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The relationship of body composition to self-concept, self-esteem and depression before and after a regular exercise program

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF BODY COMPOSITION
TO SELF-CONCEPT, SELF-ESTEEM AND DEPRESSION
BEFORE AND AFTER A REGULAR EXERCISE PROGRAM
By
Carrie Elisabeth Gleckner
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(Exercise Science)
December 1995
Copyright 1995 Carrie Elisabeth Gleckner
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UMI Number: 1379585
Copyright 1995 by
Gleckner, Carrie Elisabeth
All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 1379S85
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UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007
This thesis, w ritten by
under the direction o f A ar Thesis Com m ittee,
and approved by a ll its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the D ean o f The
G raduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the
requirements fo r the degree of
Carrie Elisabeth Gleckner
Master of Arts
Y)ntP December 19, 1995
THESIS COMMITTEE
i irirutn
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ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The thesis process would have been near impossible
without the help of many people to whom I feel indebted.
The first two people I must thank are my mother, Dr. Dorothy
S. Gleckner, and my father, C. Richard Gleckner. Thanks to
Mom for all her tireless (and skillful) editing. She was
always willing and able to edit and provide input at any
time of the day. I am truly grateful for her help in my
life. Thanks to Dad for all his financial support. Without
his little gifts, the quality of my life would be
significantly different and more stressful.
Thanks to Dr. John L. Callaghan, my advisor, for his
support and encouragement, as well as hours of editing,
throughout the years. I am truly blessed with a wonderful
advisor, who has helped to make a Ph.D. an attainable goal.
Thanks to Dr. Robert Wiswell and Dr. Bob Girandola for their
support in various aspects of the thesis process.
Thanks to my dear friend, Dr. Nora Constantino, for all
her advice and guidance. Her support and encouragement has
been inspirational throughout my entire graduate school
experience. Thanks to Nora, Kim dos Remedios, Kyle
Tarpening and Tony Ross, my fellow graduate students, for
taking the time out of their own busy schedules to assist in
the collection of my data. Thanks to Becky Hendricks, Jamie
Spencer and Beth Ali, undergraduate students, for a semester
of dedication in assisting with the collection of my data.
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Table of Contents
111
CHAPTER PAGE
I INTRODUCTION.................................... 1
Statement of the problem.......................11
Purpose of the Study...........................12
Hypothesis..................................... 13
Definition of Terms............................13
Limitations of the Study.......................14
Assumptions of the Study.......................14
Significance of the Study......................15
Summary........................................ 15
II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.......................17
Exercise and Self-Concept..................... 19
Exercise and Self-Esteem...................... 24
Exercise and Depression....................... 25
Exercise and Perception....................... 28
III METHODOLOGY.................................... 33
Subject Description............................33
Instrumentation................................ 34
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale..............34
Self-Esteem Inventory.....................36
Depression Adjective Check List...........36
Demographic & Perception Questionnaire....37
Body Measurements..............................38
Height and Weight.........................38
Body Composition..........................38
Procedure...................................... 39
Pre-test.................................. 39
Counseling................................40
Weigh-in.................................. 41
Post-test................................. 41
IV RESULTS........................................ 43
Subject Description............................43
Measurements................................... 44
Psychological Measurements.....................46
Change Scores..................................50
T-test Results.................................51
Correlations-Pre-test..........................52
Correlations-Post-test.........................53
Perceived body composition........... 54
Correlation-Change Scores......................55
Discussion..................................... 56
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iv
V CONCLUSION......................................59
Mastery Theory................................. 61
Social Reinforcement........................... 61
Conclusion......................................62
Recommendations for future research.............62
REFERENCES......................................65
APPENDICES...............................................74
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V
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Pre-test Measurement (Means & S.D.)............. 45
2. Post-test Measurement (Means & S.D.)............. 45
3. Pre-test Questionnaires (Means & S.D.)........... 47
4. Post-test Questionnaires (Means & S.D.)......... 47
5. Pre-test Self-Concept Sub-Scales (Means & S.D.)..48
6. Post-test Self-Concept Sub-Scales (Means & S.D.).49
7. Change Scores (Post minus Pre-test)............. 50
8. T-test Results...................................51
9. Correlation Pre-test.............................52
10. Correlation Post-test............................53
11. Correlation Change Scores....................... 55
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1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The research in this paper focuses on body composition,
one of the components of fitness and improved body
composition that may be the result of a regular exercise
program. Body composition is defined as the ratio of fat
weight to lean body mass and is expressed as a percentage of
fat in relationship to total body weight. Generally,
improved body composition is one of the physiological
benefits of regular exercise. The study investigates
measured body composition and perceived body composition,
before and after a regular exercise program, to determine if
a relationship exists between body composition and the
psychological constructs of self-concept, self esteem and
depression.
The current study also examines whether changes in body
composition are related to changes in self-concept, self
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2
esteem and depression, after a period of regular exercise.
The study presents an investigation of real, or perceived,
improvements in body composition and uses three separate
test measures to evaluate improvements in self-concept, self
esteem and depression.
The physiological benefits of participating in a
regular exercise regimen are well established (Blair & Kohl,
1989; Hagberg, 1990; Kannel & Sorlie, 1979; Koplan,
Caspersen, & Powell, 1989; Mason & McGinnis, 1990). Studies
about the physiological benefits of exercise show improved
cardiovascular efficiency (Drinkwater, Harvath, & Wells,
1975; Hickson, Hagberg, Ehsani, & Hollozy, 1981; Hoppeler,
Howald, & Conley et al., 1985) improved strength and
endurance (Anderson & Kearney, 1982; Berger, 1965; wilmore,
1974; Wilmore 1975), improved stamina (Cooper, 1982; Blair
1991), and improved body composition and weight loss (Depres
et al., 1984; Gwinup, 1987; Hill, Sparling, Shields, &
Heller, 1987; Kohrt, Malley, Ehsani, & Hollozy, 1989;
Walberg 1989).
The psychological benefits of regular exercise are also
acknowledged in the literature. At the present time, there
are numerous suggestions as to why and how physical activity
affects the psychological variables that exist. The
literature refers to theories dealing with the psychological
effects of physical activity, for example, Plante and Rodin
(1990) published a meta-analysis on the psychological
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benefits associated with physical activity and identified
eight different theories that exist. These eight theories
are as follows:
1. Exercise provides people with a sense of mastery,
control and self-efficacy through improved
physical fitness (Bandura, 1977; Ismail &
Trachtman, 1973).
2. Exercise is like a form of meditation and is
accompanied by altered and more relaxed states of
consciousness (Buffone, 1980).
3. Exercise is like biofeedback, teaching the
exercisers to regulate their autonomic arousal
(Hollandsworth, 1979).
4. Exercise provides a distraction from the
unpleasantries, cognitions, emotions and
behaviors, of daily life (Long, 1983).
5. Exercise allows the experience of the
physiological symptoms of emotional stress and
anxiety without the emotional component and this
results in improved psychological functioning
(Hughes, 1984).
6. Exercise provides substantial social reinforcement
which leads to improved psychological states
(Hughes, 1984).
7. Exercise is a buffer that decreases the strains
caused by the stresses of life (Kobasa, Maddi, &
Puccetti, 1982).
8. Exercise competes with the negative effects of
anxiety and depression in the somatic and
cognitive systems (Schwartz, Davidson and Goleman,
1978).
There have been some excellent research studies showing
that psychological benefits occur after a period of regular
exercise (i.e. decreased depression after participating in
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4
regular exercise) (LaFontaine et al. 1992). Yet, there is
little scientific evidence to explain these psychological
benefits or to support the theories that exist. Since
different types of exercise (i.e. weight training and
cardiovascular exercise) have been shown to have an egually
positive effects on the various psychological variables, it
is important to examine the common denominators among the
types of exercise to determine the factors involved in
psychological improvement. One of the common denominators
between weight training and cardiovascular exercise may be
improved body composition. Therefore, an investigation of
body composition and any relationship to the psychological
variables is important. Of the studies that have examined
exercise and self-concept, self-esteem and depression, only
four measured body composition (Collingwood & Willet, 1971;
Melnick & Mookerjee, 1991; Balogun, 1987; Folsom-Meek,
1991). The four studies examined only self-concept; self
esteem and depression were not included. Two of the four
studies were with children (Collingwood and Willet, 1971;
Folsom-Meek, 1991) and only one of these two would be
considered a valid study (Folsom-Meek, 1991). The Folsom-
Meek study did show a negative correlation to exist between
body fat and self-concept. The remaining two studies used
adults and, only one examined the correlation between body
composition and self-concept (Melnick & Mookerjee, 1991;
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Balogun 1987). Balogun (1987) found that a negative
correlation between body fat and self-concept existed.
The following is a brief review of the existing
literature on the relationship of exercise to self-concept,
self-esteem and depression. The review will make clear that
a relationship does exist but that the reasons for these
psychological benefits are unclear and have yet to be
investigated thoroughly.
Exercise and self-concept
Self-concept has been an area of interest for
researchers examining the psychological effects of exercise.
Measures of physical fitness have been shown as having a
possible relationship to self-concept. Brown & Harrison
(1986) used muscular-strength testing to study the
relationship of exercise to self-concept, as measured by the
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Brown & Harrison (1986)
compared two age groups of women. The mean age of the young
group was 21.5 years and the mean age for the mature group
was 44.4 years. After a 12 week strength training program
both groups showed significant positive changes in strength
and total self-concept. The groups also showed positive
changes in the physical self and self-satisfaction, self-
concept subscales when compared to their respective control
groups. An interesting addition to Brown and Harrison's
study would have been if body composition had been included
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in this study, since it is probable that increased strength
was accompanied by increased lean body mass (Rosenbluh-
Edward, 1985; Ellam, Fieldman, Garlick & Goldsmith, 1994).
Trujillo (1983) examined running and weight-training
programs in relationship to the self-concept of college-age
women (although the author refers to it as self-esteem)
measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Weight
training and running programs were found to increases the
women's self-concept significantly. The amount of increase
was significantly greater for the weight-training program.
Balogun (1987) examined the five components of fitness; body
composition, flexibility, muscular endurance, muscular
strength and aerobic capacity, and their relationship to
self-concept. Of these five components of fitness, only
body composition, which was measured with skin calipers, had
a significant relationship to self-concept. Balogun's study
found that a significant inverse relationship existed
between body composition and self-concept as measured by the
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale.
The relationship between physical fitness and self-
concept in children has also been a topic for researchers.
Several studies using children have been able to show a
relationship between body composition and self-concept.
Folsom-Meek (1991) used grade-school children to establish a
relationship between self-concept and the various physical
fitness measures. Aerobic endurance, muscular endurance,
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7
flexibility and body composition, measured with skin
calipers, were assessed. Self-Concept was measured by the
Martinek-Zaichkowsky self-concept Scale for Children
(Martinek & Zaichkowsky, 1977). Folsom-Meek found that body
Composition was significantly and inversely related to self-
concept and was the best predictor, of all measures, of
self-concept.
Exercise and self-esteem
Several researchers have looked at the relationship
between exercise and self-esteem. As early as 1968, Biles
found positive improvement in self-esteem when college-age
women participated in physical education classes (Biles,
1968). Berscheid, Walster & Bohrnstedt (1973) evaluated 200
questionnaires submitted by Psychology Today readers and
found that for both male and females, body image was highly
related to self-esteem. Sonstroem (1981) investigated the
existing research in an effort to make recommendations for
expository research in this area. Sonstroem stated that
"Today's society presents the slim, physically-fit body as
an attractive priority", which suggests that there is a
relationship between body composition and self-esteem
(Sonstroem, 1981). Hoiberg (1978) showed that young men in
the Marines assigned to a Physical Conditioning Platoon for
being overweight or "physically marginal", had highly
significant increases in self-evaluation of weight, body
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build, strength, or width of shoulders after increased
fitness and related weight loss.
Exercise and depression
Studies examining the effects of exercise on depression
have been another area of interest for many researchers
(Rape, 1987; Morgan, 1985; Greist et al., 1979; Van Loon,
Schwartz, & Sole, 1979). This area of the research shows a
link between physical activity and psychological benefits
which appears to be acknowledged in the literature but, at
the same time, there appears to be no concrete explanations
which are accepted in this area of research. Most of the
studies that investigate the anti-depressive effects of
exercise, examine the relationship between cardiovascular
exercise (primarily running) and depression (Rape, 1987;
Griest et al., 1979).
Rape (1987) studied normal young adults and the
relationship between running and depression. Rape found
that runners are significantly less depressed than
non-exercisers and that cardiovascular fitness (measured by
a 5-minute step test) correlates with depression scores (on
the Beck depression adjective check list).
Other researchers have investigated the effects of
running as a treatment for depression. For instance, Greist
et al. (1979) showed that running was as effective in
alleviating depressive symptoms as more traditional methods
of treatment. The most common theory explaining the
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9
relationship between exercise and depression seems to be the
changes of the brain epinephrine and norepinephrine levels.
Some researchers have found increased levels of epinephrine
and norepinephrine after aerobic exercise (Morgan 1985, Van
Loon, Schwartz, & Sole, 1979). Changes in epinephrine and
norepinephrine levels have been explained by an increase in
cardiovascular fitness. Williams & Getty (1986) measured
beta-endorphins and a relationship between plasma beta-
endorphin levels and depression levels was not found and led
the researchers to conclude that changes in mood states were
not biochemical. Recently, researchers have begun to
investigate the possible association of nonaerobic exercise
and depression. Doyne et al. (1987) assigned 40 majorly and
minorly-depressed women into three groups, running, weight
lifting (nonaerobic exercise), or a waiting-list (no
exercise) condition. Doyne et al. (1987) found that there
was no significant difference between the running and
weight-lifting conditions in depression reduction. Both
running and weight lifting had a positive effect on the
reduction of depression. Emery and Blumenthal (1987)
compared the effects of weight training and aerobic exercise
using male subjects. Emery and Blumenthal found that the
exercise of both the weight training and aerobics groups
equally affected depression. The two previous studies
particularly illustrate the fact that exercise, which is not
cardiovascular, does have an improving effect on depression.
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10
Stein & Motta (1992) examined the relationship of
swimming and weight-training with depression and self-
concept. Stein and Motta utilized the Beck Depression
Inventory (Beck, 1978), and the Depression Adjective Check
List (Lubin, 1965), for measuring depression and the
Tennessee Self-concept Scale (Fitts, 1965) for measuring
self-concept. Improvement in cardiovascular efficiency was
found for the swimmers but not for the weight trainers as
was expected. Further results showed no difference in self-
concept between the aerobic and nonaerobic training groups
post exercise. However, there were significant differences
between the aerobic and control groups and the nonaerobic
and control groups on the depression scales. On the other
hand, there was no significant difference between the
aerobic and control groups in reference to self-concept.
There was a significant difference between the nonaerobic
group and control group as well as the nonaerobic and
aerobic group in reference to self-concept. The authors
concluded that "over-all self-concept may be tied to
perceptions about one's body and physical appearance."
(Stein & Motta, 1992 P.87)
Summary
Common sense may tell us that there may be some truth
in all of the suggestions identified by Plante and Rodin in
the 1990 meta-analysis, that explain the psychological
benefits of exercise. It appears that each study mentioned
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11
does show some relationship that may exist between the
physical and the psychological states of a human being. The
present study will investigate more closely one specific
physiological benefit of exercise, which is improved body
composition. In addition, the present study will attempt to
determine whether there is a possible relationship of body
composition to the psychological constructs of self-concept,
self-esteem and depression.
Statement of the Problem
No concrete evidence exists in the research to explain
why regular exercise appears to have a positive
psychological affect on individuals participating in regular
exercise. An investigation of what the underlying
constructs for the psychological benefits occurring from
regular exercise will add an important component to the
literature. Body composition is one of the possible links
to solving this problem. Since both aerobic and nonaerobic
exercise have been shown to be equally effective in
improving self-concept, self-esteem and in treating
depression, it is important for researchers to look at the
common denominators between the two types of exercise.
Improved body composition is one of the common denominators.
No research has isolated and examined solely measured body
composition and perception of body composition to determine
if any relationships exist between body composition and
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12
self-concept, self-esteem and depression. To date, no
research has examined solely body composition, before and
after a period of regular exercise, to determine if a
relationship exists between changes in body composition and
the psychological benefits that may occur after regular
exercise.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of the current study is, firstly, to
examine if a relationship exists between measured body
composition and the psychological constructs of self-
concept, self esteem and depression. Secondly, the purpose
is to examine whether or not changes in body composition
that occur after a period of regular exercise will affect
self-concept, self esteem, and depression. Thirdly, the
purpose is to determine whether or not a relationship exists
between a subjects' perception of body composition and the
psychological constructs of self-concept, self esteem and
depression. Lastly, this study will examine whether or not
changes in perceived body composition that occur after a
period of regular exercise will affect self-concept, self
esteem and depression.
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13
Hypotheses
1. Lower percentage of body fat will be correlated
with higher self-concept and self-esteem and lower
depression. Higher percentage of body fat will be
correlated with lower self-concept and self-esteem
and higher depression.
2. Higher self perception (10) will be correlated
with higher self-concept and self-esteem and lower
depression. Lower self perception (1) will be
correlated with lower self-concept and self-esteem
and higher depression. Perception of body
composition is on a scale of 1-10 with 10 being a
perfect 10(the most positive perception) and 1
meaning needing improvement(the most negative
perception).
3. As measured body fat decreases self-concept and
self-esteem will increase and depression will
decrease. As perceived body composition increases
self-concept and self-esteem will increase and
depression will decrease.
Definition of Terms
A. Body Composition - Body composition refers to the
percentage of body weight that is fat in relation to
that which is lean body weight.
B. Depression - Depression is feelings of sadness (and the
behavioral and physiological correlates thereof),
without adequate justification. (Ledwidge, 1980)
C. Depression Adjective Check List fDACL^ (Lubin 1965f -
The DACL is a list of 22 positive and 10 negative
adjectives which the subjects are expected to check as
they describe how they feel (Depression Adjective Check
List Manual).
D. Perception of body composition - How an individual
feels about how their body looks, on a scale from 1-10.
E. Self-Concept - Self-concept is traditionally thought of
as a large entity and is defined as an individual's
knowledge concerning all aspects of who one is.
(Rhodewalt & Agustsdottir, 1986)
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14
F. Self-esteem - Within the large entity of self-concept
lies self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967). "Self-esteem is
an individual's evaluation of who one is. (Rhodewalt &
Agustsdottir, 1986)" "It is the degree to which
individuals feel positive about themselves." (Gergen,
1971)
G. Self-Esteem Inventories (SEH (Coopersmith. 1984 f - The
SEI is designed to measure evaluative attitudes toward
the self in social, academic, family, and personal
areas of experience (The Self-Esteem Inventories
Manual, pp 1)."
H. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale fTSCS) (Roid & Fitts.1991)
The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale consists of 100 self-
descriptive statements that the respondent uses to
portray his or her own self-picture (Tennessee Self-
Concept Manual, pp 1)."
Limitations of the Study
The subjects in this study are female undergraduate
students, attending a private four-year university in
Southern California. The study is limited to students
registered in physical activity classes in the Department of
Exercise Science. All of the students volunteered to
participate as subjects in the study.
Assumptions of the study
The study assumes that all subjects will make an honest
attempt throughout the semester to achieve personal exercise
goals set for the semester and will maintain the necessary
exercise regimen. Also, the study assumes that self-kept
exercise logs will be accurate representations of the
subjects' activity level throughout the semester.
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15
Significance of the Study
Information gathered from the current study will
attempt to determine more specifically how exercise is
related to improved self-concept, improved self-esteem and
decreased depression. Previous studies have shown a
relationship between exercise and psychological constructs
but, existing studies have examined different exercise
interventions (aerobic or nonaerobic) which show similar
changes in self-concept, self esteem and depression. One
common factor that exists between aerobic and nonaerobic
exercise that has not been examined in previous studies is
improved body composition. Therefore, it appears to be
important to isolate and investigate solely body composition
and the affect which a real change, or perceived change, in
body composition has on self-concept, self-esteem and
depression as a possible contributor to the relationship of
exercise and improvement of the various psychological
constructs. The few studies that have included a measure of
body composition but have not isolated body composition,
found a significant inverse relationship between body
composition or body image and self-concept and self-esteem.
Summary
Physiological and psychological benefits of changing
body composition for the better may have a positive affect
on, and a relationship to, self-esteem, self-concept and may
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lower the depression level of human beings. The current
study will measure the change in body composition (real or
perceived), after a period of regular exercise and determine
if there is a change in self-esteem, self concept and
depression levels of the subjects.
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17
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Research in the area of exercise and its psychological
effects was examined by Plante and Rodin (1990). The review
discussed the fact that "the research published since 1980
about the effects of exercise on personality functioning and
self-concept, consistently suggests that exercise improves
self-concept, self-esteem and self-assurance (Plante & Rodin
1990, P. 10)11. Exercise has also been shown to positively
affect depression (Rape, 1987; Lafontaine et al., 1992). A
widely-accepted fact is that exercise has a positive effect
on an individual psychologically. But, how it works has not
unequivocally been agreed upon. Studies of various types of
exercise have been able to show positive psychological
effects. Aerobic (Running, Swimming, Aerobic Dance) and
non-aerobic (Weight training) have all been shown
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18
individually in the research to have a positive effect on
self-concept and self esteem and to reduce depression. Yet,
the underlying mechanisms that are the cause for these
positive psychological effects are not agreed upon.
As stated earlier, the Plante & Rodin (1990) meta
analysis identified eight theories of how exercise might
positively effect various psychological constructs. Hughes
(1984) completed a critical analysis and identified many of
the same or similar theories. Hughes identified exercise as
being effective because it acts as a diversion from the
situations that create anxiety and depression. The idea is
that, for subjects, it is "difficult to ruminate about their
problems when they are exercising" (Hughes, 1984, P.74).
Hughes identified the theory of social reinforcement stating
the success of all psychological therapies may, in fact,
rely on social reinforcement. However, some studies have
utilized groups that received counseling only compared with
groups receiving exercise and counseling combined and found
that the exercise and counseling group was superior in
treating depression compared with the counseling only group.
Considering the latter fact suggests that there is some
additional benefit from exercise above and beyond the social
reinforcement. Hughes identifies the mastery theory which
suggests, "that as exercisers readily perceive their
improved physical state mastery occurs (Hughes, 1984, P.
74). Hughes also states that "the mastery experience
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19
improves the individual's self-confidence, which in turn
makes it easier for the individual to tackle problems
(Hughes 1984, pp 74)." Hughes additionally identifies the
theory that suggests that repeated pairings of the somatic
symptoms of stress and anxiety without the cognitive
symptoms improves the person's ability to deal with these
symptoms. Lastly, Hughes identifies the biochemical theory
which suggests that improved neurotransmission, after
regular exercise, of norepinephrin, serotonin, or dopamine
may have an antidepressant effect. The biochemical theory
has lost popularity over the years and the reasons for this
will be explained in detail later in this paper.
Exercise and Self-Concept
Self-concept is traditionally thought of as a large
entity and is defined as all aspects of knowledge concerning
who one is (Rhodewalt & Agustsdottir, 1986). Within this
large entity of self-concept lies self-esteem (Coopersmith,
1967). Pargman (1993) described self-concept as being an
interaction of the numerous real capabilities of an
individual, which are the result of his or her own cognitive
schema in which information derived from the social and
physical environment, is processed about the self, and the
social environment itself. A great deal of research has
focused on the connection between self-concept and exercise.
A correlation between exercise and the positive effect on
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20
self-concept is widely recognized. No concrete evidence
exists to explain the benefits of regular exercise and only
one valid study using adult subjects shows a relationship
between self-concept and body composition (Balogun, 1981).
The 1990 review of research published by Plante & Rodin
stated that of the six studies reviewed which examined self-
concept and exercise, all of the studies reported a
significant association between exercise and self-concept.
Tucker (1990; 1983; 1982) has published several studies
in the area of weight training and self-concept using male
college students as subjects and can be quoted as having
stated that "regular weight-training tends positively and
significantly to affect the self-concepts of college males."
(Tucker 1982, P. 1059). In 1983, Tucker examined 272
university males, 142 weight trainers and 130 controls. The
mean age was 21 years. The Tennessee Self-concept Scale was
used as the measure of self-concept. Specifically,
internal, external and global self-concept were the area of
focus. The sum of one max repetitions on the bench press,
squat and arm curl were the measure of strength. After a
16-week training program, the experimental group showed a
significant increase in total muscular strength and differed
significantly from the controls on all of the psychological
variables with the weight trainers scoring higher in self-
concept. One of the explanations Tucker gives for this
increase in self-concept is the increase in mesomorphic
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21
qualities as a result of weight training and the fact that
these mesomorphic qualities are socially desirable.
Tucker's conclusion combines two theories of why exercise
benefits individuals psychologically. Tucker's study
combines Hughes' 1994 theory that exercise provides
substantial social reinforcement which leads to improved
psychological states and the author's theory in the present
study that body composition is related to self-concept.
Another study by Tucker (1982) which utilized the
Tennessee Self-concept Scale and focused on the effects of
weight training on total self-concept scores in college
males showed a positive result. The 60 male weight trainers
scored significantly higher in total self-concept than the
45 controls after a 16-week training program.
Brown & Harrison (1986) also showed that after a 12-
week exercise strength-training program, both a young and an
old group of females improved in self-concept as well as
strength.
None of the studies that show a relationship between
strength training and self-concept included a measure of
body composition. After the strength training programs the
subjects probably had changes in their body composition but
body composition was not measured. Tucker (1982) mentioned
that the improved mesomorphic qualities of the subjects in
his study may indeed play a role in the changes in self-
concept .
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22
Perri & Templer (1985) compared an elderly population
of 23 subjects, with a mean age of 66 years, who formed an
aerobic exercise group to a control group of 19 subjects,
with a mean age of 65. The Tennessee Self-concept scale was
used to measure self-concept. After a 14-week exercise
program the aerobic exercise group improved significantly in
self-concept more when compared to the control group. The
participants in the aerobic exercise group reported a loss
of excess weight at the conclusion of the study and reported
that they had learned that participation in exercise could
improve their physical health and appearance.
Trujillo (1983) examined self-concept and the
relationship to both cardiovascular (running) and weight-
training programs. Trujillo use the Tennessee Self-Concept
Scale to measure self-concept in college-age women.
However, when Trujillo reports his data, he refers to his
psychological variable as self-esteem. Regardless, the
study showed that both groups had significant increases in
self-esteem after participating in the exercise. In
Trujillo's study, the weight training group had a
significantly greater increase than the cardiovascular
group.
Hilyer and Mitchell (1979) compared the self-concept of
subjects in a 10-week exercise group, a 10-week exercise-
plus counseling group and a 10-week control group (no
exercise, no counseling) and found that subjects in the
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23
exercise-plus counseling group improved the most in self-
concept .
Brown & Harrison (1986) examined both college-age (mean
age 21.5) and older (mean age 44.4) subjects and found an
increase in total self-concept due to exercise treatment
regardless of age.
Two studies that included a valid measure of body
composition show an inverse relationship exists between
self-concept and body composition. That is, as an
individual's percent of body fat decreases their self-
concept increases. Balogun (1987) used the five components
of fitness and found that of the five components of fitness,
only body composition was significantly correlated with
self-concept. Flexibility, muscular endurance, muscular
strength and aerobic capacity were not significantly
correlated with self-concept which suggests that one of the
keys to improved psychological functioning after a period of
regular exercise may be improvement in body composition.
Folsom-Meek (1991) examined grade-school children and the
various physical fitness measures. As with the Balogun
(1987) study with adults, Folsom-Meek found a significant
correlation with body composition and found that aerobic
endurance, muscular endurance, and flexibility were not
related to self-concept. Both studies show an inverse
relationship to exist between self-concept and body
composition.
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24
Exercise and Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers specifically to an individual's
evaluation of who one is (Rhodewalt & Augustsdottir 1986).
Research dealing with exercise and self-esteem is less
specific. One reason for this might very well be that many
researchers believe there is no distinction between self
esteem and self-concept. However, as stated previously, the
traditional thought is that self-concept is a larger entity
with self-esteem falling within self-concept (Rhodewalt &
Augustsdottir 1986). As with the exercise and self-concept
research, exercise also has a positive effect on self
esteem. Individuals who exercise regularly tend to have
higher self-esteem and, following training periods, self
esteem has been shown to improve.
Melnick & Mookerjee (1991) specifically examined self
esteem. Melnick and Mookerjee compared 27 college-age
students (mean age=23.6) who were involved in a weight-
training class with a control group of 30 students enrolled
in a theory course (mean age=23.9). Melnick & Mookerjee
utilized the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (1965) to measure
self-esteem and assessed strength with a one maximum
repetition bench press and leg press. Upon the completion
of training, the weight-training group was significantly
higher in self-esteem than the non-training group.
Biles (1968) also found a positive improvement in self
esteem after college women participated in a physical
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education class. Hoiberg (1978) found positive improvements
in self-esteem after "physically marginal" marines
participated in a physical-conditioning platoon. Subjects
in the platoon study obtained an increase in fitness and
weight loss and an improved self-evaluation of appearance.
Sonstroem (1981) specifically suggested that there is a
relationship between body composition and self-esteem after
examining the research in the area of exercise and self
esteem. Sonstroem stated that "Today's society presents the
slim, physically-fit body as an attractive priority"
(Sonstroem 1981, p.130). But, this statement could have as
much to do with social reinforcement and acceptance as it
does with body composition. Since Sonstroem did not measure
body composition it is difficult to suggest that a
significant relationship exists between body composition and
self-concept, self-esteem and depression.
Exercise and Depression
A large area of research has been that of exercise and
depression. "The antidepressant action of exercise is one
of the most widely-accepted psychological benefits" (Byrd,
1963). The facts about the effects of exercise on
depression are also widely documented. LaFontaine et al.
(1992) did a brief review of the literature on exercise and
mood spanning from 1985-1990. Nine published studies on
depression were examined. Six of the nine studies examined
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26
either clinically-depressed subjects or subjects diagnosed
with depression. All six studies showed that exercise had a
positive effect on depression. Rape (1987) studied normal
young adults and found that runners are significantly less
depressed than non-exercisers. The majority of the research
in this area examines cardiovascular exercise and the
effects on depression. This may be due to the fact that
initially psychologists believed that the release of beta-
endorphines following aerobic activity had a medicating
effect on depressed subjects. The biochemical theory has
lost popularity over the years for several reasons. 1.) In
recent years weight-training exercise has been shown, in
some studies, to be equally as effective in treating
depression, 2.) exercise (aerobic & non-aerobic) has been
shown to be equally as effective as counseling in treating
depression and 3.) studies have not been able to find a
correlation between beta-endorphin levels and depression
levels. All three reasons have lead researchers to believe
that changes in mood states are not biochemical.
McCann & Holmes (1984) studied college-age women who
were diagnosed as being mildly depressed. The women were
randomly assigned to either an aerobic exercise group
(n=16), a relaxation group (n=15) or a control group (n=16).
After 10 weeks of treatment, the aerobics group showed
significantly lower depression scores than the other two
groups.
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Williams & Getty (1986) examined college-age subjects.
Williams & Getty diagnosed their subjects using the Zung
Self-rating Depression Scale and the depression score from
the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. Subjects
who scored within the top 10% of depression on the POMS were
administered the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale. There
were three groups: an aerobic-conditioning group (running &
aerobic dance), a non-aerobic group (the game pool & ping
pong) and a control group (psychology & chemistry classes).
The subjects participated for 10 weeks and exercised at
least 2 times per week. Beta-endorphin levels were measured
through blood samples. All groups improved equally in
relationship to depression and no relationship was found
between beta-endorphin levels and depression.
Perri & Templer (1985) also used the Zung Self-rating
Depression Scale. The subjects in this study were
considered elderly with a mean age of 66. There was an
aerobic exercise group and a control group. After 14 weeks
of exercise, the aerobic-exercise group had significantly
improved on their depression scores and the controls had not
improved.
Doyne et al. (1987) examined the effects of both
weight-training and aerobic exercise on women. The study
included aerobic, weight-training and control groups. In
conclusion, Doyne states that there was a significant
difference between the running, weight-training groups and
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28
control group. Both the running condition and the weight-
training condition were equally as effective in reducing
depression; there was no significant difference in
depression reduction between the two groups.
Similarly, Emmery & Blumenthal (1987) examined the
effects of both weight-training and aerobic exercise on male
subjects. Again, the aerobic exercise and the weight
training groups were equally as effective in reducing
depression.
Exercise and Perception
Perception may play a key role in the psychological
benefits of exercise; yet, few researchers have examined the
role of perception in relationship to any psychological
benefits that may occur due to exercise. Although, many
researchers have stated in their conclusions that perception
may be one of the keys to the psychological benefits of
exercise, no research has investigated perception.
Researchers have not examined perceived body composition and
changes in perceived body composition after participation in
an exercise program, nor have they examined the role
perception of body composition may play in the psychological
benefits of exercise.
Jasnoski et al. (1981) did investigate perception with
a walk/run intervention. Jasnoski et al. measured aerobic
capacity using Cooper's 12-minute walk/run test (Cooper,
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29
1968) and self-perceived abilities in reference to walking,
running and academic studying as well as self-perceived
ability to deal with frustration and confidence levels. All
variables were measured before and after participating in a
10-week aerobic training period. As expected, the training
group scores were higher on the aerobic capacity test, as
compared with the control group, at the end of the training.
The training group also scored higher on seven of the eight
self-perceived abilities scales and five of the training-
group scores were significantly higher. This led Jasnoski
et al. to conclude that the exercise training program
effectively helped to increase the subject's self-perceived
abilities. Importantly, however, changes in aerobic
capacity were not related to the changes in self-perceived
abilities. The latter suggests that there may be another
component in an exercise program that is responsible for
changes in self-perception which may be quite separate from
the physiological changes of exercise. Additionally,
changes in self-perception were not confined to changes in
self-perception about running and walking. Significant
changes also occurred in the subjects self-perceived
studying ability and confidence.
Vallerand & Reid (1984) concluded that increased
perceptions of competence can result from perceived success
in a physical task and can influence intrinsic motivation.
Other researchers have also concluded that there is no
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30
direct link between physiological changes and psychological
changes after participating in a regular exercise program
(Williams & Getty 1986). This conclusion has led
researchers to hypothesize that the psychological benefits
of exercise programs are related more to self-perception
changes than actual physiological changes. Tucker (1990)
concluded, after several studies on self-concept and
exercise, that "some of the psychological benefits derived
from regular exercise and improved physical fitness may be
partly a function of actual or perceived changes in body
build" (Tucker, 1990, P.194). Abadie (1988b) states, after
reviewing literature on the psychological benefits of
exercise, that "without improved self-perception, there will
be no improved psychological functioning" (Abadie 1988b,
pp.888).
Another study by Abadie (1988a) examined the
relationship of anxiety to actual and perceived physical
fitness. Abadie used a maximal treadmill stress test to
determine fitness level; the duration of each subject's
treadmill test was used as the measure of cardiovascular
physical fitness. A small significant correlation (r=.38,
p<,05) was found between perceived physical fitness and
actual cardiovascular physical fitness. Actual
cardiovascular physical fitness was not significantly
correlated with trait anxiety (r=.075, p>.05). However,
there was a small significant inverse relationship (r=-.39,
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31
p<.05) between perceived physical fitness and trait anxiety.
Abadie's (1988a) findings appear to support the fact that
perception is the key to the psychological benefits of
exercise.
Heaps (1978) theorized that social comparison of
subjects' physical states plays a key role in self-
perception which, in turn, plays a key role in the
psychological benefits of exercise. Heaps quotes Ruth
Wylie, in research completed in 1978, that Wylie stated in
the late 1960's that "Theoretically a person's body
characteristics as he perceives them might exert a central
influence on the development of his self-concept.1 1 Heaps
(1978) study examined both high and low levels of physical
feedback (actual EKG readout) and high and low levels of
social feedback (from a research "confederate"). Heaps
definition of high meant positive, subjects were told they
must be in good shape and low meant that subjects were told
they must be out of shape. This study manipulated the
subject's perceptions with a source of comparison whether it
was real or exaggerated. Results showed that actual fitness
levels were only slightly related to subject's perceived
level of fitness. Subjects perceived fitness levels were
positively related to feelings of self-acceptance and
negatively related to feelings of anxiety about bodily
functioning. Positive feedback seemed to increase both a
subject's perceived fitness level and a subject's
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32
psychological functioning. Heaps (1978) concluded that "the
participants' description of their physical-fitness levels
were influenced in predictable directions by altering the
social and physical standards of comparison available to
them during the physical fitness test." (Heaps, 1978, P.404)
The few studies (Heaps, 1978; Abadie, 1988;
Delignieres, 1994) that examine subject's perception of
fitness and it's relationship to the psychological benefits
of exercise indicate that an individual's perception of
fitness may be one of the keys to the underlying constructs
that are related to the psychological benefits of exercise.
Heaps (1978) stated that "the relative relationship of
actual and perceived physical fitness to psychological
functioning, and the relative influence social and physical
standards of comparison have on self-interpretations of
bodily states, such as physical fitness, have been unclear
and have needed to be tested" (Heaps 1978, P. 400).
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33
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Subject description
Female subjects only were asked to volunteer from five
aerobics classes and five-weight training classes at the
University of Southern California during the fall semester
of 1994. Subjects that volunteered were offered partial
credit toward their class grade for time spent participating
in the research study. Subjects did not have to participate
only in aerobics or only in weight training? subjects could
participate in both. Subjects did have to commit to
exercising at least three times a week. Since the physical
activity classes met two times per week, the subjects were
required to exercise at least one more time on their own
within a given week. The training duration was 12 weeks
between pre- and post-testing. The study began with 77
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34
subjects and had a drop-out rate of 14%, to finish with 65
subjects.
Instrumentation:
The following instruments were used for the purpose of
this study:
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) (Roid & Fitts 1991)
The TSCS consists of 100 self-descriptive
statements that the respondent uses to portray his
or her own self-picture. The scale is self
administered by either individuals or groups and
can be completed in 10-20 minutes. It can be used
with individuals aged 13 or older who can read at
approximately a fourth-grade level or higher. The
TSCS is applicable to the full range of
psychological adjustment, from healthy, well-
adjusted individuals to psychotic patients.(TSCS
Handbook, Roid & Fitts 1991, pp.l) (Appendix A)
The counseling hand-scorable form of the TSCS was used
for the purpose of this research. The counseling form
provides scores for 14 basic scales, 8 self-concept
subscales, and 6 scoring information scales. The eight
subscales are totalled to obtain one total self-concept
scale. Subjects are required to respond to each of the 100
statements on a scale of 1-5.
The self-concept scale and the eight self-concept
subscales are clearly described on the following page.
(Roid & Fitts, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale Handbook, 1991,
pp 3).
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35
The scale used by subjects to respond to the statements
is as follows:
Completely Mostly Partly False Mostly Completely
False False and True True
Partly True
1 2 3 4 5
Descriptions of total self-concept and the eight self-
concept subscales on the TSCS are as follows:
> Total Self-concept - The single most important
score on the TSCS. The score reflects overall
level of self-esteem and is a composite of the
eight self-concept subscales.
1. Identity - The individual describes his or her
basic identity, as self-perceived.
2. Self-Satisfaction - Reflects the individual's
level of self-acceptance with perceived self-
image .
3. Behavior - An individual's perception of his or
her own behavior or the way he or she functions.
4. Physical Self - An individual's view of his or her
body, state of health, physical appearance,
skills, and sexuality.
5. Moral-Ethical Self - Describes the self from a
moral-ethical frame of reference.
6. Personal Self - An individual's sense of personal
worth, feelings of adequacy as a person, and self-
evaluation of the personality apart from the body
or relationships to others.
7. Family Self - An individual's feeling of adequacy,
worth, and value as a family member.
8. Social Self - An individual's sense of adequacy
and worth in social interaction with other people
in general.
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36
Self-Esteem Inventory fSEI^ (The Adult Form) (Coppersmith
1984 ^
The SEI is designed to measure evaluative
attitudes toward the self in social, academic,
family and personal areas of experience"
(Coopersmith 1984, SEI Handbook pp. 1)
This (adult) form is used with persons aged
sixteen and above. It consists of twenty-five
items adapted from the 'original' School Short
Form. The correlation of total scores on the
School Short Form and the Adult Form exceeds .80
for three samples of high school and college
students (N=647). (The Coopersmith SEI Handbook
pp. 2).
Subjects are asked to respond to a series of 25
statements. Subjects are asked to check a box labeled "like
me" or to check a box labeled "unlike me".
(Example statement: Things usually don't bother me.)
Depression Adjective Check List (DACL) (Lubin 1965)
"The Depression Adjective Check Lists (DACL) were
developed in order to provide brief, reliable and valid
measures of self-reported depressive mood" (DACL Handbook
pp. 5). (Appendix B)
Subjects are asked to respond to 32 adjectives that
describe moods and feelings by checking the moods or
feelings that describe them at that moment. Twenty-two
adjectives are positive and ten adjectives are negative.
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37
Subjects receive a point for not checking a positive
adjective and for checking a negative adjective.
(Example adjectives positive: Safe, Sunny)
(Example adjectives negative: Miserable, Wilted)
Demographic & Perception Questionnaire
A pre-test questionnaire (Appenidx C) asking for age,
race, school year, sport and exercise history, body weight
history, goals for the duration of the study in terms of
exercise and statement of subjects' motivation to
participate in the study was developed by the researcher.
Perception of body composition was assessed by asking
subject to respond to the following statement:
Think about how your body looks right now and how
you feel about how it looks. Now rate your body
on a scale of 1-10.
Then, subjects were asked to circle the number
corresponding to how they felt about their bodies on the
following scale.
Awesome Average Needs
Improvement
10 9 S 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(10=awesome, 5=average, l=needs improvement).
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38
The post-test questionnaire (Appendix D) included
subjects' assessment of perceived body composition and a
rating on how successful subjects felt they had been in
achieving their goals for the semester.
Body Measurements:
The following measurements were taken for the
purpose of this study:
Height and weight
Height was measured while subjects were barefoot using
a standard stadiometer. Weight was measured while subjects
were barefoot using a Hohms balance beam scale (capacity,
150 kg; precision, 50g).
Body Composition
Residual Lung Volume (RLV) was measured (Hewlett
Packard nitrolyzer) by the Oxygen Dilution method (Wilmore
1969). Subjects were in a seated position. Immediately
after RLV determination, subjects entered the tank and were
hydrostatically weighed. The underwater weight at RLV was
measured (Chatillon 15 kg autopsy scale, 25 g increments).
The average of the two highest trials, from 8-10 trials, was
used to calculate body density. Percentage body fat was
calculated using Brozek's formula:
Percentage fat = 4.57/Db - 4.142 (Db = body density)
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39
Procedure:
The following procedures were used for the purposes of
this study:
Pre-test
Subjects were scheduled for two time slots. One slot
was allotted for subjects to answer the four questionnaires
(Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Coopersmith Self-esteem
Inventory, Depression Adjective Check List, Demographic &
Perception Questionnaire) and the other was for subjects to
be hydrostatically weighed. No specification was made that
subjects should do one before the other. Some subjects
filled out the questionnaires prior to being hydrostatically
weighed and others filled out the questionnaires after being
hydrostatically weighed. So as not to influence the data,
no subjects were informed of their body composition until
after all subjects had completed both steps of the pre
testing.
For the questionnaire section, subjects met in groups
in a classroom. A trained test technician gave each group
of subjects instructions for each questionnaire individually
and then administered the questionnaires one after the
other. The subjects were also asked to carefully read the
written directions to insure that there was an understanding
of what was expected to be done.
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40
For the hydrostatic weight section, subjects were asked
not to eat or exercise three hours prior to the measurement.
Subjects arrived and had their height and weight measured by
one trained test technician. Subjects then had their
residual lung volume (RLV) measured by a second trained test
technician and, finally, subjects were hydrostatically
weighed by a third trained test technician. Brozek's
formula was used to calculate percentage of body fat. Only
after all subjects had completed both the questionnaires and
body composition sections, were subjects informed of body
composition measurement.
Counseling
Subjects were scheduled to attend a one-on-one
counseling session after all pre-testing was completed. In
the session, subjects were informed of their body
composition for the first time. Each subject met with the
same counselor (the primary investigator of this study). An
exercise goal for the semester was discussed and the
counselor's responsibility was to insure that each of the
subjects had a realistic goal. Nutrition, as well as
exercise, was discussed as a means for obtaining determined
fitness goals. At this session, each subject was given an
exercise log in which subjects were asked to record all
activities that the subjects felt qualified as exercise and
to specify in the log the amount of time the subjects
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41
engaged in that activity during the next two weeks
immediately following the one-on-one counseling session.
Subjects were scheduled for a weigh-in time prior to
the completion of the one-on-one counseling session.
Subjects were expected to attend a weigh-in every two weeks
and to hand in two-week exercise logs at each weigh-in.
Weigh-in
Subjects were expected to attend a weigh-in session
every two weeks. Subjects handed in their exercise logs
from the previous two weeks at their weigh-in session.
Subjects were weighed on the same scale, at the same time of
day, every two weeks and verbally informed of their weight.
Subjects were then given a new exercise log for the next two
weeks. All subjects in the study were weighed within the
same week. Following the two weeks of pre-testing, all
subjects attended four weigh-ins throughout the training
period.
Post-test
Subjects were asked to sign up for a post-test
questionnaire session and a hydrostatic weight session.
Subjects could sign-up for the questionnaires at any time
during the two week post-test period. Subjects were
required to sign-up for the hydrostatic weighing at the same
time of day and with the same RLV test technician as in the
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42
pre-test. The test technician for the hydrostatic weighing
was the same for all subjects pre- and post-testing. After
all subjects were finished with all post testing, the pre-
and post-testing body composition measurements were written
on a log sheet which was posted by social security number
for the subjects to see their final measurements.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Subject description
Sixty-five female subjects at the university of
Southern California participated in the study. The mean age
of the subjects was 20.18 years (S.D. ±2.44) with a range of
18-33 years. Four subjects were over the age of 23 years.
Nineteen freshman, 14 sophomores, 16 juniors, 15 seniors and
1 graduate student were represented in the study. 61.5% of
the subjects were Caucasian, 4.6% were African American,
16.9% were Asian, 13.8% were Hispanic and 3.1% of the
subjects were of other racial backgrounds.
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44
Measurements
The mean height of the subjects was 64.4 inches (S.D.
±2.42) with a range of 59.5-71.3 inches (Table 1). The mean
pre-test scale weight of the subjects was 58.8 kg (S.D. ±
9.53) with a range of 40.4-91.5 kg (Table 1). The mean
post-test scale weight was 59.8 kg (S.D. ±9.31) with a range
of 41.3-94.5 kg (Table 2). The mean of pre-test measured
body composition was 23.72% body fat (S.D. ±5.71) with a
range of 14%-41.3% body fat (Table 1). The mean of post
test measured body composition was 23.20% body fat (S.D. ±
5.29) with a range of 13.8%-40% body fat (Table 2). 60% of
the subjects were below 25% body fat and 12% were above 30%
body fat. The mean of pre-test perceived body composition
(scale of 1-10) was 5.51 (S.D. ±2.17) with a range of 1-9
(Table 1). The mean of post-test perceived body composition
was 6.45 (S.D. ±2.09) with a range of 1-10 (Table 2).
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45
TABLE 1:
Measurements
Means and Standard Deviations
Pre-test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
Height 64.38 inch. 2.42 59.5-71.3
Weight 58.83 kg 9.53 40.4-91.5
Measured
Body Comp.
23.72 % fat 5.71 14.0-41.3
Perceived
Body Comp.
5.51 2.17 1-9
N=65
TABLE 2:
Measurements
Means and Standard Deviations
Post-test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
Height 64.38 inch. 2.42 59.5-71.3
Weight 59.84 kg 9.31 41.3-94.5
Measured
Body Comp.
23.20% fat 5.29 13.8-40.0
Perceived
Body Comp.
6.45 2.09 1-10
N=65
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46
Psychological Measures
The mean of pre-test total self-concept was 50.29 (S.D.
9.52) with a range of 25-74 (Table 3). The mean of post
test total self-concept was 53.45 (S.D. 10.68) with a range
of 22-74 (Table 4). The mean of pre-test self-esteem is
76.08 (S.D. 15.88), range 36-100 (Table 3). The mean of
post-test self-esteem is 77.25 (S.D. 16.66) with a range of
32-100 (Table 4). The mean of pre-test depression was 8.02
(S.D. 5.80) with a range of 0-28 (Table 3). The mean of
post-test depression was 7.17 (S.D. 5.02) with a range of 0-
27 (Table 4).
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47
TABLE 3:
Questionnaires
Means and Standard Deviations
Pre-test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
TSCS 50.29 9.52 25-75
SEI 76.08 15.88 36-100
DACL 8.02 5.80 0-28
N=65
TABLE 4:
Questionnaires
Means and Standard Deviations
Post-test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
TSCS 53.45 10.68 22-74
SEI 77.25 16.66 32-100
DACL 7.17 5.02 0-27
N=65
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The mean of the pre-test sub-categories for self-
concept are as follows: Identity-M=47.62 (S.D. 9.82), range
20-69, Self Satisfaction-M=53.02 (S.D. 10.81), range 23-80,
Behavior-M=47.32 (S.D. 9.78), range 28-67, Physical Self-
M=41.63 (S.D. 11.71), range 10-64, Moral & Ethical Self-
M=50.98 (S.D. 9.97), range 26-73, Personal Self-M=53.60
(S.D. 11.59), range 17-84, Family Self-M=51.57 (S.D. 11.05),
range 15-73, Social Self-M=52.57 (S.D. 10.68), range 26-76
(Table 5).
TABLE 5:
Self-Concept Sub-Scales
Means and Standard Deviation
Pre-Test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
Identity 47.62 9.82 20-69
Self-satisfaction 53.02 10.81 23-80
Behavior 47.32 9.78 28-67
Physical Self 41.63 11.71 10-64
Moral & Ethical Self 50.98 9.97 26-73
Personal Self 53.60 11.59 17-84
Family Self 51.57 11.05 15-73
Social Self 52.57 10.68 26-76
N=65
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49
The mean of the post-test sub-categories for self-
concept are as follows: Identity-M=49.57 (S.D. 10.20), range
29-71, Self Satisfaction-M=56.72 (S.D. 11.24), range 32-79,
Behavior-M=49.85 (S.D. 10.49), range 30-67, Physical Self-
M=43.26 (S.D. 12.43), range 14-71, Moral & Ethical Self-
M=53.55 (S.D. 10.04), range 27-74, Personal Self-M=56.54
(S.D. 11.77), range 27-85, Family Self-M=53.14 (S.D. 11.95),
range 24-71, Social Self-M=54.72 (S.D. 9.43), range 29-81
(Table 6).
TABLE 6:
Self-Concept Sub-Scales
Means and Standard Deviation
Post-Test
Variable Mean Standard
Deviation
Range
Identity 49.57 10.20 29-71
Self-Satisfaction 56.72 11.24 32-79
Behavior 49.85 10.49 30-67
Physical Self 43.27 12.43 14-71
Moral & Ethical Self 53.55 10.04 27-74
Personal Self 56.54 11.77 27-85
Family Self 53.14 11.95 24-71
Social Self 54.72 9.43 29-81
N=65
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50
Change Scores (post-test MINUS pre-test)
Measured body composition change in percent fat scores
was -.52%, overall the group reduced body fat by .52%.
Perceived body composition change score was .94, overall the
group's perceived body composition increased .94. Total
self-concept change score was 3.15, the group increased
self-concept by 3.15. Self-esteem change score was 1.17,
the group increased in self-esteem by 1.17. Depression
change score was -.85, the group decreased depression by
.85. (Table 7)
TABLE 7:
Change Scores
Post MINUS Pre-test
All Variables
Variable Mean
Measured
Body Comp.
Change
-.52
Perceived
Body Comp
Change
.94
TSCS
Change
3.15
SEI
Change
1.17
DACL
Change
-.85
N=65
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51
T-test results
There was no significant difference between pre- and
post-test measured body composition, self-esteem and
depression. There was a significant difference between pre-
and post-test perceived body composition (t=-4.82, p=.001).
There was a significant difference between pre and post-test
total self-concept (t=-3.47, p=.001). (Table 8)
TABLE 8:
T-Test Results
Variable Pre-test
Mean
Post-test
Mean
t-value
Measured
Body Comp.
23.72 23.20 1.62
Perceived
Body Comp
5.51 6.45** -4.82
TSCS 50.29 53.45** -3.47
SEI 76.08 77.25 - .89
DACL 8.02 7.17 1.15
N=65
**(Post-test is significantly different than pre-test,
P=.001)
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52
Correlations-Pre-test
Measured body composition was significantly correlated
with scaled weight (r=.70, p=.001) and all three
psychological variables were significantly correlated with
each other. Total self-concept was significantly correlated
with self-esteem (r=.60, p=.001) and depression (r=-.45,
p=.001). Self-esteem was significantly correlated with
depression (r=-.46, p=.001). Perceived body composition was
significantly correlated with measured body composition (r=-
.54, p=.001) and scale weight (r=-.44, p=.001). Perceived
body composition was significantly correlated with total
self-concept (r=.49, p=.001) and self-esteem (r=.47,
p=.001). Measured body composition was not significantly
correlated with any of the psychological variables (Table
9).
TABLE 9:
Correlation
Pre-test
Variable Measured Body
Coap.
Perceived
Body Coap.
TSCS set OKCX*
Measured
Body Comp.
1.00
Perceived
Body Coap.
-.54** 1.00
TSCS
-.13 .49** 1.00
SEI
-.05 .47** .60** 1.00
DACL
.03 -.29 -.43** -.46** 1.00
N=65
1-tailed Significance: *-.01, **=.001
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53
Correlations-Post-test
Measured body composition was significantly correlated
with scale weight (r=.73, p=.001) and all the psychological
variables were significantly correlated with each other.
Total self-concept was significantly correlated with self
esteem (r=.57, p=.001) and depression (r=-.48, p=.001).
Self-esteem was significantly correlated with depression
(r=-.35, p=.01). Perceived body composition was
significantly correlated with self-esteem (r=.32, p=.01) and
with subject's perceived success after the semester of
training (r=.49, p=.001). Post-measured body composition
was not significantly correlated with post-perceived body
composition but was significantly correlated with pre
perceived body composition (r=-.47, p=.001) (Table 10).
TABLE 10:
Correlation
Post-test
Variable Measured Body
Coap.
Perceived
Body coap.
TSCS SSI DACL Perceived
success
Measured
Body Coap.
1 . 0 0
Perceived
Body coap.
-.24 1 . 0 0
TSCS
-.05 .27 1 . 0 0
SEI
.06 .32* .57** 1 . 0 0
DACL
- . 1 2 -.05 -.48** -.35* 1 . 0 0
Perceived
Success
- . 1 1 .49** .26 .18 -.04 1 . 0 0
N=65
1-tailed Significance: *=.01, **=.001
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54
Perceived body composition
Pre-perceived body composition was the one variable to
be correlated with all of the other variables except pre-
and post-depression. Pre-perceived body composition was
significantly correlated with pre-scale weight (r=-.44,
p=.001) and post-scale weight (r=-.39, p=.001), pre-measured
body composition (r=-.54, p=.001) and post-measured body
composition (r=-.39; p=.001), pre-self-concept (r=.49,
p=.001) and post-self-concept (r=.31, p=.01), pre-self
esteem (r=.47, p=.001) and post-self-concept (r=.40,
p=.001). Post-perceived body composition was significantly
correlated only with post self-concept (r=.36, p=.01), pre
self-esteem (r=.33, p=.01), post-self-esteem (r=.32, p=.01),
and subjects perceived success rate (r=.49, p=.001) (Table 9
& Table 10).
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Correlation-Chanae Scores
Measured body composition change was significantly
correlated with perceived body composition change (r=-.38,
p=.01) and subjects perceived success rate (r=-.36, p=.01).
No psychological variable changes were significantly
correlated with any other variables. (Table 11)
TABLE 11:
Correlation
Change Scores
Pre-to-Post
Variable Measured
Body Coap.
Change
Perceived
Body Coap.
Change
TSCS
Change
SBZ
Change
DACL
Change
Perceived
Success
Measured
Body Coup.
Change
1 . 0 0
Perceived
Body Coup.
Change
-.38* 1 . 0 0
TSCS
Change
-.04 .15 1 . 0 0
SBI
Change
-.06 .11 .24 1 . 0 0
DACL
Change
. 1 1 - . 1 1 -.26 - . 2 1 1 . 0 0
Perceived
Success
-.36* .29 .13 .18 .14 1 . 0 0
N=65
1-tailed Significance: *=.01, **=.001
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56
Discussion
The data indicates that a non-significant inverse
relationship between body fat percentage and self-concept
and self-esteem exists and that a non-significant positive
relationship between body fat percentage and depression
exists, as suggested by hypothesis 1. Subjects with lower
percent body fat had higher self-concept and self-esteem and
lower depression. Subjects with higher percent body fat had
lower self-concept and self-esteem and higher depression
levels.
The data indicates that a positive relationship exists
between perceived body composition and self-concept and
self-esteem and that a negative relationship exists between
perceived body composition and depression, as suggested by
hypothesis 2. Subjects with higher perceptions of their
bodies had higher self-concept and self-esteem and lower
depression. Those with lower perceptions of their bodies
had lower self-concept and self-esteem and higher
depression. The relationship between self-concept and
perceived body composition was significant for pre-test and
post-test. The relationship between self-esteem and
perceived body composition was significant for pre-test
only.
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57
All of the variables changed in the predicted direction
after the exercise program. Measured body composition
decreased and perception increased. Actual percent of fat
decreased minimally and subject's perceptions of their
bodies increased. An inverse relationship between
perception of body composition and measured body composition
exists. The lower the percentage of fat the higher the
subjects' perception of their bodies and the higher the
percentage of fat the lower the subjects' perceptions of
their bodies. Both self-concept and self-esteem increased
after the training program and depression decreased after
the training program. There was no significant relationship
between any change scores, disproving hypothesis 3.
Measured body composition was not significantly
correlated with any variables except perceived body
composition. Pre-perceived body composition was positively
correlated with self-concept and self-esteem. Subjects with
higher perceived body composition had higher self-concept
and self-esteem. Post-perceived body composition was not
correlated with post measured body composition and was only
correlated with self-esteem and perceived success. This
suggests that a change occurred in the subjects' perception
of their body composition after the training period.
In this study, it appears that subjects perception of
body composition prior to the training program is the single
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most important variable in relationship to the psychological
variables. Measured body composition plays little, if any,
role in self-concept, self-esteem and depression. This was
a little surprising since Balogun (1987) found a negative
correlation to exist between measured body fat and self-
concept in adult subjects and Folsom-Meek (1991) found the
same relationship in children. This appears to be the first
study to examine measured body composition and to show no
significant correlation between measured body composition
and self-concept. Only a change in the subject's perceived
body composition was significantly correlated with subject's
perception of success after a training program.
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59
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
Results of the current study support the idea that
perception of body composition is a key correlate to self-
concept and self-esteem. Measured body composition was
significantly correlated with perceived body composition but
was not significantly correlated with the psychological
variables. The results are that perception of body
composition changes after participating in a regular
exercise program. Perceived body composition and change in
perceived body composition were both significantly
correlated with how subjects perceived their success after
the training period. Those with higher post-perceived body
composition (on a scale of 1-10) had higher perceived
success (on a scaled of 1-10). However, changes in
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60
perceived body composition are not significantly correlated
with changes in self-concept and self-esteem.
The findings in this study parallel the findings of
Abadie (1988a). Abadie (1988a) examined perceived physical
fitness and actual cardiovascular fitness. A significant
correlation was found to exist between actual cardiovascular
fitness and perceived physical fitness. As with the current
research, a significant correlation existed between actual
body composition and perceived body composition. Abadie's
study showed that an inverse relationship existed between
perceived physical fitness and trait anxiety but no
significant relationship existed between actual
cardiovascular fitness and trait anxiety. Similarly, in the
present research a significant relationship exists between
perception of body composition and self-concept and self
esteem.
Many researchers will agree that perception and changes
in perception of the various fitness components appear to be
key factors in the psychological benefits of exercise
(Jasnoski et al. 1981, Tucker 1990, Heaps 1978). Very
little research exists that can either support or refute
this idea. A great deal of additional research is needed to
examine an individual's perception of the five fitness
components and assess any changes in perception after
regular exercise to support the idea that so many
researchers inherently seem to infer.
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61
As stated in the beginning of this paper, any of the
existing theories, or all of the existing theories in some
combination, may be responsible for the psychological
benefits of regular exercise. The results of the present
study appears to agree with at least two of the formal
theories (mastery and social-reinforcement).
Mastery Theory
The mastery theory is described as follows;
Exercise provides people with a sense of mastery,
control and self-efficacy through improved
physical fitness (Bandura, 1977, Ismail &
Trachtman, 1973).
As an individual perceives improved physical states,
mastery occurs. Mastery may be the explanation for the
significant change in perceived body composition after the
exercise program. Mastery may also be an explanation for
the significant correlation between post-perceived body
composition and perceived success and the significant
correlation between changes in perceived body composition
and perceived success.
Social Reinforcement
The social reinforcement theory is described as
follows;
Exercise provides substantial social reinforcement
which leads to improved psychological states
(Hughes, 1984)
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62
Change in subject's perceived body composition may have
been the result of the positive feedback subjects received
while participating in the regular exercise for the twelve-
week semester. Positive feedback may have resulted in
improved perceived body composition and higher perceived
success.
Conclusion
This study appears to be the first to isolate body
composition and to examine body composition's relationship
to the psychological correlates of self-concept, self-esteem
and depression. Many more studies need to be conducted to
determine if the present findings will be replicated with
different populations.
Recommendations for future research
1. More research needs to examine perception of the
components of fitness, and specifically the role of
perceptions in self-concept, self-esteem and depression as
well as in other psychological variables. Researchers
continually seem to refer to the fact that perception may be
a key to the psychological benefits of exercise. Scientific
evidence is needed to substantiate such conclusions.
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63
2. More research needs to examine measured body composition
and actual measurement of the other components of fitness.
Additional research is needed to determine how the
components of fitness relate to perception of the fitness
components and the psychological benefits of exercise.
3. Similar studies are needed to examine different age
groups to determine if, in fact, a relationship between
measured body composition and self-concept and self-esteem
and depression exists. The subjects in this study are
college-age women going through a great deal of personal
changes which may affect self-concept, self-esteem, and
depression independently of their body composition.
4. In the present study there was no significant difference
between pre- and post-measured body composition. Future
studies should attempt to control for this so that any
significant change in body composition that occurs after the
training program can determine if changes in actual body
composition are correlated with changes in self-concept,
self-esteem and depression.
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64
5. As a group, the subjects were normal on the depression
scale. Replication of the present study utilizing mildly
depressed subjects would be beneficial in future studies to
determine if, in fact, changes in measured or perceived body
composition are associated with the benefits of exercise on
depression.
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65
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74
Appendix A
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
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PLEASE NOTE
Copyrighted materials in this document have not
been filmed at the request of the author. They are
available for consultation, however, in the author's
university library.
Appendix A
pages 75-81
UMI
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82
Appendix B
Depression Adjective Check List
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84
Demographic
Appendix C
Pre-Test
Perception Questionnaire
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85
GERNERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Name:____________________________ Age:_____ Birthdate:___________
Year in School:_______________ R a c e : __________
(caucasion, black, etc.)
PLEASE BE AS SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE IN ANSWERING THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
List sport/exercise history:_______________________________ ___________
List body weight history;
What are vour goals this semester in terms of exercise:
What are vour reasons for wanting to participate in this studv:
Think about how your body looks right now and how you feel about how it looks.
Now rate your body on a scale of 1-10.
(10=*awesome, 5=average, l=needs improvement)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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86
Demographic
Appendix D
Post-Test
Perception Questionnaire
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87
POST TESTING INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Name:____________________________ SS#:_____________________
PLEASE BE AS SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE IN ANSWERING THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
What are vour feelings about having participated in this study?_____________
What are the most important things you learned/oained from participating in
this study?
What were vour goals this semester in terms of exercise:
On a scale of 1-10, how successful were you in obtaining these goals?
(10=100%, 5=50%, l=not successful)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Think about how your body looks right now and how you feel about how it looks.
Now rate your body on a scale of 1-10.
(10=awesome, 5=average, l=needs improvement)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Do you feel your opinion about your own body has changed since the begining of
the study? Yes No
Explain:__________________________________________________________
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Asset Metadata

Creator Gleckner, Carrie Elisabeth (author)

Core Title The relationship of body composition to self-concept, self-esteem and depression before and after a regular exercise program

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Exercise Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag health sciences, recreation,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, physiological,psychology, social

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-2732

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