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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Higher education reforms in Belarus: Initial goals and results in the context of globalization and internationalization of higher education
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Higher education reforms in Belarus: Initial goals and results in the context of globalization and internationalization of higher education
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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UM I a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these w ill be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note w ill indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M l 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HIGHER EDUCATION REFORMS IN BELARUS: INITIAL GOALS AND RESULTS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION by Andrei Vyacheslavovich Zaitsev A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE (EDUCATION) March 2002 Copyright 2002 Andrei Zaitsev Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1411817 __ ___ __® UMI UMI Microform 1411817 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL. UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. C A LIFO R N IA # 0 0 0 7 This thesis, written by Av/Dfce l V. 2.AIT&EV under the direction of hi.% Thesis Com m ittee, and approved by all its mem bers, has been pre - seated to and accepted by the Dean of The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements fo r the degree of M aster, o p £>ae»uct Eput<vv«p»J THESIS COMMI ✓ V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ iii LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM................................................................ 1 II. HIGHER EDUCATION IN BELARUS: BACKGROUND INFORMATION........................................................................ 6 m . HIGHER EDUCATION REFORMS IN BELARUS: GOALS AND RESULTS.......................................................................................20 IV. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR BELARUS......................................................38 V. GLOBALIZATION CHALLENGES: STATE AND NON-STATE SECTORS’ RESPONSES TO MARGINALIZATION............................................................52 VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................. 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................71 APPENDIXES...............................................................................................................79 ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Page TABLE 1. Number of students, teaching staff and population (academic year 2000-2001)..............................................................................57 2. Number of institutions (academic year 2000-2001).......................................58 3. Number of students per 100,000 inhabitants (academic year 2000-2001)..............................................................................58 4. Ratio student/teaching staff (academic year 2000-2001).............................. 59 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES Page FIGURE 1. The Education System in Belarus..................................................................... 7 2. Globalization, Privatization and Marginalization in Belarussian Higher Education: Public vs. Private............................................................................54 3. Belarusian Higher Education Institutions: Number Dynamics (Academic Year 1990-2001)........................................... 60 4. Belarusian Higher Education Institutions: Student Body Dynamics (Academic Year 1990-2001)..................................60 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Andrei V. Zaitsev Rideout Jr., William M. ABSTRACT HIGHER EDUCATION REFORMS IN BELARUS: INITIAL GOALS AND RESULTS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION The thesis focuses on higher education as one of the major driving forces of socio-economic transformation of a newly independent state of Belarus. The research offers an overview of the structure and major features of the Belarusian system of higher education. An attempt is made to critically evaluate higher education reforms in the nineties: original progressive initiatives and later regressive trends. The relevant global factors contributing to the transformation of higher education in the transition countries of Commonwealth of Independent States are identified and discussed. Belarusian state and emerging non-state higher education sectors’ responses to globalization challenges are specified and analyzed. Suggestions on measures to fit the Belarusian higher education into the mainstream of international higher educational development are made. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM The world is living through very challenging and oftentimes dramatic changes, which have also greatly affected the sphere of education. With the fall of the Berlin Wall, the end of the cold war and especially with the collapse of the Soviet Empire there were great hopes and great expectations. It seemed that in just a couple of years the countries of the former Soviet Union would turn into the "beacons" of progress and democracy. Life proved to be different. We had underestimated the power of the simplistic vision of the world in terms of binary oppositions, the force of inertia, resistance to change and the specific sensitivity of education to social, political and ideological shifts. It is about time to draw some preliminary conclusions and see what should and can be done for Belarusian education to fit in the international educational framework. All over the globe universities find themselves operating in an increasingly internationalizing and globalizing environment. Of course, this is not an entirely new reality, since universities define themselves as the heirs and safeguards of universalistic traditions in the history of mankind. From the wandering scholars of late-medieval times - which, anyway, was not a Western monopoly, over the universalistic pretensions of empires and world religions and the emergence of 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. modem sciences, to the contemporary emergence of a mass higher education system and the making of a global virtual culture, universities have been related to social and cultural movements which have the ambition in common not to confine themselves to particular spatial boundaries. One could argue that precisely in this universalistic drive, which they all over the world have tried to preserve even in the darkest of times, universities have contributed most to human civilizations. In fact, the main global factors contributing to the transformation of higher education can be summarily labeled “globalization.” They can be put under three separate categories: first, the collapse of the crucial role of the nation-state in current social and economic development, with its vision of higher education as a national treasure contributing to national consciousness; second, the reformulation of the functions of the welfare-state, including a new scope of public sector activities to be funded by the state; and third, the invasion of the economic rationality in the whole public sector worldwide. Higher education in Belarus between 1918 and 1991 was an integral part of what is now known as the "Soviet system of higher education." This term refers to a phenomenon with its own history, philosophy, and ideology of development, it also refers to a widespread network of different institutions created in response to the needs in all spheres of social, economic, political and cultural life of the Soviet society during that time period. The U.S.S.R. no longer exists - the rigid Soviet centralized planned economy has almost gone, the Communist one-party political 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. system is over, and Belarus higher education is therefore in a period of transformation. In fact, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, an independent Belarus embarked on the search for a new identity. Initially adopting a market-oriented economy, it looked both to Western Europe and North America. From the beginning of the 90s Belarusian higher education started veering away, at least in form, from its Soviet creed. Ten years since the restructuring began, questions may be asked about how much the fundamentals of Belarus higher education have in reality shifted. It is about time to draw some preliminary conclusions and see what should and can be done for Belarusian education to fit into the international educational framework. I think that my Master Thesis could be a modest contribution to such an attempt to evaluate the current state and the potential for further developments in the Belarusian system of education (higher education, in particular). I also believe that my Master Thesis research logically and naturally evolves from my current professional and academic interests as well as the practical needs of my home country - Belarus. Moreover, this research is in the spirit of the Edmund S. Muskie/Freedom Support Act Graduate Fellowship Program, which was established by the U.S. Congress in 1991 “to encourage economic and democratic growth in the Newly Independent and Baltic States of the former Soviet Union.” There are two more reasons for my choosing this research topic. When I was back home during my Christmas break, I had some informal meetings with the 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. faculty at the School of History Graduate Program, Belarus State Pedagogical University. I am going to resume my graduate program at that school upon my return home. As a matter of fact, my former faculty got very interested in my current graduate program at USC and suggested that I should fully use this unique opportunity to research issues relevant to International Higher Education as compared to the current developments in Higher Education in Belarus. Besides, I made an appointment and met with an official at the Ministry of Education to End out if my graduate program at USC might be of any interest to them. He, indeed, seemed rather interested and also suggested that I should research western experiences in the field of higher education. Of no less importance is the fact that most the courses I have studied so far at USC (International Higher Education: Administration and Planning, International Higher Education in Postindustrial Societies, Advanced Development Education, International Education, Non-Formal Education in Developing Areas etc.), are directly relevant to the issues under consideration and the experiences I have gained while studying them have definitely helped me to do this research. Research tools utilized include interviews; analysis of information contained in relevant decrees of the Belarusian president, the Council of Ministers, and the Collegium of the Ministry of Education of Belarus; and relevant research papers in the Held both Belarusian and international. 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The major results of the research were presented at the CIES annual meeting ‘The Social Construction of Marginality: Globalization's Impact on the Disenfranchised” (Orlando, FL, 2002, March) in the frame work of the panel discussion “Privatization and Marginalization in Higher Education in Three Societies in Asia, Europe and North America.” The study is organized into five parts. Part II offers an overview of the current structure of the Belarusian national system of higher education and its major features. Part m presents an attempt to critically evaluate the major developments in Belarusian higher education reforms in the nineties. Part IV describes the relevant factors contributing to the transformation of higher education in transition countries like Belarus, which find themselves operating in an increasingly internationalizing and globalizing environment. Belarusian state and emerging non-state higher education sectors’ responses to globalization challenges are specified and analyzed in Part V. Finally, Part VI outlines conclusions and suggestions on measures to address the problems facing the Belarusian higher education and to fit it into the mainstream of international higher educational development. Appendixes provide a number of essential graphs, tables and a case study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II HIGHER EDUCATION IN BELARUS: BACKGROUND INFORMATION Belarus is an Eastern European country, a part of the former Soviet Union, which covers an area of more than 208,000 sq. km. (slightly smaller than Kansas). Population of the country is 10.3 million people. The capital of Belarus - Minsk - has 1.7 million residents. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster of 1986 had a major impact on Belarus. The winds caused about 70% of the radioactive fallout from Chemobyl to fall on Belarus. The radiation contaminated the republic’ s food and water supplies and caused many health problems, especially for children, including increased cancer deaths (thyroid cancer in particular). Near universal literacy was achieved in Belarus by the 1950s and in 1989 it was 97% of adult population. Eleven-year primary and secondary education is free and compulsory; higher public education is free, and entrance is by examination. Most Belarusians finish high school, and about 30% receive higher education as Belarus has 43 state and 14 non-state university level educational institutions. As a matter of fact, Belarus remains the most educated country of all former Soviet Republics (Dorling Kindersley: World Desk Reference, 2002) (See Figure 1). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 1. The Education System In Belarus. 100% B Primary B Secondary □ Tertiary % of each age group in education (99%, 328746 students) Belarusian students rank among the first at the international academic competitions. High quality of academic achievements particularly in science was stated by a special research carried out by UNESCO in 1991 and confirmed by the UNESCO executives during their research visit to Belarus in 1998. On the other hand, relative to many other countries in the Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe, the situation of Belarus is unique. It has a highly educated and skilled work force, and yet more than one-half of its people are living below the official poverty line, and the average monthly wage is barely enough to cover the cost of the bare necessities. Belarus has twice as many doctors per 100,000 people as the United Kingdom and Ireland, and l.S times more doctors than Denmark. And yet the 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. proportion of people not expected to survive to age 60 is 2.5 times as high as in Denmark and nearly three times as high as in Ireland and the United Kingdom. There are 1.4 times more women than men with higher education. And yet women form the absolute majority of workers in the lowest paid professions and represent two-thirds of the country’ s unemployed. The recent demographic tendency is the continuous decrease of the birth-rate which is due to the economic crises the country has been in since the middle of the 80s, and since 1985 the birth-rate has dropped by 35%. Some 52% of Belarus families living with children have only one child, 40% - two children, 6% - three children and 2% - four and more children. Some 12% of these families have a single parent. Belarus has the highest number of telephone lines per 1000 population in the CIS, but its Internet connectivity rate is one of the lowest in the region (twelve times lower than in Russia, five times lower than in Ukraine, and 66 times lower than in Lithuania). These are just a few examples that illustrate the nature of the Belarusian dilemma - a rich resource of human capital that has yet to translate into high popular living standards. According to the constitution the government provides free education from preschool through postgraduate levels for Belarusian citizens. State and all private institutions provide tuition-based education as well. 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Belarusian educational system remains highly centralized. State management of the system of education (secondary and higher) is carried out by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus. The main objectives of the Ministry of Education are (A concept of higher education development in the Republic of Belarus, 1996): • to develop and carry out state policy, to exercise state control in the sphere of education; • to ensure all activities in developing the national system of education in the Republic of Belarus. Secondary education in Belarus lasts for 11 years and includes Primary education (4 years) and Base education (9 years, including the first 4 years of primary education). Base education is compulsory and free (though there are tuition-based schools). After the 9-year base education students may decide to leave the school and go to work, obtain secondary vocational education or stay in school for a further two years to get a complete secondary education. After completing secondary education young people can continue their education in numerous Belarusian institutes and universities. To obtain free education at state institutions a person has to successfully pass required entrance exams. There are a strict number of vacancies for free education and normally there is a strong competition to fill them. Those not successful at exams but complying 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. with minimum requirements may decide to pay for their education or try passing exams the next year. The higher education is divided into two stages. The first one (4-5 years) leads to a degree of bachelor, the second one (additional 1-2 years) leads to the master’s degree. At present, there are 44 state higher education institutions including 9 academies, 7 classical and 18 specialized universities, 4 institutes, 5 higher colleges and 1 higher technical school (A Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus, 1996). There are also 14 private (non-state, to be more exact) higher institutions. A partial reform of the higher education system began in 1991-93. The first stage saw the introduction of a multistage system of education. During the second stage the new provision base was stipulated. It is planned that the third stage will provide universities with greater autonomy and academic freedom. Languages of instruction are Russian and (to a limited degree) Belarusian. Institutions of higher learning in the Republic of Belarus fall into 4 types: a) university; b) specialized university, academy; c) institute; d) higher college. 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. University: • carries out fundamental research in a wide range of natural sciences, humanities and other sciences, technical sciences, culture; • trains specialists at all levels of higher education in a wide range of fields of study, mainly for research; • is the center for promoting and developing education, science and culture. Specialized university, academy: • carries out applied and fundamental research, mainly in one branch of science, engineering or culture; • trains specialists at all levels, as a rule, in one field of study (for instance, technical, agricultural or military); • is a scientific and methodological center in the sphere of its activities. Institute: • trains specialists, as a rule, at the first level of higher education in a number of specialties of one Held of study; • carries out research in a particular area of science, engineering, culture. Higher college: • trains specialists at the first level of one or several specialties. 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. University level studies consist of three stages: First stage (undergraduate): The Higher Education Diploma (Diplom o Vyshem Obrazovanii) is awarded after four to five years. It should not be confused with the Diploma of Specialist. Simultaneously with the Diploma of Higher Education, it is possible to obtain the diploma of Bakalavr (Bachelor). It is granted to students who obtain marks of 4 and 5. They must follow 300 additional hours of instruction that are given simultaneously with the basic course that entitles one to a university diploma. Hence, the period of training (4-5 years) remains the same. The Bakalavr curriculum includes fundamental scientific subjects, psychology and pedagogical subjects and a foreign language. Applicants must sit for the Bakalavr examination. The academic degree of Bakalavr specifies the specialty and is granted by the State examining Board and is certified by a Bakalavr Diploma. Second stage (graduate): Holders of the Bakalavr’ s degree or those who have passed the Bakalavr training course examinations can follow a Master curriculum. One- to two- year advanced study programs lead to the Master’ s Degree. The course comprises study in the chosen specialty in accordance with an individual curriculum, research on the theme of the magistr’ s thesis and a public presentation of the latter. On completing the curriculum, students are awarded the academic degree of Magistr, specifying a given specialty (Magistr of economic sciences, Magistr of technical sciences, etc.), which is certified by the Diploma of Magistr. 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Third stage (graduate): Aspirantura and Doktorantura, which aims at training research scientific (research) and pedagogical staff (faculty). There is a two- level system of scientific degrees. The first is that of Candidate of Sciences. It requires at least 3 years of study in postgraduate courses, special examinations and the public defense of a thesis. Following this, the student is awarded the degree of Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences). The second level is that of Doctor of Sciences. Holders of the Kandidat Nauk can prepare a Doctorate. After following the required research program, candidates are awarded the highest scientific degree of Doktor Nauk (Doctor of Sciences). The dissertation is also defended in public. The Dissertation Councils are supervised by the State Supreme Certifying Committee (Vysshij Attestatsionnyj Komitet, VAK) of the Republic of Belarus. It is possible to do doctoral research and sit for a scientific degree while not following postgraduate courses. Higher education and research establishments support such persons and provide them with a supervisor. Teacher education: Primary school teachers are trained at specialized secondary institutions (teacher-training schools and teacher-training colleges) where courses last for 3-4 years, and at the faculties of Pedagogy and Methods of Primary Education of pedagogical universities or institutes, where studies last for 4 to 5 years. Secondary school teachers are trained at specialized secondary education institutions and pedagogical universities and institutes. General secondary education or specialized secondary education is required for admission to universities or 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. institutes. The qualification awarded is teacher o f ... (for example, teacher of Mathematics and Physics or teacher of Chemistry). Teachers for vocational secondary schools are trained in higher education pedagogical institutions, universities and in some technical higher education institutions where engineers- teachers are trained. Higher education lecturers are trained in their specialities in institutes or universities and, after graduation, start their careers as assistant lecturers in order to gain practical experience in their areas of expertise. Every five years, they must enrol in up-grading courses to improve their teaching skills as well as their knowledge in the field. Furthermore, there is a system for training of scientific and pedagogical staff at post-graduate level. Distance higher education: Distance training is provided by virtual universities (through Internet), such as Hagen Correspondence University, which provides studies leading to a Master of Humanities, and started operating in Belarus in 1996. Admission requires that students hold a secondary school leaving certificate. There is no age restriction and no entrance examination. There are also a few franchising institutions, which are branches of foreign higher education institutions functioning in Belarus. Access and Admission to Higher Education: The main pre-requisite for higher education is secondary education (basic secondary education or secondary 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. specialized education). Admission to higher educational establishments is by competitive examinations. Individuals who have a secondary education and who are permanent residents of Belarus, Belarusians living outside of Belarus and citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to be admitted and get a free education in the higher educational institutions of Belarus, if provided higher education is received for the first time. Every higher educational establishment has a certain number of reserved and financially supported by the state budget vacancies. The entrants are admitted to fill these vacancies in accordance with the required number of points gained at the entrance examinations. Institutions of higher learning can enroll students above the admission quota on the basis of contracts, which provide for tuition fees to be paid. The number of additional students (on the paid basis) is determined by the institution of higher education itself. The entrance examinations for higher educational institutions correspond to the curricula made up and recommended by the Ministry of Education. The curricula for entrance examinations include the following subjects: the Belarusian language and Literature, the Russian language and Literature, Foreign Language (English, French, German, Spanish), History of Belarus, Modem World History, Man and 15 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Society (social studies), Geography, Physics, Information Science, Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology, Drawing and Music. The Ministry of Education elaborates and approves the Rules of Admission to the state higher educational establishments. Proceeding from such Rules, three months before the beginning of admission process, higher educational institutions work out rules of admission of their own. The entrants have the right to take their entrance examinations either in the Belarusian or Russian languages. Training of Foreign Students: Training of foreign students at the educational establishments of Belarus has been carried out since 1960. In the course of 40 years about 20 thousand specialists having a higher or secondary specialized education have been trained, including 3 Doctors of Sciences and over 40 Candidates of Sciences. Belarusian educational institutions have close relations and agreements with educational institutions from 36 nations. There are more than 3000 international students in Belarus. Higher educational institutions of the Republic admit foreign students, irrespective of their race, nationality, sex, language and religious affiliations. Foreign citizens who stay for a period of training in the Republic of Belarus enjoy the same rights and freedoms and have the same status as citizens of the Republic. Higher educational establishments admit without age restrictions foreign students having an education at the level of general secondary school of Belarus. 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Graduate programs of institutions of higher learning and research institutes admit Foreigners having a higher education at the level of Bachelor of Arts or Sciences. Instruction is carried out in accordance with the curricula adopted by the institutions of higher education. On successful completion of the course of study foreign graduates are awarded respective diplomas (certificates). All higher educational establishments run preparatory programs where foreign students get a one-year course of study of the Russian language and sufficient training in the subjects indispensable for further training in the chosen major. Belarus is popular among international students (especially those from the Former Soviet republics) for a number of reasons: • The quality of education is comparatively high; • Tuition fees at Belarus institutions are lower than those in Russia; • The language of instruction is Russian, which is widely understood within the former Republics of the Soviet Union; • Many claim that Belarus is far safer than Russia. Unfortunately, the present system of higher education in Belarus is not yet compatible with the Western credit system. As a result, students who go to study outside of CIS do not receive official recognition for the courses they took in other countries. 17 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. At present the student body is comprised of about 280 thousand students - 277 students per 10 thousand inhabitants of Belarus (this rate is lower than the average in Europe). About 50% of these students are attending programs in economics and the humanities, while interest in technical and science education has waned in recent years. All students are required to complete three years of foreign language study. However many fields offered at state universities - international relations, international economic relations, international law, etc. - require proficiency in two foreign languages. Some private schools also require the same. There are also 2,022 Ph.D. students (those enrolled in so-called "aspirantura" programs) and 119 D.Sci. or second doctorate students ("doctorantura" programs). State-run universities are financed mostly by the state budget (80%) and partly by ministries, enterprises and other organizations (20%). Theoretically, the state is supposed to provide free higher education for students, yet in 1995-96, over 36% of all students enrolled in state-run universities paid for their education on their own (A Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus, 1998, pp. 55-56). At present about 60% do so (Alpeev, 2001). The Ministry of Education has developed a master list of curricula consisting of two hundred general disciplines and over one thousand detailed specializations. The new structure includes 25-35% of human sciences and social and economic sciences, 35-45% of disciplines in the general science and general vocational education, 25-35% of special disciplines, and 10-15% of specializations. In 1998, 18 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a Concept of Standardization was adopted concerning terminology, contents of education and specialized training at different levels. The state’s control over the quality of education is implemented by the State Inspection of Educational Institutions affiliated with the Ministry of Education (Higher Education in Belarus: Brief Guide, 1998). The State Inspection attests and accredits educational institutions and ensures compliance of their activities with the requirements of the law "On Education in the Republic of Belarus." Through attestation, the state analyzes the efficiency of all educational institutions in preparing their graduates to the level of state educational standards. Accredited institutions are permitted to grant higher diplomas, the criteria for and content of which are established by state standards. 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER in HIGHER EDUCATION REFORMS IN BELARUS: GOALS AND RESULTS The higher education system in Belarus has been in a sluggish state of permanent change since 1991. In the last three or four years, the goals of reform have drifted from those initiated soon after the collapse of the U.S.S.R. in 1991 to the subsequent political and economic changes in Belarus. The main goals of reform at that time were to overcome the shortages of the Soviet system and to bring Belarusian higher education in line with international, and primarily western, standards. The Soviet system inherited by Belarus was developed for a completely different social, political and economic system, and it displayed serious drawbacks in the new environment. After declaring its independence in 1991, Belarus had to initiate steps to adjust its educational system to reflect new realities. The issue of the goals of higher education reform were discussed broadly in both academia and society, and the main points were summarized, for example, by V. A. Gaisenok, the Minister of Education of Belarus at that time. In his opinion, higher education reform should focus on solving the urgent problems stated below (Gaisenok, 1996): • strictly institutionalized system of organization, management and distribution of resources; centralization of supervision; virtual absence of any academic freedom or autonomy of universities; 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • uneven distribution of higher education institutions among the regions of the republic (most universities were situated in the capital); • strict planning of enrollment promoting hyper developed engineering programs in comparison to liberal arts education; • absence of educational standards, quality evaluation and accreditation systems; lack of public involvement in the process of their development and assessment; • lack of international recognition of academic degrees; • politicization of and lack of diversity and flexibility in curricula; • poor quality of programs in foreign languages, contemporary philosophy, history, political science and law; • inadequate content of social science curricula in comparison to those of Western universities; • poor pedagogical methods: domination of passive explanative and illustrative methods of teaching over interactive teaching methods, emphasis on lectures rather than independent study; insufficient training of faculty; • outdated means of access to information (including the library system), insufficient knowledge of up-to-date information technology, poor computer literacy of students and faculty; • isolation from the international academic community, absence of domestic and international academic exchanges and mobility of students and faculty; 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • gap between education and research, lack of university-sponsored research by faculty; • lack of leadership skills of education administrators and absence of in-service training in this field. The Belarusian authorities believed that if unsettled, the problems stated above would cause a number of negative consequences for the intellectual potential of Belarusian society in within five to ten years (A Concept of Higher Education development in the Republic of Belarus, 1998, pp. 55-56). Thus, the reform of the higher education system initially was aimed at overcoming these deficiencies. Some practical steps were taken in this direction; for example, a new Law on Education was adopted in 1991, and the average salary of university professors increased and even exceeded (for the first time in Soviet and post Soviet history) the average salary of factory workers. Unfortunately, in the last three to four years, due to the anti-Western stance of the Belarusian state authorities, the officially proclaimed goals and principles of reforming the higher education system have drifted significantly from those stated between 1991 and 1994. Of course, the authorities do not proclaim these changes explicitly, but they are often subtle enough and can be read "between the lines" in state documents and in the texts of presentations of state officials. It is very revealing to compare the differences between the current and the original officially proclaimed goals and directions of higher education reform. 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. First, there is an evident shift relating to the international dimension. At present, higher officials (such as the Minister of Education, Dr. V. I. Strazhev) emphasize that, along with considering the experiences of other countries, "Belarus has to proceed first of all from its internal conditions and opportunities" (Strazhev, 1998). According to his report at the World Conference on Higher Education, the direction in which Belarus is transforming its educational system is "modifying the existing system, not breaking it" (Strazhev, 1998). A similar idea was restated in the officially approved "Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus:" the Belarusian system of higher education has to "rely on domestic traditions of higher education while implementing transformation" (A Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus, 1996). It should be noted that this document does not mention even briefly any aspect relating to the international dimensions of higher education (such as exchanges, integration of local academics into the world academic community or harmonization of Belarusian higher education with international standards, etc. It is evident that the approach of the current state authorities is completely different from the official position stated in 1994, expressed, for example, by the former Minister of Education, Dr. Gaisenok, who considered isolation of Belarusian academics from the international academic community a crucial shortcoming (Gaisenok, 1996). The fact that official sources do not consider this an urgent problem anymore does not mean, of course, that it has been resolved in the last 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. five years. Such a change clearly reflects an evident anti-Western shift in Belarusian priorities. The current approach is completely political, appears autarkic and, in fact, condones almost complete isolation of Belarus from the rest of the academic world. The education system responded to a clearly expressed demand of the top state officials in its awkward bureaucratic manner. At the same time, there are some signs that the Belarusian authorities, being interested in maintaining a certain level of dialogue with their western counterparts, send signals that sometimes might be deciphered as supportive of a "we belong to Europe" stance. For example, the Minister of Education of Belarus participated in a conference on harmonization of educational standards organized by American Council for Collaboration in Education and Language Study (ACCELS) in April 1999. The conference focused on foreign language, economics and cultural studies education and testing and promoted the general principles stated in the "Joint Declaration on Harmonization of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System" signed by the ministers of education of France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom on 25 May 1998. In general, the local ACCELS staff emphasized that the minister of education had been very cooperative and helpful in many respects. The second radical difference between the official directions of higher education reform today as opposed to those in 1994, is the extent of the state’s involvement in educational administration and control over all aspects of higher 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. education. In 1994 education authorities considered the "strict governmental or institutional system of organization, management and distribution of resources, centralization of supervision," "virtual absence of any academic freedom and autonomy of universities," "centralization of academic, methodical and informational support of universities" and "lack of diversity and flexibility in curricula" as definite drawbacks. At present, the authorities do not mention such "politically incorrect" topics at all; on the contrary, the state tries to maintain full control over virtually every aspect of higher education (a Soviet-era tradition). This is being accomplished in traditional administrative ways. For example, Belarusian authorities have established new controlling and supervisory agencies, such as the State Inspectorate of the Educational System of the Republic of Belarus (Decree on the Republican State Inspection of the Educational System of the Republic of Belarus, 1999), the Interinstitutional Council on Coordination of Preparation of Highly Qualified Academics and similar bodies (Decree on the Republican Interinstitutional Council on Coordination of Preparation of Academics of the Highest Qualification, 1999), or have introduced state higher education standards on establishing and bringing into force guiding documents of the Republic of Belarus. Educational standards, 1998). The state authorities in Belarus are putting particular pressure on non-state universities. Five years ago, the republic had more than twenty private universities. Today, this number has dropped to fourteen, partly due to financial hardship (universities pay 37% of their income in taxes) and partly due to the increasingly 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. restrictive policies of the government. Since 1996, the Ministry of Education continuously has issued new decrees that limit the development of the non-state sector of education. The 1991 Law on Education did not foresee any strict measures of state involvement in regulating non-state higher education policies and practices; today, the ministry is granted the right to exercise very staunch control over non state institutions, including accreditation and attestation. It requires that, for example, non- state universities have their own facilities and that at least 50% of their instructors work full-time. Another initiative of the ministry is the introduction of special diplomas (different from state ones) for graduates of non-state institutions, which is in contradiction with the Law on Education. In addition, the state began to interfere with admission policies of non-state universities; in particular, a quota was placed on the number of students majoring in law on the pretext that "the republic does not need such a number of lawyers." This is inappropriate, of course, because, for instance, over 93% of all law students at the International Institute of Labor and Social Relations emphasized that they did not wish to become lawyers but instead needed a legal background to conduct more effective entrepreneurial activities (M. Zagorskaya, 1999). A serious problem for non-state institutions is caused by Presidential Decree 39 of October 7,1999, which requires that "commercial organizations" pay their employees salaries equivalent to those offered by similar state-run organizations for the same positions. 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. On the other hand, the state gives the "green light" to paid education in state- run universities, which are supposed to provide free educational services. The state universities of Belarus were allowed to recruit up to 60% "paying" students in 1998- 99 (as opposed to 15% in 1995-96). Of course, the content and the quality of such education remain the same. The third inconsistency between the visions of higher education in 1994 and now is related to the "lack of administrative and leadership skills of education leaders; absence of in-service training in this field." Though considered a serious problem by the authorities in 1994 (Gaisenok, 1996), virtually nothing has been done in this regard since then, and it seems that the issue is no longer discussed. The 1998-99 master list of specializations of Belarusian universities does not include educational administration, educational leadership or educational policy (Higher Education in Belarus: Brief Guide, 1998). Belarus still maintains Soviet-era policies in this regard, when educational administrators were assigned by communist party bodies based on the "political maturity," loyalty or other (actually, irrelevant) qualities of candidates. The only difference between practices today and those of the Soviet period is that Belarus now has "vertical" presidential executives (executive authorities with almost unlimited rights, personally assigned by the president to all levels of the state hierarchy) instead of former communist party committees. A fourth divergence concerns the "lack of diversity and flexibility in curricula" (Gaisenok, 1996). Belarus introduced so-called "state standards" in 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1998, prescribing curricula for all specializations, which are "elaborated by the higher education establishment having the greatest experience in the training of specialists in the given field" (Higher Education in Belarus: Brief Guide, 1998). The curricula are approved by the Ministry of Education and "specify the content and the structure of training specialists" in great detail. In particular, they "list disciplines that the student must study during the whole period of enrollment and the sequence, term and number of contact hours for each subject" (Higher Education in Belarus: Brief Guide, 1998). There are some national programs in the area of higher education aimed to address specific limited goals: for example, "Textbooks for University Students" (Decree of the Council of Ministers of 26 October 1998, No. 1632), "Foreign Languages" (Decree of the Council of Ministers of 28 January 1998, No. 129), "Teachers" (Decree of the Council of Ministers of 27 February 1998, No. 313) and others. Although there are no reliable data concerning the effectiveness of such programs, successful implementation of them seems very doubtful. Such concern is based on the fact that most faculty and students were unaware of the very existence of any active national programs in these areas. This clearly demonstrates that: (1) the programs mentioned had been developed in the traditional "secluded" Soviet bureaucratic manner, and (2) the academic community is involved neither in the 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. development of such programs nor in their implementation. This, in turn, implies that the programs most likely will remain on paper only. There is another issue worth mentioning. Belarusian faculty have been aging. For a number of social and economic reasons, the percentage of instructors whose age is between thirty and forty decreased from 32.2 to 23.8% since 1990. During the same period, the number of faculty members whose age is over Fifty-one increased from 26.9 to 35% (A Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus, 1998). In 1995, 74.5% of faculty with D.Sci. degrees and 37.9% of those with Ph.D. degrees were over fifty years old (Cherdyntsev, 1996). Only 1.5% of the research fellows at the Academy of Sciences of Belarus were thirty years of age or younger. The number of Ph.D. students at the Academy of Sciences decreased from 723 in 1989 to 416 in 1996 (Cherdyntsev, 1996). Faculty aging adds to Belarusian problems. It has to be admitted that there were literally no thirty- to forty-year-old academics that would be able to occupy midlevel administrative positions, run departments or generate new ideas. The academic profession has lost its attractiveness for talented young individuals, who have been giving up teaching. Despite the extreme seriousness of this problem for Belarusian higher education and its potentially destructive consequences, the state has not taken any noticeable steps to reverse this trend. There is no evidence of the existence of any 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. state policies or efforts targeting this problem (and, correspondingly, no state documents to address this issue). In general, the situation is much more encouraging at the university level. Many deans, department chairs and faculty members are reform-minded and hope to introduce changes in the curricula of their schools. This is facilitated, for example, by introducing new courses, updating the content of old ones, establishing professional relationships with western universities, inviting lecturers from abroad, etc. In their attempts to update curricula, reform-minded administrators and faculty members face many obstacles, such as the state standards (On Establishing and Bringing into Force Guiding Documents of the Republic of Belarus (educational standards), 1998). As mentioned before, state standards determine "exemplary" curricula for all specializations (including those of non-state universities). Such curricula are developed by "leading" departments in their fields as identified and later approved by the Ministry of Education. On average, only 15% of the overall number of contact hours (approximately six hundred out of five thousand academic hours over the course of four years) is left to the discretion of universities. To some extent, such an approach (theoretically) ensures a particular level of teaching, especially at new universities. At the same time, it virtually eliminates variety, diversity and flexibility of curricula within universities and faculties. It also interferes with attempts of the 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. most active faculty and educational administrators to update curricula and bring them into accordance with new social contexts and restricts the academic freedom of instructors. When they try to introduce a new course, faculty members and university administrators use various methods to bypass the restrictions imposed by state standards. For example, a professor may keep the title of a course and change its content completely. This usually is effective because state control over the actual content of courses is very inefficient. A visiting American lecturer, Robert Lee, who was my university professor in Belarus, described a situation from his teaching experience in which the administration of the university had to change the title of one of his new courses four times until it satisfied the Ministry of Education; of course, the content of the course remained the same. Another approach used by university administration is the introduction of new courses within the six hundred-hour course limit left to the university’s discretion. Of course, a professor can always update the most critical or even the major parts of an established course at his or her risk and leave the others unchanged or slightly modified. In order to successfully implement any of these, it is extremely important to secure the support of the mid-level university administration (especially department chairs and deans), because they eventually make decisions concerning the content of curricula and are accountable for the whole teaching process and its results. 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The extent of social science teaching reform varies significantly among universities and specializations. There are some universities such as the European Humanities University (EHU), Institute of Modem Knowledge and the Management of Technology Institute, and some specializations such as psychology, gender studies and business administration, in which significant progress has been achieved. For example, in such disciplines as psychology at EHU, up to one-third of all courses have been newly introduced, and most of those remaining are updated considerably each year. The situation is much worse in such traditionally conservative areas as History and Education in state-run pedagogical universities. One issue that ranks equally poorly for both state-run and private universities is teaching style and methodology, which remain Soviet-style. Dr. Boris, who taught at an advanced (in many respects) private Belarusian university, studied differences in the learning styles of Belarusian and U.S. students that in her opinion were attributed to radical differences in Soviet and Western teaching styles. She described these in the following way: "In a traditional post-Soviet university classroom, as I have been informed by numerous students and professors in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, professors read lectures, students copy them down word for word as much as possible, memorize them, and then repeat them to the professors at oral exams. Students avoid asking questions in order not to be made to look like a fool. While senior students may take 32 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. seminars involving class discussion and research papers, first and second year students generally do not speak in class or do independent writing. This is quite different from the usual style for the social sciences and humanities in the United States, where factual content is conveyed as much through assigned reading as through lectures, even introductory courses normally involve some discussion, essays or papers are assigned in many introductory courses in the humanities or social sciences, and students are tested by written exams which include, or even consist of, analytical essay questions" (Anne Clift Boris, 1998, pp. 44-57). Dr. Boris emphasized that this custom has not changed in recent years, even in non-state universities with relatively high levels of international cooperation. Alternatively, there have been some attempts to reform teaching approaches at the university level. This is being accomplished despite state efforts rather than because of them. Such attempts face many objective and subjective obstacles and restrictions caused by rigid state educational laws. This problem is so deep, multifaceted and important that, if unresolved, it can interfere seriously with any attempt for higher education reform. For this reason, it should be addressed by state and international programs and agencies specifically and in a more "massive" way. Much more noticeably effective are international programs. The political situation in the past four years was cause for a significant cutback of U.S. government-sponsored programs. At the same time, despite the hostile 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. anti-Western policy of Belarusian authorities, a number of international programs and agencies promoting academic exchanges and providing other assistance to scholars at various levels remain: United States Information Service (USIS), American Council of Teachers of Russian/American Council for Collaboration in Education and Language Study (ACTR/ACCELS), International Research and Exchange Board (IREX), British Council, British Foreign and Commonwealth Office, some Eurasia Foundation Programs, British Know How Fund REAP, Higher Education Support Program of the Open Society Institute (HESP/OSI), the Civic Education Project (CEP) and six educational information centers run by ACCELS. Some of the agencies have been very active. For example, USIS-Minsk administered a number of programs in 1999: • Single-Country Project Program (a three-week program; thirty-seven persons including seven rectors of state-run universities and three faculty members have benefited from it); • Multiple-Regional Programs (a three-week program; thirteen persons, six of whom were scholars, took part); • American Speaker (eight professors from the U.S. taught for ten days at Belarusian state and private universities); • American Fulbrighters (five U.S. professors spent six to ten months teaching business law, foreign policy, American film culture, American literature and critical theory and global business management); 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • Belarusian Fulbrighters (five Belarusian academics spent four months at various universities in the U.S.); • Summer Institute (three Belarusian scholars participated in summer institutes on American studies, modem American literature and U.S. society). ACTR/ACCELS continues to administer several of the USIA- and OSI- sponsored secondary school, undergraduate and graduate academic exchange programs. In 1998, eleven Belarusians became Edmund S. Muskie and Freedom Support Act graduate fellows (Alumni Update Newsletter, 1999, April). It should be noted that overall applications to the two programs surged from 112 in 1998 to 187 in 1999, which can be attributed to the increasing interest of young Belarusians in studying abroad. At the same time, the number of semi-finalists remains approximately the same: there were sixty in 1998 and fifty-eight in 1999. Another issue that is relevant to social science reform is work with alumni of USIA-sponsored programs. In late 1996, ACTR/ACCELS (with funding from USIS- Minsk and the Freedom Support Act (FSA) Graduate and Edmund S. Muskie programs) established an alumni center for past participants of U.S. government- funded academic and professional programs. The center makes library and computer workstations available to program alumni for career planning, research, professional development and group alumni activities. I used to teach Windows and Internet Training Classes there. 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The European Union’s TEMPUS program used to be active in Belarus, and a few supported projects had social science reform dimensions (Newsletter for Belarusian Alumni of USIA-sponsored exchange programs, 1999, August). However, TEMPUS recently was suspended along with other EU-sponsored programs due to political developments in Belarus. It is very difficult to judge the efficiency and effectiveness of all these international projects; even the agencies administering them do not possess such information. At the same time, such work should be pursued as interest in international academic contacts in general is tremendous and is still unsatisfied. It seems evident that international organizations and programs (not the Belarusian state) are making the most significant contributions to the reform of Belarusian higher education. Although there are some visible results of these efforts, the work on reform in the Belarusian system of higher education remains. Some of the difficulties caused by the restrictive policies of the Ministry of Education of Belarus and some ways to overcome those obstacles have been mentioned. Another very acute problem is the condition of Belarusian libraries, especially at the departmental and university levels. They have virtually no contemporary Western (and not only Western) monographs, textbooks or other teaching aids in many disciplines, especially those recently introduced. Many young lecturers complain about difficulties in arranging office hours for individual consultations with their students. It is common that, due to economic 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. difficulties, most academics in Belarus do not have their own offices. Another serious problem mentioned above is the difference in learning style of students from post-Soviet countries and their Western counterparts. It is very difficult to change this situation radically without totally rebuilding the existing Belarusian higher education system. One of the ways to address this problem is openness in the evaluation process and additional attention to explaining the class requirements, grading system, purpose and methods of each course (Anne Clift Boris, 1998, pp. 44- 57). An objective obstacle to introducing new teaching (and learning) styles is the drastic difference in the academic loads of Belarusian and U.S. students. To sum up, the position of Belarusian education authorities and their policies concerning higher education reform remains intricate and contradictory. On one hand, there are some signs that the authorities understand the need for reform as a result of the obvious and significant political, social and economic changes in Belarus and neighboring countries. On the other hand, the officially proclaimed goals of higher education reform have been influenced strongly by the anti-Western stance of the current Belarusian authorities and have drifted away from those accepted soon after Belarusian independence in 1991. These changes have excluded the international dimension of higher education from reform priorities almost completely. The state is increasing its pressure on especially non-state universities and exercises increasingly strict control over virtually all aspects of university policies and practices. 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION FOR BELARUS In Belarus, where the processes of democratization and globalization, thought slow, painful and oftentimes very contradictory, are still ongoing, experiences of global higher education are becoming of critical importance. Analysis of different aspects of the current national system of higher education in Belarus as well as attempts to develop the concept of international education for Belarusian universities can contribute to such processes. In order to reform the existing system, which, unfortunately, hasn’t changed much since Soviet times, academic freedoms and flexibility in Belarusian higher educational institutions must develop, and an international context must be incorporated into the curriculum. There is an obvious need to integrate an international dimension in order to promote higher education internationalization and globalization in Belarus. It is essential that adequate mechanisms for incorporating an international context into academic and professional activities be identified and developed. Learning from international experience, primarily Western, is of special interest to Belarusian higher education. 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Literature about international issues in higher education directly relevant to my study has increased over the last decade. In the last few years, there has been a particular emphasis on cross-cultural comparison of common concerns, such as bureaucratization, accountability, quality, access globalization, commercialization and privatization. The increased importance of this literature is illustrated by the development of International Higher Education, a newsletter from Boston College that focuses on international higher education issues. In addition, there is a steadily increasing number of international journals that focus on higher education. As higher education has developed into a foundational component of national economic growth, it has become even more central to societies throughout the world (Hobbs, J., 1998). This new knowledge-based economy has resulted in a move away from church oriented or communitarian views of education to utilitarian views of higher education in which economic values are emphasized and fiscal resources are the true measure of value. This change in values, which requires balancing the forces of economic growth with the traditional functions of universities, is a worldwide concern. There are concerns about higher education’ s ability to address globalization challenges and continue to be a cooperative venture within the new global marketplace. Institutions are forming alliances; others are aggressively seeking new markets in areas that directly compete with institutions that they were never in 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. competition with before (Howard-Vital, M. R., & Rosenkoetter, M., 1999). The advent of distance education makes a student a consumer, anywhere in the world. Some institutions are reconsidering notions of cooperative arrangements and are thinking about strategic alliances (Saffu, K., & Mamman, A., 1999). Others describe their disappointment with the new environment that changes the traditional value system of the academy of collaboration. One article outlined a model of factors critical to establishing and maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage for education services enterprises in international markets. The model, which combines industrial economics, management theory, and services marketing, seeks to explain the strategic decision- making environment in which the education exporter operates and the outcome is ideal to achieving a competitive advantage (Mazzarol, T., & Soutar, G. N., 1999). Much of the literature about the global marketplace is emerging from the business world as well as from organizations like The World Bank. A major trend in the environment of corporate control and management is the drive toward commercialization. Certification programs and distance education are enticing universities to become more entrepreneurial and to enter new markets. Many commentators offer advice on how to take advantage of entrepreneurial opportunities without becoming excessively commercial. Others offer a distinctly commercial perspective; for example, one article offers a framework for college planning, incorporating three critical components: strategic guidelines and program development parameters; rigorous business planning process; and rapid 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. evaluation/decision- making process (Blustain, H., Goldstein, P., & Lozier, G., 1998). Most universities realize the need to adapt and use technological innovation and to tap into new markets that may be able to subsidize "traditional" education. But balancing the two values systems is impacting the culture of the academy. Privatization remains an emerging trend. It continues to be a major theme with student housing, developmental (remedial) education, and management information systems becoming growing areas. It is not surprising that outsourcing is gaining momentum with the focus on adopting corporate strategies. Many resources examine the institutional movement toward outsourcing support services, focusing on the development of outcome-oriented performance indicators and continuous self- assessment. Most of the literature notes that outsourcing has been generally positive for most higher education institutions (Van der Werf, 1999). This appears to be one of the few management techniques that has been translated with success to higher education. Higher education is a priority of every country in the world and all countries need to utilize their collective expertise to increase the world’ s potential for solving the problems that plague all of us, whether environmental, medical, or social. Entrepreneurialism is a growing model; entrepreneurialism and an increase in strategic alliances may lead to less sharing of models and more competition, ending the open, sharing environment that often leads to development for all. The impact of the shift toward entrepreneurialism needs further exploration, especially since so 41 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. many commentators are advocating this model. Such experience is definitely essential for the further reforms in Belarusian higher education. Main factors contributing to the need of rethinking higher education institutions today are connected with the advent of the global age. Although Belarus, geographically being one of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, doesn’t really feel these pressures yet, globalization-related processes will be affecting higher education there very soon. At the same time higher education worldwide, including Central and Eastern Europe, is no longer a unique part of the public sector that it used to be: neither in explicit political declarations, nor in public perceptions, nor in practical terms. Higher education is doubly affected right now: by the local post-1991 transformations in Belarus and by deeper and long-lasting global transformations. An assumption is that any thinking about reforms in higher education in general outside of a particular context of reforming the whole public sector (within reformulating and revising the principles of the functioning of the welfare state) remains incomplete. Similarly, any thinking about the institution of the university in particular (i.e., about a small and elitist part of higher education) disregarding the past context of its modem, nation-state-oriented social role, place and function provided by the Humboldtian model in the new post-national global age remains incomplete. 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. First of all, the transformation of higher education seems inevitable worldwide, both in rich OECD countries, in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as in developing countries, as the forces behind changes are global in nature. The forces of change are similar, although their current influences vary from country to country, and from region to region; the main forces that are driving the transformation of higher education today are old ones (the governmental and public pressure for transparency and accountability, the focus on costs, effectiveness, productivity, and quality assurance, etc.) and new ones (new providers of higher education; rapid advancement of technology and changing social demands for renewable skills in the global age). However, universities are also a product of the modem nation-state. In a certain sense, one can see university internationalism, as a kind of myth or rhetoric, be it a prestigious one, which serves to conceal the dependence of universities on the national political structures. Most universities were not established in late medieval times, but are constructs and products of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century nation-states. Most of their traditional functions, such as the formation of professional classes and domestic elites or the development of science and technology, were taken on by universities within national, even nationalistic, environments during the last two centuries. From the second half of the twentieth century onwards, universities became involved in a powerful movement of 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. educational expansion and democratization of educational opportunities, which was and is heavily supported by domestic political parties. The most important societal challenge universities all over the world had to face in the last decades, namely the transformation towards a mass higher education system, took place within a national environment. The “massification” of higher education sometimes even is put in the perspective of national strength and competitiveness in the context of the emergence of a global knowledge economy. In the new states of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet republics universities came to be embraced in a movement towards national independence, development, modernization and transition. And thus far the most of them are still dependent on national governments for their budgets and, therefore, on political legitimization within the national context. The challenges resulting from internationalization and globalization are enormous and are pushing universities to develop new forms of internationalization efforts and policies. The term 'internationalization' refers to the activities of higher education institutions, often supported or framed by multilateral agreements or programs, to expand their reach over national borders. Internationalization activities and policies can serve a broad variety of objectives, such as the diversification and growth of financial input by the recruitment of fee-paying foreign students, the broadening of curricula and educational experiences for domestic students in foreign partner-institutions, regional networking in order to allow a more cost-effective 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. use of resources and to provoke a process of collective institutional learning and development, or the enhancement of the quality of education and research by bringing students and staff into the realm of international competition. Activities developed in the context of internationalization encompass for example, joint research projects, student exchange programs, staff mobility projects, specially designed programs aimed at foreign students, joint curriculum development initiatives, specific initiatives in the context of university development aid policies, etc. Most contemporary universities are engaging in some or most of such activities, often managed by an international office. At a higher-level, the internationalization of higher education can also be understood as the "process of systematic integration of an international dimension into the teaching, research and public service function of a higher education institution" (Wachter, 1999). Understood in that way, not that many universities, even in the heartland of academic prestige, can be distinguished as truly internationalizing institutions. Globalization on the other hand is a concept used to indicate the forceful changes in the economic, social, political and increasingly also cultural environments characterized by global competition, integration of markets, mobility, communication networks and information flows. It seems that we have come to a point in the historical development of the global university system where the national embedding of universities gets more and more into conflict with the consequences and challenges of internationalization 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and globalization. This fundamental conflict manifests itself in various issues and problems, which are very prominent today and urgently asking for a coherent strategic approach. Examples of these are the recognition and validation of university diplomas, qualifications and credits or the development of international forms of quality assurance and accreditation. The key idea is that contemporary forms of internationalization in higher education have developed without much concern for the quality issue, which in other domains of higher education systems is becoming a central preoccupation. We have come to a point where internationalization policies and practices in higher education institutions will have to face the quality issue; in the same sense as quality assurance policies and procedures will have to address internationalization of higher education. The best-known form of internationalization certainly is the increasing mobility of students studying abroad. Traveling students are of course a very old phenomenon and certain regions of the world have a long experience with it. Most European countries have known the influx of students from their former colonies. Large numbers of Latin American students seek to obtain postgraduate degrees in Northern American universities. At the heights of the Cold War the higher education institutions of the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries attracted students from ideologically associated nations. And educational exchange between the US and Western Europe after 1945 was developed to foster democracy and developing 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the Atlantic community. Geopolitical considerations always have been influential in thinking and policies regarding student mobility. According to UNESCO statistics, there were some 1.5 million foreign students in the top 50 host countries in 1994-95. Over the last 25 years international student mobility has risen by more than 300% (Bruch & Barty, 1998). Most individual countries witness substantial growth rates of foreign student enrolment. Many observers expect its growth to continue for a while, even if the annual growth rates will diminish gradually. Some prognoses make mention of 2.8 million students studying abroad worldwide by 2010 and 4.9 million by 2025, including 2.9 from Asia. Students obtaining a degree or a diploma in a foreign country want to get this degree or diploma validated on the labor market in the country where they want to live and work. This is a very old and complicated problem in international relations in higher education and a number of international organizations have taken several initiatives in order to resolve this, such as the elaboration of declarations, conventions and agreements between member states and the establishment of information centers and (electronic) databases. The most impressive development in this Held has taken place in the European region. Already in the fifties the Council of Europe for example had set up conventions and information center networks, within an overall policy to enhance mobility in Europe. Also UNESCO, via its center for higher education CEPES 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (European Centre for Higher Education/Centre Europeen pour l'Enseignement Superieur) in Bucharest, has been very active in this field. Cooperation between the two organizations has resulted in an important convention, replacing the existing ones, namely the ‘Convention on the recognition of qualifications concerning higher education in the European region’, adopted in Lisbon in April, 1997. The ENIC (European Network of National Information Centers on Academic Recognition and Mobility), serve as centers facilitating recognition procedures at national levels. For the European Union, a separate network of centers, the NARIC (National Academic Recognition Information Centers), was set up, from 1987 onwards closely related to the Erasmus program. The European model of recognition of degrees has not been exemplary for the rest of the world. Most countries, including the US, still apply very detailed and complicated procedures based on equivalence tests and refuse automatic recognition of foreign degrees. These procedures encompass detailed analyses of course and curriculum structure, contents, examination systems, etc. The question whether foreign degrees can be recognized as employment credentials has led to dispute and contention. Only if international professional organizations validate programs and degrees in foreign countries as equivalent to domestic ones, can some countries be brought to take a more lenient attitude. It should be mentioned in conclusion that on several points current internationalization processes in higher education touch upon questions and issues 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. related to quality. In reviewing forms and characteristics of internationalization in higher education it has been found that many internationalization policies and practices have been developed without much concern for quality. European policies to promote student mobility through the Erasmus / Socrates program, for example, deliberately neglect quality issues and demand universities and higher education institutions to overlook questions related to quality. However, student mobility is increasing at a high speed and on a global scale, and considerations regarding perceived quality are becoming powerful ‘pull’ factors in student mobility. The adverse consequences of the neglect of the quality dimension in international higher education can be discerned in various difficulties in the field of internationalization. First, there is the issue of the quality of internationalization policies and practices itself. It is necessary to integrate the internationalization efforts and activities of an institution in its normal quality assurance mechanisms. Second, there is the old and complicated problem of the recognition of foreign diplomas and degrees. By departing from the concept of ‘recognition’ instead of ‘equivalence’, the Lisbon Convention is a step forward in transparency and manageability, but the reduced concern for questions on contents and curricula in favor of more formal comparable characteristics of programs carries equally the risk of a diminished interest in quality issues. Third and closely related, there is the problem of recognition of credits and study periods abroad. The desired goal has been to give a quick and uncomplicated 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. answer to this problem, in order to remove this potentially burdensome obstacle to student mobility. The clearest exponent of this ambition is the European ECTS (European Credit Transfer System), in which formal, almost numerical characteristics of courses and credits constitute the regulatory framework for credit transfer. When increasing numbers of students seek to study abroad and demand their foreign credits and degrees be recognized and validated in their home country or elsewhere, when transnational higher education will become an economic reality where students move to places and institutions where they perceive to be served best, the formalism, voluntarism and mutual confidence of ECTS will not suffice any longer. If the international market in higher education continues to become increasingly competitive, there will be an intensifying tendency among institutions to distinguish themselves from competitors. This tendency will be increasingly focused on the quality issue. It is highly likely that this will affect internationalization policies of institutions, resulting in much more deliberate choices concerning international cooperation. In turn, this will undermine - at least in Europe - the logic behind, for example, Erasmus / Socrates and ECTS frameworks. In these programs, it is already discernible that top-ranked universities adopt a highly selective attitude in partner choice and credit transfer, because of mostly implicit quality judgments and strategic considerations deriving from them. Increasing differentiation among higher education institutions on the 50 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. quality dimension is to be expected and this will result in more discriminating internationalization policies. The internationalization model, prevailing in most countries (especially in Europe), characterized by a rather naive confidence in the quality of the partners involved, has reached its limits. In an increasingly competitive international market in higher education, quality will have to become a distinguishing characteristic guiding consumers and institutions in their strategic behavior. Unless the quality issue is fully integrated in the internationalization policies of governments and institutions, the further progress in international student mobility and credit transfer will be retarded. If mobility of students continues to increase and if institutions are confronted with more and more demands for credit transfer and recognition of foreign programs and degrees, their quality assurance mechanisms will have to be extended so that they cover also the programs and degrees in foreign partner institutions. Recent efforts of global educational community aimed at internationalizing and globalizing the higher education environment, which have been described above, vividly show that any attempts to practically and comprehensively address the current and urgent issues facing Belarusian higher education will inevitably lead to the need to thoroughly research relevant international experiences and standards as well as to determine the most appropriate ways to incorporate such experiences into genuine higher education reforms in Belarus. 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V GLOBALIZATION CHALLENGES: STATE AND NON-STATE SECTORS’ RESPONSES TO MARGINALIZATION Higher education is not seen as a unique public sector anymore, nor are former Soviet countries unique in their problems with reforming higher education. These are global problems and global solutions are sought, by global organizations which never before have been so interested in higher education as such (World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development as well as, most recently, World Trade Organization). In fact, the following factors determine a new situation of higher education: new technologies, new student bodies (increasingly diversified ages; returning and working students, lifelong learning ideal), new higher education providers, new - increasingly global - students’ expectations, increasingly competitive, market-oriented, success-greedy social environment, and others (Newman, F., 2000). Communism collapsed in the era of globalization and new independent states including Belarus cannot remain outside such a totally new situation in higher education worldwide. Belarus is at the crossroads of its political, economical and social development. The fact that the ruling elite in Belarus, which remains largely 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. intact from the Soviet era, lacks any real vision of the future for Belarus is, perhaps, the major challenge to the development of the state. At the same time, ten years later the country situated in the very geographical center of Europe has no chance to remain uninfluenced by globalization, which is the political and economic reality that all the countries of Eastern Europe are trying to face and cope with. National states are in no position to control globalization. Globalization needs to be fully understood so that it can be properly addressed. Taking into account the above considerations and trying to represent the globalization challenges facing Belarusian higher education more vividly, I developed a graph, which aims to represent such challenges and subsequent responses of state and non-state sectors of higher education leading to marginalization. These are key terms related to the graph and their definitions: Globalization: Worldwide shifts in political, economic, cultural, and social power resulting in increased homogenization of patterns of production (including education) and consumption among nations. Privatization: Increasing market orientation, decentralization, and reliance on local and private sectors by state organizational structures and services. Marginalization: Exclusion of a person or group (local, domestic, international, or global scale) from access to political, economic, or cultural capital (including education); or, from participation or influence in the development of such capital. 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2. Globalization, Privatization and Marginalization in Belarussian Higher Education: Public vs. Private. Independent Variables Globalization challenges Collapse of the crucial role of the nation-state (increasing interdependence) Economic rationality/corporate culture World market influence (for-profit orientation) Competing competition New technologies People's international mobility (immigration/emigration) Information flows Engish as a global language Intervening Variables State higher education sector response • Strict centralized control and bureaucratization • Increasing ideological (apologetic) function • Sluggish reforms • Politicization and lack of diversity and flexibility in curriculum • Particular pressure on non-state universities • Decrease in government subsidies and increased reliance on tuition • State monopoly/control of internet access Dependent Variables Emerging non-state higher education sector response Client/market-oriented (marketable knowledge) Increasingly competitive Access to higher education (not limited by state-planned enrollment and regulated by the market) Relatively independent More sensitive to globalization / internationalization of higher education International context incorporated into the curriculum Offering marketable courses (more foreign languages, computer science) Marginalization Expectation of political loyalty Decreasing quality of training Losing competitive edge Grim prospects for employment Poorly-paid jobs Potential Marginalization Limited enrollment for students of lower economic status (traditionally marginalized) groups 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Institutionally, the Belarusian state system of university education has increasingly been subordinated to president Lukashenko himself through new provisions for the direct presidential appointment of university rectors and deans. Rectors of state universities are now appointed and allegedly dismissed by the president, opening the door to replacement of academic criteria by political criteria in such decisions. For instance, the rector of Belarusian State University who used to be in a privileged position, that is enjoying the rank of a minister, is not any more. The reason - 70% of students from this university voted against president Lukashenko in the last elections. Are there many countries in the world where such a thing could happen? Rectors’ political loyalty is a major a consideration in selection of academic leaders, undermining the independence of state universities. Under the present authoritarian regime a pervasive state campaign of political control of the universities has severely limited academic freedom and given rise to a climate of fear and suspicion on Belarusian campuses. This campaign has curtailed freedom of expression, association, and assembly. Students and faculty alike who peacefully exercise their legitimate right to freedom of assembly at opposition demonstrations, who join opposition political parties, or who express their views freely on campus or off, are punished with warnings, reprimands, expulsion, demotion, or dismissal. Ironically, in 1998 the government introduced human rights, along with Belarusian history, culture, philosophy, and ethics as part of a compulsory block of subjects for students. 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. History has become an extremely politicized topic in post-Soviet Belarus. It remains a country with an unpredictable history. President Lukashenko has made his own historical interpretation the central theme of his administration: integration with Russia. In so doing, he has pushed the teaching of Belarusian history in high schools and universities to the forefront of an increasingly sharp battle for the presentation of the "true" history of Belarus. High school and university history textbooks written and published in the post-Soviet period have gradually been removed from the classroom and replaced with standard Soviet-era editions by order of the government. Thus, Belarus, like the former USSR, remains a country with an unpredictable history. Instead of considering and timely addressing the mentioned above issues, Belarusian authorities, speaking of the major challenge facing the world, that is marginalization, claim that its primary cause stems from a wrong choice of globalization strategy, namely, through fast and sweeping market reform and economic liberalization regardless of the country-specific national and historic situation. That’s a lame justification for the lack of reforms. In Belarus the state pretends that individuals own property and businesses, when in reality they don't. They merely pay for them initially, and then pay forever in heavier and heavier taxation, fees, fines, registrations and regulations. The government dictates the rules and has the actual control. The present regime does not serve the general public; it serves the State. 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As a result of such a shortsighted policy state universities, as well as most public institutions, are more and more becoming marginalized institutions in a marginalized country. Moreover, they serve a marginalized population. For example, an average Belarusian family spends 53.3% of its annual income on food as compared to only 1% on education services (Romanchuk, Y., 2002, March). With the government pledging "market socialism," Belarus has made less progress in developing private enterprise in general, and in the higher education sector in particular, than have its neighbors (European Centre for Higher Education/Centre Europeen pour lTEnseignement Superieur: Statistical Information on Higher Education in Central and Eastern Europe) (See Tables 1, 2, 3,4). Table 1. Number of students, teaching staff and population (academic year 2000-2001). Country Number o f students Number of teaching staff Total population in 2000 fin millions') Public % Private % Total 1 . Albania 23.704* 100,0 0,0 0.0 23.704 3.075 3.4 2. Belarus 241,100 87.0 35,900 13.0 277.000 20.086 10.0 3. Bulgaria 215.676 88.5 27.916 11.5 243,595 23,329 8.0 4. Croatia 117,205 98,6 1,646 1.4 118,851 5,585 4,3 5. Czech Republic 213,207 99.0 2.000 1.0 215.207 14,890 10.3 6. Estonia 38,511 74.8 12,963 25.2 51,474 3.715 1.4 7 Hungary 255,943 85.7 42,561 14.3 298.504 22,873 10.2 8 Latvia 78,156 87.3 11.353 12.7 89.509 5.160 2.3 9. Lithuania ... ... ... 99,140 ... 3.7 10 The FYR of Macedonia 39.978 97,7 923 2,3 40.901 2.6341 2.0 11. Moldova 79,713 77,4 23,210 22,6 102,923 7,700 4.3 12. Poland1 * 1,106,798 70.1 471,443 29.9 1,578,241 80,208 38.6 13. Romania 322,12$ 7l.l 130,492 219 452,621 26,977 22.4 14. Russian Federation 4,270,800 90.0 470,600 10.0 4,741,400 ... 144.8 15. Slovak Republic 125,054 99.3 842 0.7 125,896 11,559 5.4 16. Slovenia 64,989 95.7 2.900 4.3 67,889 ... 1.9 17. Ukraine ... ... ... ... 1,931,000 128,000 49.1 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2. Number of institutions (academic year 2000-2001). Country Numb ero f institutions Public % Private % Tctal 1. Albania l l 1 100.0 0 0.0 11 2. Belarus 42 73.7 li 26.3 57 3. Bulgaria 79 89.7 9 10.3 88 4. Croatia 86 90.5 9 9.5 95 5. Czech Reoufalic 28 66.7 14 33.3 42 6. Estonia 14 40.0 21 60.0 35 7. Hungary 30 48.4 32 51.6 62 8. Latvia 20 60.6 13 39.4 33 Lithuana 38 96.4 4 9.6 42 10. The FYR o f Macedonia 2 66.7 1 33.3 3* 11. Moldova 57 50.0 57 50.0 114 12. Poland 115 37.1 195 62.9 310 13. Rom ail a 57 40.7 83 59.3 140 14. Russian Federation 607 62.9 358 37.1 965 IS. Slovak Republic 18 90.0 2 10.0 20 16. Slovenia 2 18.1 9 81.9 11 17. Ukraine 816 83.3 163 16.4 979 Table 3. Number of students per 100,000 inhabitants (academic year 2000-2001). C ountry N u m b er o f stu d en ts per 100,000 in h ab itan ts A lbania 697 R o m an ia 2,020 The F Y R o f M aced o n ia 2.0 4 5 C zech R e p u b lic 2,089 S lovak R epublic 2,330 M oldov a 2.393 L ith u an ia 2.590 C roatia 2.641 B elarus 2,770 H ungary 2.927 B ulgari a 3,0 4 5 R ussian F ed eratio n 3.274 S lo v en ia 3.573 E stonia 3,677 L atvia 3 .8 9 2 U krain e 3.920 P oland 4 ,0 8 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4. Ratio student/teaching staff (academic year 2000-2001). Country Ratio student/teaching staff2 Croati a 20.9 Poland 19.7 Latvia 17.4 R om ania 16.8 The FY R o f M acedonia 15.2 Czech R epublic 14.4 E stonia 13.9 Belarus 13.8 A lbania 13.7 M ol dova 13.4 H ungary 13.1 Slovak. R ep ublic 10.9 B ulgaria 10.4 U kraine 10.0 Lithuania , . * R ussian Federation . . . Sloveni a ... Privatization is the transfer of ownership out of state hands to individuals. The goal of privatization is clear - to address the obvious deficiencies of the state owned sectors. Balanced privatization removes the role of administrative authorities from independent decision making processes. The education sector isn’t an exception. Nevertheless, the process of privatization has been very slow in Belarus. According to the World Bank, the private sector share in 1999 was one of the two lowest in the former Soviet Union - 20% GDP. This is less than one third of the level then pertaining in Russia (70%) and less than half of that in Ukraine (50%). The private sector becomes the engine of a country’s market economy. Taking that into account, many Eastern European countries made privatization one 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of their main goals during the transition period. The results are promising - they are indeed joining the European community. The most significant change in the sphere of higher education in Belarus is the emergence and development of a new, private sector (National Institute of Higher Schools affiliated with the Belarusian State University, 1998) (See Figures 3,4). Figure 3. Belarusian Higher Education Institutions (Number Dynamics). ■ State ■ Non-state □ Total 1990/91 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 2000/01 Academic Year Figure 4. Belarusian Higher Education Institutions (Student Body Dynamics). ■ State ■ Non-state 1990/91 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 2000/01 Academic Year 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Belarusian private institutions of higher education are responding to the rapidly changing economic conditions. Through curricular innovations in business, law, education and other majors these institutions are responding to the academic, economic, religious, and cultural needs of the population. To begin with, private universities have satisfied the need in areas of study unavailable in public institutions - courses and degrees in management, business, market economy, and other related subjects that simply did not exist in the Belarusian curriculum until recently. Second, the private sector has provided a crucial avenue of access to higher education for thousands of students whom public educational institutions could not accept because of the limits imposed by state-planned enrollment. Third, private higher education has provided parents with a legal opportunity to invest money in their children’ s future. Finally, these institutions - through their less traditional missions and pedagogical approaches - offer young and energetic people a chance to develop academic and organizational skills, as well as providing opportunities for self- realization and self-expression. At the same time most administrators of private universities admit now that they would never have entered the business of higher education if they had known the struggle they would face. Uncertainty is the most appropriate word to characterize the whole enterprise of the private sector of Belarus higher education 61 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. today. Uncertainty prevails in terms of renting buildings, hiring full-time faculty and visiting professors, developing the curriculum, awarding final documents to graduates, and so on. Furthermore, government politics are so unstable and unpredictable that no private university can feel absolutely independent or really private. In fact, the government perceives private education to be a threat to its control and influence over the education of students, particularly on politically sensitive subjects such as history and law, and has posed significant obstacles to the development and operation of the private universities and other private educational initiatives that have emerged in Belarus since the break-up of the Soviet Union. The growth of competition among the institutions of higher education has some positive effects. Private schools have begun to look for their own ways of improving the quality of education and becoming more responsive to the changing needs of the labor market. Another achievement is that the society has become used to the idea of paid education, and the market for such education is developing fast. If the government continues to pursue a sensible policy towards non government higher education institutions, the private sector in education will survive. It is possible that some higher education institutions will close down, and others will merge with their more powerful competitors. The Association of Non government Institutions of Higher Education is convinced that the ongoing 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. competition between the government and non-govemment sector in education will help improve the standards of higher education. The management of non-govemment universities is also convinced that their students have certain advantages over their peers in government run schools. Many of them would have a better knowledge of foreign languages, computer science and relevant equipment. Non-govemment universities have fewer students, and therefore are in a better position to adjust the learning process to the needs of the individual student. Many students in private schools also have part-time jobs, which enable them to acquire professional experience relevant to their majors. Most people who go to private universities do not come from wealthy families, but represent the emerging middle class. The tightening government control is not the only reason for the possible extinction of private universities. As popular living standards are declining, the number of students who can afford to pay for their education is also getting smaller. The education market has been filled, and competition is rising. In addition, most private schools are training students for similar degrees - law, economics or linguistics. A surplus of graduates in these areas is quite likely. My assumption is that such a specific Belarusian way of trying to preserve the inefficient state sector, has, in fact, led to the growing overall marginalization of the country. So, in the case of Belarus, we may come to the conclusion that the 63 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. lack of overall reforms, privatization in particular, is the major reason for such a worsening marginalization. The Intact state system is unable to address marginalization. In this situation, higher education, like most public sectors, is doomed for crisis. Unlike some other countries, in Belarus the state is to blame for marginalization and not primarily the private sector, which is only emerging and, in fact, doesn’t cause any evident marginalization. I strongly believe that only a well-developed balance of a reformed and academically free system of state higher education together with a liberalized private sector can successfully address the problem of marginalization. It’s definitely a very complicated task, but it must be solved - the sooner the better. 64 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The system of higher education in Belarus has been in a sluggish state of some change (initially progressive and later regressive), but most of the problems still remain unsolved. After ten years of generally either failed or neglected higher education reforms, Belarus must face globalization demands and take urgent measures to address them adequately and in a timely manner. Such measures can be summed up into the following two large categories: (1) institutional and organizational and (2) human resources. Institutional and organizational • extreme bureaucratization and centralization of higher education management, lack of constructive strategy; • organizational and financial dependence of universities and other higher educational institutions on governmental ministries and departments; • extreme regulatory policy and backwardness in the content and methods of teaching; lack of broad and open discussions; • insufficient financial and technical support to higher educational institutions; • isolation (both institutional and informational) of the higher education system in Belarus from the global academic community; 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Human resources • domination of quantitative approach to educational policy (when they mostly take into account the number of universities, students, courses of instruction, etc.); • quality, although declared as one of the priorities in the sphere of education, remains marginal; • slow rotation of lecturers and professors, lack of open and honest competition in the faculty selection procedures; limited possibilities of social and professional promotion for younger lecturers and researchers; • higher education system is oriented toward reproducing the old type of professional (the so called reproductive method of teaching); • lack of efficient and modem assessment systems to evaluate the professional level of faculty and students; Stating all above, I cannot but mention some rather positive changes and trends in higher education system developments (primarily true of non-state universities). The most positive of them are the following: • existence of non-state higher educational institutions, whose management and professional staff demonstrated their ability and readiness to adapt and adjust to innovations; 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • existence of a number of administrators, lecturers and researchers who have the experience of studying, lecturing and working abroad (primarily at Western Universities); • presence and activities of international donor organizations and institutions like ACTR/ACCELS and IREX. Such positive changes and trends can serve as a basis for the development and further implementation of the following measures, which are critical for a sound reform of university level social studies programs in Belarus: • to overcome the dictatorial control of state bureaucracy by developing and implementing a program of higher education decentralization and to create pre-conditions for the autonomy and freedom of Universities, in other words - to start democratization of the higher education management system; • to introduce new approaches to teaching and learning of social disciplines and humanities, aimed at quality education; • to create a working model of developing, introducing and disseminating progressive methods of teaching, learning and conducting research based upon the best local and Western experiences; • to overcome isolation (both personal and institutional) of Belarusian professionals in education; to integrate them into the global academic and intellectual context; 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • to create unified common information networks in the sphere of humanities, to develop a system of permanent distribution and exchange of professional information; • to overcome the discrepancy in access of regional and central institutions to information; • to establish direct correlation between quality of teaching and research conducted by faculty; • to introduce a new system for the independent evaluation of lecturers and researchers and elaborate a new system of professional qualifications in compliance with the existing global trends. My personal learning experience suggests that the prime target for change should be the following fields of social studies: • History - World and Belarusian. There is an obvious need to do away with ideological burdens and myths in teaching Belarusian history; to introduce new research methods and methodologies, to establish pluralism, to introduce Belarusian history into European context, to develop new areas of historical research (various aspects of European and world history) • Political Science - modem political theories, methods of scientific research and expert analysis, forming political culture of a democratic type. This is a new area in social studies and educational practices, which has created a 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. substantial demand for faculty to teach it at Universities and in socio-political institutes; supply does not meet the demand, which explains the low quality of research and teaching and a large number of former professors in Communist party history and scientific communism, who continue teaching political science as an adopted version of Political Science; • Sociology - sociological theories (contemporary and classic), methods of sociological research, sociology of education, culture, administration, political sociology. New areas in social studies and teaching them in new ways are directly affecting the process of creation of civil society and democracy in Belarus; • European Studies - European policy, European integration issues, European law, European Community. These are new areas of research and study discipline for Belarus, which are directly connected with cultural, psychological, political and institutional integration of Belarus into European community. There is also an obvious necessity to develop and implement new teaching and learning technologies based on creative and interactive modes, which will consequently lead to the development of interactive methods, thus eliminating reproductive models, forming the habits of independent and creative studying (preparing students for self-education). 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Such innovations relevant to social studies reforms in Belarus would not only contribute to creating a new and a more effective system of humanities education in general, but they would also contribute to creating an open and civil society in Belarus, thus enabling its integration into European cultural and political context. It is also essential that if the country in transition is to develop into a democracy and free enterprise state, students must be enabled to grow and develop as unique individuals, not as tools of the state. Diversity is a prerequisite for change, since it breeds divergent thinking. At the same time, it goes without saying that any country so dominated by a state system, as is Belarus, will have difficulty encouraging innovation and change. There must be encouragement and support for private postsecondary education. The support may take many forms, including state financial aid to students for attendance at private institutions. The private system cannot be merely "parallel" or "peripheral," as in France and Sweden, but instead, a significant and energizing force in the educational system. The very competition for students among the private institutions symbolizes a democratic system that should mirror the larger economic system for the country as a whole. I fully realize that this research paper is just a modest attempt to address such a complex problem as higher education reforms in Belarus and its responses to globalization challenges. I am planning to develop this research project further after my return back home to Belarus. 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY A Concept of Higher Education Development in the Republic of Belarus. (1996). Vvsheishaya Shkola (Higher Education) 1. 55-56. ACCELS/ACTR - Belarus. (1999, April). Alumni Update Newsletter. Minsk: ACCELS/ACTR - Belarus. Alexander, F. K. (1998). The endless pursuit of efficiency: The international movement to increase accountability and performance in higher education. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, (23rd, Miami, FL, November 5-8). Allan, G. (Ed.). (1999). The resource handbook for academic deans. Washington. 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Oxford: Pergamon Press. Fincher, C. (1998). Quality and diversity: The mystiques of the process. Athens, GA: Institute of Higher Education. Frost, S. H., & Bidani, P. (1998). Using teams in higher education: Resources for researchers. New Directions for Institutional Research. 25(4). 97-103. 73 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Gaisenok, V. A. (1996). About the issue of reforming higher education. Vysheishava Shkola (Higher Education) 2 .13-17. Gancherenok, 1.1. (1997). Program TEMPUS in Belarus. Vvsheishaya Shkola (Higher Education) 3. 50-53. Gasaway, L. N. Distance learning and copyright: Is a solution in sight? CAUSE/EFFECT. 21(31. 6-8, 25. Gehring, D. D., & Callaway, R. L. (1997). Compliance with the notice requirement of the Campus Security Act. College & University. 73(1). 13-18. Gibbons, M. (1998). Higher Education relevance in the 21st century. Paper presented at the 1998 UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education in Paris. Washington, DC: World Bank. Giroux, H. A. (1999). Corporate culture and the attack on higher education and public schooling. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Gordon, J. & Jallade, J.-P. (1996). Spontaneous student mobility in the European Union: a statistical survey. European Journal of Education. 31(2). 133-151. Harman, G. (1998). Supporting quality research in institutions of higher education. Australian Journal of Education. 42(3). 285-392. Harvey, L. & Knight, P.T. (1996). Transforming higher education. Buckingham: OUP & SRHE. Harvey, L. (1998). An assessment of past and current approaches to quality in higher education. Australian Journal of Education. 42(3). 237-255. Harvey, W. B. (Ed.). (1999). Grass roots and glass ceilings: African American administrators in predominantly white colleges and universities. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Haug, G. (1996). Student mobility between Europe and the US. European Journal of Education. 31(2). 181-192. Hobbs, J. (1998). The diversification of scholarship in higher education. Higher Education in Europe. 23(4). 441-445. Hundley, S. P. (1999). Selling schools to information technology professionals. CUPA Journal. 49.3-4, 13-15. 74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Jarrell, A. (1999). Doing the right thing. Currents. 25(5). 18-25. Jarrell, A. (1999). Virtual campus tours. Currents. 25(3). 48-51, 53. Joint European Commission, Council of Europe. (1998). UNESCO/CEPES Diploma Supplement. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Kameoka, Y. (1996). Issues surrounding mobility with particular reference to Japan. European Journal of Education, 31(2) 243-249. Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Van Natta, C. (1999). Institutionalizing diversity initiatives. Metropolitan University. 9(4). 61-68. Kong, X., & Gimmestad, M. J. (1998). 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Retrieved February 21, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.futuresproject.org/publications/competitive_world.pdf Overbeek, V. M. (1997). On internationalization, student mobility and quality assurance. Higher Education Management. 9(1). 49-57. Peak, D. A., & OHara, M. J. (1999). Internship and consulting engagements: Management of the university’ s liability. Journal of Managerial Issues. 11(1). 56- 76. Peterson, L. M. (1999). Consortial fundraising. New Directions for Higher Education. 27(2). 59- 65. Privateer, P. M. (1999). Academic technology and the future of higher education: Strategic paths taken and not taken. Journal of Higher Education, 70(1), 60-79. Rizvi, F., & Walsh, L. (1998). Difference, Globalisation, and the Internationalisation of Curriculum. Australian Universities Review. 41(2). 7-11. Saffu, K., & Mamman, A. (1999). Mechanics, Problems and Contributions of Tertiary Strategic Alliance: The Case of 22 Australian Universities. International Journal of Educational Management. 13(6). 281-286. Scherrens, M. W. (1999). Maximizing service provider relationships: Best practices through blended management. Washington, DC: National Association of College and University Business Officers. Schuller, T. (Ed.). (1995). The changing university. Buckingham: OUP & SRHE. Schwartz, M. P. (1998). National survey of presidential performance assessment policies and practices. Washington, DC: Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. Scoot, P. (Ed.). (1998). The globalization of Higher Education. Buckingham: OUP &SRHE. 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Soares, V. A., & Amaral, A. M. (1999). The Entrepreneurial University: A Fine Answer to a Difficult Problem? Higher Education in Europe. 24(1). 11-21. Strazhev, V. I. (1998). Higher education of Belarus on its way to transformation. A Report on the World Conference on Higher Education (Paris, October 6). Vvsheishava Shkola (Higher Education) 3 .3-6. Stromquist, N., & Basile M. (Eds.). (1999). Politics of Educational Innovations in Developing Countries. New York: Garland Publishing. Swenk, J. M. (1998). Strategic planning and fiscal benefits: Is there a link? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (23rd, Miami, FL, November 5-8). Taylor, A. L., & Karr, S. (1999). Strategic planning approaches used to respond to issues confronting research universities. Innovative Higher Education. 23(3). 221-234. Terhart, E. (1998). Formalised codes of ethics for teachers: between professional autonomy and administrative control. European Journal of Education. 33(4). 433- 444. Uebersfeld, J. (1998). The role of continuing education in the ongoing changes in higher education in the twenty-first century. Higher Education. 23(3). 357-365. Van der Werf, M. (1999). A vice-president from the business world brings a new bottom line to Penn. Chronicle of Higher Education. 46(2). A72-A75. West, A. (1999). The information technology staff crisis: Plan for it! CUP A Journal. 49, 3-7. World Directory of National Information Centers for Academic Recognition and Mobility. Division of Higher Education, UNESCO, Paris, 1994. Zagorskaya, M. (1999). Which are non-state ones? Get off! Belorusskava Delovava Gaseta (Belarusian Business Newspaper). 59. 12. Zorilla, J. F. (1998). Quality assessment in Mexican higher education. Higher Education Management. 10(3). 57-71. 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Belarusian / Russian: A ryjibH aanvK aiiM H H U H iiik o jim n a c r a n v Ha 6 B ep acH a 1 9 9 8 r o a a . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . CTaTbicTbiHHbi a a B e a m K . MiHCK: B buiiqanbH a-aH ajiiT biH H bi H3HTp. E e jia p v c b . T o c v a a p c T B O iuth H enoB eK a / H a u n o H a jib H b m OTHer o HenoBeqecK O M pa3BHTHH - 1 9 9 7 . ( 1 9 9 7 ) . M h h c k : M h h h c t c p c t b o CTaTHCTHKH h a H a ju u a P ecn yS jiH K H E e jia p y c b . E e jia p v c b . C p e a a j j i b q ejioB eK a / H aunoH ajibH biH o t h c t o HejiOBenecKOM pa3BHTHH 1 9 9 6 . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . M h h c k : M h h h c t c p c t b o c t b t h c t h k h h a H a r o n a PecnySjiH K H E e jia p y c b . Jau iK Q jib H bia vcTaHOBbi P 3 c n v 6 jiiK i E e jia p v c b / n a cTaHV Ha 1 cTvn3eH H 1 9 9 8 r o a a . ( 1 9 9 8 ) . MiHCK: B buiiqanbH a-aH am T biH H bi i p m p . n e ja r a r iH H b w K aap bi arvjibH aaavK aH biftH bix lukoji / n a c t h h v Ha 1 K acT pbroriK a 1 9 9 8 r o a a . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . MiHCK: Bbm iHajibHa-aHajiHTbiHHbi uaH Tp. P ec n v 6 jiH K a E e jia p v c b b HHtfrpax / 1 9 9 9 . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . M h h c k : M h h h c t c p c t b o CTaTHCTHKH h aH ajiH 3a P ecny6jiH K H E e jia p y c b . C n cT eM a o 6 p a30B aH H « P ecnv6jiH K H E e jia p v c b b HHtfrpax / 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 9 9 rr. ( 1 9 9 9 ) . CTaTHCTHHeCKHH c6opH H K . MHHCK: BblHHCHHTeJlbHO-aHaJIHTHHeCKHH H e m p . CTaTHCTHHecKHH O K erojH H K Pecnv6jiH K H E e jia p v c b / 1 9 9 8 . ( 1 9 9 8 ) . M h h c k : M HHHCTepcTBo CTaTHCTHKH h aH ajiH 3a P ecny6jiH K H E e jia p y c b . Y p o B eH b > k h 3 h h H acejieH H B b P ec n v 6 jiH K e E e jia p v c b / CTaTHCTHHecKHH cSopH H K . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . M h h c k : M h h h c t c p c t b o ct3 t h c t h k h h aH ajiH 3a P ecnySjiH K H E e jia p y c b . 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A: System of Education of Belarus (Academic Year 2001-2002). System of education of Belarus fr)«ctarateSt. * Higher edacatieaal\ iasthatba ■ca ataxy Pre-scheel C^ hers in the scheau deaate: 1 - on the basis of basic education without receiving secondary education; 2 - on he basis ofbasic education together with receiving secondasy education; 3 - on the basis of secondaiy education; *HPS - hi^ier professional school; ** VS - vocational school; CeareaiJeaal signs: Stagesaf edacataa: 0-hasic; _ -secandary; u -prefesienal- ® technical; E l -seceadary fecfalhd; □ -higher; Certiifcate ef education: - schaal-leaving certficate; ^ - certXicate of wo rising gaalXicatiea; -diploma afprafessieaal- techaical edacatia a; \ 1 -dfcbauaf secondary specialized edacatiaa; ^ d^baiaaf higher edacatiaa (haehelar’s degree); -Master’ sdegree; ? dfclemaaf « | caadidateef ^ sciences dip lama afdsclsref 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B: Case Study European Humanitarian University University of the Future Why this University? It is defiantly a unique Educational Institution combining the best traditions of a European classical university with those o f leading modem research Universities. EHU in Brief: EHU: The European Humanities University is a non-state establishment of undergraduate and post-graduate education in Belarus. The mission of EHU is to educate the new generation of young professionals capable of leading Belarus on its way towards civil society based on the values of European civilization. “With justification, EHU lays to being the leader in the higher education reform throughout the East Europe region of the former Soviet Union, including the Baltic States, Ukraine, Moldova, and Belarus.” Ambassador David Swartz (Former US Ambassador to Belarus). Academic Programs: There are eight departments providing for diploma-level training at the European Humanities University. Thirteen major and three minor programs 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. provide the basis of undergraduate and diploma (five-year) instruction at EHU. These include specialization programs in Philosophy, Cultural Studies, Theology, Political Science, Psychology, International Law, World Economy, Economics, History and Theory of Art, International Cultural Tourism, Computer Science (Web design and Computer Graphics). Minor programs are offered in American Studies, European Studies, and International Economic Law. Since 1997 the University has been offering Ph.D. programs in Philosophy and Law. In 2000, EHU established postgraduate programs in Psychology, Cultural Studies and Economics. The Master’ s degree program in Gender Studies, which is first ever in the NIS, was launched at EHU in 2000. In academic year 2001-2002 several new Master’ s degree programs will be initiated. These are Master’ s degree programs in International Relations, Public Administration, Religious Studies, Philosophy, and others. Founders: Founding partners of EHU were the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Culture, the Minsk City Executive Council, the Belarusian Orthodox Church, the International Humanitarian Foundation and a number of prominent personalities of Belarusian science, culture and the Church. Official and State Accreditation: The European Humanities University is the only non-state establishment of higher education in Belarus that has state-recognized university status. In 2001-2002 eleven EHU’ s major programs were certified and officially accredited by the Ministry of Education of Belarus. 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The mission of the EHU is twofold: educate the new generation of young professionals capable of leading Belarus on its way towards civil society based on the values of European civilization; promote liberalization and internationalization of higher education in Belarus and neighboring countries. Legal Status and Governance: After the adoption of the new Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus in 1999, the EHU reconfirmed its status as a non-profit educational establishment. The EHU founders appointed a new Supervisory Board consisting of distinguished academic and public figures to control EHU activities in a publicly open manner. Among the functions of this Board is to elect the Rector of the EHU. The supervision of the academic activities of the University is provided by the EHU Senate under the chairmanship of the Rector. Accreditation and International Recognition: The European Humanities University is the only non-state establishment of higher education in Belarus that has a state recognized university status. Following the attestation inspection in 1998, the Belarusian Ministry of Education reconfirmed this status. The final inspection document sets forward that the EHU “meets [national] requirements for university-type establishments of higher education.” In 1999-2001, eleven EHU's major programs were certified and officially accredited by the Belarusian Ministry of Education. 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. What helps the University to address the global challenges are its partners. Just to mention a few: Foreign Partners: Brvant College. Rhode Island. USA Central Connecticut State University. USA Central European University, Budapest, Hungary Departement Francophone de Sciences Politiques et Administratives de I'Universite de Marmara a Istanbul, Turkey Europa-Universitat Viadrina, Frankfurt/Oder, Germany Fachhochschule des Bundes fur offentliche Verwaltung, Bruhl, Germany Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Aix-en-Provence, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Bordeaux, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Grenoble, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Lille, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Lyon, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Renne, France Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Strasbourg, France Institut fur Recht der Wirtschaft an der Universitat Hamburg, Germany Institute of International Relations and Political Science, Vilnius University, Lithuania Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Institute of State and Law, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia International Association for the Promotion of Co-operation with Scientists from the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union (INTAS) Jackson State University. Mississippi. USA Kunstakademie Munster, Germany Orthodox Church Academy, St. Petersburg, Russia 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Orthodox Church Seminary, St. Petersburg, Russia Presovska univerzita v Presove, Slovakia Rutgers University. USA St. Andrew Bible and Theology Studies Institute, Moscow, Russia St. John Russian Orthodox University, Moscow, Russia St. Tikhon Orthodox Theology Institute, Moscow, Russia Suffolk University. Boston. USA Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland Universitat Frieburg, Switzerland Universidad de Alcal& de Henares, Spain University of Bologna, Italy Universite de Bourgogne, France Universitat-Gesamthochschule Essen, Germany Universite Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV, France University of Western Ontario. Canada Academic programs: European Dimension: Today thirteen major and three minor programs provide the basis for undergraduate and diploma studies at the EHU. These include major programs in Philosophy, Cultural Studies, Theology, Political Science, Psychology, International Law, World Economy, Economics, History and Theory of Art, Art Design, International Cultural Tourism, Computer Science (Web design and Computer Graphics). Minor programs are offered in European Studies, International Economic Law, and American Studies. As of academic year 2001-2002, more than 900 undergraduate students are enrolled in the University's academic programs 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Library: The EHU Library is one of the best libraries among the private higher educational establishments in Belarus. It possesses a rich stock of volumes and reference materials for teaching and research, including unique collection of literature in foreign languages on the humanities and social sciences, which makes up 50% of the EHU holdings. The development of the library is made possible thanks to donations and support from international organizations and foreign donors. Information and resource base: At present, the local network links nearly 200 computers, located in the EHU’ s five computer labs, library, departments, centers, and other units and provides access to information resources and databases within both the EHU network and on the Internet. The Internet facilities of the EHU provide access to internet resources and e- mail accounts for the EHU faculty, staff members and students of the EHU. The web servers provide for allocation of official information about the EHU, its departments, and research centers, as well up-load personal pages of the faculty and students. Internet communication is also supported by the EHU News and LDAP servers while the VPN server provides for an authorized secure access to the EHU local network from computers connected to the Internet. Supporting Organizations and institutions: The EHU is grateful to all organizations and individuals for their invaluable contribution to and assistance in the development of various EHU academic programs and university in general. Below is the list (in alphabetical order) of major contributors that have provided assistance and support to the EHU. 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. American Councils for International Education Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the U.S. Department of State Center for Civic Education. Calabasas. California. USA Christian Johnson Foundation. USA Civic Education Project. New Haven. USA Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), Germany Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Germany Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Germany Deutsche Stiftung fur intemationale rechtliche Zusammenarbeit e.V., Germany Eurasia Foundation. USA European Commission European Humanities University Foundation. USA Higher Education Support Program, OSI, Budapest, Hungary John D. and Catherine T, MacArthur Foundation. USA Ministare des Affaires Etrangares de France OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights Regierung des Bundeslandes Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany Robert Bosch Stiftung, Germany Transform-Programm der Bundesregierung, Germany Funding: Figure S. European Humanitarian University: Restricted Incomes (Academic Year 2000-2001) EHU R e s tr ic te d In c o m e s A ca d em ic Y ear OO/Oli C ertificate I n s titu tio n a l s u p p o rt U n d erg ra d u ate p rogram s f t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The EHU’ s financial statistics show a steady increase in the university’ s unrestricted incomes that are generated from educational and other services like pre admission training courses, printing and publishing activity. Since 1998 the share of unrestricted funding in the EHU’ s annual budget has grown from 28% up to 39%. Taking into account the university’ s expanding external support, which has enlarged by 27% since 1998, the EHU’ s financial performance can be regarded as a positive and important step towards self-sufficiency. Despite the fact that 61% of the 2000- 2001’ s university budget is funded from international grants and donations, the internal structure of restricted funding has significantly changed from institutional support to that provided for new academic and research activities. The diagram in Figure A reflects the EHU’ s restricted incomes. It shows a relatively small, only 10%, share of institutional financial assistance. Figure 6. European Humanitarian University: Funding (Academic Year 2000-2001) EHU F u n d in g A c a d e m ic Y e a r 0 0 /0 1 U n r e s tr ic te d re s o u rc e s 6 1 % B R e s tric te d r e s o u r s e s Most of the restricted funding represents large external investments into graduate and certificate programs that are important elements of the university education. These programs are largely supported by the MacArthur Foundation, the Eurasia Foundation, the European Union and through subsidies from other international foundations and donor organizations. 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Higher Education Support Program of OSI and the French Embassy in Minsk provide considerable support to EHU’ s undergraduate students through scholarships and internationally funded projects. The EHU Foundation plays a growing role in the EHU’ s fund-raising initiatives. It “exists for the purpose of promoting societal transformations in the former Soviet Union through support for private higher education, specifically targeted activities at the European Humanities University” (Ambassador David H. Swartz (retired), EHU Foundation President's message, Bridges, Winter 2001). Ambassador David H. Swartz (retired), EHU Foundation President's message, Bridges, Winter 2001: “I created the EHU foundation in 1996 for the purpose stated above: A tax-exempt 501(c) (3) private foundation approved by the IRS, we exist through grants from various organizations and through donations from individual contributors. The vast majority of our income goes to direct program support of EHU.” 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Higher education reforms in Belarus: Initial goals and results in the context of globalization and internationalization of higher education
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