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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

1

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS ON
SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES IN COSTA RICA

by

Starleen Van Buren

____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014

Copyright 2014 Starleen Van Buren

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DEDICATION
This is dedicated to my parents who taught me the value of hard work, and to
my husband, George, for all the love and support he has given me over the years.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to my husband, family, friends and co-workers for cheering me on during this
adventure. A special thank you to my dean and fellow Trojan, Jose Anaya, for his support. Many
thanks are due as well to Dr. Fischer and Dr. Jimènez y West from the Rossier Doctoral Support
Center for their guidance and encouragement, and to my chair Dr. Michael Escalante, for
allowing me to be part of the combined international trip and thematic dissertation team. To my
fellow team members, muchas gracias for the group effort, and for our Pura Vida moments in
Costa Rica. My gratitude and appreciation are also expressed to all of the teachers in my life who
made learning my lifelong passion. Fight on!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 5
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review 15
Figure 1. Twenty-first-century student outcomes and support systems 64
Chapter 3: Methodology 74
Chapter 4: Research Results 85
Table 1: Interviewees 87
Chapter 5: Summary 125
References 144
Appendices 155
Appendix A: Agreement Between Intel and ITCR 155
Appendix B: First Letter to the Minister of Education 160
Appendix C: Survey Protocol for Teachers 162
Appendix D: Recruitment/Consent Letter 165
Appendix E: School Leader Interview Protocol 166
Appendix F: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 168
Appendix G: MNC Interview Protocol 170
Appendix H: Classroom Observation Tool 172
Appendix I: Pedagog Training Provided by CEDA 176
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ABSTRACT
Theoretical frameworks for globalization, 21st-century skills, and leadership were used as part of
the study. The purpose of the study was to understand the impact of globalization and
multinational corporations (MNCs) on educational leadership and development of 21st-century
skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The research questions asked (a) what results of
globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica, as well as in schools and
universities in Costa Rica; and (b) how educational leadership has been impacted directly by
policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs. Participants
were a purposeful sample of 11 government, industry, and school officials from Instituto
Technológico de Costa Rica (ITCR) who agreed to interviews and 22 anonymous ITCR faculty
from the computer engineering department who responded to an electronic survey. The study
was conducted in Costa Rica, including a review of artifacts, interviews, observations, and a
survey for data collection. Data analysis was conducted on a collective but individual basis.
Survey questions were pre-coded and aligned to the study’s conceptual frameworks and the
research questions. Each team member collected survey data individually. Findings indicated
that educational leaders maintain a world culture perspective and that globalization and MNCs
have had a major impact on the educational system and its leaders in Costa Rica. Three
implications emerged: (a) The workforce requires educated employees skilled in the use of
technology and collaboration, (b) accreditation can improve the quality of education, and (c)
industry partnerships can improve resources and programs at educational institutions. Costa Rica
has made considerable strides in meeting the needs of MNCs but in the country, a shortage of
skilled workers, especially engineers, remains.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Globalization has caused a worldwide shift in the use of technology and the way in which
business is conducted. Workers, who worked with their hands in the industrial, age now need to
work with their minds in the age of knowledge-based employment and a global economy.
Students need to be knowledge-ready to enter the workforce; however, education is faced with
several broad issues as a result of globalization: (a) the rapid increase and changes in technology
(Friedman, 2007), (b) external influences on educational policy (Spring, 2008), (c) global
migration (Suarez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007), (d) the increased need for effective leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2008), and (e) the need for students to be knowledge ready with 21st-century
skills (Wagner, 2008). The educational system in Costa Rica is affected by the many issues
associated with globalization.
Globalization is defined by Spring (2008) as the interconnection of the world economy
marked by the flows of ideas, people, capital, trade, and social customs across borders. The flows
are connected by the “flat-world platform,” which, according to Friedman (2007, p. 10), includes
advances in technology and personal computing, allowing for the creation of content
development in digital form; affordable access to digital content from anywhere in the world;
and availability of software that allows people to collaborate virtually on digital content.
Technology, collaboration, and flexible access are now part the global economy. Specific skills
are needed to participate in the flat-world platform—skills that typically are gained through the
educational system (Friedman, 2007).
Globalization affects large segments of society not only through global economics and
connections but through political and cultural changes that influence schooling (Spring, 2008).
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Education is one of the most common experiences, but not all schools teach the same way
(Anderson-Levitt, 2003). As a result, globalization has promoted discussion of the need for
schools to meet the demands of a knowledge economy thorough a common curriculum (Spring,
2008).
The knowledge economy is driving the globalization of education and the need for large
numbers of educated workers (Spring, 2008). During the 20th-century industrial age, blue-collar
workers made up the majority of the workforce. Technological advancements depended on the
intellectual capabilities provided by a small portion of the population. Successful economies now
depend on the talents and abilities of all workers (Becker, 1964, 2006). The transformation from
an industry-based economy to an economy in which wealth depends on knowledge and skills,
also known as the knowledge economy, requires a flexible, educated workforce. According to
Spring (2008), the knowledge economy requires intellect and the ability to use technology,
which has a direct bearing on educational systems.
The knowledge economy is impacted in part by global migration. The United Nations
(2009) estimated that in midyear 2000 there were 172.5 million international migrants, or 2.9%
of the world’s population, predicted increase to 214 million, or 3.1% of the world’s population,
by midyear 2010. The largest influx of migration is from poorer to richer countries. Migration
has dramatically increased multicultural populations and, with it, concerns about maintaining a
socially cohesive society, along with providing a multicultural education (United Nations, 2009).
Educational systems have not been quick to respond to the need for multicultural
education. Suarez-Orozco and Sattin (2007) stated that schools today are not in line with the
realities of a global world because of the slow pace of institutional change. This situation is not
likely to improve until there is a standard to develop students who are citizens of the world. Such
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a standard will most likely be created through the reform of national educational policies that
affect educational systems (Suarez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007).
Effective leadership is essential if education systems are to be reformed. Increased
demands for accountability, higher student achievement levels, the need to produce students with
a different skill set than in years before, and improved efficiency require school leaders to be
more than just managers (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD],
n.d.-a). According to Bolman and Deal (2008), leadership differs from management, although a
manager can also be a leader. Bolman and Deal (2008) contend that managers focus on making
the current system work properly, while leaders are concerned with major systemic change
because the organization no longer serves its original purpose. Effective school leadership also
involves the ability to influence others (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Effective school leaders also must be concerned with the process of education. According
to Wagner (2008), the three transformations that have had a significant impact on education are
the fast-paced development of the knowledge economy, the increasing flow of information, and
the connective nature of media and technology. These transformations have contributed to a
“global achievement gap” (Wagner, 2008, p. 9) in which many students, domestically and
internationally, are not learning the skills that they need for employment in the 21st century.
Critics maintain that the promotion of a common curriculum, both nationally and
internationally, focuses on an outdated model of “cookie cutter” learning and development of
students who good test takers rather than creative and entrepreneurial thinkers (Zhao, 2013).
Wagner (2008, p. 14) said that the focus should be on “Seven Survival Skills for the 21st
century: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration across networks and leading by
influence; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written
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communications; accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.” Wagner
(2008) described these skills as work, learning, and citizenship skills necessary to succeed in the
21st century.
This study was needed to determine how educational, corporate, and government leaders
view the effects of globalization and multinational corporations (MNCs) on school leadership in
comparison to what the literature review establishes as a reality in Costa Rica.
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal
crisis of the 1980s. Due to a developed education system and an increased cost of living, a new
economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-technology foreign direct investment
(FDI) to compete in an evolving global market. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school
and university system’s responsibility to help students develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-
century skills became increasingly more challenging. According to State of the Nation (2011),
despite five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, the country
experienced a low secondary graduation rate and low rate of pursuit of higher education. As a
result, State of the Nation (2011) found there was a lack of knowledge-ready workers in Costa
Rica who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities.
A literature review was conducted to develop a focus for the study and to clarify what is
already known about the influence of globalization and MNCs in general and on educational
systems with an emphasis on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Previous research,
according to Merriam (2009), is also valuable when it comes to framing the problem and
research questions.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica. The study identified the role that school leaders played in the development and
implementation of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the
study determined whether these initiatives produced greater numbers of knowledge-ready
workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Importance of the Study
This study utilized qualitative research to address the issues in the education system in
Costa Rica as discussed in the introduction. The findings are beneficial for a variety of
audiences, including the school site location, practitioners, and policymakers. The school site
location may benefit from insight on how the influence of globalization and MNCs is perceived
by the administration and instructors. This may guide decisions related to structural design, such
as communication of policy, classroom design, creation of new curriculum, and professional
development. Practitioners may use the findings to change instructional methods, reorganize the
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classroom, or revise curriculum. Policymakers may use the findings to create or revise policies,
including resource allocation and educational pathways.
Limitations
1. The study was conducted in a foreign country, which created barriers in terms of
convenience and ability to travel within the country.
2. The student researcher does not speak Spanish and not all participants spoke
English. The student researcher had to rely on a fellow student and Google
®
for
translation.
3. The study was conducted at a single university and involved a small number of
surveys, interviews, and observations that may not reflect the views of all
instructors and administrators at the location.
4. Participants were asked questions regarding their opinions about partnerships and
the educational system within their country, and their opinions may be subjective.
5. The research was conducted in only 5 business days.
6. Research is by nature political, which may affect participant responses.
7. The researcher depended on the university to provide access to the target
department, so it must be assumed that all information was accurate.
8. Data collection and analysis were subject to the researcher’s biases and
interpretations.
Delimitations
1. The target university was selected based on criteria determined by the thematic
group, which included a partnership between the university and Intel.
2. A specific department was chosen within the university with an Intel partnership.
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3. The results of this study were based on a particular university selected for the
project and may not be generalizable to other institutions of higher education.
4. This case study was one of 12 conducted by members of a thematic dissertation
group.
Definitions
Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas para el Desarrollo (CINDE): An organization
created in 1982 with USAID funding as a private, nonprofit, foreign investment promotion
agency to attract FDI (Cordero & Paus, 2008).
Foreign direct investment (FDI): A direct investment into production or business in a
country by a company in another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by
expanding operations of an existing business in that country. Broadly, FDI includes mergers and
acquisitions, building new facilities, and/or reinvesting profits earned from overseas operations
and intracompany loans. In a narrow sense, FDI refers only to building new facilities (Larraín,
López-Calva, & Rodríguez-Clare, 2000).
Gini coefficient: A measure of the deviation from a perfectly equal distribution of income
or consumption expenditure among individuals or households within an economy (World Bank,
2012a).
Globalization: A phenomenon of increased economic integration among nations,
characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs, and products across borders
(Spring, 2008).
Gross national income (GNI): All income in a given country, converted to U.S. dollars
using the World Bank Atlas method, divided by the midyear population (World Bank, 2012a).
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Human capital: The stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personality attributes,
including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor to produce economic value. It is an
aggregate economic view of the human being acting within economies, which is an attempt to
capture the social, biological, cultural, and psychological complexities as they interact in explicit
and/or economic transactions. Many theories explicitly connect investment in human capital
development to education, and the role of human capital in economic development, productivity
growth, and innovation has frequently been cited as a justification for government subsidies for
education and job skills training (Schultz, 1961).
Knowledge-based global economy: Use of knowledge, technologies, and skills to produce
economic benefits and job creation in the global market. Knowledge resources such as know-
how and expertise are as critical as other economic resources in an interconnected, globalized
economy. A key concept of the knowledge-based global economy is that knowledge and
education (often referred to as human capital) can be treated as a productive asset; as a business
product, educational and innovative intellectual products and services can be exported for a high
value return (Wagner, 2008).
Ministry of Education: The Costa Rican Ministry of Education (El Ministerio de
Educación Pública de la República de Costa Rica [MEP]) is a world leader in providing quality
and accessible education to children in Costa Rican K–12 public education. Its mission is to
promote the development and consolidation of an exceptional education system that provides
access to quality education to the entire population, centered on personal development and the
promotion of a Costa Rican society united through opportunity and social equality. The abolition
of Costa Rica’s armed services in 1948 and the reallocation of military funds to programs in
education and health allowed the MEP to carry out its mission. Costa Rica’s Constitution
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includes a provision requiring that 6% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) go to
education; this allocation is among the highest in the world (Costa Rican Investment Promotion
Agency [CINDE], 2011; Ministerio de Educacion Public [MEP], 2007b).
Multinational corporation (MNC): An MNC or multinational enterprise (MNE) is a
corporation that is registered in more than one country or that has operations in more than one
country. It is a large corporation that both produces and sells goods or services in various
countries and often has a social responsibility and commitment to help improve the host
country’s education system (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
National Council of Rectors (CONARE): An organization created by law in 1974 to
oversee the functions of public universities in Costa Rica (National Council of Rectors
[CONARE], 2014).
National poverty rate: The percentage of the population living below the national poverty
line (World Bank, 2012a).
Twenty-first-century skills: The critical skills of the knowledge-based global economy:
(a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and
written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Globalization and the rise of MNCs are viewed by some as a corporate evil that
homogenizes the cultures of the world. While it is true that globalization is creating a demand for
standardization in many aspects of society, it also provides developing countries the ability to
increase its citizens’ quality of life. Some of the benefits of globalization included better
education that results in improved jobs skills and more opportunities for employment (World
Bank, 2003). This literature review examined the impact of globalization and MNCs on the
educational system and school leadership in the developing country of Costa Rica.
Theoretical frameworks for globalization (Spring, 2008), 21
st
century skills (Wagner,
2008), and leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008), are discussed in this chapter in preparation for the
research and an analysis of the gap between what was established by the literature review and the
experiences of leaders in government, education, and MNCs in the country.
The literature review is divided into five sections. The first section begins with a broad
view of globalization and its influence on educational policies. The section concludes with
Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework for the analysis of educational policies through the lens of
globalization. A brief history and background of Costa Rica follows in the second section to
provide context for the development of the educational system in the country. The third section
examines how MNCs influence education policy, with discussion of three MNCs in Costa Rica.
The fourth section examines 21st-century skills as defined by the Partnership for 21st Century
Skills (P21, 2012) and Wagner (2008) and their significance for the educational system in Costa
Rica. The final section focuses on leadership, with discussion of the seven traits that Marzano,
Waters, and McNulty’s (2005) research demonstrated are needed by a school leader to make
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transformational changes within an educational system. The seven traits provide context for
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework, which was used as a lens to analyze the effects
of globalization and MNCs on school leadership in Costa Rica.
Globalization
Globalization is not a new concept, although the term is relatively new. Globalization in
the form of international trade has existed for hundreds of years, beginning with the travels of
Columbus and the exchange of goods between the Old World and the New World. However, the
term globalization has taken on new meanings in the past 30 years with the dawning of
technology and the changes in worldwide economic and educational policies (Friedman, 2007).
This section of the literature review provides three definitions of globalization to draw a common
theme, examine how globalization has changed education and created a knowledge economy,
discuss the impact of global migration, and evaluate how globalization influences educational
policies.
Definition of Globalization
Globalization is a term that evolved in the 1980s to describe technological changes that
made it faster and more convenient to complete international trade and financial transactions
(International Monetary Fund [IMF], 2008). The term today encompasses a much broader
definition. Definitions are provided by the IMF (2008) and Hamilton and Webster (2012) and
Spring (2008) in order to provide an understanding of the forces involved with globalization.
The IMF (2008) defines globalization as a historical process, the result of human
innovation and technological progress. Globalization is causing increasing unification of
economies worldwide, particularly through the transport of goods, services, and capital, human
capital (people), labor, knowledge, and technology across borders (IMF, 2008).
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Hamilton and Webster (2012) characterize globalization as a process where connections
are made between countries and obstacles blocking trade are reduced or eliminated, resulting in
the interchange of goods, services, money, and human capital. Spring (2008) defines
globalization as the interconnection of the world economy marked by the flows of ideas, people,
capital, trade, and social customs across borders. The central theme among the three definitions
is that globalization is an ongoing process, a flow that interconnects cultures and influences
society as a whole through the use of technology. Spring’s (2008) definition was used to provide
a common definition of globalization to discuss the issues related to globalization and for use in
the research.
Globalization and Education
The speed of technology, the ability to collaborate worldwide and the increased demands
from MNCs and stakeholders are impacting political and cultural landscapes and changing
education. In his book The World is Flat, Friedman (2007) contends that the current period of
globalization began in 2000 and is still unfolding. “Globalization 3.0” is defined by Friedman
(2007, p. 10) as the era of collaboration to compete globally. Friedman describes this
phenomenon as the “flat-world platform” which is the result of advances in personal computing,
allowing for creation of content development in digital form; fiber optic cable, which provides
affordable access to digital content from anywhere in the world; and the availability of work
flow software which allows people to collaborate remotely on digital content (Friedman, 2007,
p. 10).
“Globalization 3.0” (Friedman, 2007, p. 10) is shrinking and flattening the world as it
continually increases the speed and flow of information while creating multiple forms of
collaboration among individuals, groups, companies, and universities anywhere in the world.
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Specific skills are needed to participate in the flat-world platform—skills that typically are
gained through conventional schooling (Friedman, 2007).
Globalization affects large segments of society not only through global economics and
connections but through political and cultural changes that influence conventional schooling
(Spring, 2008). One of the most common experiences in the modern world is education, but
studies show that not all schools teach the same thing or in the same way (Anderson-Levitt,
2003). As a result, government, intergovernmental/nongovernmental agencies, and business
groups discussed the need for schools to uniformly meet the demands of a global economy
(Spring, 2008). All of these stakeholders have different influences on education.
Stakeholder influence comes from many viewpoints and agendas. Governments
worldwide are concerned with investing in education to cultivate knowledgeable employees in
order to stimulate economic development (Spring, 2008). Intergovernmental organizations such
as the United Nations, the World Bank, and the OECD are interested in fostering economic
development and trade that is supported through educated workers (Vaira, 2004). These
organizations provide resources and assistance to countries that want to improve their
educational systems. Furthermore, Spring (2008) asserts that nongovernment organizations,
especially those involved with human rights and environmentalism, want to incorporate their
principles in the curriculum in schools across the world to educate students on issues related to
the public good. On the other hand, MNCs have an entirely different mission.
MNCs are motivated by profit and market share; therefore, they need employees who
possess skills for the global workplace to remain competitive (Vaira, 2004). The MNCs exert
considerable influence through political and monetary affiliations, such as through the World
Bank, the IMF, and the OECD, and by offering education-related resources to host countries
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(Vaira, 2004). Governments, parents, schools, and students are further influenced, according to
Spring (2008), through the consumption of products and services produced by MNCs in the
education industry, such as publishing, testing, and for-profit schooling.
Spring (2008) found that education is no longer insulated from globalization and must
answer to stakeholder demands. Governments whose educational systems lack the ability to
produce knowledge-ready workers cannot function in the global economy. The next section
discusses the needs of the knowledge economy and the globalization of education followed by
Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework for the analysis of the impact of globalization on
educational policy.
The Knowledge Economy
According to Spring (2008), the knowledge economy has caused the globalization of
education and created the need for a large number of educated workers. During the 20th-century
industrial age, blue-collar workers made up the majority of the workforce. Technological
advancements depended on the intellectual capabilities provided by a small portion of the
population. Successful economies now depend on the talents and abilities of all workers (Becker,
1964, 2006). The transformation from an industry-based economy to an economy where wealth
depends on knowledge and skills, also known as the knowledge economy, requires a flexible,
educated workforce that, based on Spring’s (2008) research, has a direct bearing on educational
systems. The knowledge economy requires intellect and the ability to use technology.
Spring (2008) contends that workers need 21st-century skills, which include intellectual
capability and technology usage, to participate in a knowledge-based economy. “A knowledge-
based economy relies primarily on the use of ideas rather than physical abilities and on the
application of technology. . . . Equipping people to deal with these demands requires a new
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model of education and training” (World Bank, 2003, p. xvii). Students have to be educated so
they can work in a global workplace where technology changes almost instantaneously
(Monahan, 2005). Based on research by Darling-Hammond (2006), technology affects the
learning process and places new demands on teachers and students. It also speaks to uniform
curriculum as a product of national educational policies (Spring, 2008).
The knowledge economy has created discussion about the development of national
educational policies, which is already happening with English language curriculum. Researchers
Tsui and Tollefson (2008) indicate that globalization requires two literacy tools: technology and
English. Proficiencies in these tools are referred to as global literacy skills. Based on research by
Meyer, Kamens, and Benavot (1992), the majority of foreign secondary schools recognize this
need and teach English as a modern foreign language. Huntington (1996) asserts that English as
a second language is considered a national curriculum and is the language of a global economy.
Dale (2005) provides an example of homogenization of education from the European Treaty,
which stated that the Concrete Future Objectives for Education Systems in the European Union
could be met only by a national curriculum, rather than an individual curriculum of each member
state.
Martin (2005) and Parker (2005) found that the growth of the knowledge economy
depends on the intellectual capabilities of the workforce, which puts poorer countries at a
disadvantage. According to Martin (2005) and Parker (2005), poorer countries lack the
technology and other resources to prepare their workforces. In addition, Martin (2005) and
Parker (2005) state that global migration is drawing workers to the richer nations, causing a
reduction in human capital in the home countries.
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The Effects of Global Migration
Global migration has a strong impact on nations worldwide. The United Nations (2009)
estimated that mid-year 2000 there were 172.5 million international migrants, or 2.9% of the
world’s population, with an increase to 214 million (3.1%) by mid-year 2010. According to
Martin (2005) and Parker (2005), the largest influx of migration is from poorer with 16% of the
world’s workers and more than 60% of global migrants residing in richer nations. Suarez-Orozco
and Sattin (2007) states that international migration is the human face of globalization.
Research by Spring (2008) indicates that education researchers are interested in how
global migrants affect the countries of origin as well as the countries of destination, along with
how national school systems absorb student migrant populations. Furthermore, Spring (2008)
found that migration has dramatically increased multicultural populations and concerns about
maintaining a socially cohesive society and providing a multicultural education. Spring (2008)
notes that discussion in this area is related to educating students about global citizenship and how
to function in a multicultural world.
Globalization, which involves multiculturalism through economic, social, and cultural
interactions around the world, requires the younger generation to have creative thinking skills,
high-level thinking abilities, and communication and collaboration skills, along with cultural
awareness (Suarez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007). Students need a multicultural education to develop
the ability to relate to others from a variety of ethnic, social, and religious backgrounds and who
may speak a different language (Suarez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007).
Educational systems have not been quick to respond to the need for multicultural
education. Suarez-Orozco and Sattin (2007) have determined that schools today are not in line
with the realities of a global world because of the slow pace of institutional change. This
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situation is not likely to improve until there is a standard to develop students who are citizens of
the world. Such a standard will most likely be created through the uniformity of educational
policies (Spring, 2008)
Neoliberalism and Education Policies
Neoliberalism is viewed by many scholars, such as Vaira (2004), as a negative process
responsible for reduction of governance through decentralization and decrease in regulation,
bureaucracy and public funding, and expenditures. According to Vaira (2004), there is a move
toward less control, with the goal of measured performance and outcomes of governmental
agencies, along with the marketplace exerting pressures on product/service delivery. Vaira
(2004) adds that central governance is changing to an entrepreneurial and managerial
organizational structure with performance in line with a business environment with an eye on the
bottom line and the productivity of human capital.
Vaira (2004) contends that governance is concerned with the role of educational
institutions in forming human capital to fit the requirements of the knowledge economy. Changes
in educational policy are the result of neoliberalism according to Vaira (2004), with an effort
aimed at changing society at a global level. Gray (2004) stated that one of the goals of
neoliberalism is to create global free markets. In the case of education, Spring (2008) found that
globalization puts pressure on the privatization of government-provided schooling in the form of
school choice and for-profit schooling.
Vaira (2004) claims that neoliberalism in education is the result of supranational agencies
that take a human capital approach to education, with students viewed as future workers rather
than as individuals who can contribute to society in ways other than through employment. Global
institutional such as UNESCO, the World Bank, IMF, OECD, the World Trade Organization,
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23
and the European Union are highly influential, both politically and socially (Vaira, 2004). They
have the power to influence both national and educational policies. Spring (2008) maintains that
critics believe that these organizations, through their resources and financial support in the form
of educational loans to countries, are largely responsible for the spread of neoliberal educational
ideas throughout the world. Some of the supranational agencies have created globalized
standards of education, which action is part of the globalization of policy development (Spring,
2008).
According to Moutsios (2009), economic globalization is also the globalization of the
development of policy. For example, the OECD (2012b) has established a globalized standard of
education through its Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), an assessment to
test skills needed by the knowledge economy. To date, the OECD (2012b) attests that 64
countries and partners (non-OECD members) have participated in the assessment, which
represents the majority of the world economy. Spring (2008) maintains that, because the OECD
has established an international test standard, PISA can determine the curriculum content in
mathematics, reading, and science. The activities of the many global stakeholders can be viewed
in the context of Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework, which provides a lens to examine the
influences of globalization on educational policy.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework developed by Spring (2008) was utilized to examine the
influences of globalization on education through the lens of world culture, world systems,
postcolonialist, and culturalist. The first perspective is focused on world culture. This
interpretation assumes that world culture is based on the Western ideals of schooling in mass,
which serves as an example for national school systems and posits that all cultures are melding
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24
into one global economy (Spring, 2008). According to Spring (2008), scholars contend that the
Western model is becoming globalized because it is based on the idea that all people have a right
to education and that education is vital to maintain economic and democratic rights.
In contrast, Spring (2008) states that the world systems perspective sees globalization as
the result of the actions of countries in power resulting in a world in two unequal zones with the
major zone controlled by the United States, the European Union, and Japan, which overshadow
the nations in the minor zone. According to Arnove (1980), Clayton (1998), and Wallerstein
(2004), the major zone nations want to constitute its power through infusing its values into the
minor zone nations. Countries in the major zone teach capitalist modes of cognition and analysis
through aid agencies that support education (Spring, 2008).
The postcolonialist perspective, according to Spring (2008) sees globalization as
exploitation by richer nations that use their own political and economic agendas for their benefit
at the expense of poorer nations. Postcolonialists argue that Western-style schools dominate the
globe as a consequence of European imperialism and the spread of Christianity (Spring, 2008).
In addition, Spring (2008) asserts that education is regarded as a means to produce
knowledgeable workers for the benefit of MNCs. Benham and Cooper (2000) state that
indigenous cultures are some of the most vocal critics of the Western educational practices and
fight for instructional methods traditional to their culture.
Spring (2008) claims that the culturalist perspective sees globalization as providing
opportunities for the expansion of education outside the human capital theory. The culturalist
perspective views globalization through an anthropological lens (Spring, 2008). The focus is on
the differences in cultures and the acquiring and advancing of educational ideas in a worldwide
framework. The commonality between postcolonialists and culturalists is the shared idea that
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25
there is world knowledge and that those with power control some of the knowledge. However,
culturalists maintain that rather than building on a single form of knowledge, multiple styles of
education are selected to use within a culture. Spring (2008) states that culturalists are of the
opinion that there are different types of knowledge and educational ideas outside of those related
to human capital, such as religious, human rights and environmental education, along with
numerous forms of progressive education. Mansilla and Jackson (2011) state that regardless of
the viewpoints, global nations are moving toward a national agenda.
According to Mansilla and Jackson (2011), many countries are aligning global education
agendas with national priorities and traditions. Their initiatives tend to converge on a few
fundamental orientations. Several view the world as one system—human life as shaped by a
history of global interdependence. Others highlight a commitment to the idea that there are basic
human rights, including social and economic equality, as well as basic freedoms. Most
emphasize a commitment to cultural diversity and the importance of intercultural understanding
and acceptance of differences of opinion, and a few point to environmental awareness and
planetary sustainability.
Spring’s (2008) framework was used for this qualitative research project to analyze how
the impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs are viewed by political, government, and
school leaders in Costa Rica. Merriam (2009) states that it is important to understand the
perspective of leaders as part of a qualitative research project where the focus is on the meaning
and understanding of how people make sense of their experiences.
Discussion
Globalization has a profound influence on the economy and educational systems around
the world. The change in global economics and the advent of new technology is the driving force
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26
behind the expansion of MNCs and the knowledge economy. Governments and related
institutions and business concerns see the need for a national curriculum to meet the demands of
created by globalization (Spring, 2008). All of these stakeholders have influences on education,
as seen in the next section on the developing country of Costa Rica.
Costa Rica
This section of the literature review provides information on Costa Rica, including its
history and politics, demographics and society, economy, government structure, and educational
system in order to provide context to the analysis of the country’s educational system and the
impact of MNCs.
History of Costa Rica
Costa Rica is an unusual country due to its geography, history, and culture. The U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA, 2013) describes Costa Rica as small, democratic Central
American country bordered by Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south. The Caribbean
and Atlantic Oceans lie to the east, with the Pacific Ocean to the west (CIA, 2013). The country
is 20,000 square miles in size, which, according to MacKinnon (2011), is comparable to the size
of West Virginia. Booth (2008) states that Costa Rica is the only country in Latin America
without an army and is pro-conservation.
Unlike many Latin American countries, Costa Rica is concerned with maintaining its
biodiversity. MacKinnon (2011) indicated that 25% of its land is set aside as reserves to protect
it from development. Costa Rica was described by MacKinnon (2011) as a country full of natural
beauty, complete with mountain ranges, volcanoes, pristine beaches and rainforests, verdant
jungles, and exotic wildlife, making it a popular destination for ecotourism and adventure
tourism.
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According to MacKinnon (2011), prior to the early 1500s, the land was inhabited by
groups of indigenous people, known as Amerindians, with many languages and cultures.
Archeologists estimated their numbers to be 400,000 (MacKinnon, 2011). Once Costa Rica was
discovered by the Europeans, the history of the Amerindians was like that of many other
indigenous people, where disease and enslavement wiped out much of the population
(MacKinnom, 2011). The native population was drastically reduced so that, today,
approximately 70,000 people are identified as indigenous, although many are of mixed heritage
due to interracial marriages (MacKinnon, 2011).
Costa Rica was part of the New World discovery by Columbus that resulted in Spanish
colonization in 1522 (Booth, 2008). The Spanish had visions of mining gold and other valuable
metals and, therefore, named the land “Rich Coast” or Costa Rica (Booth, 2008). Unable to find
much in the way of riches, the Spanish turned to farming, which resulted in Costa Rica in being
one of the poorest colonies in all of Spain’s holdings (Education Encyclopedia, 2013).
Spain ruled Costa Rica for almost 300 years through military governance based in
Guatemala (Booth, 2008). Due to the remoteness of Spanish control, along with the poverty of
the country and the lack of a large native labor force, the area was not of significant concern to
the Spaniards (Booth, 2008). Costa Rica and other Central American provinces declared their
independence from Spain in 1821 (MacKinnon, 2011). Despite the creation of a Central
American Federation, border disputes were common among the provinces, which added to the
area’s history of instability. Costa Rica withdrew from the Federation in 1838 and declared itself
a sovereign nation (MacKinnon, 2011). The 1869 Constitution provided free mandatory
education for all Costa Ricans, thus establishing the foundation for a highly literate society
(Education Encyclopedia, 2013). Politics played an important role in the establishment of the
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educational system in Costa Rica due to the reallocation of government resources during the late
1940s (MacKinnon, 2011).
Politics
The country entered into a relative period of harmonious democracy with the first
elections in 1899 (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). A brief dictatorship in the mid-1900s was
ended by teachers and students when they rioted after the army marched on them during a
political demonstration (MacKinnon, 2011). Civil disruption occurred again in 1948 when a
disputed presidential election resulted in an armed uprising led by Jose Figueres (MacKinnon,
2011). The dispute was marked by a 44-day civil war that ended with the death of 1 of every 300
Costa Ricans (MacKinnon, 2011). Figueres prevailed and, as the result of a collaborative
agreement with the three dominant political parties, the Constitution was revised. The revisions
guaranteed free elections with the right to vote and, in 1949, the elimination of the military
(MacKinnon, 2011). The restructuring of the government provided longstanding social and
political stability in a region known for extreme poverty, war, and turbulence (Cordero & Paus,
2008). A national health care and education system was created with funds no longer needed to
support the military (Booth, 2008). According to the World Bank (2012b), Costa Rica developed
into a highly socialistic state, with the largest middle class in Central America. Lehoucq (2010)
asserts that the country was second only to the United States in maintaining the longest
uninterrupted period of democracy with a presidential form of government.
Booth (2008) found that rapid socioeconomic changes shaped Costa Rican politics prior
to the election of Figueres as President in 1953. There were fraudulent elections, violence, labor
strikes, and unemployment due to the faltering economy, the Great Depression, and World War
II (Booth, 2008). This provided liberal political parties such as the Reformist Party (Marxist
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29
Party) and the Popular Vanguard Party (Communist Party) an opportunity to try to gain control.
Figueres’s party, the National Liberation Party (PLN) was anticommunist, with social democracy
views and ideals borrowed from the Republican Party founded by Rafael Calderon, who was a
Social Christian and former President of Costa Rica (Booth, 2008). Figueres’s party worked to
expand the reforms of the Calderon era, which included labor reforms. According to Booth
(2008), the PLN and the Catholic Church were instrumental in promoting competing labor
confederations that fragmented organized labor, a situation that continues today.
Important changes were consolidated into national politics as the result of Figueres’s
election. The PLN “incorporated middle-class forces into the political elite and ended the
economic aristocracy’s lengthy hegemony” (Booth, 2008, p. 726). Another important factor that
contributes to the continued success of the Costa Rica government is the ongoing fairness of the
election system. The political and economic elites were willing to commit to a Constitutional
democratic political process. The PLN and a group of conservatives forged an alliance with all
major business interests to garner support for the process. Booth (2008) stated that this alliance
created a civic culture that offers an inclusive environment for the many interest groups and
provides freedom to demonstrate without repression.
According to Booth (2008), the three greatest influences on Costa Rican democracy were
the labor reforms enacted by President Calderon to broaden the ruling coalition in the early
1940s, the civil war in 1948 that resulted in the NLP movement and the election of Figueres, and
the revision of the Constitution in 1948 by three socioeconomic forces: the NLP, the Popular
Vanguard Party (PVP), and the National Union. Booth (2008) found that without these
influences, Costa Rica would be much like the other Latin American countries in terms of
political and economic instability and repressive governments. Instead, the citizens of the
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country enjoy access to social services that are not commonly provided by the governments of
countries in Central and South America.
Demographics and Society
The reallocation of resources with an emphasis on social reforms accomplished by
Figueres in the mid 20th century allowed widespread access to education and health care. This
small Spanish-speaking country, with a population of 4.6 million people, now has a literacy rate
of 94.9% for citizens over the age of 15 and a life expectancy of 77.89 years (CIA, 2013). Costa
Rica has a youthful population, as the median age is 29, with slightly more males than females
age 24 and younger (CIA, 2013). The population is homogeneous, with Whites as the majority at
94% (including mestizos, or mixed European and Amerindian), 3% Black, 1% Amerindian, 1%
Chinese, and 1% other (CIA, 2013). Roman Catholics represent the religious majority in the
country (CIA, 2013). More than half of the population lives in the Central Valley area, which is
home to the nation’s capital, San José (MacKinnon, 2011). The remaining population lives in
rural areas, with less access to education (MacKinnon, 2011).
McKinnon (2011) advances that Costa Rica has evolved into a homogenous, socialistic,
democratic society. Booth (2008) theorized that several key factors have contributed to the
development of the country. During the colonial period, Costa Rica never experienced the
“quasi-feudal hacienda” system with the organized labor parties and corruption that dominated
most Latin American countries (Booth, 2008, p. 718). Large-scale agricultural or mining
industries did take not take hold due to the lack of exportable crops and decent inland
transportation (Booth, 2008).
With little profit to be had from these industries, it was not cost effective for the Spanish
to import slaves, which created a labor shortage (Booth, 2008). This forced land owners to hire
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31
rural hands at higher wages, creating a prosperous economy for the working class. Costa Rica’s
isolation from Spanish control gave rise to the development of local calbildos (municipal
councils) and, with them, experience in the development of a government and a political maturity
that was rare in Latin America (Booth, 2008). The calbildos attracted aristocratic conservatives
and liberals that became the model for the formation of political parties in the country (Booth,
2008).
The coffee industry played a role in shaping economic growth and social change from
1845 to World War II, with the closing of the European coffee markets (MacKinnon, 2011).
Wages remained high during the 19th century due to expanding small coffee farms, which
caused a labor shortage, however, according to Booth (2008), the coffee industry also fostered an
economic elite society, the cafetaleros, whose riches came from growing land ownership and
international trade. Booth (2008) attests that the cafetaleros became active in politics and exerted
considerable influence on national affairs through the mid-20th century.
Support for the cafetaleros was evident when the Costa Rican government built a railroad
in 1871 for the coffee exporters to transport product from San José to Limon, the port on the
Atlantic coast (Booth, 2008). The construction work attracted a diverse multiethnic workforce of
Europeans, Caribbean Blacks, and Chinese whose descendants live in Costa Rica today
(McKinnon, 2011). The railroad also helped to create the banana industry in Costa Rica as it
offered efficient transportation. Booth (2008, p. 720) stated that “Greater trade had diversified
the society and economy, brought improved transportation and communications, and integrated
Costa Rica into the world economy as a commodity exporter and importer of manufactured
goods.”
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Government
As a democratic society, Costa Rica elects a President and two Vice Presidents every 4
years by popular vote (CIA, 2013). The current President is Laura Chinchilla of the PLN, who
was elected in 2010 (CIA, 2013). The President is the chief of state and the head of the
government, who selects his or her own cabinet. The legislative branch is a unicameral assembly
with 57 members elected every 4 years, while the judicial branch is the Supreme Court,
represented by 22 justices elected for renewable 8-year terms by the legislative branch (CIA,
2013).
Economy
The World Bank (2013b) contends that Costa Rica is an upper middle-income developing
country in Latin America, with GNI of $7,640 per capita as of 2011. According to the World
Bank (2013b), “GNI per capita is the gross national income, converted to U.S. dollars using the
World Bank Atlas method, divided by the midyear population” (para. 1). The World Bank
(2013b) stated that the average GNI for all Latin American and Caribbean countries was
$8,574.60 per capita as of 2011.
Costa Rica has one of the highest rates of economic growth in the region, with an annual
average growth rate of 5% since the 1990s (OECD, 2012a). This consistent growth is a reflection
of the country’s economic policy. Prior to 1960, Costa Rica relied on agricultural exports,
primarily coffee, bananas, and sugar, for economic growth (OECD, 2012a). According to the
OECD (2012a), Costa Rica changed to import substitution, a common strategy used by
developing countries from the 1930s to the 1980s. The strategy was used to promote
industrialization by protecting domestic producers through the use of high tariffs and
international trade restrictions to limit competition from imports. Costa Rica followed the import
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33
substitution strategy from the 1950s through the 1970s while investing in education and training
for its citizens (OECD, 2012a). For example, in 1965 the National Institute for Learning (INA)
was developed, according to the OECD (2012a), to provide technical training in support of the
growing industrial labor force.
When the financial crisis reached Latin American in the 1980s, Costa Rica changed its
economic policies to attract high-technology FDI (OECD, 2012a). Hamilton and Webster (2012)
define FDI as a measure of foreign ownership of productive assets, such as factories, mines, and
land. Increasing foreign investment can be used as one measure of growing economic
globalization. FDI became more popular in the 1980s as exchange controls and market access in
many foreign countries became more liberal (OECD, 2012a). For example, private ownership of
land in Latin America, including Costa Rica, made it less risky for foreign companies to invest in
building factories. The OECD (2012a) also found that new financial instruments with broad
market access created by technological innovations and lower transaction costs attracted the
interest of MNCs such as Intel and Microsoft. Costa Rica also used promotional strategies to get
the attention of MNCs (Cordero & Paus, 2008).
According to Cordero and Paus (2008), CINDE (Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas
para el Desarrollo) was created in 1982 with U.S. Agency for International Development
(USAID) funding as a private, nonprofit, foreign investment promotion agency to attract FDI.
Cordero and Paus (2008) state that CINDE does not receive funding from the government, so it
can promote FDI as an apolitical organization. According to the OECD (2012a), the agency is “a
private association that operates independently and reports to a board of businessmen and
professionals, which in turn reports to a general assembly” (p. 87).
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Cordero and Paus (2008) assert that during the 1980s, CINDE was a much larger
organization, with an annual budget up to $8 million, seven international offices in Europe, Asia,
and the United States, and 400 employees. CINDE aggressively pursued FDI and was
instrumental in attracting Intel to Costa Rica (Cordero & Paus, 2008). Because Costa Rica no
longer qualifies for USAID funding, according to Cordero and Paus (2008), CINDE had a
reduced annual budget of $1.5 million, a staff of 29 people, and one foreign office in New York
City as of 2006.
Despite the reduction in budget and staffing, CINDE (2013e) is viewed favorably by the
investor community and plays an important part in FDI strategy. CINDE (2013b) services are
provided at no cost to companies looking to invest in the country, including assistance with site
selection, arranging meetings with various services providers and agencies such as universities,
arranging contact with potential investors, and providing “specialized support for strategic
aspects geared to new operational expansion projects or promoting product diversification”
(n.p.). The OECD (2012a) found that CINDE “serves as an effective channel for voicing private-
sector needs to policy makers” (p. 87), which includes education leaders. An example of the
alliance between the education leaders, industry, and CINDE is the partnership by CINDE, IBM,
and CENFOTEC. The partnership created a specialized technical program in DB2 database
administration at the Univeridad CENFOTEC as part of IBM’s plan to train workers when the
IBM Service Center for Information Technology opened in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013d).
Aside from using a foreign investment association to attract FDI, a common strategy is
participation in international trade (Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). Costa
Rica sought to increase its exports while attracting high-quality FDI. The government has
pursued free trade agreements, including the Dominican Republic-Central America-United States
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35
Free Trade Agreement or CAFTA-DR, in order to reduce its exposure to unfair trade practices
(Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). CAFTA-DR, signed into law in 2004 by
the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican
Republic, eliminated tariffs, opened new markets, made it easier to access services, and
promoted transparency while increasing trade and investment among the partners (Office of the
United States Trade Representative, n.d.). The Costa Rican government also established free
trade zones in the early 1980s to attract high tech FDI because high tech usually generates
development benefits (Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). According to the
OECD (2012a), advantages for FDI include duty-free imports and tax exemption/tax reduction
benefits.
FDI also had an impact on poverty. Due to changes in economic and education policy
over time, poverty decreased from 50% to 20% from 1950 to 2000 (Lehoucq, 2010). It decreased
slightly to 19% in 2007 and, as of 2012, increased to 20.3% (World Bank, 2012a). The World
Bank (2012a) defines national poverty rate as the percentage of the population living below the
national poverty line. While Costa Rica has one of the lowest poverty rates in Latin America, the
recent increase signals a change in economic conditions (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012).
Income inequality has also increased. Income inequality, which is measured by the Gini
coefficient, a widely used indicator of income inequality, rose from 0.440 in 1989 to 0.507 in
2009 (World Bank, 2013b). The Gini coefficient is the measure of the “distribution of income or
consumption expenditure among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a
perfectly equal distribution” (World Bank, 2012a, para. 1). According to the Economist
Intelligence Unit (2012), from 2010 to 2011 the Gini coefficient rose from 0.508 to 0.515 which
means that the richest 20% of the population received incomes almost 20 times greater than
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those received by the poorest 20%. The Economist Intelligence Unit (2012) states that a primary
factor contributing to the rise of income inequality is the lack of skilled labor.
A recent survey conducted by Manpower Group (2013) indicated that 40% of the
employers in Costa Rica had trouble finding qualified applicants. According to the survey
results, the top 10 positions that employers in the America region (which includes Costa Rica)
have trouble filling are technicians, sales representatives, secretarial/administrative/office
support staff, production operators, skilled trades, engineers, accounting/finance staff,
mechanics, machinist/machine operators, and management/executive (management/ corporate).
Manpower Group (2013) states, “The 2013 Talent Shortage Survey includes responses from
nearly 10,000 hiring managers in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Mexico, Panama, Peru and the United States “ (p. 15).
History of the Costa Rican Educational System
Education has always played a significant role in Costa Rica due to the influence of the
Catholic Church and because many of its early government leaders were former teachers,
including Jose Castro Madriz, Costa Rica’s first president (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). The
church first opened private parochial schools in and around San José, according to the Education
Encyclopedia (2013), in the mid-1700s, and the first public school opened in 1807.
The educational system continued to evolve during the 1800s. The role of education was
reaffirmed when the first Constitution of Costa Rica was drafted in 1821, and 2 years later, the
Declaration of the Supreme Junta claimed that education was the required foundation of personal
happiness and prosperity for all (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). Legislation passed in 1841
centralized the control of the schools under the state while additional constitutional revisions
provided more direction for the development of a unified education system and established free
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37
compulsory education (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). A large hiring of teachers was mandated,
along with a legal definition of the teacher’s role in Costa Rica (Education Encyclopedia, 2013).
Costa Rica’s first university, the University of St. Thomas, formerly a private K–12
school, was created in 1843 by executive degree to educate future leaders, rather at the
Universidad de San Ramon in Leon, Nicaragua (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). However, due
to its close ties with the Catholic Church, the university was closed in 1888 by a progressive and
anticlerical government during a campaign to modernize public education (Education
Encyclopedia, 2013). The schools of law, agronomy, fine arts, and pharmacy continued to
operate independently until 1940, when the schools were integrated into the University of Costa
Rica (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). The University eventually expanded to include schools of
education, dentistry, and medicine. The Constitution of 1949, as well as recent amendments,
guaranteed university self-rule and funding for state educational institutions (Education
Encyclopedia, 2013). The 1970s saw reform movements in education that transformed the
University of Costa Rica from an aristocratic school to one that offered all people equal
opportunity to gain access to higher education (Education Encyclopedia, 2013). However, K-12
education remains centralized and under the control of the Ministry of Education (MEP, 2007b).
Current Educational System
The MEP (2007b) provides centralized executive and management oversight for all
public and private preprimary, primary, and secondary education levels. It also oversees private
universities and colleges and technical schools (MEP, 2007b). The organization is headed by the
Minister of Education, Leonardo Garnier Rimo, who graduated with a Ph.D. in economics from
the New School for Social Research in New York (MEP, 2007b). The State of the Nation (2011)
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38
describes the MEP as very large and bureaucratic, which impedes its ability to function
effectively.
The MEP has schools organized into nine circuits by province with oversight by circuit
supervisors who manage teams of school administrators. As of 2006, there were 1.2 million
students and 68,000 teachers in 7,500 schools and 33,000 classrooms (State of the Nation, 2011).
In addition to managing the school system, the MEP is responsible for administering educational
policy, which is part of the Constitution of Costa Rica (MEP, 2007b). A new policy was
approved in 1994 as part of the Constitution that established objectives and provided a
framework for the implementation of 21st-century skills (MEP, 2007a). According to the MEP
(2007a), the policy specifically states that its goals are to strengthen its (a) Languages
Development Program, (b) Improvement of Educational Quality and Life Care Communities
Priority Program, (c) Computer Education Program, (d) Program Teacher Schools in Dispersed
Rural Areas, (e) Program Improvement of Secondary Education, (f) Thinking Development
Program, and (g) Program Environmental Education and Sustainable Development. The MEP
(2007a) provides that the educational policy is based on three philosophical points of view: (a)
humanist, to allow for human beings to develop to their full potential; (b) rationalist, to allow
human beings to build and continually improve knowledge; and (c) constructivist, to allow
human beings to build on prior knowledge through the lens of their experience and culture.
Research by Adamson and Darling-Hammond (2012) show that the plan was further expanded in
2003 with the introduction of Plan of Action on Education for All, designed to improve quality
of and access to K–12 education, with an emphasis on technology.
The Constitution of Costa Rica guarantees free education to the ninth grade and calls for
6%-8% of the GDP to be used to fund education as part of educational policy (CIA, 2013).
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39
However, actual funding is not consistent because it is based on the health of the economy. For
example, the State of the Nation (2011) states that, during the fiscal crisis of the 1980s, education
funding was drastically reduced, which caused an entire generation not to graduate from high
school. The lack of high school graduates still has repercussions for Costa Rica’s present-day
economy, which, based on research by the State of the Nation (2011), can be seen in the lack of a
skilled workforce. Adequate funding for education remains problematic.
The MEP is faced with challenges as a result of its complex bureaucratic structure and
funding issues (State of the Nation, 2011). The majority of funding is allocated to salaries instead
of educational resources and there is a continuous power struggle among multiple interest
groups, with national and local level authorities lobbying to protect their interests (State of the
Nation, 2011). Furthermore, State of the Nation (2011) contends that this situation prevents the
MEP from establishing priorities, causing the system to remain inefficient and inflexible. The
MEP is working to restructure, something that has not occurred since 1994 (State of the Nation,
2011). However, while bureaucracy is a problem in the country, the educational system has
produced a highly literate population.
Schools and Universities
The high literacy rate in Costa Rica is due to mandatory public elementary schooling for
all children ages 6–11 (CINDE, 2011). UNESCO (n.d.) reported that, as of 2010, 96% of all
children had completed their primary education. CINDE (2011) maintains that Costa Rica’s
primary education enrollment rate was ranked first in the world. CINDE (2011) states that
elementary school starts with kindergarten and has a total of six grade levels, with completion
usually by age 12; high school lasts 5 to 6 years, depending on whether an academic or technical
track is selected. The choice is made after the first 3 years of school. CINDE (2011) attests that
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students are required to pass tests on all subjects studied during middle school in order to receive
a high school diploma and for university admission.
According to CINDE (2011), there are 54 private universities in the country, which, as of
2009, had granted the majority (67.8%) of all diplomas. The private schools are generally
smaller in student body size or by degree offerings than the public universities and appeal to
working adults who attend for career advancement (CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica has five public
universities: the Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR), Universidad Nacional (UNA), Universidad
Estatal a Distancia, ITCR, and Universidad Technica Nacional, with UCR having the highest
level of annual enrollment and has the widest range of degrees offered (CINDE, 2011).
However, accreditation of the private and public universities is lacking.
Statistics provided by State of the Nation (2011) indicated that, as of October 2010, in the
1,139 university programs, only 5.4% of the 62 majors offered were accredited by the National
University Accreditation System (SINAES, 2013). In addition, the State of the Nation (2011)
reported that the universities do not have strong internal assessment methods for quality
improvement, which is normally part of an accreditation process.
Accreditation can help to improve the quality of education. State of the Nation (2011)
found that the poor quality of education was the result of teachers who had graduated from
unaccredited universities. Schools and universities that are accredited use the voluntary,
research-based self-assessment process to evaluate the operation and infrastructure of the
institution, including faculty, resulting in recommendations and a plan for improvement
(Palacios & Olivares, 2013). Advanc-Ed (2014) found that when properly conducted, an internal
and external accreditation assessment can provide valuable insights to the organization, resulting
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41
in a system for continuous improvement, and can provide a hallmark of excellence to its
audience and stakeholders.
Since ITCR was the educational institution chosen to be studied for this research project,
it is important to note that, according to ITCR (2013b), many of the programs at the university
are accredited by the SINAES and the two other external accreditation agencies: the Canadian
Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) and the Central Accrediting Agency for Architecture
and Engineering Institute (ACAAI). As part of the accreditation process (ITCR, 2013e), the
quality of the faculty is enhanced through professional developed offered by the Center for
Academic Development (CEDA).
ITCR was founded in 1971 as an autonomous university with a focus on teaching,
research, and technology and the related sciences to benefit the development of Costa Rica
(ITCR, 2013a).
Discussion
A convergence of circumstances occurred in Costa Rica that allowed the country to take
advantage of opportunities to move from a poor agricultural nation to one with the highest
literacy and standard of living in Latin America. Education was a high priority in Costa Rica due
to the fact that many of the country’s presidents were former teachers (Education Encyclopedia,
2013). In addition, according to MacKinnon (2011), the elimination of the military in 1940s
allowed resources to be allocated to social services, including education, Costa Rica was
positioned to successfully change its economic development strategies from agriculture to high
tech. While the country strives to improve it educational outcomes to keep pace with the
demands of a knowledge economy, there is a gap between Costa Rica’s standards for 21st-
century skills as outlined in the Constitution and the results documented in the State of the
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Nation (2011). This study examined what the literature states and how education leaders view
the impact of globalization. The study also examined the influence of MNCs on educational
policies, as well as determined the level of resources provided to the educational system in
support of 21st-century learning skills.
The Impact of MNCs on Education
According to Monge-Gonzales and Gonzalez-Alvarado (2007), MNCs have a
considerable impact on educational policies within countries that are trying to attract and retain
FDI. This section of the literature review discusses the changes in the education system before
and after the establishment of an MNC in a host country and the creation of spillover and spin-
off effects. The next section looks at the changes in the educational system before and after the
establishment of three MNCs in Costa Rica: Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco.
According to Monge-Gonzales and Gonzalez-Alvarado (2007), MNCs influence
educational policy and the development of human capital through (a) changes in the educational
system to attract MNCs, (b) changes in the educational system once the MNC is established in
the host country in order to support the company’s development and growth, (c) creation of
knowledge spillover and spin-off effects that benefit the economy of the host country, (d)
specific strategies to attract and retain FDI, including improvement and increased accessibility to
educational systems, and (e) changes in the educational system to attract MNCs.
Countries whose citizens do not have a basic formal quality education will have trouble
attracting MNCs, especially those focused on the production of “high-value added goods and
services” (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007, p. 9). Many developing countries are
making efforts to provide more education to their citizens with the assistance of international
organizations such as the OECD and, in some cases, according to Monge-Gonzáles and
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González-Alvarado (2007), based on global initiatives. Examples of global initiatives include the
Global Partnership for Education (World Bank, 2013a), Partnerships for Education and
Education for All (UNESCO, n.d.), and Global and Education Initiative (Cisco, n.d.). These
initiatives are interconnected as board members and/or partners are from corresponding agencies
and/or MNCs, such as the case with UNESCO’s associate partners, which include Cisco, Intel,
Microsoft, and the World Bank. This interconnection further demonstrates the influence that
MNCs have on educational policies. MNC influence is also seen through the resources that the
MNCs provide to the host country.
MNCs and Establishment in the Host Country
Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007) found that the influence of MNCs on
the educational system within the host country can vary depending on the type of business and
the business environment of the country. The outcomes may include internal training provided to
employees, support of formal education, and partnerships with universities within the host
country (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado (2007). Other common forms of support may
include donations of material and equipment, technical support, teacher training, support for
research and development institutions, and grants and awards for research and development
(Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Furthermore, Monge-Gonzales and Gonzalez-
Alvarado (2007) found that the host country may also make ongoing changes to educational
policy, such as allocating more resources or funding, as the result of the evolving needs of the
MNCs. In return, MNCs provide training to their employees to improve company performance,
which provides the host country a better-educated workforce (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-
Alvarado, 2007).
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The American Center for Partnerships (2014) contends that educational institutions
interested in fostering industry partnerships should identify an economic development problem
that is appropriate for a partnership; establish shared mission and goals; provide value for all the
players, students included; ensure that both parties have strong executive leadership, and identify
ways to track governance and accountability. These strategies were demonstrated in the
partnership between Intel and ITCR (2013d)
ITCR (2013d)) and Intel developed a partnership that supported Monge-Gonzáles and
González-Alvarado’s (2007) study and recommendations by the American Center for
Partnerships (2014). ITCR (2013d) and Intel created a formal agreement that provided a
framework for a cooperative relationship between the two organizations. According to the
information, (ITCR, 2013d), the agreement stated that Intel has an interest in supporting the
academic activities of ITCR and signed the agreement to formalize the general basis of
cooperation, which included research, development of high technology, professional training,
and sharing of results. Each organization also agreed to locate, negotiate, and/or provide funding
necessary for the activities. The agreement states that Intel and ITCR jointly would provide
resources necessary to execute the collaboration. A copy of the agreement is located in Appendix
A. The shared economic development problem, mission, goal, and value proposition was that
ITCR should educate students in technology because Intel needs workers with 21st-century skills
(ITCR, 2013d)
The World Bank (2012b) found that Intel also influenced the establishment of an English
language reinforcement program at ITCR as part of an overall effort to “increase the number of
graduates and their proficiency” (p. 22) in this area, among others. According to CINDE (2013a),
the program is funded by scholarships from CONARE (InglesCONARE, 2013) through a $21
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million appropriation for English and IT programs at the universities. The program is taught
though ITCR’s School of Language Science and provided 4-hour sessions based on 15 levels, in
addition to special courses such as pronunciation and communication for business
(InglesCONARE, 2013).
Knowledge Spillover and Transfer Effects
MNCs provide new technology to the host country, which can help domestic companies
to improve their performance, a process that Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007)
defined as spillover. According to Lindsey (1986), MNCs invest considerably in training local
workers and they provide more training to technical and administrative staff than do domestic
companies. Based on research by Monge-Gonzáles & Gonzalez-Alvarado (2007), spillover
occurs when trained workers leave an MNC to join a domestic firm or use the acquired
knowledge to start a new business, a process known as spin-off.
Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007) state that knowledge transfer occurs
when workers learn new knowledge through on-the-job training rather than formal labor training.
This knowledge can be transferred through MNC employee interactions with local suppliers. The
World Bank (1995) and Larrain et al. (2000) found that MNCs form partnerships with
educational institutions in the host country to create customized programs for on-the-job training.
Costa Rica upgraded its educational system in the early 1950s to prepare for changes in its
economic policies that ultimately led to MNCs establishing operations within the country
(Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado, 2007).
Strategies to Draw MNCs to Costa Rica
Costa Rica sought improvement of its educational system in the 1950s when it joined the
United Nations Education Science and Culture Organization (UNESCO, n.d.). Research by
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UNESCO (n.d.) indicated that the first technical team from UNESCO visited the country in the
early 1950s to study its educational system and subsequently recommended modifications to the
educational policy to incorporate the ideals of democracy, creation of technical programs as
another option for high school students interested in receiving training in production methods,
and development of a special program to train teachers who lacked a professional degree. The
team returned to assist with plans to upgrade Costa Rican high schools specifically within the
areas of science and mathematics. During the 1970s, UNESCO (n.d.) collaborated with the MEP
for teacher training and creation of laboratories for teaching science in educational institutions
while assisting with development of the National Plan for Educational Development. Eventually,
the improvements led in part to MNCs’ interest in investing in Costa Rica in the 1980s (Gvirtz &
Beech, 2008).
MNCs such as Abbott were attracted to Costa Rica in the 1980s due in part to the
outcome of UNESCO’s assistance, along with changes in the country’s economic and foreign
trade policies, the stable political environment, proximity to the United States, the overall quality
of life, and the literacy rate of the Costa Rican people (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). The Costa Rican
government recognized the need to advance the skill levels provided by its educational system in
order to continue to compete in the global economy. The Educational Policy Towards the XXI
Century, created by the MEP (2007a) in the mid-1990s, provided a framework for the
philosophical, pedagogical, and administrative goals and objectives for the MEP.
When Intel, a microprocessor company, began to discuss the possibility of opening a
manufacturing plant in Costa Rica in the mid-1990s, the company’s site selection team had
serious concerns regarding the number of mid-level technicians available in the country to
support its operations (World Bank, 2006). Nelson (2000) reported that, to address this issue,
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ITCR, in conjunction with the MEP, created a 1-year certificate program to qualify high school
graduates as technicians. According to Nelson (2000), ITCR and Intel also created an Associate
degree program for qualified graduates of technical high schools and graduates of the technician
certificate program who needed advanced training. The Costa Rican government agreed to
modify the curriculum, not just for Intel, but to strengthen ITCR and the technical skills of Costs
Rica’s workforce to ensure employment at any high-technology firm (Nelson, 2000). This
strategy worked, as Intel decided to build a plant in Costa Rica, which served as a draw for
additional high-technology MNCS (World Bank, 2006). However, based on research by the State
of the Nation (2011), as time went by, the schools were not able to provide enough educated
students, which resulted in a shortage of technical workers for high-technology MNCs.
Changes Once MNCs Are Established
Intel, one of the largest providers, offers support to the Costa Rican educational system
through monetary and equipment donations. The company opened its Costa Rican
microprocessor assembly and testing plant in 1997 (World Bank, 2006). Since that time, Intel
has supported skills development in the country through annual investments up to $1 million in
the national education system and equipment donations in the form of laboratories to technical
high schools and universities (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). The company’s
goal is to promote 21st-century skills through volunteer work and financial contributions (Intel,
n.d.).
Intel offers a variety of programs to the educational system to support learning.
According to Intel (n.d.), the most significant program is the Intel Teach Program, which trains
teachers to integrate technology into the classroom to promote 21st-century learning skills and
improve student learning. Because collaboration skills are such important soft skills in a global
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economy, part of Intel Teach is a course called Collaboration in the Classroom, which instructs
teachers on the importance of collaborative learning for their students and how to create a
collaborative classroom (Intel Teach, n.d.). The Intel Teach program is now required by the MEP
as professional development for all teachers (Intel Education, 2006). Intel claims that more than
one half of the K–12 teachers in Costa Rica have participated in Intel Teach since 2001 (Intel,
n.d.). Other programs include the annual Intel International Science and Engineering Fair and the
Intel Computer Club House, which provides access to two technology centers for 1,500 students
(Intel, n.d.). According to Intel (n.d.), higher education and technical education also benefit
through research project internships, visiting faculty programs, scholarships, and donations of
equipment and laboratories.
In contrast, Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007) determined that Microsoft
offers a reduced amount of support in the form of training, donations of licensing for older
versions of software, and discounts for the purchase of current software for elementary schools.
Microsoft, a Costa Rican MNC since 1995, offers Partners in Learning, a global initiative, that
comprises three programs: (a) Partners in Learning grants for software training and certification
of students and teachers; (b) Fresh Start for Donated Computers, which provides licensing for
older versions of Windows
®
to schools; and (c) the Agreement to the Subscription Licensing
Program, a discount software pricing program for elementary schools (Monge-Gonzales &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). As of 2006, 765,000 students, 10,500 teachers and 1,200 school
directors in Costa Rica have benefited from Microsoft’s programs (Monge-Gonzales &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007) that provide peer technology coaching, worldwide higher education
competition for software development, and video editing software training.
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Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007) state that Cisco provided the least
amount of support by offering students information technology (IT) training to have an educated
workforce for its division. Cisco, a leader in Internet network devices, created the Cisco
Networking Academy in 1999 to train students in skills needed for IT-related jobs and to earn
industry certifications (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). The Academy serves
public and private educational institutions with training provided to 6,834 students as of 2006
(Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). MNCs also provide on-the-job training, which,
according to Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007), results in workers transferring
knowledge through interactions with local suppliers.
Knowledge Transfer
Intel offers in-depth training to employees beginning with 40 hours of training on Intel’s
values followed by training that is part of a job training plan created by the employee and his or
her supervisor (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). The training may be on skills
needed to perform the job and may necessitate temporary relocation to Intel plants outside of the
country for up to 2 years (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Employees receive
ongoing training due to the rapid global changes in technology in the electronics sector, plus
additional training for transferred or promoted employees (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-
Alvarado, 2007).
Microsoft provides similar training opportunities as well. Microsoft Costa Rica provides
ongoing technological training to its employees and personnel of Microsoft-certified companies
through the Microsoft Consulting Services program. The program offers highly qualified
personnel to train employees and help companies to maximize their investment in Microsoft
technology (Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
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Cisco’s training is similar to that of Intel and Microsoft. Introductory training to
acclimate the employee is followed by an individual program of planned training. Ongoing
training is required of all Cisco employees due to the rapid changes in the technology sector
(Monge-Gonzales & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
All three MNCs need an educated workforce to establish operations in Costa Rica, which
influenced educational policy. Once invested in the country, the MNCs influenced the
educational system through training and educational partnerships, as well as through spin-offs
and knowledge transfer.
Discussion
The influence exerted by the MNCs is demonstrated through policy changes before and
after arrival in a foreign country. In Costa Rica’s case, policy changed gradually over the course
of 30 or more years with the help of UNESCO, which bears out the indirect influence of MNCs
through supranational organizations (Spring, 2008; Vaira, 2004). MNCs in Costa Rica appear to
provide a large of amount of money, equipment, curriculum, and other forms of support to the
educational system. Further research was needed to determine whether MNC support is affecting
current educational policy, whether MNC support is evident in school and universities, and
whether school leaders are reforming their schools in response to globalization and MNCs.
Leadership
Effective leadership involves more than management skills and is based on the ability to
use Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames to assess the structural, human resources, political,
and symbolic aspects of an organization. This section of the literature review discusses the
importance of effective leadership and how it is defined, the characteristics of second-order
change and how it ties to turnaround initiatives, and the structural, human resources, political,
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and symbolic frames developed by Bolman and Deal (2008) to examine the influence of
globalization and MNCs on educational leadership in Costa Rica.
Effective school leadership is essential for the reform of educational systems and
improving student learning outcomes. Increased demands for accountability, higher student
achievement levels, the need to produce students with a different skill set than in years before,
and improved efficiency require school leaders to be more than just managers (OECD, n.d.-a).
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), leadership differs from management, although a manager
can also be a leader. Bolman and Deal (2008) contend that managers focus on making the current
system work properly, while leaders are concerned with major systemic change because the
organization no longer serves its original purpose. Effective school leadership also involves the
ability to influence others.
Northouse (2010) defines effective school leadership as “a process whereby an individual
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 3). Leadership is also defined by
certain characteristics. Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2004) analyzed 70 studies to identify 21
areas of responsibility, such as creating a culture conducive to learning, being an effective
communicator, and acting as a change agent, all of which correlate with higher levels of student
achievement. However, studies by Waters et al. (2004) also indicated that two factors govern the
21 responsibilities: first-order and second-order change. First-order change is incremental and
represents the fine tuning of a process. First-order responsibilities can also be considered as
everyday tools used to manage a school and/or district. Second-order change is a deep change
that represents a significant redirection through a totally different way of thinking and is needed
to implement turnaround initiatives (Waters et al., 2004).
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Second-order change is associated with innovation and correlates with 7 of the 21
characteristics of an effective school leader (Waters et al., 2004) as follows:
1. Knowledge of curriculum, instruction and assessment: It is important for the
school leader to be knowledgeable about how innovations will impact these areas
and to provide visionary guidance.
2. Optimizer: The school leader is the driving force of new innovation and supports
the idea that it can produce exceptional results if the staff is willing to make an
effort.
3. Intellectual stimulation: The school leader has knowledge about the research and
theory of innovation and shares the knowledge with staff via readings and
discussions.
4. Change agent: The school leader is willing to implement innovation with no
guarantee that it will work.
5. Monitoring and evaluating: The school leader tracks the results of innovation and
measures and analyzes the results.
6. Flexibility: The school leader is comfortable with maintaining control over
innovation or giving control to another depending on the situation.
7. Ideals/beliefs: In relation to innovation, the school leader stays true to his or her
beliefs/ideals.
The seven characteristics of second-order change, which are based on innovation, also tie into
the ability of a leader to interpret and manage organizational challenges. Innovation requires the
skill to think about situations in new ways, which Bolman and Deal (2008) described as
reframing.
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Leadership Framework
Bolman and Deal (2008) state that an important characteristic of effective leadership is
the ability to think about situations in more than one way, which they referred to as “reframing”
(p. 12). The ability to reframe involves examining a situation through a “structural, human
resource, political, and/or symbolic lens or frame” to understand what is happening in an
organization and how to address the issues (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p. 20). Most managers do not
take this approach and, instead of admitting that they do not know what to do, end up doing what
is familiar to them. They rely on what they perceive to be the most correct answer, which can
result in pushback and confusion in the work place. This type of situation becomes a problem as
organizations continue to evolve in complexity due to technological, economic, and social
changes. As a result, short-sighted management and leadership cause dysfunctional
organizations. Framing provides mental maps to help managers to understand and navigate a
specific domain, which increases their chances of success within the organization. The frames
provide a method to filter information and pull together pieces of intuitive data together for rapid
comprehension (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Reframing or breaking frames is using the frames to redefine the situation in a totally
different way (Bolman & Deal, 2008). It allows a change in a point of view to arrive at a solution
to the problem, or in other words, to think creatively. Bolman and Deal (2008) state that the goal
of reframing is to develop effortless knowledge where decisions can be made quickly, easily, and
accurately rather than falling back on past behaviors and thought patterns. Leadership is
situational; different situations require different thinking patterns (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The
four frames developed by Bolman and Deal (2008) provided a lens to examine the influence of
globalization and MNCs on educational leadership in Costa Rica.
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Structural Frame
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the structural frame represents the skeleton of the
organization or the functions that act to hold the organization together and is used when
examining goals, roles and relationships, control and administration, or structural design of an
organization. Leaders using this frame are social architects with an eye on analysis and design
and look at structure, strategy, environment, implementation, experimentation, and adaptation
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). It is crucial to them that the appropriate people are in the appropriate
roles and relationships and that the right people are on the bus. Performance will suffer if the
allocation of work, accountability, and the coordination of efforts, along with the overall
structural design, does not meet the needs of the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008). New
policies and rules, and/or restructuring are used to solve organizational issues. Management style
is also a key part of the structural frame (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Part of a successful structural design is related to management style. Bolman and Deal
(2008) found that the old-fashioned top-down management style no longer works by itself in
complex settings due to the pressures of globalization, competition, technology,
customer/stakeholder expectations, and workforce dynamics. According to Bolman and Deal
(2008), effective organizations combine two structural frameworks for administration: (a)
vertical, which is the formal, authoritative, top-down, chain of command approach; and (b)
lateral, which involves flexible network systems (IT that allows communication within and
between organizations), meetings, committees, and coordinating roles and responsibilities.
However, the exact mix of the two structures is unique to the organization and depends on a
number of factors, such as the size and age of the organization, core process, environment,
strategy and goals, and information technology (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The structural frame
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was used to examine how educational leaders in Costa Rica have changed to meet 21st-century
skill demands and who is accountable for the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
Human Resources Frame
In contrast to the rules and regulations mode of the structural frame, Bolman and Deal
(2008) found that the human resources frame is more fluid because it deals with relationships
and people. The human resources frame evaluates the relationship between people and
organizations to determine the fit between the two. If the fit is aligned with the needs of both
parties, then the individuals are satisfied through meaningful work and organizations have the
necessary talent and drive. When the fit is poor, the individuals are not productive, which affects
overall performance. Furthermore, Bolman and Deal (2008) state that the leader who uses the
human resource frames seeks alignment through empowerment, increasing participation,
providing support, sharing information, and propelling decision making into the organization.
The emphasis is on creating an environment that cultivates a “talented, motivated, loyal and free
spirited workforce” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p. 141).
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), two of the basic human resource strategies to
create such an environment is hiring the right people and investing in workforce training. Simon
(1996) found that hiring the right people resulted in little employee turnover with the exception
of new hires. Simon (1996) determined that new employees either left or were terminated shortly
after being hired upon determination that the position was not a good fit for either one or both
parties. In addition, Simon’s (1996) research showed that organizations that invest in workforce
training see an improvement in the quality of work and reductions in mistakes and overall costs.
Organizational performance can be improved by professional development and training.
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Bolman and Deal (2008) assert that leaders should understand the importance of hiring
the right people for the job and providing training or professional development. Darling-
Hammond (2006) found that, with the ever-increasing standards for learning and the need for
students to graduate with greater knowledge and skills, teachers are crucial to the success of
student learning. In addition, Darling-Hammond (2006) state that teachers are under pressure to
be effective in providing instruction of complex material to a much more diverse group of
students. In past years, teachers had to educate only a small percentage of students for rigorous
academic work. Now they are expected to prepare almost all of their students for higher-level
thinking and 21st-century skills (Darling-Hammond, 2006). The human resources frame will be
used to examine how the expectations of hiring and training of teachers in Costa Rica have
changed as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs.
Political Frame
The political frame overlaps with the human resources frame in that it deals with people
but from a different perspective. Politics are in every organization and is used in relation to
power. Bolman and Deal (2008) contend that politics are at the heart of decision making in
organizations for several reasons. From a political frame point of view, Bolman and Deal (2008)
found that organizations are an amalgamation of people and interest groups, which results in a
variety of lasting values, beliefs, interests, and viewpoints of reality. Since the most crucial
decisions are usually related to the use of limited resources and individuals may have differing
options about the use of those resources, Bolman and Deal (2008) maintain that conflict is
inevitable. Power becomes a valuable attribute in the decision-making process according to
Bolman and Deal (2008), with stakeholders bargaining and negotiating to protect their interests.
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Bolman and Deal (2008) postulate that most organizations are political because of the
formation of alliances with internal members who have common interests and the belief that they
can do more together than individually. The level of politics increases in organizations where
there is diversity in principles, ideals, and culture. Scarce resources increase conflicts, resulting
in games of power and self-interest (Bolman & Deal, 1992). Pfeffer (1992) defines power as the
potential ability to influence behavior, to change the course of the events, to overcome
resistance, and to get people to do things they would not otherwise do.
Bolman and Deal (2008) state that the political frame identifies many sources of power:
position power (authority), control of rewards (providing something in return), coercive power
(power of force through blocking or punishment), information and expertise (problem-solving
knowledge), reputation (built on expertise), personal power (charisma), alliances and networks
(working through individuals and groups), access and control of agendas (access to decision
arenas, which is a byproduct of networks and alliance), and framing to control meaning and
symbols (the ability to frame an issue so that others buy into it. Kotter (1985) found that
management occupies the position of power but that power alone is not enough to accomplish
the job. Understanding the other sources of power and the ability to utilize them gets results.
Bolman and Deal (2008) define acumen in a political leader as awareness of the origins
of politics in the organization and the ability to delineate what is wanted and what can be
obtained. The political leader gauges the distribution of power and interest and builds
connections with key stakeholders. To obtain a scarce resource, the political leader uses
persuasion first, followed by negotiation, then as a last resort, coercion (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Aside from internal politics, organizations as an entity must perform as political agents
on a bigger stage. Companies are subject to the demands placed by external stakeholders and
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must develop the same skills as political managers, such as developing a plan, assessing the
environment, managing relationships, and handling negotiations (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Large, powerful organizations exert their power in the societal ecosystem where business,
government and the public dwell (Bolman & Deal, 2008). According to Longworth (1996), of
the 100 largest economies in the world, only 49 are countries; the rest are corporations.
According to Longworth (1996), it took more than 60 companies to equal 20% of the American
economy in 1954. In 2005, it only took 20 companies to equal that percentage (Longworth,
1996). This demonstrates the concentrated economic power held by a few corporations. Fishman
(2006) pointed out that the people who lead just 20 companies are influencing one fifth of the
U.S. economy. However, Bolman and Deal (2008) note that, while large MNCs have immense
power, they still must deal with the demands of political entities, such as governments, labor
union, investors, and consumers.
The political frame was used to analyze how educational leadership has changed due to
the political influence of MNCs in Costa Rica. MNCs exert political influence in Costa Rica due
to the FDI generated in the country. Costa Rica has some leverage as the host country but the
power resides mainly with the MNCs.
Symbolic Frame
Bolman and Deal (2008) state that the symbolic frame focuses on the tribal perspective of
an organization and its various symbols, institutional identity, and culture. Bolman and Deal
(2008) found that symbols are reflected in a variety of ways, such as through myths, vision, and
values. Myths typically formulate from the origins of how an organization got started. For
example, Southwest Airlines got its start as an idea sketched out on a cocktail napkin (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). The airline’s reputation as having unconventional methods of operation, such as
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having flight attendants who perform comedy routines, which, according to Bolman and Deal
(2008) continues to shape its culture. Furthermore, Bolman and Deal (2008) contend that myths
provide the foundation for an organization’s values, while values are what the organization
stands for and lives, whether or not reflected in its mission statement. Vision transforms an
organization’s core beliefs into future possibilities. It conceptualizes what can be accomplished
and when shared, represents the organization’s spirit, panache and determination (Bolman &
Deal, 2008).
Rituals and ceremonies, according to Bolman and Deal (2008), are symbolic acts that
provide order, clarity, and predictability. Rituals are performed every day whereas ceremonies
are performed in recognition of a special event or transition and serve to socialize, stabilize,
reassure, and communicate (Bolman & Deal, 2008). When handled correctly, rituals and
ceremonies deepen the connection among those within an organization. Otherwise, Bolman and
Deal (2008) state that symbolism can become meaningless and destroy the faith in its
representation.
Bolman and Deal (2008) assert that organizational culture develops as the result of
beliefs, values, and customs (rituals and ceremonies). A leader who recognizes the influence of
the symbols that are pertinent to the organization can use that influence to create a stronger, more
tightly connected organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The symbolic frame was used to evaluate
the culture of Costa Rican schools though the leaders’ communication of the goals and vision of
the school to teachers and students.
According to Bolman and Deal (1992), it is important to note that national boundaries
influence leadership style. What works in one country may not work in another country.
Effective leadership style can vary, depending on the level of the educational institution. Because
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of the central role of symbols and culture in K–12 schools, effectiveness as a manager and leader
overlaps more for school principals than for managers in business or higher education (Bolman
& Deal, 1992).
Discussion
Globalization is impacting education and as a result, school leaders need to effect change
in order to keep up with the rapid changes in technology and the needs of a knowledge economy.
The implementation of 21st-century skills in Costa Rica will require leaders who possess second-
order change traits and who are skilled in reframing to understand what is happening in an
organization and how to address the issues.
The Global Achievement Gap and 21st-Century Skills
According to Wagner (2008), the three transformations that have had a significant impact
on education are fast-paced development of the knowledge economy, the amount of information
flow, and the connective nature of media and technology. These transformations have
contributed to a “global achievement gap” (Wagner, 2008, p. 9), where many students,
domestically and internationally, are not learning the skills that they need for employment in the
21st century. First-time employees entering the workforce in the United States are less educated
than first-time employees in other countries (Wagner, 2008). High school graduation rates are
also lower in the United States and, of those who graduate, less than half have the skills needed
for college or for jobs that pay more than minimum wage (Wagner, 2008). This is partially due
to the fact that, according to Wagner (2008), the American public school system, including the
curriculum, teaching methods, and testing, were developed in the industrial age for entirely
different needs than the requirements of the 21st-century economy.
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Wagner (2008) found that concerned parents and educators, recognizing the need for
change, spearheaded educational reform in the United States with the back-to-basics movement
in the 1970s. However, Wagner (2008) states there was little improvement as SAT scores were
steadily declining by the 1980s. Wagner (2008) also stated that, with the 1983 publication of A
Nation at Risk, the standards movement evolved in the 1990s as an effort to make schools and
educators more responsible for outcomes. In addition, Wagner (2008) contends that legislators
and stakeholders decided that accountability and progress were still lacking and raised the bar
with the implementation of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2001. Unfortunately, based on
available test score data, NCLB has not resulted in student achievement (Wagner, 2008). NCLB
has resulted in ever-increasing pressure on educators to make adequate yearly progress on high-
stakes standardized tests, thereby creating a culture of teaching to the test rather than teaching
critical thinking and other skills that are necessary in today’s world (Wagner, 2008).
In an effort to ensure that American students can compete in a global economy, Common
Core Standards were adopted in 2010 by 45 states, the District of Columbia, four territories, and
the Department of Defense Education Activity (Common Core Standards Initiative, 2012b). The
Common Core State Standards Initiative is a state-led resolution to create a national uniform set
of educational standards in English language arts and mathematics for students in Grades K–12
(Common Core Standards Initiative, 2012b). The standards provide a clear explanation of what
should be taught and what knowledge students should be able to demonstrate. For example,
according to the Common Core Standards in mathematics, as part of operations and algebraic
thinking for second grade, students should be able to solve addition and subtraction problems,
add and subtract within 20, and have a basic understanding of how to multiply even numbers
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(Common Core Standards Initiative, 2012a). The goal of the standards is to provide high school
graduates with the skills and knowledge they need to compete in a global economy.
Critics of the Common Core State Standards Initiative maintain that the promotion of
common curriculum, both nationally and internationally, focuses on an outdated model of
“cookie cutter” learning and production of students who are good at taking tests rather than
students who are creative entrepreneurial thinkers (Zhao, 2013). Wagner (2008, p. 14) states that
the focus should be on “Seven Survival Skills for the 21st century: critical thinking and problem
solving; collaboration across networks and leading by influence; agility and adaptability;
initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communications; accessing and
analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.” Wagner (2008) describes these skills as
work, learning, and citizenship skills necessary to succeed in the 21st century.
In particular, Wagner (2008) cites collaboration as an important skill in the global
economy. Aside from the typical collaborative classroom activities such as group projects,
Wagner (2008) found that educational leaders should make “horizontal collaborative tools”
(p. 329) an integral part of the curriculum and educational process. An example of horizontal
collaborative tools is curriculum from the various courses and departments within an educational
institution that can be mixed and matched to produce a combination of knowledge and to give
students a wide variety of “skills and learning experiences in order to succeed in a global
economy ” (Wagner, 2008, pp. 327-328). Furthermore, Wagner (2008) determined that
horizontal collaboration tools and collaborative concepts must be integrated into the entire
educational process in order to operate from the “flat-world platform” (p. 329) where technology
allows remote connections from anyway in the world. Wagner (2008) also discussed the “Flat
Classroom Project” (http://www.flatclassroomproject.wikispaces.com) (p. 502), where high
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school classes from various countries are paired to create wiki pages based on one of the 10
forces that flattened the world. The project provides students with a variety of learning
experiences related to collaboration and digital media.
Common Core Standards
There has been much discussion regarding the skills needed by students in the 21st
century. Based on research by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21, 2012). The term 21st-
century skills evolved from the attempt to provide understanding and definition of the knowledge
and skills that students should possess in the global economy. While there is debate about the
definition, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21, 2012), a national organization that
promotes 21st-century preparedness for K–12 students, provides a framework that educators can
use to integrate the skills into the classroom in conjunction with Common Core State Initiative
Standards (2012c). P21 (2012) emphasizes three Rs core subjects (reading, writing, and
arithmetic) and 21st-century themes (such as global awareness, civic and environmental literacy)
in conjunction with the 4Cs learning and innovation skills (critical thinking and problem solving,
communication, collaboration, and creativity and innovation). Life and career skills and
information and media and technology skills are also part of the framework. P21 (2012) provides
a framework that calls for 21st-century standards, assessments, curriculum, instruction,
professional development, and learning environments to produce 21st-century outcomes for
today’s students. Figure 1 shows the foundation to support 21st-century skills and outcomes.
Based on research by Mansilla and Jackson (2011), concerns about 21st-century skills,
accountability, and outcomes are not unique to the United States. According to Mansilla and
Jackson (2011), foreign countries strive for a better-educated workforce resulting in the creation
of initiatives to blend 21st-century skills and international understanding into school curricula.
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Mansilla and Jackson (2011) cite the Maastrich Global Education Declaration in which
representatives of the European Council promoted global education designed to “open people’s
eyes and minds to the realities of the world and awaken them to bring about a world of greater
justice, equity, and human rights for all” (p. 8).

Figure 1. Twenty-first-century student outcomes and support systems
Source: Framework for 21st Century Skills, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2012,
retrieved from http://222.p21.org/overview/skills-framework
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There are numerous partnerships throughout Europe that integrate global development
issues into the formal curriculum while linking schools internationally. Mansilla and Jackson
(2011) provides examples of partnerships with schools in China and India that prepare students
for the real demands of the world, from studying abroad to engaging in sustainable development,
corporate social responsibility, and economy and finances. Mansilla and Jackson (2011) also cite
India’s National Curriculum Framework for School Education, which calls for a school
curriculum that promotes national identity and unity but also strives to increase awareness of the
need to promote peace and understanding between nations for the prosperity of all.
According to Anderson and the International Institute for Educational Planning (2005),
accountability is a global issue as well. For example, research by Anderson and the International
Institute for Educational Planning (2005) shows that England has a national curriculum
supported by assessments and measures for rating schools while France, Hong Kong, China,
Japan, and others use national assessments to measure student and school progress. Many
European systems use examinations to determine student progression to the next level of
education. All of these systems have clear definitions of what students are expected to learn and
the required level of performance. The examinations are used to make data-driven decisions
regarding changes to the system (Anderson and the International Institute for Educational
Planning, 2005).
International Testing and Costa Rica
Internationally, student progress by country is measured by the OECD (n.d.-b) in the
form of PISA, an assessment that measures 15-year-old students’ reading, mathematics, and
science literacy. PISA also measures the extent to which students demonstrate critical thinking
through application of their knowledge to real-life situations (OECD, n.d.-b). The test is
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conducted every 3 years in participating countries to provide governments with data as a
powerful tool to shape their policy making (OECD, n.d.-b).
While Costa Rica is not a member of the OECD, it participates in PISA, along with other
Latin American countries. Costa Rica and nine partner countries were not able to meet the 2009
project timeframe, so they participated in PISA 2009+, which covered the same topics as PISA
2009 on a delayed timeline (Australian Council for Education Research [ACER], 2011). Costa
Rica had some of the highest PISA scores among Latin American countries but ranked lower
than most OECD countries. According to the Australian Council for Education Research (2011),
students in Costa Rica attained an average score on the PISA reading literacy scale that was the
same as only one OECD country, Chile, and was considerably higher than that of one other
country, Mexico. The average reading score for Costa Rica was statistically the same as those for
Bulgaria, Malta, and Serbia (ACER, 2011). Only 67% of students in Costa Rica were estimated
to have a proficiency in reading literacy at or above the minimum needed for global competency
compared to an average of 81% in the OECD countries (ACER, 2011).
Furthermore, the Australian Council for Educational Research (2011), maintains that
Costa Rican students attained an average score on the mathematical literacy scale below the
average attained in all OECD countries: mathematics scores showed that 43% of students in
Costa Rica were proficient enough to use mathematics in ways considered crucial for their future
development compared to the average of 75% in the OECD countries; science scores
demonstrated that 61% of Costa Rican students were proficient enough to allow them to
participate actively in life situations related to science and technology compared to an average of
82% in the OECD countries.
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The PISA scores for Costa Rica are significant because they demonstrate how students
perform against other countries who already dominate the global economy. In addition, the
scores provide a measure of the core competency skills needed as part of the P21 skills and in
support of the seven survival skills outlined by Wagner (2008). One survival skill that, up to this
point, has not been measured as part of PISA is collaboration. Starting in 2015, collaboration
skills will be part of PISA testing (ATC21S, 2009-2014). Therefore, collaboration skills should
become more of an emphasis in classrooms in Costa Rica to help students round out their 21st-
century skills.
Universities in Costa Rica have recognized the increased need for collaborative skills in
order for their students to compete in the global economy. Research conducted by Quesada
Pacheco (2011) at the University of Costa Rica in conjunction with the University of Kansas
resulted in the publication of e-learning strategies to promote collaborative skills for university
students. ITCR (2013e) provides professional development training to faculty through CEDA
that includes training on collaborative learning strategies while students are assigned group
projects as part of the collaborative learning process (ITCR, 2013f).
Status of Education in Costa Rica
Although education in Costa Rica has improved over the past few years, it is still not
keeping pace with the needs of the knowledge economy. Based on research by State of the
Nation (2011), underlying causes include poor school infrastructures that affect the learning
environment, high rates of repeating grades or dropping out, lack of communication between
high schools and vocational schools, outdated curriculum, a lack of standardized programs in
education, and no uniform hiring standards for teachers. The slow reform of the complex,
bureaucratic MEP, which oversees schools in Costa Rica, has hampered progress to improve the
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system (State of the Nation, 2011). As a result, the State of the Nation (2011) contends that Costa
Rica lacks an adequate highly skilled workforce.
Demographics are also affecting education in Costa Rica, according to State of the Nation
(2011) with some 50% of the adolescent population who does not attend school (due to lack of
access) and those who do attend do not always stay in school. Furthermore, State of the Nation
(2011) asserts that in 2009, only 40% of students ages 17–21 graduated while students who do
not drop out are in danger of failing. According to State of the Nation (2011), data from 2009
show that 1 in 5 students failed a grade. Many of the problems related to dropping out or failing
are similar to those in the United States, such as low socioeconomic status, low parental
education levels, and lack of access to quality education. Another issue, which is unique to Costa
Rica, is the belief by many Costa Rican parents that a ninth-grade education is an adequate
education for their children (State of the Nation, 2011).
Tsui and Tollefson (2008) found that English is a literacy skill needed to compete in the
global economy. However, only 10% of the population in Costa Rica is conversant in English
(State of the Nation, 2011). According to State of the Nation (2011), based on a study conducted
in 2008, only 11% of high school graduates had an intermediate to advanced level of English,
while 65% had only basic proficiency. State of the Nation (2011) found that not enough time was
allocated to teaching English skills in the classroom. Furthermore, according to State of the
Nation (2011), language lessons should be taught 5 days a week for 40 minutes each session;
however, most grade schools and middle schools teach English only three times a week, due to a
lack of time or classrooms. At the high school level, experimental bilingual high schools, which
represent 17% of the high schools in the country, offer 10 hours of English language instruction
per week (State of the Nation, 2011).
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Research by CINDE (2013a) showed that, in an effort to improve English language skills,
the MEP created an English as a Second Language program for K–12 schools. The National
English Plan “Costa Rica Multilingual” was developed to meet the needs of MNCs for workers
with bilingual English skills; it consisted of “review and implementation of programs and
educational methodologies; teacher training and education; training programs at all levels for
students and professionals, and professional certifications” (CINDE, 2013a, p. 4).
According to CINDE (2013a), the plan was based on the Common European Framework
(CEF) for the establishment of goals related to comprehension as follows: “The C1 level
graduate is considered a competent user;” a B2 level graduate “understands the main ideas of
complex text and communicates with relative ease and spontaneity”; and a B1 level graduate
“comprehends the main ideas of information in standard language,” (p. 4). The goal of the
program is to have 100% of high school graduates reach all levels by 2017 (CINDE, 2013a).
State of the Nation (2011) found that 21st-century skills were generally lacking in Costa
Rican schools. Adamson and Darling-Hammond (2012) state that, in order to improve 21st-
century skills, Costa Rica is now participating in a pilot project for Latin America: the
Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills developed by Cisco, Intel and Microsoft and
funded by Inter-American Development Bank (ATC21S, 2009–2014). The first part of the pilot
project involved training and developing new and inservice teachers with regard to 21st-century
skills, followed by the development of new teaching practices (Adamson & Darling-Hammond,
2012).
Another important skill within the 21st-century skills set is collaboration. Jenkins (2006)
advances that collaboration in the 21st century is intertwined with use of technology and media
literacy skills. Jenkins (2006) found that media skills should be viewed as “social skills and a
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way of interacting with the larger community” (p. 21). Furthermore, Jenkins (2006) found that
schools still teach students to think and act singularly, while the workplace requires the ability to
“work in teams, drawing of different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problems”
(p. 22). Educational leaders in Costa Rica recognized these issues and used ATC21S to revamp
some of its K–12 curriculum to include information and communications technology literacy and
collaborative problem solving as part of the learning process (Adamson & Darling-Hammond,
2012). Collaboration is part of the ATC21S framework and is considered by Wagner (2008) to
be one of the seven survival skills that he calls “collaboration across networks and leading by
influence” (p. 24). Wagner (2008) furthered stated that “the skillfulness of individuals working
with networks of people across boundaries and from different cultures has become an essential
prerequisite for a growing number of multinational corporations” (p. 24).
Despite the need for information and communications technology literacy skills, many
schools are lacking equipment or instruction. State of the Nation (2011) indicated that, as of
2009, computer equipment was available in 35.7% of primary schools and in 60.5% of middle
schools and high schools. On average, 60.5% of the schools in the central, more urban areas had
equipment, while less than 40% of the schools in the rural areas had equipment (State of the
Nation, 2011). Colleges have access to equipment, but many do not offer a sufficient number of
technology courses, according to State of the Nation (2011). Out of 45 universities reviewed,
19% did not offer a single technology course and 72% offered three or fewer courses; the
remaining universities offered of four or more courses (State of the Nation, 2011). In addition,
the State of the Nation (2011) pointed out that there were not enough doctorates granted in the
areas of mathematics and science, both of which are crucial for research and development.
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The OECD (2012a) asserts that Costa Rica has a shortage of PhDs in the scientific and
engineering fields with a need to “increase the quality and quantity of the skilled labour force
(especially in science, engineering and design)” (p. 25). Based on data from the OECD (2012a),
Costa Rica was successful in attracting a high-technology industry cluster but now needs to plan
for new technological trends, including information and communications technology,
biotechnology, and nanotechnology. OECD (2012a) also cited the influence of China as a trade
partner in Latin America and “production unbundling and delocalization of corporate activities”
(p. 51). Part of delocalization is the offshoring of research and development, and design—two
areas that are weak in Costa Rica due to the lack of PhDs in scientific and engineering fields and
the low amount of government/private investment (OECD, 2012a).
OECD (2012a) found that ITCR offers STEM-related degrees but does not currently have
a PhD program in engineering or electronics. According to the OECD (2012a), ITCR plans to
offer a PhD in software engineering and the University of Costa Rica will offer a PhD in
computer science. The OECD (2012a) states that, while the universities plan to offer two new
PhD programs in 2014, Costa Rica needs to make science and technology training a priority for
technical schools and universities. However, increased technology training is coming to higher
education with the help of additional funding.
The World Bank (2012b) recently loaned $200 million to Costa Rica as part of the
Improving Higher Education in Costa Rica project. The funds will be used to improve the
scientific, technological, and academic abilities of the four public universities in the country
which includes ITCR. According to the World Bank (2012b),
the funds will help those universities invest in infrastructure, equipment and human
resources, accommodate more undergraduate and graduate students, increase the number
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of accredited university degrees and strengthen their innovation, scientific and
technological development programs. The ITCR (TEC) has designed a US$57.7 million
institutional improvement plan (US$50million from the loan and US$7.7 million in own
resources) that includes the construction and equipment of student residence halls,
laboratories, academic units, libraries and student services. It will invest in infrastructure
and equipment to create several engineering program among others, offering doctorate
scholarships to its professors. The ITCR (TEC) plan will increase the number of
registered students by 14.5 percent, increase the number of accredited university degrees
from 12 to 17 and foster technological innovation in engineering study plans (n.p.).
In addition, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the Ministry of Science
and Technology are working together to “align the country’s human capital with production
development needs,” (OECD, 2012a, p. 25). The IADB plans to finance “training improvements
in priority areas laid out by the national innovation strategy as well as to provide incentives for
the reconversion of technical professionals specializing in low priority areas” (OECD, 2012a, p.
25).
The lack of an adequately skilled workforce to meet the needs of MNCs in Costa Rica is
evident. According to research by Monger-Gonzáles and González-Alvarado (2007), MNCs in
Costa Rica found employees’ performance lacking in the areas of problem solving, scientific and
mathematic skills, business administration skills, and foreign language skills.
Summary of the Literature Review
Costa Rica has increased its educational standards over the years but is still lagging in
comparison to OECD member countries. This is significant if the country plans to keep pace
with the knowledge economy. Costa Rica is moving from an agricultural-based economy to an
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economy in which wealth depends on knowledge and skills, also known as the knowledge
economy. The transition requires a flexible, educated workforce that directly impacts Costa
Rica’s educational system and its leadership.
This study was a qualitative research project to determine the impact of globalization and
MNCs on schools and universities in Costa Rica and the implications for school leaders. The
literature review provided a broad overview of globalization and MNCs and the impact on
educational policy to establish a context in which to examine what is happening in Costa Rica.
The review identified three theoretical frameworks for use in the analysis: Spring (2008) for
globalization, Wagner (2008) for 21st-century skills, and Bolman and Deal (2008) for leadership.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Globalization and MNCs have affected Costa Rica’s economy and the country’s
educational system. Globalization became a reality for Costa Rica due to the fiscal crisis of the
1980s (OECD, 2012a). In order to survive and compete in an evolving global market, the
government created a new economic strategic plan to attract wealth-generating high-technology
FDI. The growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this
small Central American country. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the demand for workers
with 21st-century skills has increased. However, it has become increasingly challenging for the
school and university systems to help students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-
century skills. Despite five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate,
there remains a low secondary graduation rate and pursuit of higher education in Costa Rica
(CINDE, 2011).
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in the development and
implementation of policy changes in major national education initiatives. The study determined
whether these initiatives are helping to produce greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers as
an outcome of the education system. The study was guided by three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
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3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Overview of the Methodology
This study constituted qualitative applied research. Merriam (2009) states that qualitative
research work is used to improve a situation or process in which the researcher is focused on
discovering the significance of the phenomenon rather than using empirical data for analysis.
According to Maxwell (2013), five goals are suited for qualitative research: (a) understanding
how research participants derive meaning from the circumstances or events related to the study,
(b) understanding the conditions influencing the participants or the circumstances that
participants are involved in as part of the study, (c) understanding the methods by which
occurrences and deeds take place, (d) recognizing unplanned phenomena and the affects, and
developing new grounded theory (theory that is developed from factual reasoning), and (e)
developing casual explanations.
This research project touches on Maxwell’s (2013) goals as explained in the purpose of
the study, which was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools and
universities in Costa Rica and the implications for educational leaders. The literature review
provided context for understanding the conditions influencing the participants and understanding
the methods by which the occurrences take place. The field work provided an opportunity to
understand how the research participants derive meaning form the events related to the study.
The report of the findings and causal explanations are reported in Chapter 4. The implications for
practice are reported in Chapter 5.
Merriam (2009) suggests that qualitative research has certain characteristics, such as a
focus on the meaning and understanding of how people make sense of their experiences, and that
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the researcher is the primary instrument for collecting and analyzing data. Qualitative research is
an inductive process in which the researcher collects data to develop a hypothesis, rather than
testing a hypothesis through empirical research. The outcome of qualitative research is rich,
descriptive data that uses words and images rather than numbers to convey what the researcher
has uncovered (Maxwell, 2013).
Creswell (2009) states that different approaches to qualitative research include narrative
(stories), phenomenology (understanding the experience), grounded theory (identifying themes
and patterns, ethnography (culture), and case study. A case study is characterized by an in-depth
analysis and description of a bounded system, which Merriam (2009) defines as a single entity of
some type being studied, such as a program, group or institution, which is finite. This research
project is defined as a qualitative case study in that the research was conducted by dissertation
team students (the primary instrument for data collection and analysis) at a K–12 school or
institution of higher education, a government agency, and one MNC in order to triangulate the
data and develop a rich description of observations for analysis of patterns and trends.
Maxwell (2013) suggests the use of a conceptual framework in order to have a contingent
theory related to the research topic and as a basis for analysis. The theory helps with the
development of the research goals and questions, the selection of appropriate research methods,
the identification of potential validity threats to the study, and justification for the research
(Maxwell, 2013). The research team identified three conceptual frameworks for use in this
project: research on globalization and education (Spring, 2008), 21st-century learning skills
(P21, 2012), and leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
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The Research Team
The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante from the University of Southern
California (USC) Rossier School of Education. The dissertation group was comprised of 12
doctoral students, with Dr. Escalante as the lead researcher and the supervisor for the study. The
research team began meeting in the fall of 2012 and was divided into three groups by area of
study: higher education, secondary education (Grades 7–12), and primary education (Grades 1–
6). The research team contributed to the literature review database, designed the topic outline of
the dissertation, and created the data collection instruments. The team also worked on the
logistics for the first-ever combined international trip and dissertation project for the Rossier
School of Education. As a result of the many group aspects of the thematic process, there may be
similarities in the dissertations.
Dr. Escalante and the research team used purposeful selection, which Maxwell (2013)
defines as a deliberate choice of participants, activities, and/or locations in support of the goals
of the study, to determine the participants and locations. A team of four of the student
researchers developed contacts in Costa Rica through email, letters, telephone contacts, and in-
person meetings. The contact team was responsible for planning and executing an exploratory
trip to Costa Rica in March 2013. The purpose of the trip was to meet with Costa Rican
government, corporate, and educational leaders prior to the data collection trip that occurred in
June 2013. The contact team sent a letter to Leonardo Garnier, the Minister of Education, to
request an initial meeting (Appendix B).
The contact team and Dr. Escalante met with the former President of the Costa Rica, the
Minister of Education, the Dean of the College of Education and the Director of Education
Research for UCR, the Director of CINDE, the Director of Educational Programs at Intel, the
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Director of the Free Trade Zone Business Association, the Director of CRUSA (Costa Rica-
United States of America), and the lead researcher and author of Estado de la Nacion. Informal
interviews were conducted to provide an initial perspective on how the government, corporate,
and educational leaders viewed the impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rican society,
schools and universities, and educational leadership.
The selection of the participants for the June 2013 trip was based on the availability of
the established contacts and snowball sampling of referrals from the contacts. According to
Merriam (2009), snowball sampling is the most typical form of purposeful sampling because it
can quickly increase the number of participants as more referrals are made.
Participants
Due to the relationship established with Intel through the Director of Educational
Programs, Intel was the MNC selected to be part of this study, along with schools and
universities that received Intel support. The research team students who are in the higher
education group visited two of the five public universities in Costa Rica: UCR and Instituto
Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR). Each student in the higher education group selected a
specific department within the university that had a relationship with Intel. For the purpose of the
study, the student researcher visited the School of Computer Engineering at ITCR. ITCR was
founded in 1971 under the Constitutional law in Costa Rica to conduct technology-based
research and teaching (ITCR, 2013a). The School of Computer Engineering offers three types of
bachelor’s degrees: computer engineering, information technology management, and engineering
in computing, and two types of master’s degrees: computing and project management (ITCR,
2013f). Master Freddy Ramirez Mora was the director of the School of Computer Engineering.
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The population of the university included the department director and the faculty from material
science and computer engineering.
Because of limited data collection time (5 business days) in Costa Rica, the research team
confirmed in advance all dates and times to meet with participants to conduct interviews,
surveys, and observations, as well as to review artifacts.
The identities of the surveyed participants were protected as the qualitative study was
conducted. Collected data were kept secure in a locked location in the lead researcher’s office.
Instrumentation
The dissertation team selected a qualitative research project based on the findings of the
literature review and the development of the research questions. The study was conducted using
fieldwork in Costa Rica comprised of a review of artifacts, interviews, observations, and surveys
as instrumentation for data collection. Data were collected from a variety of sources for
triangulation which, according to Maxwell (2013), lessens the risk of bias and accidental
associations related to a particular data collection method. Student researchers from the
dissertation team worked with a selected group of governmental, industry, and educational
leaders from K–12 schools and universities to determine how they viewed the impact of
globalization and MNCs on Costa Rican society, schools and universities, and educational
leadership.
The instrumentation was based on three frameworks. Spring (2008) was used to
determine via interviews whether participants viewed the results of globalization and the
presence of MNCs from a world culture, world systems, postcolonialist, or culturalist
perspective. Wagner’s (2008) seven critical skills and abilities (critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration and leading, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism,
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effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity
and imagination) was used to determine how participants considered the results of globalization
and the presence of MNCs corporations in schools and universities in Costa Rica. This was
determined via interviews, surveys, observations and artifacts. Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
political, structural, human resources, and symbolic frames were used to determine how
participants consider educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy decisions as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs. This was determined via interviews and
surveys.
The survey method (which included an email survey and interviews) was chosen for this
research project because it was the best method to collect information directly from participants
about their beliefs, knowledge, and cognition (Fink, 2013). The research team developed a one-
time self-administered survey using a Likert-type scale for distribution to a small selection of
faculty within the organization. The survey was used for research rather than to meet policy or
program needs or as an evaluation of a program (Fink, 2013).
A pilot survey ensured that the actual survey and interview questions were practical and
provided the information needed for the project. According to Fink (2013), a self-administered
survey should be clearly written so respondents can comprehend directions and answer the
survey questions. Pilot tests can also be used to determine how long it will take a respondent to
complete the survey/interview questions and will improve the response rate through elimination
of unclear questions (Fink, 2013). A copy of the survey is in Appendix C. Each participant
received a recruitment/consent letter to be signed and returned prior to the completing the
survey. The recruitment/consent letter is in Appendix D.
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Student researchers asked semi-structured, open-ended questions of selected
governmental, industry, and educational leaders from K–12 schools and universities to determine
how they view the impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rican society, schools and
universities, and educational leadership. Semi-structured questioning allowed the researchers
flexibility while providing the ability to capture the viewpoints of the respondents and perhaps
new ideas on the research topic. Interviewing is the most effective technique for data collection
when conducting in-depth case studies of only a few chosen individuals (Maxwell, 2013). The
dissertation team designed interview protocols for school site leaders (Appendix E), for
government leaders (Appendix F), and for corporate leaders (Appendix G).
According to Merriam (2009), observation is an essential method for collecting data for a
qualitative research project. It is a means to obtain a personal account of the phenomenon being
studied and, together with interviews and the examination of documents, provides a well-
rounded analysis of the topic. However, because the researcher cannot help but be somewhat of a
participant and observer, the situation may be subject to distortion because it is occurring under
conditions outside of a controlled environment such as a laboratory (Merriam, 2009). The
dissertation team developed an observation protocol (Appendix H) based on the checklist of
elements provided by Merriam (2009): (a) physical setting, (b) participants, (c) activities and
interactions, (d) conversations, (e) subtle factors, and (f) the researcher’s own behavior.
Maxwell (2013) recommends using multiple data collection methods or mixed methods
to triangulate the data. However, since this project was a qualitative study, data were collected
through the use of a survey and interviews, observations, and examination of artifacts. The
interviews were semi-structured based on the interview protocol and depending on the
participant.
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Merriam (2009) identified three important factors that determine the interaction during
the interview: (a) the personality and ability of the interviewer, (b) the attitude and outlook of the
participant, and (c) how both the interviewer and participant define the situation. Because the
researchers were students and contacts were made prior to the research trip and as a result of
introductions by Intel, it was hoped that the interviews would not be subject to power struggles
as described by Merriam (2009). It was important that the student researchers account for biases,
predispositions, attitudes, and physical characteristics that can skew the interview and data
collection.
Data collection is usually accomplished by taking notes and/or recording data. Tape
recording helps to ensure the accuracy of the information and participants usually forget that the
interview is being taped (Merriam, 2009). Field notes and tape recording were utilized for data
collection during the research project. Videotaping is more intrusive and was not used for this
study.
Observation is important to the collection of accurate data. To ensure that all key
elements were captured, the research team developed an observation protocol for use in
determining the presence of MNCs and use of 21st-century skills in the classroom. The student
researchers were observers as participants where the activities are known to the participants but,
according to Merriam (2009), the researchers did not participate in any activities.
Artifact analysis or mining data from documents is another data collection strategy
(Merriam, 2009). The student researchers who visited the universities examined public records
related to demographics, attendance, graduation rates, number of graduates per program, and any
other data relevant to the study. This type of information is not easily accessible in the United
States so the artifacts were located during the research trip.
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Data Analysis
The goal of data analysis to decode the research data by condensing the information and
interpreting the participants’ responses to the survey. Merriam (2009) recommends a step-by-
step process for data analysis as follows: (a) category construction using open coding where
notes are jotted in the margins of the interview transcript, (b) naming the categories based on the
orientation of the study, (c) deciding on the number of categories as determined by the data and
research, and (d) systematically classifying data into one of several levels of data analysis based
on concepts (pp. 178-179)
Creswell (2009, pp. 151-152) also provides a step-by-step strategy for data analysis that
was used by the research team: (a) organize and prepare data, (b) read through the data, (c) begin
detailed analysis within a coding process, (d) use the coding process to generate a description of
the setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis, (e) determine how the
description and themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative, and (e) interpret the
meaning of the data (pp. 151-152)
The data analysis was done on a collective, yet individual basis. Survey questions were
pre-coded and aligned to the study’s conceptual frameworks and the research questions. Each
member of the team collected his or her own survey data and then compiled the results with the
research team. The data were compiled, organized, and recorded into a shared file.
The data analysis theory utilized in the study was derived from grounded theory research.
Merriam (2009) states that grounded theory entails five central aspects: describing the research
questions, literature review, describing the methodology, data analysis that explains the theory,
and discussing the implications.
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Ethical Considerations
All members of the research team participated in the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
application process. This required the completion of the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
(CITI). The CITI is an online training program that offers various modules leading to a
certificate reflecting understanding of the ethical considerations of doing research. IRB is a
necessary function of the dissertation process to ensure that the research is completed with
fidelity. It is also required to ensure that all aspects of the research project are done without harm
(physical, mental, or otherwise) to participants and that all ethical considerations are employed.
All members of the group and the research leader completed the IRB CITI.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH RESULTS
This chapter provides an analysis of interviews, survey data, observations, and artifacts
collected as part of a qualitative case study conducted at the ITCR in San Jose, Costa Rica. The
purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on educational
leadership and the development 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The
study identified the role that school leaders played in the development and implementation of
policy changes as the result of major educational initiatives. In addition, the study determined
whether these initiatives resulted in greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that produced human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. Based on the
literature review, the thematic group developed three research questions to make these
determinations:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCS are seen in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Members of the thematic group interviewed participants from government and industry.
Each group member also interviewed and surveyed participants from a K–12 school or
university. Actual names were used for the interviews, while names associated with survey
responses were not revealed, as specified in the IRB protocol for the project.
The chapter provides an overview of the participants and is organized by research
question. Results for Research Question 1 are based on survey responses and data from the
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interviews. Results for Research Question 2 are based on data from the survey, interviews, an
artifact, and observations. Results for Research Question 3 are based on data from the survey and
interviews. The results are presented in a narrative format.
Participants
The study was based on a purposeful sample of 11 government, industry, and school
officials from ITCR who agreed to be interviewed. Table 1 provides the name, title, and
affiliation of each official who was interviewed.
Government
Mr. Alejandro Cruz has served as Minister of Science and Technology since 2011. He
was the president of ITCR from 1995 to 2003, where he was instrumental in developing
partnerships with MNCs to attract FDI and to strengthen the university’s technology-related
programs. Mr. Cruz has a degree in chemical engineering from UCR and a master’s of science
degree from the State University of New York and Syracuse University.
Dr. Leonardo Garnier is an economist who has served as Minister of Education since
2006. This is his second term in office, which is a testament to his popularity, as all previous
Ministers of Education served only one term. He oversees the education system for preschool,
primary, and high school and has been instrumental in the effort to embed 21st-century skills in
the school curriculum. Dr. Garnier received a doctorate in economics from the New School for
Social Research in New York.
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Table 1
Interviewees
Name Title Organization
Cruz, Alejandro Minister of Science and Technology,
Former President ITCR
Ministry of Science and
Technology
Foster, Damaris Section Chief, Curriculum Ministry of Education
Garnier, Dr. Leonardo Minister of Education Ministry of Education
Bialas, Mary-Helen
Manager, Academic Relations and Education
Programs
Intel
Llobet, Gabriella Director General CINDE
Anderson, Marco Director, Cooperation ITCR
Coto, Anibal Coordinator, Master’s Program in Electronics ITCR
Hildago, Sylvia Director, Center for University Linkage ITCR
Ramierez, Freddy Director, School of Computer Engineering ITCR
Solis, Mario Conejo Professor, Material Science and Engineering ITCR
Zeledon, Emilia Professor of Research ITCR
Note. CINDE = Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency, ITCR = Instituto Technológico de
Costa Rica.

Ms. Damaris Foster is the head of the curricular section of the Department of Technical
Specializations for the government of Costa Rica. She has 12 years of experience in technical
specializations, including 5 years as head of the department. She oversees all national advisors
from all specializations, including accounting, informatics, secretariat, agriculture, tourism,
mechanics, drawing, and design. Her department is responsible for creating curriculum for use at
the technical colleges. She is in charge of quality control of the programs before they are
approved by the Education Council.
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Industry
Ms. Mary Helen Bialas is the academic relations and education program manager for
Intel and serves as the liaison between Intel Costa Rica and Intel corporate programs. She
supports K–12 through higher education in Costa Rica. She is a 16-year employee of Intel. Her
prior employment included 10 years with USAID as a private sector project manager for
education and 10 years with the Peace Corps as a program manager for education and
community.
Ms. Gabriella Llobet has served as Director General for the Costa Rican Investment
Promotion Agency, CINDE, since 2007. She holds a law degree from UCR and two master’s
degrees, one in international trade law from Georgetown University and one in environmental
law from George Washington University. Her previous positions included corporate affairs
manager for Intel Costa Rica, and director, then vice minister of foreign trade for Costa Rica.
During her time in the foreign trade office, Ms. Llobet used her law background to negotiate and
implement bilateral trade agreements between Costa Rica and Canada, Chile, the Dominican
Republic, Mexico, and most particularly CAFTA.
Education
Mr. Marco Anderson is the ITCR director of cooperation. He is an industrial engineer
with 30 years of faculty and administrative experience at ITCR. In addition to teaching
operations courses, he is responsible for increasing relationships with other universities around
the world, as well as within the industrial sector. Mr. Anderson holds a bachelor’s degree in
engineering and industrial production from ITCR and a master’s degree in science management
from the University of Dayton (Ohio). He is a member of the board for the Foundation Center
Technology and Management Industrial Computers.
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Mr. Anibal Coto is the coordinator of the master’s program in electronics at ITCR. He
previously taught and conducted research at ITCR. He holds an undergraduate degree in
electronic engineering from ITCR and a master’s degree in optical communications and photonic
technologies from the Politecnico of Torino, Italy.
Ms. Sylvia Hildago is the director for linkage at ITCR. She has 23 years experience with
ITCR, including 8 years as a director. She plays a role in the development of partnerships
between MNCs and the university.
Mr. Freddy Ramierez has 9 years experience with ITCR, including 5 years as the director
of the School of Computer Engineering. Mr. Ramierez has a master’s degree in business, a
master’s degree in information systems, and a bachelor’s degree in computer engineering, all
from ITCR. In addition to managing the department, he is responsible for strategic planning in
relation to working with MNCs and students.
Mr. Mario Conejo Solis is a professor in the School of Material Science and Engineering.
He is also the ITCR representative for the Costa Rican Commission of Atomic Energy. He
started working with ITCR in 1987. Mr. Solis traveled to Italy in the early 1990s to take a
specialization course in material science. Since 2000, ITCR has been moving from metallurgical
engineering to material science. As a result, he and a colleague created two emphases as part of
the material science program: metallurgy and industrial processes. When Mr. Solis was the
director of the school from 2004 to 2008, he created an emphasis in microelectronics, with help
from Intel.
Ms. Emilia Zeledon is a professor of research at ITCR. She has worked at the university
for 16 years, including 3 years in partnership development with industry. Her role in that position
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is to assist MNCS that are interested in working with the university by reviewing the academic
programs with them and discussing ways to collaborate.
Survey
The paper surveys could not be distributed to ITCR computer engineering faculty
because the school was on summer break. An electronic survey was emailed to the 69 professors
and instructors in the computer engineering program in mid-July 2013. Of the 69 electronic
surveys emailed, 22 were completed, for a response rate of 32%.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked: What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are
seen in Costa Rica? The aim of this research question was to determine how globalization has
affected the country economically, politically, and culturally, and whether MNCs were viewed as
responsible for these changes. The research question was also designed to examine how the
changes were viewed through the lens of Spring’s (2008) globalization framework of world
culture, world systems, postcolonialist and culturalist.
Spring (2008) defined globalization as the interconnection of the world economy marked
by the flows of ideas, people, capital, trade, and social customs across borders. One way in
which evidence of globalization in Costa Rica was presented in the literature review was as a
change in the economy. The change resulted in the growth of capital and trade across borders,
such as increased FDI, GDP, and exports. The growth in the economy also caused a widening
gap in the socioeconomic status of its citizens. In addition, the country experienced a shift in
social customs with the introduction of the English language into its educational system and
society. Other evidence included the flow of people and ideas across borders as demonstrated by
an increase in migration and the influence of globalization and MNCs on government and
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industry to create a knowledge economy and the need for skilled workers. A knowledge
economy is based on the use of knowledge, technologies, and skills to produce economic
benefits and job creation in the global market (Wagner, 2008).
Two themes emerged from the interview data gathered relative to Research Question 1:
the impact of Intel and MNCs on the economy and the impact of Intel and MNCs on
employment. Costa Rica experienced the growth of capital and trade across borders that showed
up in the economy as an increase in FDI with a focus on high-technology industry. The growth in
FDI in turn created more high-level jobs. The flow of people and ideas across borders was
demonstrated by the influence of Intel and the MNCs on employment resulting in different types
of jobs, required job skills, and a lack of engineers.
The Impact of Intel and MNCs on the Economy
Regarding the economy, there were two ways in which the evidence emerged: the
economic development strategy and FDI, and the focus on high technology. Economic
development strategy in Costa Rica changed as a result of the fiscal crisis in the 1970s and the
government’s determination that the existing strategy was not sustainable. The strategy moved
from agriculture to industrialization and FDI, specifically from high-technology industry. Intel
and the MNCs that followed played a major role in the economic expansion of the country.
A new economic development strategy with a focus on FDI helped Costa Rica to become
competitive in the global marketplace and support the infrastructure of the country. The
government chose to diversify and export profitable industrial-related products instead of only
agricultural products. Eight of the interviewees discussed the change in economic development
strategy and FDI.
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Latin American countries were basically primarily good producers of coffee, sugar . . .
commodities. There was a lot of policy making trying to industrialize Latin America.
From the ‘40s to early ‘70s that was done for policy of protecting internal markets, so
that you could have your own industries. There were a lot of mistakes. The idea was
interesting but the original idea was to protect our markets so we can become competitive
and then we will export industrial products instead of exporting coffee and sugar. What
happened is that protection in itself, the stories of events, it was a business to have your
production of textiles, shoes, whatever, protected from the international market was very
profitable. You didn’t have to be competitive, you just had to have the subsidy.
What happened in Latin American countries, and Costa Rica was no exception, is
that our industries were not very efficient. They were very profitable, but not very
efficient. So that produced some interesting things like a middle class and whatever but
when we had the crisis in the ‘70s, it became not very productive and it was not a
sustainable strategy.
So starting in the late 1970s, early ‘80s, we changed strategies. We have to
transform our external sector, we have to export different things, not just coffee and
sugar. It is not just about protecting the internal market, we have to be actually
competitive and international investment [FDI] can be very useful for this. (L. Garnier,
personal communication, June 24, 2013)
Similarly, Llobet said that FDI was responsible for the transformation of the external sector
through the change of exports to include a higher percentage of industrial products while
reducing dependency on low-value agricultural products.
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Yes, the exports and imports of goods and services represent 81% of our GDP. This just
goes to show how we have been able to diversify the type of product over 30 years or so.
Basically, if we see 1985, we exported $1 billion and a high concentration in four
different agroproducts: banana, sugar, coffee, and beef. In 2012, 13% of banana, coffee,
sugar, and beef. We continue having great banana, great coffee, as I said, but they now
represent a smaller percentage of our market. Yes, we’re very big on the electric and
electronic industry, and the chemicals, metalwork, etc.
You can see the pineapple, banana, coffee, all of those are still present and have
an interesting percentage, but of course we don’t depend on them. That’s why it’s
important as well, not depending on only one or two products, but of course, also have a
low aggregate value at the end of the day.
Now as I mentioned, foreign direct investment, particularly in this sector [high
technology] has been quite responsible for many of these changes. We are quite an open
economy, quite an economy that is friendly to foreign direct investment. FDI has grown
in the last decade at an average of 13%. FDI now represents 5% of our GDP. If you’re
talking per capita wise, FDI per capita reached $480 million. For Costa Rica, the FDI
inflows have financed more than 90% of our current account deficit. (G. Llobet, personal
communication, June 24, 2013)
While FDI played an important part in Costa Rica’s economic development strategy, the
selection of the high-technology industry cluster was also a major factor. The Costa Rican
government decided to concentrate on high technology because the industry would provide high-
level jobs and result in the development of an industry cluster. Seven of the interviewees
emphasized the government’s focus on high-technology industry.
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In that time, I was closely related to the government, so I know what the strategy was at
that time. The president in that time, President Figueres, said that the major point was not
to attract Intel to Costa Rica, it was to establish a cluster related to that company. So he
said, “If we convince those guys to invest in establishing a site in Costa Rica, we will be
in a better position to call all many kinds of small companies around the company,
around Intel, as kind of providers.” So the idea was to switch from a company-based . . .
a country with economy based on coffee, bananas and pineapples, switching to a more
high-tech economy. . . . Previously, our main experience was made with a company
called Baxter Healthcare. Intel for us was kind of a key point in terms of our strategy, in
terms of globalization. (M. Anderson, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
Bialas concurred that Costa Rica had made the transition from agriculture to high technology in
order to grow the economy.
I think there was a huge interest on the part of the government to being in higher level
work force opportunities to develop the economy and they went after it. They created
CINDE, it was actually created jointly with USAID. That was an initiative that the U.S.
agency took to help move this change from agriculture to high tech. Actually, it was
moved from agriculture to agro-industry and then it went to high tech services and high
tech sector. I think there’s been a lot of initiative on the part of the government to support
it and definitely there’s been a change in . . . and the multinationals say they became
attracted to Costa Rica, are supporting the continued development and continued revenue.
We went from producing bananas to banana chips and now computer chips. (M. Bialas,
personal communication, June 26, 2013)
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Impact of Intel and MNCs on Employment
High technology was responsible for the transition of the economy of Costa Rica, and it
affected employment. Employment depends on the types of positions that employers need to
have filled and the availability of workers with the right job skills. As such, there were three
ways in which the evidence emerged in relation to employment: types of jobs, required job skills,
and the shortage of skilled workers, in particular engineers. This is reflective of the influence of
globalization and MNCs on government and industry to create a knowledge economy and the
need for skilled workers.
First, the types of jobs changed in Costa Rica due to the demands of the knowledge
economy and MNCs. The employment market in Costa Rica was influenced by the growth of
MNCs, which created more high-level jobs and the need for prepared workers. Nine interviewees
discussed the impact of MNCs on the types of jobs. Dr. Garnier spoke about the transition of the
economy and the need to prepare students.
Education has very much been oriented to what Costa Rica perceives is the world, with
different countries having the larger influence. It's been changing. France, British, US, . .
. etc. Now it is the whole world. For Costa Rica, it’s Europe, it’s the States, and now even
China . . . Latin America in a different way. So you look at education, kids would have
history classes and they would of course have a little bit of Europe and U.S. history. The
key things in Latin American history and now we’re talking about the history of China.
The Eastern world did not exist. Now kids are saying, “Instead of learning French, maybe
I should learn Mandarin.” Kids start asking these questions.
So yes, your educational system starts moving in one direction and then your idea
of the world changes and your labor market changes, liberal professions which were very
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common in the past such as doctors and lawyers. Now more kids want to be engineers
and biologists, science-oriented jobs and service-oriented jobs. I’ll give you an example.
In the 1920s, 75% of the work force had jobs directly related to agriculture. Now it is less
than 10%. The funny thing is it is the same amount of people, if you look at pure numbers
and not percentages. So when people say we destroyed the peasants, I would think no,
because the same amount of people are working in agriculture, they just represent a
smaller percentage of the work force. Basically, two thirds of Costa Rica works in the
service sector. So this is a service economy. And that means a lot for preparation because
you have to prepare kids for a variety of different things. (L. Garnier, personal
communication, June 24, 2013)
Likewise, Coto spoke about the change in employment market due to the MNCs.
For example, before Intel came here in 1998, I think, the electronics industry was very
local. We just do our products, our process of production but we export very few things
in electronics, very limited to Costa Rica. Before that, Costa Rica was a market just for
coffee, bananas, and pineapples.
For example, the kind of jobs that people have here are very different, very
different. Before these companies came here, very few people speak English, for
example. The kind of jobs were more in agriculture, something like that. Very few people
came to the university in technical careers. After that, it changed a lot. Now in Costa
Rica, you can find many, many people speaking English and many, many people in call
centers, for example, that it is related to these companies. For example, when they came
here, they start collateral operations so people changed a lot. (A. Coto, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
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The MNCs created a new job market, which required workers to have appropriate job skills for
employment.
Second, the MNCs created a need for workers with job skills, or 21st-century skills. The
definition of 21st-century skills is based on Wagner’s (2008, p. 14) theoretical framework of the
“seven survival skills for the 21st-century”: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration
across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination. Eight interviewees discussed the need for 21st-
century job skills to succeed in the knowledge economy. Bialas discussed the need for students
to be prepared to work in the knowledge economy.
Twenty-first-century skills are basically that students be prepared to be successful in any
career in the future, in the knowledge economy and in the globalized economy. That has
a direct relation to a lot of our materials, a lot of our preparation, and it’s working with
schools to develop those skills. (M. Bialas, personal communication, June 26, 2013)
Ramierez stated that the required job skills were more complex after the arrival of Intel.
“When Intel arrived, low skill labor decreased over the years. All of the skills needed now are
different. Our students have developed new abilities to become a more sophisticated work force”
(F. Ramierez, personal communication, June 26, 2013).
Third, technology-based industries, which include high technology, rely in part on
workers such as engineers, who have STEM knowledge (OECD, 2012a). However, research
results indicated a shortage of engineers in the country despite recognition that STEM is
considered important to the economy. Survey results indicated that 100% of the respondents
agreed that STEM is considered very important to the economic future of Costa Rica. Survey
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results also showed that 77% of the respondents agreed that they received adequate support to
teach in all the areas, except science, where 60% did not feel supported. Ninety-eight percent of
the respondents indicated that technology, engineering, and mathematics were included in their
curriculum, but only 50% indicated that science was included in their curriculum. Fifty-eight
percent indicated that the Minister of Education supports the emphasis on STEM in the
curriculum. This is important because students in K–12 need STEM education to qualify on the
admittance exam for ITCR and to obtain employment with technology-related MNCs (ITCR,
2013c).
Consequently, although schools and universities are working to prepare students for
skilled jobs, Costa Rica is falling behind in educating engineers. Six interviewees agreed that,
while the number of engineering graduates has increased, there are still not enough engineers.
One interesting thing that helped us a lot, and I think helped Intel make the decision, is
that we were honest enough to say that we didn’t have, probably, all the people they
would need because of the size of the country, that we would commit ourselves to
increase the number of engineering graduates, as we still are doing. (A. Cruz, personal
communication, June 25, 2013)
No country will not have a job for engineers these days. If you are an engineer
and if you are an IT engineer, you will find a job. There’s no doubt about that, but we’re
still not producing . . . even though we have increased tremendously, the number of
engineers, we are still not producing enough. (G. Llobet, personal communication, June
24, 2013)
Although socioeconomics did not emerge as a theme, it was an important indicator
related to the economy and employment. While the economy grew and created more jobs as a
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result of the change in economic policies and the growth of MNCs, it also created a wider gap
between the haves and have nots. Five interviewees discussed the impact of globalization and
MNCs on socioeconomic status in Costa Rica.
The poor are less poor than they were 20 years ago. The standards of living are better, if
you look at indicators like life expectancy, birth, GDP, education, different things, it is
better to have lived now than to have lived 20 years ago . . . but the gap is wider. (L.
Garnier, personal communication, June 24, 2013)
According to Llobet, the socioeconomic gap is related to a lack of education.
We have . . . in some cases, what some cases call a dual economy. Yes, we have very
specialized people. A very well Costa Rican trained people that went to Costa Rican
universities but we’re still lagging some people that do not have education and of course,
cannot access those high-quality jobs. (G. Llobet, personal communication, June 24,
2013)
Another important indicator related to employment was student retention. Four
interviewees said that many students can obtain well-paying jobs at the MNCs without a degree.
For example, I had to study several years in college to reach the post and salary I have,
yet, nowadays there are some youngsters who sometimes earn a thousand, two thousand,
three thousand dollars without a college degree, only because they master a technological
ability and because they speak two languages. (D. Foster, personal communication, June
28, 2013)
For example, Intel has a student worker program. The student worker program has
changed the face of students. There are many students working in that way. Those are the
students, they came here, take one course and go to work. And they are thinking more
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than in studies many times. . . . And the other thing that is important is that many students
start to work in these companies and sometimes they are hired by companies as engineers
and they never finish the career. It happens. It happens. I don’t say it is an exception, no,
it happens because they start receiving some money, they can have a car, so many of
them never finish their career here. (A. Coto, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
Costa Rica’s transition to a knowledge economy has affected the type of jobs available,
job skills, and the need to produce skilled workers, especially engineers. However, students need
to be educated and prepared with 21st-century skills, regardless of career choice, as employers
demand more knowledge and ability from workers.
Discussion
Globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica were demonstrated by the two
themes that emerged from the research: the impact of Intel and MNCs on the economy, and their
impact on employment. The research results indicate that the changes that occurred were the
result of the MNCs. In addition, globalization and the presence of MNCS were viewed from a
world culture perspective. According to Spring (2008), world culturists maintain that the
Western style of schooling has resulted in a universal educational model. This was demonstrated
by the research results that showed job skills or 21st-century skills that, according to Wagner
(2008), are required to meet the demands of the knowledge economy and high-technology
industry.
Two findings were related to Research Question 1. The first finding was that, as a result
of FDI and the attraction of high-technology MNCs, Intel created a knowledge economy with a
need for skilled workers, especially engineers. The second finding was that STEM is recognized
as important to the economic future of Costa Rica in order to continue to attract FDI and
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technology-focused MNCs. Both findings align with the world culture viewpoint from Spring’s
(2008) framework, which contends that the Western style of schooling has resulted in a universal
educational model. The knowledge economy and a STEM education require workers who are
educated through a global curriculum to be employable within a multinational environment. The
Western style of school is also becoming globalized because, according to Spring (2008), it is
based on the idea that all people have a right to education and that education is vital to maintain
economic and democratic rights. The Constitution of Costa Rica guarantees free education to the
ninth grade and calls for 6-8% of the GDP to be used to fund education as part of educational
policy (CIA, 2013). In addition, the government changed its economic policies to sustain the
infrastructure of the country and grow the economy through well-paying jobs that were available
through high-technology industry (Wagner, 2008).
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are
seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The purpose of this research question was to
determine how globalization has impacted education and whether MNCs were responsible for
these changes. The research question was also designed to examine whether the changes had
influenced the teaching of 21st-century skills based on Wagner’s theoretical framework.
Evidence of the impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs in education in Costa
Rica was presented in the literature review, by Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvardo (2007),
as “changes in the educational system to attract MNCs; changes in the educational system once
the MNC was established; creation of knowledge spillover and spin-off effects, and specific
strategies to attract FDI, including improvement and increased accessibility to educational
systems” (p. 9).
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According to Monge-Gonzáles and González-Alvardo (2007), some of the changes in the
education system that occurred once an MNC was established included partnerships with
universities within the host country, donations of equipment, and changes in educational policy.
These changes were evident in the two themes that emerged from the research: teachers and
Intel. The themes reflect the changes within the Costa Rican educational system and at ITCR to
produce workers with 21st-century skills to meet the needs of the MNCs and to attract FDI.
Teachers
Regarding teachers, there were two ways in which the evidence emerged: teaching
training and curriculum, and technology. Teaching training and curriculum became important to
ITCR as the need for students to have soft skills, particularly collaboration, became apparent
through the demands of the MNCs. Technology was also important because it is central to
teaching at ITCR and allows them to provide a skilled work force. Aside from having an
established technology-based curriculum, the university incorporated technology in the
classroom and laboratories so students are well versed in the use of technology upon graduation.
Teacher Training and Curriculum
Overall research results indicate that teacher training and curriculum have changed to
promote 21st-century skills. However, there were mixed responses to survey questions related to
the teaching of 21st-century skills. Survey results show that the 22 respondents were split on
whether teacher training and curriculum had changed to promote 21st-century skills. Ten
respondents (45%) agreed and 10 (45%) disagreed; two respondents (10%) did not know.
However, most respondents (86%) agreed that students graduate ready for a career that requires
21st-century skills.
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Survey results also indicated that ITCR did a good job of teaching critical thinking skills,
as 87% of the respondents agreed that their lessons promote higher-level thinking. However,
only 72% agreed that the curriculum promoted 21st-century skills.
When asked how teaching training and curriculum had changed to promote 21st-century
skills, six interviewees emphasized the teaching of soft skills. Anderson stated that companies
want workers with strong soft skills because they know that students from ITCR will already
have critical thinking and technical knowledge. “Normally, the most companies … the company,
they are looking for people with soft skills rather than knowledge because they say, we can
provide the knowledge, but the soft skill is very difficult” (M. Anderson, personal
communication, June 27, 2013).
Ramierez agreed that students from ITCR have critical thinking and technical knowledge.
“The principal requirements of these companies are the soft skills more than technical skills. We
need to change the soft skills of the students” (F. Ramierez, personal communication, June 26,
2013).
One aspect of teaching 21st-century skills is collaboration. The majority of the survey
respondents (72%) agreed that collaboration by students takes place daily. Observation of the
faculty was not possible because the university was on summer break; however, two classrooms
were observed. They were set up in the traditional classroom style, which indicated that
collaboration may not be experienced in small work groups on a regular basis. Collaboration was
more evident in the two observed laboratories, based on the layout of the equipment.
Seven interviewees stated that collaborative skills were important and were taught as part
of the curriculum. Bias spoke about how Intel is working with schools to help students to
develop collaboration skills to work in an MNC environment.
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I think also helping the future work force get developed for how to work in our kind of an
environment. Because everything is done in teams around the world. Now, a microchip
takes 200 engineers to design and some of those engineers are from Costa Rica, some are
in China, some are in Ireland, some are in Israel, I’m thinking where they are. Some are
in the United States and they’re all talking together right now, developing this. It’s just
global processes of creation and I think that has mostly influenced that looking for, how
to make our kids successful, influences the kinds of projects we’re going to implement
and what projects are feasible in developing countries as well as countries that are already
developed. (M. Bialas, personal communication, June 26, 2013)
Zeledon explained that companies want students with collaborative skills.
More specific, collaborative skills in regard to international collaboration and team work.
In terms of team work, students are given projects to complete in groups in order to
develop these skills. . . . project management as part of the classroom. In each course,
they need to develop an application that is a team project that is three to five people per
project. (E. Zeledon, personal communication, June 26, 2013)
Similarly, Coto discussed the need for collaborative work skills.
Now you need the skill to talk to many people, to do collaborative work. You have to be
part of a team, you have to live with many, many people that were different. And so that
made a change in the way we do things also. . . . So for example, now you have to think
of some projects, some big projects, not only for one person, for three or four students
maybe and you have to divide early your responsibilities in the work, and you have to
give me some report. It is for the whole group, not for just you. And we don’t accept any
excuses. “Ah, he didn’t work.” “No, you are a group.” You have to work as a group.
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Because when you are going work, you have to find that. You can’t tell your boss, “He
doesn’t make his part, so give me my salary,” something like that. We have changed in
that way. I think soft skills is something that has really changed. (A. Coto, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
An important indicator related to the change in teacher training and curriculum at ITCR
was the discussion regarding CEDA. Four of the six interviewees from ITCR mentioned training
for faculty. Anderson said:
We have a center, it’s called CEDA. It’s a center for let’s say teaching . . . . What’s the
translation . . . teaching support or teaching technique support, something like that. So
they provide tutoring to the faculty members rather than to students. So they normally
visit the classroom and do training to the professors. Most of us are related to
engineering, we are not trained to be teachers. We are trained to be engineers. (M.
Anderson, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
When asked how the teachers are evaluated on their teaching skills, Anderson responded:
Each semester, students . . . fill out an evaluation. . . . In the past, it was sheet, today it’s .
. . computer. They evaluate all the skills that the teacher is using in the classroom. So
after the evaluation of [by] the students, this center provides training to the faculty
members who are lacking of good ratings . . . gradings in that matter. So we provide
feedback to the faculty members. (M. Anderson, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
Hildago said,
In fact, there is a whole training program required. Generally, for example, if I enroll in
the program of teamwork and I do not finish the program, I am charged. Signed before,
because that is the time that is given to me. Technological courses are giving the
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technology and if I do not attend, the time would be deducted from my salary, which
nobody wants. Another is that it gives to you, if you are more than 20 hours, a certificate.
If they give that certificate, it gives you points for your tenure. (S. Hildago, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
The artifact for Pedagogy Training Provided by CEDA (Appendix I) lists some of the
courses that are provided to faculty. It outlines the names of the courses, start dates and
enrollment, and how many attendees completed and how many failed in 2012. It also shows the
enrollment across campus locations. The courses include Introduction to University Teaching,
Research on the Internet, Communication in the Classroom, Didactic Methods and Strategy
Aids, Case Study Method, Problem-Based Learning, Collaborative Learning, Advanced
PowerPoint and Didactic Use of Digital Photography.
The emphasis on soft skills, particularly collaboration and the use of technology, emerged
in part as evidence of changes in the educational system related to the establishment of MNCs.
Technology
The use of technology was prevalent at ITCR. Survey results indicate that the majority of
respondents (86%) said that technology was used in their classroom, and 77% agreed that there
was access to technology in the classroom. Because the university was on break, it was not
possible to observe technology in use. However, some technology, which included a computer, a
smart board, and an overhead projector, was observed in the classrooms. Technology, which
included various types of equipment related to engineering studies, was evident in ITCR’s
student labs.
The government was instrumental in introducing technology to schools, and ITCR has
always had a technology focus due to the nature of the school. Six interviewees responded to the
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question related to how teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities have changed
to promote the access and use of technology.
The government has had a hand in this because it has tried to have computer laboratories
installed in all educational institutions in Costa Rica. When the laboratories are installed,
the teacher has been trained to use software packages and computer programs. (D. Foster,
personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Anderson discussed ways in which the university continued to advance the use of
technology to educate students. “At the same time, our classrooms, we’re doing a nice
investment in order to use intelligent boards and work like computer labs and stuff like that in
order to increase their [students’] exposure to the technologies” (M. Anderson, personal
communications, June 27, 2013).
The overall results indicate that technology was used in schools and that a majority of
professors and instructors at ITCR had access to technology. Use of technology was also
reflected through Intel’s influence.
Intel
Intel played a significant role in Costa Rica’s educational system in terms of influence
and assistance, which ties into the changes once an MNC is established (Monge-Gonzáles &
González-Alvardo, 2007). The evidence emerged in two ways: educational policy and resources.
Regarding education policy, the overall survey results indicate that the majority of
respondents did not see the MNCs as having influence on educational decisions. Forty-one
percent of the respondents agreed that educational decisions are influenced by MNCs, 54%
disagreed, and 5% did not know.
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When asked how globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy,
six interviewees indicated that the MNCs, in particular Intel, influenced educational policy
through partnerships. Cruz spoke about the partnership between Intel and ITCR.
We were able to sign an agreement, a long-term agreement, for 5 years, Intel [and] TEC.
That agreement, I think, is now in its third version, and that’s next to the joint academic
programs. That’s another very important tool of public policy, to develop long-term
agreements between schools and corporations, because then it’s not just a short-term
relationship. If you do it in this perspective, it would be for the benefit of both, a win-win
situation. (A. Cruz, personal communication, June 25, 2013)
Anderson also discussed the partnerships with MNCs, including Intel, to offer classes leading to
a degree at the MNC’s location.
We have agreements with different companies in which we offered the master’s degree
program inside the company. For example, we are developing in Hewlett Packard, Intel,
and so the faculty members are forced to develop cases and examples that are related to
their environment. In the old time, the faculty members didn’t care. The hypothetical case
on the board and that’s it. But today, they are forced to learn the language, the jargon, the
requirements, the quality standards. . . . It’s a demanding job to do, a training class or
course, especially a graduate course inside the company. (M. Anderson, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
In terms of resources, survey results indicate that faculty awareness of Intel’s impact and
contributions is low. Some 41% of the respondents agreed that Intel has positively impacted their
school site, while 23% disagreed and 36% did not know. When asked whether Intel had
improved resources at their school, 32% agreed, 28% disagreed, and 40% did not know.
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When asked whether the partnership with Intel has influenced STEM, 63% said that it
had done so only in the area of technology. Some 90% of the respondents said that Intel did not
impact science and mathematics, and 60% said that Intel did not impact engineering.
Interview results indicated that 10 interviewees were aware of the resources that Intel has
provided. Cruz stated that Intel not only provided resources but also created synergy with other
MNCs.
Intel has given a lot of support to the labs at TEC, some by financially giving money or
buying equipment, in other cases by giving the equipment from the floor that is no longer
in use, to be used for research projects. One of the benefits that the educational system
has received from Intel in the country is that, although Intel is not the only company, it
was the accelerator of many of these things, it was the catalyst. (A. Cruz, personal
communication, June 25, 2013)
Coto said that Intel supports other departments, puts their primary support in electronics and
informatics. He added that Intel is providing his department with a server to teach students skills
that are needed at Intel.
Intel supports very hard electronics and informatics. . . . You can see collaborations with
many others but they support very hard, principally electronics. Now in this moment,
they are going to give us a server to do some simulations and things related strongly with
the work people do in Intel. In fact, the idea is to teach some of the skills people require
in Intel work, something like that and we have some support in that way. (A. Coto,
personal communication, June 27, 2013)
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Discussion
According to the interviewees, teacher training and curriculum have changed to promote
21st-century skills. However, teaching soft skills remains a challenge for the instructors and
professors at ITCR. Survey responses indicate that half of the faculty disagreed that teaching
training and curriculum have changed to promote 21st-century skills. Collaboration was rated
higher, with 72% in agreement, although this could not be verified through observation of class
sessions.
The research reflects that the use and teaching of technology was very strong at ITCR.
The majority of the survey responses indicate that faculty has access to technology that is used as
part of their instruction and that students are expected to use technology as part of their
education. This is due to the fact that ITCR is a technology-focused educational institution
(ITCR, 2013a).
There are two ways evidence emerged in relation to the theme for Intel: educational
policy and resources. In terms of educational policy, the interview responses indicated that
influence was accomplished through partnerships. In addition, the majority of survey responses
indicated that educational decisions are not influenced by MNCs. Although Intel provides
numerous resources to the educational system and ITCR, the level of awareness of Intel’s
contributions was only 32%.
As a result of the research, there are two findings in response to Research Question 2.
The first finding is that teacher training and curriculum have changed to promote soft skills, in
particular collaboration. The second finding is that Intel influences educational policy indirectly
though partnerships.
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Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked: How has educational leadership been impacted directly by
policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? The goal of
this research question was to determine how educational leadership, defined by Bolman and Deal
(2008) as those concerned with major systemic changes because the organization no longer
serves its purpose, has been impacted due to globalization and whether MNCS were viewed as
responsible. The research question was also designed to examine how the impact was viewed
through Bolman and Deal’s leadership framework: structural, human resources, political, and
symbolic frames.
Bolman and Deal (2008) defined the structural frame as one that represents the skeleton
of the organization or the functions that act to hold the organization together. It is crucial to
leaders concerned with structure that appropriate people are in appropriate roles and
relationships. The structural frame was used to examine accountability for the implementation of
21st-century skills in the classroom.
In contrast to the rules and regulations mode of the structural frame, Bolman and Deal
(2008) defined the human resources frame as one that deals with relationships and people. The
leader who uses the human resource frames seeks alignment through empowerment, increasing
participation, providing support, sharing information, and propelling decision making into the
organization. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), one of the basic human resource strategies
to create such an environment is “hiring the right people” (p. 142). The human resources frame
was used to analyze the expectations of the hiring and training of teachers.
Bolman and Deal (2008) contended that politics is at the heart of decision making in
organizations for several reasons. Politics is in every organization and is used in relation to
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power. From a political frame point of view, organizations are an amalgamation of people and
interest groups, which results in a variety of lasting values, beliefs, interests, and viewpoints of
reality. Power becomes a valuable attribute in the decision-making process, with stakeholders
bargaining and negotiating to protect their interests. Aside from internal politics, organizations as
an entity must perform as political agents in larger arenas or ecosystems. Companies are subject
to the demands placed by external stakeholders and must develop the same skills as political
managers, such as developing a plan, assessing the environment, managing relationships, and
handling negotiations (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The political frame was used to analyze how
educational leadership has changed due to the political influence of Intel and CINDE.
In contrast, the symbolic frame focuses on the tribal perspective of an organization and
its various symbols, institutional identity, and culture. According to Bolman and Deal (2008),
symbols are reflected in a variety of ways, such as through myths, vision, and values. A leader
who recognizes the influence of the symbols that are pertinent to the organization can use that
influence to create a stronger, more tightly connected organization. The symbolic frame was
used to evaluate how the focus of education has changed at the school site.
Two themes emerged as part of the interview and survey process to determine the impact
of policy decisions on educational leaders: teachers and leaders. Teachers are part of the
structure frame because their role affects the performance of the students and the organization.
Performance suffers if the allocation of work, accountability, and the coordination of efforts,
along with the overall structural design, does not meet the needs of the organization (Bolman &
Deal, 2008).
Leaders are part of the political frame as their role is related to power and decisions made
about the use of limited resources. Bolman and Deal (2008) state that power becomes a valuable
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attribute in the decision-making process, with “stakeholders bargaining and negotiating to protect
their interests” (p. 196); they noted that “goals are not set by edict at the top but evolve through
an ongoing process of negotiation and bargaining,” (p. 197).
Teachers
Regarding teachers, there are two ways in which the evidence emerged: accountability
and educational focus. Accountability in this instance refers to who was thought to be held
accountable for the implementation of 21st-century skills in the classroom. Research results
indicate that teachers were viewed as accountable, with observation as the method used to hold
teachers accountable.
According to the research, teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills
in the classroom. Survey results indicate that 91% of the respondents agreed with that statement.
When asked who was accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in the
classroom, eight interviewees named teachers. When asked how teachers were held accountable,
six interviewees cited observation.
Anderson explained that faculty observes changes in students’ behavior after they are
awarded internships at the MNCs.
So they [companies] provide the sponsorship, but at the same time, they require the
students to do practical work in their company. So we as faculty members can see the
difference of the students, the behavior of the students. For example, the way they dress.
They are very informal, with T shirt and jeans, but when they started the visit to the
company, their behavior is changed, their vocabulary, the presentations are a lot better.
So, in the classrooms you can see. (M. Anderson, personal communication, June 27,
2013)
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Cota noted that companies observe the behavior of ITCR students who work for them and
provide feedback to the school, although there is no formal assessment process.
We receive some feedback from the companies. The companies tell us that there are
some good students but they are very shy, or something like that. So we talk in the
professors’ meetings here, we talk to each other, we need to do some better in that way.
We have to make some kind of different work, something like that, but there is no formal
feedback. (A. Coto, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
In addition, the focus of education has changed. The second way in which the evidence
emerged in relation to educational focus and 21st-century skills was bilingual ability. Presently,
English is the preferred language of the MNCs, with the expectation that a third language such as
Mandarin will become important in the future. However, English is taught through separate
voluntary courses by ITCR’s School of Language Sciences (InglesCONARES, 2013).
Research results indicate that the focus of education has changed to include 21st-century
skills. A slight majority of respondents (54.5%) agreed that the focus has changed; 27.3%
disagreed and 18.2% did not know. When asked whether the focus of education has changed at
school sites, six interviewees said that the focus is on bilingual ability, specifically English.
Foster stated that MNCs have influenced educational policy in terms of types of programs
offered and the ability to speak English as a second language.
Because of transnationals like Intel, educational leadership has made the decision to have
more technical programs and have a greater emphasis on learning another language,
English for now. In a few years, there will probably be a need for a third language,
Mandarin. (D. Foster, personal communication, June 28, 2013)
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Solis stated that the university has made it a point to help students to learn English
because without it they would not even get an interview. However, German, Mandarin and
Portuguese are beginning to engender interest, especially to acquire the capability to speak a
third language,
Right now the university has made many significant efforts for our bilingual students
than we saw back in 84, 85. When you graduated, it was important to speak English, it
was good, but if not, we would not be talking much problem. As these companies say, not
that we believe that only speak English are going to hire, no but, if not even speak
English will not even to the interview and they know it. The boy coming out today of
engineering needs to be bilingual and hopefully talk some third language or at least that
means communicating by Portuguese, or Chinese, or German, or whatever. They do look
in a very good way, and the person knows that if default, logically the mother tongue or
English, and is someone who cares at least in the third language. (M. Solis, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
Six interviewees said that bilingual ability in English is important, although English is
taught as an extra course sponsored by the Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE). Anderson
explained that engineers are not required to speak English to perform calculations and that is
why their English is not proficient. He added that instruction in technology programs is
conducted in Spanish with materials in English, but that English language training is available.
He was referring to the courses sponsored by CONARE,
We are providing one, it’s called . . . English training. It’s voluntary to all the students.
They pay a very few fee in order to be enrolled. And all the students, they have the
opportunity to get training in English, but it’s aside the regular classes. So they have to
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combine their requirements as a university with the English language. (M. Anderson,
personal communication, June 27, 2013)
According to Zeledon, MNCs are asking for more courses to be in English. She added,
“There have been improvements in English acquisition. CONARE also offers free courses on
how to learn English” (personal communication, June 26, 2013).
While accountability and educational focus were viewed through the structural frame for
teachers, hiring and training teachers were viewed through the human resources frame and the
influence of Intel and CINDE was viewed through the political frame for school leaders.
Leaders
Regarding leaders, evidence emerged in three ways: hiring and training teachers, Intel
and CINDE.
The expectations regarding hiring and training teachers have evolved in Costa Rica. New
K–12 teachers are now expected to be ready to teach using constructivism, while new ITCR
faculty are expected to have a variety of skills to work with the MNCs. Intel has influenced
educational leadership through the adjustment of curriculum and academic programs to fit the
needs of the MNCs. CINDE also influenced educational leadership by serving as a conduit for
the MNCs.
Seven interviewees agreed that expectations have changed in hiring and training of
teachers. Dr. Garnier explained that public and private universities in Costa Rica are not
producing teachers who use constructivism in their instruction and that the Ministry has to retrain
them to be prepared to work in the classroom.
The funny thing is that they [universities] have been talking about constructivism for 30
years and they keep teaching the same way. So what we did is we did not talk about
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constructivism. I usually do not like jargon, so we said, “OK, kids have to solve
problems, kids have to ask questions, kids have to debate, they have to think, and I know
that is constructivism but I don’t want to use the word.” . . . The problem is that public
universities are not as engaged as I would like in actual teaching. . . . And the private
universities are very bad. The quality, they are selling degrees, not all but enough. The
problem is that the kind of teachers we receive at the Ministry are not very good so we
have to spend a lot of money retraining the teachers and that’s not really fair. If you give
a lot of money and students pay a lot of money to private universities, at least they should
prepare them for the classroom. But if we have to spend more money to train them, then I
guess we have to. (L. Garnier, personal communication, June 24, 2013)
Coto spoke about the skills that are needed by new professors hired by ITCR.
The skills you request of people have changed . . . for example, when you think of hiring
someone good in mathematics and so forth. Today you need to ask for many skills, for
example, speaking English, because you have to relate with these companies that speak
English. The use of some kind of software, for example, have some training in that way.
It is desirable people come with some kind of experience traveling, dealing with big
companies, something like that. Because sometimes you have to go and negotiate some
funds for research projects. . . . You go to a big company and [say], “We like to do some
things but I need this equipment.” So again, it’s some kind of political negotiation
because, okay, who needs this? The company has to see if it fits the things they do. So
there are some kinds of skills people need. So if you work in a big company, something
like that, you are a more suitable candidate for the job. So it has changed. (A. Coto,
personal communication, June 27, 2013)
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Politics also plays a role in educational leadership. When asked whether educational
leadership has changed due to the political influence of Intel, six interviewees said “yes.” Solis
stated that leadership decided to make concessions to fit the needs of Intel and the other MNCs.
I feel that owning more than anything makes the central government, because a company
that donates equipment deducted from certain that what they have to pay taxes, even if
they are in zone and the taxes they pay are few is attractive to them to donate. But if not
taken at the institutional level, what will happen? For that bond we have with Intel, or
Boston Scientific, or Spira, or Baxter have to sacrifice this. No, no. Actually, I feel that
the national university system has received virtually benefits, it has had to make
significant concessions from its equity, curricular structure of different races can
somehow commit additional resources, because yes there that state aid because somehow,
was shown to be a major area that is undeniable. Those other things we talked about the
principle, our global problems and either way . . . “The world is as it is and not as we
would like it to be.” We must adapt to the circumstances. (M. Solis, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
Similarly, Anderson explained that the university was willing to make some changes to meet
Intel’s requirements.
In that time, the minister . . . the current Minister of Science and Technology, Mr.
Alejandro Cruz was the president of this university. So he was very influential in the
decisions. And so, when the lower session was started, we as a public university were
willing to adjust our curriculum, our academic programs to meet the requirements of such
a huge company. . . . So in this case, we increased actually the relationship with major
company. So we will say life sciences sector, the information technologies and
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manufacturing area related to that, led by Intel is another important sector. So we as a
university decide to adjust our programs to upgrade our knowledge in terms of, for
training purposes of the faculty members to increase the knowledge of the students to
meet their requirements. (M. Anderson, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
While Intel has been a major influence on the economy and educational system of Costa
Rica, CINDE also played a large role in the direction of higher education and ITCR. Seven
interviewees discussed how CINDE has influenced educational leadership. Llobet said that the
program development phase determines the level of university leadership involvement.
We work with the directors of the universities, but also with the heads of different
schools. We have an interesting network, in some cases, yes, we work from very low and
start work in more medium part of the phase when we were developing programs. (G.
Llobet, personal communication, June 24, 2013)
Foster stated that her department develops new programs based on recommendations from
CINDE and the MNCs.
We have had to add new specializations with input from CINDE and the investors from
the multinationals. In other words, the investors arrive in Costa Rica, and working with
CINDE, they conduct a market study and say, “We need medium-level technicians.” Like
right now we are designing a new digital design and development program that is a
mixture of a computer technician and a designer who is able to create Web pages and all
that. Therefore, there is a need for a single person to be able to do both things. Right now
we can find two different people to do each one of those job components, but the
transnationals need someone who can do both things. So by the way of this study, we
now have to create the programs. (D. Foster, personal communication, June 28, 2013)
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Coto explained that CINDE was very influential when it came to attracting FDI and developing
new programs at ITCR.
CINDE make a lot of pressure on us to graduate more engineers. Typically, when there
are some companies that came here, CINDE calls here. For example, yesterday, there was
a guy with an aeronautical company, something like that, and he wants to start operations
in Costa Rica. But before he decides to come here, CINDE organizes some tours by the
universities. So he came here, he talks with the professors, we go see the laboratories, he
talks with some students, something like that. Always CINDE brings those people here
when they call. For example, also it is one imitative by CINDE. There was a missing kind
of engineer in the country, a computer science engineer, we didn’t have it, and an
electrical mechanical engineer. CINDE makes some pressure, they start to talk to some
colleagues, “We need this kind of engineer because the companies need it, need them.”
And so they make some pressure, start talking, talking, talking. (A. Coto, personal
communication, June 27, 2013)
When asked whether this was considered political pressure, Coto said,
Political, with the principal director of the university, also with some colleagues. And
they start pulling some strings. Now we have two new programs, computer science and
electromechanical. I don’t say it is all, they were Costa Rica created specifically because
CINDE tells you have to do it. But . . . it is very related, very related. Because in
conversation, “We need this profile of engineer,” so they make some pressure. “We need
it, we need it, we need it.” (A. Coto, personal communication, June 27, 2013)
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Discussion
Two themes emerged as part of the interview and survey process to determine the impact
of policy decisions on educational leaders: teachers and leaders. Accountability and the focus of
education emerged in relation to teachers. Accountability falls within the structural frame.
Bolman and Deal (2008) state that organizations typically accomplish goals and objectives
through the use of a vertical structure that employs the “formal chain of command” and/or a
lateral structure where work is performed through “meetings, committees, coordinating roles, or
network structures” (p. 54). Observation was used at ITCR to hold teachers accountable for the
implementation of 21st-century skills in the classroom. Observations were discussed among the
faculty and administrators without any formal process. The discussions imply the use of a lateral
structure where, according to Bolman and Deal (2008), “informal exchanges” are the basis for
communication and improvement (p. 56).
The focus of education falls within the symbolic frame. Bolman and Deal (2008) asserted
that an organization’s culture can be assessed by its symbols, including vision. Vision is how the
organization transforms its core purpose into the future. In ITCR’s world, the focus of education
is on bilingual capability with emphasis on English, to meet the current demands of the MNCs.
Educators at ITCR even predict that trilingual capability will be needed in the future, which
exemplifies vision. However, English is not part of the curriculum in the technology
departments. Students have to take additional courses outside of the department to improve their
skills in English.
The three ways in which evidence that emerged in relation to leaders were hiring, Intel,
and CINDE. Hiring falls within the human resources frame. Bolman and Deal (2008) define the
human resources frame as one that deals with relationships and people. In terms of leadership,
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Bolman and Deal (2008) state that talented leaders seek to ensure that the right people have been
hired. In the case of hiring teachers, the goal was to hire teachers who can be effective in the
classroom through constructivism, thereby teaching students to solve problems, ask questions,
debate, and think critically. In higher education, the right people are those who come equipped
with the necessary skills to instruct but also to engage with MNCs. Bolman and Deal (2008) state
that the specific practice related to hiring the right people is “knowing what you want” and
“being selective,” both of which were demonstrated in both K–12 and higher education hiring
practices (p. 142). The change in hiring practices was needed to meet the demands of the MNCs
and the knowledge economy.
In terms of the political impact, educational leadership has changed due to the influence
of Intel and CINDE. The change with regard to Intel was the result of the distribution of power
during the negotiation process. ITCR and Intel formed an alliance to make decisions regarding
the use and division of what Bolman and Deal (2008, p. 195) describe as scarce resources (Intel’s
contributions and ITCR’s ability to create or modify academic programs). In addition, Bolman
and Deal (2008) assert that decisions are made based on “bargaining and negotiation among
competing stakeholders jockeying for their own interests” (p. 195). ITCR made concessions but
in return received support from Intel, as discussed in the findings related to Research Question 2.
The change with regard to CINDE appears to be generated through what Bolman and
Deal (2008) call “alliances and networks” and “access and control of agendas” (p. 204).
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), alliances and networks are related to accomplishing tasks
through a “network of individuals and groups” (p. 204). CINDE accomplishes its task of
attracting FDI by working with schools and universities to develop programs needed by the
MNCs. Educational leaders work with CINDE to accomplish their goal of educating students and
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gaining support from the MNCs for their programs. According to Bolman and Deal (2008),
alliances and networks result in “access to decision arenas” or “access and control of agendas,”
(p. 204). Access to decision arenas provides those individuals or organizations who are major
players some level of protection regarding decisions that involve them. In contrast, those
individuals or organizations who are marginal or absent players will not have the same level of
protection, if any (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
There were three findings in response of research question three. First was hiring the
right people. Educational leaders have changed their expectations regarding hiring and training
teachers. The MEP expects that, for now, new teachers will have to be retrained to use
constructivism in the classroom to get students to think. The hope is that new teachers will
eventually be prepared for the classroom prior to being hired. Higher education expects new
faculty to have soft skills in addition to technical skills in order to work with the MNCs. Second,
bilingual capability is now the focus of education at both K–12 and higher education, with
trilingual capability expected in the future. Third, political alliances formed with Intel and
CINDE affect educational leaders through the policy decisions that are made regarding the types
of educational programs that are offered in schools and universities.
Chapter Summary
Seven findings addressed the three research questions. First, as a result of FDI and the
attraction of high-technology MNCs, Intel created a knowledge economy with the need for
skilled workers, especially engineers. Second, STEM is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica in order to continue to attract FDI and technology-focused MNCs. Third, teacher
training and curriculum have changed to promote 21st-century skills, in particular, collaboration.
Fourth, Intel influenced educational policy indirectly through collaborations and partnerships.
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Fifth, the expectations have changed regarding the hiring and training teachers. Sixth, bilingual
training is now the focus of education. Seventh, political alliances formed with Intel and CINDE
have affected educational leadership by the types of educational programs offered in schools and
universities. The overall finding across the research questions was that Intel has served as a
positive catalyst for the transformation of the economy and educational system in Costa Rica.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
Globalization has caused a worldwide shift in the use of technology and the way in which
business is conducted. Workers who worked with their hands in the industrial age now need to
work with their minds in the age of knowledge-based employment and a global economy.
Students need to be knowledge ready to enter the workforce; however, education is faced with
several broad issues as a result of globalization: (a) the rapid increase and changes in technology
(Friedman, 2007), (b) external influences on educational policy (Spring, 2008), (c) global
migration (Suarez-Orozco & Sattin, 2007), (d) the increased need for effective leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2008), and (e) the need for students to be knowledge ready with 21st-century
skills (Wagner, 2008). The educational system in Costa Rica is affected by the many issues
associated with globalization.
Globalization is defined by Spring (2008) as the interconnection of the world economy
marked by the flows of ideas, people, capital, trade, and social customs across borders. The flows
are connected by the “flat-world platform,” which, according to Friedman (2007, p. 10), includes
advances in personal computing to provide the ability to create and access digital content
affordably from anywhere in the world, as well as software that allows people to form
partnerships remotely. Technology, collaboration, and flexible, affordable access are now part
the global economy. Freidman (2007) states that specific skills are needed to participate in the
flat-world platform—skills that are gained through the educational system.
Globalization affects large segments of society not only through global economics and
connections but through political and cultural changes that influence schooling (Spring, 2008).
However, according to Anderson-Levitt (2003), studies show that not all schools teach the same
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things. As a result, discussion is centered on the need for schools to meet the demands of a
knowledge economy thorough a common curriculum (Spring, 2008).
The knowledge economy is driving the globalization of education and the need for a large
number of educated workers. Successful economies now depend on the talents and abilities of all
workers (Becker, 1964, 2006). The transformation from an industry-based economy to an
economy in which wealth depends on knowledge and skills, also known as the knowledge
economy (Spring, 2008), requires a flexible, educated workforce. Based on Spring’s (2008)
research, this has a direct bearing on educational systems. Effective leadership is essential if
education systems are to be reformed. Increased demands for accountability, higher student
achievement levels, the need to produce students with a different skill set than in years before,
and improved efficiency require school leaders to be more than just managers (OECD, n.d.-a).
Bolman and Deal (2008) contend that managers focus on making the current system work
properly, while leaders are concerned with major systemic change because the organization no
longer serves its original purpose. Effective school leadership also involves the ability to
influence others.
Educational leaders also must be concerned with the process of education. According to
Wagner (2008), the three transformations that have had a significant impact on education are the
fast-paced development of the knowledge economy, the increasing flow of information, and the
interconnectivity of media and technology. These transformations have contributed to a “global
achievement gap” (Wagner, 2008, p. 9) in which many students worldwide are not learning the
skills that they need for employment in the 21st century.
Wagner (2008, p. 14) states that the focus should be on “seven survival skills for the 21st
century: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration across networks and leading by
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influence; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written
communications; accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.” Wagner
(2008) described these skills as work, learning, and citizenship skills necessary to succeed in the
21st century.
The educational system in Costa Rica is affected by the broad issues of globalization and
the resulting influence of MNCs. This study was conducted to determine how educational,
corporate, and government leaders viewed the effects of globalization and MNCs on school
leadership in Costa Rica.
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal
crisis of the 1980s. A new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-technology
FDI to compete in an evolving global market and to create jobs. As more MNCs invest in Costa
Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility to help students to develop technology
and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become increasingly more challenging. According to
State of the Nation (2011), despite five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95%
literacy rate, the country has experienced a low secondary graduation rate and low rate of pursuit
of higher education. This resulted in a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take
on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica.
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica. The study identified the role that school leaders played in the development and
implementation of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the
study determined whether these initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready
workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
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Three research questions guided this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This study constituted qualitative applied research. Merriam (2009) states that qualitative
research work is used to improve a situation or process in which the researcher is focused on
discovering the significance of the phenomenon rather than using empirical data for analysis.
This research project is defined as a qualitative case study in that it was conducted by
dissertation team students (the primary instrument for data collection and analysis) at a K–12
school or institution of higher education, government agencies, private industry partners, and one
MNC in order to triangulate the data and develop a rich description of observations for analysis
of patterns and trends. The research team identified three conceptual frameworks for use in this
project: Spring’s (2008) globalization framework of world culture, world systems, postcolonialist
and culturalist; (b) 21st-century learning skills (Wagner, 2008); and reframing organizations
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Findings
Seven findings addressed the research questions. The first finding was that, as a result of
FDI and the attraction of high-technology MNCs, Intel created a knowledge economy with the
need for skilled workers, especially engineers. Second, STEM is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica in order to continue to attract FDI and technology-focused MNCs. Third,
teacher training and curriculum have changed to promote 21st-century skills, in particular,
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collaboration. Fourth, Intel influenced educational policy indirectly through collaborations and
partnerships. Fifth, expectations have changed regarding hiring and training teachers. Sixth,
bilingual training is the focus of education. Seventh, political alliances formed with Intel and
CINDE have affected educational leadership through changes to the curriculum in schools and
universities. The overall finding was that Intel has served as a positive catalyst for the
transformation of the economy and educational system in Costa Rica.
The first finding was that, as a result of FDI and the attraction of high-technology MNCs,
Intel created a knowledge economy with the need for skilled workers, especially engineers. The
finding reflects the results that globalization and the presence of MNCs had on the economy and
employment in Costa Rica and is supported by the literature. The country of Costa Rica has
changed in the past few decades due to the fiscal crisis of the 1980s. As a result, a new economic
strategic plan was implemented to attract high-technology FDI to compete in an evolving global
market and create jobs. When Intel, a microprocessor company, began to discuss the possibility
of opening a manufacturing plant in Costa Rica in the mid-1990s, the company’s site selection
team was concerned about the lack of mid-level technicians available in the country to support
its operations (World Bank, 2006). Nelson (2000) reports that, to address this issue, ITCR, in
conjunction with the MEP, created a 1-year certificate program to qualify high school graduates
as technicians. According to Nelson (2000), ITCR and Intel also created an Associate degree
program for qualified graduates of technical high schools and graduates of the technician
certificate program who needed advanced training. The Costa Rican government agreed not only
to modify the curriculum but also to strengthen the ITCR and the technical skills of Costa Rica’s
workforce to ensure employment at any high-tech firm (Nelson, 2000). This strategy worked,
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according to Nelson (2000), as Intel decided to build a plant in Costa Rica, which served as a
draw for additional high-technology MNCs.
However, the growth of MNCs in Costa Rica over the past 16 years has resulted in a
shortage of skilled labor. State of the Nation (2011) asserts that, although education in Costa
Rica has improved, it was still not keeping pace with the needs of the knowledge economy. A
recent survey conducted by Manpower Group (2013), indicated that 40% of the employers in
Costa Rica have trouble finding qualified applicants. According to Manpower Group’s (2013)
survey results, the top 10 positions that employers in the America region, which includes Costa
Rica, have trouble filling are technicians, sales representatives, secretarial/administrative/office
support staff, production operators, skilled trades, engineers, accounting/finance staff,
mechanics, machinist/machine operators, and management/executive (management/corporate).
Manpower Group (2013) states, “The 2013 Talent Shortage Survey includes responses from
nearly 10,000 hiring managers in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala,
Mexico, Panama, Peru and the United States” (p. 15).
According to the State of the Nation (2011), many underlying causes resulted in a
shortage of a skilled workforce, such as a 25% dropout rate among high school students, not
enough adequately trained teachers, a lack of educational resources, and low enrollment in
higher education. In addition, the State of the Nation (2011) points out that there were not
enough doctorates granted in the areas of mathematics and science, both of which are crucial for
research and development. The OECD (2012a) states that Costa Rica has a shortage of PhDs in
the scientific and engineering fields, along with the need to “increase the quality and quantity of
the skilled labour force (especially in science, engineering and design)” (p. 25). For example,
research by the World Bank (2006) found that, with the opening of Intel’s Latin American
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Engineering Services in Costa Rica, master’s degree graduates and PhDs in engineering were
needed “for the more sophisticated engineering and research and development functions” (p. 29).
The related second finding was that STEM is important to the economic future of Costa
Rica in order to continue to attract FDI and technology-focused MNCs. This finding also reflects
the results of globalization and the presence of MNCs on the economy and employment in Costa
Rica and is supported by the literature. Based on data from the OECD (2012a), Costa Rica was
successful in attracting a high-technology industry cluster but now needs to plan for new
technological trends, including information and communications technology, biotechnology, and
nanotechnology. OECD (2012a) also cites the influence of China as a trade partner in Latin
America and “production unbundling and delocalization of corporate activities” (p. 51). Part of
delocalization is the offshoring of research and development (R&D) and design, two areas that
are weak in Costa Rica due to the lack of PhDs in scientific and engineering fields and the low
level of government/private investment (OECD, 2012a).
The OECD (2012a) found that ITCR offers STEM-related degrees but does not currently
have a PhD program in engineering or electronics. According to the OECD (2012a), ITCR plans
to offer a PhD in software engineering and the University of Costa Rica will offer a PhD in
computer science. The OECD (2012a) stated that, even though the universities plan to offer two
new PhD programs in 2014, Costa Rica needs to make science and technology training a priority
for technical schools and universities.
Increased technology training is coming to higher education with the help of additional
funding. The World Bank (2012b) recently loaned $200 million to Costa Rica as part of the
Improving Higher Education in Costa Rica project. The funds will be used to improve the
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scientific, technological and academic abilities of the four public universities in the country that
include ITCR. According to the World Bank (2012b),
the funds will help those universities invest in infrastructure, equipment and human
resources, accommodate more undergraduate and graduate students, increase the number
of accredited university degrees and strengthen their innovation, scientific and
technological development programs. The ITCR has designed a US$57.7 million
institutional improvement plan (US$50million from the loan and US$7.7 million in own
resources) that includes the construction and equipment of student residence halls,
laboratories, academic units, libraries and student services. It will invest in infrastructure
and equipment to create several engineering program among others, offering doctorate
scholarships to its professors. The ITCR plan will increase the number of registered
students by 14.5 percent, increase the number of accredited university degrees from 12 to
17 and foster Technological innovation in engineering study plans (OECD, 2012a, p. 25).
In addition, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the Ministry of Science
and Technology are working together to “align the country’s human capital with production
development needs” (OECD, 2012a, p. 25). The IADB plans to finance “training improvements
in priority areas laid out by the national innovation strategy as well as to provide incentives for
the reconversion of technical professionals specializing in low priority areas” (OECD, 2012a, p.
25).
The third finding was that teacher training and curriculum have changed to promote 21st-
century skills, in particular soft skills with an emphasis on collaboration. This finding illustrates
the results that globalization and the presence of MNCs had on school and universities in Costa
Rica and is supported by the literature. According to the MEP (2007a), the move toward
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incorporating 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools began in 1994 with the adoption of the
Educational Policy Towards the 21st Century. Research by Adamson and Darling-Hammond
(2012) showed that the plan was further expanded in 2003 with the introduction of Plan of
Action on Education for All designed to improve the quality and access to K–12 education with
an emphasis on technology.
According to Adamson and Darling-Hammond (2012), Costa Rica is now participating in
a pilot project for Latin America: the Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S)
developed by Cisco, Intel, and Microsoft and funded by IADB. The first part of the pilot project
involved training and developing new and in-service teachers related to 21st-century skills,
followed by development of new teaching practices (Adamson & Darling-Hammond, 2012).
Jenkins (2006) states that collaboration in the 21st century is intertwined with use of
technology and media literacy skills. Jenkins (2006) found that media skills should be viewed as
“social skills, and a way of interacting with the larger community” (p. 21). Furthermore, Jenkins
(2006) found that schools still teach students to think and act singularly while the workplace
requires the ability to “work in teams, drawing of different sets of expertise, and collaborating to
solve problems” (p. 22). Educational leaders in Costa Rica recognized these issues and used
ATC21S to revamp some of its K–12 curriculum to include information and communications
technology literacy and collaborative problem solving as part of the learning process (Adamson
& Darling-Hammond, 2012). Collaboration is part of the ATC21S framework and is considered
by Wagner (2008) to be one of the seven survival skills that he calls “collaboration across
networks and leading by influence” (p. 24). Wagner (2008) further states that “the skillfulness of
individuals working with networks of people across boundaries and from different cultures has
become an essential prerequisite for a growing number of multinational corporations” (p. 24).
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Intel also supported 21st-century learning skills through the Intel Teach Program, which
trained teachers how to use technology in the classroom to promote 21st-century learning skills
and to improve student learning (Intel Education, 2006). One of the courses offered is
Collaboration in the Digital Classroom, which instructs teachers regarding the importance of
collaborative learning for their students and how to create a collaborative classroom (Intel Teach,
n.d.). A further indicator of the importance of collaborative skills as part of 21st-century skills is
the inclusion of collaborative skills testing as part of the 2015 PISA (ATC21S, 2009-2014).
Higher education fostered development and strengthening of collaborative skills through
the creation of e-learning strategies. Research conducted by Quesada Pacheco (2011) at the
University of Costa Rica in conjunction with the University of Kansas resulted in the publication
of e-learning strategies to promote collaborative skills for university students. At ITCR, faculty
can participate in training on collaborative learning strategies, while students are assigned group
projects to enhance their collaborative work skills (ITCR, 2013f).
The fourth finding was that Intel influenced educational policy indirectly through
collaborations and partnerships. This finding demonstrates the results that globalization and the
presence of MNCs influenced in school and universities in Costa Rica and is supported by the
literature. Intel states that it offers support to the Costa Rican educational system through
monetary and equipment donations (Intel, n.d.). The company opened its Costa Rican
microprocessor assembly and testing plant in 1997 and has subsequently supported skills
development in the country through annual investments in the national education system of up to
$1 million, along with equipment donations in the form of laboratories to technical high schools
and universities (Monge-Gonzáles & González-Alvarado, 2007). The company’s goal is to
promote 21st-century skills through teacher training, volunteer work, and financial contributions
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135
(Intel, n.d.). According to Intel (n.d.), higher education and technical education also benefit
through research project internships, visiting faculty programs, scholarships, and donations of
equipment and laboratories.
ITCR (2013d) and Intel created a formal agreement that provided a framework for a
cooperative, joint relationship between the two organizations. The agreement states that Intel has
an interest in supporting the academic activities of ITCR and signed the agreement to formalize
the general basis of cooperation, which includes research, development of high technology,
professional training, and sharing of results. Each organization also agreed to locate, negotiate,
and/or provide funding necessary for the activities. The agreement states that Intel and ITCR
jointly provide resources necessary to execute the collaboration. A copy of the agreement is
located in Appendix A.
The fifth finding was that expectations have changed regarding hiring and training
teachers. This finding reflects how educational leadership has been directly influenced by policy
decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs and is supported by
the literature. Based on research by State of the Nation (2011), educational leaders are concerned
with having the right people in the classrooms as teachers to ensure that students were prepared
to work in the knowledge economy.
State of the Nation (2011) indicates that the quality of teachers in Costa Rica is
inadequate due to a lack of hiring standards by MEP and the hiring of teachers who had
graduated from unaccredited schools. This is important because, according to State of the Nation
(2011), “Teacher quality is the main determinant of education quality” (p. 3). The hiring of K–12
teachers in Costa Rica is a bureaucratic process that has yet to change; as a result, in-service
professional development was used to improve the quality of teachers (UNESCO, 2011). An
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example of professional development is Intel Teach, where Intel (n.d.) has trained more than
50% of the K-12 teachers in Costa Rica. Intel Teach is required by the MEP as professional
development for teachers (Intel Education, 2006).
For public institutions of higher education, the quality of faculty and educational
programs is measured and improved through the accreditation process overseen by SINAES,
although not all university programs are accredited and the process is voluntary (SINAES, 2013).
According to Palacios and Olivares (2013), accreditation involves self-assessment of the
operation and infrastructure of the university, including faculty, resulting in recommendations
and a plan for improvement. Part of the plan to improve the quality of the faculty at ITCR is
professional development offered through CEDA (ITCR, 2013e).
Educational leaders who are concerned with hiring and training teachers operate from the
human resources frame. Bolman and Deal (2008) defines the human resources frame as one that
deals with relationships and people. Bolman and Deal (2008) found that the specific practices
related to hiring the right people were “knowing what you want” and “being selective,” which
the educational system in Costa Rica is working to achieve (UNESCO, 2011).
The sixth finding was that bilingual skills are the focus of education. This finding
illustrates how educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy decisions that came
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs and is supported by the literature. Based
on information from CINDE (2013a), the MEP created an English as a Second Language
program for K–12 schools. The National English Plan “Costa Rica Multilingual” was developed
to meet the needs of MNCs for workers with bilingual English skills; it consists of “review and
implementation of programs and educational methodologies; teacher training and education;
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137
training programs at all levels for students and professionals, and professional certifications”
(CINDE, 2013a, p. 4).
According to CINDE (2013a), the plan was based on the Common European Framework
(CEF) for the establishment of goals related to comprehension as follows: “The C1 level
graduate is considered a competent user;” a B2 level graduate “understands the main ideas of
complex text and communicates with relative ease and spontaneity”; and a B1 level graduate
“comprehends the main ideas of information in standard language,” (p. 4). The goal of the
program is to have 100% of high school graduates reach all levels by 2017 (CINDE, 2013a).
CINDE (2013a) states that $21 million was allocated to English and IT training at the
four public universities and at the Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje (INA) by CONARE. At
ITCR, the program is provided through scholarships from CONARE and is taught by the School
of Language Science (InglesCONARE, 2013). The program provides 4-hour sessions based on
15 levels, in addition to special courses such as pronunciation and communication for business
(InglesCONARE, 2013). The World Bank (2012b) asserts that the establishment of the English
reinforcement program at ITCR was influenced by Intel as part of an overall effort to “increase
the number of graduates and their proficiency” in this area, among others (p. 22).
The seventh finding was that political alliances formed with Intel and CINDE influenced
educational leadership through changes to the curriculum in schools and universities. This
finding reflects how educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs and is supported by the literature.
The World Bank (2006) cites an example of an alliance between educational leaders and
Intel as a way to entice ITCR to invest in Costa Rica in the late 1990s. The MEP reviewed Intel’s
initial human capital needs against Costa Rica’s high school and training curriculum in order to
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138
revise and develop appropriate programs. As a result, new certificate programs and degrees were
approved and implemented, along with an increased emphasis on Spanish and English language
programs (World Bank, 2006). According to Nelson (2000), ITCR worked in conjunction with
the MEP to create a 1-year certificate program to qualify high school graduates as technicians. In
addition, Nelson (2000) found that ITCR and Intel created an Associate Degree program for
initial and advanced training for technicians. The alliance continues today as MNCs such as
Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft provide resources and training to the educational system in return for
an educated workforce (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Educational leaders and the MNCs formed an alliance to make decisions regarding use
and division of what Bolman and Deal (2008, p. 195) describe as scarce resources (contributions
by the MNCs and the ability of educational leaders to create or modify academic programs). In
addition, Bolman and Deal (2008) assert that decisions are made based on “bargaining and
negotiation among competing stakeholders jockeying for their own interests” (p. 195).
Educational leaders made concessions but in return received support from the MNCs (Nelson,
2000).
With regard to CINDE, the agency exerts influence on educational leaders by acting as a
conduit for the MNCs. CINDE stated that it is a “private, nonprofit and apolitical organization”
responsible for attracting FDI to Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013b). According to the OECD (2012),
the agency is “a private association that operates independently and reports to a board of
businessmen and professionals, which in turn reports to a general assembly” (p. 87). The OECD
(2012a) states that the organization is viewed favorably by the investor community and plays an
important part in FDI strategy. According to CINDE (2013b) services are provided at no cost to
companies looking to invest in the country include assistance with site selection, arranging
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139
meetings with various services providers and agencies such as universities, arranging contact
with potential investors, and providing “specialized support for strategic aspects geared to new
operational expansion projects or promoting product diversification” (p. 87). The OECD (2012a)
found that CINDE “serves as an effective channel for voicing private-sector needs to policy
makers,” which includes education leaders (p. 87).
CINDE’s influence derives in part from “alliances and networks” (Bolman & Deal, 2008,
p. 204). According to Bolman and Deal (2008), alliances and networks are related to
accomplishing tasks through a “network of individuals and groups” (p. 204). CINDE
accomplishes its task of attracting FDI by voicing concerns about private sector needs to
education leaders, which translates into working with schools and universities to develop
programs needed by the MNCs (CINDE, 2013c, 2013d). Educational leaders work with CINDE
to accomplish their goal of educating students and gaining support from the MNCs for their
programs, as illustrated by the partnership among CINDE, IBM, and CENFOTEC (CINDE,
2013d).
Implications for Practice
The results of this study had three implications for educational leadership. The first
implication is that the workforce requires educated employees who are skilled in the use of
technology and collaboration. This implication is related to the finding that teacher training and
curriculum have changed to promote 21st-century skills, in particular, collaboration.
Aside from the typical collaborative classroom activities such as group projects, Wagner
(2008) found that educational leaders should make “horizontal collaborative tools” an integral
part of the curriculum and educational process (p. 329). An example of horizontal collaborative
tools are curricula from the various courses and departments within an educational institution
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140
that can be mixed and matched to produce a combination of knowledge and to give students a
wide variety of “skills and learning experiences” in order to succeed in a global economy
(Wagner, 2008, pp. 327–328). Furthermore, Wagner (2008) determined that horizontal
collaboration tools and collaborative concepts must be integrated into the entire educational
process in order to operate from the “flat-world platform” (p. 329) where technology allows
remote connections from anyway in the world.
Wagner (2008, p. 502) also discussed the Flat Classroom Project
(http://www.flatclassroomproject.wikispaces.com), where high school classes from various
countries are paired to create wiki pages based on one of the 10 forces that “flattened” the world.
The project provides students with a variety of learning experiences related to collaboration and
digital media.
The second implication is that accreditation can help to improve the quality of education.
This implication is related to the finding that expectations have changed with regard to hiring
and training teachers. State of the Nation (2011) found that the poor quality of education was the
result of teachers who had graduated from unaccredited universities. Schools and universities
that are accredited use the voluntary, research-based self-assessment process to evaluate the
operation and infrastructure of the institution, including faculty, resulting in recommendations
and a plan for improvement (Palacios & Olivares, 2013). Advanc-Ed (2014) found that, when
properly conducted, an internal and external accreditation assessment can provide valuable
insights to the organization that result in a system for continuous improvement and provide a
hallmark of excellence to its audience and stakeholders.
The third implication is that industry partnerships can help to improve resources and
programs at educational institutions. This implication is related to the finding that Intel
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141
influenced educational policy indirectly through collaborations and partnerships. Intel has
supported skills development in the Costa Rica through annual investments in the national
education system up to $1 million, as well as equipment donations in the form of laboratories to
technical high schools and universities (Monge-Gonzáles & González-Alvarado, 2007). The
company’s goal is to promote 21st-century skills through teacher training, volunteer work, and
financial contributions (Intel, n.d.). According to Intel (n.d.), higher education and technical
education also benefit through research project internships, visiting faculty programs,
scholarships, and donations of equipment and laboratories. Microsoft and Cisco have also
contributed to the educational system through training and licensing of products (Monge-
Gonzáles & González-Alvarado, 2007).
The American Center for Partnerships (2014) found that educational institutions that are
interested in fostering industry partnerships should identify an economic development problem
that is appropriate for a partnership; establish shared mission and goals; provide value for all
players, students included; and ensure that both parties have strong executive leadership and that
there are ways to track governance and accountability.
Recommendations for Research
Many of the problems faced by schools and universities in Costa Rica are the same ones
faced by educational institutions across the world, such as improving student enrollment,
increasing retention and graduation rates, and increasing interest in STEM education.
Improving student enrollment and retention and graduation rates is related to the finding
that, as a result of FDI and the attraction of high-technology MNCs, Intel created a knowledge
economy with the need for skilled workers, especially engineers. According to the State of the
Nation (2011), many underlying causes have resulted in a shortage of a skilled workforce, such
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142
as a 25% dropout rate among high school students, not enough adequately trained teachers, a
lack of educational resources, and low enrollment in higher education.
Increasing interest in STEM education is related to the finding that STEM is important to
the economic future of Costa Rica in order to continue to attract FDI and technology-focused
MNCs. Based on data from the OECD (2012a), Costa Rica was successful in attracting a high-
technology industry cluster but now needs to plan for new technological trends that include
research and development, design, information and communications technology, biotechnology,
and nanotechnology. Costa Rica is weak in research and development, as well as design, due to a
lack of PhDs in scientific and engineering fields and the low level of government/private
investment (OECD, 2012a).
Further research is needed on how to improve student enrollment and retention and
graduation rates in order to increase the number of skilled workers in a knowledge economy.
Research is also needed on how to increase interest in STEM education to lead to production of
more PhDs in STEM, which is crucial to keep pace with advancing technology.
Conclusion
Costa Rica has achieved remarkable results in transforming its economy over the past 30
years in an effort to sustain the infrastructure and provide well-paying jobs to its citizens.
However, while the educational system is producing knowledge-ready workers, it is not doing so
at level needed by the MNCs. This study examined the effects of globalization and MNCs in an
effort to understand how the changes were viewed by education leaders. The study revealed that
educational leaders view the changes from a world culture perspective. In addition, results
indicate that globalization and the MNCS have had an impact on the economy, educational
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143
system, and school leaders in the country. The overall finding is that Intel has served as a
positive catalyst for the transformation of the economy and educational system in Costa Rica.
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144
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APPENDIX A
AGREEMENT BETWEEN INTEL AND ITCR

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158

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APPENDIX B
FIRST LETTER TO THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California
(USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation process. The
purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and multinational corporations
have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and multinational
corporations?

2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study, we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to conduct
our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would appreciate an
opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education, and educational
leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey and interview key individuals to
gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly. We
know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence possible to go over
the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any questions.
We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students

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APPENDIX C
SURVEY PROTOCOL FOR TEACHERS
Date: Location of Survey:
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the number that
best represents what you think.

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to promote
21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication.
5 4 3 2 1
2. Collaboration among students takes place
daily.
5 4 3 2 1
3. Technology is not used in your
classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
4. Lessons promote higher level thinking. 5 4 3 2 1
5. Curriculum promotes 21st-century skills. 5 4 3 2 1
6. There is access to technology in the
classrooms.
5 4 3 2 1
7. Intel has positively impacted your school
site.
5 4 3 2 1
8. Intel has not improved resources at your
school.
5 4 3 2 1
9. Students are college and/or career ready
with 21st-century skills.
5 4 3 2 1
10. Teachers are held accountable to
implement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
11. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate 21st-century
learning.
5 4 3 2 1

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Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
12. Educational decisions are not influenced
by multinational corporations.
5 4 3 2 1
13. School site leaders are active partici-
pants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.
5 4 3 2 1
14. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to teachers
and students.
5 4 3 2 1
15. Is there evidence of the following that
can be seen in your curriculum:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

16. Have the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

17. Has the Minister of Education supported
the emphasis on:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

164
Question
18. Do you receive adequate support to
teach the curricula in the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

19. Do you believe that STEM education
is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
Yes No

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165
APPENDIX D
RECRUITMENT/CONSENT LETTER

Date _______________________________

Dear _______________________________,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed in this
packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may shed light on
the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in Costa Rica. This study
may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational leadership and 21st-century
skills.

My name is Xxx Xxx, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction and guidance
of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please sign the consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous by the
researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that
will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
Xxx Xxx or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California. Thank you, in
advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Xxx Xxx and Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent
to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in a brief
interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
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APPENDIX E
SCHOOL LEADER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: Date:

Interviewee: Location:

Job Title: Contact Information:

Start Time: End Time:

Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st-
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result
of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
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III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s
involvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can
be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future
of Costa Rica?

VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked you
or that may provide additional information for this study?
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168
APPENDIX F
POLITICAL/POLICY LEADER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: Date:

Interviewee: Location:

Job Title: Contact Information:

Start Time: End Time:

Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st-
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result
of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

169

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s
involvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can
be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future
of Costa Rica?

VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

170
APPENDIX G
MNC INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: Date:

Interviewee: Location:

Job Title: Contact Information:

Start Time: End Time:

Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st-
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system
in Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result
of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

171
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s
involvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st
century?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can
be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future
of Costa Rica?

VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
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172
APPENDIX H
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION TOOL
Date: ______________________

Location of Observer: Observer:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis on
bilingual education, specifically toward
English.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration by students takes place in
the classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

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173
Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher-level thinking.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

174
Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a
collaborative manner.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES

175
Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evident
in the classroom.
5 4 3 2 1
Field Notes:

Question Science Technology Engineering Mathematics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM
being taught in the classroom
Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No No No
Field Notes and Examples:

Other notes:

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176
APPENDIX I
PEDAGOG TRAINING PROVIDED BY CEDA

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Theoretical frameworks for globalization, 21st‐century skills, and leadership were used as part of the study. The purpose of the study was to understand the impact of globalization and multinational corporations (MNCs) on educational leadership and development of 21st‐century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The research questions asked (a) what results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica, as well as in schools and universities in Costa Rica

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Asset Metadata

Creator Van Buren, Starleen (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/23/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica educational system,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Martinez, Brandon (committee member), McCarty, Cynthia (committee member)

Creator Email svanbure@usc.edu,svanburen@elcamino.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-383727

Unique identifier UC11295785

Identifier etd-VanBurenSt-2407.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-383727 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-VanBurenSt-2407.pdf

Dmrecord 383727

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Van Buren, Starleen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA