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Depressive outcomes following peer victimization during adolescence: the moderating role of friends’ attributes

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Depressive outcomes following peer victimization during adolescence: the moderating role of friends’ attributes

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Content Running head: PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 1

Depressive outcomes following peer victimization during adolescence:
The moderating role of friends’ attributes

Tana Luo
Master’s Thesis
University of Southern California (PSYCHOLOGY)
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 2

Table of Contents

Abstract 3
Background and Significance 4
Influences of aggressive friends 5
Influences of depressed friends 7
Gender, social difficulties, and depression 9
Ethnicity, social difficulties, and depression 10
Methods 12
Participants 12
Procedure 12
Measures 13
Results 15
Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations 15
Affiliations with aggressive friends as a moderator 15
Affiliations with depressed friends as a moderator 16
Exploratory ethnicity analyses 17
Discussion 18
Limitations and future directions 20
References 22
Tables 35

PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 3

Abstract
This short-term longitudinal investigation examines the moderating role of affiliations
with aggressive and depressed friends in the predictive relations between peer victimization and
depressive symptoms. Participants included 453 middle school students recruited from a diverse
middle school in the Southern California region. These children were followed for two
consecutive years and were assessed during the spring of each academic year. A peer
nomination inventory was used to assess peer victimization, aggression, and reciprocated
friendships. Adolescents also completed a self-report inventory of depressive symptoms. The
results of our analyses revealed a moderating role of affiliations with depressed peers. The link
between peer victimization and depression was elevated for those youths who were affiliated
with depressed friends. We did not find a similar pattern related to affiliations with aggressive
friends. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the importance of affiliations with certain
types of peers on adjustment during adolescence.

PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 4

Background and Significance
In the present study, we examine the moderating role of affiliation with maladjusted
friends on the link between peer victimization and depression. Cross-sectional investigations
over the past several decades suggest that peer victimization is concurrently associated with
depressive symptoms during adolescence (Klomek et al., 2008; Neary & Joseph, 1994, Slee,
1995; Menesini, Modena, & Tani, 2009; Ranta, Kaltiala-Heino, Pelkonene, & Marttunen, 2009).
Furthermore, findings from short-term longitudinal studies indicate peer victimization is
predictive of depressive symptoms in both childhood and adolescence (Sweeting, Young, West,
& Der, 2006; Hanish & Guerra, 2002; Hodges & Perry, 1999). Our objective was to identify
factors that might intensify these relations.
Despite compelling theoretical rationale for a strong association between victimization
and depression, effect sizes in the extant literature have been moderate and variable. Recent
research has therefore turned to interactive models, which allow for other factors that may
mitigate or exacerbate risk associated with certain vulnerabilities (Woods, Done & Kalsi, 2009;
Barchia & Bussey, 2010; Compian, Gowen, & Hayward, 2009). We adopted an interactive
approach to the victimization-depression relation to identify moderator variables that produce
elevated depressive symptoms in some victimized adolescents. There is currently limited
research on the role of friends’ attributes in the victimization-depression relation. However,
theories on socialization and peer modeling suggest that the attributes of adolescents’ friends
may significantly impact adolescents’ own attributes, as well as overall psychosocial functioning
(Vernberg, 1990; Van Zalk, et al., 2010). Thus, the central aim of the present study is to evaluate
an interactive model of depressive symptoms that examines how certain subtypes of friends may
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 5

buffer or exacerbate the link between peer victimization and depression. More specifically, we
examined the moderating role of affiliations with aggressive and depressed friends.
Influences of aggressive friends
Having aggressive friends could exacerbate the association between peer victimization
and depression through a number of interrelated mechanisms: 1) friendships with aggressive
friends may be characterized by low quality features, 2) aggressive friends may demonstrate
maladaptive social-cognitive biases, and 3) aggressive friends may model poor emotion
regulation skills. There is empirical evidence that friendships involving aggressive peers may be
characterized by low quality features (Brendgen, Vitaro, Turgeon, & Poulin, 2002; Bagwell &
Coie, 2004; Cillessen et al., 2005). Cillessen et al. (2005) found that self-reported physical and
relational aggression were significantly positively correlated with friendship conflict and
negatively correlated with closeness, companionship, helping and security. Brendgen et al.
(2002) examined aggressive children’s relationships with both the larger peer group, as well as
within dyadic friendships. Aggressive and aggressive/depressed children scored lower on both
peer-rated social acceptance and peer-rated friendship quality. Taken together, these types of
results indicate that adolescents who are involved in dyadic friendships with aggressive peers are
likely to experience negative, maladaptive interactions in their relationships with these peers.
Adolescents who are victimized and who are unable to obtain positive social experiences from
their friends may be deprived of the potential protective qualities of having other supportive peer
relationships. For adolescents who are victimized, being involved in low quality friendships with
aggressive peers may be particularly detrimental and negatively impact their psychosocial
adjustment following victimization.
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 6

Aggressive adolescents also tend to have maladaptive ways of perceiving and processing
the world. Adolescents who score higher on measures of aggression tend to view the behaviors
of their peers as more malicious and their social environments as more negative and hostile (de
Castro et al., 2002; Steinberg & Dodge, 1983; Nasby, Hayden, & De Paulo, 1980). This
cognitive bias colors how aggressive adolescents react to and cope with negative, and even
neutral, peer interactions. Affiliations with aggressive peers may increase the likelihood of
exposure to these types of distorted social cognitions. Through peer modeling and socialization
mechanisms, adolescents may subsequently adopt and engage in distorted cognitions. In a recent
study of peer influences on attribution biases, Freeman and colleagues found that adolescents
who were exposed to hostile attributions by confederates displayed significant increases in their
own hostile attributions, relative to baseline (Freeman, Hadwin & Halligan, 2011). Social-
cognitive biases may place victimized adolescents at an elevated risk for depression, because
they may experience increased negative affect, lowered self-esteem, isolation, and withdrawal as
a result of perceiving their social environment as unfriendly and hostile (Dodge, 1993).
In addition to having more negative relationships with others and having certain cognitive
biases, aggressive adolescents also display poor emotion regulation when compared with their
nonaggressive peers (Zeman, Shipman, & Suveg, 2003; de Castro et al., 2002; Zimmerman et al.,
2001; Sullivan et al., 2010). In 2003, Zemen and colleagues found that dysregulation of anger
was predictive of peer-rated aggression. Examples of emotionally dysregulated behaviors
reported by aggressive children included door slamming and saying mean things (Zeman,
Shipman, & Suveg, 2003). A more recent study of African American school children indicates
that relationally and physically aggressive adolescents engage in less sadness regulation coping
and anger regulation coping (Sullivan et al., 2010). Through peer modeling and socialization
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 7

processes, friends of aggressive peers may come to attain or increase dysregulated behaviors and
coping skills. For victimized adolescents, utilizing maladaptive emotion regulation skills in
response to victimization and other interpersonal conflicts may exacerbate the short-term
development of internalizing problems, such as depression.
Given a tendency towards lower quality friendships, maladaptive social-cognitive biases
and poorly regulated coping skills, aggressive friends may negatively impact how victimized
adolescents respond to being victimized over time. We expected that having high levels of
aggressive friends would be associated with higher increases in depressive symptoms following
peer victimization.
Influences of depressed friends
Having a depressed friend may intensify an adolescent’s own depressive symptoms, a
process known as depression contagion (Brendgen, Lamarche, Wanner, &Vitaro, 2010; Van
Zalk et al., 2010; Hogue & Steinberg, 1995; Giletta et al., 2011). Depression contagion may
occur as a result of several mechanisms, 1) corumination, 2) negative interpersonal interactions,
and 3) cognitive distortions, all of which may exacerbate the relation between peer victimization
and depression.
First, depressed adolescents tend to engage in corumination, which involves discussing
negative feelings or dwelling on perceived difficulties with their friends (Van Zalk et al., 2010).
Although corumination is associated with higher friendship quality, it is also significantly
associated with more depressive symptoms. While corumination may enhance a sense of
closeness and support in a friendship, the positive reinforcement of negative cognitions and
affect seems to perpetuate the development of depressive symptoms (Rose, Carlson, & Waller,
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 8

2007). Engaging in this type of maladaptive coping response may exacerbate internalizing
difficulties experienced by adolescents who are victimized by peers.
Depressive symptoms have also been linked to negative interpersonal interactions
(Brendgen, Vitaro, Turgeon, & Poulin, 2002; Aseltine et al., 1994; Petersen et al., 1993). That
is, depressed adolescents tend to engage in more negative interactions with other depressed
peers, when compared with their non-depressed counterparts. Depressive symptoms and
negative interactions are likely linked through bidirectional processes. Indeed, there is evidence
to suggest that negative interactions further induce negative affect that exacerbates the
development of depressive symptoms (Hogue & Steinberg, 1995). Maladaptive coping skills, in
addition to negative interactions among depressed friends, may hinder an adolescent’s ability to
effectively cope with negative interpersonal experiences, including peer victimization.
Depressive symptoms during adolescence are also associated with distorted cognitions
and negative attributional styles (Joiner & Wagner, 1995; Quiggle, Garber, Panak, & Dodge,
1992; Dodge, 1993; Ames, Ames, & Garrison, 1977). Depressed adolescents are more likely to
interpret ambiguous social interactions as negative and perceive the intentions of their peers as
hostile. Furthermore, depressed adolescents tend to engage in internal attributions when faced
with negative events in their lives (Dixon & Ahrens, 1992). The bidirectional nature of
depression contagion heightens the risk for engaging in ruminating behaviors, negative social
interactions, and depressive attributional styles in adolescents who are friends with depressed
peers. These underlying processes of depression contagion may be particularly detrimental for
adolescents who are victimized by their peers. Because having depressed friends exacerbates an
adolescent’s own depressive symptoms, we expected that victimized adolescents with depressed
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 9

friends would, themselves, experience an elevated increase in depressive symptoms following
victimization.
Gender, social difficulties, and depression
We conducted exploratory analyses to evaluate whether the moderated associations
between peer victimization and depressive outcomes differ by gender. Depressive symptoms are
twice as likely to occur in females as in males during adolescence (Petersen et al., 1993; Rutter,
1986). During middle-adolescence, rate of depression increases to a level comparable to rate of
depression in adulthood. This increase is significantly greater for girls, which indicates a
heightened vulnerability to depressive symptoms in girls (Hankin & Abramson, 2001). This
vulnerability may be explained by several factors, including social, cognitive, and behavioral
factors.
Rumination is a cognitive risk factor for depression (Spasojevic & Alloy, 2001), and girls
are significantly more likely to engage in ruminative behaviors than boys (Broderick &
Korteland, 2004; Kuyken, Watkins, Holden & Cook, 2006). Additionally, girls are more likely
to engage in corumination with friends, which further exacerbates negative affect and
maladaptive cognitive patterns. In one study, investigators found that girls also tend to
experience more episodic, interpersonal stress than do boys, who experience more chronic stress
in the academic and close friendship domains (Shih, Eberhart, Hammen & Brennan, 2006).
Results from the same study indicate that girls are also more reactive to interpersonal difficulties
than are boys, which may suggest that girls place a greater emphasis on their interpersonal
relationships and social standing. Because boys and girls differ in their experience of
interpersonal stressors and how they respond to these stressors, we expected that gender would
influence the association between peer victimization and changes in depression.
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 10

Ethnicity, social difficulties, and depression
The proposed study will also address differences in victimization-depression outcomes in
an ethnically diverse sample, which is representative of urban school populations in Southern
California. The current study includes two primary ethnic groups: Asian-American youths and
Hispanic-American youths. By focusing on these youths, we hope to extend our current
understanding of peer victimization and psychosocial outcomes to a demographic composition
that is characteristic of schools located in the Southern California region. Specifically, we
explored how ethnicity impacts the victimization-depression relation.
Prevalence of depression differs significantly for Hispanic-American youths and for
Asian-American youths. Hispanic-American youths tend to have elevated depression rates, when
compared with other ethnic youths (Roberts, Roberts & Chen, 1997; Fornos, Mika, Bayles,
Serrano, Jimenez & Villarreal, 2009; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002; Roberts & Chen, 1995;
Siegel et al., 1998; Roberts & Sobhan, 1992). Several factors have been hypothesized to explain
these elevated rates of depressive symptoms in Hispanic-American youths but have yet to be
applied to victimization-depression models. Hispanic-American adolescents may engage in more
ruminative behaviors than other adolescents of other ethnic backgrounds (Nolen-Hoeksema &
Girgis, 1994). Rumination and other maladaptive coping mechanisms may place Hispanic-
American youths at a higher risk for developing depressive symptoms following peer
victimization.
Additionally, acculturation difficulties faced by many Hispanic-American adolescents
may contribute to stress related to identity, self-esteem, social experiences, and general affect.
Results from a study by Hovey (1998) on Mexican-American high school students suggest that
acculturative stress is significantly correlated with depression. A different study in middle-
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 11

school students revealed an association between language and depression, with those adolescents
speaking mostly English reporting lower rates of depression (Roberts & Chen, 1995). The
additional stressors due to acculturation difficulties could heighten Hispanic-American
adolescents’ vulnerability to depression, particularly in the face of interpersonal difficulties, like
peer victimization.
Asian-American youths have been shown to have slightly higher depression prevalence
rates than those of Caucasian youths (Saluja, Iachan, Scheidt, Overpeck, Sun, & Giedd, 2004;
Ong & Phinney, 2002; Gee, 2010). In 1995, Lorenzo et al. compared Asian-American
adolescents and Caucasian adolescents. It was found that Asian-American adolescents had lower
self-concepts, less delinquent and aggressive behavior, more social withdrawal, anxiety,
depression, and social problems (Lorenzo, Pakiz, Reinherz, & Frost, 1995).
Several variables have been proposed to explain the rates of internalizing problems,
including depression, in Asian-American adolescents. Asian-American youths, like Hispanic-
American youths, may be at a greater risk for depression, due to acculturation stress (Bemak &
Greenberg, 1994; Swaim, Oetting, Edwards & Beauvais, 1989). Another factor that has been
discussed in the literature is quality of family relationships of Asian-American adolescents.
While there has been little empirical research in this area, it has been theorized that a) Asian-
American youths have families that emphasize harmony and collectivistic values but frown upon
overt expressions of affection, and b) Asian-American families place great significance on
respect for elders and may therefore suppress opposition or conflict (Greenberger & Chen,
1996). In the 1995 study by Lorenzo et al., results indicated that Asian-American adolescents
endorsed less social support than their Caucasian counterparts The combination of acculturative
stress, Asian cultural family values, and potential lack of social support may be a risk factor for
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 12

depressive symptoms in Asian-American youths. Given the empirical support for differences in
depression rates and presentation across Hispanic-American and Asian-American youths, we
also explored how ethnicity influences the association between peer victimization and depression
within the context of a large, predominantly minority school population.
Methods
Participants
The present study was conducted within the context of the University of Southern
California Academic Success Project (ASP), which is an ongoing longitudinal study in
collaboration with a Southern California middle school (grades six through eight). In the spring
of 2009 (Time 1), 6
th
- and 7
th
-grade students enrolled at the middle school were invited to
participate in the study. Parental consent forms were distributed to students to take home, and
students themselves were asked to sign an assent form to indicate their voluntary participation in
the study. Of the 562 students invited to participate, 80.6% participated in the study (N=453;
214 girls, 248 boys). In the spring of 2010 (Time 2), data were collected from 7
th
- and 8
th
-grade
students (N=606; 296 girls, 310 boys). Of these students, 419 students had participated in Time
1 of data collection (92.5% of the T1 sample). The ethnic distribution of the middle school is
approximately 50 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 28 percent Hispanic/Latino, two percent non-
Hispanic White, and 20 percent from other racial/ethnic groups. This ethnic distribution is
reflective of the diverse demographic characteristics typical of the Southern California region.
The sample is from a low to middle socioeconomic status district, based on 2010 U.S. Census
data (SES; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Procedure
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 13

Data was collected towards the end of each academic year. During each wave of data
collection, participants completed a combination of self-report and peer-nomination measures in
a 70-minute group-administered session. Trained graduate and undergraduate researchers read
standardized instructions out loud to the participants and provided assistance to participants as
needed throughout data collection.
Measures
Reciprocated friendships. Participants were provided an alphabetized roster of all
participating students in their grade. Each student on the roster was assigned a unique
identification number (ID). Participants were asked to identify, by ID number, their “very best
friend,” as well as up to 10 “good friends.” Participants were classified as “friends” if they were
reciprocally nominated.
Peer victimization. Participants were provided an alphabetized roster of 50 randomly
selected, participating students from their grade, each of whom was assigned an ID number. For
each item, participants could nominate up to nine students. At Time 1, four peer nomination
items assessed victimization (α = .78). These items queried overt victimization (“students that
get hit, pushed, or bullied by other students”; “students that get beat up by other students”) and
relational victimization (“students that get mean things said about them”; “students who get left
out of activities, get excluded, or get ignored when other students are trying to mean to them”).
At Time 2, five items assessed victimization (α = .83). In addition to items querying overt and
relational victimization, one item addressed electronic victimization (“students who OTHERS
insult or are mean to using the internet or text messages”).
Aggression. Using the same roster of 50 randomly selected students, participants were
asked to nominate up to nine students for items assessing aggression. At Time 1, four items
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 14

assessed aggression (α = .88) These items queried overt aggression (“students that hit or push
other students”; “students that start fights with other students by pushing or punching them”) and
relational aggression (“students that try to be mean to other students by ignoring or excluding
them”; “students that gossip about other students”). At Time 2, five items assessed aggression (α
= .87). In addition to items querying overt and relational aggression, one item addressed
electronic aggression (“students who use the internet or text messages to be mean to other
students”). An aggression score for each subject was calculated by taking the mean across peer
nomination items used to assess aggression. Adolescents were categorized as “aggressive” or
“non-aggressive” based on their aggression scores. Adolescents with an aggression score of at
least .5 standard deviations above the mean aggression score for all subjects were considered
“aggressive.”
Proportion of aggressive friends. For later analysis, we generated a proportion score for
each adolescent. This proportion score was based on the number of friends categorized as
aggressive divided by the total number of reciprocated friends.
Depressive symptoms. Depression was assessed using the Children’s Depression
Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985), which is a 27-item self-report measure that assesses the severity
of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. One item that asks about suicidal ideation
was omitted from the study, in compliance with school regulations. The final measure
administered included 26 items (at T1, α = .88; at T2, α = .89). Responses to items are scored a
0, 1, or 2, with higher scores indicating greater symptom severity.
Proportion of depressed friends. Adolescents were categorized as “depressed” or “non-
depressed.” Adolescents with a CDI score of at least .5 standard deviations above the mean CDI
score for all subjects were considered “depressed.” For later analysis, we generated a proportion
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 15

score based on the number of friends categorized as depressed divided by the total number of
reciprocated friends.
Results
Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations
Means and standard deviations for all variables are summarized in Table 1. We
conducted pairwise comparisons between genders and ethnicities for all variables. Gender (0 =
female; 1 = male) and ethnicity (1 = Mexican-American; 2 = Vietnamese-America) were coded
as dichotomous variables. Peer victimization was found to be greater in boys than in girls at both
time points. Results from the pairwise comparisons between ethnicities suggest differing levels
of affiliation with aggressive and depressed friends in Mexican-American and Vietnamese-
American youths. Mexican-American adolescents had higher levels of aggressive friends, and
Vietnamese-American adolescents had higher levels of depressed friends. Vietnamese-American
adolescents also had higher levels of depressive symptoms at Time 1.
Bivariate correlations for all variables are summarized in Table 2. Peer victimization and
depressive symptoms were moderately stable across time points. Peer victimization was also
found to be associated with depressive symptoms at both time points. We examined the
distribution of all variables using univariate analyses. Victimization scores at Time 1 were
moderately peaked and skewed. To reduce the impact of extreme scores, we applied logarithmic
transformations to victimization scores prior to all analyses.
Affiliations with aggressive friends as a moderator
To examine the moderating role of T1 proportion of subtype of friend, we conducted
separate hierarchical regression analyses for each subtype of friend. Results from these analyses
are summarized in Table 3. First, T2 depressive symptoms was predicted from T1 peer
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 16

victimization, T1 proportion of aggressive friends, and gender (Step 1). Then, T2 depressive
symptoms was predicted from T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of aggressive friends,
gender, as well as the two-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of aggressive friends, T1
peer victimization X gender, and T1 proportion of aggressive friends X gender interactions (Step
2). We then entered the three-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of aggressive friends
X gender interaction (Step 3). As depicted in Table 3, we did not find any theory-significant
interactions.
Affiliations with depressed friends as a moderator
We conducted a similar set of hierarchical regression analyses for proportion of
depressed friends. First, T2 depressive symptoms was predicted from T1 peer victimization, T1
proportion of depressed friends, and gender (Step 1). Then, T2 depressive symptoms was
predicted from T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of depressed friends, gender, as well as the
two-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of depressed friends, T1 peer victimization X
gender, and T1 proportion of depressed friends X gender interactions (Step 2). We then entered
the three-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of depressed friends X gender interaction
(Step 3). As depicted in Table 3, there was a significant interaction between T1 peer
victimization and T1 proportion of depressed friends (β = 0.11, p<.05). There were no theory-
significant interactions regarding gender.
Following the recommendations by Aiken and West (1991), we decomposed the peer
victimization by proportion of depressed friends interaction. We modeled the relation between
peer victimization and depressive symptoms with the level of depressed friends algebraically
fixed at high (1 SD above the men), medium (the mean), and low levels (1 SD below the mean).
These analyses demonstrated that the strength of the positive association between T1 peer
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 17

victimization and T2 depressive symptoms increased as the proportion of depressed friends
moved from low (β = 0.04, ns) to middle (β = 0.15, p<.005) and then to high (β = 0.55, p<.0001)
(Figure 1).
Exploratory ethnicity analyses
We also conducted a separate set of analyses evaluating the three-way interaction
between T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of subtype of friends, and ethnicity. Separate sets
of analyses were conducted for proportion of aggressive friends and for proportion of depressed
friends. First, T2 depressive symptoms was predicted from T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion
of aggressive friends, and ethnicity (Step 1). Then, T2 depressive symptoms was predicted from
T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of aggressive friends, ethnicity, as well as the two-way T1
peer victimization X T1 proportion of aggressive friends, T1 peer victimization X ethnicity, and
T1 proportion of aggressive friends X ethnicity interactions (Step 2). We then entered the three-
way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of aggressive friends X ethnicity interaction (Step 3).
The three-way interaction between T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of aggressive friends,
and ethnicity was not found to be significant.
We conducted a similar set of hierarchical regression analyses for proportion of
depressed friends and ethnicity. First, T2 depressive symptoms was predicted from T1 peer
victimization, T1 proportion of depressed friends, and ethnicity (Step 1). Then, T2 depressive
symptoms was predicted from T1 peer victimization, T1 proportion of depressed friends,
ethnicity, as well as the two-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of depressed friends, T1
peer victimization X ethnicity, and T1 proportion of depressed friends X ethnicity interactions
(Step 2). We then entered the three-way T1 peer victimization X T1 proportion of depressed
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 18

friends X ethnicity interaction (Step 3). There were no theory-significant findings regarding
proportion of depressed friends and ethnicity.
Discussion
The central aim of this study was to provide evidence for the moderating role of
affiliations with aggressive and depressed friends on adolescents’ depressive symptoms
following peer victimization. The results of this study were consistent with our hypotheses
regarding the role of depressed friends in the predictive relations between peer victimization and
adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Peer victimization was more strongly predictive of
depressive symptoms for adolescents with high levels of depressed friends. The moderating
effect of depressed friends did not differ as a function of the adolescents’ gender or ethnicity.
Our findings indicate that affiliation with depressed friends plays a role in adolescents’
functioning following peer victimization. However, the mechanism through which this
interaction manifests is not yet clear. We have hypothesized that maladjusted friends exacerbate
the victimization-depression relation by providing increased exposure to maladaptive peer
models. Depressed adolescents tend to engage in corumination, which positively reinforces
adolescents’ negative cognitions and affect (Van Zalk et al., 2010; Rose, Carlson, & Waller,
2007). Although corumination among peers has been found to increase feelings of closeness and
intimacy in dyadic relationships, this coping behavior is also predictive of increases in depressive
symptoms over time (Rose, Carlson, & Waller, 2007). Depressed adolescents are also more
likely to engage in social-cognitive biases than are their non-depressed peers (Joiner & Wagner,
1995; Quiggle, Garber, Panak, & Dodge, 1992; Dodge, 1993; Ames, Ames, & Garrison, 1977).
Although we did not directly examine these behavioral and cognitive mechanisms, our
investigation suggests that socialization processes may be driving the moderating role of friends’
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 19

attributes in the link between peer victimization and depressive symptoms. An important future
direction for researchers will be to directly explore the mechanisms underlying these interactive
relations.
An alternative perspective on these findings draws from the literature on selection effects
within the context of dyadic relationships. According to theories on selection effects, adolescents
tend to choose friends who are similar to themselves. Having high levels of depressed friends
may be another marker of adolescents’ own level of psychosocial maladjustment. Our findings
regarding the moderating role of depressed friends may suggest that we are identifying a specific
group of adolescents who are experiencing higher levels of maladjustment. Future research
should examine characteristics of adolescents who affiliate with depressed peers and whether
these characteristics elevate risk of maladjustment following victimization.
Contrary to our hypotheses, affiliation with aggressive friends was not found to
significantly moderate predictive relations between peer victimization and adolescents’
depressive symptoms. Research on the role of friendships in the relation between peer
victimization and depression suggests that certain types of friendships may attenuate or intensify
this link. Hodges et al. (1999) found that adolescents’ perception of having a protective friend
moderated the bi-directional relations between peer victimization and depression. Protective
behaviors by friends tend to vary across adolescents and may influence psychosocial adjustment
following victimization (Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1997). Some adolescents may alert an authority
figure when a friend is being victimized, while others may engage in physical aggression and
fight back to protect their friend. In the present study, we evaluated affiliations with aggressive
friends but did not assess specific behaviors of aggressive friends. Furthermore, we generated a
composite indicator of aggression that did not allow for the distinction between overt, relational,
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 20

and electronic aggression. An important task for future researchers is to identify how
adolescents respond to a friend being victimized and the adjustment outcomes associated with
these responses.
Limitations and future directions
There are certain limitations associated with the current study. We were not able to
establish causal relations between victimization and depression due to the correlational nature of
the study design. Thus, it may be that we are capturing one segment of a cycle of escalating
depressive symptoms and peer victimization. Indeed, a growing body of research indicates bi-
directional relations between peer victimization and depressive symptoms (Hodges, Boivin,
Vitaro, & Bukowski, 1999). Although peer victimization is linked with increases in depressive
symptoms over time, depressive symptoms are also predictive of increases in peer victimization.
Future investigations on the temporal relations between peer victimization and depressive
symptoms are required to further our understanding of how these processes are related.
Furthermore, there may be third variable influences that are contributing to both victimization
and depression.
Another limitation involves non-independent observations in our analyses on affiliations
with depressed friends. The relation between an adolescent’s depressive symptoms and a
friend’s depressive symptoms is not independent of the relation between the friend’s depressive
symptoms and those of his or her friends. That is, the relation between adolescents’ depressive
symptoms in one dyadic relationship is partially dependent on the relation between adolescents’
depressive symptoms in other dyadic relationships in the same peer group. Non-independent
observations may be particularly problematic in the case of reciprocated friendships. The extant
literature on depressive symptoms within the peer group has largely ignored issues regarding
PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 21

dependent observations. In future investigations, it is recommended that methods for handling
these issues be addressed.
In summary, findings from this study offer evidence to suggest that affiliations with
certain types of peers likely have important implications for victimized youths. Furthermore,
these findings demonstrate the importance of evaluating interactive models of peer victimization
and depressive symptoms. Continued research on moderators and mediators of the relation
between peer victimization and depressive symptoms will further our understanding of these
processes and allow us to identify at-risk youths.

PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 22

References
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PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 35

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics

Full Sample
Mean (SD)
Gender
Mean (SD)
Ethnicity
Mean (SD)
Variable Males Females
Mexican-
American
Vietnamese-
American
Victimization T1 1.49 (1.39) 0.16 (1.04) -0.13 (0.93)*** -0.08 (0.88) -0.01 (0.98)
Victimization T2 0.76 (1.03) 0.11 (0.90) -0.14 (0.78)*** -0.16 (0.67) 0.00 (0.89)
Depression T1 8.62 (7.52) 8.67 (7.41) 8.58 (7.61) 7.84 (6.93) 9.33 (7.30)*
Depression T2 8.56 (7.43) 8.04 (7.36) 8.70 (7.01) 8.00 (7.35) 8.78 (7.18)
Aggressive Friends T1 0.20 (0.29) 0.21 (0.30) 0.19 (0.28) 0.34 (0.35) 0.12 (0.23)***
Depressed Friends T1 0.21 (0.24) 0.21 (0.26) 0.22 (0.22) 0.18 (0.22) 0.23 (0.24)*
Note. Gender and ethnicity comparisons were conducted with a series of paired t-tests.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .005

PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 36

Table 2
Bivariate Correlations
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Victimization T1 -- .38*** .09* .08 .05 .04
2. Victimization T2 -- -- .03 .15*** .07 .02
3. Depression T1 -- -- -- .41*** .02 .02
4. Depression T2 -- -- -- -- .01 -.03
5. Aggressive Friends T1 -- -- -- -- -- -.01
6. Depressed Friends T1 -- -- -- -- -- --
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .005
Running head: PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 37

Table 3
Regression Analyses Predicting Time 2 Depression from Victimization and Subtypes of Friends
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Main effect of
T1 Peer Vict.
Main effect of
Prop. of Subtype
of Friends
Gender
T1 Peer Vict. X T1
Prop. of Subtype
of Friends
T1 Peer Vict. X T1
Prop. of Subtypes of
Friends X Gender
Full Model
T1 Subtype of
Friends
β sr
2
β sr
2
β sr
2
β sr
2
β sr
2

R
2
F
Aggressive Friends 0.16*** 0.02 0.02 0.00 -0.08 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.04 1.95
Depressed Friends 0.16*** 0.02 -0.04 0.00 -0.08 0.01 0.11* 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.04* 2.23

*p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.005

PEER VICTIMIZATION AND DEPRESSIVE OUTCOMES 38

Figure 1. Regression of T2 depression on T1 peer victimization at 1 standard deviation above the mean level of proportion of
depressed friends, at the mean level of proportion of depressed friends, and at 1 standard deviation below the mean level of
proportion of depressed friends.
T1 Peer Victimization
T2 Depression

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This short-term longitudinal investigation examines the moderating role of affiliations with aggressive and depressed friends in the predictive relations between peer victimization and depressive symptoms. Participants included 453 middle school students recruited from a diverse middle school in the Southern California region. These children were followed for two consecutive years and were assessed during the spring of each academic year. A peer nomination inventory was used to assess peer victimization, aggression, and reciprocated friendships. Adolescents also completed a self-report inventory of depressive symptoms. The results of our analyses revealed a moderating role of affiliations with depressed peers. The link between peer victimization and depression was elevated for those youths who were affiliated with depressed friends. We did not find a similar pattern related to affiliations with aggressive friends. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the importance of affiliations with certain types of peers on adjustment during adolescence.

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Creator Luo, Tana (author)

Core Title Depressive outcomes following peer victimization during adolescence: the moderating role of friends’ attributes

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 05/19/2015

Defense Date 05/30/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adolescence,depressive symptoms,friendship,OAI-PMH Harvest,peer relationships

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Schwartz, David (committee chair)

Creator Email tana.luo@Gmail.com,tanaluo@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-569026

Unique identifier UC11300261

Identifier etd-LuoTana-3451.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-569026 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LuoTana-3451.pdf

Dmrecord 569026

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Luo, Tana

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA