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Academic self regulation, task persistence, and completion of assignments in an e-mail-supported distance learning environment

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Academic self regulation, task persistence, and completion of assignments in an e-mail-supported distance learning environment

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ACADEMIC SELF REGULATION, TASK PERSISTENCE, AND
COMPLETION OF ASSIGNMENTS IN AN E-MAIL SUPPORTED DISTANCE
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
by
Edwin Forrest Boyd, III
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2001
Copyright 2001 Edwin Forrest Boyd, III
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UMI Number: 3054714
Copyright 2001 by
Boyd, Edwin Forrest, III
All rights reserved.
_ ___
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles. California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
Edwin Forrest Bo/d III
under the direction o f hH—Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School
of Education in partialfulfillment of the requirementsfor
the degree of
Do c t o r o f E d u c a t io n
DfsseriatiojyCommittei
\
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ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To those who read this and have traveled this road, you understand that a
dissertation successfully done is never a one-person achievement. The love o f my
life, my best friend, the mother o f my children, my soul mate, my wife, made this
all possible. She put up with all o f the pathologies that go with a doctoral program
and without her loving support, and occasional persuasion, this dissertation would
still be a work in progress. She lead and defined the path o f understanding and
insured that my children did not lose the way. They followed their mother's lead
and supported the effort.
It may be fairly asserted that all doctoral students are "strangers in a strange
land", in desperate need o f the guidance and wise counsel that only their
dissertation chair can provide. This author was particularly blessed in being
granted the privilege o f working under the supervision o f Dr. Edward John
Kazlauskas as a graduate student, teaching assistant and research assistant. It has
been said that imitation is the sincerest form o f flattery and I have learned the value
o f imitating Dr. K. He is a gifted teacher and totally dedicated professional who
has devoted his life to his students and his profession. To those who are to follow,
listen well and observe this master at work.
Dr. Dennis Hocevar is another gifted teacher with a unique ability to not
only teach statistics and measurement but to inspire his students. He defines hard
work and was always ready to answer questions or offer assistance no matter what
his workload or other pressures. In four years, there was never heard the least hint
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of frustration or fatigue. One would find it difficult to say that any o f these
committee members was more dedicated to their profession than the other.
Dr. Larry Picus is unique for his combination of experience and academic
preparation. His incisive comments and questions were stimulating and he treated
the student with respect while gently guiding them. Dr.Picus displayed a
willingness to accommodate anxious doctoral students and materially assisted in
helping the author to a successful completion of the dissertation.
Finally, there is the duty that all creatures owe to their creator and it is to
God that thanks are given. If there is any value or worth to this dissertation then
the glory is His. The errors and faults are mine.
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IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER I: Introduction
The Problem 1
Purpose and General Goals 4
Research Questions 5
Significance of the Study 5
Methodological Overview 7
Assumptions of the Study 10
Delimitations 1 0
Limitations 11
CHAPTER 2: Literature Review
Introduction 12
Definitions o f Distance Learning 13
The Distance Learning Support Environment 15
The Distance Learning Student Instructor Environment 25
The Teacher 32
The Student 38
Summary 41
CHAPTER 3: Methodology
Introduction
Research Design
Participants
Materials
Test Instrument
Data collection procedures
Data recording and analysis
43
43
44
45
45
47
47
Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
Reliability Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
49
50
52
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Histograms 58
Correlation Analyses 62
Analysis o f Variance 70
Qualitative Analyses 73
Summary 74
CHAPTER 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Suggestions for Future Research
Introduction 76
Suggestions for Future Research 80
REFERENCES 81
APPENDICES
A: Questionnaire 141
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V!
LIST OF TABLES
1 . Distance Learning System Set Model - Sets Definition Table 12
2. Item and Item Scoring - Task Persistence Items 45
3. Item and Item Scoring - Academic Self Regulation Items 46
4. Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Task Persistence 50
5. Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Academic Self Regulation 51
6. "Average Days to Submit an Assignment” for the USC and
UOP Groups 53
7. Descriptive Statistics for the USC Group 54
8. Descriptive Statistics for the UOP Group 56
9. Correlation Analysis - USC Task Persistence Items 62
10. Correlation Analysis - USC Self Regulation Items 64
11 Correlation Analysis - UOP Task Persistence Items 66
12. Correlation Analysis - UOP Self Regulation Items 68
13. One Way Analysis o f Variance - Task Persistence 70
14. One Way Analysis o f Variance - Academic Self Regulation 72
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vii
LIST OF FIGURES
1. A Proposed Distance Learning System Set Model 13
2. Average Number of Days to Submit an Assignment - USC Group 58
3. Average Number o f Days to Submit an Assignment - UOP Group 59
4. Composite Persistence Score (Items 1 - 7) - USC Group 59
5. Composite Persistence Score (Items 1 - 7) - UOP Group 60
6. Composite Academic Self Regulation Score (Items 8-17)
- USC Group 61
7. Composite Academic Self Regulation Score (Items 8-17)
- UOP Group 61
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VUl
ABSTRACT
The rapid growth and acceptance o f computer supported distance learning
raises the issue of attrition for the population o f learners attracted to this delivery
mode. Theory and the literature support the view that individual academic self
regulation and task persistence effect student attrition. The purpose o f this study
was to examine the relationship between academic self-regulation, task persistence,
and task accomplishment in an e-mail supported distance learning class.
The study population consisted o f two groups of students. The first group
were enrolled in a graduate technology in education course at the University of
Southern California during the 1999-2000 academic year. The second group was
students enrolled in an undergraduate computer course offered during the same
time frame at the University o f Phoenix, Southern California Division. Both
groups consisted of working adults, most o f whom were women with an estimated
mean age o f 37. For the USC group, E-mail was the method used to deliver class
assignments, whereas E-mail was an option for the UOP students.
The average time, in days, taken to submit an assignment was compared to
the assignment due date and the differences computed. A self-assessment
instrument reporting self-regulation and persistence measures was administered to
both groups. The results o f the instruments were compared to the average days to
deliver assignments.
No correlation was found between academic self-regulation or task
persistence and time to submit an assignment. The attrition rates for both groups
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were insignificant (three for the USC group and none for the UOP group). The
lack o f correlation in these findings may be explained by the fact that the
participants were all adult learners who had resolved any issues surrounding the
independent variable o f academic self-regulation and task persistence in a degree
program setting.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Problem
Background Situation
One o f the major areas o f interest in the field of Human Performance
Technology is the effective transfer o f knowledge between a knowledge source and a
learner. Knowledge transfer systems can take many forms and one of the more
important is distance education or distance learning. Distance Learning1 as a concept
is not new but has grown in importance over the past several decades particularly
since the introduction o f the personal computer in the mid 1970's (Schreiber. 1998).
Today, this technology supports a wide variety of learning modalities from computer
based training (CBT), to computer labs at all levels of education, concurrent training
or education sessions and asynchronous, or time shifted, instruction (Abd. 1997;
Alfaraidy, 1998; Amundsen, 1995; Andrews. 1996; Broadus, 1995). It can be stated
with some degree of confidence that there are few events in the human experience
that rival the computer revolution, particularly when it is applied to the delivery of
distance learning. The computer-facilitated delivery o f instruction has affected
institutions o f higher education, community, K-12, government, military, and the
private sector. Educational institutions from K-12 through universities use distance
and distributed learning to reach students in remote locations, while others add a
measure o f convenience to established programs (Buntzman, 1996; Conco. 1994,
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Charles, 1998;Duhaney, 1997; Downs, 1997; Deveau, 1995; Darga, 1994; Goro,
1995). The literature strongly supports the assertion that educational institutions,
public, and private sector firms are making significant investments in time, resources
and staff to take advantage o f the perceived benefits of distance learning particularly
as it relates to the application o f technology. This move to use technology is not
limited to universities and large corporations but includes public education from K-
12 through the community colleges, governmental units at all levels, the military and
religious institutions.
The literature on Distance Learning is reasonably extensive and presents an
opportunity to develop a conceptual model or framework that will aid our
understanding o f the field. O f the possible approaches to this problem, the one
selected is based upon some o f the notions from mathematics (Stewart. 1987) and
basic set theory. Four Distance Learning entities, or sets, exist: Student (S),
Teachers (T), the relationship between students and teachers, and the entities or
phenomena that surround these three. (See Figure I.) For purposes of categorizing
the literature into this model, the following definitions have been used.
The set "Students" (S) consists of individuals who are in learning situations
either by choice or circumstance. Examples include work that primarily concerns the
internal mental processes of learners, learner attitudes, skills, and the learner's
relationship to the material to be learned.
1 The terms "Distance Learning" and "Distance Education" as used in this paper are
synonyms.
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The defining characteristic o f work included in this set is that the main focus is on
the relationship of the learner to the knowledge to be acquired, to the teacher, or to
both. For purposes of this work, the knowledge to be acquired is included in the
term “material.” Thus, the student's concern for the material presented, regardless of
form, is assumed to be the knowledge that the student is expected to transfer to long
term memory.
The set "Teacher" is, usually, the individual responsible for selecting and
organizing the knowledge to be presented to the learner. Examples o f the literature
found in this set are works whose primary concern is with the teacher's internal
mental processes, attitudes, opinions, skills, and preparation for distance learning.
The defining characteristic of work in this set is that the main focus is on the
relationship of the teacher to the student and knowledge to be mastered by the
student.
The set "Student-Teacher” includes those acts, agents, and entities that
influence or affect the transfer of knowledge between the teacher and the student.
Examples of the types o f work included in this set are those whose primary concern
is for the quality or effectiveness of the transfer process, instruction design in
distance learning, the tools and equipment used in distance learning, the type and
level of technology used.
The final set consists of acts, agents, and phenomena that either enable or
constrain distance learning. Examples include political decisions, funding levels
provided for distance learning, institutional policies, and the tools and techniques
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used to create distance-learning events. Also included in the literature o f this set are
very broad qualitative case studies that do not qualify for inclusion in a less
restrictive set.
There appears to be a gap in the literature to date that addresses the issues of
academic self-regulation and task persistence in a computer mediated distance-
learning environment. As will be seen in the literature review chapter, there is a
literature that deals with various aspects o f student learning, but nothing directly
addressing these issues.
Purpose and General Goals
The overall objective o f this study is to enable the knowledge provider to
select the appropriate modality and aid the learner in identifying the skills required to
successfully exploit emerging distance learning technologies. This goal will be
accomplished by 1) quantitatively observing and measuring distance learners on task
accomplishment, and 2) recording individual responses to a questionnaire. Self
regulation skills and learning styles preferences will be correlated to the observed
behaviors. Then instructors will be interviewed as to their experience with the
technology, attitudes and opinions, their perceptions of student self-regulation, and
for the differential impact that distance learning has on their time and commitments.
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Research Questions
The research questions to be answered include the following.
1. How do self-regulation skills relate to the timely completion
of assignments in a distance-learning environment versus
traditional course delivery methods?
2. Are distance learners with well-developed self-regulation
skills more likely to complete assignments on time in a
distance-learning environment than those with lesser-
developed skills?
3. How does task persistence relate to the timely completion of
assignments in an e-mail supported distance learning class'7
4. Do instructors perceive differences in student behaviors in a
distance learning supported course?
5. How are students perceived by instructors in an e-mail
supported distance course versus students in traditional
courses?
The Significance o f the Study
As the use of computer technology continues to spread throughout academic
and non-academic institutions, it is becoming more important to understand the
capabilities and limitations o f distance learning using e-mail in the instructional
process. This study will add to our understanding of the appropriate use of this
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electronic tool such that the educational or training objectives o f the organization are
realized.
It is believed that this study will add to our knowledge of the changing
instructional environment with which the teacher must deal. There appears to be
significant time usage implications with the technology and a thorough
understanding of those dynamics should lead to better implementation decisions.
Organizations o f all types are now faced with the ability to deliver new
knowledge to students and employees using a number of methods It is in the
interests o f all concerned, students, professors and teachers, instructors, the
organizations that are served by both groups, and the societies that support them, to
use learning methods that are most effective for the individual learner. The major
application contribution o f this study will be to move toward the generation of
knowledge that will match an individual learner with a method such that the highest
expected learning outcome can be achieved.
Universities and colleges face a competitive environment not seen since the
advent of free public education and the invention of the printing press. Competition
exists for students, qualified instructors, teachers and resources. Society is no longer
willing to accept without question the need to pour additional resources into school
systems that may not always be seen as effective. The implications of this study
could include identifying a student population by its academic self regulation and
persistence skills, and then implementing the technology that best suits the
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7
population versus making a much larger investment in multiple delivery methods
with no particular group of learners in mind.
Methodological Overview
Research Design
The research design is correlational. A self-assessment instrument measuring
task persistence and academic self-regulation will be administered after the course
has ended and grades were computed. The dependent variable, timely completion of
assignments, was measured by computing the average days it took each participant to
deliver assignments compared to the due date for each. For example, a participant
that averages ten days late in submitting assignments would have a dependent
variable value o f -10. Data entry was accomplished using Microsoft Excel and
SPSS version 7.5. While the courses were being taught, notes were created that
covered teacher-student communications. These notes served as the basis for a
thematic qualitative analysis intended to supplement the quantitative findings.
Studv Population
The subjects of the study were graduate students enrolled in a technology
related education course at the University o f Southern California (USC). A second
group o f subjects were students enrolled in an undergraduate degree program with
the University of Phoenix (UOP), Southern California Division, taking classes in
basic computer use and marketing. The total number of subjects was 58 from the
USC group and 81 from the UOP group. All measurements were accomplished
during 1999 with some overlap into January 2000.
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These two populations are similar in that both consist of working adults in a
variety of fields. The UOP students are expected to show less well-developed self-
regulation skills than the USC group. From earlier conversations with UOP students,
it is believed that one attraction o f the UOP program is that neither the SAT nor GR£
tests are not required for admission, while these tests are required for admission to
other institutions including USC.
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Instrumentation - Quantitative
The instruments that were used included a log o f student work and a
questionnaire covering self-regulation and task persistence. Study participants were
asked to complete the instrument and return it via USPS. In some cases, a reminder
e-mail message was sent. These instruments are not anonymous in order to be able
to relate observed behaviors with the results o f the instrument measures.
An assignment log recorded for each student, the date each assignment was
due, the date it was submitted, the date feedback was provided to the student, and
final course grade. For the UOP group, the method o f delivery (e-mail, fax,
hardcopy) was noted.
Both groups were provided with a syllabus giving the assignments to be
accomplished and a due date for each. The USC group has had more latitude than
the UOP group because o f differences in the policies o f the two institutions. In both
cases, all work was to be submitted by the last class meeting or the student would
receive either an "Incomplete" for the course or the grade earned to date.
Instrumentation - Qualitative
Notes used to record individual student-instructor interactions supplemented
copies o f e-mail messages and the teacher's contemporaneous perceptions as the
class progressed. Thematic analyses was used to extract useful observations and
impressions.
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Data Analysis.
Data were recorded using Microsoft Excel for subsequent analysis using
SPSS. The results o f the self-regulation and learning styles instruments were related
to the timeliness o f the work submitted by each student. The USC and UOP groups
were compared using standard parametric statistical tools such as correlation,
ANOVA. etc.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions have been made regarding this study.
I The computer technology required to use e-mail is available and the
students know how to use it.
2. Students have access to technical support assistance if they need it.
3. Students enrolled in the courses because they were part of the
requirements for their degrees.
4. The differences in computers used by the students do not require
different sets of skills.
5. Technical problems will arise such as ISP (Internet Service Provider)
policies regarding large files, virus contamination, and other
technology related faults.
6. There are no significant differences in course design or instructors.
Delimitation
This study will focus on the use o f e-mail to augment instruction in a
university setting. While the focus o f this study is narrow, it is believed that this
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II
results obtained will transfer to other environments and lead to a systematic approach
to the effective use of technology both in the academic and non-academic worlds.
Limitations
The limitations o f this study are listed as follows.
1. Results may not reliably apply to other populations due to a fairly
small sample size.
2. Because the courses in question were required, the results may not
apply to instructional settings in which the course is not required.
3. All o f the participants were working adults. A younger, more
traditional college student population may not generate the same
results.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Distance learning is seen by some as part o f much larger changes that are
affecting not only education but society on a global scale (Miller, 1997). The
literature to date on distance learning is very broad and presents an opportunity to
develop a conceptual model to add coherence to the field. One possible approach is
to borrow concepts from the field o f set theory. This approach has merit in that the
topics or subjects of interest to distance learning can be located in relationship to one
another. The sets that have been defined in the Distance Learning System Set Model
- Sets Definition Table (DLSSM) are defined below.
Table I.
Distance Learning System Set Model - Sets Definition Table.
Set Definition
Distance Learning
Support Environment
Things, concepts, and processes that support or are
otherwise concerned with distance learning.
Instructor-Student
Interaction
Instruments and processes that support or are
otherwise involved in the distance learning instructor-
student relationship
Instructor Instruments and processes that affect or are effects of
the instructional process.
Student Instruments and processes that affect or are effects of
the learning process.
This model has been used to organize the literature and begins with a
definition o f Distance Learning, proceeds to a brief discussion o f the model, and then
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makes use of the proposed model to review the literature starting with the broadest
set, the Distance Learning Support Environment.
Student
Instructor-
Student
Interaction
Instructor
Support Environment
Definitions of Distance Learning
To paraphrase o f an author, whose name has long since been forgotten,
words derive their definitions from their etymology and common usage. O f the two,
common usage is the more powerful." This notion is particularly appropriate to the
definition of distance learning.
As a general statement, the literature reveals that the majority o f authors
include the separation o f the student from the teacher in their definitions of distance
learning (Holmberg, 1995; Bumham, 1994;Thyer, 1997; Eastmond, 1998).
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Examples of some o f these definitions include, "Specific type educational
technology used to reach students." (Hertenstein, 1999) "...a process that creates
and provides access to learning when time and distance separate the source of
information and the learners." (Zhang, 1998) and "By DEFINITION distance
learning is both a location and a concept that allows teachers and students to
communicate despite a separation o f time and space." (Kwielford, 1999). The
definition of distance learning offered by the California Distance Learning Project
(1999) is a bit more rigorous:
The delivery o f education or training through electronically mediated
instruction including satellite, video, audio graphic, computer, multimedia
technology and other forms o f learning at a distance.
The USDLA (United States Distance Learning Association) notes that
distance education refers to teaching and learning situations in which the
instructor and learner or learners are geographically separated and therefore
rely on electronic devices and print material for instructional delivery.
Distance education includes distance teaching, the instructor's role in the
process; and distance learning - the student s role in the process.
The elements they list, persons and objects involved in the learning (entities),
separation o f entities in time, separation of entities in space, entity communication
facility, and which entity controls the process, termed a "learning event" are present
in the proposed model and are incorporated into the following discussion, beginning
with the distance learning Support Environment.
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Distance Learning Support Environment
The distance learning support environment is broad and the literature of this
"set” includes the "clusters” of case studies, distance learning theory, distance
learning resources, and quality evaluation and assessment. The case studies cluster
addresses the broader issues and concerns of distance learning history, use and
propagation of this approach to education and training, types and levels o f support
needed, culture, inter and intra personal considerations, and management aspects o f
the field.
Case Studies
A Short History of Distance Learning
The history o f distance education has been traced back to the mid 1800’s by
some (Reinert, 1997; Schreiber, 1998), while others assert that the phenomena began
with the invention of the radio (Potashnik, 1998). Upon reflection, it may well be
that a distance learning history goes no further back than the invention o f the printing
press. The form distance education has taken varies and is seen as associated with
the intent o f the instruction (Schreiber, 1998). With the growing diffusion of
technology worldwide, distance-education has become a global phenomena (Reinert.
1997). The evidence suggests that distance learning, as it is currently practiced, is a
relatively new phenomena closely associated with the diffusion of the personal
computer.
Academic institutions have embraced distance learning (Roblver. 1998); and
although the current history of distance learning is fairly new, there already exists a
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literature on the history o f the field in general (Bunker, 1998; Burnham, 1994; Neal,
1991) and specific regions o f the world in particular (Mahony, 1994; Moma, 1991).
This work is enhanced by descriptive studies o f distance learning in geographic areas
(Aizley, 1994; Beasley, 1997; Fenwick, 1996; Hu, 1989; Mailafiya, 1986; Pettit.
1997; Porter, 1997; Simonson, 1994; Tucker, 1998), the institutions offering distance
education (Doerfert, 1989), and specific applications of distance learning
methodology (Deverich, 1998; Louenan, 1999; Matthews, 1997; Nti, 1997; Smith.
1993). The application o f distance learning in all it forms is growing at the post
secondary level (Carpenter, 1998; Potashnik, 1998; Schulhof, 1999; Thornton, 1999)
as well as in secondary schools (Douglas, 1995).
The Propagation and Use of Distance Learning
Distance learning technology has been widely adopted (Lowry, 1996) and is
being used to train teachers (Grisham-Brown, 1998; Lough, 1990; Nielsen, 1997).
train individuals in the government, business and industry (Barritt. 1998; Dononho.
1998; Edirishingha, 1997; Ferguson, 1998; Harler, 1999; Lohmann, 1998; Osborn,
1993; Reinert, 1997; Roberson, 1993; Segers, 1998; Smith, 1999; Sutton. 1998;
Waggoner, 1997), offer opportunities to senior citizens, women, and distinct
populations (Fey, 1992; Guttmann-Gee, 1995; May. 1992; Pedroza. 1994; Wood.
1998), and address issues o f equal access to education (Baker, 1990; Brown, 1988;
Darga. 1994; DeSanctis, 1999; Douglas, 1995; Freeman. 1998; Hollenbeck. 1997;
Karonika. 1996; Korpela, 1988; Kuboni, 1997; Meacham, 1997; Nunes, 1992; Srisa-
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17
An, 1997 ). Specific student populations have been the subject of case studies
(Bischoff, 1993; Murray, 1997), including the use o f distance leaning in Iran (Mehdi,
1991), community college students (Richards, 1994), at the state level (Hayes, 1995),
developing economies (Deodat, 1995; Elsiddig, 1990), parochial schools (Hutchison,
1989) and health care professionals (Hayden, 1996; Lott, 1994). Distance learning
has been used to provide independent study courses at the university level (Kovach,
1993) and to create collaborative learning systems (Heeren, 1996)
That distance learning is a global phenomenon is supported by works citing
applications o f this approach to making education more accessible in China (Fu,
1992; McCormick, 1992); Taiwan (Hsioa, 1990), Africa (Musyoka, 1997), France
(Lecourt, 1988), the Open University (Jones, 1996).
Distance learning is in use in Europe and appears to have gained wide
acceptance among the academic and business communities (Burge, 1990; European
Commission, 198; Lecourt, 1988; Srisa-An, 1997). An interesting observation is the
similarities o f concerns between US and International concerns regarding distance
education. For example, the demand for distance education access (Beasley, 1997;
Binds, 1998; Cambre, 1996; Holmberg, 1997; Matthews, 1998; Miller, 1997;Wall.
1992).
There is the assertion that distance learning requires supports and action to
deal with the special problems of women (Hipp, 1997), remote groups (Black. 1998;
Wall. 1992), and the creation o f an open learning environment (Hannafin, 1997).
Among the technical support requirements for distance learning (see discussion
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below) is an adequate telecommunications infrastructure (Beasley, 1997; Hannafin.
1997; Stammen, 1994). Another significant support activity concerns changes to
copyright laws such that distance education is considered the modem equivalent of
face-to-face instruction (Gasaway, 1998).
Applications O f Distance Learning
The rapid growth and proliferation o f telecommunications based information
technology, especially in education and training, raises the question: "Just who is
using distance learning and how are they using it?” The literature reviewed to date
reveals that distance learning is being applied in a wide variety o f ways and for many
different purposes including law enforcement (Waggoner. 1997), doctoral programs
(Hesser, 1993), ISO 9000 quality assurance programs (Karapetrovic, 1998),
information technology programs (Myszkowski, 1998), undergraduate education
(Rau, 1998), graduate education o f teachers and administrators (Foster, 1998), to
teach photographers (Andrews, 1998), to support persons with disabilities (Wood,
1 998), by the World Bank (Potashnik, 1998), and by the United States Postal Service
(Harler, 1999).
Types And Levels of Support Needed
The differences between traditional face-to-face instruction and distance
learning have impacted the planning and resource allocation policies of public
institutions in both real (Koodli, 1998; Reeves, 1997) and perceived terms
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(Kambutu, 1998). The real and potential barriers to distance learning success have
been investigated (Bielema, 1996; Derr, 1991) with an apparently well documented
need that distance learning students have for better levels of support services than
these same students receive in a traditional face-to-face modality (Potter, 1997).
Using a general system model (input, process, output), the literature
expresses concerns about all three parts o f the model with a particular emphasis on
telecommunications (Alexander, 1998; Appalachia, 1992; Ballon, 1999; Bernstein,
1998; Communication news, 1997, 1998; Freeman, 1998; Fumell, 1998; Inglis,
1998; Knapczk, 1993; Owston, 1997; Panitz, 1998; Price, 1994; Sayre, 1998;
Simonson, 1994; Worley, 1992). Distance learning systems, used either for
education or training, require support systems including listings o f available
resources (Caspers, 1998;Ganzel, 1998; Jessup, 1996; Media and Methods, 1998),
and how to guides (Abernathy, 1998; Clemens, 1999; Hamza, 1999; Mantyla. 1998;
Mikovshy, 1997; Piskurich, 1998; Schrum, 1996). Another common theme is the
need for teams of people to develop and deliver distance education product other
than teachers and instructional designers. It would seem that the teacher is becoming
more reliant upon those outside the department and organization than ever before.
Distance Learning And Culture.
The differences between cultures can cause distance-learning initiatives to
fail (Podoll, 1992) and culture must be carefully considered when transporting a
distance learning approach from one area to another (Juliana, 1994; Kakaopas. 1991;
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Mustafa, 1998). Views differ on how technology will change education (Calabrese,
1989) and include unique situations such as the need to identify the characteristics of
effective foreign language distance learning in Japan (Moriarty, 1997).
Attitudes And Perceptions o f Distance Learning Bv Staff and Administration
An awareness and understanding o f the unique requirements and potential of
distance learning by administrators and staff have been related to distance learning
initiatives (Halongren, 1994; Hathcoat, 1994; Knue, 1998; Kraus, 1998; Lape, 1995;
Majdalany, 1995; Manzanares-Gonzales, 1995), as have the attitudes toward distance
learning by faculty (in other than a teaching role) (Ross, 1997). The importance of a
positive attitude towards distance learning delivery success has also been
documented in environments outside of the educational institution setting
(Grudnoski, 1992).
Management Aspects of the Field.
Institutions and organizations that employ distance learning technologies are
faced with a number of issues and decisions unique to distance learning (Johnson.
1996; Meilleur, 1997; Raster, 1994), including determining if the organization has
the management and leadership skill necessary for distance learning success (Kurzet.
1997), the need to formulate policies necessary to implement distance learning
(Moss, 1998), and understanding the extent to which distance learning can create a
competitive advantage for their organization (Buntzman, 1996; Dallet. 1997; Daniel.
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1996). Simply having the desire and resources does not insure success, from a
management point o f view, of a distance learning initiative but is dependent upon the
organizations willingness to embrace innovation (Maushak, 1997) and the
organizational and administrative issues that flow from the decision to innovate
(Hough, 1992).
Broad policy level decisions that must be made include what technology or
combination of technologies to use (Ballon, 1999) particularly in light of the wide
spread use of microprocessors at all levels of education (Boyd, 1995). This decision
is not unconnected to how the organization reacts to state policies regarding distance
learning (Ketchension, 1996) and the forces of coordination and competition with the
organization that impact a given distance learning effort (Epper, 1996).
Distance learning is not unlike other aspects of organizational management,
especially when a change initiative is involved (Kline, 1996) and distance-learning
techniques have had a positive effect on those involved in organizational
restructuring (Powell, 1996). And like most organizations, more than one learning
strategy can be made available (Baker, 1993), which suggests that an institution
employing computer supported distance learning technology may need to develop
distance learning specific curriculum (Ganjam, 1996).
Distance Learning Theory and Practice
The literature articulating a theory o f distance education appears to be fairly
thin (Holmber. 1997. 1998; Jackson. 1993; Koczka, 1992; Lassatter. 1995; Mohdnor.
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1995) which suggests that the theory, if there is one single theory, is evolving.
Evidence for this assertion is found in the volume o f material that relates to elements
that can be expected to contribute to the ongoing development o f a unifying theory
of distance education. Among the more significant areas o f discussion are works
that identify the issues important to distance learning (Abrahamson, 1998; Binds,
1998; Cegeles, 1998; Deveau, 1995; Eddy, 1996; Hannafin, 1997; Harper, 1990;
Hipp, 1997; Miller, 1992; Peamson, 1989; Rayburn, 1997; Wall, 1992), presentation
of logical argument in favor of the use of technology in education (Morsund. 1996),
and tentative definitions o f the field (Dickson, 1999).
Other literature that tends to support the evolution o f a distance learning
theory is presented in the form of various guidelines for implementing specific
technologies (Albright, 1988; Blignaur, 1997; Carter, 1996; Charles, 1998;Clymer.
1996; Cornett, 1995; Eastmond, 1998; Galarza-Perez, 1997; Gilroy, 1989; Hanrahan,
1995; Heath, 1997; Herring, 1997; Lekoko, 1995; Mantyla, 1998; Plagis-Tsitsikaos.
1994; Preece, 1991; Price, Ramanathan, 1994), work that seeks to influence the
design of facilities and programs (Barnett. 1995; Harroun, 1991; Phelps. 1990;
Schrum, 1998), and articulation of the assumptions that underlie distance education
(Mineo, 1998).
Distance Learning Resources and Technology
The ability o f an organization or political subdivision to use distance-learning
technology is a function o f the funding available to support these initiatives. The
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range of technology choices includes the use of video in several different forms,
computer based presentations, satellites, and video tape. In addition to
implementation problems or concerns, there is also some concern about who owns
the material created for distance learning, the adequacy o f copyright laws as they
currently exist, and the impact that local laws and regulations could have on distance
education. There is some interest in the difference o f how non-educational
organizations implement distance learning including the use of video conferencing
(Earon, 1993) and computer mediated teleconferencing (Henri, 1990).
Other resources related concerns include the role that the traditional library
plays in distance learning and the institutions use o f their own web sites to promote
their distance learning programs. It is interesting to note that institutions are
requiring vendors to provide Internet delivery o f their product.
Distance Learning Quality Evaluation and Assessment
The general concern for academic quality is reflected in the literature and
appears to center on evaluating the financial investment in distance learning,
applying various evaluation methods or approaches, identifying general performance
indicators, and validating programs. The application o f a "best practice" approach is
also reflected in the work to date, as is the application of ISO 9000 standards. The
need to evaluate and assess distance learning is present in different forms in each of
the areas of the model and is included in each because o f the focus or objective of the
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assessment or evaluation effort. At the support environment level, the evaluation
objectives are broad.
High-level concern for academic quality and support for accreditation are
themes frequently heard (Abrahamson, 1998; Davis, 1995; Gellman-Danley, 1997;
Hodge, 1996; Lord, 1998; Medical Teacher, 1998; Ridley, 1998; Sonner, 1999). The
majority o f the literature on this topic suggests the need to adapt and accommodate
the growing use o f distance learning throughout the education community in general
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The Distance Learning Student Instructor Environment
Perceptions. Attitudes and Opinions of Students Teachers, and Others
The attitudes and opinions of those involved in distance learning have an
effect on the perceived success of a distance learning effort including academic users
(Na-songkhls, 1997) and business executives and college officials (Cocno. 1994).
Several researchers report on the importance o f participants' knowledge about and
attitudes toward distance learning in general (Lucas, 1995) and students and faculty
in a non-traditional university in particular (Goodwin, 1993). In addition to the
attitudes and opinions held about distance learning, other perceived differences
include understanding the factors that influence faculty and dean participation in and
support for distance learning (Bets, 1998).
There are unique communications factors that affect student perceptions of
distance learning (Adkins. 1999) and shared cognition (Anderson, 1994). It is
perhaps not surprising that teacher's attitude effects student motivation in distance
learning environment (Moore. 1992). Along the same lines is the role of language in
constructing knowledge in the adult learner (Lea, 1998) and the impact o f the
teacher's ability with English (Kim, 1996). It seems that instructional designers that
work with distance learning faculty have little success is predicting faculty concerns
about distance learning (Gunderson, 1996).
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The Instructor-Student Relationships
One o f the more interesting and perhaps not unexpected findings in the
literature is that students are more prepared to use technology than teachers are
prepared to teach with it (Payne, 1998). One supposes that this difference helps to
explain the teacher and student satisfaction variances with interactive video course
(Allen, 1995) and why interaction with students in on-air television was seen as
important to the success o f the course (Oliver, 1993). The picture is far from clear in
that there are no differences in student reactions to distance learning versus
traditional delivery methods (Furst-Bowe, 1997). What does appear to differentiate a
distance learning course from the traditional is an apparent increased need for
effective communication between the instructor and the student that involves the
communication method as well as content (Abrahamson, 1998; Blair. 1997; Hsu.
1997; Keinath, 1991; Murphy, 1995; Nasseh, 1996). This relationship becomes even
more important if one o f the objectives of a program is to reduce the dropout rate
(Munro, 1991).
From an academic administrative point of view, there are no significant
differences in achieving advising goals in a distance-learning environment compared
to face-to-face situations (Curry, 1997). Distance learning takes more prep time and
good teaching skills (Furst-Bowe, 1997), as well as the use o f the principles and
practices o f andragogy in distance learning for specific student populations (Barv.
1991) and the relationship between the physical distance from the instructor and
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grade the student receives should be monitored. (Kelley, 1997). An important note
for administrators in a distance-learning program is the suggestion that para-
professionals, administrators and teachers can serve effectively as facilitators
engaged in classroom management and learning climate maintenance. (Kriby, 1995)
The Impact of Interactive Television and the World Wide Web (WWW)
The impact of TV on workforce training has been about the same as
traditional on-ground efforts (Duhaney, 1997), while it seems that the significant
extra effort and expense o f Internet delivered content are more than justified by the
results achieved (Hirumi, 1996). In a high school television distance learning course,
technology was found to foster group identity, provide greater academic freedom for
the student but also increased a "tension” that moves from group collaboration to
group collusion (Kantor, 1996).
In a somewhat unique study, simplex TV for religious distance learning was
shown to be ineffective when used to open doors or for evangelism (Butterfield.
1989). It seems that the goal for this application of distance learning technology
went beyond education or training and may serve as an indicator that technology
based communications may not be appropriate for some objectives.
Course Design Requirements
Course design has been seen as a means o f avoiding professional isolation
and building a sense of professional community for students in a graduate program
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for teachers and school administrators (Foster, 1998). The expertise o f the course
designer should be centered on a deep understanding o f the distance learner, the
influences o f theoretical constructs upon the learner and the unique influence of
context on the distance learning experience (Joly, 1995).
In terms o f traditional training methods versus distance learning, it appears
that the same quality methods o f instruction apply to both modalities (Pritchard,
1998). The role o f the instructional designer does appear to take on more of the
character of an advisor to the faculty member rather than applying project specific
technological expertise to a given situation (Abd, 1997). Examples o f the latter
include the use of discussion, question and answer, brainstorming and simulations in
a two-way video training course (Fetterman, 1996). The “adult learner" does present
the additional design requirement that the content establish linkages between theory
and the work place in specific courses, such as those teaching computer science
(Boulet, 1998).
The pedagogy changes required in a synchronous television course appear to
be relatively minor and include such things as some limitation on the use of the
physical space available, the need to provide the learners with an orientation to the
technology, the need for copious notes when providing feedback to the learner, and
the need to practice using the technology (Grasinger, 1999). To insure the success of
a distance learning initiative, it appears that the instructional designer should be
located in or near the faculty location and not isolated in a remote facility that is
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connected to an information systems or distance teaming department (MacPherson,
1998).
Quality Issues Including Effectiveness Measures
Interactive TV seems to be just as effective as traditional teaching methods
(Libler, 1991) in the evaluation o f a distance learning college program (Gold, 1997),
when testing an evaluation model (Janes, 1993) and measuring the extent to which
National Science Education Standards are met by distance learning delivery
(Crowley, 1996).
The best practices of sound course content, instructor attitude toward the
presentation and student instructor interaction appear to be equally important for
face-to-face distance learning instructional delivery (Burke, 1993). Identified
important effective distance learning practices are seen as helping to overcome the
barriers to education (Anderson, 1997; Barnes, 1995) and include the importance of
course structure and the faculty role in student achievement.
A somewhat ambiguous finding seems to be that on line group activity leads
to increased participation but is not related to better grades (Bures, 1997), while the
quality o f support services provided to the distance learner appears to be weakly
related to learning (Judd, 1998).
Characteristics o f effective instruction include cognitive, affective and
managerial skills o f the teacher (Payne, 1989). For the K-3 “home learner" the use
o f parents as facilitators in the home was not effective without the simultaneous use
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o f professionals; although it is unclear what effect this has on achievement (Lanich,
1994). To add a bit more confusion, it appears that the at-risk students in a high
school math course were helped by distance learning delivery (McMann, 1996).
Evaluation o f a delivery system (Nova) included having available a variety of
instructional methods and materials, the presence of an effective communications
system, instructional delivery system, and participants held the view that the
technology is evolving (Hesser, 1993). It seems clear that qualitative assessment of
the delivery system is a key component to evaluating distance learning initiatives
(Jones, 1998). The student-instructor relationship and instructional design are seen
as keys to success (Bullen, 1997); although there appears to be no relationship
between facilitator knowledge and student achievement (Russell, 1990). Tips
offered to increase the effectiveness of distance learning center on instructional
systems design and ranged from simulations to the on-ground experiences o f the
instructor (Hamza, 1999).
Tutorial support systems need to be well planned in terms o f frequency of
delivery and in the sufficiency o f the time allotted to tutoring (Motik. 1989) with the
use of electronic portfolios to assess student performance are gaining in popularity
(Olmstead, 1994).
The Use of Internet and Other Technologies
The Internet seems to be emerging as the most used technology alternative in
distance learning (Zhang, 1998) with reports that the use o f a class page to increase
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effectiveness in a graduate level distance-learning course (Thompson, 1998). One of
the well-known features o f the Internet and E-mail is the capability to support
Listservs. The value o f this tool has not been fully established but it is very time
consuming (Alaxander, 1998). This could have implications for faculty usage of the
feature. Combining technologies, an examination o f the instructional role of fax and
e-mail in distance learning, peer contact was found to be key to an individuals
completion of the course and the degree program (Amundsen, 1993).
A case study of the interface o f technology and andragogy indicates that the
instructor’s sense o f humor, positive regard and acceptance of students, and
theatrical sense of timing add to the perceived success of a interactive TV distance
learning class (Nealand, 1992). When the issue of what text style was most effective
in distance learning materials was raise, the results indicate that it depends upon the
individual student and the differences appear to be preferences with an unknown
impact on outcomes (Krey, 1995). Comparison o f distance learning technologies for
in-service training seem to indicate a common theme in the literature that technology
is useful when developing mastery of the content but lacks a socialization component
(Hessmiller, 1996).
There seems to be some difference o f opinion about the role that media plays
in learning and the need for additional research on the issue of the role o f media in
education and training. One side of the issues takes the position that media doesn't
matter when it comes to learning outcomes and that research efforts in this area
should be suspended until a novel theory is suggested (Clark, 1983). The other side
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o f this issue takes the position that some students do learn better with one media over
another, that individual learning style differences must be considered at a lower level
of detail, and that research must continue (Kozma, 1991). It is suggested that most
of the rational for this discussion has its source in the rapid changes occurring in
computer technology and student familiarity with some very sophisticated computer
based telecommunications technologies.
The Teacher
Faculty Attitudes and Perceptions
Faculty attitudes toward the use o f distance learning in various settings and
environments have received considerable attention (Bodnebender, 1998; Clark,
1992; Challis, 1998; Heath, 1996; Larison, 1995; Sides, 1994), including descriptive
case study o f instructor's perspectives on two-way television (Tinene. 1997). and a
number o f attitude indicators have been identified. For example, the generalization
that distance learning innovators tend to be female and older teachers willing to
experiment (Niemczyk, 1998) is supported, as is the critical role that faculty plays in
the success of distance learning (Olcott, 1994). E-mail is used as a means of
speeding up assignment feedback to students (Inglis, 1998). It has also been
observed that the likelihood that a teacher will use two-way interactive technology is
a function o f the individual's attitude toward technology in general and the teachers
willingness to use new technologies (Abou-Dagga, 1995).
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Investigation o f faculty support for, or resistance to, the use of distance
learning technologies relates to the individuals view of university training; those
viewing college as an elitist activity had a negative view o f distance learning, while
those viewing education as a means o f achieving social justice viewed technology
supported distance learning positively (Black, 1992). Furthermore, factors that
influence faculty decision to participate in technology based distance learning were
found to be based upon the beliefs that distance learning can produce quality
learning, distance learning can better meet student needs, and that the faculty
member is capable of (Bebki, 1998) identifying “triggers" to faculty participation
(Hensley-Marschand, 1996).
Faculty Job Satisfaction and Stress
Faculty issues with distance learning include the need to training faculty as
distance educators and have them focus on student interactivity (Loeding, 1999).
Faculty role ambiguity appears to be correlated to job satisfaction (Abdul, 1988)
The distance learning technology used, its compatibility with the existing
system, perceived relative advantage, resource availability, and support to use the
technology positively impact faculty perceptions of distance learning (Gillispie.
1996). Faculty perceptions and barriers or facilitators to the use of interactive
television distance learning course are related to individual perceptions and to the
level of support received to embrace the distance learning initiative (Gilchrist. 1997).
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Faculty perceptions of accessibility and quality o f college graduate programs
offered via the Internet appear to be positive (Baxter, 1997). It should be noted that
just what constitutes quality is not defined.
Teachers using satellite distance learning report an often-heard need for the
time to learn the technology; the notion that when using distance-learning
technology, the process of using the technology must precede content issues (Ahem.
1997). A very interesting relationship seems to exist between secondary school
teacher’s attitudes and preferences for television distance learning and the highest
degree the teacher earned (Bigilaki, 1996), i.e. the higher the degree the more
positive the teacher is toward distance learning technologies. Teacher perceptions of
the value of satellite based distance learning were favorable but not related to
achievement (Farhoodi, 1995).
Teacher perceptions seem to be somewhat varied and include the opinion that
distance learning technology as a useful tool in science education (Ferguson. 1997)
and can be useful in creating a model of perspectives o f faculty involved in distance
learning for communications disorders (Purcell-Robertson, 1998). However, some
teachers seem to prefer to use the lecture as a teaching modality even when
technological enhancements were available (Hill, 1996).
Effective distance learning instructors in an interactive television program
created a supportive atmosphere that includes verbal immediacy, personalizing the
class for each student, the use o f active learning techniques, promotion o f student
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feedback, used effective questioning/responding strategies and managed the
technology to promote interaction (Baker, 1994).
Some increase in teaching related stress associated with distance learning
over traditional teaching methods seems to exist (Needham, 1996).
Impact on Teaching Strategies
Teacher preparation for two-way television courses appears to be essential
for the success of the method with an emphasis on instructional design for teachers
and developing staff to perform their work in a distance-learning environment
(McDevitt, 1990). Successful teaching strategies for distance learning differ from
traditional teaching in that more detailed planning o f instructional activities is
required for each session, instructional support must be available, the instructor must
be familiar with he technology well in advance o f the class sessions, and more than
one technology should be employed whenever possible. Interactive television may
also add some concern for the physical appearance o f the instructor (Schrum. 1996).
How different instructors adapt to computer conferencing was found to be a
function o f the institution, teacher role, complexity o f the learning and instructional
preparation (Chong, 1998). The impact o f distance learning on teaching strategies
seems to be determined by the training and support the teacher receives, the physical
environment and the technology being employed (Hoskins, 1998).
Strategies that foster interactivity in an interactive video environment include
posing questions and group problem solving exercises (Jadun. 1998). Positive
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techniques that encourage interactivity in distance learning classes include those that
encourage student interaction and specifically do not limit students to interacting
with the teacher or to specific technology resources. Giving students responsibility
for portions o f the learning experience contribute to the effectiveness of some
distance-learning classes (Mikovsky, 1997).
The behaviors used by highly rated distance learning instructors to engage
remote site students in class discussion appear to be the same as those used by
teachers working in a traditional environment plus those teachers seem to have the
ability to manage technology such that student interaction is promoted (Baker. 1994).
Facilitating interaction in a tele-course seems to involve three phases: establishing
basic premises, fostering involvement, and integrating elements of real-time queries
(Little, 1995). Ways to improve the distance learning science teacher revolve around
forming a team o f specialists with administrative support (Pitmann. 1996).
Faculty knowledge and experience with a computer in their home influences
the ability and willingness of those individuals to accept new technology in the
classroom. There is some indication that the academic use of computer technology
is behind the rest of the population (Okpala. 1997). How faculty leams to use and
improve use o f instructional design, technology, and adragogy for distance learning
is a function o f available resources and the opportunity to learn to use the technology
(Armstrong, 1998).
How teachers learn new technologies in distance learning depends upon
individual learning styles and having a dedicated opportunity to learn (Blundell.
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37
1997; Hauser, 1989). And there is a limited set of factors needed by the instructor in
insure success in distance learning with the development of an effective distance
learning strategy seen as the most important (Goro, 1995).
Faculty Performance
Methods and instruments used to evaluate teacher performance in distance
learning are emerging but seem to lack a clear identification of the dimensions that
underlie traditional versus distance teaching excellence. It may be that different
teachers along different dimensions achieve excellent results (Summers, 1997). Of
particular concern is the use and misuse o f student ratings of teacher effectiveness
(Nerger, 1997).
Assessing faculty performance in the classroom can be influenced by the role
o f the tutor (Anderson, 1989), different definitions o f the roles and responsibilities of
facilitators (Ford, 1990), and other factors that effect teacher performance (Johnson.
1995).
Although faculty is willing to use technology, the willingness to use distance
learning is adversely affected by an unadjusted workload and lack of adequate
compensation for the extra work required in distance learning (Ndahi, 1998).
Organizational and Technology Supports for Faculty
Distance learning program and policy guides include concerns for the
student-instructor relationship (Abrahamson, 1998; Simonson. 1997) and the
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adequacy o f planning for distance learning (Carter, 1996; College and Resesarch
Library news, 1998; Dickson, 1999; Hannon, 1996;Simonson, 1994; Starr.
1998; Williams, 1999; Woo, 1998; Zhang, 1998). At the core of these concerns is the
realization that fundamental changes are occurring on a very broad scale and
education is just one o f those societal elements being effected (Binds, 1998; Bothun,
1999; Dillon, 1997; Hinchliffe, 1998; Miller, 1997; Schrum, 1998).
Perhaps it is not surprising that there is overt opposition to the use of distance
education by the American Federation o f Teachers (1998). While their arguments
are to be expected, the assertion is made that the forces of change against them are
overwhelming. This is particularly so in light of the ongoing press efforts to direct
attention to the quality o f teaching, or perceived lack thereof, currently being
delivered (The Daily News, October 30, 1999).
The undercurrent of high hopes and expectations are moderated by the
knowledge that learning is improved by quality teachers (Hodge, 1996), the need to
address moral development (Folsom, 1998), and the viewpoint of Clark (1983) that
asserts the notion that sound instructional design makes the difference in leaning not
the media employed. The assertion has also been advanced that the lack o f a sound
theory of distance leaning compromises the claims of improved education due to
technology (Hirumi. 1996; Holmberg, 1997; Merisotis, 1999).
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The Student
Academic Achievement
One o f the most widely investigated aspects o f distance learning is learner or
student achievement. A very common topic is the comparison of student
achievement in a distance learning environment versus traditional face-to face
instruction (Andringa, 1995; Austin, 1994; Brown, 1994; Chipas, 1997; Cordover,
1996; Dees, 1994; Dexter, 1995; Dhariwal, 1991; Freeman, 1995; Fyock, 1994;
Goodyear, 1995; Gosmire, 1995; Hodge-Hardin, 1995; Johnson, 1993; Koerlin,
1996; Martin, 1990; Merisotis, 1999; Mortensen, 1995; Nixon, 1990; Obermier.
1991; Paul, 1990; Payne, 1998; Peeples, 1996; Purgason, 1991; Ryan, 1996; Smith,
1990; Spooner, 1999), specific distance learning technologies (Chen, 1991; Hinhant.
1994; Gray, 1996; Griffeth, 1997; Hinnant, 1994; Lai, 1989; McAlpin, 1997;
McKinnon, 1993; Miller, 1996; Oboyle, 1995), incarcerated youth (Fredrickson,
1989), adult learners (Haehl, 1996), military personnel (Fenn, 1995), and with the
use of e-mail (McMilan, 1997). A few studies reported achievement gains when
using distance learning methods but the results o f these studies are confounded by
changes in instructional design (Andringa, 1995; Johnson. 1993; Kazarian. 1990),
and ambiguous or undefined achievement criterion (Dees, 1994; Fredrickson. 1989;
Magotra, 1996; McMillan, 1997).
Achievement differences were noted when tutorial support was provided,
achievement was related to the student’s attitudes and personality (Pan. 1991).
readiness for self directed learning (Harriman, 1990), and cognitive style (Luk.
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40
1998). Differences were also noted in a business degree program capstone course
when students took a distance-learning course prior to the capstone course (Sonner,
1999). In the special case o f the adult learner, deliberate change may be a normal
part o f life and distance learning can support these change efforts initiated by this
group (Calder, 1989).
Learner Perceptions. Attitudes, and Personality Traits
Students in degree or training programs have generally accepted the
introduction o f distance learning technology (Naert, 1997; Nelson. 1997).
Ferrari and others have written extensively on the topic of procrastination, the
inverse o f persistence (Ferrari, 1995). While this literature does not deal directly
with distance learning, it does refer specifically to work done in examining student's
timely submission o f assigned work. The point is made that persistence measures
exist on a scale from one psychological extreme, obsessive compulsive, to another,
pathological procrastination. As of this writing, no work has been found that deals
specifically with task persistence in an e-mail supported distance-learning course.
Academic self-regulation can be described as what individual students do to
" . direct their own efforts to acquire knowledge and skill rather than relying on
teachers . . ." (Zimmerman, 1989). It could be argued that students with low self
regulation skills are more likely to be observed in a traditional classroom setting and
are consequently more likely to receive some sort o f corrective intervention than
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41
would a student in a distance learning course. No work on self-regulation in an e-
mail supported distance learning courses was found.
Summary
This review o f the literature proposes a conceptual organization of the field
that is intended to better reflect the reality and practice of distance learning. The
literature reviewed to date is large and robust and has created a state where overall
clarity o f the field is lacking. Almost every aspect o f distance learning is addressed
in one form or another and the relationship o f one study to the field as a whole is
ambiguous at best.
Distance learning in terms o f time and space separations is one of a number
of new paradigms that is emerging. Technology seems to be moving toward a wide
spread availability o f Asynchronous methodology where distance is no longer a
relevant concern. It is foreseeable that advances in artificial intelligence will
eliminate the barrier o f time from the student-teacher relationship although this
potential is not currently addressed in the distance learning literature.
Distance learning is defined by its common usage and that is a function o f the
intersection of the organization, student, teacher, and technology operating with a
defined environment. It is expected that the definition will change over time because
the stronger source o f word definitions is in its common usage.
Finally, distance learning can be viewed as a continuum o f separation of the
learner from the knowledge. As technology continues to improve this distinction
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42
may become less important than in prior eras. Distance does not seem as important
as the learner failing to manifest some value from the learning event.
O f particular interest to this work is the apparent void concerning task
persistence and academic self-regulation in an e-mail supported distance-learning
course. If these components o f student personality are related to task
accomplishment, and presumably course completion, then this knowledge could be
useful to administrators and teachers concerned with student retention.
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43
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This study is designed to explore the relationship between academic self-
regulation, task persistence and task accomplishment in an e-mail supported distance
learning class. Two groups of participants were observed; one from USC and the
other form the University o f Phoenix. Descriptive statistics were computed for each
group to help insure the accuracy o f data entry and to provide a picture of how the
groups responded to the items.
Two reliability measures were computed for each group: one for the task
persistence items and another for the academic self-regulation items. Bivariate
correlation analysis was then performed for each of the groups. Although there were
some correlations between the independent variables, there was no significant
correlation between the dependent variable and any independent variable.
The final step was to perform an analysis o f variance for the combined
groups with school as the factor variable. Significant differences were found
between the groups for the average days to submit an assignment, " I set challenging
but attainable goals for each class” and "Other things in my life interrupt my study-
time or schedule” all o f which are discussed below.
Research Design
This is a descriptive correlational study without an intervention. Participants
are measured after completion of the course as to their academic and self-regulation
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44
skills and task persistence. These self-reports are then related to each student’s
actual performance in the class in terms of whether the assignments that were
submitted on time or not. Qualitative data is collected in the form o f instructor notes
and the content o f e-mail messages between the instructors and participants
Participants
There are two groups o f students in this study: one group consists of 58 (52%
response rate) graduate students enrolled in a technology in education course at the
University of Southern California during the 1998-99 academic year and the second
group consists o f 81 (31% response rate) students enrolled in an undergraduate
computer course during the same period at the University o f Phoenix, Southern
California Division.
All of the participants are working adults with an estimated average age of 35
the majority o f whom (approximately 60% o f the UOP group and 70% o f the USC
group) were female. Most have at least fifteen years work or professional experience
and are enrolled in their respective programs for career reasons. It is assumed that
most of the participants are enrolled in their respective degree programs for
occupational reasons and not a desire to enter the university level academic world.
Most of the USC students have careers in K-12 as teachers or administrators, while
the Phoenix students are employed in private industry firms or the public, non
education organizations.
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45
Materials
Questionnaires were prepared using Microsoft Word and Excel. A cover
letter with the instrument was mailed to each student in the USC and UOP courses.
No other materials were required.
Test Instruments
A one-page questionnaire was developed (see appendix A) that asked
participants to respond to seventeen Likert items that are divided into two groups
covering task persistence (Items 1 through 7) and academic self-regulation (Items 8
through 17). The items and their respective scorings are given in the following
tables. In all cases I = Strongly Disagree: 2= Disagree; 3 = Agree; 4 = Strongly
Agree
Table 2.
Item and Item Scoring - Task Persistence Items
Item Scoring
1 . " 1 am highly motivated to do ucll I school.” Numeric scores recorded as entered by
the participant.
2. " 1 set challenging but attainable goals for each class." Numeric scores recorded as entered by
the participant.
3. I frequently over estimate the amount of time a task
will require
Reverse scored. i.e. 1 = 4. 2 = 3. etc..
4. 1 reward myself for doing a particular task well Numeric scores recorded as entered by
the participant.
5. I w ith hold a reward or punish myself for not doing
well on a particular task
Numeric scores recorded as entered by
the participant.
6. I carefully plan my time Numeric scores recorded as entered b\
the participant.
7. I seek help from others w hen I get stuck on an
assignment
Numeric scores recorded as entered b\
the participant.
Note: The additive composite range for these items is 7 -28
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46
Table 3.
Item and Item Scoring - Academic Self Regulation Items
Item Scoring j
8. I always study in the same place Numeric scores recorded as j
entered by the participant. !
9. I have a fixed time when I study Numeric scores recorded as
entered by the participant.
10. I underestimate the amount of time an
assignment will take
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3,
etc
11. Other things in my life interrupt my study
time or schedule
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3.
etc
12. If I have trouble with an assignment I
will leave it and go on to the next task
Numeric scores recorded as
entered by the participant.
13. I sometimes put off studying because I
don't feel like it
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3.
etc
14. I fear failing at a task or assignment Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4. 2 = 3.
etc
15. I loose sleep thinking about my school
work
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3.
etc
16. I sometimes wonder if the effort is worth
it
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3.
etc
17. The stress in my life has increased
i significantly since I entered the degree
1 program
Reverse scored, i.e. 1 = 4, 2 = 3.
etc
Note: The additive composite range for these items is 10-40
During the course o f instruction, records were created that tracked the date
each assignment was due and when each was submitted. The difference between the
due date and date submitted was computed and the individual average time to deliver
an assignment calculated. For the UOP students, the method used by the student to
submit the work was also noted because this group had the option o f submitting
either hard copy or an e-mail. There was a slight incentive for the use o f e-mail in
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47
that an assignment would not be considered late, and incur a penalty, if the work was
received by midnight of the date it was due.
Data Collection Procedures
The receipt o f assignments was recorded as the course progressed through the
final assignment. Some time after the completion o f the course, computation and
submission o f the final grades, the questionnaire was mailed to the participants. In
those cases where a response had not been received, an e-mail reminder was sent.
Data Recording and Analysis
The data were recorded in an Excel spreadsheet and included the average
number of days to submit assignments and the responses to the questionnaire items.
The average number o f days to submit an assignment could yield a positive number
if the work were submitted before the due date, zero if the work was received when
due, and a negative number if the work were submitted late. Data analysis was
performed using SPSS version 7.5
The first analysis to be accomplished is calculating the reliability statistics.
This is necessary to determine how reliable subsequent findings will be. Two
reliability measures were computed for each group: one for the task persistence items
(items 1 through 7) and for the academic self-regulation items (items 8 through 17).
Following the reliability calculations, descriptive statistics were computed to
profile the groups and insure the integrity o f data entry. Because the data type
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48
created by this instrument is not continuous, measures o f dispersion are not included
at the item level, i.e. Skewness and Kurtosis. The dependent variable, average time
to complete an assignment, and the composite variables o f task persistence and self
regulation were displayed as histograms.
Bivariate correlation analyses were then performed for each o f the groups,
i.e. task persistence and self-regulation for USC and then the same for the UOP
group. Significant correlations at the .05 and .01 level were noted.
A one-way Analysis o f Variance (ANOVA) for the combined groups with the
"school" as the factor variable was performed. The threshold for significance is the
.05 level.
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49
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results o f analyzing the collected data for this
exploratory study o f the relationship between academic self-regulation, task
persistence and task accomplishment in an e-mail supported distance-learning
course. Before discussing the research questions, the first issue to be determined is
the reliability of the instrument used. For this reason the reliability analysis is
presented first. Results of the descriptive statistics computations are then presented
followed by correlation analysis and ANOVA.
The composite persistence Alpha score o f .61 (Table 5) gives a measure of
assurance that the items associated with task persistence are measuring something
called "task persistence" versus each other.
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50
Table 4
Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Task Persistence
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
Scale
Variance
if Item
Deleted
Corrected
Item Total
Correlation
Alpha
if Item
Deleted
1 . "I am highly motivated to do well I
school."
16.4630 5.8005 .6648 .4840
2. "I set challenging but attainable
goals for each class."
16.7963 5.6370 .5901 .4900
3. 1 frequently over estimate the
amount of time a task will require.
17.4259 6.8529 .1453 6383
4. 1 reward myself for doing a
particular task well
17.3519 6.7984 .1431 .6417
5. I w ith hold a rew ard or punish
myself for not doing well on a
particular task.
17.9630 7.1307 .0996 .6477
6. 1 carefully plan my time. 17.3519 5.9305 .3547 .5676
7. I seek help from others w hen I get
stuck on an assignment.
17.2037 5.9011 .4675 .5298
N of Cases = 54.0 N o f Items = 7 Alpha =. 6141
On the academic self-regulation scale, a higher level o f reliability for the self-
regulation composite score was obtained by removing question 15 which had to do
with losing sleep over schoolwork. The alpha's for both composite scores were
roughly equivalent and exceeded .60 giving some expectations that significant
correlations could be identified in the ANOVA analysis.
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51
Table 5
Reliability Analysis - Scale (Alpha) Academic Self-Regulation
Scale Mean if
Item Deleted
Scale
Variance if
Item Deleted
Corrected
Item Total
Correlation
Alpha if
Item
Deleted
8. I always study in the
same place
18.9630
11.9986 .2659 .6073
9. [ have a fixed time
when I studv
19.2407
10.8277 .5978 .5304 |
10. 1 underestimate tire
amount of time an
assignment will take
18.9444
12.4308 .2393 .6124 ;
11. Other things in my
life interrupt my
study time or
schedule
19.3704
11.2187 .4890 .5549
12. If I have trouble
with an assignment
I will leave it and go
on to the next task
18.7500
12.2429 .2790 .6036
,
13. f sometimes put off
studying because I
don't feel like it
19.0926
13.1422 .0638 .6564
14. I fear failing at a
task or assignment
19.0093
12.3254 .1661 .6356
16. I sometimes
w onder if the effort
is worth it
18.5185
10.4808 .4948 .5434
17. The stress in my
life has increased
significantly since I
entered the degree
I program
18.9259
11.8435 .2654 .6082
Reliability Coefficients
N of Cases = 54.0 N of Items = 9 Alpha = .6252
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52
Descriptive Statistics
In order to evaluate the research questions, it is first necessary to determine
the differences between the two groups on the dependent variable. The descriptive
statistics for the dependent variable "Average Days to Submit an Assignment" are
presented apart from the other variables because o f the interpretation o f "Max" and
"Min". For this variable, the maximum days late is a negative number, e.g. -44 for
the USC group. This means that the latest assignment for a student not receiving an
"Incomplete" was received 44 days past the assignments due date.
The significant differences between the USC and UOP groups maximum
lateness in submitting assignments may be explained by the differences in course
length, fourteen weeks for the USC group versus five weeks for the UOP
participants, a penalty for submitting late work was stated (but not imposed) for the
UOP group, and there was no mention o f a penalty for submitting work late for the
USC participants. The delivery method choices that were available to these two
groups varied significantly in that the USC participants were expected to submit
work via e-mail whereas the normal method for turning in work for the UOP
participants was hardcopy. Even though these participants were given the
opportunity to submit work via e-mail only about 10% of the assignments from this
group were so received.
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Table 6
"Average Days to Submit an Assignment” for the USC and UOP groups
N Max Days Late
Submitting an
Assignment
Maximum Days Early
Submitting an
Assignment
Means Days to
Submit an
Assignment
Standard
Deviation
C JS C
Group
30 -44.00 6.00 -11.1333 13.5716
UOP
Group
25 -1.00 6.00 .8400 1.5460
The descriptive statistics for the USC group (Table 8) can best be
characterized as indicating a "middle ground” self image in terms of both task
persistence and academic self regulation. The exception to this generalization has to
do with estimating the time a task will take and self rewarding, both of which
suggest positive self images on these two variables (Questions 3 and 4).
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54
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics for the USC group
(Scale: 1= Strongly Disagree; 2= Disagree: 3 = Agee: 4 = Strongly Agree)
N Minimum Maximum Mean SD |
1. "I am highly motivated to do well I
school."
31 2.14 3.43 2.9816 .2991 j
i
|
2.
"I set challenging but attainable
goals for each class."
31 1.60 3.40 2.5011 .3839 i
i
3. "I frequently over estimate the
amount of time a task w ill require."
31 3.00 4.00 3.7742 .4250 |
!
4. "I reward myself for doing a
particular task well."
31 2.00 4.00 3.4516 .6239 j
5. "I w ith hold a reward or punish
myself for not doing well on a
particular task."
31 1.00 4(H) 2.7419 .8932 ;
6. "I carefully plan my time." 30 1.00 4.00 2.8667 .8604 :
7. "I seek help from others when 1 get
stuck on an assignment."
30 I.C M ) 4.00 2.1667 .7466
8. “1 always study in the same place." 31 1.00 4.00 2.9355 .8139
9. "I have a fixed time when I studv." 31 2.00 4.00 2.9032 .7002
10. "I underestimate the amount of time
an assignment will take."
31 1.00 4.00 2.3548 .8774
11. "Other things in my life interrupt my
study time or schedule."
31 1.00 4.00 2.2581 .7732
12. "If I have trouble w ith an assignment
I will leave it and go on to the next
task."
31 1.00 4.00 2.5484 .8099
13. "1 sometimes put off study ing
because I don't feci like it."
31 1.00 4.00 2.1935 .7924
14. "1 fear failing at a task or
assignment."
31 2.00 4.00 2.7419 .6816
15.
I
"I loose sleep thinking about my
school work."
31 1.00 4.00 2.1774 .9179 ;
! 16
"I sometimes w onder if the effort is
worth it."
30 1.00 4.00 2.4667 .9732
! 17.
!
i
"The stress in my life has increased
significantly since 1 entered the
degree program."
31 1.00 4.00 2.9355 .7718
The only two observed means that may be a bit high are those that address
how participants estimate the time their work will require and self-reward behavior.
Table 9 provides the same descriptive statistics for the UOP group.
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55
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics for the UOP group
(Scale: 1= Strongly Disagree: 2= Disagree; 3 = Agee: 4 = Strongly Agree)
N Minimum Maximum Mean SD !
Task Persistence Score 25 1.29 3.29 2.7362 .4658 |
Academic Self Regulation Score 25 1.50 3.20 2.3522 .3702 !
1. "I am highly motivated to do well I
school."
25 1.00 4.00 3.4800 .7141
i
2. "I set challenging but attainable goals
for each class."
25 1.00 4.00 3.08(H) .7594 !
i
3. “1 frequently over estimate the amount
of time a task will require."
25 1.00 3.00 2.52(H) .6532 |
4. "I reward myself for doing a particular
task well.”
25 1.00 4.00 2.6000 .7071 ,
5. "I with hold a reward or punish myself
for not doing well on a particular task."
25 1.00 4.00 2.08(H) .7024
6. ~I carefully plan my time." 25 1.00 3.00 2.5200 .7703
7. "1 seek help from others when I get
stuck on an assignment."
24 1.00 4.00 2.8750 .7409
8. "I always study in the same place." 25 1.00 4.00 2.4400 .9165
9. "1 have a fixed time when I studv." 25 1.00 3.00 1.9600 .6758
10. "I underestimate the amount of time an
assignment will take."
25 1.00 3.00 2.32(H) .7483
11. "Other things in my life interrupt my
studv time or schedule."
25 1.00 3.00 1.7200 .6137
12. "If I have trouble with an assignment I
will leave it and go on to the next task."
25 1.00 4.00 2.3800 8073
13. "I sometimes put off studying because
I don't feel like it."
25 1.00 4.00 2.4800 .8718
•
14. “1 fear failing at a task or
assignment."
25 1.00 4.(X ) 2.2600 .9478 ;
:
15. "1 loose sleep thinking about my
school work."
25 1.00 4.00 2.9400 9165 :
16. "1 sometimes w onder if the effort is
worth it."
25 1.00 4.00 2.7200 .9363
17. "The stress in my life has increased
significantly since I entered the degree
program."
24 1.00 4.00 2.2917 .9079
The UOP group seems to have a somewhat different view of their degree
program with motivation that seems a bit higher than the USC group, less inclined to
have a fixed study time and tend not to let other things in life interrupt their studies.
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56
Histograms
The histograms for the average days to submit an assignment are more tightly
clustered for the UOP group than the USC group, perhaps for reasons mentioned
above. The composite persistence and academic self-regulation composite scores
also show a tighter clustering for the UOP group.
The following seven histograms graphically present the descriptive statistics
for each of the persistence variables.
Figure 2.
Average number of Days to Submit an Assignment - USC Group
This histogram suggests a somewhat bifurcated distribution with the largest
group of participants’ running from one to two weeks late. The following figure
displays the same data for the UOP group.
avG.DAYS
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57
Figure 3.
Average number o f Days to Submit an Assignment - UOP Group
The UOP group is unlike the USC group in that the greatest concentration of
observations is for those participants submitting work on time or even a bit early.
It is interesting to note that about 13% o f the participants in the USC group
were 1 - l-1 /; months late with their work while 20% were early.
The following histogram displays the composite persistence scores for both
groups.
PERSIST
Figure 4.
Composite Persistence Score (Items 1 - 7) - USC Group
The USC group (above) is more evenly dispersed in their persistence scores
than is the UOP group below.
PERSIST
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58
Figure 5.
Composite Persistence Score (Items 1 - 7) - UOP Group
The UOP composite persistence scores seem to suggest a more homogenous
group than the USC cohort. The self reported persistence o f the USC group might
be supported by the low drop out and incomplete rate for this class (two students
dropped the course and three took incompletes).
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59
The self-regulation score composites in figures 6 and 7 appear to be
remarkably similar. Some discussion of this observation is warranted and will be
included in the final chapter.
SttO w *3 *
ta o t/a :o o 2 io in 3 0 0 u* jso
Figure 6.
Composite Academic Self-Regulation Scores (Items 8 through 17) - USC
Group
SM. Ovr • 37
tao t n zoo 225 290 279 300 329
SEIFREG
Figure 7.
Composite Academic Self-Regulation Scores (Items 8 through 17) - UOP
Group
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60
Tables 10 and 11 present the correlation analysis for both the task persistence
and the self-regulation measures.
Table 9
Correlation Analysis - USC Task Persistence Items
Pearson Correlation Average
Davs
Self
Regulation
Persist. V01 V02
Average Days r" 1.000 .190 .033 .136 -.062
Self Regulation .190 1.000 .267 .348 .371 * :
Persistence .033 .267 1.000 .528 ** .505 **
I. "1 am highly motivated to do
well I school."
.136 .348 .528
*«
1.000 s C
*
2. "I set challenging but
attainable goals for each
class."
-.062 .371 * .505
**
.397 * 1.000
3. "I frequently over estimate the
amount of time a task will
require.”
.043 .206 .320 j 105
:
i
.037
4. "I reward myself for doing a
particular task well."
-.137 -.224 .348 | .006
i
.000
5. "I with hold a reward or
punish myself for not doing
well on a particular task."
-.201 -.479 ** .253 ! 018
I
i
i
-040
6. “1 carefully plan my time." .119 .464** .445* i .149 256
7. "I seek help from others when
I get stuck on an assignment."
.248 .195 .605 1 .260 j 180
**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The first observation to be made for the USC group regarding task
persistence relates to the research question, "How does task persistence relate to task
accomplishment in an e-mail supported distance learning class?" These findings do
not demonstrate a significant relationship between task persistence and the average
days to complete an assignment. The findings for the UOP group suggest a similar
conclusion (Table 12).
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61
Table 9 (Continued)
Correlation Analysis - USC Task Persistence Items
Pearson Correlation V03 V04 VOS V06 V07 :
Average Days .043 -.137 -.201 .119 .248 1
Self Regulation .206 -.224 -.479 ** .464 ** .195
Persistence .320 .348 .253 .445 * .605** !
I. "I am highly motivated to do
well I school."
.105 .006 .018 .149 .260
2. "I set challenging but attainable
goals for each class."
.037 .000 -.040 .256 .180
3. "I frequently over estimate the
amount of time a task will
require."
1.000 -.180 -.492 ** .114 .172
4. “I reward myself for doing a
particular task well."
-.180 1.000 .519** -.352 -.079
5. “I with hold a reward or punish
myself for not doing well on a
particular task."
-.492 ** .519 ** 1.000 -.205 -.032
'
6. "1 carefully plan my time." .114 -.352 -.205 1.0(H ) .340
7. "I seek help from others when I
get stuck on an assignment."
.172 -.079 -.032 .340 1.000
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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62
Table 10
Correlation Analysis - USC Self Regulation Items
Pearson Correlation Average
Davs
Self
Reg.
Persist. V08 V09 V10 V ll
Average Days 1.000 .190 .033 .093 .138 .069 .291
Self Regulation .190 1.000 .267 .660 •• .773 •• .511 •• .550 ••
Persistence .033 .267 1.000 .298 .330 .102 .478 ••
8. "I always study in
the same place."
.093 .660 ** .298 1.000 .647 •• .421 * .425 *
9. "I have a fixed time
when I studv."
.138 .773 ** .330 .647
**
1.000 .458 ** .514 ;
**
10. " 1 underestimate
the amount of time
an assignment will
take."
.069 .511 ** .102 .421 * .458
**
1.000 . 193
11. “Other things in
my life interrupt my
study time or
schedule."
.291 .550 ** .478
**
.425 * .514
**
.193 1.000
12. “If I have trouble
w ith an assignment
I will leave it and go
on to the next task."
-.083 .360 * .2j j .102 .320 265 .219
13. “I sometimes put
off studying because
1 don't feel like it."
-.142 .419 * .116 .416 * .380 .044 318
14. “1 fear failing at a
task or assignment."
.019 .151 -.285 -.178 -.241 .137 -.211
15. “I loose sleep
thinking about my
school work."
.096 .050 -.067 -.162 -.139 .058 -306
I 16. “I sometimes
w onder if the effort
i is worth it."
.273 .640 ** .219 .265 .369 * - o n .346
j 17. "The stress in my
j life has increased
significantly since I
entered the degree
program."
.101 .317 -.207 -.177 053
:
-.143 -.268
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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63
Table 10 (Continued)
Correlation Analysis - USC Self Regulation Items
Pearson Correlation V12 V13 VI4 V15 V16 V17 !
Average Days -.083 -.142 .019 .096 .273 .101
Self Regulation .360* .419* .151 .050 .640 ** .317 i
Persistence .233 .116 -.285 -.067 .219 -.207 :
8. "1 always study in the same
place."
.102 .416* -.178 -.162 .265 -.177 |
9. “I have a fixed lime when I
studv."
.320 .380* -.241 -.139 .369 * .053
10. “1 underestimate the amount
of time an assignment will
take."
.265 044 .137 .058 -.011 -.143 i
11. "Other things in my life
interrupt my study time or
schedule."
.219 .318 -.211 -.306 .346 -.268
12. “If I have trouble with an
assignment 1 will leave it and
go on to the next task."
1.000 -.164 -.090 .094 -.015 204
13. "I sometimes put off studying
because I don't feel like it."
-.164 1.000 -.192 -.242 .089 -.124
14. “I fear failing at a task or
assignment."
-.090 -.192 1.000 .532 ** 068 179
15. "I loose sleep thinking about
mv school work."
.094 -.242 .532 ** 1.000 .075 .232
16. “I sometimes wonder if the
effort is worth it."
-.015 .089 .068 .075 1.0(H ) .535
**
17. "The stress in my life has
increased significantly since I
entered the degree program."
.204 -.124 .179 .232 .535 **
i
1.000
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The results from Tables 1 1 and 13 also fail to indicate a significant
relationship between the self-regulation skills and average days to complete an
assignment for either the USC or UOP groups
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64
Table 1 1
Correlation Analysis - UOP Task Persistence Items
Pearson Correlation Average
Davs
Self Reg. Persistence V01 V02 i
1
Average Davs 1.000 .129 .031 .223 ".153
Self Regulation .129 1.000 .169 .197 .317
Persistence .031 .169 1.000 .859 •• 783 •• |
1. i am highly motivated to do well I
school."
.223 .197 .859 *• 1.000 .695 •• |
i
2. "I set challenging but attainable
goals for each class."
.153 .317 .783 *• .695 ** 10(X) ;
3. "I frequently over estimate the
amount of time a task will require."
-.079 .062 .493 * 247 081 i
4. "1 reward myself for doing a
particular task well."
-.099 -290 461 * 396
217
5. i with hold a reward or punish
myself for not doing well on a
particular task."
-.256 - 100 .449 * 169 300
!
6 i carefully plan my time." .108 461 • .694 ** 664 ** 638 *•
7. i seek help from others when I get
stuck on an assignment"
061 .072 .765 ** 682 *• 557 **
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailcd).
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailcd).
Table 11 (Continued)
Correlation Analysis - UOP Task Persistence Items
Pearson Correlation V03 V04 V05 V06 V07
Average Davs -079 -099 -.256 108 061
Self Regulation .062 -.290 -.100 461 * 072
Persistence .493 * .461 * .449 * 694 ** 765 **
1 . “I am highly motivated to do well 1
school.”
247 396 169 664 ** 682 **
2. "I set challenging but attainable goals for
each class."
.081 217 300 638 ** 557 *•
3 1 frequently over estimate the amount of
time a task will require.”
I 0(X) .108 360 185 >77
4. "I reward myself for doing a particular
task well."
.108 1.000 235 -061 225
5. "I with hold a reward or punish myself for
not doing well on a particular task.”
360 .235 1.000 - 003 020
6. "I carefully plan my time." 185 -061 -003 1.000 639 **
7 i seek help from others when 1 get stuck
on an assignment.”
.377 225 .020 639 ** 1.000
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailcd).
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65
Table 12
Correlation Analysis - UOP Self Regulation Items
Pearson Correlation Average
Davs
Self Reg. Persistence V08 V09 V10 V II |
i
Average Days 1.000 .129 .031 .111 -.006 -.062 .258 i
Self Regulation .129 1.000 .169 .277 .617 ** .286 .725 ** i
Persistence .031 .169 1.000 334 .170 -.195 '■'.'126 !
8. "I always study in
the same place
111 .277 .334 1.000 .231 -.032 .154
j
9. "I have a fixed
time w hen I studv
-.006 .617 ** .170 231 1.000 -.056 .5 7 5 ** ;
10. "I underestimate
the amount of
time an
assignment will
take
-.062 .286 -.195 -.032 -.056 1.0(H ) .294
11. "Other things in
my life interrupt
my study time or
schedule
.258 .725 ** .126 .154 .575 ** .294 1.000
12. "If I have trouble
with an
assignment 1 will
leave it and go on
to the next task
-.016 .474* .162 .300 .067 - 106 056
1.'. "I sometimes put
off studying
because I don't
feel like it
.059 .233 -.112 -.275 .246 -.181 262
14. “I fear failing at
a task or
assignment
-.113 .674 ** -.216 -.113 245 201 .417*
15. "I loose sleep
thinking about my
school w ork
.037 -.078 - 104 -.587
**
-.004 - 153 080
16. "1 sometimes
wonder if the
effort is worth it
.313 .612** .533 ** .101 .377
; 193 438 *
17. "The stress in my .050 .593 ** -.079 -.135 .228 ! 061 ! .233
significantly since
I entered the
degree program
*
* *
Correlation is
Correlation is
significant
significant
at the 0.05
at the 0.01
level (2-
level (2-
tailed).
tailed).
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66
Table 12 (Continued)
Correlation Analysis - UOP Self Regulation Items
Pearson Correlation V12 V13 V14 V15 V16 V17
Average Days -.016 .059 -.113 .037 .313 .050
Self Regulation .474* .233 .674 ** -.078 .612 ** .593 **
Persistence .162 -.112 -.216 -.104 .533 ** -.079
8. "1 always study in the
same place
.300 -.275 -.113 -.587 ** .101 -.135
9. ~I have a fixed time
when I studv
.067 .246 .245 -.004 .377 .228
10. ~I underestimate the
amount of time an
assignment will take
-.106 -.181 .201 -.153 .193 .061
11. "Other things in my
life interrupt my study
time or schedule
.056 .262 .417* .080 438 * .233
12. "If I have trouble
w ith an assignment I
will leave it and go on
to the next task
1.000 -.329 .342 -.249 .312 .364
13. "I sometimes put off
studying because I
don't feel like it
-.329 1.000 .297 .429 * -.033 063
14. "I fear failing at a
task or assignment
.342 .297 1.000 .187 .085 .519 **
15. ~I loose sleep
thinking about my
school work
-.249 .429 * .187 1.000 -.118 091
16. “I sometimes wonder
if the effort is w orth it
.312 -.033 .085 - 118 1.000 296
17. "The stress in my life
has increased
! significantly since 1
entered the degree
! program
.364 .063 519** .091 .296 1.000
icant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is signi
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The following table presents the results o f the ANOVA for the task
persistence items.
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67
Table 13 presents the UOP self-regulation item correlations. What is
interesting is the absence of a correlation to either of the composite variables in any
of these tables.
Table 13
One-way Analysis o f Variance - Task Persistence
Sum of
Squares
Df Mean
Square
F j Sig. j
Average Days
Earlv or Late
Between
Groups
1954.919 1 1954.919 19.191 | .0001 |
1 1
Within
Groups
5398.827 53 101.865
! !
|
Total 7353.745 54
t. "lam
highly
motivated
to do well I
school."
Between
Groups
1.198 I 1.198 3.663 061 !
i i
Within
Groups
17.659 54 .327 i
j
Total 18.857 55
1 !
2. "I set
challenging
but
attainable
goals for
each
I class."
Between
Groups
1.911 1 1.911 j 4.044 i 049
j i
I 1
Within
Groups
25.517 54 .473 j ;
i !
Total 27.429 55
i ;
i i :
i ! ;
1 i !
3. "I
j frequently
| over
| estimate
! the amount
i of time a
1 task will
! require."
Between
Groups
.682 1 .682 1 1.077 t .304 1
i i
! i :
Within
Groups
34.175 54 .633 i ]
Total 34.857 55
1
; 4. "I reward
myself for
doing a
particular
task well."
Between
Groups
.420 1 | .420 547 463
i ; :
1 I
Within
Groups
41.419 54 .767
i
j
Total | 41.839
1
55 j
1
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68
Table 13 (Continued)
One-way Analysis o f Variance - Task Persistence
Sum of
Squares
Df Mean
Square
F
Sig '
1
1
5. "I with hold
a reward or
punish
mvself for
not doing
well on a
particular
task."
Between
Groups
3.894E-03 1 3.894E-03 .006 .936
Within
Groups
32.550 54 .603
Total 32.554 55
i
6. "I carefully
plan my
time."
Between
Groups
2.389 1 2.389 3.782 .057 :
;
Within
Groups
34.111 54 .632
Total 36.500 55
7. "I seek help
from others
when I get
stuck on an
assignment.
Between
Groups
1.078E-02 I 1.078E-02 | .021
1
1
.886
Within
Groups
27.335 53 .516 j
!
Total 27.345 54
|
The only significant differences between the two groups is that the USC
students are more late in turning in their work than the UOP group and the UOP
group is more likely to set goals for each class than are the USC participants.
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69
Table 14
One-way Analysis o f Variance - Academic Self-Regulation
Sum of
Squares
Df Mean
Square
F
Sig.
8. “I always study in the
same place."
Between
Groups
.100 I .100 .125 .725
Within Groups 43.257 54 .801 1
Total 43.357 55 1
9. "I have a fixed time
when I studv."
Between
Groups
1.230 1 1.230 2.298 .135
Within Groups 28.895 54 .535
!
Total 30.125 55 | !
i
10. H I underestimate the
amount of time an
assignment will lake."
Between
Groups
.722
1
.722 | 1.177 ! .283 :
Within Groups 33.117 54 .613 t
Total 33.839 55
1
11. "Other things in my
life interrupt my study
time or schedule."
Between
Groups
3.103 I 3.103 6.011 1 .017
Within Groups 27.879 54 .516 I
Total 30.982 55
12. 'If I have trouble with
an assignment 1 will
leave it and go on to the
next task."
Between
Groups
1.813 1 1.813 3.310 .074
Within Groups 29.575 54 | .548
Total 31.388 55 i , ’
13. "I sometimes put off
studying because 1
Between
Groups
1.552 1 1.552 ! 2.003 .163
don't feci like it." Within Groups 41.837 54 .775 i !
Total 43.388 55
i 1
14. "I fear failing at a task
or assignment."
!
Between
Groups
1.492 I | 1.492 j 1.500 ! .226
I i !
Within Groups 53.717 54 | .995 i
Total 55.210 55 j
j 15. "I loose sleep thinking
| about my school work."
i
i
Between
Groups
1.743E-02 I 1.743E-
! 02
.025 ! .875
Within Groups 37.871 | 54 .701 ;
Total i 37.888 j 55
16. “I sometimes wonder
if the efTort is w orth it."
Between .195 | I
Groups i 1
.195 .214 I 646
Within Groups I 49.234 I 54 .912 :
Total | 49.429 55 I i
17. "The stress in my life
has increased
significantly since I
entered the degree
program."
Between ! .500
Groups |
1 5(H ) ; .593 j .445
1
Within Groups | 44.700 53 .843 j
Total | 45.200
i
54
1
j ;
i ’
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70
The significant differences between the groups on the self regulation items
appears to be that UOP participants are less likely to let other things in life interrupt
their studies.
Qualitative Analysis
A review of the contents o f the e-mail messages and other communications
can be grouped into concerns about the use o f the technology, conflicting demands
upon the student, and what can best be described as the drive or compulsion to
submit work on time.
About ten percent of the USC participants expressed concerns or requested
assistance in using the technology. For example, there were requests for assistance
in attaching documents to an e-mail message, embedding text into the body o f an E-
mail message, how to use Microsoft PowerPoint™, and how to use virus protection
software. For a few participants there were issues of how to submit work created in
a non-Intel platform, i.e. Apple systems, or using alternative presentation software
packages. In general, these questions support the literature conclusion that teachers
(the majority o f this population) are less familiar with technology than might
otherwise be expected.
A few requests, and larger number o f apologies, were received for late work
due to a variety of reasons from work task assignments to personal problems. This
was rather remarkable in some cases because o f the impression given by the student
that almost anything else came before doing the assigned work. There were cases
where the delay was caused by an inability to access the electronic resources
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71
required of an assignment and not having material due to missing the first meeting
(conducted face to face with the professor).
For the USC group, there seemed to be a lower sense of urgency about
getting the work done on time. How this relaxed approach relates to the average
time to submit an assignment is fairly obvious.
For the UOP group, the use of e-mail to submit work was low and there were
no significant problems reported by those students using this method to submit work.
The level o f technological familiarity seemed to be higher than with the USC group.
This group was also much more driven than the USC group to submit work
on time. This may be due to the level of instruction (undergraduate versus graduate)
and course length, five weeks versus fourteen.
Summary
In terms of the research questions, the following may be reported.
“ How do self-regulation skills relate to the timely completion of
assignments in a distance-learning environment versus traditional
course delivery methods?4 - No significant difference was found for
either group although there were significant differences in the time it
took the USC participants to submit assignments versus the UOP
participants.
.Are distance learners with well-developed self-regulation skills more
likely to complete assignments on time in a distance-learning
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72
environment than those with lesser-developed skills? No significant
differences were found between the two groups.
How does task persistence relate to the timely completion o f
assignments in an e-mail support distance learning class? No
significant relationship was found.
Do instructors perceive differences in student behaviors in a distance
learning supported course? The students are drawn from a
population that regularly attends class in a traditional environment
and no significant differences were observed. This is to be expected
because o f the nature o f the program and what students expect form a
course that is seen as being somewhat novel.
How are students perceived by instructors in an e-mail supported
distance course versus students in traditional courses? The general
perception is that the two groups are very similar although the USC
group seemed to be much better grounded in theory and had a greater
concern for theory and the academic literature of their field.
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73
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE
RESEARCH
This chapter discusses the findings o f this exploratory study, draws some
conclusions from the findings and offers suggestions for future research. The
purpose o f this study was to explore the effects o f academic self-regulation and task
persistence on the timely completion of assignments in an e-mail supported distance-
learning environment. The overall objective of this study was to enable the
knowledge provider to select the appropriate modality and aid the learner in
identifying the skills required to successfully exploit emerging distance learning
technologies. This goal was accomplished by 1) quantitatively observing and
measuring distance learners on task accomplishment and 2) recording individual
responses to a questionnaire. Self-regulation skills and learning styles preferences
were correlated to the observed behaviors. Instructors were interviewed as to their
experience with the technology, attitudes and opinions, their perceptions o f student
self-regulation, and for the differential impact that distance learning has on their time
and commitments.
During the 1998-1999 academic year students enrolled in a graduate
technology in education course at the University o f Southern California and an
undergraduate course in computer technology at UOP were observed as to their
timely completion o f assigned work. At the conclusion of the courses, a self-
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74
assessment questionnaire was administered that asked questions about the
participants task persistence and self-regulation. These data were recorded
Research Questions
The research questions that were answered are:
How do self-regulation skills relate to the timely completion of
assignments in a distance-learning environment versus traditional
course delivery methods?
Are distance learners with well-developed self-regulation skills more
likely to complete assignments on time in a distance-learning
environment than those with lesser-developed skills?
How does task persistence relate to the timely completion of
assignments in an e-mail support distance learning class?
Do instructors perceive differences in student behaviors in a distance
learning supported course?
How are students perceived by instructors in an e-mail supported
distance course versus students in traditional courses?
As to research question 1. "How do self-regulation skills relate to the timely
completion of assignments in a distance-learning environment versus traditional
course delivery methods?" the answer for this study is that they don’ t. It seems
reasonable to assume that both o f these students' populations vary from those of
traditional students in both age and the life responsibilities that study participants
have. One would probably not engage in a demanding degree program without
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75
having dealt with the mechanics o f getting work done on time. One could also
suspect that older students are better abler to manipulate a given educational system
to their advantage.
"Are distance learners with well-developed self-regulation skills more likely
to complete assignments on time in a distance learning environment than those with
lesser-developed skills?" was research question #2 and the results do not support
this distinction for reasons mentioned above.
Research question #3 is "How does task persistence relate to task
accomplishment in an e-mail support distance learning class?" Both groups of
students got the work done but the USC group took a lot longer to do it. The "real"
deadline for getting work in seems to be the end of the course. This suggests that
persistence is present in both groups but the absence of a penalty for late submission
probably "bunched" the submissions toward the end o f the course. An informal
inspection o f the raw data tends to support this view.
"Do instructors perceive differences in student behaviors in a distance
learning supported course?", question 4, seems to be an affirmative. The USC group
seems to have viewed the inclusion o f E-mail as a novel approach to a curriculum
that is almost entirely composed o f classes with traditional face-to-face meetings
Other differences seem to be that the UOP students are more driven to complete their
degrees for economic reasons, e.g. gaining a promotion or new job, than the USC
group that seems to be motivated by professional considerations.
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76
The final research questions, "How are students perceived by instructors in an
e-mail supported distance course versus students in traditional courses?", has been
somewhat addressed above. Additionally, the USC group seems to have been placed
in a position where they were forced to use e-mail technology in ways not usual for
them. Comments on the end o f course surveys suggest that both groups of students
have a greater appreciation for the need to devote the necessary time to mastering
technology. This impression is consistent with the literature.
Other Considerations
Confounding issues include the self self-selecting character of the study
population. Both groups o f students probably realize that they are in a process that
requires self-regulation skills and great persistence. What this means is that the
institutions providing computer based distance learning need to be clear about
workloads and deadlines. The individual student will elect to join the program or
not.
Another confounding issue is the rigidity o f the UOP program. The USC
courses offer greater opportunity to respond to individual student needs than does the
UOP process. At the University o f Phoenix, non-academic administrators review
courses, sometimes in great detail. One result o f this process is instructor criticism
based upon process steps and not learning outcomes. The penalty for instructor non-
compliance or deviation is a loss of teaching opportunities.
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77
Suggestions for Future Research
Perhaps the most obvious suggestion would be to encourage a future study
that involved random assignment o f participants to either a traditional or an e-mail
supported course before they gain experience with the university in question. There
some value in directing potential students to one or another mode o f instruction
based upon the individuals academic self regulation skills and task persistence.
Yet another, and perhaps more telling study, could involve measuring
academic self-regulation and task persistence against student retention. It may well
be the case that for any given course the instruments used in this study would not
reveal significant differences but could be related to an individual student's
completing a degree program.
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78
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Barry, Linda Gail (1996). The provision o f science curriculum in small rural
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Bebko, Phyllis Ruth (1998). Influences upon higher education faculty use of
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2523A.
Belawati, Tian (1996). Increasing persistence in Indonesian post-secondary
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Bennett, Wayne (1994). Research and development of an instructional
system teaching security supervisors in the Canadian Forces (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 32 (6), 1519
Bentley, Richard Alastair (1998). The development of distance learning
material to support decision related thinking skills in more able children.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (3), 479C
Betts, Keith (1996). A stratagem to improve the access and use of
microcomputer and information technology in institutions of higher education in the
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Betts, Kristen Suzanne (1999). Factors influencing faculty participation in
distance education in postsecondary education in the United States: an institutional
study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49 (7), 2376A.
Bielema, Cheryl L. (1996). Factors affecting implementation of interactive
computer-mediated instructional techniques for instructors and learners at a distance
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (11), 4703A.
Bihilaki, Lemonia N. (1996). Family and consumer sciences secondary
school teachers' orientations toward distance education technology for curriculum
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Birk, Thomas Allen (1997). Benchmarking decision-making strategies for
distance education at four-year colleges and universities in the United States.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 2170A.
Bischoff. Whitney Rogers (1994). Transactional distance, interactive
television and electronic mail communication in graduate public health and nursing
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Blignaut, Ernst Philippus (1998). Two-dimensional still images in a
multimedia package in tertiary distance education: didactical guidelines (Afrikaans
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enhance interaction and social presence in computer mediated communication
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Blundell, Edith Patricia (1997). A case study o f perceptions of the induction
process into college distance learning teaching. Dissertation Abstracts International.
58 (3), 760A.
Bodenbender, Katherine Dorothea (1999). Baccalaureate and graduate
nursing faculty attitudes toward and perceptions o f interactive television teaching
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Boling, Nancy Carol (1997). Which method - individual learning,
cooperative learning, or interactive multimedia - best enhances lecture-based
distance education? Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (11), 4703 A.
Bossons, Patricia Jane (1989). The effects o f personality and studying style
on the success o f distance learning students: a study o f students' perceptions o f
success with one distance learning course. Dissertation Abstracts International. 50
(I), 61 A.
Botari, Victor A. (1998). A model o f community-centered education: the
evolution of postsecondary education programming on the Stoney Indian Reserve
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Bourke, Carol Odette (1997). Telecourse and traditional computer
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 429A.
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84
Boyd, Charles Hamilton (1996). The implementation of microcomputer-
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Boza, Lynn Anne (1995). Application of instructor and student perceptions
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Brenner, Roger John (1997). An analysis o f the transactional distance
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Brigham, David E. (1995). Influences on student course progress in an
independent study degree program: a student perspective (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (8), 2247A.
Britton, Oscar L. (1993). Interactive distance education in higher education
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (12), 4223A.
Broadus, Canssandra Ann (1995). Telecommunication technologies and art
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (I), 65A.
Brouard, Raynald C. (1996). The relationship between student
characteristics, computer literacy, technology acceptance, and distance education
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1178 A.
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adults in marginalized groups in the DE9 countries (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (10), 3800A.
Bruce-Hayter, Catherine L.M. (1997). Computer-mediated communication
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International, 35 (5), 1138
Builen, Mark (1998). A case study o f participation and critical thinking in a
university-level course delivered by computer conferencing. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (1), 51 A.
Bunker, Ellen L. (1998). An historical analysis o f a distance education
forum: the International Council for Distance Education World Conference
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Bunting, Larry David (1990). First step in the feasibility o f interactive
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Abstracts International, 51 (1), 61 A.
Buntzman, Arol Isrul (1996). Finding new markets for graduation education
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Bures, Eva Mary Hunt Bidwell (1998). Effect o f cooperative structure of
small-group online activities on student satisfaction, benefits and use in distance
education and an exploration of online strategies. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 36 (4), 898
Burke, Michael Alan (1994). The Columbus experience: institutionalization
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Burkhart-Kriesel, Cheryl A. (1993). Social interaction in adult distance
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Burkman, Thomas A. (1994). An analysis o f the relationship of achievement,
attitude and sociological element o f individual learning style o f students in an
interactive television course (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (6), 1533A.
Burnham, Byron R. (1994). A systemic view o f distance education
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future o f postsecondary curriculum. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (8),
2367A.
Calder, Judith (1993). A study o f the relationship between deliberate change
in adults and the use o f media-based learning materials. Dissertation Abstracts
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Abstracts International, 57 (2), 496A.
Cavanaugh, Catherine (1999). The effectiveness of interactive distance
education technologies in K-12 learning: a meta-analysis. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (7), 2455A.
Cegles. Kathleen A. (1999). Emerging issues affecting distance education
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Abstracts International, 59 (8), 2879A.
Chandler, Anne L. (1994). Descriptive case studies o f training, research and
development in computers and related instructional technologies for teachers at three
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Chang, Echeol (1995). Investigation o f constructivist principles applied to
collaborative study o f business cases in computer-mediated communication.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (3), 897A.
Charles, Randy Joe (1998). The design and development of a computer-
based instruction lesson for community college organizational behavior courses.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (5), 1438A.
Chen , Ivan M.C. (1991). The comparative effectiveness o f satellite and
face-to-face delivery for a short-term substance abuse education program (distance
education, satellite delivery). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (4), 1191 A.
Chen, Yau-Jane (1998). The implications o f Moore's theory of transactional
distance in a videoconferencing learning environment (distance education. Michael
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Cheng, Hui-Chuan Jane (1991). Teacher training via computer-based
distance education (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International. 51
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Chipas, Anthony James (1998). A study o f the perceived effects o f desktop
video distance education upon student motivation and achievement (student support
services). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (12), 4523 A.
Chong, Siat-Moy (1999). Case studies of computer conferencing to enhance
collaborative learning in college classroom. Dissertation Abstracts International. 59
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Clark, Dan N. (1996). Persistence and nonpersistence in the undergraduate
external degree program at the University o f Alabama (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 23 78A.
Clark, Robyn (1999). Going the distance. Black Enterprise. 29 (9), 113-114.
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3 293 A.
Clybum, William Woodrow (1999). Student satisfaction with vocational
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Clymer, Ellen Saxe (1997). A model master of science curriculum for
educators o f health professionals; instructional alternatives, implementation and
evaluation plan. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (9), 3779A.
Concannon, Elizabeth Louise (1995). An evaluation o f satellite-delivered
educational television programs for corporate engineers obtaining advanced degrees
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (7), 1921 A.
Conco, Paul Wiliam (1995). A model for partnership. South Carolina
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (7), 1839A.
Connor, Marilyn E. (1998). Attrition rates in telecourses and campus courses
at the University o f Alaska Anchorage by gender, age, and ethnic classification.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 36(1), 15
Conrad, Dianne L. (1992). Distance learners' use of support services
Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (4), 956
Cordover, Phyllis P. (1997). A comparison o f a distance education and
locally based course in an urban university setting. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (8), 3413 A.
Cornett, Kathleen (1996). The development of a strategic recruitment plan
for distance learning university. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (11),
4217A.
Cox, Jan M. (1996). Analysis o f an International Business Machines (IBM)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) workgroup with remote Integrated services
Digital Network (ISDN) access. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (3). 1200
Cravener, Patricia Ann (1998). Student selection of communication media
(computer mediated communication, face to face communication distance education,
motivation). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (11), 4171 A.
Croney, Sara Lynn (1999). Administrative issues in planning, implementing
and evaluating two-way distance education systems for K-12 schools. Dissertation
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Crouch, Janie King (1998). The effect o f parasocial interaction, traditional
interaction, and perceptions about learning on question forming in distance learning
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Crowe, Dale J. (1991). Distance education utilizing two-way interactive
television and special features. A 4th year evaluation study: perceptions by students
and parents (interactive video). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (2), 513 A.
Crowley, Paulette Thompson (1996). National science education standards
teaching practices inherent in a distance education elementary science course and
their relationship to site, teach and student factors (elementary school, gender).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2419A.
Crowley, Thomas Ward (1995). Evaluation o f Educational Service District
101's elementary level young astronauts satellite course. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (2), 520A.
Curry, Robert Furman (1997). Academic advising in distance education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 396A.
Daddario, Gina C. (1989). Byes and bars: the social impact of computer
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International, 49 (12), 3540A.
Dahl, Cheryl Lynn (1994). constraints on the production o f knowledge in
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Dallet, Patrick; Opper, John H. (1997) Reducing time-to-degree with distance
learning: are we closer now than when we started? New Directions for Community
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Daniel, John Sagar (1996). The mega-universities and the knowledge media:
implications of new technologies for large distance teaching universities.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (6), 2135
Darga, Richard Jerome (1995). Use of a research methodology for the
introduction of distance-learning technologies to rural area. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 ( I), 42A.
Darmayanti, Tri (1995). Readiness for self-directed learning and
achievement of the students o f Universities Terbukea (the Indonesian Open Learning
University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 33 (4), 1061
Davis, Michaeleen Ann (1996). The interrelationship of conation, goal
accomplishment style, and psychological type in distance learners. Dissertation
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Dawson, Val Wallace (1992). Student mediation styles, satisfaction and
achievement in an electronic distance education environment (mediation styles,
distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (3), 779A.
Debourgh, Gregory A. (1998). Learner and instructional predictors o f
student satisfaction in a graduate nursing program taught via interactive video
teleconferencing and world wide web/internet. Dissertation Abstracts International,
59 (3), 1046B
Dees, Sherwood Charles (1995). An investigation of distance education
versus traditional course delivery using comparisons o f student achievement scores
in advanced placement chemistry and perceptions o f teachers and students about
their delivery system (satellite course). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (7).
1756A.
Denigris, John (1997). Consumers o f distance education: a study of
discretionary conditions influencing academic involvement. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (11), 4832A.
Deodat, Rovindradat (1996). Multinational cooperation, distance education
and communication technologies for human resource development in poor countries:
a study of the commonwealth o f learning (British Columbia) Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (3), 1105A.
Derr, Douglas Dalen (1991). Strategies for overcoming barriers to the use of
contemporary instructional technologies in the Minnesota Technical College System
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1725A.
Deveau, Patricia M. (1996). Utilization of multimedia computer technology
in corporate training and development programs: a Delphi study. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 56 (8), 3089A.
Deverich, Robin Kay (1999). Distance education strategies for strings: a
framework of violin instruction for adult amateurs. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (8), 2897A.
Dexter, Donald James (1995). Student performance-based outcomes of
televised interactive community college distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (6), 2027A.
Dhariwal, Kewal Singh (1993). Screen share computer-mediated
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Disckson, Gary W.; Segars, Albert. (1999) Redefining the high-technology
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International, 55 (1 1), 3383A.
Donoho, Ron (1998). The new MBA. Training, 35 (10), DL4-DL5.
Doucet, Carol Anne Barter (1995). Telecommunications in the Alabama
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Douglas, Shirley Gail (1996). The role o f distance education teacher in
Alberta's rural school. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (4), 1366
Douglas, Shirley Gail (1996). The role o f the distance education teacher in
Alberta's rural schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (4), 1366
Downs, Margaret Elizabeth (1999). Experiences of secondary school
students, teachers, and administrators in a distance education course (rural
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (8), 2938A.
Downs, Robert Reginald (1997). A field study: user interface features in a
web-based research library. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 1968A.
Doyle-Nichols, Adelaide Regina (1997). Computer anxiety, self-efficacy for
self-regulated learning, and self-efficacy for computer technologies in a distance
learning course. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (5). 1668A.
Duhaney, Devon C. (1997). Distance education, perceptions o f the changing
paradigm in the delivery o f instruction for the education and training of the
workforce. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 2177A.
Dyson, Gordon Harold (1997). Performance indicators for Kansas Tech Prep
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Earon. S. Ann (1994). Adoption of videoconferencing in education and
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Easterday, Norman Eugene (1999). Social science distance education in two-
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Eastmond, Daniel V. Adult learners and Internet-based distance education.
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Eastmond, Daniel Van (1994). Alone but together: adult distance study by
computer conferencing (adult students). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (8),
2845A.
Eastmond, Dan; Granger, Dan (1998). Developing the Type II course.
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Edirisingha, Palitha (1998). Interactive media in distance learning for United
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176C
Eller, Elizabeth Grace (1994). A comparison o f analysis o f covariance and
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International, 55 (6), I537A.
Elsiddig, Mukhtar Osman (1991). Expanding higher education and the open
university: the case o f the Sudan as an example for developing countries.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (2), 436A.
Enockson, John Oliver (1997). An assessment o f an emerging technological
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Epper, Rhonda Martin (1996). Coordination and competition in
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Fabro, Kim Gina (1997). Computer conferencing in higher education: an
exploration of communication and cognitive development issues (distance
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Farhoodi, Ali (1996). A case study o f audio interaction in educational
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Farley, Raymond P. (1999) A tale o f two schools. Educational Leadership,
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Fast, Michael Graham (1996). Assessing interaction in ftber-optic
networked, multisite foreign language instruction. Dissertation Abstracts
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Fenn, Raymond C. (1996). Student attitudes, learning effectiveness and
costs/benefits pertaining to military logistics courses offered in the residence, on-site,
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Ferguson, Clive (1998). The continuous professional development of
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International, 58 (8), 3051.
Fetterman, Harry E. (1997). Perceived effectiveness o f instructional methods
for implementing group based interactive videoconferenced training in three selected
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Fey, Marion Harris (1992). Freeing voices: literacy through computer
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1827A.
Flanagan, Maureen McNamara (1996). Distance education and television
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (12), 4596A.
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Ford, Sharon Ann (1991). Study of the role of distance education teaching
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Foster, Beverly Brown (1993). The effects o f interactive teleconferencing as
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Fredrickson, Scott Alfred (1989). Teaching incarcerated youths using
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Freeman, Mark. Video conferencing: a solution to the multi-campus large
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Furiga, Linda Jane (1996). Knowledge and skills for distance learning
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Furiga, Yuen-Ching Sin (1993). China's radio and television universities:
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Fyock, Jonathan Jay (1994). Effectiveness o f distance learning in three rural
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Gaboory-Smith, Giselle Marie (1996). Characteristics o f a quality learning
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Ganjam, Ricarda Micaela (1997). Existing curriculum in distance education
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Ganzel, Rebecca (1998). Hot links: a guide to players in distance training.
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Garcia, Judith Marie (1994). the development of the electronic field trip to
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Garland, Maureen R. (1993). Variables affecting persistence in distance
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Garrison, Charles H. (1995). Evaluation o f digital responder system in
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Garvin-Kester, Barbara J. (1991). The effect of student response system
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (2), 392A.
Gayeski, Diane M.; Out-of-the box instructional design: moving from
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as a reason for persistence in two-way audio and visual distance education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (7), 2299A.
Gee, Donna Beth Darter (1991). The effects of preferred learning style
variables on student motivation, academic achievement, and course completion rates
in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (1), 138A.
Gellman-Danley, Barabara (1997) Who sets the standards? Accreditation
and distance learning. New Directions for Community Colleges, 99 (Fall), 73-82
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utilizing interactive television: a case study (television, distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (4), 1216A.
Gillispie, Cynthia Carlton (1997). Perceived values of computer-mediated
communication use for business instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International. 57
(10), 4240A.
Gilroy, Linsey (1990). The development and evaluation o f distance learning
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Abstracts International, 50 (12), 3822A.
Gizinski, Stacey Lyn Marie (1995). Issues concerning the use o f technology
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International, 33 (6), 1663
Glarza Perez, Luis (1997). Testing the systems model in Mexican distance
education: the case o f the Virtual University at the Instituto Tecnologico de Estudios
Superiores de Monterrey. Dissertation Abstracts International, 587 (2), 429A.
Gold. Bruce Lawrence (1998). A formative evaluation of a distance learning
program at CSLTDH (California State University, Dominguez Hills, Graduate
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96
Goodwin, Bonny Nickle (1994). A study o f the perceptions and attitudes
exhibited by distance education students and faculty at the University of Phoenix
online program (Arizona). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (4), 939A.
Goodyear, Joy M. (1996). A comparison o f adult students' grades in
traditional and distance education courses. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34
(2), 477
Goro, Terry Dean (1996). The identification and analysis of factors
perceived as important to the success o f interactive distance education (video
interactive systems). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (7), 2648A.
Gosmire, Doreen Kaye (1996). The analysis o f a distance learning graduate
program Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (9), 3413 A.
Gough, J. E. (1980). The use o f study centers in four distance education
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Graff, Arlys O (1991). the relationship between learning styles, perceived
barriers, and completion of an extended degree program. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 51 (9), 2958A.
Gray, Beverly Ann (1996). Student achievement and temperament types in
traditional and distance learning environments (urban education, traditional
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Greengard, Samuel (1999). Web-based training yields maximum returns.
Workforce, 78 (2), 95-96.
Greule, Alan L. (1997). Field independence as a predictor of attitude towards
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Abstracts International, 58 (1), 58A.
Greydanus, John Daniel (1997). Oregon Ed-Net and Distance Education
Policy: the industrialization of education revisited. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (2), 430A.
Griffeth, Laura Ann (1998). A comparison o f delivery systems for a research
design course (distance education, academic achievement). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (2), 396A.
Griffin, Linda Kay (1997). A study o f project Learn, Earn, and Prosper
(LEAP) with regard to its development and its perceived affect on the Mississippi
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International. 57 (12), 5123 A.
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97
Gruber, Stephen (1992). Design and evaluation o f a distance education group
videotape instruction model for non-formal agricultural education. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 30 (4), 959
Grudnoski, Anthony Thomas (1993). A descriptive study of attitudes and
behavior toward professional continuing education by distance means within five
professional groups in Marquette County, Michigan (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (1), 60A
Gunandi, Chrispen Max (1996). Study group facilitators' perceived role of
appropriate technology in distance education for out-of-school secondary level
learners in Zimbabwe. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (4), 1366
Gunawardena, Charlotte Nirmalani (1989). New communications
technologies and distance education: a paradigm for the integration o f video-based
instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (5), 1178A.
Gunderson, Margaret Stanton (1997). The relationship o f distance education:
instructional designer perceptions, faculty innovation concerns, and satisfaction with
consulting relationships. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (12), 5035A.
Guttmann-Gee, Barbara (1996). Easing the pang of something missed or
lost': women over sixty get degrees through distance learning. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 34 (4), 1465
Haehl, Sherry Lincks (1997). Characteristics common to adult students
enrolled in a distance education course via the internet. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (10), 4203A.
Hagevik, Sandra Tynes (1992). Professional education at keystone resort: an
MBA program delivered at a distance (distance education, Colorado) Dissertation
Abstracts International, 53 (5), 1362A.
Haggerty, Robert Joseph (1997). The educational, technical, and
management assistance needs o f Idaho food processors and distributors (industrial
extension). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (4), 1181 A.
Hallongren, Eugene (1995). An analysis o f community college
administrative leaders' perceptions o f distance education and the emergence o f a
conceptual framework. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (2), 439A.
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98
Hamilton, Chris Thompson (1994). Perceptions o f academic deans, division
chairpersons, and faculty within Alabama's state community colleges regarding the
current utilization, implications, and future impact o f distance education in
Alabama's state community colleges. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (6),
1458A.
Hamza, M. Khalid; Alhalabi, Bassem. (1999) Touching Students' minds in
cyberspace, creative tips fro using distance education. Learning and Leading with
Technology (26)6, 36-9
Han, Ittah (1995). Caught between inescapable ethics and unavoidable
distance learning technology: the grammar o f discovering knowledge. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 56 (2), 521 A.
Hanrahan, Lynda Ann (1996). Planning for a K-12 distance learning system:
a case study (instructional design, education technology). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (4), 1415A.
Hanson, Deborah Ann (GARGAC) (1996). An assessment of corporate
culture and resistance to technological change in education and management: a
Delphi study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (1), 322A.
Hardhono, Anthonius Padua (1996). Interaction with print-learning materials
and academic performance and persistence o f new students o f Universitas Terbuka
(the Indonesian Open Learning University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57
(4), 1516A.
Harper, Jon Kurt-Patrick (1991). Hardware information technologies that
should affect how we build the classrooms o f the future through 2010. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 51 (10), 3258A.
Harriman, Joseph Kimball, III (1991). The relationship between self-directed
learning readiness, completion and achievement in a community college telecourse
program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (3), 780A.
Harroun, Herbert L. (1991). Using technology to improve equity o f
curriculum access for students in Michigan's upper peninsula (distance education)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (4), 1296A.
Hatfield, George M. (1996). The effectiveness of distance education
technologies in the delivery o f public school continuing professional education
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Hathcoat, Jo Ann (1995). Perceptions o f administrators and faculty in
teaching economics with distance learning in Alabama two- and four-year colleges
and universities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (11), 3425A.
Hauser, Doreen Ann (1989). Teacher learning via video instruction: five case
studies. Dissertation Abstracts International, 27 (3), 329
Hayden, John William (1997). Computer-based distance learning in
emergency medicine: an analysis of attitudes between physicians and nurses.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (12), 5017A.
Hayes, Kevin Gregory (1996). Distance learning policies in postsecondary
education: a state-by-state assessment (coordinating boards) Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (9), 3392A.
Heath, Carole Lynn (1996). Faculty attitudes towards distance education and
use of instructional technology (telecommunications). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (4), 1517A.
Heath, Marilyn Jane (1998). The design, development, and implementation
of a virtual online classroom (distance education, world wide web, instructional
design). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8), 3097A.
Heeren, Elske (1997). Technology support for collaborative distance
learning. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (1), 16C
Heinonen, Martti Petta (1995). Project learning as a tool for developing the
work of teacher: experiences with a project learning model for the supplementary
training o f teachers employed at schools for the development of information
technology [Projektiopiskelu opettajan tyon kehittamisen valineena: kokemuksia
projektiopiskelumallin avulla toteutetusta tietotekniikan kehittamiskoulujen
oppettajien taydennyskoulutuksesta]. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (1).
18C
Henri, France (1991). The computer-mediated teleconferencing as an
educational medium for distance training. Dissertation Abstracts International. 51
(12), 4096A.
Hensley-Marschand, Larry Eugene (1997). How the Jason Project triggers
teacher participation and professional development (internet). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 47 (9), 3899A.
Herring, Mary Corwin (1998). Design and training for implementation of
constructivist-based distance learning environments. Dissertation Abstracts
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Herrmann, Laura Lee (1997). Students' perceptions of socialization to the
profession in a program that includes both on-campus and distance education
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Hertenstein, Edward (Winter 1999). Distance learning in distance education.
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Hessmiller, Rosanne M. (1996). comparison o f the use of audio and
computer teleconferencing in providing special education training and professional
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staff training) Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (4), 1579A.
Hirumi, Atsusi; Bermudez, Andrea B. (1996) Interactivity, distance
education, and instructional systems design converge on the information
superhighway. Journal o f Research on Computing in Education, 29 (Fall), 1-16
Hijazi, Samer (1998). Technology and quality distance education: student's
perspective. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (3), 644A.
Hilgenberg, Cheryl Sue (1998). Distance education: Perceptions of
satisfaction and critical thinking opportunities among graduate students. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 58 (7), 2610A.
Hill, Judith Lynn (1997). Observed teaching behaviors of University o f
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Abstracts International, 57 (12), 5076A.
Hines, Susan Carol (1999). On going hyper: an English professor's
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Abstracts International, 59 (9), 3414A.
Hinnant, Edward Campbell (1995). Distance learning using digital fiber
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Hodege, Margaret (1996) Fewer teachers, please, not more. New Statesman
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Hodge-Hardin, Sherri Lynn (1996). Interactive television in the classroom: a
comparison o f student math achievement among three instructional settings.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (11), 4366A.
Hogan-Royle, Therese (1998). Toward learner empowerment and adult self-
directed learning in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts International. 36 (4).
875
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Holden, Daniel Clifford (1992). Hardware information technologies that
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Abstracts International, 52 (7), 2511 A.
Holland, Clarence Chick, Jr. (1990). A descriptive study o f the physics by
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Abstracts International, 51 (2), 360A.
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Holmber, Botje (1995). The sphere o f distance education theory revisited.
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Hoskins, Barbara Jane (1998). The impact o f distance education
environment on higher education teachers and teaching strategies (adult learners).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (5), 1536A.
Hough, Peter (1993). The impact of distance education on the organization
of schools and school systems in Alberta. Dissertation Abstracts International. 54
(3), 754A.
Hsiao, Jau-Jiun (1991). An analytical study of the National Open University
in Taiwan: the technology and the politics o f an instructional system (China,
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Hsu, Joseph Tsung-Shih (1998). Value, expectancy, metacognition, resource
management, and academic achievement: a structural model o f self-regulated
learning in a distance education context. Dissertation Abstracts International. 59 (5),
1458A.
Hsu, Shihkuan (1998). Connecting at a distance: the impact of technology on
teaching and learning experiences in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (10), 3897A.
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Hudson, Brian (1996). Group work with multimedia in mathematics:
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Huff, Marie Thielke (1998). A comparison o f critical thinking in an
interactive television social work course (distance learning). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59(5), 1775A.
Huston, Janis Lynne (1997). Factors o f success for adult learners in an
interactive compressed video distance learning environment. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (4), 1199A.
Hutchison, Julie Marie (1998). A diocese's exploration into technology
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Ingiis, Alistair. Video email: a method o f speeding up assignment feedback
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Irwin, Enid J. (1998). A model for a web-based class delivery system
(MOO) Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (5), 1209
Isman, Aytekin (1998). Students' perception of a class offered through
distance education (undergraduates, graduate students). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (9), 3404A.
Iverson, Kathleen M. (1995). The telecourse success prediction inventory
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Jackson, Gary Brown (1994). A conceptual model for planning and
delivering distance education in agriculture. Dissertation Abstracts International. 54
(7), 2434A.
Jadun, Mohammad Salim (1999). Teaching strategies that foster interactivity
in interactive video distance learning classrooms. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (8), 2939A.
Janes. Diane Pamela (1994). The study o f the application of a selected
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 32 (5), 1256
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Jayasinghe Gopalakrishnan, Mala (1995). The impact of camera angle,
single versus multiple monitors, and incentive on instructor credibility, immediacy
and interaction in a simulated distance learning environment. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (6), 2209A.
Jensen, Dennis Ray (1991). Distance education: audiographic distance
learning systems. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (4), 1297A.
Johnson, Anne Boone (1996). The effect of telecourse on content area
teachers' achievement of language acquisition principles. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (8), 3030A.
Johnson, Cathie Franks (1996). Distance education: factors that affect
implementation in secondary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (4),
1550A.
Johnson, Geraldine Roach (1994). An analysis of the continuing education
curriculum of the Associated General Contractors of America for delivery by
satellite teleconferencing (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International,
54 (8), 2993A.
Johnson, Keith Richard (1993). An analysis of variables associated with
student achievement and satisfaction in a university distance education course
(student satisfaction). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (6). 2067A.
Johnson, Paul Vere (1989). Student cognitive styles and perceptions of an
electronic distance education system. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (6),
163 5A.
Joly, Michelle (1996). Reflections on the course design process in distance
education by practitioners with varying levels o f experience. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 34(5), 1742
Jones, Ann Carolyn (1991). Empirical studies o f novices learning
programming. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (10), 3392A.
Jones, Jean Emerick (1998). An evaluation of a two-way interactive video
and audio distance learning experience as measured by adult learners' perceptions of
interaction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (10), 3802A.
Jones. Stephan Stanley (1999). Assessment of delivery technology in
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evaluations in interactive telecourses. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (6),
2028A.
Judd, Kathy Solomon (1998). Academic and service quality in distance
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Juliana, Ari (1996). A marketing strategy for higher distance education (case
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Jung, Insung (1989). Development and testing o f Motivational and
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Abstracts International, 50(5), 1283 A.
Kaiser, Michael Greer (1995). A small campus distance education program:
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Kakanopas, Boonnit (1992). The Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University's
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Kambutu, John Nganga (1999). A study of selected administrators' self-
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Abstracts International, 59 (9), 3818A.
Kantor, Ronald J. (1997). The impact of interactive television on classroom
culture and social structure. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (8), 3465A.
Karonika, John Raymond (1996). The role of distance education in corporate
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student achievement in a distance education setting. Dissertation Abstracts
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Kazarian, F. Gloria (1991). Interactive television instruction: effects of
selected adult learning principles on reactions, achievements, and job transfer
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2603 A.
Keinath, Lauren Louise (1992). The role of human interaction in distance
education (tutor role) Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (12), 4302A.
Ketcheson, Kathi Arlene (1996). Organizational responses to educational
telecommunications policy in three stages: Oregon, Colorado, and Utah (distance
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Kettle, Blair Wilson (1995). A study of the application o f a modified
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Kim (Han),, Haeyoung (1997). A non-native English speaker’s teaching
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Kirby, Allison Dawn (1996). Characteristics of four-year baccalaureate
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Kirby, Jane Elizabeth (1996). Facilitator and student roles and performance
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Kodali, Sailaja (1998). Instructional strategies used to design and deliver
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (2), 73 IB
Koro, Jukka (1994). Adults as managers of their own learning: self
directiveness, its development and connection with the cognitive learning results of
an experiment on distance education for the teaching of educational science.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (4), 1032C
Korpela, Waino William (1989). Rural school problems and educational
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Kovach, Kenneth John (1994). Development, implementation, and valuation
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (8), 2870A.
Kozma, Karen J. (1997). Perception of factors which affect the selection of a
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Kranc, Bruce Michael (1997). The impact of individual characteristics on
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Kraus, Kathleen McGrath (1999). Administrator and faculty responses to
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Kretovics, Mark Allen (1998). Outcomes assessment: the impact of delivery
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (12), 4651 A.
Kuboni, Olabisi I. (1998). Redefining interaction in open and distance
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Kurtz, Steven Jon (1999). Student perceptions of the affected experiences
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Kurzet, Reuel (1998). The community college first-line dean, management
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Lancaster, Adrianna (1998). Validation of a distance education policy
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Laouenan, Michele.; Stacey, Sue. A brief experiment in distance teaching and
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (4), 1325 A.
Larison, Robert Dean (1995). Instructional telecommunications technology
and the professor: a study o f teaching faculty attitudes and beliefs about the
implementation of interactive television and computer-mediated conferencing as
distance education media at Eastern Oregon State College. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (5), 1677A.
Larson, Matthew Richard (1995). The effect o f an alternative senior level,
satellite broadcast mathematics course on students' attitudes toward mathematics and
college mathematics placement (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (10), 3126A.
Lassetter, George Calvin, III (1996). A model for assessing the quality of
learning in distance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (3), 1106A.
Lauffer, Mary Ann (1989). Adult learners in a distance education program: a
biographical study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (3), 599A.
Learmont, Donna (1991). Affective differences between host-site and
remote-site distance learners participating in two-way interactive television
classrooms for high school course credit (interactive video). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 52 (2), 516A.
Lehman, Rosemany Margaret (1991). Perceptual interaction: a theoretical
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International, 52 (4), 1197A.
Lekoko, Rebecca Nthogo (1996). Guidelines for developing distance
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Libler, Rebecca W. (1991). A study of the effectiveness of interactive
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WWW, Internet & Intranet, Honolulu, Hawaii.: Association for the Advancement of
Computing in Education
Little, Julie Kim (1996). The distance learning classroom: identifying a
process for facilitating interaction (faculty training). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (1 1), 4367A.
Liu, Daonian (1997). Teaching chemistry on the internet: a qualitative case
study (distance education, computers). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (10),
43 36A.
Lockwood, Frederick George (1993). Activities in distance learning texts.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (2), 360C
Lohman, Janice Snow. (1998) Classrooms without walls: three companies
that took the plunge. Training and Development (52) 9 38.
Lott, Dennis Ray (1995). Diffusion o f medical innovation to Pennsylvania's
rural physicians (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (9),
2684A.
Lough, Maurice Thomas (1991). A case study o f a televised distance
learning inservice course for high school physics teachers (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (7), 2337A.
Love, Curtis Clinton (1998). An exploratory examination of the predictors of
success for a science education program enhanced by communication technologies:
contributions form qualitative and quantitative methods (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (1), 13 A.
Lowenthal, Marla (1998). The internationalization of higher education: a
participatory research study (communication technology). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (6), 1938A.
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1 10
Lowry, May (1997). Tales o f adoption: a case study in the adoption of a
computer-based technology of instruction (meteorology). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (3), 833 A.
Lu, alien Chung-Li (1998). Multichannel subcarrier signaling for high
capacity wavelength division multiplexed local area networks. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 59 (6), 2948B
Lu, Lina (1997). Demographic and experimental predictors of students'
completion in distance education programs: a study o f Chinese distance learning
students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (3), 833A.
Lucas, Mark Howard (1996). The relationship between Connecticut school
superintendents' knowledge o f and attitudes toward distance education. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 56 (10), 3925 A.
Lucy, Denise M. (1993). Learning style and attitudes toward computer
mediated communication among adult learners and faculty in accelerated distance
education programs (accelerated degree programs). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 54(4), 1200A.
Luebeck, Jennifer Lyn (1998). Distance-mediated mentoring: a
telecommunication-supported model for novice rural mathematics and science
teachers (rural education distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International,
59(4), 1102A.
Lundgren-Cayrol, Karin M. (1997). Computer-conferencing: a collaborative
learning environment for distance education students. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (7), 2982A.
MacBrayne, Pamela Sue (1993). Rural adults in associate degree distance
education: what motivates them to enroll in college? Dissertation Abstracts
International, 54 (5), I648A.
Maclaren, James Allan (1995). Designing for interaction in graduate level
distance education, the reactions of students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33
(1), 27
Madrigal, Daniel P. (1998). The development of the Bachelor of Vocational
Education Distance Learning program: 1994-1996 (California State University,
Long Beach, Firefighters). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (4), 899
Magotra, Corrinne Ann (1996). Exploring gender differences in distance
education (classroom climate). Dissertation Abstracts International. 47 (6), 2385A.
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Ill
Mahony, Mary Jane (1996). Warp and weft in policy analysis: Australian
distance education policy formation, formulation and implementation, 1901-1989.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (7), 2578A.
Mailafiya, Madu Garga (1989). Nigeria and the Open University System
(Volumes I and II) Dissertation Abstracts International, 49 (8), 2124A.
Majdalany, Gibrant (1997). An analysis o f the teachers college
superintendents work conference (Columbia University, New York). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 57 (7), 2775A.
Makin, Viola (1997). Reaction to video technology for distant management
training in South Africa (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International.
57(10), 4432A.
Maldonado Ramirez, Maria Auxiliadora (1995). Study of the UN
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (1), 7C
Maness, Marie Yost (1997). Formative evaluation o f an introductory human
nutrition telecourse, validation of course content and technical video objective
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (8), 3466A.
Manzanares-Gonzales, Patricia (1995). Elementary distance learning:
factors affecting the adoption of telecommunications technology as perceived by
administrators. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (5), 1605A.
Martin, Elaine Dumas (1991). The effects of distance learning on student
achievement and student attitudes in the anatomy and physiology classroom.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (9), 3032A.
Martinez, Erland Jose (1997). The feasibility o f the use of telecommunicated
courses in Latin American universities (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (3), 769A.
Mason, Robin D. (1991). A case study o f the use of computer conferencing
at the Open University (England). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (7),
2353A.
Massaro, David Anthony (1995). A multimedia geology program for non
science majors with distance learning capabilities. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56(5), 1745A.
Matheos, Kathleen (1992). An assessment o f the use of electronic
conferencing in a course for rural women in Manitoba. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 30 (3), 470
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112
Matthews, Jennifer Hopkins (1997). Rural nursing curriculum content and
teaching strategies in programs of nursing: commonwealth of Virginia (rural
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 634B
Maushak, Nancy Jean Pollock (1997). Distance education, innovativeness,
teacher education: status in Iowa independent, four-year colleges and universities.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 2172A.
May, Susan (1993). Women's experiences as learners in distance education
(women students) Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (5), 163 7A.
Mays, Marilyn Elaine (1989). The historical development and future of the
Jational Technological University (Colorado). Dissertation Abstracts International.
49(10), 2951 A.
Mbaiia, Ahmed Fletcher ( 1991). A systematic development of a nonformal
educational radio program: South Africa and United States relations (distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (1 1), 3711 A.
Mcaipin, Valorie Freeman (1998). The effects of selected factors on
academic performance of on-line and face-to-face students. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (12), 4526A.
McBride, Ronald Owen (1990). Telelearning: an evaluative study of a
computer-based, interactive audio and graphics long-distance learning system for
secondary education (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International. 51
(3), 730A.
McCabe, Margaret Foley (1997). Online classrooms: case studies of
computer conferencing in higher education (distance education). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 58 (5), 1566A.
McCaskiil, BrendanJames (1997). Faculty perceptions of
telecommunications needs for distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 35 (2), 403
McCormick, Robert (1994). Distance higher education in People's Republic
o f China Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (3), 694C
McDevitt, Margaret A. (1991). An instructional design and staff
development model for two-way television (distance learning). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 51 (11), 3711 A.
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113
McKinnon, Norman Cecil (1994). An assessment o f using technology and
learning contracts with adult learners in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (3), 447A.
McKissack, Connie Ellison (1998). A comparative study of grade point
average (GPA) between the students in traditional classroom setting and the distance
learning classroom setting in selected colleges and universities. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 58 (8), 3039A.
McMann, Lawrence W. (1997). The effects o f using distance learning in a
rural high school mathematics program (rural education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (12), 5005A.
Mcmillan, William Arthur (1998). The effect o f computer-mediated
discussion on learning for the on-traditional higher education student (nontraditional
students, college students, distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International.
58(11), 4174A.
Meacham, Martha Connell (1998). An inquiry into migrant students' use of
an electronic communication system (distance learning). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (7), 2517A.
Medley, Frances Colleen (1998). The goodness o f fit: a qualitative multicase
study of community based graduate social work education-at-a-distance.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (10), 3803A.
Mehdi. Saberi (1991). Function and technology of distance education in Iran
- in the context o f higher education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (6).
1 986A.
Meilleur, Steven Grant (1997). distance education, innovation, and the
challenge o f change in higher education: a study identifying factors which impact the
decision to adopt, implement, and operate distance education technologies in New
Mexico institutions o f higher education; and differential perceptions concerning the
importance o f and the ability to influence those factors. Dissertation Abstracts
International. 58 (3), 770A.
Meister, Jeanne C. (1998) Extending the short shelf life of knowledge.
Training and Development (52) 6, 52-3.
Mellion. Dawn Andis (1996). Extended and continuing education needs of
the professional members of the National Society o f Minorities in agriculture, natural
resources and related sciences. Dissertation Abstracts International. 56 (7), 2883 A.
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114
Mihalevich, James Richard (1991). Principal and teaching partner
perceptions about clusters o f quality instruction via satellite in Missouri public
schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (2), 516A.
Miller, Carol Jane (1997). Distance education for professional development:
a case study (adult education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (4), 1157C
Miller, Charles Donald (1992). Technology-based distance learning: case
studies o f business and higher education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53
(4), 1011 A.
Miller, Gary E. (1997) Distance education and the emerging learning
environment. The Journal of Academic Librarianship (23) 319-21.
Miller, Mark Francis (1996). Delivery o f training via teleconferencing and
videotape dissemination, a comparative study (distance education) Dissertation
Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2448A.
Mineo, Bernadette (1998). Computer conferencing and online education:
uncovering the assumptions (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (5), 1537A.
Mohdnor, Nailul Morad (1995). A programming model for distance
education programs in four-year higher education institutions: an international
Delphi study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (4), 1213A.
Moore, Eric Dean (1994). An examination o f teaching-partners' attitudes and
experiences as they relate to students' motivational levels during satellite-delivered
instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (7), 2545A.
Moore, Linda Ann (1993). The relationship o f cognitive style and cognitive
development to the amount of formal education among Hispanic adults in a pastoral
leadership program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 31 (1), 34
Moore, Roger Lyle (1998). Learner identified characteristics of quality
learning experiences using the telewriter (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 36 (2), 336
Moran, Louise (1993). Legitimation o f distance education: a social history of
the open learning institute of British Columbia, 1978-1988. Dissertation Abstracts
International. 54 (2), 491 A.
Moriarty, Kathleen Irene (1998). Characteristics of effective foreign
language distance learning programs the 'Irasshai' Japanese language program.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8), 3048A.
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115
Morris, James Vincent (1992). Chapter 560: an act creating the
Massachusetts corporation for educational telecommunications (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (9), 3199A.
Mortensen, Mark H. (1996). An assessment o f learning outcomes of students
taught a competency-based computer course in an electronically-expanded classroom
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (12), 4676A.
Moss, Phillip Keith (1999). Distance education policy formation in state
higher education systems: a case study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (7),
23 89A.
Motik, Indaryati Swama Dewi (1990). A case study o f the tutorial program
at the Jakarta regional office of the Universitas Tervuka (The Indonesian Open
University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (7), 1962A.
Mottet, Timothy Patrick (1998). Interactive television instructors1
perceptions o f students’ nonverbal responsiveness and effects on distance teaching
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (2), 460A.
Moursund, David G. Effective practices (part 3): technoIgoy-enhanced
learning. Learning and leading with Technology. (23) Feb 96, 5-6
Mueller, Paul Walter (1996). An alternative model: equipping people for
Christian outreach through distance education in the Oswald Hoffmann School of
Christian Outreach at Concordia College, St. Paul, Minnesota. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 57 (2), 626A.
Munro, Patricia Jane (1993). Presence at a distance: the educator-learner
relationship in distance education and dropout. Dissertation Abstracts International.
53 (9), 3083A.
Murphy, Karen Lee (1991). A qualitative study o f attributions in Turkish
distance education: the student perspective. Dissertation Abstracts International, 5 1
(9), 2998A.
Murphy, Timothy Hugh (1996). A quantitative analysis o f instructor-student
verbal interaction in a simultaneous two-way audio-video distance education setting.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (1), 180A.
Murray, Mark Anthony (1992). The role of technology in distance education.
Dissertation Abstracts International. 30 (2), 190
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116
Murray, Rosemarie (1997). Disappearance of the 'invisible students' the
programs and people o f higher education in New York state prisons (correctional
education rehabilitation). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (4), 1219A.
Mustafa, Barbara Ayisha (1998). Institution building and organizational
development at Allama Iqbal Open University (Pakistan): a study o f the institutional
development and the technology transfer o f distance education innovation based on
the British Open University model (Great Britain). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (2), 463A.
Musyoka, Benjamin Mwange (1997) An evaluation of theological education
by extension seminar discussions in selected Christian denominations in Kenya
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (3). 933 A.
Muthwa-Kuehn, Barbara Thokozile (1997). A post-apartheid framework:
preparing teachers of English as a second language for South Africa's historically
black secondary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35 (5), 1137
Myszkowski, Pete (1998). Education through interactive television. Library
Mosaics, 9 (2), 11.
Naert, Rene M. (1998). Computer-mediated distance education: providing
open access to training and educational programs. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (8), 3196A.
Naidu, Somaiya (1993). Effects of post-questioning, concept mapping and
feedback on cognitive performance in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 53 (12), 4289A.
Na-Songkhla, Jaitip (1998). Utilization of the internet in selected Thai
Universities: attitudes o f academic users. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58
(12), 4582A.
Nasseh, Bizhan (1997). A study of computer-based distance education in
higher education institutions in Indiana (computer based education). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 57 (10), 4287A.
Ndaht, Hassan Bata (1999). A study o f industrial and technical teacher
education faculty acceptance o f distance learning technology. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (8), 2941 A.
Neal, John Frank (1992). The history o f the R. Jan Lecroy Center for
Educational Telecommunications o f the Dallas County Community College District
(Texas, R. Jan Lecroy Center for educational Telecommunications,
Telecommunications). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (12), 4242A.
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117
Nealand, Sallie Crittendon (1993). The interface o f technology and
andragogy: a case study (nursing education, distance education). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 53 (12), 4173 A.
Needham, Alicia Marie Baca (1996). Perceptions and reactions of stress
among distance learning instructors in comparison to non-distance learning
instructors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2443 A.
Nelson, Goerge Wesley (1998). A measurement of attitudes of bureau of
land management employees toward distance learning. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (10), 3803 A.
Newport, Walter A., Ill (1997). Internationalizing the Nova Southeastern
University programs for higher education field-based doctoral programs; feasibility
and recommendations (Florida). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (9), 3786A.
Nielsen, H. Dean (1997). Quality assessment and quality assurance in
distance teacher education. Distance Education, 18 (2), 284-317.
Niemczyk, Patricia (1999). A profile o f early faculty innovators using web-
based distributed learning in classes at the University o f Central Florida (Florida,
online, computers, distance learning, early adopters). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (7), 2461 A.
Nixon, David Earl (1990). An analysis o f learning outcomes of
postsecondary students taught via interactive television at an Iowa Community
College (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (6), 1993 A.
Nnazor, Reginald (1995). The marginality o f distance education units of
dual-mode universities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33 (4), 1070
Noiles, James N. (1995). Effect of satellite programming that is telecast to
cable subscribers as perceived by pubic school liaisons. Dissertation Abstracts
International. 55 (11), 3482A.
Nti, Naana Obenewa (1998). Using distance education to deliver graduate
programs in agricultural education in the Eastern United States. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 58 (7), 2495A.
Nunes. Maria De Lourdes (1993). Alternative education and social change in
Brazil; a history and case study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (8). 2668A.
Obazuaye, Sunday P. (1990). Using telecommunications for distance
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118
Obermier, Timothy (1992). Academic performance o f video-based distance
education students and on-campus students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53
(1), 128 A.
O'Boyle, Linda Donahue (1996). Comparing classroom learning to video
learning in teaching electronic fetal monitoring concepts to registered nurses.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (3), 976A.
Olcott, Donald J., Jr. (1995). The critical role o f faculty: applied frameworks
and strategies for integrating distance education in postsecondary institutions.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (4), 1214A.
Olgren, Christine Helen (1993). Adults' learning strategies and outcomes in
an independent study course (adult learners, distance education). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 54 (2), 403 A.
Oliver, E. Lynn (1993). Interaction at a distance: mediated communication in
televised post-secondary courses (distance education, interactive television).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (4), 1328A.
Olivieri, Kathleen Collins (1994). The social environment dimensions of a
fiber optic distance education network as defined by high school teachers,
facilitators, students, and staff in the rural south (rural education). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 54 (7), 2545A
Olmstead, Phyllis Melody (1994). Using electronic portfolios to archive
student performance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (3), 46A.
Orihuela Colliva, Jose Luis (1994). The European Space Agency Olympus
Satellite and the Association Eurostep: origins and development o f a European
Project on distance education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (4), 1031C
Osborn, Donald Alfred (1994). A study in Britain and France o f the
development o f cross-cultural in-house sales training using distance learning.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (3), 702C
Overstreet, Karen Marshall (1998). Pharmacy continuing education
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Pan, Ingrid Y. (1992). the significance o f face-to-face and independent
learning in distance education: a study of the open university in Taiwan (face to face
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119
Paneitz, Rebecca Haisty (1997). Community college students' perceptions of
student services provided when enrolled in telecourses (distance education,
counseling, library services). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 2044A.
Panitz, Beth. (1998) Learning on demand. ASEE Prism (7) 8 18-24.
Pannen, Paulina (1991). A study in information seeking and use behaviors of
resident students and nonresident students in Indonesian tertiary education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (11), 3645A.
Parker, Angie M. (1994). Locus o f control, demographics and mode of
delivery as predictors of dropout from distance education (financial aid).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (3), 460A.
Parks, Sara Clemen (1998). A study o f the importance of customer
satisfaction on students' intent to remain in a distance education degree program.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (7), 2562A.
Patel, Rajesh Jivanbhai (1998). VCOIN virtual classroom over the internet
Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (4), 1153
Paul, Judith Edison (1990). The effect o f delivery systems on selected
educational outcomes among nontraditional students in an undergraduate business
administration degree program (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 51 (4), 1085A.
Payne, Henry Eugene (1998). The effects o f a student response system on
student achievement, satisfaction and interaction in an interactive video teletraining
class (distance education undergraduates). Dissertation Abstracts International. 59
(3), 793A.
Payne, James A. (1998). The impact of state-of-the-art communications
technology on instructional and learning behaviors and teacher/student perceptions
(distance education, learning community link, Appalachian distance learning project.
Columbus Educational Satellite Network, Ohio). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59(4), 1032A.
Payne, Laurie Margaret (1990). A Delphi inquiry o f the role o f the classroom
coordinator/teaching partner in interactive satellite instruction (distance education)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (2), 485A.
Pearson. Virginia (Wooten). Critical factors considered in the planning for
the administration and implementation o f long-distance interactive video instruction
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12 0
Pedroza, Hugo Alejandro (1995). Distance learning: design for limited
English proficient adults using perceptual mapping and conjoint analysis methods.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (7), 1774A.
Peeples, Donna Kasboum (1996). The effectiveness o f distance education
using synchronous two-way audio and one-way computer-aided instruction in real
estate education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47 (6), 2323A.
Pelto, Ellen (1992). An evaluation framework for distance education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (3), 427
Pettit, Myragene Elizabeth (1998). Ameritech's 'super school’ project in three
selected Wisconsin schools (telecommunications). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (8), 3098A.
Pheasant, Marily Florence West (1989). Computers as surrogate teachers: a
study of potential legal barriers in four Western States (Alaska, California, Oregon.
Washington). Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (5), 1165A.
Phelps, Malcom V. (1991). Development o f a model plan to implement wide
area educational telecommunication networks for voice, video and data
communication (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (10),
3319A.
Pitman, Lisa Jo Gansar (1996). An analysis o f the science teacher
component in the development o f a statewide distance learning project
(telecommunications). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (3), 1107A.
Plagis-Tsitsikaos, Kelee Desiree (1995). Use of distance education
technologies: a developmental study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (1).
168 A.
Plant, Jeffrey Clayton (1998). Instructional uses of computer-based
communications in selected university learning environments (distance learning).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (9), 3484A.
Podoll, Douglas Fred (1992). Cultural misperceptions in a communication
development program for education: an Indonesian case study (distance education)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (4), 1075 A.
Porter, Teresa Lynn (1997). Level o f use of the internet by Ohio state
University extension educators. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (5). 1484A.
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121
Potter, Judith D. (1998). Support services for distance learners in three
Canadian dual-mode universities; a student perspective. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 59 (6), 1942A.
Powell, Albert E. Jr. (1997). Using satellite broadcast to assess faculty
reactions to organizational restructuring (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (1), 59A.
Powley, Roger Lynn (1995). The effectiveness o f electronic and
telecommunications tutoring on distance education students' completion rates,
learning outcomes, time to complete and their motivation to participate in future
distance education programs (electronic tutoring). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (9), 2685A.
Priadnyana, Ida Ketut (1995). Learning styles and achievement o f students at
Universitas Terbuka (Indonesian Open Learning University). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 33 (2), 325
Price, Melissa Lee (1994). Student satisfaction with distance education at the
University of South Carolina as it correlates to medium o f instruction, educational-
level, gender, working status, and reason for enrollment (South Carolina,
instructional medium). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (11), 3964A.
Pritchard, Carl L. From classrom to shat room. Training and Development,
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Purcell-Robertson, Rita Marie (1999). Distance education in communication
disorders: perspectives on faculty involvement (graduate programs). Dissertation
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Purgason, Katherine Bamhouse (1992). An individualized distance
education teaching English to speakers o f other languages methods course:
development and evaluation (language instruction). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 53 (1), 125A.
Quosai, Trudy Smit (1993). The role of computer delivered distance
education in increasing access to post secondary education (Ontario, disabled)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 31 (1), 69
Raley, Jack E. (1993). The relationship between test scores of Mississippi
High School students on the ACT assessment program mathematics test and credits
earned in high school mathematics courses (student assessment). Dissertation
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122
Ramanathan, Srinvas (1995). Media synchronization and communication in
distributed multimedia systems (multimedia). Dissertation Abstracts International,
55 (8), 3418B
Raster, Michael Lorence (1995). A multi-tech distance learning program: a
model for Folsom Lake College with emphasis on teaching health science
(California). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (12), 3820A.
Rasmussen, Clyde Alford (1993). Identification and analysis o f factors that
influence adult students to participate in distance learning programs. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 53 (7), 2344A.
Rau, Kirk (1998). Finally*. Distance education for library support staff.
Library Mosaics, 9 (2), 8-10.
Rawlings, Lyngrid Smith (1996). Voice from the village, an ethnographic
study o f the lived experiences o f unqualified assistant teachers as the matriculated
through a distance education program for professional certification in St. Vincent
and the Grenadines. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (3), 977A.
Rayburn, William Elbert (1998). Now what but how: the role of institutional
and environmental factors in the use o f distance learning technology for higher
education (information management, management information systems).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (2), 553 A.
Reamer, Sue B (1990). Persistence o f adult learners in an external doctoral
degree program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (4), 1086A.
Reeves, Walter Samuel, Jr. (1998). Principals' perception o f the adequacy of
instructional technology in Georgia public high schools (public education,
restructuring). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (11), 4244A.
Regan, Michael John (1996). A case study of K-l 2 teleteachers' perception
of interactive distance learning. Dissertation Abstracts International. 56 ( 11),
4368A.
Reinert, Bonita R.; Fryback, Patricia B. (1997) Journal of Nursing Education
(36) 421-7.
Richards, Irving E. (1995). Distance learning: a study of computer modem
students in a community college. Dissertation Abstracts International. 55 (10).
3165 A.
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Riddle, Joy Frances (1995). Factors which contribute to grade achievement
and course satisfaction o f distance education students. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (9), 2742A.
Ridley, Dennis.; Husband, James E. Online education: a study of academic
rigor and integrity. Journal of Instructional Psychology. (25) 3, 184-8.
Riedling, Ann Marlow (1997). An exploratory study: distance education
doctoral students in the field o f educational policy studies and evaluation at the
University o f Kentucky. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (10), 4337A.
Roberson, James Terry (1994). A multiple-case study o f distance education
as a paradigm for theological education to enhance Black church leadership
(leadership) Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (11), 3954A.
Roberts, Lowell Hurlbut (1991). Educational goals and self-concepts of
distance learners at Empire State College (new York State, adult students).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (11), 3602A.
Robinson, Patricia Helen (1992). Perceived impact of work-related role sets:
nurses' experiences with their colleagues. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30
(4), 1299
Roblyer, M. D. Is distance ever really dead? Compating the effects of
distance-learning and face-to-face courses. Learning and Leading with Technology
(25) 8, 32-4.
Rodgers, Judith Ellen (Haan) (1998). Interactive video conferencing
presentation variable and the recognition of student nonverbal feedback cues (video
conferencing, distance learning). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (4),
1130A.
Rogerson, Marie-Helene (1995). An investigation o f the instructional role of
communication technologies in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 33 (3), 697
Ross, Gary J. (1998). Attitudes o f business college faculty and
administrators toward distance education: a national survey. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (9), 3399A.
Rost, Robert Clifford (1997). A study o f the effectiveness of using distance
education to present training programs to extension service master gardener trainees
(adult learners). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (5), 1543A.
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124
Rowe, Jeremy (1998). An analysis o f policies addressing ownership of
faculty produced multimedia materials in higher education (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (10), 3794A.
Rueschman, Robert James (1998). Student perceptions o f the effectiveness
of alternative distance education strategies (interactive instructional television,
computer modem, college students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (3),
794A.
Russell, Floyd Kirby, Jr. (1991). Receive-site facilitator knowledge and
practices and student achievement in a satellite course for high school students
(distance education, facilitator knowledge). Dissertation Abstracts International. 51
(9), 3047A.
Rutherford, Vicky Lynn (1991). Analysis o f factor reported in the research
literature that affect the effectiveness and efficiency o f self- instructional strategies
(CAI, distance learning, integrative research review). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 52(5), 1720A.
Rwambiwa, John Percy (1989). Microteaching with video and its
implications for education programs in Zimbabwe. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 49 (9), 2628A.
Ryan, James Michael (1996). Technological developments in Texas public
schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (9), 3551 A.
Ryan, Walter Francis (1997). The distance education delivery of senior high
advanced mathematics courses in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador: a
study o f the academic success and academic progress o f participating students
(Canada). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (7), 2841 A.
Sabau, Isabelle (1997). A critical analysis o f selected problems in uses of
technology in adult education (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 57 (9), 3900A.
Sang-Jan, Pattama (1994). Learning strategies and attitudes of adults in a
distance basic education program in Thailand and their relationship to the students'
academic achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International. 54 (9), 3409A.
Satararuji, Kullatip (1998). An analysis o f educational technology policy:
assessment and implementation factors in the Thailand Information Technology
Campus Project (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (12),
4625A.
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125
Saunders, Nancy Gayle (1998). Coping with computers: a case study
describing student responses to interactive computer-mediated communication in a
multimedia distance learning environment (internet, graduate students). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 59 (3), 753A.
Sayre, Amy. (1998)Intelligence in space Satellite Communications (22) 12 28
Schafer, Steven Allen (1993). An investigation o f student use o f the
supplementary materials list at Athabasca University (Alberta). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 31 (2), 501
Schnepf, James Alan (1996). Multimedia support for distance education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (11), 6237B
Schrum, Lynne Marshak (1992). Innovation and the process of change: a
case study in distance education (ed net, Oregon). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 52 (7), 2514A.
Schrum, Lynne. On-line education, a study of emerging pedagogy. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. (78) Summer 98, 53-61
Schurum, Lynne. Teaching at a distance: strategies for successful planning
and development. Learning and Leading with Technology. (23) mar 96, 30-3
Schwalbe, Kathryn Anne (1996). A study o f the relationship between
investment in information technology and institutional outcomes in higher education.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (3), 1051 A.
Sclater, Keith (1990). An investigation of national and international
approaches to teleconferencing in continuing and distance education (national
approaches, continuing education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (5),
1586A.
Scott, Monty (1991). A comparison of achievement between college students
attending traditional and television course presentations (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (11), 3646A.
Scott. Patricia Jean Gregurich (1994). The effects of distance education
technology on faculty perceptions of teaching. Dissertation Abstracts International.
55 (2), 206
Scott-Fredericks, Gail L. (1998). The graduate student experience in
computer-mediated classes: a grounded theory study (Lotus notes, distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (12), 4625A.
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126
Screnci, Domenic A., Jr. (1992). The effects o f traditional lecture
presentation, PC-based multimedia presentation and PC-based multimedia distant
presentation on the mastery learning o f physical examination and on state anxiety of
undergraduate nursing students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (4), 1042A.
Scrubb, Montica Maureen (1998). An examination o f the Doctoral Student
Stress Survey (DSSS) as an instrument for measuring the effects of stress as
perceived by doctoral students in a distance learning university (Walden University.
Minnesota). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8), 3041 A.
Seevers, Gary L.. Jr. (1993). Identification o f criteria for delivery of
theological education through distance education: an international Delphi study
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (4), 1259A.
Segers, James Clay (1999). Knowledge, perceptions and attitudes o f county
agents o f the Texas agricultural extension service concerning use of electronic
technology and distance education (at the push o f a button, workshop, professional
development). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (8), 2821 A.
Shah, Pinkesh Jethalal (1998). Cobra-based middleware framework for
distributed multimedia systems. Dissertation Abstracts International. 59 (4), 4789B
Shaklee, Janie Mefford (1999). Elementary children's epistemological beliefs
and understandings o f science in the context of computer-mediated video
conferencing with scientists. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (8), 2854A.
Sharaf, Ahmad Saleh (1992). Distance education: an alternative route to
formal college education in Saudi Arabia. Dissertation Abstracts International. 52
(11), 3793A.
Shaw, Steven G. (1992). An examination o f the arguments against the
naturalistic paradigm o f research in educational technology and their implications for
current research practices. Dissertation Abstracts International. 53 (I), 97A.
Sheets, Mary Flanagan (1995). Designing models of persistence in higher
education telecourses (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International. 56
(5), 1683 A.
Shih, Mei-Yau (1992). Distance education in Taiwan: applying the triad
perspective model of distance education (TPMDE) to evaluate programs of the
National Open University in Taiwan. Dissertation Abstracts International. 52 (7).
2396A.
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127
Shoemake, Stephen Russell (1998). Construction of a survey instrument and
analysis program for the evaluation o f student attitudes towards live, televised
courses at Idaho State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (4),
1132A.
Shrestha, Govinda Man (1997). Factors influencing the effectiveness of
satellite videoconferencing within Cornell Cooperative Extension (distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (11), 4624A.
Shube , Joseph Themba (1992). The utilization o f broadcasted information in
the management o f a secondary school. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (2),
189
Siaciwena, Richard Munsanje Chilma (1990). A study of distance teaching at
the University o f Zambia with special reference to the effectiveness o f degree
courses. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (10), 3 167A.
Sides, Karen Jean (1994). An exploratory study o f characteristics and
attitudes o f high school distance learning facilitators. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (4), 941 A.
Sigafus, Bonnie M. (1996). The complexities o f professional life:
experiences o f adult students pursuing a distance learning doctoral program in
educational administration. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 23 10A.
Simpson, Michael J. (1997). Low-cost video for distance education
(courseware). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (7), 2983A.
Sinar, Tengku Eduard Azwar (1995). Difficulties encountered by rural
students while enrolled at Universitas Terbuka (Indonesia). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 33 (2), 326
Sisung, Nancy Jane (1993). The effects o f two modes of instructional
delivery: two-way forward facing interactive television and traditional classroom on
attitudes, motivation on-task/off-task behavior and final exam grades of students
enrolled in humanities courses (humanities instruction). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 53 (11), 3880A.
Skyers, Richard (1995). A case study o f distance education and development
in Jamaica: a study o f three distance education organizations and their contribution
to development. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (4), 815C
Smith, Bonnie Jean (1994). Implementation of satellite distance learning in
Illinois rural secondary schools: a descriptive study (rural education, distance
learning). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (8), 2995A.
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128
Smith, Charles Mckinley, Jr. (1998). A survey of satellite-based
programming and distance learning usage in Missouri public schools. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 59 (4), 1130A.
Smith, Richard James (1996). Design and implementation o f a distance
education course over the internet. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(11),
4187A.
Smith, Robert Ervin (1991). Effectiveness o f the interactive satellite method
in the teaching o f first-year German: a look at selected high schools in Arkansas and
Mississippi (satellite teaching, distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 52 (2), 517A.
Snow, Brian Coby (1998). Faculty attitudes relative to the Northern Arizona
University interactive instructional television initiative (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (3), 754A.
Soni, Geetanjali (1997). Using interactive desk-top videoconferencing as a
distance learning tool for program development and support: an ethnographic case
study of two family literacy sites. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (1), 139A
Sorensen, Christine Knupp (1995). Evaluation o f two-way interactive
television for community college instruction: development of an instrument and
assessment of student attitudes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (2), 476A.
Sparks, Richard K. (1997). The effect o f personality types on two-way video
instruction (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 430A.
Spears, H. Keith (1992). Planning for changes: a study of satellite distance
learning administrative policy development in higher education (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (8), 2782A.
Spencer, Priscilla Anne (1992). An adult education perspective on the
teaching-learning process in selected management training video teleconferences.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (2), 379A.
Sponder, Barry Martin (1991). Reaching the way-out student: a qualitative
study of students enrolled in audioconference courses in Western Alaska (distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (7), 2242A.
Spooner, Fred.; Jordan, Luann.; Algozzine, Robert (1999) Student ratings of
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129
Srisa-An, Wichit (1997). Making distance education borderless. Indian
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Stamps, David (1999) My anonymous adventures in cyberspace. Training,
36 (4), 50-56.
Starr, Donna K. Riley (1994). The effects of learning style preferences of
Arkansas adults on performance, attitude and completion rates in distance education
(adult learners). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (7), 2488A.
Stasch, Melinda (1995). A survey o f information sources used by students
involved in distance education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 33 (5), 1368
Stevens, Darrell Dewayne (1995). A study of factors affecting the continued
use of the satellite education network services in Illinois schools (distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (9), 2675A.
Steward, Donald Lee (1996). Televised postsecondary distance education,
factors influencing policy creation and the effect of new technologies and multi-state
educational consortia on state policy. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (10),
3854A.
Stoffel, Judith A. (1993). Affective concerns and cognitive processes of
adult, distance, female college students writing documented papers (women students,
distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (4), 1202A.
Stokes, Fay Elizabeth (1999). An evaluative case study of distance learning
and its impact on students' needs and development (academic achievement, social
interaction, college mission, replacement capacity). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 49 (7), 2462A.
Stone, Matha L. (1998) Companies try internet as benefits tool: CAN leads
way in asking vendors to provide online information. Advertising Age's Business
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Stone, Theodore Elliott (1992). Locus of control, as explanation for the
relationship o f tutor contact and completion rates in distance education programs.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (9), 3171 A.
Stratford, Sandra Parker (1996). Critical factors in the start-up and operation
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130
Stubblebine, Stuart Gerald (1989). Analysis, design and performance
evaluation o f a video and computer teleconference system for distance learning.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 27 (3), 405
Suciati, (1991). The effect o f motivation on academic achievement in a
distance education setting: an examination o f latent variables in an Indonesian case.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (4), 1181 A.
Sudarmo, Agnes Puspitasari (1996). Attitudes o f academic staff towards
distance education and job satisfaction at Universitas Terbuka (Indonesia).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (5), 1743
Sugrue, Brenda, Rietz, Thomas, Hansen, Sarah (1999). Distance learning:
Relationships among class size, instructor location, student perceptions, and
performance. Performance Improvement Quarterly, (12) 3, 44-57.
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analystic investigation o f the Microteaching rating scale. College Student Journal,
31 (Sept), 409-417.
Swickard, Michael Earl (1998). An effect o f distance in the acceptance of
alternative distance education instructional delivery methods (distance education)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (5), 1424A.
Syvertsen-Bitten, Elizabeth Ann (1996). Distributed training in the Canadian
Forces: a decision-model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34 (2), 514
Tahack, Elizabeth Carol (1995). Perceptions of distanced education experts
regarding the roles, outputs, and competencies need in the field o f distance
education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (10), 3166A.
Talbot, Mary Lee (1997). A school at home: the contribution o f the
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle to Women’s Educational Opportunities in
the Gilded Age, 1874-1900. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (4), 1180A.
Tallman, Frank Duane (1994). Student participation in correspondence
education: student perception o f the effectiveness o f instruction and student support
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (7), 2488A.
Tate-Blake, Carmeta Agatha Edwards (1998). A distance education case
study: a comparison o f instructional delivery methods practiced by higher education
faculty and emerging standards. Dissertation Abstracts International. 59 (3), 716A.
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131
Telg, Ricky Wayne (1995). Tales from the mud: the situated learning
experience o f television production specialists in distance education. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 56 (6), 2210A.
Thach, Elizabeth Carol (1995). Perceptions o f distance education experts
regarding the roles, outputs, and competencies needed in the field o f distance
education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (10), 3166A.
Theron, Hans Jacob (1998). Didactic guidelines for the distance teaching of
auditing as part o f the professional training of accountants and auditors (Afrikaans
text). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36 (3), 698
Thomas, Natalie Ann (1992). History o f educational telecommunications in
Alaska: an application o f the diffusion o f innovations theory (distance education)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (3), 782A.
Thomerson, Jasper D. (1995). Student perceptions o f the affective
experiences encountered in distance learning courses (interactive television)
Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (5), 1751 A.
Thompson, Judith Anne Porter (1995). Organizing technology for distance
education: lesson from three community colleges. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 55 (12), 3724A.
Thukral, Inderpreet Singh (1996). Quality in services through design: an
integrated approach (usability). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (9). 3654A.
Thyer, Bruce.; Artelt, Thomas,; Markward, Martha K. (1998) Evaluating
distance learning in social work education: a replication study. Journal of Social
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56 (7), 2534A.
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satellite-based distance learning from the voices o f network founders. Dissertation
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Tosh, Marion Wayne (1998). Considerations o f a holistic model o f program
ecology for distance education programs. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58
(9), 3444A.
Townley, Rod Matthew (1997). Students' and instructors' perceptions of
internet education in the community college (college students, faculty, distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6), 2016A.
Trachsel, Patricia K. (1999). Differences in professional socialization in RN-
BSN distance learning graduates and BSN on-campus graduates (educational
delivery format, nursing). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (7), 2394A.
Tremblay, R. Wilfred (1992). Telecourse utilization at American Research
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(2), 474A.
Tremlett, Lewis (1998). An investigation o f lifelong learning in the context
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Abstracts International, 59 (6), 1871 A.
Tsai, Niann-Chung (1994). A strategic plan for nontraditional, off-campus,
bachelor's degree-completion programs at the world college o f journalism and
communications (Taiwan, China, distance education). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 54 (7), 2433A.
Tucker. Donald Lurton (1998). Redefining the meaning of campus: a case
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Tuman, Ronald Joseph (1994). The external studies program at the
University of Pittsburgh: an historical analysis, 1972-1992 (Pennsylvania, distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (3), 487A.
Van Der Walt, Christa (1993). The use o f polite requests, a case study of
interlanguage development in the acquisition o f communicative writing skills.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (11), 3889A.
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Vanlandingham, Paul Gibson (1994). A plan for the use o f distance
education delivery systems options to link culinary programs at Johnson and Wales
University (Rhode Island). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (7), 2553 A.
Vermunt, Jan D. H. M. (1993). Learning styles and regulation o f learning in
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Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (4), 975C
Waggoner, Kim (1997) Virtual learning; distance education for law
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Walden, Beth (1997). The other side o f distance education: learner
interaction at remote sites (adult learners). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58
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Wallace, Cherrilyn (1997). Impact o f student support services on student
satisfaction with a videotape-based learning experience. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 58 (1), 61 A.
Wallace, Joanna Rose (1992). Faculty and student perceptions o f distance
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Wallace, Loreen Anne (1997). The changing characteristics and motivations
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International, 57 (8), 3424A.
Wallace, Lori (1996). Changes in the demographics and motivations of
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Wang, Jun (1998). Statewide collaboration in adult continuing education: a
case study of distance education in Maine. Dissertation Abstracts International. 58
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Wang, Yi-Chang (1998). Optimization learning in distributed education: a
real-time interactive multimedia communication interface experience (distance
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Wardell. Connie S. (1996). Distance education: a study o f a military program
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134
Wayand, Lee Scott (1998). Identifying communication obstacles that arise
when translating the modem mathematics classroom to distance (distance education.
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Webb, Carol Johnson (1995). Distance education and group interaction:
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professional audience using satellite delivery. Dissertation Abstracts International,
56 (2), 522A.
Weber, Roberta Kay (1996). An identification of barriers to the integration
of information technology as perceived by secondary education teacher education
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Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2451 A.
Weiner, Mark Stuart (1991). Dial-A-Daf: an innovation in Talmud Study
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Abstracts International, 51 (7), 2355A.
Weitman, Brenda Clark (1993). Determining the acceptance o f a computer-
based distance education system for staff development in Georgia technical
institutes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (7), 2344A.
Wells, Richard C. (1999) Back to the (Internet) classroom. Training, 36 (3),
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West, June A. Kacian (1995). A comparative analysis o f selected on-campus
and external graduate engineering degree programs. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (2), 434A.
West, Susan Elizabeth (1999). Art museum web sites as resources and
educators and students: development, utilization, and evaluation (world wide web
distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (7), 2308A.
Westfall. Beth Davies (1991). The development and implementation of an
academic and non-academic support system for distance learners at Brandon
University (academic support system, nonacademic support system, Canada).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (6), 1990A.
Westgard, Elizabeth Goodrid (1997). Adult female students’ perceptions of
their first-year portfolio-based, distance writing course (adult students, women
students, distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (9), 3804A.
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Wetle, Victoria L. (1997). An examination o f the validity o f the telecourse
self-assessment prediction instrument: 'Are telecourses for me?' (distance education).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 371 A.
Whiteman, Jane Allison (1994). Response o f community pharmacists to a
distance learning initiative on health screening. Dissertation Abstracts International,
55 (3), 865C
Whittington, Louis Alfons (1998). Predictors of achievement and persistence
among distance-education students: do traditional and nontraditional students differ?
(academic achievement). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8), 2963A.
Wick, William Robert (1997). An analysis o f the effectiveness of distance
learning at remote sites versus on-site locations in high school foreign language
programs. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (2), 360A.
Wickenden, Shirley Ann (1989). Self directed learning in nurse education: a
case study on an orthopedic ward. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49 (8),
3112B
Wilferth, John Charles (1997). Community involvement and the retention of
adult distance learners. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35 (4), 935
Wiliams, David J. (1996). Needs assessment for distance education: a
validation study (futurists, telecommunication). Dissertation Abstracts International.
56 (7), 2534A.
Wilkes, Charles Wynn (1990). Relationships between motivational
orientations and participants' perceptions o f an electronic distance education learning
environment (distant education). Dissertation Abstracts International. 50 (8), 2358A.
Wilkinson , Thomas Walter (1990). There perceptions and actions of
selected distance educators on academic procrastination in telecommunications-
based distance education programs in higher education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 51 (4), 1206A.
Williams, Marcia Lynn (1995). Faculty development in distance education
for continuing medical education: a baseline study. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (2), 434A.
Willis, Jane R. (1997). A continuing education model for quality in
laboratory practice (distance education, cross-training, professional development).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (5), 1546A.
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136
Wilson, George N. (1993). Projected trends for community college learning
resources centers as perceived by management (computer-related, future demand).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (3), 904A.
Winbome, Charles Berry, III (1995). Development o f virtual schooling
environments: motives conceptual foundations, strategies, and tools (distance
education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (1), 169A.
Wishniewsky, Gary Lee (1996). Education for export: the preparation and
preferences o f Master’s degree students enrolled in distance learning programs in the
Republic o f Singapore. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2327A.
Wishniewsky, Gary Lee (1996). Education for export: the preparation and
preferences of master’ s degree students enrolled in distance learning programs in the
Republic o f Singapore. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6), 2327A.
Witt, Paul L. (1997). A study o f the relationships among student
expectations about teacher nonverbal immediacy, student perceptions o f teacher
nonverbal immediacy, and affective learning in distance learning and the on-site
classroom. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35 (6), 1573
Wolcott, Linda Lachance (1991). A qualitative study o f teachers' planning of
instruction for adult learners in a telecommunications-based distance education
environment (instructional planning). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52 (3).
784A.
Worley, Eddyth Niceler (1992). Compressed digital video instructional
delivery: a study of student achievement, student attitude, and instructor attitude
(distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (3), 710A.
Yang, Hsiao-Ping Cathy (1996). The effects of campus visitation on college-
level distance education (telecourses) Dissertation Abstracts International, 56 (7).
2585A.
Yang, Tsung-Jen (1998). Teaching C programming on World Wide Web: a
system and evaluation (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59
(2), 411 A.
Yates. Jan M. (1996). An assessment o f trends and factors affecting future
directions in library and information science education. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 56 (10), 3781 A.
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137
Yates, Judy Ann (1994). A comparison of the cooperative extension service's
educational television programs and newsletters: learners' perceptions and agency's
production costs (distance education). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (5),
1174 A.
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Reproduced w ith perm ission of the copyright ow ner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
138
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Questionnaire
Please circle the response that best reflects your behavior or opinion using the following:
1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree
Item
No.
Item
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly i
Agree
1
I am highly motivated to do well in
school.
1
2
J 4 :
2 I set challenging but attainable goals for
each class
1
2
-1
3 4
i
1 frequently over estimate the amount of
time a task will require
1
2
3 j 4
1
4
I reward myself for doing a particular
task well
1
2
3 ! 4
;
5
1 w ith hold a reward or punish myself
for not doing well on a particular task
1
2
3 4
6
I carefully plan my time
1
2
3 i 4
7
1 seek help from others when I get stuck
on an assignment
1
2
3 4
i
8
1 always study in the same place
1
2
3 i 4
9 | I have a fixed time when I study
1 2 j 3 ; 4
10 1 I underestimate the amount of time an
i assignment will take
1
2
3 ; 4
1 :
11 | Other things in my life interrupt my
i ! study time or schedule
1 j 2
3 j 4
;
| 12 If 1 have trouble w ith an assignment I
I will leave it and go on to the next task
1 2 3 4
| 13 | I sometimes put off studying because I
j i don't feel like it
1 2 1 3 4
t i
I 14 j I fear failing at a task or assignment
1 2 ; 3 4
| 15 I loose sleep thinking about my school
! j work
1 i 2 3 4
1 ,
i ;
! 16
1 sometimes wonder if the effort is
worth it
1 2 1 3 1 4
1
; 17
The stress in my life has increased
significantly since 1 entered the degree
program
l 2 3 4
Reproduced w ith perm ission of the copyright ow ner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Boyd, Edwin Forrest, III (author)

Core Title Academic self regulation, task persistence, and completion of assignments in an e-mail-supported distance learning environment

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, technology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Kazlauskas, Edward (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-143538

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Document Type Dissertation

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Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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