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Innovative strategies to accommodate postsecondary students with learning disabilities

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Innovative strategies to accommodate postsecondary students with learning disabilities

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Content Running head: INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 1
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES TO ACCOMMODATE POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

by

Mary C. Herrera

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015

Copyright 2015 Mary C. Herrera
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 2
Acknowledgements
To my husband David,
and my children Margarita, Angelina, and David John Herrera II
Many thanks to
Shafiqa Ahmadi, J.D., Patricia Tobey, Ph.D., and Linda Fischer, Ed.D.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Organization of the Study 15
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 17
Disability 17
U.S. Disability Law and Higher Education 17
How the Law Defines a Disability 19
How the Law Defines a Learning Disability 20
Documenting LD in a Four-Year Postsecondary Institution 26
Discussion Disability 28
Accommodations 29
Support Models 31
Universal Instructional Design 32
Coaching and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies 35
Benefits of Postsecondary Education for Students with LD 40
Discussion Support Models 42
Social Ecological Theory 42
Chapter Three: Methodology 45
Research Design 46
Sample and Population 47
Theoretical Framework 49
Instrumentation 50
Data Collection and Analysis 51
Data Analysis 51
Ethical Considerations 53
Chapter Four: Results 54
Participants 55
University Demographic Information 56
Participant Demographics 56
Common Characteristics 57
Unique Characteristics 58
Services Offered at the DSS 64
Assistive Technology 66
Findings and Discussion 68
Assessment for LD 68
Accommodations for Registration and Testing 72
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 4
Coaching in Learning Strategies 76
Communication: Successes and Failures 79
Summary 85
Chapter Five: Summary, Implications of the Findings and Discussion 85
Discussion of Findings 88
Implications for Practice 96
Future Research 97
Conclusion 98
References 99
Appendix: Interview Protocol for Students 107

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Demographics of Host Institution and Interviewees 48
Table 2: ABC State University Demographics 56
Table 3: Demographics 57
Table 4: DSS Services at ABC State University 65

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 6
List of Figures
Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) Model as Applied to Educational Environments 44
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework, Ed.D. Thematic Group 2014 50
Figure 3: Creswell’s (2003) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis 52

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 7
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine innovative strategies to support students with
learning disabilities (LD) in postsecondary education. It explored the perceived systems and
structures that support postsecondary students with LD in achieving their educational goals, and
sought to determine how these systems and structures were implemented and sustained. In
addition, innovative strategies that helped students with LD successfully complete their programs
of study at the university level were investigated. Data collection methods included document
analysis and interviews of postsecondary students with LD at one university. Findings of this
study included the verification that systems and structures to support students with LD do exist,
and that implementation of and maintenance of these systems was partially successful.
Innovative strategies found to be most helpful to students with LD were assessment for disability
status, accommodations in registration and testing, and coaching in time management and goal
setting skills, as well as counseling in stress reduction techniques. Conclusive evidence was
found to show that support services provided at the university level are instrumental in helping
students with LD achieve their educational goals.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Today’s colleges and universities welcome diverse students from various backgrounds,
including those in need of support to fully access curricula. Since the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
became law, students with identified learning disabilities have had a right to appropriate
accommodations and assistance to help them reach their educational goals. Because a significant
percentage of students with learning disabilities (LD) do not persist through graduation, there
exists a need for more effective support systems to serve this population. After all, people who
complete college are more likely to find satisfying work and make positive contributions to
society. The aim of this study is to explore innovative strategies that can assist students with LD
at the postsecondary level they work to achieve their educational goals.
Background of the Problem
Students with a range of learning disabilities attend colleges and universities in the
United States. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, as amended in
2008, disability is defined as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or
more of the major life activities of an individual. Major life activities include learning, reading,
concentrating, thinking, communicating, and working, which are all necessary for academic
success. Students with disabilities are enrolling in colleges and universities in increasing
numbers (Henderson, 2011). Recent statistics demonstrate the significant quantity of students
who may need support from disability services personnel. According to the U.S. Department of
Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) 11% of undergraduates enrolled
in the nation’s postsecondary institutions reported having a disability in 2007-2008. NCES went
on to report that in the United States, postsecondary institutions enrolled approximately 707,000
students with disabilities in the twelve-month 2008–09 academic year. Students with specific
types of learning challenges are included in these numbers. About one-third of disabilities were
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 9
specific learning disabilities (Raue & Lewis, 2011). The term specific learning disability refers to
a cluster of disorders, which impede academic achievement. It is anticipated that the numbers of
disabled students in postsecondary education will substantially increase in the coming years
(Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2010). It follows that an increasing number of students will need
support to access curricula at the college level. In fact, disabled students have the right to this
support.
The ADA acknowledges that although people with disabilities have rights, those rights
are not always granted. The ADA (2008) states that Congress recognizes that physical and
mental disabilities in no way diminish a person’s right to fully participate in all aspects of
society, but that people with physical or mental disabilities are frequently precluded from doing
so because of prejudice, antiquated attitudes, or the failure to remove societal and institutional
barriers. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that barriers to higher education be removed,
and that efforts be made to help people with disabilities gain equal access to our nation’s
postsecondary institutions. The Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA), (2008) added new
provisions to the Higher Education Act (1965) to increase access, retention, and degree
completion rates of students with disabilities through (a) identifying and implementing effective
transition practices, (b) increasing accessibility of instructional materials, and (c) disseminating
best practices guidelines. These provisions mandate that action be taken by student support
personnel to work toward increasing the success rate of students with disabilities at the
postsecondary level. The existence of this legislation demonstrates the need for improvement in
delivery of support to this population.
Identifying and implementing effective transition practices requires the combined efforts
of educators at the secondary and postsecondary levels, as well as the active participation of the
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 10
student. While in high school, students with LD rely on parents and educators for support, but at
the postsecondary level they must identify themselves to disability service providers and present
paperwork to document LD status. Part of this documentation may be a summary of achievement
and functional performance, which assists the child in transitioning beyond high school and
includes recommendations on how to assist the child in meeting his or her postsecondary goals.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires this summary. The
requirements for the summary are found in the regulations at 34 CFR §300.305(e)(3). Requiring
that LD students be provided with this document is one way the IDEA has attempted to
implement effective transitions to postsecondary education.
To increase accessibility of instructional materials for students with LD at the
postsecondary level, accommodations are available at many colleges and universities. In fact,
93% of institutions reporting to the National Center for Education Statistics (Raue & Lewis,
2011) provided additional exam time. Large percentages (77%) of institutions also provided
classroom note-takers, 72% offered faculty-provided written course notes or assignments, 72%
provided help with learning strategies or study skills, 71% made alternative exam formats
available, and 70% provided adaptive equipment and technology. The provision of
accommodations will work to increase accessibility of instructional materials to the
postsecondary student with LD.
The Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA) recommends using Universal
Instructional Design (UID) as a best practice for support of students with LD in postsecondary
settings. HEOA, section 103(a)(1) defines of UID as a scientifically valid framework for guiding
educational practice that provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways
students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 11
UID reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and
challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all students. Following the
recommendations of the HEOA to identify and implement effective transition practices, increase
the accessibility of instructional materials, and disseminate best practices guidelines will help to
support students with LD as they work to achieve their educational goals.
When students with LD attend and complete college, they are more likely to find
satisfying employment. Postsecondary education is a primary post-high school goal for more
than four out of five secondary school students with disabilities (Cameto, Levine, & Wagner,
2004), but these students participate in and complete higher education at lower rates than their
nondisabled peers. Data collected by Mamiseishvili and Koch (2010) indicate that 24% of
freshmen students with disabilities did not return for the second year of college. Furthermore, in
2004 only 35% of 18 to 64-year-old individuals with disabilities were employed (American
Association of People with Disabilities, 2004). Adequate employment provides a myriad of
benefits to the individual and to the society as a whole. Since postsecondary education increases
the likelihood of employment for individuals with disabilities (Knott & Zafft, 2008), efforts to
increase the persistence rates of these students through graduation will increase their chances of
employment throughout their adult lives.
According to the ADA (2008), postsecondary students with learning disabilities have the
right to pursue their educational goals. It is the job of support personnel to find ways to provide
them appropriate accommodations to access college curricula. Many students do receive
accommodations, but these efforts have not been entirely successful, as evidenced by the
numbers of students who do not persist to graduation (Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2010). An
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 12
individually targeted approach, such as coaching, may provide the answer for LD students
(Parker, et. al. 2005). One such approach is one-on-one coaching.
The use of coaches to explicitly train students in the use of self-regulated learning (SRL)
strategies is an innovative means of support for students with LD (Allsopp, et. al 2005). Coaches
are trained by disability service providers to deliver individualized learning strategy sessions to
students. Self-regulation is one component of those sessions (Parker, et.al, 2005). For example,
goal setting and self-evaluations of progress are important components of self-regulated learning.
If coaches require students to set goals and evaluate their progress, students may show gains in
self-regulation and achievement (Schunk 2008). But when self-regulated learning is assessed
with self-report measures, students may be unrealistic in their assessments of what they actually
do (Winters et al, 2008). More reliable and valid data are obtained by observing people to
determine how they actually are employing self-regulatory strategies as they work at academic
tasks (Schunk 2008). Coaching involves others providing instruction and guidance, but students
must internalize this external influence for self-regulation to develop (Schunk, 2008).
Understanding how students with disabilities use self-regulatory learning strategies would be
useful to disability support personnel who design coaching programs. Students who are
effectively trained to use SRL strategies would reap a lifetime of benefits.
Statement of the Problem
One in four students with a learning disability does not persist through completion of his
or her postsecondary program (Mamiseishvili & Koch 2010). Programs may include awards
earned for less than two years of study, associate’s degrees, bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees,
and doctorates. Regardless of the program, various levels of support are available to college
students who identify themselves as disabled. Many institutions of higher education provide
accommodations such as extra time on tests, note-takers, and the use of assistive technology. But
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 13
according to Brinkerhoff, McGuire, and Shaw, (2002), this provision of reasonable and
appropriate accommodations may be necessary but not sufficient to achieve academic success.
Coaches and disability service providers develop programs to train students to use learning
strategies, but students with learning disabilities often have difficulty applying these strategies on
their own. When coaches provide training in self-regulated learning strategies that is explicit and
systematic, however, students can learn to apply such strategies effectively (Allsopp, 2005).
Explicit, systematic instruction has been identified as one of the strongest evidence-based
approaches for students with disabilities (Carnine, 1999; Swanson, 1999, 2001; Vaughn, Gersten,
& Chard, 2000). Students with LD increase their chances of completing postsecondary programs
when they participate in coaching sessions that provide explicit, systematic instruction in
learning strategies, and then actively apply those strategies. This study focuses on innovative
strategies that have helped students with LD succeed in postsecondary educational programs.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to explore innovative strategies that support students with
LD as they persist through completion of postsecondary education. Specific attention will be
paid to how self-regulation strategies contribute to their success. SRL strategies have the
potential to be particularly useful if students employ them as they work at academic tasks.
According to Clark (2012), SRL is predictive of improved academic outcomes and motivation
because students acquire the adaptive and autonomous learning characteristics required for an
enhanced engagement with the learning process and subsequent successful performance.
Students who do not persist through completion of their postsecondary programs may have
insufficient self-regulatory skills.
This study will explore the use of explicit, systematic training in methods of SRL
strategies and how this training may benefit postsecondary students with disabilities. Use of such
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 14
strategies may serve to increase college students’ access to instructional materials, as mandated
by the HEOA. Self-regulated learners have high levels of knowledge about different cognitive
learning strategies and have the ability to select, monitor, and regulate their use of those
strategies when engaged in academic tasks (Wolters, 2003). Models of self-regulated learning
emphasize that students are more effective when they take a purposeful role in their own learning
(Pintrich, 2000; Schunk, 2001; Zimmerman, 2000), and that self-regulated learners are
autonomous, reflective, and efficient learners who have the cognitive and metacognitive abilities
as well as the motivational beliefs and attitudes needed to understand, monitor, and direct their
own learning (Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000). In addition to gathering data about all
aspects of support that has been helpful to postsecondary students with LD, this study will
explore the delivery of explicit, systematic training in methods of self-regulated learning.
Research Question 1: What are the perceived systems and structures that support
postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 2: How are these systems and structures implemented and sustained to
support postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 3: How can innovative strategies help students with LD successfully
complete their programs of study at the university level?
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory will provide the framework for this study.
Bronfenbrenner argues that human development can be understood as an ecological system in
which growth occurs. This system has five subsystems, ranging from the microsystem, which
refers to the person and his or her immediate environment, to the macrosystem, which refers to
institutional patterns of culture.

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 15

Significance of the Study
This study will describe innovative strategies to support students with LD at the
postsecondary level. This information may benefit students with LD and disability service
providers in colleges and universities. It will add to the body of knowledge on the topic of
effective support systems for students with LD in institutions of higher learning.
The study will gather data on strategies that have helped students with LD who currently
attend a large urban university. The participants will provide authentic insight into their own
experiences with accommodations, coaching, and other supports provided to them at a modern
institution. Their input will supply valuable information regarding strategies that have worked
for them, and that may be useful for students with LD at other postsecondary institutions.
Disability service providers who are interested in improving the success rate of students
with LD will also benefit by reading this study. The results of the study will offer valuable
information on innovative strategies that have lead students to succeed in academic programs.
The findings of this research will add to the body of knowledge about supporting postsecondary
students with LD, as well as the value of coaching models that teach self-regulated learning
strategies.
Limitations and Delimitations
The scope of this study is limited to those participants who were available during the data
collection phase. The participants in this study are current students at a large urban university.
Their experiences may not be pertinent to students in other settings.
Organization of the Study
Chapter Two of this work will provide an overview of U.S. disability law as it pertains to
colleges and universities as well as a review of current literature on the various definitions for
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 16
LD. It will describe the process by which students are identified as having LD, and list the
procedures they must follow to document their LD status at a postsecondary institution. It will go
on to discuss the benefits of postsecondary education for students with LD. Accommodations
that are typically provided at 4-year colleges and universities will be reviewed. An overview of
support models at the university level will follow, beginning with a definition of Universal
Instructional Design, and continuing with a discussion of an innovative support model for
postsecondary students with LD, namely, coaching with a focus on SRL strategies.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory will be applied to this study as a framework, which
provides prospective on the forces that affect the postsecondary student. Chapter Three will
describe the methodology of the study. The sample and population, instrumentation, data
collection, and analysis will be explained. Chapter Four will report the results of the study, and
Chapter Five will discuss its findings.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 17
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this review is to explore past research, which relates to students with LD
in higher education. This review will discuss the laws pertaining to postsecondary students with
LD in the United States, such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, The Americans with Disabilities
Act, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. It will provide legal definitions for
specific learning disabilities. The review will go on to describe the process for documenting LD
at the postsecondary level. Next, typical accommodations and supportive programs, such as
Universal Instructional Design (Roberts, 2011) and coaching in self-regulated learning strategies
(Winne, 2005) will be discussed. The review will then explore the use of these models and their
benefits for postsecondary students with LD who persist through completion of their programs.
The intent of this review is to provide an overview of the issues concerning students with LD in
U.S. postsecondary institutions and to focus on innovative strategies that have helped them reach
their educational goals. Uri Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecological Theory (1994) will provide the
framework for this study.
Disability
U.S. Disability Law and Higher Education
The IDEA defines and protects the rights of students through high school, as section 504
of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) speak to the
rights of postsecondary students. The following discussion provides details on this legislation.
There are two areas of the IDEA that impact postsecondary students. First, the IDEA sets
forth regulations that govern the procedures for identifying children with specific learning
disabilities, an area of disability law that will be covered in a later section of this review. The
IDEA also details transition practices, which support students with LD as they move from high
school to college. Considering the fact that postsecondary students are expected to manage their
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 18
own educational programs, positive transitions to college life are beneficial, especially to
students with LD.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the ADA guard postsecondary students with LD from
discrimination and describe some accommodations to support them. The Rehabilitation Act of
1973 states: “No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States, shall, solely by
reason of his handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance”
(Pl 93-112 § 504). This law applies to
institutions participating in Title IV federal student financial aid programs (such as Pell
grants or Stafford loans) which are accredited by an agency or organization recognized
by the U.S. Department of Education, have a program of more than 300 clock hours or 8
credit hours, have been in business for at least 2 years, and have a signed Program
Participation Agreement with the Office of Postsecondary Education, U.S. Department of
Education. (Pl 93-112 § 504)
Since most institutions of higher education in the United States fall into this category, those
institutions are mandated to comply with laws protecting students with LD against exclusion and
discrimination.
The ADA was modeled after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination
on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 is an “equal opportunity” law for people with disabilities. It states,
Subject to the provisions of this title, no qualified individual with a disability shall, by
reason of such disability, be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 19
the services, programs, or activities of a public entity, or be subjected to discrimination
by any such entity. (Pl 93-112 § 504)
What’s more, The ADA, section 12101 states,
Congress recognizes that physical and mental disabilities in no way diminish a person’s
right to fully participate in all aspects of society, but that people with physical or mental
disabilities are frequently precluded from doing so because of prejudice, antiquated
attitudes, or the failure to remove societal and institutional barriers (42 U.S.C. 12101 et
seq.)
The U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) has enforcement
responsibilities under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title II of the Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990, which prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability (OCR
2006). Every school district and nearly every college and university in the United States is
subject to one or both of these laws, which have similar requirements. U.S. law protects the LD
student’s right to full participation in postsecondary programs. In addition, the Higher Education
Opportunity Act (2008) calls for the use of Universal Instructional Design, which will be
discussed in the Accommodations section of this chapter.
This overview of the laws pertaining to the rights of postsecondary students with LD has
established that these students are protected under the law from discrimination, and that post-
secondary institutions are required to provide them access to programs and services.
How the Law Defines a Disability
In order to understand why learning issues can be considered disabling, it is instructive to
read the legal definition of disability itself. The ADA has a three-part definition of disability.
Under ADA, an individual with a disability is a person who: (1) has a physical or mental
impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; or (2) has a record of such
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 20
an impairment; or (3) is regarded as having such an impairment. A physical impairment is
defined by ADA as
any physiological disorder or condition, cosmetic disfigurement, or anatomical loss
affecting one or more of the following body systems: neurological, musculoskeletal,
special sense organs, respiratory (including speech organs), cardiovascular, reproductive,
digestive, genitourinary, hemic and lymphatic, skin, and endocrine. (42 U.S.C. 12101 et
seq.)
Neither ADA nor the regulations that implement it list all the diseases or conditions that are
covered, because it would be impossible to provide a comprehensive list, given the variety of
possible impairments (ADA 1990). Major life activities include learning, reading, concentrating,
thinking, communicating, and working, which are all necessary for academic success. When a
student has difficulty accessing education despite average cognitive ability, this limits learning,
which is a major life activity. Such a student is disabled, and his or her right to equal access to
education is provided for under the laws discussed above.
How the Law Defines a Learning Disability
The definition of what does and does not constitute a learning disability is important,
because students who are identified as disabled are entitled to accommodations to help them gain
access to educational programs. These accommodations must be provided only to those students
who truly need them. Establishing a broad understanding of what LD means is the first step in
finding innovative strategies to support students with LD.
The 2004 reauthorization of IDEA (IDEA, 2004) allows for states and schools to choose
between the uses of Response to Intervention (RTI), ability–achievement discrepancy, or other
research-based methods to identify LD (Taylor, 2014). RTI is a model of support for students
who are not achieving as expected. Such students are provided with research-based programs of
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 21
intervention to remediate their skills. Their growth is measured after a prescribed time, and those
who do not show expected growth are provided with more intensive intervention programs. After
several courses of interventions, if a student does not make expected progress, he or she may be
recommended for assessment for a possible learning disability. Fuchs (2006) asserts that since
RTI encourages use of evidence-based instruction, it should decrease the numbers of students
incorrectly identified as disabled. RTI is designed to serve those students who need support
learning a skill, and at the same time identify students who may be struggling because of a
specific learning disability.
According to IDEA, disability may exist in various aspects of learning, and specific tests
have been developed to evaluate individuals in each area. A student identified through the
discrepancy model or through RTI may be assessed to determine if he has a learning disability in
one or more of the eight following areas: oral expression, listening comprehension, written
expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematics calculation, and
mathematics reasoning (Taylor, 2014). Instruments and subtests typically used to evaluate these
eight areas of the IDEA definition of specific learning disability include:

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-Second Edition (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004)


Oral and Written Language Scales: Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression
(Carrow & Woolfolk, 1995)


Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement (Woodcock et al., 2001)


Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests-Second Edition (The Psychological Corporation,
2001)


Gray Oral Reading Tests (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2001)

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 22

Test of Reading Comprehension, Third Edition (Brown et al., 1995)


DIBELS Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, Sixth Edition (Good et al.
2003)


Oral and Written Language Scales: Written Expression (Carrow & Woolfolk, 1996)


Test of Written Language-Third Edition (Hammill & Larsen, 1996)


KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment (Connolly, 2007)

 Woodock–Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery (Schrank et al., 2004)
These instruments are used by school psychologists as well as psychologists in private practice
who are interested in diagnosing LD.
Outside of academic settings, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; APA, 2000) has provided the standard criteria for diagnosing LD.
These criteria employ the ability-achievement discrepancy approach. More specifically,
achievement in reading, mathematics, or written expression, as measured by an individually
administered standardized achievement test, must be substantially below expectation based on
chronological age, measured intelligence, and age-appropriate education. The discrepancy must
interfere with activities in academics and daily living that require the skill in question. Further,
the difficulties in the academic skill must be in excess of those usually associated with any
sensory deficit that may be present. The DSM-5 (APA, 2013) integrates a variety of information,
including the individual’s history, school performance, and psycho-educational assessment to
determine whether the individual can be classified as LD. Identifying a person as having LD is
important because it allows educators to plan interventions to support the student’s learning. At
the postsecondary level, LD identification, when properly documented, may entitle the student to
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 23
accommodations that make college curricula accessible. Experts in education and in psychology
have contributed to the development of processes by which individuals can be identified as
learning disabled. The process continues to evolve, as leaders work to refine identification
procedures. It is vital to all concerned that only those students who have LD are labeled as such.
The definition of LD has been debated since the 1960s. In recent years, disability has
been defined in legislation, by national organizations, and by individuals. The definition and
identification procedures set forth by IDEA are not the only approaches endorsed in the field of
LD. According to Taylor, (2014) the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities
(NJCLD), a committee representing organizations concerned about individuals with disabilities,
disagreed with several points in the federal definition and released the following definition in
1990:
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking,
reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the
individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur
across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social
interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a
learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other
handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious
emotional disturbance), or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences,
insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or
influences (NJCLD, 2001, p. 65).
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 24
The NJCLD’s goal was to eliminate difficult to define terms, while highlighting that LD do not
cease to exist after childhood and are intrinsic to the individual.
Taylor (2014) goes on to list this definition: “Specific learning disability refers to
heterogeneous clusters of disorders that significantly impede the normal progress of academic
achievement in 2–3 % of the school population” (p. 5). The lack of progress is exhibited in
school performance that remains below expectation for the student’s age, even when the student
is provided with high-quality instruction. It is underachievement in a basic skill area that is not
associated with insufficient educational, interpersonal, cultural, familial, or sociolinguistic
experiences. LD is presumed to originate from central nervous system dysfunction. The specific
LD is a discrete condition differentiated from generalized learning failure by average or above
cognitive ability. Experts have crafted a variety of definitions for LD, and these definitions have
consequences in the design of educational programs for the students involved.
Among the disabilities described above are dyslexia and dyscalculia which have specific
characteristics. Developmental dyslexia is defined as an unexpected difficulty in reading in
individuals who otherwise possess the intelligence and motivation considered necessary for
fluent reading, and who also have had reasonable reading instruction (Ferrer, et. al, 2010).
Ferrer’s group used data from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study to compare reading ability and
IQ scores of students in first grade and again in tenth grade. The study showed that in typical
readers, reading and IQ development are dynamically linked over time. Such mutual
interrelationships, Ferrer reports, are not perceptible in dyslexic readers, suggesting that reading
and cognition develop more independently in these individuals. These findings provide an
empirical demonstration of a coupling between cognition and reading in typical readers and a
developmental uncoupling between cognition and reading in dyslexic readers. This uncoupling
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 25
was the core concept of the initial description of dyslexia and remains the focus of the current
definitional model of this learning disability, according to Ferrer et al. Dyscalculia has been
defined as a severe disability in learning arithmetic. The disability can be highly selective,
affecting learners with normal intelligence and normal working memory (Butterworth, et al
2011). Butterworth supplies examples of common indicators of dyscalculia, such as carrying out
simple number comparison and addition tasks by counting, often using fingers, well beyond the
age when it is normal, finding approximate estimation tasks difficult, counting all the symbols on
each card to say which is the larger of two playing cards, counting up from 70 in tens, saying
“70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300”, and estimating the height of a normal room as 200 feet. Students
with dyslexia and dyscalculia have unimpaired cognitive ability, but may require support to
reach their educational goal. In order to receive support at the postsecondary level, students
must self-identify as learning disabled. That identification process is discussed below.
Although experts disagree on the definition of learning disability, they do agree that there
are individuals with average or above average cognitive ability who experience deficits in
specific academic areas. Efforts to level the playing field for such students begin with proper
identification of each student’s needs. When such a student has reached the post-secondary level
and has gained admittance to a college or university, that student has demonstrated his or her
cognitive ability. Students with LD have often been accommodated in high school, and upon
entering college they will continue to need accommodations to gain access to curriculum. The
first challenge is for that student to document the disability according to the procedures set forth
by the postsecondary institution. Procedures vary from one university to the next. In fact, some
colleges have recently made disability assessment available to students who struggle in their
coursework. These assessments can help struggling students to understand their own learning
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 26
needs. Procedures are available to the public and should be taken into consideration by the
student when choosing a postsecondary institution.

Documenting LD in a Four-Year Postsecondary Institution
Otherwise qualified students with LD, by laws including the ADA and the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973, cannot be excluded from participation in higher education programs because of a
disability. Upon request, students with properly documented LD are entitled to support in
accessing the educational program. The procedures that must be followed in this process are
described here.
At the postsecondary level, a student with LD must identify him or herself and request
the support of the disability services personnel. According to the U.S. Department of Education,
(2011), the role of the disability coordinator is to evaluate documentation, work with students to
determine appropriate services, assist students in arranging services or testing modifications, and
deal with problems as they arise. Students with disabilities are expected to be responsible for
their own academic programs and progress in the same ways that nondisabled students are
responsible for them. This minimal level of support is a change for many LD students, who may
be accustomed to relying on parents, teachers, and special educators for guidance throughout the
elementary, middle, and high school years. The number of postsecondary students who choose
not to identify themselves, as LD is unknown but those who do step forward must comply with
the requirements of their institution in order to receive services.
Although specific documentation requirements may be different from one college to the
next, there are guidelines that must be followed. The U.S. Department of Education’s (2011)
report clarifies requirements for documentation must be reasonable and comply with two
disability laws. They are: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title II section 202
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 27
of the ADA. A student with LD must provide documentation that he or she has a disability, that
is, an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity and that supports the need for an
academic adjustment. The documentation should identify how a student’s ability to function is
limited as a result of her or his disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). The purpose of
the documentation is to establish a current disability in order to help the institution work with the
student to identify appropriate services or academic adjustments. LD students should research
various institutions and become familiar with their documentation requirements and disability
services when choosing a college or university.
To illustrate the process of documenting LD, information was gathered from one private
university in the Southwest U.S. According to the university guidelines for documentation of
Specific Learning Disability at this large urban university state that professionals diagnosing LD
must have comprehensive training in differential diagnosis and direct experience with
adolescents and adults with LD. The following professionals are considered qualified: certified,
licensed psychologists, neuropsychologists, LD specialists, and educational therapists.
Documentation must include the results of comprehensive assessment. The tests need to be those
that have been normed for adults so that the report covers aptitude, achievement, information
processing, and evaluation. The accepted test of aptitude is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
IV (WAIS-IV). To document achievement, all of the test scores from the assessment, especially
the standard scores and percentiles, must be included. The Guidelines (2011) indicate documents
must be from a recent or updated report based on adult norms. Since accommodations are based
on the current impact of the disability to the student, documentation must be up to date and based
on norms for people age 18 and older. For students under 18, documentation must be current (no
more than 3 years old). Information must include the printed name, signature, title, professional
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 28
credentials, license number, address, phone number and fax number of each evaluator involved
as well as the date(s) of testing or evaluation, on official letterhead. This example of the process
of documenting LD at one university provides insight into the procedures that must be followed
by the individual college student who requests accommodations or academic adjustments. It is
not the responsibility of the post-secondary institution to request documentation from students,
rather, students with LD must identify themselves. The institution has the responsibility to
publish procedures for self-identification on their website. These are the procedures a student
must follow to document his or her disability at one private university in the Southwestern
United States, but guidelines vary from one postsecondary institution to another.
Discussion Disability
In conclusion, the process of self-identifying as an LD student at a postsecondary
institution in the U.S. is not a simple one. Specific requirements must be met, and any
accommodations requested must be justified by the LD diagnosis, which is valid only when
made by a licensed professional. Many college students have been assisted by parents, teachers
and counselors throughout their elementary and high school years, and are not practiced at
advocating for themselves regarding their LD status and need for accommodations. But if LD
students do request and document their need for support, the law (ADA, Rehabilitation Act of
1973, and the Higher Education Opportunity Act) mandates that appropriate support be provided.
This review has enumerated the U.S. laws that protect students with LD. It has discussed
various definitions of LD and described ways specific learning disabilities are identified.
Requirements for self-identifying as LD at the postsecondary level have been detailed. Since
legislation has been crafted, and policies and procedures for self-identification of LD have been
put into place, it follows that there exists a significant number of students of average or above
average cognitive ability who are entitled to support in accessing college curriculum. The next
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 29
section will focus on accommodations and support models that can be instrumental in assisting
students with LD to achieve their educational goals.
Accommodations
According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2014), accommodations are
alterations in the way tasks are presented that allow students with LD to complete the same
assignments as other students. Accommodations do not alter the content of assignments, give
students an unfair advantage or in the case of assessments, change what a test measures. They do
make it possible for students with LD to show what they know without being impeded by their
disability. Postsecondary students with a documented need have a right to accommodations such
as those described below.
An appropriate accommodation may be to extend the time a student with a disability is
allotted to take tests, but an institution is not required to change the content of the tests.
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2011), public institutions are required to
consider the service that the student requests, but can chose to provide alternative aids or services
if they are effective. For example, if it would be an undue burden to provide a student with LD
with a note-taker for oral classroom presentations and discussions, and a tape recorder would be
an effective alternative, a postsecondary institution may provide the student with a tape recorder
instead of a note-taker. The disability service provider and the LD student work together to
arrange for accommodations that fit the needs of the student without compromising the program
of study or straining the resources of the university.
Although the process of qualifying for and receiving accommodations at a U.S.
postsecondary institution may seem difficult, many colleges and universities do provide such
services to their LD students. According to data collected by Raue and Lewis (2011), among
institutions that enrolled students with disabilities during the 2008–09 academic year, 93 %
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 30
provided them additional exam time. Large percentages (77%) of institutions also provided
classroom note-takers, 72% offered faculty-provided written course notes or assignments, 72%
provided help with learning strategies or study skills, 71% made alternative exam formats
available, and 70% provided adaptive equipment and technology. As an example, one large,
private, urban university in the southwestern United States offers services to LD students such as
extended time on tests, use of note takers, readers, and scribes. Extended time may mean that a
student will be given either time and a half or double time to complete a test. No extra time is
allowed, at this university, to complete assignments of projects. The disability services office
coordinates the use of a class note taker, as note takers are compensated for their efforts. Readers
and scribes are provided to read or write exam answers as needed by the student with LD.
Although various definitions for LD exist, and although postsecondary students are
diagnosed with LD in a number of ways, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires that
accommodations, or academic adjustments, be offered to provide equal access to postsecondary
programs. Academic adjustments are defined in Section 504 regulations as,
Such modifications to academic requirements as are necessary to ensure that such
requirements do not discriminate or have the effect of discriminating, on the basis of
disability against a qualified student with a disability. Modifications may include changes
in the length of time permitted for the completion of degree requirements, substitution of
specific courses required for the completion of degree requirements, and adaptation of the
manner in which specific courses are conducted. Academic adjustments also may include
a reduced course load, extended time on tests and the provision of auxiliary aids and
services. (34 C.F.R. § 104.44[a])
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 31
Auxiliary aids and services are defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. §
104.44(d), and in the Title II of the ADA, regulations at 28 C.F.R. § 35.104. They include note-
takers, readers, recording devices, sign language interpreters, screen-readers, voice recognition
and other adaptive software or hardware for computers, and other devices designed to ensure the
participation of students with impaired sensory, manual or speaking skills in an institution’s
programs and activities. Institutions are not required to provide personal devices and services
such as attendants, individually prescribed devices, such as eyeglasses, readers for personal use
or study, or other services of a personal nature, such as tutoring. If institutions offer tutoring to
the general student population, however, they must ensure that tutoring services also are
available to students with disabilities. Some instances, a state Vocational Rehabilitation agency
may provide auxiliary aids and services to support an individual’s postsecondary education and
training. Accommodations can help students with LD access information and show what they
know at the postsecondary level. But students must continue to communicate with support
personnel concerning their needs. Disability Support Centers at many colleges and universities
provide a variety of levels of support, such as workshops and coaching. Institutions of higher
education are required by law to provide accommodations to students with documented
disabilities, but students have the responsibility to present themselves and to participate in such
services.
Support Models
In addition to accommodations, there are several models of support that have been shown
to be beneficial to postsecondary students with LD. One is Universal Instructional Design (UID),
and another is the coaching model. Universal Instructional Design is a method of organizing
courses to meet the needs of all students. Professors and the instructional designers collaborate
when making decisions on how material will be presented, are encouraged by the Higher
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 32
Education Opportunity Act (PL 110-315) to follow the guidelines of UID. Coaching is a model
that is offered at many Disability Services Centers. Trained coaches are paired with students for
one-on-one support. Coaching that teaches self-regulated learning strategies can be very
effective, especially with LD students. The combination of UID in the classroom and coaching
outside the classroom may provide the support a student with LD needs to reach his or her
educational goals. A discussion of UID and of coaching in SRL strategies follows. The benefits
of these support models to students with LD are enumerated below.
Universal Instructional Design
A model for providing equal access to people with disabilities is Universal Design. As
stated by Raue and Lewis (2011), Universal Design is an approach to the design of all products
and environments to be as usable as possible by as many people as possible regardless of age,
ability, or situation. Applications of Universal Design to postsecondary education include
providing accommodations to students with documented disabilities. But although
accommodations are widely available, Raue and Lewis (2011) found that lack of persistence by
many students with disabilities could be attributed to the lack of staff resources to provide
training to faculty on accessibility issues, including implementation of Universal Instructional
Design (UID). The Higher Education Opportunity Act, section 103(a)(1) adds a new definition
of UID. The term means a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that
provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or
demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and that reduces
barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and
maintains high achievement expectations for all students. Something that is universal applies to
every individual or case in a class or category. Design has been defined as experience, skill and
knowledge being used rationally, logically, sequentially, and intentionally to solve problems
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 33
(Archer, 1973). An instructor who uses the UID approach to plan a course asks what the
students should know or experience, and what they should be able to do when the course is over
(Gocsik, 2007). The instructor then uses the answers to these questions to conceive a framework
in which a universally designed teaching model is created. This model is human-centered. It will
respond to the diverse learning needs of the students in that all readings, writings, discussions,
examinations, and practical experiences are carefully planned to provide educational equity for
all kinds of learners (Branker, 2009). UID benefits all learners, and at the same time it serves to
support the LD student.
The goal of UID, as defined by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) is to
“expand institutional teaching methodologies so that students with disabilities and all students
with diverse learning needs have equal access to classroom teaching and learning” (Pliner &
Johnson, 2010, p. 474). CAST defines UID as “a new paradigm for teaching, learning, and
assessment drawing on new brain research and new media technologies to respond to individual
learner differences” (Pliner & Johnson, 2010, p. 475). Scholars of UID (Scott, McGuire, &
Shaw, 2001) have developed nine primary principles for implementation. They are:

1. Equitable use – making classroom material accessible to diverse learning needs and styles
2. Flexibility in use – the practice of using a variety of instructional methods
3. Simple and intuitive – teaching in a straightforward and predictable manner
4. Perceptible information – ensuring that course material is accessible to students
regardless of their sensory abilities
5. Tolerance for error – building diversity of learning age and prerequisite skills into course
process
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 34
6. Low physical effort – designing instruction to minimize physical effort so that students
can attend to essential learning. Size and space for approach and use – engaging the
classroom space in ways that address diverse student needs based on body size, posture,
mobility, and communication
7. A community of learners – teaching and learning environment supports and encourages
interaction and communication among students and between students and faculty
8. Instructional climate – all students are encouraged to meet high expectations, as they are
welcomed to participate in the course.
When instructors follow these principles, they employ multiple methods and use a variety
of materials, thereby reaching a diversity of learners. Because the student body at America’s
colleges and universities is becoming more diverse, the use of UID principles at the
postsecondary level would be beneficial (Roberts, Park, Brown & Cook, 2009). In fact, research
shows that instructors as well as students favor the use of UID.
Several studies have focused on the redesign and modification of lesson plans to
incorporate UID methods. Parker, Robinson, and Hannafin (2007-2008) documented the
redesign of an education class for undergraduates, using UID and adult learner theories. The
students supported the use of UID and were more highly satisfied with the redesigned course
than with other courses in the department. In a study, done by Spooner, Harris, Ahlgrim-Delzell
and Browder (2007), instructors were assigned to either a treatment or control group. The
treatment group heard a one-hour lecture on modifying a lesson plan for students with disabilities
using UID. The results showed a significant improvement for the treatment group, implicating
that the one-hour training in UID was effective. In a case study, Zhang (2005) provided
professional development for college faculty, schoolteachers, and pre-service teachers, and then
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 35
gathered their perceptions of the training. Zhang concluded that the participants saw the benefits
of UID and intended to change their methods to better address the needs of diverse learners.
McGuire and Scott (2006) have studied the implementation of UID at institutions of
higher learning in the United States. They have considered the input of students, faculty, and
disability services providers at various colleges and universities. McGuire and Scott, in the
process of theory development around UID, undertook field initiatives to explore the application
of UID in higher education settings. The field initiatives studied student focus groups as well as
outstanding teaching faculty. Student focus groups, made up of people with cognitive
disabilities, shared their positive experiences at college. Many of the participants agreed that
effective teaching methods, affective elements of the classroom, and approachable and available
instructors contributed to their success. Outstanding faculty members were interviewed with the
goal of finding what innovative approaches they used with diverse learners. The effective
teaching strategies they described suggested many parallels to the principles of UID. These field-
based studies affirmed the validity of the use of UID in college settings.
According to McGuire and Scott (2006), the time has come to move from
accommodation to full inclusion. UID shifts the focus from accommodation (e.g. making
arrangements for copies of notes after a student self-identifies as having a learning disability and
needing notes) to planning proactively for instruction that anticipates a diversity of learners. This
UID model presents possibilities for collaborative partnerships between instructors and
postsecondary disability service providers. ID is one model of support for postsecondary LD
students. UID has been recommended in the Higher Education Opportunity Act, as well as by
education researchers. Courses designed following UID principles are preferred by students with
LD, and such courses benefit non-disabled students as well.
Coaching and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 36
Coaching models vary from institution to institution, but coaching is generally described
as a program in which the student meets privately and regularly with a trained educator for
support in managing college courses. Some programs focus on helping students improve
executive functioning, and others stress self-regulated learning strategies, but all coaching
models share the goal of assisting the student in developing his or her own toolkit of skills and
strategies to succeed in the academic arena.
Postsecondary institutions offer a variety of academic coaching services to their students. An
example of an excellent coaching model exists at Landmark College, where Karen Boutelle
(Parker, et. al., 2009) and her colleagues have developed this mission statement:
Through a process of inquiry, coaching offers support, structure, strategies, and guided
practice that encourage students to understand and value themselves as they learn to take
actions toward the realization of their goals. Goals may include improving their academic
performance, deepening their learning, and enhancing their quality of life on campus. To this
end, coaching of individuals may focus on developing problem solving skills, making
decisions, developing natural strengths and affinities, and understanding potential effects of
having a learning difference. Students are seen by the coach as creative and resourceful and
thus, with increasing self-awareness, as fully capable of discovering their own answers. (p.
210)
Coaches use specific types of questions that model reflective thinking and prompt
students’ ability to plan and carry out their goals. They rely on questions as a primary tool for
communication. Coaches focus on supporting students to develop their own systems and
strategies in order to effectively engage in their academic programs and maximize academic
performance. Coaches view students as creative and resourceful while helping them learn how to
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 37
take action to accomplish goals that are important to them (Whitworth, Kimsey-House, Kimsey-
House, & Sandahl, 2007). Coaching’s inquiry approach has been contrasted with didactic,
curriculum-driven models that focus on tutoring and strategy instruction commonly offered by
many college disability support services (Byron & Parker, 2002; Harding, Blaine, Whelley, &
Chang, 2006). The authors found that the inquiry approach to coaching had lasting benefits
beyond those offered by tutoring, but coaching models vary from one university to another.
Parker (2009) studied students with LD who used the coaching services at Landmark
College to enhance their academic success. To better understand students’ perspectives on the
manner in which coaching helped them minimize executive function challenges while addressing
academic goals, some of these students were interviewed. They described highly self-determined
approaches to goal attainment that they associated with coaching. These students also reported
that coaching focused primarily on supporting their emerging autonomy, helping them develop
and manage their executive function skills and promoting their self-efficacy and confidence
about future success. Parker’s (2009) study suggests that coaching may play a significant role in
the academic success and emotional wellbeing of college students, as well as in the ability of
postsecondary institutions to address the critical goal of increasing student retention.
Many students with LD also experience executive function deficits (Katz, 1998).
Wedlake (2002) described executive functions as the cognitive skills such as working memory,
verbal learning, complex problem solving, sustained attention, and response inhibition needed to
engage in self-regulated behavior. Executive function impairments can give rise to a variety of
functional limitations for postsecondary students, including difficulty developing realistic plans,
activating and sustaining effort across time, remembering goals, and regulating intense emotional
reactions to daily frustrations (Parker & Benedict, 2002; Quinn & McCormick, 1998). As
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 38
students transition to postsecondary environments that provide less structure and place greater
demands on their capacity to organize goal-directed behavior, many individuals with LD
encounter an increased need for support services. Due to executive function challenges, it is not
surprising that college students with LD experience lower retention rates and diminished
educational and occupational attainment compared to peers without disabilities (Murphy,
Barkley, & Bush, 2002; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). Courses designed
using UID principles, coaching services, and a variety of other support systems can help students
with LD reach their goals. Because each student is a unique individual with his or her own
learning preferences, support systems beyond UID and coaching are often made available.
In addition to coaching programs, many universities offer a variety of levels of support to
LD students. For example, at the large, urban, private university mentioned previously in this
chapter, learning enrichment workshops are available. These workshops teach time management,
note-taking skills, power reading, paper writing skills, memory enhancement, exam-taking
strategies, thinking skills in problem solving, and strategies to cope with test-taking anxiety. Also
offered are academic success seminars in which students learn to study effectively through
organization and learning strategies. Practical suggestions are discussed for setting goals, taking
notes, reading to study, preparing for and taking exams, managing time, and accepting
responsibility for learning. Coaching, workshops, and seminars share the goal of helping students
to become self-regulated learners.
Self- regulation refers to one’s ability to persist at goal-directed behavior across time
even in the face of negative emotions such as frustration or intense boredom. The specific
characteristics most often attributed to self-regulated learners concern their motivational beliefs
or attitudes, their cognitive strategy use, and their metacognitive abilities. Regarding motivation,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 39
self-regulated learners are thought to hold a collection of adaptive beliefs and attitudes that drive
their willingness to engage in and persist at academic tasks. Specifically, these students tend to
be highly self-efficacious individuals who are focused on increasing their level of mastery and
who view the material they are learning in school as valuable, interesting, and useful to know
(Pintrich, 2000; Schunk & Ertmer, 2000; Wigfield, 1994).
Coaching models that help students gain and implement SRL strategies can be highly
beneficial. According to Wolters, (2003), self-regulated learners are viewed as having a large
arsenal of cognitive strategies that they can readily and skillfully deploy to accomplish different
academic tasks. For instance, these students are proficient with a variety of rehearsal,
organizational, and elaboration strategies (Alexander, Graham, & Harris, 1998; Weinstein &
Mayer, 1986). Self-regulated learners also are perceived as metacognitively skilled regarding
their awareness and use of cognitive strategies (Butler & Winne, 1995; Zimmerman, 1989,
1994). These students have a large store of metacognitive knowledge about learning strategies
specifically, and about the learning process more generally (Borkowski, Carr, Rellinger, &
Pressley, 1990; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000; Zimmerman, 1986). They are capable of
monitoring their learning and generating internal feedback about their cognitive processing
(Butler & Winne, 1995). They also are adept at modifying their learning behaviors in response to
shifting situational demands or conditions (Zimmerman, 1989). In short, self-regulated learners
have high levels of knowledge about different cognitive learning strategies and have the ability
to select, monitor, and regulate their use of those strategies when engaged in academic tasks.
Motivation has also been identified as one area of the learning processes in which at students
actively self-regulate within social cognitive models of self-regulated learning (Zimmerman,
1994). In line with this view, Pintrich (2000) described resource management or effort control as
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 40
an important component of students’ self-regulated learning. Wolters (2003) lists the following
SRL strategies: self-consequating, goal-oriented self-talk, interest enhancement, environmental
structuring, self-handicapping, attribution control, efficacy management, proximal goal setting,
defensive pessimism, and efficacy self-talk. Coaches who are trained to teach these strategies to
students at the university level make an invaluable contribution to their success.
Benefits of Postsecondary Education for Students with LD
Students with LD have a right to participate in postsecondary education, and they can
succeed at reaching their goals. Providing support to this group of individuals will result in
benefits to the students and to society as well.
Postsecondary education most certainly increases the likelihood of employment and an
enhanced quality of life. In fact, the potential benefits of attaining a postsecondary degree
include increased earnings (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2003), improved health (Mirowsky &
Ross, 2010), and increased job satisfaction (Wolniak & Pascarella 2005). As the American
economy becomes progressively more knowledge based, attaining a postsecondary education
becomes more critical (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2003). For example, only 20% of workers
needed at least some college for their jobs in 1959; by 2000 that number had increased to 56%
(Carnevale & Fry, 2000). Unfortunately, students with disabilities often do not complete their
educational programs. Data collected by Mamiseishvili and Koch (2010) indicate that after their
freshman year, 23.6% of these students do not return for the second year of college. Lack of
persistence by many students with disabilities continues to be a problem.
Postsecondary LD students can help themselves to succeed at school by following the
advice of experts. Duncan and Ali’s (2011) report recommends that students understand their
disabilities, accept responsibility for their own success, take an appropriate preparatory
curriculum, learn time management skills, acquire computer skills, consider supplemental
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 41
postsecondary education preparatory programs, research postsecondary education programs, and
get involved on campus. In addition to taking these proactive steps, LD students may require
accommodations in order to benefit fully from a university program.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 42
Discussion Support Models
In conclusion, support models such as UID and coaching, in combination with
accommodations, can provide the assistance needed to help students with LD meet their
educational goals. University instructors should be trained in UID principles, and they should be
given continuous support as they implement UID in their classes. Disability service providers
should keep abreast of the latest research on coaching and make every effort to train coaches to
provide effective support to students with LD.
Social Ecological Theory
In order to study practices in support of postsecondary LD students, it is necessary to
ground the research in theory. The use of Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecological Theory (1993) is
helpful in understanding support of the LD population in higher education settings. According to
this framework, the student interacts with the world simultaneously on various levels, the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. For example, a student’s microsystem
might consist of the environment at home, at school, or among the peer group. Bronfenbrenner
describes the mesosystem as the interactions between the systems that the individual spends the
most time in, for example the communication between the university and the student’s family. A
student’s exosystem, according to social ecological theory, indirectly affects a student, although
he may not spend any time in that environment. For example, policy decisions made at the
university level, and laws enacted by legislative bodies, even though the student does not
participate in making these policies and laws affect LD students. A macrosystem encompasses
all of the systems. Some examples are culture, subculture or other social structure in which the
members usually share the same belief system. This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s social
ecological theory to the investigation of innovative strategies to support LD students at the
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 43
postsecondary level by taking into consideration the various systems that affect the student’s
success in accessing higher education.
Bronfenbrenner (1994) suggests understanding human development means understanding
the whole ecological system in which humans grow. His five socially organized subsystems help
support and guide human growth. Since learning is one type of growth, Bronfenbrenner’s ideas
apply well to education. The goal of any academic program is to contribute to the growth and
development of the learner. Programs to support postsecondary students with LD are no
exception.
The microsystem of any college student’s life is his campus and all that goes on there.
Students interact with roommates, classmates, faculty, service providers, as well as countless
others from day to day. To be effective, a strategy to support a postsecondary student with LD
must impact his microsystem first of all. This happens when the student attends classes designed
by faculty using UID principles, when the student attends a coaching session to improve his self-
regulated learning strategies, when he collects his notes from the class note taker, and when he is
given extra time to complete an exam. The bulk of the work done to support students with LD is
done at the level of his microsystem.
The exosystem, too, has an impact on the student’s ability to access support. Examples of
forces at this level include university policies such as the requirements for documentation to
qualify for accommodations, and federal laws that prohibit discrimination based on disability.
The student himself may never interact with policy makers and legislators, but the work they do
will have an impact on his postsecondary education.
The macrosystem, in this case the culture that values education for all, is unseen but ever-
present in the LD student’s life. On all levels, as pictured below, Bronfenbrenner’s Social
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 44
Ecological Theory is applicable to the study of innovative strategies to support students with LD
in postsecondary education.

Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) Model as Applied to Educational Environments
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 45
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The intent of this study was to investigate innovative strategies to help students with
learning disabilities (LD) complete postsecondary educational programs. Growing numbers of
LD students attend colleges and universities in the United States, and U.S. laws, such as the
Higher Education Opportunity Act, protect the rights of LD students to participate fully in
educational programs (HEOA, P.L. 110-315). Faculty and staff at colleges and universities are
mandated to provide access to curricula for LD students, and various methods have been used to
provide that access (HEOA, P.L. 110-315). The goal of this study was to identify the
accommodations and support models that were most effective in assisting LD students to persist
and reach their educational goals.
This chapter outlines the study’s research design and provides an overview of the
participants and sample selection. It also discusses the theoretical framework and protocols. Data
collection procedures and analysis are examined. Finally, the ethical considerations made to
ensure the safety and confidentiality of the participants is described. In an effort to understand
the strategies that have been successful in supporting postsecondary LD students, the following
research questions were posed:
Research Question 1: What are the perceived systems and structures to support
postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 2: How are these systems and structures implemented and sustained to
support postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 3: How can innovative strategies help LD students successfully
complete their programs of study at the university level?
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 46
Research Design
The research questions served to focus this sequential mixed-methods study. According
to Creswell (2009), sequential mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher
expands on the findings of one method through the use of another method. In order to determine
which services were most effective in supporting students with LD, it was necessary first to do a
quantitative investigation. Quantitative research methods such as data collection are used when
investigating what factors or variables influence an outcome (Creswell, 2009). In this case data
was collected from the disability center at the host institution, and the data was analyzed to
identify trends in accommodations and support systems that had contributed to the persistence of
LD students in their various postsecondary programs. A group of 11 successful LD students was
identified. Members of this group had persisted to the next year of a program after using the
services of the disability center. For example, if a student used the center during her freshman
year, and returned for her sophomore year, she was asked to participate in the study.
Qualitative methods were used in order to obtain an understanding of the practices for
supporting students with learning disabilities in postsecondary institutions. In qualitative studies,
researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences (Merriam,
2009). The goal of this research was to discern what specific services and strategies were most
helpful to individual students, and this information was best collected through private interviews.
This study was strengthened by triangulation of data sources, consisting of examination of
documents and websites as well as trends discovered through the interview process, which
allowed for a stronger understanding of the phenomena being investigated (Maxwell, 2013).
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 47
Sample and Population
This study examined innovative strategies used to support students with LD in
postsecondary settings. Specific criteria were established to identify students with LD who had
experienced success in their programs. The study took place at a university in the southwestern
United States. More than 26,000 undergraduate and 5,000 graduate students are enrolled in the
school, of which 5% are African-American, 38% are Hispanic, 24% are Asian, and 24% are
Caucasian. Fifty-nine per cent of the students are female. A wide variety of majors and programs
are available on campus, spanning a broad range of disciplines. The disability center strives to
serve students with LD throughout the university by arranging for accommodations and by
providing support programs.
Selection criteria for interviewees were based on a quantitative investigation of data
provided by the disability center. The data generated a list of students with LD who had persisted
in their educational programs after using the services at the center. Personnel at the DSS sent an
invitation by email to this pool of students. Of the number of students who replied to the
invitation, eleven students completed the interview process. The interviews lasted between 30-45
minutes. Interviews were voluntary. The participants gave permission to the interviews being
recorded. Each interviewee was assigned a pseudonym to protect his or her identity. In this way,
purposeful sampling was used to select the students for interviews. Purposeful sampling is based
on the assumption that the researcher seeks to understand, gain insight and learns and, therefore,
must select a sample in which this would be possible (Merriam, 2009). Credibility for this
sample was validated by identifying appropriate participants who were selected because of their
special experience and competence (Merriam, 2009, p. 77). This study involved students with
LD. Participation was voluntary, and only those who were willing to be interviewed were a part
of the study. A total of 11 people participated in this study.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 48
Qualitative methods were used in order to obtain an understanding of the practices for
supporting students with learning disabilities in postsecondary institutions. In qualitative studies,
researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences (Merriam,
2009). The goal of this research was to discern what specific services and strategies were most
helpful to individual students, and this information was best collected through private interviews.
This study was strengthened by triangulation of data sources, consisting of documents, websites,
and trends discovered through the interview process, which allowed for a stronger understanding
of the phenomena being investigated (Maxwell, 2013). The university’s disability center strives
to serve students with LD by arranging for accommodations and by providing support programs
such as coaching.
In this way, purposeful sampling was used to select the students for interviews.
Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the researcher seeks to understand, gain
insight and learns and, therefore, must select a sample in which this would be possible (Merriam,
2009).
Table 1
Demographics of Host Institution and Interviewees
Host Institution Interviewees
African-American 5% 10%
Hispanic 38% 27%
Asian 24% 0%
Caucasian 24% 63%
American Indian .5% 0%
Pacific Islander .5% 0%
Race/Ethnicity Unknown 8% 0%

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 49
Theoretical Framework
The use of Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecological Theory (1993) is helpful in understanding
innovative strategies to support students with LD. According to this framework, the student
interacts with the world simultaneously on various levels, the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. For example, a student’s microsystem might consist of the
environment at home, at school, or among the peer group. Bronfenbrenner describes the
mesosystem as the interactions between the systems that the individual spends the most time in,
for example the communication between the school and the student’s family. A student’s
exosystem, according to social ecological theory, indirectly affects a student, although he may
not spend any time in that environment. For example, students are affected by policy decisions
made at the institutional level and laws enacted by legislative bodies, even though the student
does not participate in making these policies and laws. A macrosystem encompasses all of the
systems. Some examples are culture, subculture or other social structure in which the members
usually share the same belief system. This study applied Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecological
Theory to the investigation of innovative strategies to support students with LD by taking into
consideration the various systems that affect the student’s success in accessing education.
In addition to considering the issues surrounding students through the lens of
Bronfenbrener’s Social Ecological Theory, the thematic group created a conceptual framework
in which to center the many facets involved. Maxwell (2013) defines a conceptual framework as
the systems of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that support and inform
research. In summary, the conceptual framework illustrates how critical systems and structures
are implemented and sustained to support students with LD.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 50

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework, Ed.D. Thematic Group 2014
Instrumentation
This study used three types of methods for data collection, a quantitative investigation of
documents from the disability center, an investigation of the center’s website, and semi-
structured interviews of some of those students. Participants were provided with an explanation
of the interview process and assured confidentiality. Informed consent forms were signed prior to
each interview. Although interviews contributed to the study as the primary source of qualitative
data, documents from the disability center and from their website were used to triangulate the
data. Merriam (2009) argues that triangulation through the use of multiple sources of data
increases the internal validity of the study. Maxwell (2013) contends that using multiple methods
creates a check to see if methods with different strengths and limitations will support a single
conclusion.
The qualitative section of this study included interviews. Students volunteered for
individual interviews. The intent of the interview process was to allow an open-ended
exploration of the practices in place that contribute to the success of postsecondary students with
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 51
LD. The interviews conducted were semi-structured in nature and lasted approximately 30
minutes each. An interview protocol was utilized with a total of 8 questions asked of each
interview participant. Questions used in the interview protocol were open-ended in nature to
obtain as much information as possible from participants (Merriam, 2009). Please see Appendix
A for the interview protocol.
Data Collection and Analysis
The process of gaining approval of the study proposal took place in November, and
approval was granted in December 2014. Data was collected in January 2015. The identity of the
participants was safeguarded in that students who volunteered to be interviewed gave a
pseudonym, which was used throughout the project. Documents provided by the Disability
Services Center, and the DSS website were analyzed to discover systems and structures in
place to support students with LD. These documents were read and coded according to
interrelated themes, which were then interpreted. Insights gained through this process
contributed to the findings of the study. Student interviews were conducted to gain in-
depth insights into which aspects of disability services had been most useful to students
with LD.
Data Analysis
The thematic group chose to follow Creswell’s (2003) six steps for data analysis, which
provided a guiding framework for this study. An illustrative version of Creswell’s model,
developed by the 2014 thematic dissertation group, is included below to illustrate the process of
analysis that was implemented.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 52

Figure 3. Creswell’s (2003) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis
To follow this model, it was necessary to organize and prepare the data for analysis.
Interview data was captured through digital recording. Digital recordings were transcribed, and
data collected from the interviews and records from the disability center were combined. The
data was then organized into categories, which identified initial themes. Merriam (2009) refers to
this initial process as category construction. This involved reading through the data and
developing a list of codes based on the data content. The data was coded into categories. Next, a
description of the participants’ experiences was developed from the coded data and themes were
analyzed based on the recurring patterns found for each type of data collection (Merriam, 2009).
The identified themes were organized into a descriptive narrative for the study. Lastly, a full
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 53
examination of the data was done and the researcher attempted to make meaning from the
themes that emerged through data analysis.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical practices were followed in the design and conduct of this study. According to
Merriam (2009), an important part of ensuring the trustworthiness of a study and its credibility is
to verify that the researcher is trustworthy in carrying out a study in an ethical manner.
Application for IRB was submitted and approval was granted in November of 2014. Then, the
disability center chairperson was contacted to request permission to collect data. All of those
who participated in the study did so voluntarily and were not be coerced in any way. Participants
were provided assurance of the confidentiality of their statements and they were informed of the
benefits that could result from the study. The university and all participants were given fictional
names.
The data was secured by protecting it with a password on a home computer. Only the
research team associated with this study had access to this data. The research team was made up
of four doctoral students and three faculty members. Each person has a deep interest in
innovative strategies to support students with LD, and input from the team enhanced this
research study.
This chapter provided an overview of the mixed methods collection and analysis of data
used in the implementation of this study. These methods can and should be replicated for future
validation and to add to the significance of the findings. Chapter Four presents and discusses the
findings.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to interview students with LD who experience success in
postsecondary programs, and to discover common strategies, which help them achieve their
educational goals. The research sought out examples of positive deviance in a group whose
members were in danger of dropping out of college because of difficulties related to their LD
status. Positive Deviance is based on the observation that in every community there are certain
individuals or groups whose uncommon behaviors and strategies enable them to find better
solutions to problems than their peers, while having access to the same resources and facing
similar or worse challenges (positivedeviance.org, 2015). The goal of the study was to find
commonalities among those postsecondary students with LD who persisted in their programs of
study, and to discern from their experiences what applicable support systems DSS personnel
could provide so that more students might benefit and thrive
The research was guided by the following questions:
Research Question 1: What are the perceived systems and structures that support
postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 2: How are these systems and structures implemented and sustained to
support postsecondary LD students in achieving their educational goals?
Research Question 3: How can innovative strategies help students with LD successfully
complete their programs of study at the university level?
To begin the data collection phase of this study, the website specific to the DSS office
was explored. Information about the services available to support students with disabilities was
collected. Documents listing DSS services were obtained. With the approval of the Internal
Review Board, the researcher contacted a director at the DSS who agreed to advertise the study
to students who had recently used the services of his office. The director advertised the study
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 55
through email, and students volunteered for individual interviews. The intent of the interview
process was to allow an open-ended exploration of the practices in place that contribute to the
success of postsecondary students with disabilities. The interviews conducted were semi-
structured in nature and lasted approximately 30 minutes each. Data was analyzed using
Creswell’s (2003) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis.
Eleven post-secondary students were interviewed. Interviewees identified themselves as
African American, Asian, Hispanic/Latino, and Caucasian, and their ages spanned from nineteen
years old to sixty-three years old. Students responded to a set of prepared questions, but each
participant made a unique contribution to the study by elaborating on issues under discussion.
Although participants with learning disabilities were recruited, several of the interviewees had
conditions such as anxiety and depression. One of the participants was hard of hearing. These
students made a valuable contribution to the study in that they used many of the same DSS
services as those participants diagnosed as LD. All of the participants described the systems and
structures in place at the DSS, and which strategies helped them to persist in their studies. This
chapter will describe the participants in the study, services offered at the DSS, and a discussion
of findings will be presented.
Participants
In order to keep confidentiality, pseudonyms were used for the participants as well as the
university. This section will describe a) the university as well as the student demographics b)
common student characteristics and c) characteristics unique to individual students.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 56
University Demographic Information
At the time of the study, ABC State University enrolled 25,815 full-time undergraduate
and 2,625 full-time graduate students (See Table 2 below). The number of part-time students at
all levels totaled 7,146 students. Of the students, 57% were women. Of undergraduate students,
17% were aged twenty-five or older. The racial/ethnic identity of students was reported as: 37%
Hispanic, 23% Asian, 21% Caucasian, and 4% African-American. Internationals and transfer
students made up the balance of the population. Ninety-six percent of students came from the
home state, and 48% of them were considered to be low-income. The university has a 90%
graduation rate.
Table 2
ABC State University Demographics
Status Number
Full-time undergraduate students 25, 815
Full-time graduate students 2,625
Part-time students 7,146
Percentage of female students 57%
Percentage of students age 25 or older 17%
Percentage of Hispanic students 37%
Percentage of Asian-American students 23%
Percentage of Caucasian students 21%
Percentage of African-American students 4%
Percentage of students from the home state 96%
Percentage of low-income students 48%

Participant Demographics
Participants in the study were post-secondary students who utilized the services of the
university’s DSS office (See Table 3 below). They included two men and nine women. Of the
eleven, five were Caucasian, three were Hispanic, two were Asian American, and one was
African American. The median age of participants was 24 years old. Of the eleven participants,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 57
three were graduate students, and eight were undergraduate students. One of these participants
attended the university part time, and the others attended full-time. Compared to the university as
a whole, the make-up of the study group included more Caucasian women.
Table 3
Demographics
Descriptor Number
Full-time undergraduate students 7
Full-time graduate students 3
Part-time students 1
Female students 9
Students age 25 or older 1
Hispanic students 3
Asian-American students 2
Caucasian students 5
African-American students 1

Common Characteristics
Although study participants fell into a variety of categories, taken overall, a general
impression of the participants was that they were grateful for the assistance they had received
from the DSS office. Several participants referred to their interactions with DSS personnel as
life-changing events. The students came to the interview for the opportunity to tell their stories
and to encourage DSS staff to continue to provide services to students with disabilities in the
future. Each participant was able to express him or herself clearly in English, and therefore,
interpreters were not utilized during the interviews. All of the participants were enrolled in
classes at the university at the time of the interviews. Each participant had an open attitude about
divulging potentially sensitive information regarding his or her disability.
An important characteristic that the participants had in common was resilience, or grit.
Each person had overcome obstacles, had struggled to meet challenges, or had bounced back
after failure. The discovery of this characteristic in the participants does not constitute a finding
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 58
of the research, since this research seeks to identify strategies DSS personnel can utilize in
support of students with LD. Grit is a set of skills or an outlook on life that these people shared,
and it seemed to be a significant factor in their success. As individual participants are described,
examples will be given of their resilience.
Unique Characteristics
The eleven participants in this study are unique individuals with a variety of disabling
conditions. Students with specific learning disabilities include Callie, Ricky, Liza, Minerva
Aggie, Minnie and Lulu. The input of Lucy, Nena, Haley, and Bud is included in these findings
because each of these participants offered information about the perceived systems and structures
at the DSS, and how these systems and structures are implemented and sustained at ABC State
University. Students with learning disabilities will be described first, and those with other
conditions will follow.
Callie is twenty-one years old, and she is in her fourth year of postsecondary study. Callie
was diagnosed at the age of four with a severe learning disability, and her parents were told she
probably would not learn to read and would not be able to do math or science. Callie’s parents
made it a priority to place Callie in schools that could provide the best services and support.
Callie did learn to read, speak, and write. She was trained to set goals and achieve them. In high
school, she had an Individual Educational Program and a resource period scheduled into her day.
With this support, she was able to pass math and science classes and graduate. Callie spent two
years at a community college where she made use of disability services providers. Callie was
persistent in her efforts to overcome the challenges faced by someone with a severe learning
disability, and this shows true resilience.
When she entered ABC State University, she started at the DSS office, followed through
with referrals they made to various services available on campus, and continued by finding
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 59
people in her classes to study with. One of the DSS services makes it possible for Callie to get
extra time and a private room while taking tests. Another service provided by the DSS is
preferred registration, which ensures Callie can enroll in all of the classes she needs to finish her
program. The DSS office has referred Callie to campus organizations, which provide free
tutoring, and most importantly to her, the professionals at the DSS have been available to
provide guidance and support whenever Callie needed it. She joined a sports organization and
participated in a singing group. Callie will graduate this spring with her Bachelor of Science
degree. She encourages others not to be limited by a disability.
Ricky is a thirty year-old man who is pursuing a Bachelor’s Degree in International
Business. He uses the services of the DSS to register for the classes he needs each semester. He
enjoys the support of counseling sessions at the DSS on an as-needed basis. Ricky did not
consider himself learning-disabled in high school, but he chose not to go on to college after he
graduated. During his twenties he sought out help for issues related to addiction. While in
recovery, Ricky learned the importance of asking for help, and so when he came to the
university, he sought out the services of the DSS, where he was assessed and found to have LD
and be eligible for support. Ricky’s resilience is apparent in that he successfully overcame
addiction and applied lessons he learned in that process to advance his academic career.
Liza is a twenty-three year old Communications major. She uses the priority registration
service at the DSS. Like several other participants in the study, Liza was first assessed and found
to have a learning disability at the university’s DSS office. Liza considers this a life-changing
experience, because it helped her to understand why she had such difficulty with some of her
high school courses. Liza’s resilience is apparent in that she struggled through high school and
attempted college before finding support at the DSS.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 60
Minerva, an international student, is a twenty-eight year-old woman who uses the priority
registration, counseling, and testing accommodations services offered at the DSS. Minerva was
not diagnosed with the disability until she came to the DSS at ABC State University. She was
elated to have her difficulty with math explained after years of struggle in this specific area. It
was her relative difficulty with math that kept Minerva from entering a pre-medical program.
She settled for a program in social work instead. Minerva’s resilience is demonstrated by the
decision not to give up on higher education when she was unable to go into medicine. She is
finishing a Master’s degree this semester, and hopes to be accepted into a Ph.D. program, despite
her math disability. She reported working with a DSS counselor to find the best way to explain
her disability to others, especially to potential graduate program admissions officers.
Aggie is a twenty-two year-old woman working toward her bachelor’s degree at the
university. She uses the DSS for testing accommodations, priority registration, counseling, and
assistive technology. A staff member at the DSS was the first to diagnose Aggie’s reading
disability. She was very glad to finally understand why school had always seemed harder for her
than it was for others. Using the Kurzweil text-to-speech learning tool provided by the DSS has
been the key to Aggie’s success in her classes. She overcame difficulties resulting from her
reading disability, finished high school, and entered college. This persistence is an indicator of
resilience. Having a network of support is important to Aggie, and she credits the DSS for
connecting her socially with others.
Minnie is a twenty-four year-old woman in her fifth year at the university. She attends
school half time with the goal of earning her Bachelor’s degree in 2017. Minnie uses the DSS for
priority registration, testing accommodations, counseling, and referrals to other services such as
free tutoring on campus. Minnie reports doing well in high school, although throughout Minnie’s
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 61
childhood, her mother suffered with anxiety and depression. Minnie was not affected until after
she left home for college. Adjusting to life away from home was stressful for Minnie, and
separation from her boyfriend was difficult for her. She experienced anxiety attacks and began
therapy. Her therapist referred her to the DSS, where Minnie was diagnosed as having a learning
disability able to find the support that has helped her to continue with classes. Minnie’s ability to
overcome setbacks, yet continue to work toward a goal, shows resilience.
Lulu is a twenty-three year-old woman who uses the counseling, priority registration, and
testing accommodations services at the DSS. Lulu has overcome various setbacks in her personal
life as well as her academic career, but she learned from her mother, a breast cancer survivor, to
persevere. She is quite resilient. Lulu was referred to the DSS by the Rehabilitation Services
Center, where it was determined she had a learning disability. She believes people should not
focus on their problems, but instead look for ways to be resourceful and have a positive and
grateful attitude.
The following participants have not been diagnosed with specific learning disabilities, but
their contributions to the study are of value because they describe interactions with DSS
personnel. Therefore, they help to answer two of the study’s guiding questions: (1) what are the
perceived systems and structures [at the DSS]? (2) how are these systems and structures
implemented and sustained?
Nena is a forty year-old woman who is completing a Masters degree in Social Work. She
uses the services of the DSS to arrange for extra time taking tests. It was Nena’s level of stress
that led her to be assessed at the DSS. She was diagnosed with anxiety and found to be eligible to
receive testing accommodations. Nena was not aware of having a disability when she was in high
school, but she chose to move to New York City and find work instead of going to college.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 62
During her years there, she was married, had a baby, got divorced, and worked on Wall Street
while supporting her child. Nena persevered through all of these obstacles and became a resilient
person. Nena chose to enroll in the university to become qualified to work in a helping
profession. She would like to educate people in stress management so that they can avoid the
debilitating effects of anxiety. These last three study participants had other learning challenges,
including a battle with cancer, a hard-of-hearing condition, and negative side effects of
medication. Lucy, Haley, and Bud are described here.
Lucy is a nineteen year-old woman in her second year of college. She utilizes the services
of the DSS in order to receive support in scheduling her classes and arranging to do make-up
class work when she has to miss school for medical reasons. Lucy was diagnosed with Leukemia
during her junior year of high school, and she was home-schooled during her senior year so that
she could undergo chemotherapy treatments. Lucy still lives at home, but commutes to the
university between treatments and when she is strong enough to attend classes. Lucy’s resilience
is extraordinary. She expressed gratitude to the DSS for referring her to the Office of
Rehabilitation Services. Funding is available through this office to pay for the textbooks she
needs. Lucy reports she has always felt welcome to drop in at the DSS office without an
appointment and talk to one of the counselors. Although this has been helpful, she would like to
be assigned to one professional who would contact her to offer support and anticipate her needs.
Since Lucy’s schedule must be tailored to her treatment regimen, the benefit of priority
registration through the DSS has made it possible for her to continue her education.
Haley is a twenty-four year-old woman who uses technology provided by the DSS to
access the curriculum in her classes. This technology is called the FM System. It helps people
who are hard of hearing to fully understand lectures and oral presentations. Haley has a physical
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 63
disability rather than a learning disability. Her input is valuable to this study because the DSS
provides her with technology to help her access the curriculum. During high school, Haley
refused to use the FM technology because she thought the headphones singled her out as
someone with a disability. During those years, Haley had a therapist who worked intensively to
get her through to graduation. Haley recalled writing a letter of thanks to this therapist. While
writing this letter, she made a decision to be open about her disability in the future, and to use
every means of support she could find to help her in college. At the university, Haley has
become involved in sports and has even joined a sorority. She finds it important to interact with
people on many levels, so as not to be known only as someone with a disability. Haley continues
to overcome obstacle each day, and is quite resilient.
Bud is a sixty-three year-old man who is working on a Master’s degree. He uses the
counseling services as well as the priority registration offered at the DSS. Bud reported having a
disagreement with a graduate advisor about his need for accommodations such as extra time to
take tests. The advisor sent Bud to the DSS to settle the issue. Because of his history of violent
behavior, Bud uses prescription medications. These medications have side effects, which make it
difficult for Bud to process ideas quickly, and therefore the counselors at the DSS found Bud to
be eligible for accommodations at the university. Despite the setbacks in his past, Bud made the
effort to continue his education at a later stage in life. He is certainly resilient.
Both the participants with specific learning disabilities, and those with other conditions
requiring accommodations, utilized DSS services and provided valuable input in response to the
guiding questions of this study. Here, the services offered by the DSS will be described from the
point of view of a visitor to the office on a typical day.

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 64

Services Offered at the DSS
The DSS office at ABC State University is a very busy place, housing service providers
and numerous support personnel (See Table 3 below). Upon entering the office, a visitor is
greeted by an efficient administrative assistant who seems to be capable of anticipating each
person’s needs. She may direct one student to see Mr. Pine for academic advising, testing
accommodations, note takers, priority registration, or Department of Rehabilitation
consultations. Another student may be directed to Ms. Caps for a technology screening,
collaborative editing, structural writing training, or concept mapping skills. Ms. Allsop is a
licensed clinical social worker who facilitates students with questions about housing, health,
finances, mental health, or those who require Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
evaluations. Ms. Hall provides career counseling and job accommodation support. Ms. Burns
offers disability career development, internships, and coaching in job search strategies. Ms.
Shore supports students with autism by overseeing the LIFE project. The LIFE project is
structured around meetings, peer coaching, advanced training, and consultation with specialists
in the field. Dr. Moore runs the Linguistically Different Clinic for students with communicative
disorders. She provides native language assessments, receptive and expressive language
evaluations, hearing examinations and speech therapy. Students with Learning Disabilities are
directed to the LD program staff, Mr. Kord and Ms. Quinn, both licensed marriage and family
counselors, who provide assessments for LD. Services for students who are deaf or hard or
hearing are managed by Ms. Rall These professionals are located in small offices surrounding
the receptionist’s desk, and although they have individual specialties, there seems to be a sense
of shared responsibility among them. Their conversations about students showed they consult
with each other often. The atmosphere was relaxed but respectful. Some of the DSS service
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 65
providers posted their credentials publicly on the website and on the referral form, whereas
others did not post them. The culture of the office was such that students and professionals were
on a first-name basis, and this casual sense of mutual respect and friendship set the tone for their
interactions. Various staff members are also available at other offices, such as the Learning
Assistance Center, the Counseling and Psychological Services, and Student Health Services to
support students with disabilities at ABC State University.
Table 4
DSS Services at ABC State University
Service Provider Services Offered
Mr. Pine  Academic advising
 Testing accommodations
 Note takers
 Priority registration
 Department of Rehabilitation consultations
Ms. Caps  Technology screening
 Collaborative editing
 Structural writing training
 Concept mapping skills
Ms. Allsop
Licensed Clinical Social Worker
 Housing
 Health
 Finances
 Mental health
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
evaluations
Ms. Hall  Career counseling
 Job accommodation support
Ms. Burns  Disability career development
 Internships
 Coaching in job search strategies

Table 4, continued 
Ms. Shore  LIFE project meetings to support students with
Autism
 Peer coaching
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 66
 Advanced training
 Consultation with specialists in the field
Dr. Moore
The Linguistically Different Clinic
 Native language assessments,
 Receptive and expressive language evaluations
 Hearing examinations,
 Speech therapy

Mr. Kord, Licensed Marriage and
Family Counselor
Ms. Quinn, Licensed Marriage and
Family Counselor
 Assessments for Learning Disability
Ms. Rall  Services to support students who are deaf and
hard of hearing

Assistive Technology
Students who visit the writing skills training center at the DSS may be given a technology
screening by Ms. Caps. She is familiar with the assistive technology available at ABC State
University. She interviews students regarding their learning needs. She is able to recommend the
student be given access to one or more of the technologies available at the university. These
include the screen readers, writing tools, and assistive devices described below.
Screen readers such as Kurzweil 3000 and Jaws (Job Access With Speech) are used to
read textbooks aloud while tracking progress. Using natural sounding voices, Kurzweil 3000
reads text aloud to students, allowing them to follow along as the text is highlighted and spoken
at a self-adjusted pace. Additional literacy tools use a multisensory approach to engage students
as they develop language fluency, comprehension and retention. As a result, students with
dyslexia or other learning disabilities and English Language Learners are able to read at a higher
level than they could independently and achieve success alongside their peers. One participant in
the study, Aggie, stated,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 67
I wasn’t diagnosed until I was 20. I went to the DSS because of my reading. I went to a
tutor, but he just told me to read the book. I went to a professor and he said to me, ‘this is
the way I do, so just do it my way’. The DSS tested me and they let me use Kurzweil.
(personal communication, January 22, 2015)
This screen reading technology worked for Aggie. Another student may have chosen to
use JAWS, which is a screen reader developed for computer users whose vision loss prevents
them from seeing screen content or navigating with a mouse. JAWS provide speech and Braille
output for computer applications on a PC. Each of these screen readers provides access to the
curriculum to students whose disabilities prevent them from reading in the same way as a typical
student.
Writing tools such as Dragon Naturally Speaking and Inspiration are available at the
DSS. Dragon speech recognition software is an accessibility tool for students with physical
disabilities. This software can help to improve core skills and provide greater independence for
such students, level the playing field for students with learning disabilities, and improve writing
fluency for students learning English. Inspiration Concept Mapping is another tool provided by
the DSS. With this software, students can build visual maps and diagrams such as webs, concept
maps and graphic organizers, understand and retain concepts, create and connect ideas, and
analyze information. This software helps students organize and structure their thoughts, further
understand information, and discover new relationships.
Assistive devices available to students at the DSS include the Livescribe Smartpen, Word
Q/Speak Q, and the FM System. The Livescribe Smartpen records audio, for example, a
professor’s lecture. Using special paper, the pen will sync notes taken with specific parts of the
lecture. Students, whose disability prevents them from taking notes while attending to a lecture,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 68
benefit from this technology because they can review the lecture and their notes a later time.
WordQ is a writing tool that empowers students to write their own ideas. It lets them check
spelling, grammar and punctuation, so they can become more confident writers. This tool
suggests words and provides spoken feedback. Students hear sentences repeated and can detect
mistakes. SpeakQ plugs into WordQ to add speech recognition to the word prediction of
WordQ. FM Listening Systems let teachers talk into a hand-held microphone, which transmits
the sound of the teacher’s voice directly to a deaf or hard of hearing student’s hearing aid or
headphones. This transmission happens on reserved radio spectrum of 216-217 MHz. One study
participant, Haley, uses the FM system. She said, “I didn’t want to use it in high school, I was
embarrassed to wear the headphones. It made me stand out like, that person is different! But I
made a conscious decision to put myself out there in college. I use all the help I can get”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Alternative media such as Large Print, Braille, and
E-Text are also made available to students. In addition, standardized test accommodations can be
arranged at the Accessible Instructional Materials (AIM) Center. This wide range of options for
assistive technology is available to students at ABC State University. Students like Aggie and
Haley credit assistive technology for their success.
Findings and Discussion
In exploring the experiences of these students, four salient themes emerged: assessment
for LD, accommodations for registration and testing, coaching in learning strategies, and the
successes and failures of communication at the DSS. These themes, described more fully below,
are presented through student quotes.
Assessment for LD
Assessment to determine if a student has a learning disability (LD) is a service provided
by the DSS. According to ABC State University’s revised Policy for the Provision of
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 69
Accommodations and Support Services to Students with Disabilities, effective May 28, 2014,
DSS service providers have the authority to determine the presence of a disability with or
without corroborating documentation. To substantiate a student’s request for accommodations,
the service provider may refer to student self-report, observation of and interaction with the
student, and information from third parties. This information may include educational or medical
records, reports and assessments from health care providers, school psychologists, teachers, or
the educational system. This policy gives disability service providers the authority to use their
professional judgment in determining disability in students at ABC State University. In many
other colleges and universities, the student is required to present documentation of a disability in
order to receive accommodations. Since federal law requires only that postsecondary institutions
provide services for students who self-identify as disabled, this policy at ABC State goes above
and beyond legal requirements in meeting the needs of students with disabilities. In fact, seven of
the participants were assessed by the DSS and found to be eligible for accommodations, although
they had not previously considered themselves disabled. Their stories demonstrate the vital role
assessment for disability can play in student success at the university level.
Liza’s story included high school memories where many classes were “a blur” to her. She
said, “I just didn’t care about some classes and didn’t do well, but I figured it was my choice”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). When she came to the university and learned about
the services at the DSS, she was assessed and found to have disability in the areas of reading
comprehension and math reasoning. Liza said she was “honestly happy to find out I had a
disability” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). The support she received from the DSS
after being diagnosed has made it possible for her to continue in her program.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 70
Although Liza remembered having areas of weakness in her academic life, Minnie did
fairly well in high school. She did not consider herself to be a person with a disability. Minnie
approached the DSS for coaching in time management and stress reduction techniques. As she
got to know her counselor, he recommended she be assessed, and she was found to have a
learning disability. Minnie said, “I was grateful to know that my trouble with classes, which
caused me so much stress, was happening because I had a disability I didn’t know about”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015).
Liza and Minnie were “honestly happy” and “grateful” to be identified with LD.
Similarly Aggie reported that there were indications of a disability when she was a child, but that
her parents never pursued the issue. She developed skills to compensate for her deficiencies
during high school, but had difficulty in college courses. When Aggie was diagnosed at the DSS,
she asserted, “It was a very freeing experience because for a long time the burden had been put
on me like, why is this so hard for me? I didn’t understand it” (personal communication, January
22, 2015). With accommodations and the use of assistive technology, Aggie is experiencing
success in reaching her academic goals.
Like Aggie, Ricky did not have an easy time in school. Ricky stated,
I came to the DSS see what was going on with me. They told me I had this disability and
it means that I take longer to do tests. That’s probably why I never wanted to come to
college before. School was so hard and I didn’t know why, but now I do. (personal
communication, January 22, 2015)
Stories like Ricky’s beg the question as to whether earlier disability assessment might have saved
the student years of difficulty in school and in other real-life situations.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 71
Minerva, on the other hand, had always been a very successful student, except in the area
of Mathematics. She was highly regarded through high school, and came to the university with
confidence she would succeed academically. She took a placement test, which required her to
enroll in a remedial Math class. She stated,
I always thought there was something wrong with me or the way I was studying, a lack of
motivation. Since it hadn’t been identified I’m glad it got taken care of at that point.
When I got through the diagnosis I got through a statistics class. With the extra time, I
got 100%. It was like suddenly a light bulb switched on. Here’s the path to success. It
was completely transformational for me in my life. (personal communication, January 22,
2015)
Minerva has a disability in the area of Math calculation and reasoning. She continues to use the
services of the DSS and plans to enter a graduate program after completing her university
program.
For Lulu, it was a struggle to succeed in school before being assessed as LD. Lulu stated,
I came here from community college but I didn’t get any extra time when I was over
there. But here people told me to try the DSS for a test about a disability. They said yes,
[to accommodations] and now I’m doing O.K. (personal communication, January 22,
2015)
Lulu experienced difficulty at community college, and support was not provided. At ABC State
University, disability assessment and the resulting accommodations Lulu received were
instrumental to her success.
Nena reported “suffering from anxiety. This is what led me to the DSS. They tested me
and found that I should be given extra time on tests and priority registration. That’s what’s gotten
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 72
me through this program!” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Service providers at the
DSS followed the policy of ABC State University in assessing Nena and the other participants.
Although none of these students could self-identify with a documented disability upon entering
the university, each of them reported being assessed at the DSS and receiving accommodations
as a result of the assessment. In every case, participants credit this service with their persistence
in their programs of study.
Because the university assesses students for the existence of a learning disability, many
people who would likely otherwise fail, have been able to succeed in a postsecondary program of
study. This evidence suggests that assessment for a disability is a strategy that is effective in
helping postsecondary students with LD achieve their educational goals. This is a significant
finding of the study as the focus of the study was on commonalities among the participants, and
assessment for disability was a consequential event, which contributed to the success of many of
the participants.
Accommodations for Registration and Testing
A second theme that emerged through the interviews was accommodations. When
students with disabilities are offered the accommodation of preferred registration for classes,
they are able to schedule classes they need to diminish the impact of the limitations they face.
Current trends in funding for higher education have made it difficult for some students to register
for the courses they need and complete a program of study in a timely manner. Universities
across the state system have been forced to offer fewer classes, compounding the difficulty faced
by students with disabilities struggling to complete postsecondary programs. This section will
explore the experiences of the participants who used preferred registration during their
postsecondary programs.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 73
Regarding access, 8 of the 11 participants reported that priority registration was a form of
an accommodation that assisted them with organizing a schedule to fit their individual needs.
Minerva reported, “Priority registration is very, very helpful in planning because I can pick
professors who work with me a little bit more. I can plan and schedule myself around that”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Callie reported, “I really need preferred
registration, because that way I know I can get in all of the classes I need to finish my program”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Liza showed real emotion, saying, “I love it now
that I get priority registration. I can pretty much always take what I want” (personal
communication, January 22, 2015). Minnie said, “Priority registration is really important to me
because I can’t take morning classes” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Lucy stated,
“Students are stressed out and they have big gaps [time between classes] which is really not
convenient. You are guaranteed that you’ll get the classes you need with priority registration”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Haley uses the FM system because she is hard of
hearing. She confided, “There are professors in my program who are good with the FM system
and there are others who are not so good. If I get a choice (through priority registration) I pick
the ones who work better with it” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Nena asserted,
“Without priority registration, I doubt I would be finishing my Master’s” (personal
communication, January 22, 2015). Aggie had taken two years of classes and met a variety of
professors before being diagnosed with a reading disability and receiving priority registration.
She learned, “which ones gave more written tests, and which ones did more projects and
activities. Priority registration means I can pick the classes with more projects. I do better in
classes like that” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Whether the individual student
needed priority registration to create a convenient weekly schedule, to take classes at a certain
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 74
time of day, to complete each class necessary in a program, to be with professors they liked, or
those who used a particular type of assessment, or those who had mastered the use of assistive
technology, preferred registration was found to be a strategy that was effective in helping
postsecondary students with disabilities achieve their educational goals.
Testing accommodations were used by 8 of the 11 participants in this study.
Accommodations make it possible for students with LD to show what they know without being
impeded by their disability. At ABC State University, students using testing accommodations
were responsible for explaining the situation to their professors. The DSS generated contacts and
the students took these contracts to their professors in the beginning of each semester. Contracts
were written specifically for each individual according to that student’s needs. For example,
Callie explained, “I introduce myself to each of my professors and let them know I’m working
with the DSS. The next week I’ll be handing out my contacts. We need contracts to get extra
time on the tests” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Callie’s disability made her
eligible to have extended time on all of her tests, while Minerva needed extra time only for Math
assessments. She said, “I was given extended time and a room to myself if it’s a Math test”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Ricky, Liza, Minnie and Lulu all mentioned how
important it was to them to have extra time to complete tests. Ricky recalled,
I used to bomb tests back in high school, but now I do better as long as I get time and a
half. I feel like I can think. When there’s a lot of questions, it can be like impossible, but
when you know you have lots of time, it’s doable. (personal communication, January 22,
2015)
Liza’s situation was similar to Ricky’s in that she was unsuccessful in testing situations during
high school. She admitted,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 75
I used to just slide by and hope for the best (during high school) when I was in a class I
didn’t like. That didn’t work out in college. Since I got assessed at the DSS, now I have
more time to finish tests and that’s what makes it easier for me to actually get through it,
actually try to do my best with it. (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Minnie had a very difficult transition from high school to college. After several semesters of
struggle, she sought out the help of DSS services. The accommodation of time and a half on tests
was an important aspect of the alterations to Minnie’s program. She confided, “I just couldn’t
handle the full load (of classes), but now that I get the time I need to really do my best on tests in
the classes I’m taking, I am able to accomplish more, I actually learn more” (personal
communication, January 22, 2015). The DSS program at ABC State University, in Lulu’s case,
was so great for me because I always just needed a chance. Just give me a chance to show
I get it, and you will see that I do get it. The professors know I get extra time, so they’re
used to me by now. This school is great that way, they give you time if you just follow all
the steps with the paperwork, the contracts I mean. (personal communication, January 22,
2015)
The majority of participants who used testing accommodations reported having a positive
experience with the process. Bud and Aggie used testing accommodations as well, but they
reported some negative aspects of the system used by the DSS. Bud admitted some feelings of
embarrassment about taking tests in a private room. Bud said, “Oh there is a big stigma…
Sometimes telling people you’re on the program is kind of demeaning. But I don’t see any other
way around it” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Aggie, too, reported feeling
uncomfortable at times about her testing accommodation,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 76
When you use testing accommodations everyone will know, since you’re not in the room.
I think it would be good to inform students (with LD) that when you use testing
accommodations even though it’s confidential people find out. People get very confused.
It might bother other people. (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Although each participant in the study had unique needs, and although some experienced
feelings of shame about removing themselves from the classroom, testing accommodations were
a key to their academic success. This evidence implies that the use of testing accommodations as
well as accommodations in registration were found to be effective strategies in helping
postsecondary students with LD achieve their educational goals. This is a significant finding of
the study.
Coaching in Learning Strategies
Coaching in self-regulated learning strategies was theme mentioned by many of the
participants. Aspects of coaching that were mentioned most often by the students were the
following: coaching in time management strategies and training in goal setting skills. Time
management skills were the primary facet of the services Minnie and six of her fellow students
acquired at the DSS. Students worked individually with a counselor to create daily, weekly,
monthly, and semester-long plans. Minnie said,
I had a counselor who would work with me to make weekly schedules, daily, monthly - it
would help me see where the semester was going and how to keep track. And here from
7:00 a.m. to 12:00, what are you going to be doing? When do you have classes? It would
just help me when I felt overwhelmed. Hey, I’m having trouble, what can I do to make it
through the semester? (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Minnie experienced relief from stress when she was able to plan her days. She reported
feeling grateful when she could drop in to see her counselor at times when her schedule needed
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 77
to be readjusted. She also attended time management workshops with groups of students. A
result of focusing on time management for Minnie was that she chose to take classes half time
instead of full time. Without counseling in time management, Minnie may not have realized she
was overloaded when carrying a full schedule, and she may have failed to complete her
coursework. Similarly, Lucy worked with a counselor on time management skills to fit her
medical treatment schedule in with the demands of college life. Lucy said, “I like resources like
one-on-one advising. I see a counselor who helps me plan when to complete assignments, and
when to take tests” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). This assistance with time
management made it possible for Lucy to stay in school. Bud had returned to the university later
in life and took some time getting adjusted to new demands on his time. He recalled,
At first, I wasn’t putting in the time it takes to get ready for class, the studying and the
work involved. I pictured myself going to class, and I made time for that, but making
time to study wasn’t something I thought about on my own. I went to a counselor at the
DSS and she sat with me and spelled it all out. She asked me questions and she’d make
me write things on my calendar. When will you do that reading? When will you study
your notes? How long will that take? What about commuting? How much time do you
need to do a good job at this? (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Some students, like Aggie, did not need a coach to help in this area. Aggie reported, “I
attempted to engage in that (time management training) but a lot of those techniques I already
use so I didn’t benefit from that,” she said (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Lulu
disagreed with Aggie, Lulu juggled several part-time jobs while attending classes full-time at the
university. She said,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 78
I found myself being late for this, or forgetting I was supposed to do that. It kept
happening and I was getting into trouble ‘til one of the people at DSS sat me down and
put it all on paper. I still mess up, but I know I should write things down. (personal
communication, January 22, 2015)
Individual counseling in time management strategies can help students with LD succeed.
Students with LD benefit from coaching in strategies to set and achieve goals in their
academic careers. Ricky had a history of addiction, and he was able to overcome this obstacle by
setting and attaining short-term and long-term goals. When he entered the university, Ricky
sought out the help of the DSS and he worked with a counselor on goal setting as it related to
accomplishing tasks such as studying for tests, writing papers, and preparing presentations for
his classes. He said, “I know if I have somebody, like a sponsor, like a coach, who is expecting
me to get something done, I know that helps me to do it” (personal communication, January 22,
2015). Bud also benefitted from the use of a coach to help him set goals. Bud reported feeling
motivated by the idea of reaching a pre-set goal such as reading a chapter in a book, or
completing an assignment. His coach encouraged him to set new goals each day and each week,
and Bud found that he was able to successfully complete courses using this strategy. Bud stated.
“My coach made me do things one step at a time, even if it was a small step, when something got
done, he’d give me credit for doing it. I got used to feeling good about getting things done”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). Liza similar to Bud benefitted from coaching in
goal setting strategies as well. Before coming to the DSS, Liza would avoid classes she did not
like, and therefore, she was not able to complete all of her requirements. Liza was coached “to
set super small goals, like doing three Math problems...that way it got done, or at least some of it
got done, and I felt better because I wasn’t running away from it any more” (personal
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 79
communication, January 22, 2015). Callie mentioned that setting goals and achieving them had
always been her method when tackling schoolwork. She began to receive support at the age of
four for a severe learning disability, and her teachers coached her to set goals from the very
beginning. She said, “It took many years. They helped me. On my part, I was motivated. I’m a
motivated person. Tough times prompted me to speak up, be more assertive, if I have a goal to
learn how to achieve it” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). The input of the
participants in this study verifies goal setting as a strategy that can help students succeed in
postsecondary coursework. Most important is coaching in time management and goal-setting is a
strategy that helps students with disabilities persist in programs of higher education.
Communication: Successes and Failures
ABC State University is successful in advertising the services of the DSS office to
students who actively seek out information, but improvement is needed in dissemination of
information about DSS services to students throughout the university. Improvement is also
needed in two-way, continuous communication between the DSS and students who utilize their
services. This section will use information gathered from the university’s website, as well as data
from student interviews, to illustrate the successes and failures of communication systems at the
DSS.
The university is successful in providing extensive information on its website regarding
the various programs and services which are available to students with disabilities. The main
DSS page is organized in clearly labeled sections, which describe the DSS, the advising
program, autism services, the jobs program, deaf and hard of hearing services, and accessible
instructional materials resources. In addition, a program to support students with specific
learning disabilities is advertised. This program serves approximately 450 students each
semester. Ricky reported that he “found out about different colleges by looking at their
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 80
websites”, and that this university “looked like they had so many services I could use like
counseling, advisors, and help getting a job” (personal communication, January 22, 2015).
Locations, hours, and contact information for all DSS offices are posted on the website, and links
are available to more detailed information in each category. A highlight of the webpage is the
university’s program for special admission for people with disabilities. The special admission
process is a means by which applicants, who may not meet the admission requirements due to a
disability, but who are otherwise qualified, may request special consideration for admission.
Haley said, “other schools didn’t have a way to apply for a person with special needs that I could
see by the website”, and that “this made it easy to figure out how to get in” (personal
communication, January 22, 2015). Because of the opportunity for special admission and the
availability of support services, the university has graduated more than 3000 students with
disabilities.
Callie, who was diagnosed with a severe learning disability at age four, was among those
who chose this university because of the services offered by the DSS. Callie said,
I did community college for two years to get ready to come here to get my Bachelor’s. I
saw on the website that ABC State had all these disability services. My parents brought
me to visit and they were so nice in the (DSS) office. They understood me. (personal
communication, January 22, 2015)
Dissemination of information about DSS services is successful for students with diagnosed
disabilities who seek out information.
ABC State University advertises disability services on its website, so disabled students do
have access to pertinent information, but seven of the respondents in this study heard about the
DSS by chance. This is evidence of a failure to fully communicate DSS services to students
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 81
throughout the university. Nena, Ricky, Liza, Minnie, Lulu, Minerva and Aggie were not
diagnosed with learning disabilities until they experienced difficulty with college courses.
Chance encounters brought each of these participants to the DSS for disability assessment. For
example, Liza learned about the DSS when she was trained to give tours to new students at
orientation. She said,
I heard about the disability office when I worked for SOAR (Student Orientation and
Retention). I would take some kids aside and tell them about it if they asked and one day
I realized I should go talk to them (the DSS) about myself. (personal communication,
January 22, 2015)
Minnie first heard about the DSS while volunteering with a service organization. She
remembered,
Going to project Ocean - they have students helping students learn about different mental
illnesses - so I went to these workshops to learn and I realized, oh I kind of have this. I
went to the DSS and they recommended me for counseling. (personal communication,
January 22, 2015)
Minnie mused,
It would be important to publicize these resources that are available to people. Maybe
emails would be more direct or advertising at the dorms, it has to look fun. You have to
give someone candy to make it look attractive. Usually people see counseling/psych
services and they immediately walk the other way. (personal communication, January 22,
2015)
Aggie tried talking to professors and using a tutor before going to the DSS. She said, “I think it
would be good to inform students about this. People get very confused, they don’t know where to
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 82
get help” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Students like Liza, Minnie and Aggie did
not initially consider themselves disabled when they applied to the university. They heard about
the DSS by chance and recommended that services be better advertised to the general student
population.
To maintain an effective level of services, frequent and clear communication between the
student and the DSS personnel is necessary. Four participants reported that they felt welcome to
contact the DSS by email, phone, or to drop in without an appointment. For instance, Lucy said,
“At the DSS I talk to other students who are advisors if one of the directors is not available”
(personal communication, January 22, 2015). She appreciated the individual counseling she was
able to access at her convenience, and Bud appreciated the quick turn-around time whenever he
emailed the DSS with a question. He noted, “I can usually get an answer to an email in an hour
or two. They always answer the same day” (personal communication, January 22, 2015). Ricky
stated,
One thing I learned how to do is to ask for help when I need it. People [at the DSS] have
been there for me every time I need something, even if it’s something small. They help
me out with all the contracts and stuff. (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Lulu remembered attending another college before coming to ABC State where, “we
never had any of this, like free books. But here, the DSS referred me to the Rehab office and they
paid for my books. I couldn’t believe it, but I said, ‘I’ll take that!” (personal communication,
January 22, 2015). Lucy, Bud, Ricky and Lulu reported positive experiences communicating
with the staff at the DSS.
Failure to sustain two-way, continuous communication between the DSS and students
who utilize their services was noted by three study participants. For example, both Aggie and
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 83
Minerva said they needed support in moving beyond the Bachelor’s degree, but their needs were
not anticipated by anyone at the DSS. Aggie was unable to arrange for testing accommodations
while taking the Graduate Records Examination (GRE), and she wishes someone at the DSS had
helped her with this process. She reported,
I was hoping to get into a masters program, and I went to get the forms to get
accommodations for the GRE but I was unaware of how to fill out the forms so my form
was rejected. I wouldn’t know who to ask at the DSS for help with this. (personal
communication, January 22, 2015)
Minerva did not know how to present her disability to a professor at a prospective graduate
program, and needed counseling from the DSS to be more successful in future interviews. She
said,
I didn’t know how to talk about my disability in a way that’s confident and put together.
My disability doesn’t have a name so I don’t want to sound like I’m fudging it. That was
never offered. I had to go in and ask for that. If I’d had someone to practice the
conversation with, if all of that process could be looked at next. (personal
communication, January 22, 2015)
Evidence from student interviews revealed that implementation of support systems for
post-secondary students with LD is partially successful at ABC State University. Current
methods of communication succeed in reaching those students who seek out information, but
these methods are inadequate in reaching students throughout the university. In a few cases,
maintenance of services as students’ progress through programs is lacking in that the DSS has
not been proactive in anticipating the needs of students with LD as they transition to graduate
programs.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 84
The thematic group associated with this study developed a conceptual framework within
which the successes and failures of communication with the DSS can be illustrated. According to
this conceptual framework, stakeholders, funding, policies, staffing, and staff development at the
DSS are among the factors that contribute to the establishment of innovative strategies that meet
desired outcomes of students with disabilities. Leadership is a key factor in this framework, as an
effective leader serves to implement and sustain the systems and structures to accomplish the
goals of the organization. It is instructive to explore the conceptual framework to discover which
factor of the framework is responsible for the breakdown in implementation and maintenance of
services. The first factor, stakeholders at the DSS, includes the staff and the students who utilize
DSS services. The participants agreed that the availability of counselors in the DSS office helped
them succeed in classes and achieve their educational goals. Lucy commented on the availability
of counselors, “I would just swing by and whoever was there I would see” (personal
communication, January 22, 2015). Callie stated,
I believe that the DSS is great. It has helped students very well. At the center I see
people say, “Ok we’ll help you with writing.” I see they are readily available and they
have all the resources to help people. (personal communication, January 22, 2015)
Positive comments, like these, about the staff at the DSS were a common thread during the
interviews.
Participant’s comments about the staff at the DSS were overwhelmingly positive. The
second factor, funding, is essential. At no time during the participant interviews was there any
mention made of a lack of funding to implement services at the DSS. Funding is adequate to
maintain DSS services. The third factor deals with policies, which appear to be appropriate, as
evidenced by information on the website and the documents provided by the DSS. The fourth
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 85
factor, staff development of DSS personnel, was not within the scope of this research project.
Although staff members and their duties are pertinent to this work, the development of their
skills through training programs (staff development) was not under study. The remaining factor
in the conceptual framework is leadership. A review of the Referral Form used at the DSS
illustrates this point well. Various staff members operate within their individual areas of
expertise, for example disability assessment, provision of accommodations, assistive technology
services, and counseling. There is no mention on this document of a person in charge, a leader,
or administrator connected with the office. Participants in the interviews mentioned a variety of
service providers at the DSS, but no one director or leader was named. A leader, whose role
would be to fully implement and sustain services at the DSS, might augment dissemination of
information and communication between the DSS and students with disabilities.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to discover strategies that support postsecondary students
with LD in achieving their educational goals. This chapter described the participants as well as
the services offered by the DSS at ABC State University. Data from websites, documents, and
interviews was used to discern which types of support were in place, and which services were
most helpful. Assessment for disability status was found to be an important service of the DSS.
Accommodations in registration and in testing make it possible for many students to continue in
their programs of study. Coaching in time management and goal setting provide support that
many students with LD find essential to their success. Both successes and failures in
communication systems at the DSS had an impact on study participants. These are the four
overall findings of the study. Chapter five will discuss these findings in relation to current
literature on the various aspects of implementing systems and strategies to support postsecondary
students with LD.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 86
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Although four out of five secondary school students with disabilities consider
postsecondary education their primary post-high school goal (Cameto, Levine, &Wagner, 2004),
these students participate in and complete higher education at lower rates than their nondisabled
peers. In fact, data collected by Mamiseishvili and Koch (2010) indicate that 24% of freshmen
students with disabilities did not return for the second year of college. Students with a range of
learning disabilities (LD) are attending American colleges and universities in increasing numbers
(Henderson, 2011), and these students need support to access college-level curricula. By law,
disabled students have the right to such support. The Americans with Disabilities Act (2008)
states that Congress recognizes that physical and mental disabilities in no way diminish a
person’s right to fully participate in all aspects of society, but that people with physical or mental
disabilities are frequently precluded from doing so because of prejudice, antiquated attitudes, or
the failure to remove societal and institutional barriers. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires
that barriers to higher education be removed, and that efforts be made to help people with
disabilities gain equal access to our nation’s postsecondary institutions.
The provision of accommodations can help to increase accessibility of instructional
materials to the postsecondary student with LD. Many institutions of higher education provide
accommodations such as extra time on tests, note-takers, and the use of assistive technology. But
according to Brinkerhoff et al., (2002), this provision of reasonable and appropriate
accommodations may be necessary but not sufficient to achieve academic success. Many
students do receive accommodations, but these efforts have not been entirely successful, as
evidenced by the numbers of students who do not persist to graduation. This study focuses on
innovative strategies that have helped students with LD succeed in postsecondary educational
programs.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 87
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. What are the perceived systems and structures that support postsecondary students with
LD in achieving their educational goals?
2. How are these systems and structures implemented and sustained to support
postsecondary students with LD in achieving their educational goals?
3. How can innovative strategies help students with LD successfully complete their
programs of study at the university level?
This study applies Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) social ecological theory to the investigation
of innovative strategies to support students with LD at the postsecondary level by taking into
consideration the various systems that affect the student’s success in accessing higher education.
Bronfenbrenner suggests understanding human development means understanding the whole
ecological system in which humans grow. According to this framework, the student interacts
with the world simultaneously on various levels, the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
macrosystem. For example, a student’s microsystem might consist of the environment at home,
at school, or among the peer group. Bronfenbrenner describes the mesosystem as the interactions
between the systems that the individual spends the most time in. A student’s exosystem,
according to Social Ecological Theory, indirectly affects a student, although he may not spend
any time in that environment. In this case, legal structures pertaining to disability law could be
considered a student’s exosystem. A macrosystem encompasses all of the systems. Some
examples are culture, subculture or other social structure. Bronfenbrenner’s social ecological
theory is applicable to the study of innovative strategies to support students with LD in
postsecondary education.

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 88

Discussion of Findings
There were four findings, which emerged in response to the research questions. First,
assessments to establish disability status were helpful to students. Second, accommodations in
registration and testing were important to student success. Third, counseling in self-regulated
learning strategies such as time management and goal setting made a positive impact on these
students. Fourth, there is evidence from the websites, the documents, and from the interviews
that the university offers a spectrum of effective services to support students with learning
disabilities. DSS services were reported by students to be highly successful in helping them to
achieve their academic goals. Dissemination of information about programs and services at the
DSS is successful for those students who purposefully seek out details, but not as successful in
reaching the general student population, and there is a need for the DSS to become more
proactive in anticipating the needs of students with disabilities as they approach graduation and
prepare to transition to the next level of education. Here, each of these findings will be discussed.
The first finding concerns assessment for disability status. The university in this study
provides assessment to establish disability status. This service was vital to the success of several
of the participants. Otherwise qualified LD students, by laws including the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 cannot be excluded from participation
in higher education programs because of their disability. Upon request, students with properly
documented LD are entitled to support in accessing an educational program. The procedures that
must be followed in this process are described here.
At the postsecondary level, a student with LD must identify him- or herself and request
the support of the disability services personnel. According to the U.S. Department of Education,
(2011), the role of the disability coordinator is to evaluate documentation, work with students to
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 89
determine appropriate services, assist students in arranging services or testing modifications, and
deal with problems as they arise. Students with disabilities are expected to be responsible for
their own academic programs and progress in the same ways that nondisabled students are
responsible for them. This minimal level of support is a change for many LD students, who may
be accustomed to relying on parents, teachers, and special educators for guidance throughout the
elementary, middle, and high school years. The number of postsecondary students who choose
not to identify themselves, as LD is unknown but those who do step forward must comply with
the requirements of their institution in order to receive services.
Although specific documentation requirements may be different from one college to the
next, there are guidelines that must be followed. The U.S. Department of Education’s (2011)
report clarifies requirements for documentation must be reasonable and comply with two
disability laws. They are: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title II section 202
of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). A student with LD is expected to provide
documentation that he or she has a disability, that is, an impairment that substantially limits a
major life activity and that supports the need for an academic adjustment. The documentation
identifies how a student’s ability to function is limited as a result of her or his disability. The
purpose of the documentation is to establish a current disability in order to help the institution
work with the student to identify appropriate services or academic adjustments. Students with
LD should research various institutions and become familiar with their documentation
requirements and disability services when choosing a college or university. Students with
disabilities are expected to identify themselves when entering a postsecondary institution, and at
most institutions of higher learning; they must provide specific paperwork to prove their
eligibility for services. At the university under study, students may request assessments to
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 90
determine disability. Without these assessments, many of the participants in this study may not
have persisted in their postsecondary programs.
Since 7 out of 11 participants were not considered disabled until they encountered
difficulty in college, it might be argued that service providers at ABC State University tend to
assign disability status quite often. According to the National Center for Education Statistics,
eleven percent of U.S. undergraduates in both 2003–04 and 2007–08 reported having a disability.

Students with disabilities are those who reported that they had one or more of the following
conditions: a specific learning disability, a visual handicap, hard of hearing, deafness, a speech
disability, an orthopedic handicap, or health impairment (NCES, 2014). According to the DSS
website, ABC State University provides services to over 1,300 students each semester. Since the
undergraduate enrollment of the university is 25,815 students, roughly five percent of students
use the services of the DSS. This number is significantly lower than the number (11%) of
disabled postsecondary students nationwide. Therefore, the large proportion of newly identified
students with disabilities in this study sample does not indicate that ABC State University’s DSS
service providers tend to identify students as disabled at an inappropriate rate. An important
finding of this study was the university provides a higher level of service in identifying students
with disabilities than is required by law and that this innovative strategy helps students with LD
successfully complete their programs of study at the university level.
The second finding was that accommodations in registration and testing were helpful in
supporting students with LD at ABC State University. Preferred registration was especially vital
to study participants, since there has been a recent trend for local universities to offer fewer
courses in response to state budget cuts. According to an article in the Los Angeles Times
(2011), “It is a trend that has been building. In the 23-campus State system, estimated summer
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 91
enrollment fell to 12,000 in 2010 from 92,000 in 2008. Course offerings dropped from about
8,100 to 5,800 during the same period” (p. 1). As a result, many students are not able to register
for classes they need to complete their programs. For students with LD, an accommodation in the
registration process definitely contributes to success in reaching academic goals.
Testing accommodations, such as allowing the student with LD to take a test in a private
room or to have extra time to complete a test were important to participants. Such
accommodations are offered to students with a documented disability in many colleges and
universities in the United States. According to data collected by Raue and Lewis (2011), among
institutions that enrolled students with disabilities during the 2008–09 academic year, 93%
provided them additional exam time, for example. Public institutions are required to consider the
service that the student requests, but can chose to provide alternative aids or services if they are
effective. Accommodations are alterations in the way tasks are presented that allow students with
LD to complete the same assignments as other students. Postsecondary students with a
documented need have a right to accommodations. It is a finding of this study that the university
provided accommodations such as preferred registration and extended time for testing, and that
these services were sufficient to support the persistence of the participants in completing their
programs of study at the university level.
The third significant finding of the study was that coaching in self-regulated learning
strategies such as time management and goal setting were useful in supporting postsecondary
students with LD. Coaching in self-regulated learning strategies is a well-documented service
that proved to be of value to the students in this study. Postsecondary institutions offer a variety
of academic coaching services to their students. An example of an excellent coaching model
exists at Landmark College, where Karen Boutelle and her colleagues have developed a model
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 92
that offers support, structure, strategies, and guided practice to encourage students to understand
and value themselves as they learn to take action toward the realization of their goals (Parker, et.
al. 2005) . Goals may include improving their academic performance, deepening their learning,
and enhancing their quality of life on campus.
The primary self-regulated learning strategy used by the participants in this study was
time management. Time management coaching models vary from institution to institution, but
coaching is generally described as a program in which the student meets privately and regularly
with a trained educator for support in managing college courses. Some programs focus on
helping students improve executive functioning, and others stress self-regulated learning
strategies, but all coaching models share the goal of assisting the student in developing his or her
own toolkit of skills and strategies to succeed in the academic arena (Whitworth, Kimsey-House,
Kimsey-House, & Sandahl, 2007). According to Ramdass and Zimmerman (2011), self-
regulation skills, such as time management, setting goals, effort and persistence in completing
difficult tasks, and self-motivation are not only important to academic success, but are also key
components in the lives of professionals. It is a finding of this study that coaching in time
management was available to students with LD, and that participants reported that this
innovative strategy helped them successfully complete their programs of study at the
university level.
Coaching in goal setting is a strategy used by the participants in this study. As quoted in
Latham and Genegoda (2011), Goal-setting theory is among the most, if not the most, practical
theory for increasing performance (Latham & Pinder, 2005; Lee & Earley, 1992; Miner, 1984).
More than 1,000 laboratory and field studies have found empirical support for it (Mitchell &
Daniels, 2003). Latham and Genegoda (2011) explain,
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 93
A goal is an object or aim that an individual strives to attain (Locke & Latham, 1984).
Goal-setting theory (Latham & Locke, 2007; Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002) states that
goals are the immediate regulators of behavior. The theory was developed as a
framework for predicting, explaining, and influencing an individual’s motivation in the
workplace. The theory states that: (1) a specific high goal leads to higher performance
than an easy goal, no goal or a vague goal such as “do your best”; (2) given goal
commitment, the higher the goal, the higher the performance; and (3) variables such as
feedback or knowledge of results, participation in decision-making, competition, and
incentives only affect an employee’s performance to the extent that they lead to the
setting of and commitment to a specific high goal. (p. 579)
Parker’s (2009) research suggests that coaching in goal setting skills may play a significant role
in the academic success and emotional wellbeing of college students. Students with LD may lack
these skills, since many students with LD also experience executive function deficits (Katz,
1998). Wedlake (2002) described executive functions as the cognitive skills such as working
memory, verbal learning, complex problem solving, sustained attention, and response inhibition
needed to engage in self-regulated behavior. Executive function impairments can give rise to a
variety of functional limitations for postsecondary students, including difficulty developing
realistic plans, activating and sustaining effort across time, remembering goals, and regulating
intense emotional reactions to daily frustrations (Parker & Benedict, 2002; Quinn & McCormick,
1998). As students transition to postsecondary environments that provide less structure and place
greater demands on their capacity to organize goal-directed behavior, many individuals with LD
encounter an increased need for support services. Due to executive function challenges, it is not
surprising that college students with LD experience lower retention rates and diminished
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 94
educational and occupational attainment compared to peers without disabilities (Murphy,
Barkley, & Bush, 2002; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine, 2005). It is a finding of
this study that coaching in goal setting skills helps students with LD successfully complete their
programs of study at the university level.
The fourth significant finding of this study was that the university offers a spectrum of
effective services. These services are described on the DSS website, as well as on documents
available at the DSS such as the Referral Form and the Technology Screening Form. Evidence
gained through interviews confirms that these services are appropriate to meet the students’
needs, as demonstrated by their continued participation in and success with postsecondary
programs.
The rights of students with disabilities at the postsecondary level are regulated by a
number of federal laws. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act
guard postsecondary students with LD from discrimination and exclusion based on disability.
The university in this study can demonstrate provision of services and supports to help students
with LD gain access to postsecondary curricula, which places the university in compliance with
federal law. Having systems and structures in place to deliver mandated services is the first step
in creating a program in which all students can succeed. In terms of Bronfenbrenner’s Social
Ecological Theory, the environment at school can be described as a student’s microsystem.
When a student participates in a service provided by the DSS, her microsystem has been
strengthened, which is conducive to growth, and learning is a type of growth. The finding that
the university is effective in providing services and supports to help students with LD gain
access to college-level curricula is important because it is the law that they do so. Even more
importantly, these services build the student’s potential for real learning. The law mandates that
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 95
students with LD have access to systems and structures that support them in achieving their
educational goals and this study suggests that those systems and structures are in place.
The final finding was that dissemination of information about programs and services at
the DSS is successful for those students who purposefully seek out details. Students with
documented disabilities report being able to find the accommodations, counseling, and assistive
technology they need by presenting themselves at the DSS office. Bronfenbrenner uses the term
mesosystem to describe the interaction between the systems that the individual spends the most
time in, such as the university as a whole and the DSS office in particular. The current study
found a dynamic mesosystem in place, which is successful in helping these students find
services. An area of improvement may be for the DSS to make its services better known to the
general student population. Several participants reported hearing about DSS services by chance.
These students presented themselves to the DSS and were diagnosed with a learning disability
after encountering difficulty with college coursework. A more effective method of advertising
DSS services throughout the university may be a benefit to future students.
Despite many positive comments, some study participants felt the DSS might have been
more proactive in anticipating their needs. These were students nearing the end of an
undergraduate program who needed support in the graduate school application process. The final
finding of the study was that, with a few exceptions, information about DSS programs and
services was accessible to postgraduate students with disabilities.
In exploring the systems and structures that exist at the university through the lens of the
thematic group’s conceptual framework, it was observed that a leader whose role would be to
fully implement and sustain services at the DSS might augment dissemination of information and
communication between the DSS and students with disabilities. According to Murphy et al.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 96
(2011), leadership involves purpose; it helps organizations and the people affiliated with them
move toward reaching desired goals, and leadership involves influence; it requires interactions
and relationships among people. The lack of one person to direct the various offices and centers
that make up the DSS might account for gaps in services, for example to students with LD as
they near graduation. Existing literature calls for strong leadership in educational organizations,
but the lack of a strong leader in the DSS at this university may explain why some systems and
structures were not fully implemented and sustained, and failed to support some postsecondary
students with LD in achieving their educational goals.
Limitations of the study include the relatively small sample size of eleven interviewees.
Their perspectives may not fully represent those of students with LD throughout the university or
in other settings. Interviews of counselors and DSS providers would be useful in gathering
additional points of view on the issues covered in this study. A comparison of programs at
various universities would offer a broader perspective on systems and strategies in place to
support postsecondary students in various institutions of higher learning.
Implications for Practice
The current research conveys the importance of assessment services, accommodations,
and coaching in self-regulated learning strategies for postsecondary students with LD. There are
two recommendations for practice to improve delivery of these services to students at
universities outside the ABC State system. First on-demand disability assessment is needed.
Second, there is a need for coaching in Self-Regulated Learning strategies.
The first recommendation is to adopt and follow a policy like the one in place at ABC
State, which allows students to come to the DSS for disability assessment. This recommendation
is made as a result of the first significant finding of this study, that assessment for the existence
of a disability was an effective strategy to support students with LD in postsecondary education.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 97
As shown in this study, there were a significant number of people who were unaware of their
own existing learning disabilities when they enrolled in college. If systems and structures were in
place to assess these students, it is likely that more of them would become aware of an existing
disability, and receive the services to which they are entitled by law. Students like these would
more likely persist in their educational programs.
The second recommendation of this study is that structured coaching programs be
implemented to help students with LD gain Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) strategies. The
study's third finding revealed the effectiveness of time management and goal setting strategies
for postsecondary students with LD. A comprehensive program in the spectrum of SRL skills
would increase each student's ability to understand and control his or her learning environment.
Such skills included goal setting as well as self-monitoring, self-instruction, and self-
reinforcement. Initial efforts to gain SRL skills must be refined based on student's feedback,
performance, and personal reflection. Since it takes time and practice to gain effective habits,
coaching programs, which provide students with consistent, long-term, individualized support,
would be most effective. Postsecondary students who are offered assessment for disability and
coaching in SRL strategies have a better chance of reaching their educational goals. It is the
recommendation of this study that all postsecondary institutions provide these valuable services.
Future Research
This study focused on the systems and structures in place to support students with
disabilities at one public university in the Southwest United States. The findings were based
mainly on interviews with eleven participants who described their experiences working with one
DSS office. A significant finding was that disability service providers at ABC State University
offered assessment for disability to students who struggled with college-level coursework, but
who had not previously been diagnosed with LD. Assessment for disability proved to be the key
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 98
factor in the success of many of the study participants, since they were able to access support
services and accommodations after diagnosis.
Future research should explore the prevalence of this service at a variety of public and
private universities throughout the country. To facilitate such a study, a survey could be written
and distributed to a broad spectrum of postsecondary DSS service providers. Survey data could
be collected and analyzed to discern how widely and how frequently assessment for disability is
offered. The results of such research may lead more DSS service providers to adopt the policy of
offering assessment for disability to their students and consequently, increase student persistence
and success in postsecondary programs.
Conclusion
This study has highlighted areas of success in delivery of services to help postsecondary
students with LD reach their educational goals. There are systems and structures in place at the
university to effectively provide support for these students, and implementation and maintenance
of these systems is an important endeavor. Leadership in this field is needed. The work being
done by DSS a service provider is of value not only to the students they serve, but to the society
as a whole since educated people make positive contributions to the world around them.
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 99
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Appendix
Interview Protocol for Students
Please tell me about your experience transitioning from high school to college.
 Did you have an I.E.P. when you were in high school?
 What accommodations/services were you used to having there?
 Did anyone from the high school or the university help you with the transition?
Talk about the identification process.
 Did anyone help you to gather and process your paperwork?
 How can this process be made easier for new students?
What about accommodations like having extra time on tests, or getting class notes?
 Did you know from the beginning of your first year what accommodations were available
and how to get them?
 How did that process go for you?
Did you attend workshops at the disability center?
 Were there any that were especially helpful to you, or any that were not?
Did you use the coaching service?
 Please tell me everything you can about the strategies your coach worked on with you
and how you used them.
What about the professors and the courses?
 Did you identify yourself as LD to all, some, or none of the instructors?
 Why or why not?
 If you did identify yourself, did your professor make an effort to serve your needs?
 Was there anybody you could go to for help communicating with professors?
INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 108
 Did they seem to use a variety of methods in their teaching, and give you choices about
how to learn the material?
What advice do you have for other students with LD?
What suggestions do you have for the staff at the disability center?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine innovative strategies to support students with learning disabilities (LD) in postsecondary education. It explored the perceived systems and structures that support postsecondary students with LD in achieving their educational goals, and sought to determine how these systems and structures were implemented and sustained. In addition, innovative strategies that helped students with LD successfully complete their programs of study at the university level were investigated. Data collection methods included document analysis and interviews of postsecondary students with LD at one university. Findings of this study included the verification that systems and structures to support students with LD do exist, and that implementation of and maintenance of these systems was partially successful. Innovative strategies found to be most helpful to students with LD were assessment for disability status, accommodations in registration and testing, and coaching in time management and goal setting skills, as well as counseling in stress reduction techniques. Conclusive evidence was found to show that support services provided at the university level are instrumental in helping students with LD achieve their educational goals.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Herrera, Mary C. (author)

Core Title Innovative strategies to accommodate postsecondary students with learning disabilities

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/17/2015

Defense Date 07/16/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag assessment for disability,coaching in self-regulated learning strategies,learning disabilities,OAI-PMH Harvest,post-secondary,preferred registration,stress reduction counseling

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee chair), Fischer, Linda A. (committee member), Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee member)

Creator Email mcherrer@usc.edu,mrs.maryherrera@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-598939

Unique identifier UC11300152

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Legacy Identifier etd-HerreraMar-3638-0.pdf

Dmrecord 598939

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Herrera, Mary C.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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