up joining the military because she
did not want to be a financial burden to her family and felt that it was best to use educational
benefits to pay for school:
Karla: I chose the Air Force to retire. Also I joined so that when I did get ready to
go to school it would be paid for.
Robert: When I found out that the military was going to pay for my school I think
that’s what got me.
Christie: I went and joined the military in hopes to be less of a financial burden to
my family. That was the number one reason for me to join. I found out about the
education benefits and so I figured I’d just finish up there.
Summary of Findings for RQ (1)
The findings to the first research question shows that steady employment, financial
stability, career opportunities, socioeconomic advantages are social mobility factors that
influenced each participant above to enlist in the military. The theoretical framework of social
capital is revealed as the participants became self-aware that they needed access to resources
that would increase social mobility thus they viewed the military as a positive option. The
statements from participants who had come from a lower socioeconomic background aligned
with the literature as they affirmed how the military provided them the opportunity to improve
social mobility.
These influences are consistent with the literature which repeatedly shows why the
military has been a consistent pathway and a form of social capital for many young African
Americans. In addition, the findings revealed how the rising cost of tuition was problematic
for a few of the participants and therefore they were unable to continue their academic
journey at a traditional college/university; thus their reasons for joining the military. These
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 81

findings are also consistent with the research that reveals African Americans who are of a
higher aptitude level for academic achievement and are most likely to attend college may not
be able to do so due to financial constraints. Overall, social capital is evident throughout the
findings as participants revealed that they joined the military to increase social mobility
and/or to receive financial funding to pursue and earn a college degree. The use of social
capital allowed for participants to gain access to information and resources that enabled them
to pursue educational opportunities.
RESEARCH QUESTION TWO:
What is the internal value and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by the
participants?
Theme Three-Human Capital. The third theme identified in the findings as it relates to
the second research question is human capital. Earning the CCAF degree improves an
airman’s opportunity to compete for promotion, which in turn may lead to career
advancement. The literature describes the degree as an Applied Science degree offered by the
Community College of the Air Force (Community College of the Air Force Catalog, 2014). It
is designed to help enlisted members of the Air Force to receive specialized training and earn
job related degrees that enhance mission readiness.
After analyzing the findings, many of the participant’s statements corresponded with the
literature as it relates to the importance of enlisted airmen earning the CCAF degree.
Participants shared how the CCAF degree is promoted and encouraged to them by military
educators and leaders; they also shared how the CCAF degree is perceived in general by other
Black airmen and reasons why they do not earn it. Anita’s assertions supports the literature
by stating education was not always pushed, as a young airman, she did not know about the
program until after the Air Force began to stress the importance of having a CCAF degree.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 82

Anita earned her CCAF degree as she saw it as motivation to continue in her career. She sees
the CCAF degree as being necessary if you want to remain in the Air Force. Anita also
expressed that it is smart to get the CCAF degree as one does not know what the future has in
store. She used the recent downsizing of the Air Force as an example and stated one of the
determinants used is whether or not an individual has their CCAF degree. William’s
statement collaborates with the literature in that he described that there was a point in time
that the CCAF degree was not so strongly encouraged, that the emphasis was being proficient
in doing your job. Similar to Anita, William too did not know about the CCAF program, he
stated that it was not as significant back then, but now it is enforced for promotion. Now that
he is an E5 and wants to stay in the military, he knows that in order to remain competitive he
must earn his the degree:
Anita: The CCAF degree is now a motivation to keep your career and advance.
Here on Joint Base where I work it’s only pushed for your career, to advance in
your career, to maintain your career. It’s not pushed for personal development or
growth. It’s encouraged if you want to stay in the Air Force.
William: When I joined, they didn’t say come into the Air Force to be a college
student, they said come in, become proficient at your job and then pursue your
education from there. Now I’m told that I need the CCAF degree.
The CCAF degree is not mandatory for airmen to earn as they are permitted to earn a
degree of their choice. It is, however, highly encouraged for airmen to earn a CCAF degree
as it is the only required degree needed for promotion. Earning the CCAF degree increases
human capital as it shows enlisted airmen who have a CCAF to be deemed more valuable
than those who do not. According to the Community College of the Air Force Catalog (2014-
2016) when the CCAF program was implemented, the CCAF degree was not required for
non-commissioned officers (NCOs); therefore they were eligible to apply for E7, E8 and E9
positions. It was not until after 2007 when a major shift in Air Force policy mandated that the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 83

CCAF degree a requirement for promotion eligibility to all NCOs who rank E7 and wish to
promote to E8.
The value gained for enlisted airmen and NCOs who earn a CCAF degree is the ability
to compete for special assignments, promotions and to advance their military career. Robert
shared that when he enlisted in the Air Force there were people who were promoted to E8 and
E9 who did not have their CCAF degree. He described how the Air Force changed to where
education is emphasized when it comes to career progression and promotion. He views the
CCAF degree to be career field driven and that it was important for him to have if he wanted
to make the Air Force a career. Christie supports Robert’s assessment as she explained how
the degree was not enforced or pushed and that it was not necessary to have to be promoted.
Now that the focus has since changed, she saw the CCAF degree as important to have in
regards to advancing in her career field and thus has earned it. Despite the change of policy in
the middle of their careers, these participants recognized that if they wanted to advance and
remain in the Air Force that the CCAF degree provided them with the human capital
necessary to have in order to be competitive. Both participants acknowledged what the CCAF
degree could do for them while enlisted in the Air Force:
Robert: The Air Force has changed and the focus of the CCAF degree is strictly
for your career field. It was around 2006-2007 the supervisor that I had motivated
me to get my CCAF. It is the only degree that is required to excel in the Air
Force.
Christie: The way it was explained to me you get the CCAF, you also get the
training so you have gained an academic knowledge and a technical trade for this
field.
Out of the ten participants, Susan was the only airman who enlisted after the new policy
was adopted. Thus her exposure to the CCAF degree program began in the very beginning of
her Air Force career. The value of the degree was established early; she stated that it was
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 84

made clear in the beginning of her enlistment that there is no career advancement without the
CCAF degree. As a young airman, Susan understood early in her enlistment what the CCAF
could do for her career. She wanted to move up in rank and therefore earned her CCAF
degree:
Susan: My supervisor would talk about it. She said it was required if you wanted
to move up in certain ranks, that you have to have your CCAF degree and if you
move up in rank the more money you make the more responsibility you have.
That appealed to me.

An interesting observation occurred in regards to the two participants who did not earn
a CCAF degree. Out of the ten participants, Pamela and Thomas have been enlisted in the
military the longest. Pamela who has been in for 18 years emphasized that she did not join
the military to go to college. She acknowledged that the Air Force encourages enlisted
airmen to get their CCAF degree however she felt that the Air Force was forcing education
due to downsizing. Thomas who has been enlisted for 26 years acknowledged that the Air
Force had begun to push the CCAF degree however he strongly expressed that he was not
interested in the program. The dichotomy in belief systems between Pamela and Thomas
versus the other participants may have a lot to do with how they were groomed in the military:
Pamela: It didn’t matter back then, but now the Air Force promotes it heavily
now. I barely wanted to do the work in high school so college wasn’t my thing, I
just wanted to work.
Thomas: I haven’t really looked at it to see if it’s beneficial. I just don’t know if it
will help me or not.
The participants explained how the requirements to earn the CCAF had recently become
more stringent for promotions. Pamela and Thomas who have been in the military the longest
do not see the value of earning the CCAF degree the way their counterparts see it. It is most
likely that since Pamela and Thomas were toward the end of their military career, the value of
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 85

the degree is not perceived to be very high while the other participants who are in the middle
of their careers view the CCAF degree as important for promotion and career advancement.
According to the majority of participants, the CCAF degree increases human capital as
it is declared to be relevant for enlisted airmen to have to gain career opportunities. This form
of human capital is thereby valued in that the CCAF degree is an essential credential needed
for career minded airmen to have in order to be considered for promotion. The findings
coincide with the literature as the participants revealed that the CCAF degree allows for them
to be competitive. Having the degree not only illuminates their human capital value, it also
sends a message to those enlisted airmen who do not have a CCAF degree that career
advancements and opportunities for them are elusive.
Theme Four-Social Value. The fourth theme identified in the data as it relates to the
second research question is social value. According to the literature earning a college degree
while in the military prepares members to be marketable in the civilian workforce. The
literature also indicates that the social returns of an education can enhance quality of life for
both the private and public markets (McMahon, 2009). While the CCAF degree has been
determined to increase human capital in the Air Force, the value that it has in the civilian
workforce is questionable. When asked why many of their Black counterparts do not pursue
their CCAF degree, the response from a few participants were that many African American
enlisted airmen do not feel that the degree is valuable outside of the Air Force.
Susan expressed that many Black airmen do not see the value of the CCAF degree
outside of the Air Force as it is a type of degree that is related to military specializations. She
also expressed that many Black airmen are not being encouraged to pursue the degree. When
Susan was asked if she thought the CCAF degree was valued outside of the military she
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 86

responded no as it is just an associate’s degree and most people want someone who has a
bachelor’s degree at minimum.
Similarly, Maureen explained how some Black airmen do not feel that the CCAF degree
will help them as civilians. She pointed out that some Black airmen do not plan on making
the military a career therefore they do not see the point of getting it. She too does not think
that the CCAF degree is valued outside of the military; she feels that it will not help her out in
the civilian job market and believes that the bachelor’s degree is the new associate’s degree.
Likewise, Christie also spoke about how some Black airmen do not believe that the
CCAF degree is valued outside of the Air Force as they only view the degree to be significant
to military jobs. She explained that there were many Black airmen who either come into the
military who already have their bachelor’s degree or they pursue a bachelor’s degree and
therefore do not see the importance of the CCAF degree.
Comparable to the aforementioned statements Anita also stated that there are a lot of
Black airmen who come to the military who have prior college and want to continue to either
earn a bachelor’s or master’s degree and not so much the CCAF degree. When asked if she
felt that the CCAF degree would help her as a civilian she expressed not nearly as much as it
would in the Air Force, Anita expressed that what was important for her was to get her
bachelor’s degree as that is why she joined the military:
Susan: I don’t think they know what options are available to them. If I were a
young airman and no one was saying what’s available I would be out partying,
it’s Hawaii. A lot of them don’t have someone pushing them and encouraging
them.
Maureen: For many people the CCAF degree, it’s really not that big of a deal
especially if it’s in a career field that you don’t want to be in. If you are going for
a civilian career the CCAF degree isn’t going to get you very far and no one else
thinks so either so that’s why it’s not valuable to us unless we stay in the Air
Force.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 87

Christie: Many Black airmen blow it off, they feel that it’s not acknowledged on
the outside because it’s just military stuff.

Anita: For Black airmen, it’s a smarter route financially, they ran out of money
for school so they joined the military to continue pressing forward. I see a lot
more of that now.
The above beliefs are in contrast to the literature regarding the value of CCAF degree
and how it will benefit airmen as civilians. Harper (2008) states that one of the values of
social capital as it relates to military education is it extends beyond the military community
and into the civilian sector. The CCAF program not only promotes an academic environment
that is conducive to both learning and training, it also prepares airmen for the civilian
workforce. The CCAF degree integrates Air Force technical education and skills which
allows for airmen to transfer their training and education to civilian jobs that are similar to
their military occupation.
Kime and Anderson (2000) explains how the value of the CCAF degree helps enlisted
airmen to develop cognitive skills that cultivate management and leadership skills that are
transferable to civilian organizations. It appears however that Air Force leaders view the
value of the CCAF degree outside of the military differently from how airmen view the value
of the CCAF degree outside of the military. Six of the participants stated that they also do not
feel that the CCAF degree is valued outside of the Air Force and feel that they are better
prepared for civilian life if they earned their bachelor’s degree.
Both William and Robert described how an associate’s degree (CCAF) is more valuable
in the Air Force over a bachelor’s and master’s degree. William feels that the value of the
CCAF degree allows one to continue to pursue a bachelor’s degree. However, the CCAF
degree will trump any higher degree in the Air Force. William does not think that it has much
value outside of the military thus the reason why he is pursuing his bachelor’s degree. Robert
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 88

is unsure of the weight that the CCAF has outside of the military and states perhaps that is
why many Black airmen pursue bachelor degrees. Robert strongly emphasized however the
weight that the CCAF degree has in the Air Force as he stated that it is the only degree that
matters.
Christie stated that in order for the CCAF degree to be of value outside of the military it
is important that organizations and business understand exactly what the CCAF degree is as
many civilian people are not familiar with it:
William: I had a boss who has his Master of International Business degree but
was at a disadvantage because he didn’t have a CCAF degree.
Robert: Let’s say that there’s another E6 who has the same background as me and
we are going up for promotion and the only difference is that they have a bachelor
and no CCAF and I have only have a CCAF, the board will probably pick me
over the individual with a bachelor’s degree.
Christie: You’re not there while they are reviewing this application. So if the rest
of the application is not pleasing or doesn’t trigger that interest you’ll never get
that opportunity to go and see them face to face and explain to them what a CCAF
is.

Karla’s perceptions are in sync with the literature as she believes that the CCAF
is valuable in the civilian sector as it complements the work experience that airmen
bring to the civilian workforce. She expressed that it cannot hurt to have the CCAF
degree but only help:
Karla: I think it’s valuable. I do because when you retire you’re going to have to
compete for a job. Luckily we have 20 years of experience but having that extra
piece of paper can really put you over the top.
Summary of Findings for RQ (2)
The findings to the second research question showed that eight out of the ten
participants viewed the CCAF degree to be highly valuable (internally) while enlisted in the
Air Force. Seven of the participants have earned their CCAF degree and at the time of the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 89

study one participant was in the process of earning it. The participants expressed that earning
a CCAF degree increases their opportunities as NCOs for promotion; as well as separates
them from other NCOs and airmen who do not have their CCAF degree. It should be
reiterated that the two participants who did not pursue and earn their CCAF degree were in
the military the longest and it is possible that when the Air Force changed its policy that it
came toward the end of their careers therefore they saw no incentive in earning it. The CCAF
degree holds significant internal value as perceived by the participants as it is the only degree
that is relevant for career advancement.
The findings, however, also revealed that the majority of participants do not believe that
the CCAF degree is valued externally. The bachelor’s degree is perceived by the majority of
the participants to have far more weight in the civilian sector versus the CCAF degree, which
in their opinion is considered by the civilian workforce to be only a military credential. As
evident by this strong belief, five of the participants have earned a bachelor’s degree while
four other participants (during the time of this study) were in the process of pursuing it. These
findings indicate that they feel the need to prepare for life after the military and believe that
the bachelor’s degree will increase human capital in the civilian job market. Participants
stated that this perception is also shared by other Black airmen and believe to be a reason why
many do not pursue the CCAF degree.
The elements of social capital within the findings indicate that all of the participants
were provided knowledge of the new Air Force policy. The participants agreed that the Air
Force has made enlisted airmen aware of the importance of earning the CCAF degree.
However, several of the participants stated that many Black airmen do not know the process
of how to get started and believe it to be one of the reasons why they do not pursue it. These
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 90

findings suggest that while airmen are informed about the importance of getting their CCAF
degree, there may be a lack of information provided to airmen on how to get started. In
addition, participants expressed that the lack of social value the CCAF degree has outside of
the military is also a reason why other Black airmen do not pursue it. These findings also
suggest that the attainment of social capital as it relates to shared knowledge and information
is somewhat lacking as there appears to be a difference in perception on how the CCAF
degree is valued outside of the military between Black airmen (and possibly airmen of other
races) and the Air Force.
RESEARCH QUESTION THREE:
What primary factors resulted in the participants’ to pursue or not to pursue the CCAF
degree?

Theme Five-Motivation. The fifth theme identified in the findings related to the third
research question is motivation. Based on the literature there are intrinsic and extrinsic
motivating factors as to why individuals pursue educational goals. Yet despite educational
benefits being a primary reason for military enlistment, there are others who do not choose to
take advantage of educational benefits (Covington, 2007). The literature reports that there are
various intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors that encourage participation in earning a
degree. Extrinsic motivation is defined as performance that is linked to a tangible reward
whereas intrinsic motivation is individual activity that is linked to personal goal or
satisfaction. In addition the research also suggests how inhibitors such as lack of time,
finances, information and awareness may discourage individuals from pursuing higher
education (Covington, 2007).
Participants were asked to share why they either pursued or not pursued a CCAF degree;
participants were also asked to share what type of institutional support was received while
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 91

stationed on JBPHH. Several extrinsic and intrinsic motivating factors appeared in the
findings as they relate to participants pursuing the CCAF degree. It has been documented
from this study that enlisted airmen must earn the CCAF degree in order to be considered for
promotion, Susan expressed that she was self-motivated and desired to move up in her career.
Despite a demanding career, she believed it was about being able to balance work and school:
Susan: There were times you’d come home and you’re tired and sometimes you just
don’t want to go to class. You work all day but if you want to take the classes you’re
going to have to put in the time.
William and Karla shared that they wanted to be eligible for promotion and thus it is the
primary reason why they pursued their CCAF degree. William compared the CCAF degree to
having a Costco card, his analogy is that the CCAF degree is similar to having a Costco
membership in that it affords airmen to have access to particular benefits provided by the Air
Force. If airmen do not have their CCAF degree they are not privy to special assignments and
promotions offered by the Air Force. Karla, who also wants to make the Air Force a career
stated that her career would be hindered if she did not have her CCAF degree as no one would
take her seriously without it:
William: It’s a career killer if you don’t have it. Leadership, mentors and everyone
said if you want to continue in the military and get other opportunities that you
needed to get your CCAF degree.
Karla: The CCAF degree is instrumental for promotion. If I want to make the Air
Force a career I’ve got to have it.
The extrinsic factor of career advancement was a key element for the participants as they
want to advance in their career. Research shows that for many adult learners the intention to
pursue a degree is strongly influenced by career goals such as higher pay and promotions.
Extrinsically motivated individuals as it relates to higher education are driven by external
rewards or reinforcements (Williams & Williams, 2011). The Air Force has implemented a
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 92

policy that in order for enlisted airmen to be considered for career advancement they must
have their CCAF degree. Hence the extrinsic motivating factor for the participants to receive
a senior-rater endorsement for promotion therefore they were willing to pursue and earn their
CCAF degree. This is true for Christie in that she stated that the CCAF degree would make
her more recognizable to be considered for awards. The more awards that one has in the Air
Force the better the chances are for promotion:
Christie: I wanted it for my career it’s important to have especially when I go up
for awards and compete against other Tech Sergeants and they see that I have my
CCAF and others don’t then it makes me more marketable for winning that
award.
Williams and Williams (2011) explains that individuals who have high aspirations will
set clear goals and high expectation for themselves. Persistence, planning and focus are
attributes that are common to individuals who are goal oriented and thus they are intrinsically
motivated to set and accomplish their goals. Three of the participants articulated that personal
goals were primary elements as to why they pursued their CCAF degree. High drive and self-
motivation were also terms used to describe their intrinsic motivating factors. The literature
identifies motivation qualities such as goals, persistence and determination as dispositional
characteristics of adult students (Williams & Williams, 2011).
Anita stated that her high drive and commitment was motivation for earning her CCAF
and B.S. degrees as she wanted to have something to fall back on when she retired. Maureen
said she had mapped out her goals and the CCAF degree was something she wanted. Robert
described himself as a self-motivator who pursued anything that aligned with his goals; the
CCAF degree was a goal and he pursued it. All three participants also revealed in their
interview that prior to the military pursuing a degree was very important to them. They all
stated that when they enlisted that taking advantage of educational opportunities was very
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 93

important. Research shows that intrinsically motivated individuals are often driven by self-
satisfaction of completing a personal goal; they are often fulfilled by a personal commitment
to excel. The findings show that personal achievement for Anita, Maureen and Robert was
highly influenced by intrinsic motivation:
Anita: I don’t think that others have such a high drive as I did. I came in and I got
my degree and hoping with the experience of the military and my educational
background, I have a better chance than no experience, no education.
Maureen: I set goals where I needed to take at last two classes each semester. Plus
you have to want the degree.
Robert: I’m a self-motivator with a lot of things. I think it’s hard to mentor or
motivate if someone is trying to guide you in the opposite direction that you want to
go.
Scanlon (2008) asserts that there is a correlation between individual phases of transition
and a readiness to learn. For many adults who decide to return to school there is a gradual
change in their perspective. This change could be a shift in their frame of reference as well as
a change in their value system. Specifically, military culture can transform members to where
they are able to gain professional success and align it with personal development to include
education. Melinda shared that she was not motivated to go to school when she first enlisted.
However, throughout her career her perspective changed on how she viewed and valued
education:
Melinda: I think that education is important and that is something that you should do
before you leave the military. Take something before you leave and it’s free why not
so why not. Plus you can’t promote without it. Take advantage of it, I haven’t paid a
dime.
In her interview, Melinda divulged that as a teenage parent her focus was to earn a steady
paycheck so that she would be able to support her child. As she matured her core mission
shifted and education became an integral part of what she wanted to accomplish prior to
retiring from the military. The literature supports this assertion as studies show that intrinsic
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 94

motivation may be strongly affected by the process of transitioning phases throughout one’s
life (Scanlon, 2008).
While educational benefits have been documented as a primary reason why African
Americans enlist in the military, there are many Blacks who join the military who chose not to
pursue a degree. For enlisted airmen the CCAF degree is not a mandatory degree and thus
they have options to pursue other degrees. Pamela explained that due to her busy life as a
new parent she is not motivated to take the required classes as that would be added stress.
She also shared that she had attempted to take math courses on several different occasions and
failed. Pamela expressed that she does not have confidence in her math skills and that her
intimidation of math is the primary reason why she has not pursued the CCAF degree:
Pamela: If I had the dedicated help, sometimes you do need that extra hand
holding, that extra push and if I had that I’m like okay I can do it but for me to try
to go out there on my own and do it like the last times, that’s not going to happen,
I’m not going to drown by myself again.
While Pamela does have a supervisor who motivates her she stated that she needs
someone to provide her with extra encouragement and assistance as she does not want to fail
again. The literature indicates that student motivation is a key element that is vital for
academic success. However, it is also important for military support leaders to be cognizant
that each military student can be different and thus require different types of effective
motivation styles (Barbuto, Story, Fritz & Schinstock, 2011). Pamela stated that just because
she does not have a degree she will not have to worry about trying to get hired as she will be
her own boss. It is important to reiterate that Pamela has two years remaining before she
retires from the Air Force, thus there is no urgency or motivation for career advancement.
Thomas expressed that he is not motivated to get the CCAF degree because he does not
believe that it is helpful outside of the Air Force. Thomas also expressed that there are other
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 95

options that people should consider such as becoming an entrepreneur. Thomas revealed that
he loves education and that he loves to learn. However, he does not like school as he feels
that many of the classes that are required are not necessary and are a waste of time:
Thomas: If I could just go and get the basics, I think two years should be enough
to get your bachelor unless you want to be a doctor or something like that. Cut
out all of the lower classes because it’s just a waste of time if you ask me.
Despite this testament, at the time of this study Thomas was pursuing his bachelor’s
degree. Contrary to the relevance that the Air Force has placed on having the CCAF degree,
Thomas feels that earning a bachelor’s degree would be in his best interest. Akin to Pamela,
he too is at the end of his military career and therefore motivation is not a factor for him to
pursue his CCAF degree.
Theme Six-Social Support. The sixth theme that emerged from the findings as it
relates to the third research question is social support. In the construct of military education
social support is defined as a network consisting of peer relationships, institutional leaders,
faculty members and educational advisors/mentors, all of whom are critical in fostering a
sense of value and importance to education. According to Hausmann, Schofield and Woods
(2008) a positive perception of social support is a critical factor for non-white military
members as it is a strong indicator that will often determine inclusion and acceptance. It is
imperative for military members to remain focused on the mission of the military and it is
equally important for members to be supportive and encourage one another. Likewise, it is
essential for military students to provide support to each other while academic goals are being
obtained.
Melinda vocalized the positive institutional support she received from her peers. She
explained how she surrounded herself with people who had similar strong core values about
education. She then began to adopt a similar mentality about college and began to understand
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 96

its value and importance. Melinda shared that originally she did not think that she was
college potential but through the support of peers she was motivated to pursue her CCAF and
bachelor’s degrees:
Melinda: They were going to college, I knew that college was important but did
not think that I had the potential to actually go to college until I started hanging
around this particular group of people.
Similarly Christie shared how in the beginning she did not know how to go about the
process of pursuing school. She was guided and supported by a peer, who explained to her
how to go about pursuing educational opportunities. Christie now mentors other airmen:
Christie: I now feel like a recruiter for education. I discuss it with friends and
friends of friends.
The education center on JBPHH is the primary location where airmen go to receive
counseling, advising and assistance regarding the CCAF program, tuition assistance and
military testing. Harris (2009) contends that institutional support for military members is an
essential element in that encouragement from institutional agents can promote a sense of
belonging. The research shows that non-white students in particular benefit from
encouragement and advising; the studies also indicate that there is a correlation between
positive interaction with advisors and student persistence (Harris 2009; Creamer & Scott,
2000).
Accessible advisory services and convenience are listed as important factors for college
students. Access to administrators is contingent on receiving important information as it
relates to academic success. Participants describe the educational services on JBPHH as
mostly helpful. Anita commended the staff for speaking at various military briefings for
newly arrived airmen. She also stated that she was encouraged by staff to use tuition
assistance. Robert and Susan also stated that they too were advised and encouraged to use
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 97

tuition assistance. They also described the education center as helpful. William described
people in the education center as supportive particularly when it comes to pursuing the CCAF
degree:
Anita: Last year I want to say they actually had the scare when they took away the
tuition assistance briefly so definitely after that happened you hear take advantage
of it before it gets taken away again so take advantage, take advantage!
William: These folks give briefings, they know we need it, they’re there to guide
us on where we need to go to get it so they’re doing their job. They’re great about
telling us to use our TA.
Maureen’s experience in receiving assistance from the education center was not as
positive as the other participants. She stated that the service was not good in that the operating
hours were not convenient. She also mentioned that there seemed to be a shortage of staff
members, which led to very long waiting periods for advising. In her opinion, there was a lack
of support that was not conducive to the educational welfare of airmen:
Maureen: I don’t have the avenues that I had at other bases of just coming up and
asking what I need to do, what does this place offer me, I don’t have that
opportunity here. They may have that stuff around but that doesn’t matter if no
one knows where it is. It’s pretty bad here
Lack of support is mentioned in the literature as a barrier that may prevent individuals
from pursuing higher education. In regards to the CCAF program, the literature states that it
is vital to the future of the enlisted force that senior leaders encourage and support enlisted
airmen to pursue educational opportunities, specifically the CCAF degree. Senior
educational leaders are to be a positive influence and to inspire lower enlisted airmen. Pamela
describes in detail a negative experience that she had with a senior leader who insulted and
demeaned her for not having her CCAF degree. The supervisor called her incompetent and
marked her down on her evaluation performance report:
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 98

Pamela: She did not like me at all. I still have nightmares about her because of
her derogatory attitude towards me. I could not wait to get out of there, she was
ruthless. Life was pretty bad.
Pamela explained in her interview that she had always struggled with math and it is for
that reason why she has not earned her CCAF degree. While the supervisor was not the
primary reason why Pamela did not earn her CCAF degree, Pamela was void of the social
support needed to reveal key dispositional barriers.
Summary of Findings for RQ (3)
The findings as they correspond to the third research question revealed that extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation factors propelled participants to pursue their CCAF degree. Four of
the participants were extrinsically motivated by the desire to be promoted and to make the Air
Force a career whereas intrinsic reasons such as goals and self-determination guided four of
the other participants to pursue their CCAF degree. Social capital is represented in the
findings as it is a link to social support which was identified as a source that led participants
to seek the CCAF degree. Specifically, social support by peers was identified as a strong
indicator that also led to participants to seek the CCAF degree. While supervisors were
mentioned as being encouraging and supportive of participants’ pursuit, it was predicated on
whether or not they themselves were motivated by education.
Another element of social capital is evident in the findings as most of the participants
expressed that they received access to resources and information from the education support
staff on JBPHH. Nine out of the ten participants expressed that the staff in the Education
Center as supportive, knowledgeable and highly encouraged participants to use tuition
assistance which was instrumental to meeting their academic needs and goals. For the two
participants who did not pursue their CCAF degree, motivation did not appear to be a strong
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 99

factor. Instead, dispositional factors such as low self-efficacy and a low regard of how the
CCAF degree is valued emerged as reasons why they did not pursue the CCAF degree.
Conclusion
The purpose of this mixed method study was to determine if African American enlisted
airmen were underrepresented or an overrepresented group to earn the CCAF degree on Joint
Base Pearl Harbor Hickam for fiscal years 2010-2014. Chapter Four presented the population
demographics of enlisted airmen stationed on JBPHH for fiscal years 2010-2014, the
conferred CCAF degrees of racial groups for fiscal years 2010-2014, the qualitative data
collection and data analysis. To determine over/under representation a comparison of the
enlisted African American population was made to African Americans who earned CCAF
degrees. African American airmen were interviewed for their perspective of the military and
the CCAF degree. The findings showed African American airmen to be an overrepresented
group for earning the CCAF degree. The desire to improve social mobility and human capital
were significant influences as to why African American earned a CCAF degree. Many also
saw the social value that the CCAF degree has while enlisted in the Air Force. Motivation
and social support also emerged as strong indicators. The availability of tuition assistance
also was a contributor to earning the CCAF degree. Chapter Five will provide conclusions
drawn from the research study, implication of practice and recommendations for future
studies.

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Chapter Five: Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine if African American enlisted airmen
stationed on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam (JBPHH) during fiscal years 2010-2014 were an
underrepresented or overrepresented group in earning the Community College of the Air
Force (CCAF) degree. Research shows that African Americans in comparison to their Black
civilian counterparts are an overrepresented group who enlist in the United States Armed
Forces. Factors that contribute to their enlistment are increased socio-economic status, skill
development and career opportunity (Kleykamp, 2006). Access to educational benefits is also
listed as a primary reason why Black Americans join the military. For African Americans
who enlist in the Air Force, they have the opportunity to pursue their CCAF degree.
Findings and Interpretations
The following research questions (RQ) drove the study and the findings are as follows:
RQ1: Are African American enlisted airmen underrepresented or overrepresented in
earning the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam during 2010-2014 fiscal years?
The research findings showed that African American airmen were slightly
overrepresented in earning the CCAF degree. The findings were based on Black airmen’s
group representation of the total enlisted population and compared to Black airmen who
earned a CCAF degree for fiscal years 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. These findings
support the literature in regards to educational opportunities in the military to be an important
benefit to African Americans. Kelty (2010) purports that tuition assistance is a benefit that
appeals to military members, particularly those who may come from a low socioeconomic
background. The findings also align with the literature that states that the value of social
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 101

capital in the military allows for disproportionate groups to have access to social opportunity
and advancement through education (Harper, 2008).
RQ2: What factors influenced the participants to join the military?
The two themes that emerged from the findings were social mobility and tuition
assistance. The participants who volunteered in the research study expressed educational
benefits, socioeconomic advantages and increased social mobility to be key factors for joining
the military. These findings are consistent with the literature as social mobility and
educational benefits has been recognized for changing the economic and educational status
for African Americans (Kleykamp 2006). Many young Black Americans whose opportunities
are limited by socioeconomic barriers find the military to offer financial stability, steady
employment, career opportunities, health and educational benefits. Many African Americans
who enlist perceive the military to be a meritocratic environment that will provide career
opportunities. Due to economic conditions combined with the increased cost of college
tuition, many view the military as an attractive alternative (Kelty, Kleykamp & Segal, 2010).
RQ3: What is the internal and external value of the CCAF degree as perceived by the
participants?
The findings revealed that the majority of the participants viewed the CCAF degree as
valuable in the Air Force as it increases opportunities for job promotion and career
advancement. The two themes that surfaced from the findings were human capital and social
value. The participants emphasized that the CCAF degree holds significant internal value as
it is the only degree that is relevant for advancement in the Air Force. According to an
Education Technician who works for the U.S. Air Force, the CCAF offers 68 degree plans
and each one is designed towards an Air Force job specialty thus the Air Force considers the
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 102

CCAF degree to be essential as it is directly connected to Air Force training and
specializations (CCAF catalog 2014-2016; W. Jones, personal communications, 2014). In
addition, the findings identified human capital to be a positive correlation with earning the
CCAF degree. All participants affirmed that the CCAF degree separates those who earned it
from those who did not and thus provides opportunities for airmen to increase their earning
potential. According to the literature the military has a positive impact on human capital as it
offers service members educational benefits that contribute towards the building of human
capital (Hisnanick, 2003).
The findings also revealed that most of the participants do not believe that the CCAF
degree is valued externally. They perceive the CCAF degree as a military credential that is
not valued in the civilian workforce. They also expressed that the CCAF degree does not
have the weight of a bachelor’s degree which is considered to be more desired in the civilian
job sector. Wojciechowski (2001) explains that the development and design of the CCAF
degree integrates Air Force technial education with civilian related occupations. There is
limited literature that addresses how successful the CCAF degree transfers from the Air Force
and into the civlian job force.
RQ4: What primary factors resulted in the participants’ decision to pursue or not to
pursue a CCAF degree?
The findings identified the themes motivation and social support to be primary factors
for pursuing the CCAF degree. Participants were either intrinsically or extrinsically
motivated to earn their CCAF degree. Some participants expressed high drive, persistence
and determination as catalysts that motivated them while other participants mentioned
promotion opportunities and recognition for military awards as motivating factors. The
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 103

literature regards motivation to be a significant factor in student persistence; intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation plays a role in academic success and degree completion (Covington,
2007). Participants expressed that encouragement and support from their peers to be an
important element as well as the staff in the education center on JBPHH. The literature
confirms that social support is a positive determinant, particularly for African American
students as it demonstrates a sense of belonging and heightens students’ persistence to
succeed (Hausmann, Schofield & Woods, 2008). The findings indicated lack of social value
to be a factor for one of the participants who did not earn a CCAF degree. McMahon (2009)
explains one of the values of investing in higher education is how the rate of return produces
social and private economic benefits. The research shows that those who complete a degree,
be it a two year degree or beyond, earn a return on their college education. Lack of social
support and low self-efficacy were identified as factors for another participant who chose not
to earn the CCAF degree. According to the literature dispositional barriers are often
connected to an individual’s beliefs and attitudes towards education therefore social support is
needed to have a possible positive impact on academic performance (Reinheimer &
McKenzie, 2011).
Implications for Practice
Although the findings reflected enlisted African Americans to be an overrepresented
group to earn the CCAF degree in 2010-2014, it is not known if this phenomenon is distinct to
the Air Force or unique only on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam. Although military
enlistment for African Americans has declined, there continues to be a large demographic of
African Americans who continue to seek the military to gain access to educational benefits
and to enhance training and development (Kleykamp, 2010). In addition the research shows
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 104

an increase of Hispanics/Latinos representation in the military as they also seek the military to
increase socioeconomic status and gain access to educational opportunities. While White
airmen make up the majority of the enlisted population, they too have a percentage of
individuals who are from impoverished areas and thus seek the military to increase economic
stability (Harris, 2009; Kleykamp, 2010). Therefore the following implications will be
generalized to include enlisted airmen Air Force wide.
The findings revealed that airmen in general on JBPHH do not feel that the CCAF
degree has any value outside of the military. If this generalization is correct Air Force wide, it
is then necessary for the Air Force to partner with civilian companies and explain how the
CCAF degree can transfer over to the civilian sector.
Educational opportunities have been identified as the primary reason why individuals
enlist in the military. The Air Force places emphases on the phrase “an educated force is a
quality force” therefore it is contingent upon Air Force leaders to continue to encourage
airmen to earn degrees after earning the CCAF. Additional bonuses and considerations for
special duties for airmen who pursue their bachelor’s degree can be listed as an added
incentive.
Limitations of the Study
This study was conducted on Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam and limited to a small
sample size therefore this limitation may have reduced generalizability of the findings. In
addition only two participants who participated in the study did not earn their CCAF degree,
additional participants who did not earn a CCAF degree would have been beneficial to the
study as they would have provided more in-depth perceptions as to why they do not have a
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 105

CCAF degree. A broader study population to include additional Air Force bases and senior
enlisted airmen (E7, E8, E9) may yield more generalizable results.
Recommendations for Future Studies
A longitudinal study may expose certain phenomenon that this study did not capture.
The relationship between deployment frequency and CCAF degree completion can be
examined or policy changes to tuition assistance versus increased school tuition can be
considered for future studies. Using a larger sample size may also contribute more in-depth
intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Surveys may be an advantageous instrument to use to capture
and measure factors related to airmen and their perspective of the CCAF degree.
As with any college or university graduation rates are an important measurement that
determines the quality and effectiveness of the institution, particularly for accreditation
purposes. Similar to traditional institutions the Air Force should be held to the same standards
and be held accountable for CCAF graduation rates. In doing so this can also increase
scholarly literature as a gap exists concerning the Community College of the Air Force.
Therefore it is recommended that studies be conducted on CCAF graduation rates.
While this study focused on African American enlisted airmen, the findings also
revealed that Hispanic/Latino airmen were an overrepresented group in earning the CCAF
degree. Hispanics are considered to also be a marginalized group and based on the research
their representation in the military is increasing (Armor & Gilroy, 2009). Therefore research
on the high levels of propensity for the CCAF group among Hispanics is recommended.
Due to limited literature it is recommended that future research on the effect and social
value of the CCAF degree in the civilian labor market (employment and earnings) be
conducted. Scholarly research would provide the Air Force and airmen a base knowledge on
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 106

the value that the CCAF degree has in the civilian workforce. Addressing the strengths and
weaknesses of how the CCAF degree transfers into the civilian sector will hopefully employ
the Air Force to make necessary adjustments to market its value more effectively.
Summary and Conclusion
The purpose of this mixed study was to determine if African American airmen on
JPBHH were an underrepresented or overrepresented group to earn the CCAF degree during
fiscal years 2010-2014. Research shows educational benefits and increased social mobility to
be the primary reasons why African Americans join the military. The U.S. Air Force offers
the Community College of the Air Force whereby airmen are able to earn the CCAF degree.
This study compared the group population of Black airmen to their Black counterparts who
earned the CCAF degree. Semi-structured interviewers were conducted to gain insight on
why Black airmen enlisted in the military and their perspective of the CCAF degree. The
overall findings found African Americans to be overrepresented in earning the CCA degree.
Implications of this study revealed that the military continues to be a viable option for
disadvantaged groups who seek to increase human capital and social mobility and it also
revealed access to educational opportunities remains prevalent for individuals whose
economic status may not permit for them to attend traditional institutions. For historical
reasons, the opportunity to earn a college degree at minimal expense through CCAF is
important for African American airmen. Not only will a college degree enhance the airman’s
lifetime earnings, but also, professional advancement in the Air force is contingent upon
successful completion of the CCAF degree. Thus it is essential that the U.S. military, the Air
Force in particular, continue to be a major employer of young Black adults and recognize the
importance to support service members through education and training.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 107

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Appendix A
Air Force Enlisted Rank Chart

Airman Basic E-1
Airman E-2
Airman First Class E-3
Senior Airman E-4
Staff Sergeant E-5
Technical Sergeant E-6
Master Sergeant E-7
Senior Master Sergeant E-8
Chief Master Sergeant E-9

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 118

Appendix B
Glossary

AA Associate of Arts
AAS Associate in Applied Science
ACE American Council on Education
AFIT Air Force Institute for Advanced Distributed Learning
ALS Airman Leadership School
ASVAB Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
BMT Basic Military Training
CCAF Community College of the Air Force
CDC Career Development Courses
CLEP Career Level Examination Program
CMSgt Chief Master Sergeant
DANTES Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support
FY Fiscal Year
NCO Non-commissioned Officer
PACAF Pacific Command Air Force
PCS Permanent Change Station
PME Professional Military Education
SSgt Staff Sergeant
TSgt Technical Sergeant

AFRICAN AMERICAN AIRMEN AND THE CCAF DEGREE 119

Appendix C
Request for Participants

AFRICAN AMERICAN AIRMEN AND THE CCAF DEGREE
A STUDY CONDUCTED ON JOINT BASE PEARL HARBOR-HICKAM

PARTICIPANTS
African American enlisted airmen (E3-E6 only) are invited to participate in a research study
conducted by third year doctoral student, Jenise Stewart, from the Rossier School of Education at
the University of Southern California. African American airmen from Joint Base Pearl Harbor
Hickam (JBPHH) are needed and will be the focus of the qualitative portion of the study. The
results of the study will contribute to a dissertation project and will seek to discover phenomenon
that may assist military and educational leaders to further improve the educational development
of African American airmen. This study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) as well as JBPHH leaders.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this mixed method study is to determine if African American airmen are over-
represented or under-represented in earning the CCAF degree on JBPHH. Interviews are
important to the study as they will allow insight to Black airmen regarding the importance or
lack of importance of the CCAF degree. The interview data will be used to collect information
regarding Black airmen’s perceptions of higher education and military educational benefits. A
discussion of possible internal and external factors that may encourage or discourage pursuing
and earning the CCAF degree will also be discussed.

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 120

REQUIREMENTS/PROCESS/LOCATION
Enlisted Black airmen (E3-E6) who earned or have not earned the CCAF degree are encouraged
to participate. The participants will be asked a series of interview questions and their responses
will be recorded and transcribed. All interviews will be conducted in Hangar 2 on JBPHH and
be approximately 30-45 minutes long. The days and time will be determined between the
interviewer and each participant. All interviews will be conducted separately; no other person
will be present or involved with the interview process.
CONFIDENTIALITY/PRIVACY
All participants will remain anonymous and a form indicating confidentiality will be provided.
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with the study. No names,
addresses or other identifiable information will be collected. All data associated with the
participants will remain anonymous. Airmen do not have to answer any questions that they are
not comfortable with answering. Participants will have the right to review/edit the audio
recording for clarity and/or to preserve privacy. The interviewer will be the only individual who
will have access to the interviews. The recordings will NOT be released to any other party and
upon a successful defense of the research study the audio recordings will be promptly erased.
Please contact the principal investigator, Jenise Stewart, at jenisest@usc.edu to schedule an
interview. If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant or the research in general and want to speak with someone independent of the
principal investigator, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB),
3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu. Thank you in advance, I am most appreciative of your participation.
Jenise Stewart
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 121

Appendix D
Informed Consent Form
Dear Participant,
You have volunteered to participate in a research study conducted by third year doctoral student
Jenise Stewart from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California,
Your participation will contribute to a dissertation project entitled African American Airmen and
the Pursuit of the Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) degree. The purpose of the study
is to determine if Black Airmen are an underrepresented or an overrepresented group who pursue
and earn the CCAF degree on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam (JBPHH).
While this is considered to be an interview process, you will be asked to speak openly and
candidly about your upbringing, the perception of education in your household, decisions on why
you joined the military, etc. In addition, a series of questions will be asked to gather additional
data regarding military education, the use of the education center and education support from
military supervisors.
This study has been approved and is supported by JBPHH leaders. The benefit of your
participation is to inform military leaders and educational liaisons on JBPHH if there is a need to
increase educational awareness and improved commander support as it relates to African
American airmen on JBPHH. It would be highly recommended that African American airmen
receive encouragement and support with pursuing the CCAF degree.
Your name will not be used in the study and your identity will not be revealed. Any information
that is obtained in connection with this study that requires identification will be disclosed only
with your permission or as required by law. When the results of the research are completed your
recorded information will be erased.
Thank you very much for your contributions towards this study.
Cordially,
JENISE D. STEWART
By signing this form, I acknowledge that I understand the nature of the study and the means by
which my identity will be kept confidential. I give my permission to voluntarily serve as a
participant in the study described.

Participant Date

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CCAF DEGREE 122

Appendix E
Interview Questions

1. Describe your community?
2. How was education perceived in your household?
3. Did you and your peers talk about higher education?
4. Why did you join the military?
5. Why did you choose the Air Force?
6. How important is tuition assistance?
7. How often do you use tuition assistance?
8. How did you hear about the CCAF program?
9. How important is for you to earn your CCAF degree?
10. How valuable is the CCAF degree in the Air Force?
11. How valuable is the CCAF degree in the civilian sector?
12. What do other Black airmen say about the CCAF degree?
13. Do you want to earn other degrees?
14. What (if any) type of barriers may prevent an airman from pursuing the
CCAF degree?
15. Do you visit the Education Center? If so what type of service is provided?
16. Does the education support team talk about the CCAF degree?
17. Would you recommend other airmen to visit the Education Center?
18. Do you work at a job where education is encouraged?
19. How supportive is your supervisor?
20. Do you plan to make the Air Force a career?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This mixed method study determined if enlisted African American airmen (E3-E6) stationed on Joint Base Pearl Harbor Hickam (JBPHH) during fiscal years 2010-2014 were underrepresented or overrepresented in earning the Community College of the Air Force (CCAF) degree. This study compared African American’s enlisted population to their group representation for earning the CCAF degree. The percentages of earned CCAF degrees from Black airmen were compared to the percentages of earned CCAF degrees of their White, Hispanic, Asian and Pacific Islander counterparts from fiscal years 2010-2014. In addition interviews were conducted to reveal the perceptions that Black airmen had regarding the CCAF program and the value of the CCAF degree. ❧ The quantitative findings from this study revealed that Black airmen were an overrepresented group for earning the CCAF degree on JBPHH. The findings showed that Black airmen earned the CCAF degree at higher rates than White, Asian and Pacific Islander airmen. Hispanic airmen earned the CCAF degree at higher rates than all aforementioned groups thus a recommendation for a future study would be to determine the reasons why Hispanic airmen are an overrepresented group on JBPHH. ❧ The qualitative findings revealed that participants joined the military to take advantage of educational benefits offered by the military. Participants also revealed that they perceived the CCAF degree to be very valuable in the Air Force and how intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors drove them to earn the CCAF degree. The majority of the participants did not however perceive the CCAF degree to be valuable in the civilian sector. Therefore a recommendation for a future study would be to use a larger sample size in addition to surveys to capture and measure factors related to airmen and their perspective of the CCAF degree.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Stewart, Jenise D. (author)

Core Title African American airmen and the CCAF degree: a mixed methods study conducted on joint base Pearl Harbor-Hickam

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/16/2015

Defense Date 04/18/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American airmen,CCAF degree,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Brewer, Dominic J. (committee member), Datta, Monique C. (committee member)

Creator Email alohajenise@yahoo.com,niecy1@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-571031

Unique identifier UC11300394

Identifier etd-StewartJen-3466.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-571031 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-StewartJen-3466.pdf

Dmrecord 571031

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Stewart, Jenise D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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