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SoCal ski hills: a typological analysis of a cultural landscape

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SoCal ski hills: a typological analysis of a cultural landscape

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SOCAL SKI HILLS: A TYPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF A
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

By

Daniel J. H. Herrick

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF HERITAGE CONSERVATION

APRIL 2014

Copyright 2014 Daniel J. H. Herrick

ii

Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank my committee members, Trudi
Sandmeier, Alison Hirsch, and Brian Tichenor. Without their teachings, guidance, and
expertise this thesis would not have come to fruition. Also, the most heartfelt thanks and
appreciations to Ingrid P. Wicken, whose previous research and outstanding collection of
ski resources and ephemera at the California Ski Library, made this thesis possible.
Without her help and work in the preservation of ski history, SoCal ski hills would be
much more of a distant memory. Particular thanks to those who provided images: Ingrid
Wicken, Terry Graham, the Special Collections Archives at the University of Idaho
Library, the Museum of History & Industry in Seattle, the USC Digital Collections, the
Los Angeles Public Library, the Ketchum Community Library, Somewon Snow
Collective, Annija Gaskell, and others. Last, but certainly not least, my deepest thanks to
friends and family – particularly my parents, Lloyd and Wendy – for their unwavering
and unconditional support in all of my endeavors, efforts, and adventures, both on and off
the snow.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ v
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... viii

INTRODUCTION. ............................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 1 – SKI HILL AS A TYPOLOGY
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 4
TOPOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 5
SNOWFALL ....................................................................................................................... 6
ACCESS & INFRASTRUCTURE ..................................................................................... 6
Railways & “Ski Trains” ....................................................................................... 7
Highway Development ......................................................................................... 10
Parking .................................................................................................................. 12
Air Travel .............................................................................................................. 13
SKI LIFTS ........................................................................................................................ 14
SKI TRAILS ..................................................................................................................... 21
BASE LODGE .................................................................................................................. 26
Mid-Mountain & Summit Lodges ........................................................................ 29
UTILITIES ........................................................................................................................ 31
Snowmaking ......................................................................................................... 31
SKI RESORTS: Additional Amenities & Urbanization of the Ski Hill ........................... 33
Seasonality Diversification ................................................................................... 35
SNOWBOARDING .......................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 2 – DEVELOPMENT OF SKIING IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
EARLY CALIFORNIA .................................................................................................... 42
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ............................................................................................ 44
Early Southern California ..................................................................................... 44
Winter Carnivals ................................................................................................... 45
Ski Jumping .......................................................................................................... 48
Development of Downhill Skiing ......................................................................... 49
Advances in Ski Equipment .................................................................................. 50
Post-war Skiing Boom .......................................................................................... 56
Stagnation and Decline of Skiing ......................................................................... 59
Snowboarding in Southern California .................................................................. 61
Contemporary Skiing in Southern California ....................................................... 63

CHAPTER 3 –EVOLUTIONS OF A SKI HILL: BIG PINES TO MOUNTAIN
HIGH
BIG PINES ........................................................................................................................ 66
Geographical Context ........................................................................................... 66
Early Development of Big Pines: 1851-1924 ....................................................... 67
Big Pines Recreation Camp: 1925-1941 ............................................................... 68

iv

MOUNTAIN HIGH .......................................................................................................... 77
Blue Ridge/Mountain High West .......................................................................... 79
Holiday Hill/Mountain High East ......................................................................... 82
Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High North ............................................. 92
Mountain High: 1975-2012 ................................................................................. 100
Contemporary Mountain High106
Mountain High West ............................................................................... 107
Mountain High East ................................................................................ 108
Mountain High North .............................................................................. 109

CHAPTER 4 - CONSERVATION OF SKI HILLS
LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION FRAMEWORK ...................................................... 110
Types of Cultural Landscapes ............................................................................. 111
Cultural Landscape Conservation ....................................................................... 112
CONSERVATION PRECEDENTS & CHALLENGES ................................................ 114
Environmental Conservation .............................................................................. 114
Base Lodges, Villages, and Facilities ................................................................. 116
Ski Lifts ............................................................................................................... 118
Ski Trails ............................................................................................................. 120
Other Typological Elements ............................................................................... 123
Ski Hills as Cultural Landscapes and Historic Districts ..................................... 123
CASE STUDY: MOUNTAIN HIGH ............................................................................. 127
Natural Systems & Features ................................................................................ 127
Spatial Organization ............................................................................................ 128
Land Use ............................................................................................................. 130
Circulation ........................................................................................................... 131
Vegetation ........................................................................................................... 134
Buildings & Structures ........................................................................................ 134
Landscape Features ............................................................................................. 139
Analysis ............................................................................................................... 142

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 147

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 150

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: View from Holiday Hill, CA ............................................................................ 5
Figure 1.2: Party on ski train to Snoqualmie Pass, circa 1939. .......................................... 8
Figure 1.3: Automobiles on paved Big Pines Highway near Blue Ridge, in CA ............. 11
Figure 1.4: J-bar lift at Soda Springs, California. ............................................................. 15
Figure 1.5: Magic Carpet lift at Mammoth Mountain, CA. .............................................. 16
Figure 1.6: Ski school at Snow Valley, CA and rope tow, circa 1952. ............................. 18
Figure 1.7: Chairlift at Sun Valley’s Rudd Mountain, circa 1938. ................................... 19
Figure 1.8: Gondola loading terminal at Mammoth Mountain, CA. ................................. 20
Figure 1.9: Skiing at Snow Valley, CA, circa 1958. ......................................................... 22
Figure 1.10: Snowboarders and skier using a traverse trail at Mammoth Mountain, CA,
2013. .................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 1.11: Cleared and groomed ski trail at Lake Louise, Canada with Rocky
Mountains in the background, 2010. ................................................................................. 25
Figure 1.12: Stowe, Vermont. ........................................................................................... 27
Figure 1.13: Holiday Hill base lodge, situated between the parking lot and the ski lifts
........................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 1.14: “McCoy Station” mid-mountain lodge and gondola terminal at Mammoth
Mountain, CA. .................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 1.15: Air snow guns at Mountain High West. ....................................................... 33
Figure 1.16: Challenger Inn at Sun Valley, circa 1936. .................................................... 34
Figure 1.17: Slopestyle competition in terrain park, 2011 ................................................ 40
Figure 1.18: Professional level half-pipe at Canada Olympic Park, Canada. .................. 41
Figure 2.1: Big Pines Arch and Snow Blower. ................................................................. 45
Figure 2.2: Orange Grove and Snowy Mountains postcard. ............................................. 47
Figure 2.3: Ski school at Snow Valley, CA and rope tow, circa 1952. ............................. 51
Figure 2.4: Advertisement for U.S. Star Ski Binding. ...................................................... 53
Figure 2.5: Snowboarder riding a “pillow line” in the backcountry. ................................ 56
Figure 2.6: Inventory of Southern California ski hills. ..................................................... 58
Figure 2.7: Map of major ski hills of Southern California, current and historic. ............. 59
Figure 2.8: Architectural rendering for Rebel Ridge Alpine Village & Lodge, Big Bear,
CA. .................................................................................................................................... 61

Figure 3.1: Location map of Wrightwood, California. ..................................................... 66
Figure 3.2: 1930s map of routes from Los Angeles to Big Pines Recreation Camp
........................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 3.3: Swarthout Valley Lodge, Big Pines Recreation Hall, and cabins on the rear
slope, circa 1933. .............................................................................................................. 69
Figure 3.4: Big Pines Arch with the two lodges in the background, circa 1926. ............. 70
Figure 3.5: Toboggan slope at Big Pines, circa 1928. ...................................................... 73
Figure 3.6: Crowd watches as ski jumpers compete at Big Pines, circa 1925. ................. 74
Figure 3.7: Big Pine Camp ski trail map, circa 193575
Figure 3.8: Blue Ridge rope tow. ...................................................................................... 77
Figure 3.9: Overlay map of contemporary Mountain High, illustrating the three originally
independent ski hills, the contemporary names, as well as historic names. ..................... 78

vi

Figure 3.10: Periods of development of Blue Ridge/Mountain High West. ...................... 79
Figure 3.11: Blue Ridge single chairlift and lift line. ........................................................ 80
Figure 3.12: Blue Ridge double chairlift with parking lot and base facilities in
background, circa 1960. .................................................................................................... 81
Figure 3.13: Blue Ridge location and trail map, circa 1975. ............................................. 82
Figure 3.14: Periods of development of Holiday Hill/Mountain High East. .................... 84
Figure 3.15: The Benedikter chairlift at Holiday Hill. ...................................................... 85
Figure 3.16: Photo of Holiday Hill with double chairlift. ................................................. 86
Figure 3.17: Postcard of Holiday Hill with base facilities, original double chairlift,
parking lot, and “Olympic Bowl.” .................................................................................... 87
Figure 3.18: Trail map of Holiday Hill. ............................................................................ 88
Figure 3.19: New summit lodge at Holiday Hill, circa 1968. ........................................... 90
Figure 3.20: Chairlifts and ski trails at Holiday Hill, circa 1974. ..................................... 90
Figure 3.21: Photograph of Mountain High East, formerly Holiday Hill. ....................... 91
Figure 3.22: Periods of development of Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High
North. ................................................................................................................................ 93
Figure 3.23: Rope tow drive engine at Table Mountain. .................................................. 94
Figure 3.24: Ticket booth at Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise. ............................................... 94
Figure 3.25: Table Mountain Trail Map, circa 1960. ....................................................... 97
Figure 3.26: Skiers on Table Mountain advanced terrain with poma lift in the
background. ....................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 3.27: The original day lodge rebranded. ................................................................ 99
Figure 3.28: Mountain High West, formerly Blue Ridge. ............................................... 102
Figure 3.29: Mountain High East ski school on beginner slopes with base area below. 103
Figure 3.30: Mountain High trail map with West (right) and East (left) areas illustrated,
circa 1981. ....................................................................................................................... 104
Figure 3.31: Comparison of North, East, and West Resorts Lifts and Trails (2013-2014
season). ............................................................................................................................ 106
Figure 3.32: Periods of development of Blue Ridge/Mountain High West. .................... 107
Figure 3.33: Periods of development of Holiday Hill/Mountain High East. .................. 108
Figure 3.34: Periods of development of Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High
North. .............................................................................................................................. 109

Figure 4.1: Front elevation, with ground floor entrance of National Historic Landmark
Timberline Lodge, Mount Hood, Oregon. ...................................................................... 116
Figure 4.2: Village from Sun Valley Lodge, circa 1940. ................................................ 118
Figure 4.3: Aspen Boat Tow. .......................................................................................... 122
Figure 4.4: Abandoned ski trail at Mountain High North with evident erosion patterns.122
Figure 4.5: Tower 4 Mad River Glen single chairlift, Vermont, circa 2006. .................. 125
Figure 4.6: Swarthout Valley with Mountain High East in the distance. ....................... 128
Figure 4.7: Hole 6 on “Frisbee-Golf” course at Mountain High North. ......................... 130
Figure 4.8: Intersection on Big Pines Highway with Big Pines Lodge and remnants of the
Big Pines Arch. Right turn-off leads to Mountain High West, far left to Mountain High
North. .............................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 4.9: Mountain High West parking lot with lodge on right. .................................. 132
Figure 4.10: Road from Big Pines Highway to Mountain High North. .......................... 133

vii

Figure 4.11: Mountain High North “upside-down” orientation with parking lot at top of
“North Pole Tubing Park.” .............................................................................................. 133
Figure 4.12: Base lodge at Mountain High West. ........................................................... 135
Figure 4.13: Cabins adjacent to “Easy Street,” Mountain High West. ........................... 135
Figure 4.14: “Roadrunner” and “Coyote” double chairlift loading terminals, Mountain
High West. ....................................................................................................................... 136
Figure 4.15: Mountain High East “Olympic Bowl and original base lodge.” ................ 136
Figure 4.16: Original Table Mountain Lodge at Mountain High North. ........................ 137
Figure 4.17: Table Mountain rope tow drive terminal at Mountain High North. ........... 138
Figure 4.18: Table Mountain 1960 poma lift drive terminal at Mountain High North. . 138
Figure 4.19: Mountain High West on Blue Ridge. .......................................................... 140
Figure 4.20: Surface parking lot and “Easy Rider” chair and beginner area at Mountain
High East. ....................................................................................................................... 140
Figure 4.21: Original Table Mountain ski trail at Mountain High North. ...................... 141
Figure 4.22: 1960s advanced terrain Table Mountain expansion. .................................. 141
Figure 4.23: Ski trail at Mountain High North looking out over the Mojave Desert. .... 142
Figure 4.24: Table Mountain era poma lift unloading terminal. ..................................... 145
Figure 4.25: Table Mountain era poma lift unloading terminal at Mountain High North.
......................................................................................................................................... 146

viii

ABSTRACT
Ski hills are complex cultural landscapes. Changes in the ski industry, the rise of
environmentalism, and the onset of climate change and the resulting shifts in weather
patterns, have had a dramatic impact on this now somewhat threatened resource type.
These issues have affected ski hills throughout North America, but especially in the
context of Southern California, where winter recreation has always had a tenuous
existence due to inconsistent snowfalls. This thesis analyzes and outlines the typological
elements of ski hills as cultural landscapes, with a particular focus on historic Mountain
High, California. Through site analysis and examination of a handful of precedents, this
thesis develops a framework for the evaluation and conservation of ski hills as cultural
landscapes.

1

INTRODUCTION
A news publication in Whistler, British Columbia – home of the famous Whistler-
Blackcomb Ski Resort – produced an article that discussed how the massive tourism
aspect that drives the resort has displaced the local skiers from the ski hill. The
substantial development of the area, which peaked leading up to the Vancouver 2010
Winter Olympics, has completely altered the character of the hill, further alienating
denizen skiers. This article speculates about the creation of a new hill, one that would
embrace a more traditional “rootsy” ski experience, beyond the tourism oriented chaos of
the Whistler-Blackcomb village.
1
Although this article discuses new tangible
developments rather than the conservation of a previous one, it is advocating for the
conservation of intangible cultural aspects that have been lost in the wake of large scale
resort development and shifting use patterns. For those that partake in the sport, the ski
hill can be a very meaningful place. Ski hills are where memories are created,
relationships are built, nature is celebrated, personal improvement comes to fruition,
tragedy occurs, and history is appreciated. The ski hill is a cultural landscape.
Of the contemporary discussions occurring in the field of heritage conservation,
one of the most complex is that of the cultural landscape. Cultural landscapes, according
to the National Parks Service, are complex resources that feature a combination of natural
and topographical aspects of the environment that have either been deliberately designed
by humans, have associative ethno-cultural meanings, are the site of an important historic
event, or are shaped by peoples daily activities.
2
Essentially, almost any part of our
environment could be considered a cultural landscape, although people tend to associate
significance with certain places instead of others. For those of the skiing and
snowboarding community, the ski hill can be a very significant space.
Southern California is a particularly fascinating region within the context of
skiing and snowboarding. Traditionally, Northern California is associated with the sport,
particularly the resorts within the Lake Tahoe area. Southern California, due in large part

1
Michael Beaudry, “Searching for Soul – Could a Rootsy Alternate-Style Ski Area be Developed in Sea to
Sky?,” Pique News Magazine, March 6, 2014, accessed March 8, 2014,
http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/searching-for-soul-andndash-could-a-rootsy-alternate-style-
ski-area-actually-be-developed-in-sea-to-sky/Content?oid=2547936.
2
Charles A. Birnbaum and Christine Capella Peters, ed., The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the
Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes (Washington
DC: National Park Service Historic Landscape Initiative, 1996), 6.

2

to its Mediterranean climate, is more commonly associated with surfing, skateboarding,
golf, and other sports that are somewhat adversative with snow. However, Southern
California has also been an integral region in the development of winter recreation not
only in the state, but also in North America. With rising temperatures, erratic snowfall,
competition between ski hill operations, and increasing tourism access to large
destination ski resorts, the ski hills of Southern California are a threatened landscape.
North American ski hills are all facing these issues, but their effects resonate with
the ski hills of Southern California. Of the dozens of ski hills that were once in operation
around the southland, only five remain operating. Mountain High, which serves as a case
study for this thesis, has an extensive history and significance as a recreational center
within Southern California. It is of particular importance as the location of some of the
earliest, and most prominent, winter carnivals held in Southern California, which served
as a catalyst for downhill skiing in the region. The evolution of Mountain High reflects
the challenges that other ski hills are facing both in terms of conservation and evolving
trends in the ski industry.
The first chapter examines the ski hill as a cultural landscape typology. Ski hills
are multifaceted landscapes. They rely on a combination of natural and manmade
elements that must appear to be limited in invasiveness, yet construct the necessary
recreational spaces. Ski hills have grown increasingly more complex as tourism and real
estate development have taken an increasingly larger role in the evolution of these places.
The essential typological features of the North American ski hill will be examined,
including those elements that are directly correlated with the proliferation of
snowboarding in North America.
The second chapter will outline the historical context of downhill skiing within
Southern California. In order to fully understand the evolution of these landscapes, it is
essential that the general trends and evolution of the sport, as well as its supporting
subcultural base, be illustrated.
The third chapter will provide specific historical and developmental background
of Mountain High, including the role of the Big Pines Recreation Camp, the development
of the three individual ski hills – Blue Ridge, Holiday Hill, and Table Mountain/Ski
Sunrise – as well as their consolidation as the contemporary Mountain High Resort. The

3

chapter includes a discussion of these places in the context of regional downhill skiing
and analysis of the typological evolution of the landscapes associated with Mountain
High.
The fourth chapter will examine the framework for cultural landscape
conservation, as it exists contemporarily, as outlined the National Parks Service.
Addressing ski hills as landscapes worthy of conservation through this framework is a
recent phenomenon; with only a handful of precedents, which have varied in approach,
methodology, and success. These examples are applied to Mountain High in order to
better understand these complex cultural landscapes.

4

CHAPTER 1 – SKI HILL AS A TYPOLOGY

The ski hill is an advanced modern cultural landscape that has evolved in a number of
ways, depending on the socio-cultural and geographical conditions of the specific area in
which it is situated. However, like any cultural landscape, there are certain parallels
between sites that assist in determining basic typologies to increase our understanding of
these complex systems and socio-culturally significant spaces. Trying to define the ski
hill as a cultural landscape in North America is not as easy as one might first envision.
Ideally, a ski hill would be defined as a location where the sport of downhill skiing and
snowboarding is conducted. There might have been an instance that such a definition
would be sufficient, but contemporary ski hill developments and configurations have
provided a multitude of examples that range from small weekend operations to the urbane
international destination resorts. These two extremes, and everything between, can be
considered a ski hill under such a broad definition, but clearly the patterns of
development and specifics of a particular place have created the conditions for variance
within the ski hill typology. In the Urban Land Institute’s Resort Development Handbook,
the authors have defined four major types of ski hill areas:
• “Type 1: a true international destination resort…”
• “Type 2: similar in scope, but less established the marketplace and offers fewer
cultural and social opportunities…”
• “Type 3: facility that features high-quality skiing but, for a variety of reason,
offers little in terms of real estate development…”
• “Type 4: very small ski operation is often operationally marginal and usually
operates only on weekends.”
3

This categorization is engineered from a real estate development standpoint, but can offer
some insight into the complex nature of how ski hills have developed. However, in order
to understand what defines a ski hill as a cultural landscape, one must examine the
fundamental components, the history, socio-cultural conditions, and the numerous aspects
of the environment within the context of a particular place. Foremost, in order for a ski

3
Dean Schwanke et al., Resort Development Handbook (Washington D.C.: The Urban Land Institute,
1997), 148.

5

hill to exist, there are a few traditionally essential geographical conditions that must be in
place: varied topography, snow, and access.

TOPOGRAPHY
The topography is the defining feature of a ski hill. It consists of the vistas, views,
ecologies, settings, and spaces that are significant components of a ski hill. (Figure 1.1)
Traditionally, all one really needed was a slope of minimal steepness in order to
participate in downhill skiing, but the evolution of the sport has pushed the limits far
beyond this humble necessity for a simple gradient. Each site has its site-specific qualities
and characteristics, but incline is still absolutely necessary.
4

Figure 1.1: View from Holiday Hill, CA. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

4
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 149.

6

SNOWFALL
Snow is paramount to the successful operation and ultimate existence of a ski
hill.
5
Without it, a ski hill cannot function. This goes beyond the simple reality of
whether snow exists or not, because the amount of snow throughout a season often
dictates the success of the operation. For example: the ski season of 2013-2014 has been
dismal for Mammoth Mountain of Mammoth Lakes, California. With low snowfalls in
the Sierra Mountains, Mammoth Mountain was unable to fully open their operations until
February 13, 2014, well after the peak holidays.
6
With only sixty inches of snow falling
before January 31, 2014, Mammoth Mountain is facing a revenue loss of $17.1 million
with skier visits down 37% from the previous season.
7
This loss of income and inability
to open the entirety of the ski hill meant that many employees were facing drastically
reduced hours and potential lay offs.
8
These numbers are just for the ski hill. The adjacent
town site and the amenities there that are correlated with the resort will undoubtedly be
dealing with similar issues as well.
Snowfall is the lifeblood of ski hills and, as the aforementioned example exhibits,
could have substantial long-term implications for the operation of ski hills. Luckily,
snowfall trends tend to be cyclical, meaning that for every dismal season there happens to
be a record-breaking one a few years later. This means that ski hill operations have to be
oriented around these cycles. There have been efforts to mitigate the effects of poor
snowfall, but these results are somewhat mixed and insignificant in their impact upon the
cultural landscapes of ski hills when compared to a substantial winter storm system.

ACCESS & INFRASTRUCTURE
One of the most fundamental components of the ski hill typology is infrastructural
access. Whether it is the local hill, or a far-off destination resort; without the ability for
the skier to reach such a location, the ski hill itself would be hard-pressed to remain

5
Experimentations in alternative ski surfaces will be investigated in Chapter 2 with specific examples from
Southern California.
6
“Mammoth Mountain to Open 100% of its Terrain,” Mammoth Times, February 10, 2014, accessed
February 12, 2014, http://mammothtimes.com/content/mammoth-mountain-open-100-terrain.
7
Megan Barber, “No Snow & Angry Employees: Can it Get Worse for Mammoth?,” Curbed Ski, February
4, 2014, accessed February 12, 2014, http://ski.curbed.com/archives/2014/02/no-snow-angry-employees-
can-it-get-any-worse-for-mammoth.php.
8
Ibid.

7

operational and exist in any form. Ski hills are usually located in remote areas with
varied topography and are prone to snowfall. This presents infrastructural challenges that
have to be taken into consideration, leading to investments in highways, rail systems,
airports, snowplows, and other access infrastructure necessities.
When skiing was first introduced to North America, the automobile was still a
relatively new invention. In addition, the quality of roads with access to these locations,
in addition to snow removal techniques, was precarious at best. There were a few
instances where early local ski areas could be accessed by automobiles, but other, more
reliable, transportation methods were necessary for the development of the skiing.

Railways & “Ski Trains”
The concept of a railway transportation service designed specifically for skiers
had been implemented in European resorts for a number of years, but the first North
American implementation of rail travel specific to skiers was in the Laurentian
Mountains of Quebec, Canada. The Canadian Pacific and the Canadian National Railway
both offered services starting in 1927 that would transport the skiers to the new ski hills
fifty miles beyond the city of Montreal.
9
The idea was implemented in the United States
in 1931 when members of Ski Clubs based out of Boston started to charter trains to reach
the early ski destinations, the specific location of which was often chosen based upon the
best snow reports. The first trains were said to have served as clubhouses as jubilant
skiers boarded and left the city for a weekend of snowy slopes and other festivities.
10

(Figure 1.2) These trains became increasingly popular and many clubs in Boston, New
York, New Haven, Philadelphia, Washington DC, and others, started to adopt the idea.
Many who started to take the trains knew absolutely nothing of the sport, but were
enticed by the camaraderie and socializing that had created a romantic escape from the
city. The railways soon carried rental equipment and hired ski instructors and coaches in
order to accommodate the beginners.
11
This access to equipment, instruction, socializing,
and the early ski hill made the ski train an essential catalyst for development of the North

9
John Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing (Lebanon: University Press of New England, 2006), 13.
10
E. John B Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred years of and American Sport, 1840-1940
(Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1993),104-105.
11
Ibid., 106-107.

8

American ski hill. This model was particularly successful in the North Eastern region of
the United States, where many of the mountain ranges and ski areas were not that far
removed from the major population centers. It was expanded to other areas of the country
throughout the 1930s.

Figure 1.2: Party on ski train to Snoqualmie Pass, circa 1939. Photo courtesy of the Museum of History &
Industry/Seattle P-I Collection; image PI26880 (https://content.lib.washington.edu/u?/imlsmohai,6738).

The early ski hills that were developing in the west had a different set of
circumstances that helped in their development: rugged topography, smaller population
centers, heavier snowfall, and larger distances. However, transportation via train was still
an important component to early ski hill development. As in the East, much of the first
rail access to ski areas was provided along the Canadian Pacific, particularly to Banff and
Lake Louise, where grand hotels owned and operated by the Canadian Pacific offered
many the opportunity to experience a multitude of recreational opportunities that were
provided all year round by the Canadian Rockies.
12
The Ski Train model of ski

12
“History of Banff Town,” Lonely Planet, accessed February 12, 2014,
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/canada/alberta/banff-town/history.

9

orientation transportation was still implemented, albeit on a smaller scale, in the western
United States as well. Smaller population centers and larger distances meant that the ski
trains were not as pervasive as they were in the east. The Cascade Mountains were
serviced through Seattle, Washington; the Sierra Nevadas via San Francisco, California;
and the Rocky Mountains via Denver, Colorado; the latter of which did not actually stop
at a destination, but slowed to the point where the skiers on board could hurl their
equipment off the train and jump into the snow banks that lined the railway.
13
The most
important development in terms of railway access came in 1936 with the opening of Sun
Valley in Idaho.
The major railroad companies all played a substantial role in promoting tourism
during the early years of twentieth century, particularly within the National Parks
throughout the West. Each railroad company promoted the natural scenery of the parks
they had access to in a tireless fashion in the hopes of boosting long distance ticket sales.
The Great Northern had Glacier National Park, the Santa Fe helped develop the Grand
Canyon National Monument, the Northern Pacific advertised Yellowstone, and the
Southern Pacific provided access to Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks.
14
This
correlation between the railroads and the American landscape as a tourist commodity was
firmly established by 1935 when Union Pacific Chairman, W. Averell Harriman sought
to establish a winter destination resort.
15
The only railroad company that did not have a
substantial investment in an area of immense natural beauty was that of the Union
Pacific. The competing companies all had these destinations where thousands paid the
long-distance ticket prices to visit throughout the year. Harriman was well aware of the
Canadian Pacific’s success with resorts in the Rocky Mountains and felt a similar model
of would be beneficial to Union Pacific ticket ridership.
16

The town of Ketchum, like so many throughout the mountain West, was a former
mining town that had long since gone bust, which was only enhanced further by the
crippling economic climate of the 1930s. The community was almost entirely isolated in

13
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 108-109.
14
Dayton Duncan, “Episode 3: The Empire of Grandeur -1915-1919,” The National Parks: America’s
Greatest Idea, directed by Ken Burns (2009).
15
Margaret Smith, American Ski Resort: Architecture, Style, Experience (Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 2013), 37-38.
16
Ibid., 38.

10

the winter due to lack of snow removal and only a limited amount of rail service. In 1935,
Harriman hired Count Felix Schaffgotsch to scout suitable locations for a brand new
Union Pacific-owned ski resort.
17
He identified a windless valley just a mile outside the
sleepy village of Ketchum, Idaho. Construction began immediately on the “Shangri-La of
America” and the first ski destination resort in North America was built in only seven
months and touted some of the most luxurious accommodations and amenities of the
day.
18
The appropriately named Sun Valley was an instant sensation among those who
could afford to stay there, as well as the Union Pacific ticket that would take them to this
new winter playground of the rich, famous, and beautiful.
Rail access to ski resorts, although still very popular throughout Europe and
influential in the development of North American skiing, has diminished in importance
since the widespread adoption of the automobile as the main form of transportation.

Highway Development
Road access to ski hills was always a necessity, but the challenges of developing
and maintaining this essential infrastructure has always been an issue. The topography
leading towards many ski hill locations is almost always mountainous, which can present
a number of engineering challenges and increase the overall construction costs when
developing road access. The presence of snow and harsh weather patterns presents a
different set of challenges as these slow construction, make driving conditions dangerous,
and can lead to avalanches that potentially block mountain passes for extended periods of
time. Regardless of these dangers and challenges, the highway and access road is crucial
to the North American ski hill typology. (Figure 1.3)

17
John C. Jay, Ski Down the Years (New York: Award House, 1966), 103.
18
Sun Valley, “About Us - History” accessed January 25, 2014, http://www.sunvalley.com/footer/about/.

11

Figure 1.3: Automobiles on paved Big Pines Highway near Blue Ridge, in CA. Photo courtesy of the
California Ski Library.

There are countless examples that illustrate the importance of highway
development and correlation to ski hill development. In 1925, the Mount Hood Loop
Highway was constructed, linking the city of Portland, Oregon to the rich recreationally
rich forests surrounding Mount Hood. With this access established, the demand for more
recreational facilities increased. There was the modest Cloud Cap Inn, but this nineteenth
century building was seen as inadequate and antiquated.
19
The onset of the great
depression pushed back initial plans to establish another mountain lodge, but these plans
were resumed by the Roosevelt administrations Works Progress Administration (WPA)
working with the CCC and the US Forest Service to construct the Timberline Lodge. The
highway would be upgraded further as construction materials and employees congregated
on the side of Mt. Hood to build one of the most iconic ski lodges in the United States.
20

Another iconic highway development was that of Highway 40, which transverses the
infamous Donner Pass in California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains. This region is known for
particularly heavy snowfalls that can make travel perilous even in contemporary times.
Highway 40 allowed for people to travel from San Francisco and the Central Valley to
the Tahoe region in just a few hours, rather than a few days. This highway allowed for a

19
Smith, American Ski Resort, 26.
20
Ibid., 26-27.

12

number of different ski hills to develop, including the Disney-backed Sugar Bowl, which
opened in 1939.
21
One of the most important highway developments in relation to a ski
hill was that of the Interstate Route 70, which runs through the Colorado Rocky
Mountains. Pete Seibert and Earl Eaton began planning what would become one of the
largest ski hills in North America; Vail, Colorado.
22
Seibert and Eaton, along with the
backing of some Denver-based investors, began purchasing ranching land along U.S.
Highway 6 in the hopes of developing a ski area in the Gore Creek Valley. They formally
received their use permit from the US Forest Service and instantly started making the
necessary installations to establish their ski area, which opened in December of 1962.
23

This route was designated for the new Interstate 70, which is one of the most impressive
engineering projects of the interstate system. The entrepreneurial spirit, bordering on
boosterism, coincided with the opening of this impressive access route and created the
necessary catalysts to catapult Vail from a small ranching area to one of the premier ski
destinations in North America.
24

Parking
Alongside the increasing number of automobiles that were bringing skiers to the
hill, the need for parking facilities became increasingly important. For the early
destination resort, Sun Valley, this was not a pressing concern as many of the patrons
came to the remote Idaho valley by the Union Pacific Railway. However, for those ski
hills accessible by highway, particularly those that were oriented to weekend skiers from
relatively local population centers, the importance of parking became a very pressing
matter. Many parking lots were situated near the lifts, cleared of vegetation, and graded
to accommodate a few hundred cars. For those early ski hills within National Parks and
Forests, the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps conducted much of the work
necessary for parking lot construction.
25
As the number of skiers increased after the
Second World War, so did the need for parking capacity. Surface parking lots, the most
economic and easily constructed option, are certainly the norm for ski hill development.

21
Smith, American Ski Resort, 32-34.
22
Clifford, Downhill Slide, 15.
23
Ibid., 15.
24
Smith, American Ski Resort, 82.
25
Ibid., 21.

13

Sometimes topographical limitations made the expansion of surface parking lots
difficult, if not outright impossible. New parking lots were sometimes constructed at a
site removed from the base lodge area. These lots were often accessed through a series of
road loops that would circulate past the main base lodge, allowing the skier to drop off
equipment and passengers before proceeding to necessary parking lot. This also helped to
creation a processional series of views, vistas, and experiences leading up to the arrival of
the ski hill.
26
This scenario can be exacerbated if circulation of automobiles is poor
around the base lodge facilities. Limited surface parking often forces many to park along
the shoulder of the access highways leading to many ski resorts, increasing the distance
one must walk with all their necessary gear before they reach the lift, which can cause the
guest substantial discomfort.
27
Some resorts have installed shuttle services to removed
parking areas, whereas others have explored parking structure facilities to alleviate the
situational parking challenges; however, this tends to only exist at major destination ski
resorts due in large part to their high construction and maintenance costs.
28

Air Travel
Early air travel to ski hills was relatively limited in scope and scale, focusing
particularly in the New England region from the major cities.
29
However, with the
widespread adoption of jet-engine airplanes, the impact of air travel has had a great effect
on North American ski hills. In the same time skiers could drive to their local hill, they
might also be able to fly to their destination ski resort of choice. This was detrimental in
many ways to the smaller ski hills, as skiers opted to travel to the large destinations that
offered ideal snow conditions, varied terrain, and a multitude of amenities. This
competition was crippling for many of the smaller ski operations and forced many of the
larger resorts, which are not within a few hours drive of a major city, to invest in the

26
Page & Turnbull, et al, “Determination of Eligibility: Badger Pass Ski Area, Yosemite National Park,
CA,” (San Francisco: Page & Turnbull, 2009), 30-31, accessed March 13, 2014,
http://www.nps.gov/yose/historyculture/upload/Badger-Pass-low-res.pdf.
30-31.
27
Richard J. Diedrich, Building Type Basics for Recreational Facilities (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,
2005), 82.
28
Ibid., 82.
29
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 147.

14

development of their very own airports.
30
Mammoth Mountain, Vail, Aspen, Sun Valley,
and Jackson Hole are a few such remote ski resorts that have developed extensive airport
facilities in the hopes of increasing patron numbers, with mixed results.
31
Air access is an
essential component of major resort destinations, mostly because this allows for an
increase in major market accessibility and convenience of travel. The number of flights,
variance of airfares, market interest, and quality of airport facilities can all play
substantial roles in the creation and maintenance of successful air access.
32
The real-
estate investment website RealtyTrac stressed the importance of air access when they
released an article to aid those contemplating investing in a ski-oriented property. The
piece lists the towns that they claim to be the most sound for investment in conjunction
with their reasoning behind why these towns would be best. Airport access was listed as
the first because “the property should be easy to get to for both you and other
vacationers.”
33
Air travel access has quickly become one of the primary concerns when
discussing the viability of all ski hills. For destination resorts, it allows for more patrons
to utilize their services and facilities, but for the smaller operations it can equate to an
increased number of competitors outside of their traditional region of business.

SKI LIFTS
The invention and subsequent widespread adoption of the ski lift has left an
irreversible and lasting affect on the landscape of the ski hill. These are the primary
modes of transportation of the skier through the ski hill landscape. The evolution in ski
lifts was driven mostly by the simple desire for more runs down the slope. This initially
meant getting an individual up to the top as fast as possible with as little effort as
possible, but with the explosive growth and diversification of the sport, this meant that
lifts had to be engineered to carry substantially more people at even faster rates to new
and varied terrain, previously inaccessible.

30
Hal Clifford, Downhill Slide: Why the Corporate Ski Industry is Bad for Skiing, Ski Towns, and the
Environment (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 2002), 92.
31
Ibid.
32
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 385.
33
Daren Blomquist, “Best Ski Towns for Real Estate Investing,” Realty Trac, January 10, 2014, accessed
January 26, 2014, http://www.realtytrac.com/content/news-and-opinion/best-ski-resort-towns-for-real-
estate-investing-7961.

15

There are generally two major types of ski lifts: aerial and surface. Aerial lifts are
those that involve transportation of the skiers by an elevated system, such as chairlifts
(detached and fixed), aerial trams, and gondolas. Surface lifts usually employ a system
where a skier remains on their skis and is subsequently pulled up the mountain. This
includes early lift types - rope tows, handle tows, J-bars, T-bars, and pomas - but also
includes the recent development of the “magic carpet,” which is essentially a moving
walkway oriented for beginner skiers.
34
(Figures 1.4, 1.5, 1.6)

Figure 1.4: J-bar lift at Soda Springs, California. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

34
E. John B Allen, Historical Dictionary of Skiing (Lanham: Scarecrow Press Inc., 2012), 170-171.

16

Figure 1.5: Magic Carpet lift at Mammoth Mountain, CA. Photo courtesy of Annija Gaskell.

Like so many other commonplace elements of the ski hill typology, the ski lift has
somewhat ambiguous beginnings. There are accounts of late nineteenth century skiers in
Johnsville, California, implementing mechanized mining infrastructure as a way to
ascend the hills by simply riding in the ore buckets.
35
A steam-powered toboggan tow
was built in Truckee, California for their Winter Carnival in 1910 to facilitate the popular
activity of sledding, but would be put to further use by the Truckee Ski Club after their
formation in 1913.
36
Aside from these few examples of early North American lift
systems, the main methods of ascension usually meant that the skier hiked up the slope
by foot with all of the necessary equipment in hand, or by strapping into their skis and
sidestepping up the hill.
37
These exhaustive forms of scaling ski slopes would become
somewhat obsolete in the winter of 1931 as the first rope-tow style surface lift was
installed in the Laurentian Mountains. Alex Foster, a ski jumper from Montreal,
constructed this early rope tow on “The Big Hill” outside the town of Shawbridge,

35
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 109.
36
Gordon Richards, “Hilltop Winter Sports Area History,” Truckee Donner Historical Society Inc.,
accessed January 21, 2014, http://truckeehistory.org/historyArticles/history34.htm.
37
Allen, Historical Dictionary of Skiing, 170.

17

Quebec, and was comprised of a four-cylinder Dodge sedan engine set on cement blocks
and 2,400 feet of hemp rope, which ran around a system of pulleys and a tireless wheel.
38

The first in the United States was at Gilbert’s Hill near the town of Woodstock, Vermont,
which was almost identical to the invention by Foster, except it employed a Model-T
Ford engine and a tire tractor as the main drive system. It pulled skiers up the 900 foot
slope at a rate of five to ten miles per/hour, reaching the top in approximately one minute,
which was an ecstatically received improvement to the previous fifteen minute hike.
39

An invention of humble means, the rope tow allowed for the skier to grab hold
and be pulled - or more often dragged – up to the top of the ski area in a short period of
time, allowing for a previously unimaginable number of runs over the course of the day.
(Figure 1.6) The simplicity of the invention and the luxury it provided by eliminating the
strenuous on-foot methods of ascending the ski slope made this a catalyst for
development of the sport. There were some that felt this was against the original ideals
and motivations behind the sport, celebrating ones own athletic ability and cohabitation
with nature, but the vast majority of people saw the rope tow as a boon to the sport.
40

This ingeniously unassuming, yet relatively effective, system soon permeated throughout
North America as the premier ski lift type for the next several decades, making it
available to anyone with access to a snow covered slope and a few scrap parts for their
lift. Although less physically demanding that hiking up the slopes, the early rope tows
were difficult to use. Many who were unsure on skis fell and were dragged up the hill,
while more accomplished skiers struggled to remain standing. The ropes could slip or
cause rope burn, so special devices or gloves were created to alleviate these issues.
41
All
difficulties aside, the rope tow was an essential advance in ski lift technology.

38
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 16.
39
Jeff Leich, “Chronology of Selected Ski Lifts: Notes for 2001 Exhibit,” New England Ski Museum, last
modified June, 2012, accessed January 21, 2014, http://newenglandskimuseum.org/wp-
content/uploads/2012/06/ski_lift_timeline.pdf.
40
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 111.
41
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 44.

18

Figure 1.6: Ski school at Snow Valley, CA and rope tow, circa 1952. Photo courtesy of USC Libraries
Special Collections/Los Angeles Examiner Collection 1920-1961; filename EXM-N-9446-017-2
(http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll44/id/34065/rec/116).

The invention of the rope tow only preceded other lift developments by a few
years. The single-passenger J-bar was introduced to the U.S. in 1935 near Dartmouth
College at Hanover, New Hampshire; the double-passenger T-Bar was introduced at Pico
Peak, Vermont in 1940; and the world’s first chairlift was developed at the newly
christened Sun Valley in Idaho.
42

Union Pacific Engineers were put to work in the summer of 1936 to design a new
lift system to be employed at this ski paradise in Idaho. Jim Curran, one such engineer,
took inspiration from banana hoists he had seen at loading docks in Honduras, which he
altered by replacing the hanging basket with a single chair. The Union Pacific Rail yards
in Omaha, Nebraska became his testing ground for this new contraption prior to its
eventual installation at Sun Valley.
43
(Figure 1.7) The chairlift, although considerably

42
Richard Needham, Ski: Fifty Years in North America (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc, 1987), 21.
43
Needham, Ski: Fifty Years, 113.

19

more expensive to manufacture and install, became the workhorse of the ski lift systems
over the following decades. The comfort, relative ease, and rate at which skiers could
ascend the slopes were seen as incalculably beneficial over the physically demanding and
somewhat unreliable rope tow.

Figure 1.7: Chairlift at Sun Valley’s Rudd Mountain, circa 1938. Photo courtesy of The Community
Library/Regional History Department; file RHD-F-10206
(http://lsweb.thecommunitylibrary.org:8000/Nonrestricted/10206.jpg). Permission pending.

This new design became one of the staples in Ski Hill development over the
following decades, leading to new configurations that would accommodate two (“double
chair”), three (“triple chair”), four (“quad”), and six (“six-pack”) skiers on a single chair.
Charlifts are also much faster now have, moving up to 4,000 persons an hour at five
meters/second on the detached chairlift, which allows for maximum transit speeds, but

20

slower speeds at both terminal stations for easier and more accessible loading and
unloading.
44

Other aerial lifts, like gondolas, aerial trams, and cabriolets, have appeared on
North American ski hills over the last few decades. (Figure 1.8) These lifts are
considerably more commonplace within the context of European ski resorts, which is
where they were primarily developed as means of experiencing breathtaking views in the
alpine setting.
45
The appeal of these particular lift types is the ridership capacity, their
speed, their accessibility, and their overall comfort. As opposed to chairlifts, most of
these types involve closed cabins that protect the riders from the elements outside. In
major resort developments these types can be employed not as a ski lift, but as a method
of transportation to move people across the varied elevations and distances of the base
village.

Figure 1.8: Gondola loading terminal at Mammoth Mountain, CA. Photo courtesy of Annija Gaskell.

44
“Products - Detachable Chairlifts,” Doppelmayer Garaventa USA/Canada, accessed January 24, 2014,
http://www.doppelmayrusa.com/doppelmayr-north-america/produkte/kuppelbare-sesselbahnen.html.
45
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 68-69.

21

Lifts have come a long way in their evolution: from the most vernacular and
accessible, albeit haphazard, beginnings, to multi-million dollar investments. Once only
an engine, a rope, and a series of pulleys, chairlifts now require a team of engineers,
construction crews, bulldozers, helicopters, and environmental impact reports in order to
install one of the most necessary components of the ski hill landscape.
46

Today, most North American ski hills and resorts employ a number of different
lift configurations in their operations, including any combination of surface and aerial lift
systems. What is installed and operated often depends on the skiable acreage, the total
vertical rise of the slope, economics, ridership, skier circulation, and the varying
difficulty of the terrain at the specific location.
47

SKI TRAILS
The ski trail, or “run,” is to skiing what the football field is to football. It is the
primary facility where the sport is actually performed. The ski trail, in downhill skiing, is
usually a vertically oriented circulatory space that interacts with the topography and
landscape to provide the skier with a set of tangible and intangible experiences.
48
Ski
trails can be purely manufactured through the clearing of vegetation and the moving of
earth, or they can be based entirely upon natural features with no, or very little,
intervention. They are the medium at which the skier experiences the sport itself, the
outdoor setting, and the traditions associated with ski community culture. (Figure 1.9)

46
Mark C.J. Stoddart, Making Meaning Out of Mountains: The Political Ecology of Skiing (Vancouver:
University of British Columbia Press, 2012), 38-29.
47
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 150-152.
48
Ibid.

22

Figure 1.9: Skiing at Snow Valley, CA, circa 1958. Photo courtesy of USC Libraries Special
Collections/Los Angeles Examiner Collection, 1920-1961; filename EXM-N-12289-073-9
(http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll44/id/64281/rec/68).

The earliest ski trails in North America were simply just natural clearings in
slope-side vegetation. In other instances, particularly in the mining camps of California,
many of these slopes had already been cleared through various industrious processes,
allowing for skiing once the snow fell. These open spaces would prove to be the training
grounds for the earliest downhill skiers.
49
As individuals started to develop their own hills
and ski-designated areas, they would often clear sections of vegetation to create open
spaces for the purpose of skiing. This usually involved augmenting natural clearings in
the vegetation on the slope, to save time, labor, and money. In the 1930s, when the sport
of downhill skiing was first becoming popular and starting to surpass ski jumping and
cross-country, the need for more trails was growing. This coincided with a time where
many in the United States were faced with unemployment, so the Roosevelt

49
Jay, Ski Down the Years, 25-27.

23

Administration founded the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Thousands of people
were put to work, particularly in the US Forests and National Parks where they
constructed and expanded upon existing recreational infrastructure and facilities,
including the clearing and grading of ski trails. Many of the early ski hills around the
United States have trails that were shaped by the efforts of the CCC.
50

The Second World War stopped all ski hill development, but in the years
following the war, the sport took off and reached an epochal “golden age.” This surge of
popularity meant that ski hills had to expand not only to accommodate the number of
patrons, but to compete with other hills as well. Clearings near the base had to be
widened to allow for the runs to funnel into a central space, thus removing any
bottlenecks on the hill. Earth had to be moved to shape certain aspects of the terrain,
particularly traverse trails that are implemented as a way for skiers and grooming
machines to access different areas of the mountain, as well as to provide an “easy way
down” for those that might have been too ambitious prior to their arrival at the top lift
terminal.
51
(Figure 1.10)

Figure 1.10: Snowboarders and skier using a traverse trail at Mammoth Mountain, CA, 2013. Photo
courtesy of James Kasyhap.

50
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 142.
51
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 152.

24

The most successful hills are those that have ski trails that can cater to the widest
range of skier abilities. It is almost essential for a ski hill to have the trails that cater to the
beginner, intermediate, and expert terrain.
52
An issue for many of the earlier hills as they
exist today is that they cannot offer the extensive trail variety that is crucial for a hill to
remain successful. This is due in large part to either siting, lack of topographical
variance, or environmental restrictions that do not allow for expansion. These resorts
have ski trails that may have once been deemed “difficult,” but in the contemporary
perceptions of the sport these trails are now “intermediate.” One way many of these
resorts have dealt with this dilemma is by marketing themselves specifically to beginners
or to families. Other ski hills have a plethora of expert and advanced terrain that would
not be suitable for beginners, limiting their audience.
Ski trails are an essential part of the hill’s branding and a substantial contributor
to a sense of place. Contemporary planners aim to establish a trail based on a number of
tangible components – steepness, orientation with the sun, bailout positions for stopping
without interrupting ski traffic, circulation, uphill capacities, and wind shelter – as well as
the more intangible, like creating a sequence of experiences for the skier. Planning the ski
trail so that a number of ski speeds, terrain types, personal perceptions, views, and vistas
are established helps to achieve some of these more intangible aspects associated with
skiing.
53
(Figure 1.11)

52
Margaret Huffadine, Resort Design: Planning, Architecture, and Interiors (New York: McGraw-Hill,
2000), 277-278.
53
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 152.

25

Figure 1.11: Cleared and groomed ski trail at Lake Louise, Canada with Rocky Mountains in the
background, 2010. Photo by author.

Contemporary trail planning must also take into account snowboarding. This
sport, albeit very similar to skiing, has some logistical peculiarities that must be
considered when planning ski trails.
54
Areas where there are level-grade transitions, or
“flats,” can be extremely problematic for snowboarders. Skiers have had very little
difficulty with these flat areas because of the mobility that their equipment can provide,
which is reminiscent of traditional Nordic skiing. However, snowboarders are strapped
into a single board, meaning their mobility, once gravity and inertia are not in play, can

54
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 152.

26

be very limited. It is common to see snowboarders unstrapping from their bindings in flat
areas and walking to the next point on the trail where they can continue their descent.
This can create bottlenecks on the trail, which is annoying, as well as a safety hazard to
snowboarders and skiers alike. Snowboarders, because of the mobility difficulties that
this can cause, often avoid ski hills with expansive flat spots.
55
Given the popularity and
proliferation of snowboarding, ski hills need to take snowboard-mobility in relation to
flat spots and fall lines into account when developing new trails.

BASE LODGE
Skiing, by its very nature, is a sport that places an individual in harsh climatic
conditions. Mountainous regions are susceptible to dramatic and dynamic weather
patterns throughout the year, but the below-freezing temperatures that can be experienced
with skiing exacerbate the impact these patterns can have on the human body. Shelter
from the winter elements has been an absolute necessity since the first ski area opened in
North America. This has been manifested on ski hills in a number of ways over the years,
reflecting upon numerous architectural styles, amenities, services, and developmental
approaches. Regardless of the variance, these buildings are often defined by the same
term: the lodge.
In New England, where modern North American downhill skiing became popular,
the summer vacation towns in New Hampshire, Vermont, and throughout New York,
were easily adapted to winter use. Skiing - cross country and the emerging downhill
variety – allowed for the continuation of business in the winter months instead of closing
for the season, which incentivized many New England resort towns to establish
themselves as ski centers.
56
These picturesque New England villages – like Franconia,
New Hampshire and Stowe, Vermont – served as some of the first ski resorts, although
they were not designed with the intent of being such.
57
(Figure 1.12)

55
“Skiing vs. Snowboarding – How to Decide,” Snowboarding Essentials, accessed February 8, 2014,
http://www.snowboarding-essentials.com/info/guide/snowboarding/skiing.html.
56
Smith, American Ski Resort, 13-15.
57
Ibid., 17-18.

27

Figure 1.12: Stowe, Vermont. Photo courtesy of the Ski & Snowboard Club of New York/original source
unknown (http://skiclubofnewyork.org/?page_id=33). Permission pending.

In the more isolated and less developed areas, the built elements of the early ski
hill environment could be very haphazard. Often, a series of buildings were erected for to
perform a particular function: a ticket booth, outhouses/restrooms, concession stands, and
a shelter.
58
At Alex Foster’s “Big Hill,” the site of the first rope tow in the Laurentian
Mountains, the base lodge consisted of a crude log shack outfitted with a wood-burning
stove, with adjacent outdoor restrooms.
59
This became the first designed North American
ski hill in that all of the necessary typological elements were there. Along with Foster’s
rope tow, many started to emulate the warming hut, from which a ski hill operator would
often sell simple concessions to those who used the hill. This connection between the
lifts, the ski trails, and the base lodge, remains to be the most definitive pattern of the ski
hill typology.
The earliest lodges, or warming huts as they were sometimes referred to, were
nothing more than log cabins or shacks. These vernacular buildings were simple in style,
often constructed out of readily available, unrefined, and locally sourced materials,

58
Big Pines Winter Sports Carnival brochure, courtesy of the California Ski Library, Wicken collection.
59
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 16.

28

contributing to a regionally rustic appearance. These modest buildings were soon
inadequate as the popularity of downhill skiing continued. New buildings would be
required to meet the growing needs of skiers, so many ski hill operators sought to build
larger, more effective, and formalized spaces that used architecturally stylistic elements
as a form of place-making and brand marketing.
60

The lodge typology is usually one of the central features of the ski hill. It is often
situated between the parking facilities and the base of the hill where the lift entrance
terminals are located. (Figure 1.13) This mean that the ski hill patron usually walks
through the lodge, where they can often purchase lift tickets, visit rental shops, acquire
equipment, procure food and beverages, indulge in après ski culture, register for ski
lessons, or simply just warm up between runs. Because of its position, the lodge serves as
an entrance as well as an egress point. This means that lodges often feature two facades:
one that faces the parking and access circulation, while the other faces the base of the ski
hill and is the prominent building within the context of the base activities.
61

60
Margaret Suplee Smith’s book, American Ski Resort: Architecture, Style, Experience develops the lodge
and resort typology further, discussing the evolution of style, forms, and the development of the ski resort
through the first ski hills to the modern day.
61
William Chad Blackwell, “Silver Slopes: Preserving North America’s Ski Lodges” (MHP Thesis,
University of Georgia, 2005), 74-75.

29

Figure 1.13: Holiday Hill base lodge, situated between the parking lot and the ski lifts. Photo courtesy of
the California Ski Library.

Some lodges go beyond the facilities mentioned above to include accommodations, ski
patrol services, administration offices, and other amenities while other lodges only
feature a handful of the aforementioned services, leaving the remainder to be located in
adjunct buildings. With this much variance and style, it is difficult to define what
constitutes a base lodge, yet an individual can recognize it instantly through its siting and
orientation within the landscape.
62

Mid-Mountain & Summit Lodges
These lodges, similar in many ways to the base lodges in style and form, however
they are different in their orientation within the ski hill landscape, as well as services
provided. Mid-mountain and Summit lodges are mostly implemented as shelters and rest
areas that can be utilized at essential points throughout the circulation of a ski run. They

62
Blackwell, “Silver Slopes,” 73-74.

30

usually offer food and beverage services, expansive seating areas, restrooms, and large
outdoor patios. These lodges are usually oriented in a way that provides the skier with
commanding views and vistas, while providing a degree of comfort away from the
elements.
63
Also, the importance of these building types is becoming more pronounced as
the general demographic for skiers is aging. The need for rest and respite from the
outdoors and the sport can be very important.
64
With the relatively recent proliferation of
the Gondola lift type into the North American ski hill typology, many summit and mid-
mountain lodges are being incorporated into the gondola loading and unloading
terminals.
65
(Figure 1.14)

Figure 1.14: “McCoy Station” mid-mountain lodge and gondola terminal at Mammoth Mountain, CA.
Photo courtesy of Annija Gaskell.

63
Diedrich, Building Type Basics for Recreational Facilities, 87.
64
Ibid., 87.
65
Ibid., 87.

31

UTILITIES
The earliest ski hills were simple in their use of resources in terms of operation.
The first rope tows were often run through the use of car engines, so gasoline was
necessary; the first warming huts used wood burning stoves, so wood harvested from the
local forests was implemented for heating fuel; and the first sewage systems were as
simple as a hole in the ground.
66
As ski hills grew in size and scale, these simplistic
means were not enough to provide the level of service and comfort that was expected at
ski hills. One of the main issues that had to be dealt with when developing utilities at a
ski hill is the remote location of the site. This is not always the case, but more often than
not ski hills are removed from population centers, making certain utility connections
impractical and expensive. The distance from municipal systems means that the hill
operators must account for water, electricity, heating, and waste management in their
master plan.
67
Solutions vary widely due to the ski hill geography, spatial relations, and
the political situation of a particular region. However, infrastructure to provide utilities
will always be required at ski hills.

Snowmaking
Early on, ski hill operators realized that the erratic natures of snowfall patterns
were not conducive to steady business. Poor seasons with low snowfall left many facing
substantial deficits, which could ultimately put a ski hill operator out of business. In the
hopes of combatting the unstable and tumultuous nature of snowfall, many started
experimenting with artificial snowmaking systems. One of the first was Walter R.
Shoenknecht, the owner of Mohawk Mountain in Cornwall, Connecticut. In the 1949-
1950 winter season, Shoenknecht broke up almost 500 tons of ice blocks and spread the
chips across the slopes of Mohawk Mountain.
68
The first mass-produced machine made
snow was also produced in Connecticut, when three engineers managed to create twenty
inches of snow using a small compressor, a garden hose, and a spray nozzle of their own

66
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 16.
67
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook,139-140.
68
Jeffery Selingo, “Machines Let Resorts Please Skiers When Nature Won’t,” The New York Times,
February 8, 2001, accessed February 6, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/08/technology/machines-
let-resorts-please-skiers-when-nature-won-t.html.

32

design.
69
The technology has come a long way over the last sixty years, with the
invention of a number of different systems, machines, and utilities that are to produce the
snow many ski hill operations depend on to stabilize their season. The two main types of
contemporary snowmaking systems are the air-gun and the fan-gun. The air-gun relies on
a complex network of compressors and water lines that are stretched across the mountain
slope, which can prove to be expensive and precarious to operate. Fan-guns require only
the water lines and are cheaper to operate, but much more expensive to procure.
70
The
systems have a multitude of other components, which can range in complexity and level
of technology. The specifics of the system often depend on the ski hill, its location,
snowfall, budget, and utilities infrastructure.
The process of installing snow equipment now is particularly expensive, because
environmental assessments must be conducted, miles of pipes must be laid, wells are
often drilled, reservoirs established, and the snowmaking machines themselves can reach
prices of $50,000 each.
71
This increasing cost for installing and operating new and high
quality artificial snowmaking systems can be so prohibitive that only the large scale
resorts can manage to install them, leaving many of the smaller ski hill operations with
smaller and less efficient snow-making systems. The quality of artificial snow has
increased as well to higher standards with technological improvements, but many in the
industry recognize that it is no substitute for natural snow. This is really just a tool for
many hills to supplement natural snowfall and increase operating stability.
72
However,
snowmaking has become an absolute necessity for a ski hill operation to survive in this
competitive market. (Figure 1.15) As a result, much of the seasonal improvements and
investments at ski hills all around the nation are aimed specifically at increasing the hill’s
snowmaking capacity.
73

69
Selingo, “Machines Let Resorts Please Skiers When Nature Won’t.”
70
Selingo, “Machines Let Resorts Please Skiers When Nature Won’t.”
71
Hugo Martin, “Snow-making at Ski Resorts Goes High-Tech,” Los Angeles Times, December 12, 2012,
accessed February 6, 2014, http://articles.latimes.com/2012/dec/12/business/la-fi-high-tech-snowmaking-
20121213.
72
Ibid.
73
Simon Hudson & Peter Cross, “Winter Sports Destinations: Dealing with Seasonality,” in Sport Tourism
Destinations: Issues, Opportunities, and Analysis ed. James Higham (Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005), 194.

33

Figure 1.15: Air snow guns at Mountain High West. Photo by author.

SKI RESORTS: Additional Amenities & Urbanization of the Ski Hill
In December of 1936, the ski hill in its simplest and most elemental form was
already somewhat outdated, long before many had a chance to clear their first runs, build
their first rope tow, or erect their first warming hut. Sun Valley, the Union Pacific’s
American alpine village, had opened and pushed the basic typology of the ski hill to a
new realm that would ultimately culminate in the mega-resorts that have become
synonymous with the sport. The Sun Valley development included food and beverage
facilities that one would expect of a ski hill, but it also included ice skating rinks, event
venues, a hospital, heated pools, cocktail bars, gourmet restaurants, luxury shopping, hair
salons, a bowling alley, and a movie theater.
74
These amenities were all oriented in a
pedestrian-friendly village format, which cohesively featured Tyrolean and Bavarian
architectural detailing. (Figure 1.16) This helped to establish the impression of an alpine
village, as well as create a brand that one would experience and associated with the
overall resort.
75

74
Smith, American Ski Resort, 52.
75
Ibid., 50-51.

34

Figure 1.16: Challenger Inn at Sun Valley, circa 1936. Photo courtesy of University of Idaho
Library/Northwest Historical Postcard Collection; identifier pg_9_07_02j
(http://digital.lib.uidaho.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/nwpostcards/id/408/rec/16). Permission pending.

These traditionally urban amenities, which are not necessary to the sport of skiing itself,
have become heavily integrated into many ski hills around North America. Other resorts
have also adopted the use of architectural forms -- common theme, form, motif, or style
will be used throughout a ski resort village to establish a sense of place, shape ones
experience, and further establish place as a company brand.
Sun Valley established a model of ski resort development in North America.
Some ski resort “villages” would involve entirely new construction at a previously
remote site designed entirely for the purpose of being a destination ski resort, like that of
Vail, Colorado. Other instances involved the incorporation of pre-existing town-sites into
the overall scheme of the ski resort “village,” like in Aspen, Colorado.
76
Either way, these
developments represent substantial amounts of investment, urbanization, and alterations
to the landscape in the hopes of establishing a place of leisure, recreation, and
consumerism within the setting of North American mountain ranges.
The urbanization of these environments increased as the development of private
vacation homes and condos were developed adjacent to the central ski resort villages or

76
Smith, American Ski Resort, 80-81.

35

ski trails, thus providing the luxury of “ski-in ski-out accommodations.”
77
This influx of
private ownership leads to the development of further amenities and can create a
centralized and relatively dense urban environment, which uses the surrounding natural
elements to perpetuate the illusion of a picturesquely rural setting. Real estate and resort
development continues to be a constant component within many ski hill master plans.
78

Seasonality Diversification
Just as the summer resort communities of early twentieth century New England
had seen an opportunity in accommodating winter recreation, the ski hills of today are
attempting to diversify with the addition of summer activities.
79
One of the most common
and easiest ways is through the introduction of mountain biking. The lifts and trails are
often employed, with minimal alterations and terrain park-like additions, to accommodate
downhill mountain biking enthusiasts of varying experience.
80
Other activities and
amenities that have been developed can include rock climbing, golf, white-water rafting,
all terrain vehicle tours, Frisbee-golf, horseback riding, hiking, zip-lining, environmental
tours, and cultural events. These activities largely depend on the specific site and resort
infrastructure, but many ski hills with the capacity are exploring options to diversify their
revenue bases and appeal to future investment.
81

SNOWBOARDING
Just as skiing had become a way of life for so many over the course of the
twentieth century, the meteoric rise of snowboarding in the last quarter of the twentieth
century has left a lasting mark on the ski industry. Once touted, ironically so, as the
antagonistic “mortal enemy” of skiing, the widespread adoption of snowboarding has

77
Schwanke, Resort Development Handbook, 151.
78
Ibid., 151.
79
Although off-season diversification is becoming a greater component of ski hill development, the focus
of this scholarship is on the ski hill typology as it has evolved under the developments of ski and snowsport
culture. This section is to acknowledge that these developments are having an impact on the relationship
and the future of ski hills; however, the focus shall remain on winter related activities and amenitites.
80
Otto Imken, “Top 5 Downhill Mountain Bike Resorts in North America,” Liftopia Blog, June 28, 2012,
accessed February 6, 2014, http://www.liftopia.com/blog/top-5-mountain-biking-parks/ .
81
Simon Hudson, Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry (London: Cassell, 2000), 164-
165.

36

done more for the Ski Industry than many first imagined.
82
The impact this relatively new
sport has left on the landscape of ski hills especially important in the context of Southern
California.
Snowboarding as a sport was first explored in the 1920s, but it did not really
become a somewhat marketable form of recreation until the 1960s. The rise of surf
culture was having a profound effect in the United States by feeding off the
antiestablishment ethos of the counter culture that was rising at the time; the very same
that was giving rise to the “hotdogger” and freestyle skiers.
83
In a much more literal
translation, surf culture was being applied to a snow-filled setting far away from any
ocean: Muskegon, Michigan. Sherman Poppen was sledding with his children on
Christmas day in 1965 and saw his children try to stand up on one of their sleds, inspiring
him to lash two skis together with a string attached at the nose. The “Snurfer” idea was
licensed to Brunswick Bowling, who ended up manufacturing the product that sold over
500,000 units across the United States from 1966-1977.
84
This early manifestation of the
snowboard caught the imagination of a few during this time frame, particularly Tom
Simms and Jake Burton Carpenter, who started developing their own interpretation of the
concept in the late 1970s. These two enterprising individuals, their different perspectives
on the sport, and the intense rivalry that formed from their competing companies, took
snowboarding from its humble backyard beginnings to the level it exists at today.
85

Burton Carpenter was from Vermont and came from a skiing oriented background,
whereas Tom Sims was from Southern California and came from the early surfing and
skateboarding scenes that had established themselves there. These two aspects, which at
seemed to be complete opposites of the time, ended up forming a synthetic experience,
which in turn evolved into the varied cultural and stylistic sport one can experience
today.
The influence the sport would have on the landscape was certainly minimal in the
early days of snowboarding, because many of the ski hills around North America did not

82
Erin Gartner, “Once Shunned, Snowboarders now Coveted by Ski Industry,” USA Today, December 12,
2004, accessed January 23, 2014, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/ski/2004-12-06-
snowboarders_x.htm.
83
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 236.
84
Susanna Howe, (Sick): A Cultural History of Snowboarding, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 6.
85
“We Ride: The Story of Snowboarding,” Directed by Orlando von Einsiedel and Jon Drever, accessed
January 27
th
, 2014, http://vimeo.com/60571386.

37

allow people on snowboards to utilize their operations. There was an extensive list touted
by ski organizations and ski operators to enforce this exclusion. First and foremost, this
new winter sport was seen as very dangerous and a potential liability. Another reason
often used was that the broad shaped boards ultimately served as giant scrapers, removing
moguls and pushing large swaths of snow down the slope, thus ruining the conditions for
all patrons. Snowboards were also seen as uncontrollable and dangerous, but the
technology had been innovated upon so rapidly that the garage-made equipment of the
late 1970s were becoming more standardized and safer with each passing season.
86
The
sideways stance that snowboarders use can leave a blind spot to either side, which is a
concern for many skiers today, although responsible riding techniques can mediate this,
just as blind spots in automobiles and responsible driving. Lastly, many in the ski
community feared change brought about the predominantly young-male demographics
that snowboarding was introducing to the hill. The proliferation of punk music, rebellious
attitudes, grunge attire, and overall disrespect of rules, authority, and others, fashioned
the stereotype of the snowboarder that continued to live on until the mid-2000s.
87

In 1983, Stratton Mountain, Vermont was the first large-scale ski hill to allow
snowboarders access to their lifts, runs, and facilities.
88
Others soon followed as the
formal and direct pressure from snowboarding organizations, like Jake Carpenter’s
Burton Snowboards, increased throughout the 1980s. The other factor that helped open
up ski hills to snowboarders was that skiing had plateaued in popularity, and the
increasing number of snowboarders presented the opportunity to increase lift ticket
sales.
89
Snowboarding is now a commonplace activity on all ski hills in the United States,
except for three that still maintain their snowboard-restrictions.
90

Once snowboarders were permitted to use the ski hills, they eventually started to
have an effect on the landscape, the most iconic and noticeable of which is that of the
terrain park. The terrain park, much like the sport itself, had the most humble of

86
“We Ride: The Story of Snowboarding.”
87
Fry, The Story of Skiing, 239-240.
88
Holly Thorpe, Snowboarding Bodies in Theory and Practice (London: Palgrave & MacMillan, 2011), 22.
89
Ibid., 22-23.
90
Paul Foy, “Snowboarders sue Utah Resort, Say that the Skiers-only Mountain Violates their
Constitutional Rights,” National Post, January 18, 2014, accessed February 7, 2014,
http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/01/18/snowboarders-sue-utah-resort-say-that-the-skiers-only-mountain-
violates-their-constitutional-rights/.

38

beginnings. Tom Simms and his team of snowboarders had their background in the early
skateboard movement in Southern California, where many sought after empty pools
where they could skate and practice their tricks. They were used to practicing on the
fringes of what was deemed as acceptable societal behavior, so being inventive with
snowboarding beyond the ski hill was a somewhat natural, perhaps even celebrated,
environment for those with Simms. In 1982 word had reached Tom Simms about a
natural “quarter-pipe” near Tahoe, California, that kids were using for snowboarding.
91

The Simms crew made the trip to Tahoe where this “quarter-pipe” was situated and
instantly started to implement their skateboarding techniques in this snowboard setting.
The notion of a quarter-pipe outside of the skateboarding realm of wood, cement, and the
urban fabric was relatively unheard of. The “Tahoe City Half-Pipe,” as it is known in
snowboarding legend, was an old landfill that had been shaped by bulldozers moving
earth into the forms that, when covered with snow, was perfectly suited for skateboard-
style snowboarding.
92
It was at this location that freestyle snowboarding was born.
This landfill site outside of Tahoe was effectively the very first incarnation of the
terrain park. The skateboard influenced freestyle riding that the Simms team developed
would become the hallmark and popular driver for the sport as it became included in
competitions, which were originally geared towards more traditional Alpine events.
Spectators gathered around the competitions in increasing numbers to watch all aspects of
this new sport, but the freestyle events, like the half-pipe, were always the crowd
favorites.
93
Snowboarders everywhere were starting to implement parts of the ski hill
(picnic tables, railings, traverse lips, etc.) as features that could serve as points where
tricks could be performed, much in the same way that skateboarders use elements of the
urban fabric for their recreation.
94
Ski hill operators, which had already began to realize
the financial benefit of being open to snowboarders, were still dealing with some

91
Howe, (Sick), 28-29.
92
Ibid., 29.
93
“We Ride: The Story of Snowboarding.”
94
This recreational appropriation has been extended further over the years and many snowboarders now
use the built environment within cities during the winter for “jibbing,” which is essentially the performance
of tricks on a manmade feature. This urban freestyle riding is popular particularly in the North East, where
access to ideal snow conditions and more challenging terrain is limited, thus pushing the individual to adapt
and find challenging situations within their urban context. There are many film production companies that
focus entirely on this style of riding. This style has since been adopted by young skiers as well and
emulates the urban snowboarding tradition in numerous ways.

39

backlash from the Ski community about the reckless abandon with which the
snowboarders used these features. The natural progression was to humor both sport
enthusiasts by sectioning off specific sections of the mountain for freestyle
snowboarding, which were full of features that could be implemented by those
adventurous enough, but still separated from the traditional ski runs. This separation of
snowboarders from skiers helped to incubate the developments within snowboard culture,
as well as fuel the feud with the skiing community. The terrain park quickly became an
essential component in drawing snowboarders to the ski hill. This was stressed further by
the decline in skiing and the sharp growth in snowboarding. Ski hills had to adapt to the
changing demographics on the ski hill, or face decreasing revenue, so the widespread
proliferation of the terrain park forever affected the ski hill typology.
Terrain Parks are separated and enclosed elements of ski hill landscape and still
contain many of the same types of features. Terrain parks vary in size, scale, and types of
features that are offered, but most consist of jumps, boxes, rails, and other manmade
elements. (Figure 1.17) Many hills have gone so far as to include more than one terrain
parks on their hills to provide different levels of difficulty.
95
These elements can require
extensive amounts of maintenance, especially at the professional level. These larger
features, which are used almost entirely for competitions in both skiing and
snowboarding events often require earth to be moved to shape the monumental sized
features where athletes continue to push the limits of freestyle sport. (Figure 1.18) The
amount of capital required to create these competition features is substantial, which
means that only major resorts tend to invest in their creation. Given the nature of
landscaping that is required to create them, once a ski hill invests in the earthwork related
features, they are there for seasons to come.

95
US Terrain Park Council, “History of Terrain Parks,” accessed February 7, 2014,
http://usterrainparkcouncil.org/history.html.

40

Figure 1.17: Slopestyle competition in terrain park, 2011. Photo courtesy of Somewon Snow Collective.

41

Figure 1.18: Professional level half-pipe at Canada Olympic Park, Canada. Photo courtesy of Somewon
Snow Collective.

The popularity of the terrain park has also created the need for ski hills to focus
snow-making efforts and specific lift installations, which are intended to service only the
park, creating a circulatory environment that is even further removed in some ways from
the rest of the ski hill landscape. Safety is also a major concern, so a Ski Patrol and first
aid presence is constant at all terrain parks.
96

The numbers indicate that snowboarding has plateaued and decreased, while
skiing is on the rise.
97
The two sports, which were once pitted against each other on the
ski hills of North America, now feed off each other in a state of cohabitation. Where
skiers and snowboarders were once strictly self-segregated by the sport one practiced,
groups now often consist of individuals who ski, snowboard, or those who are adept at
both sports.

96
“History of Terrain Parks.”
97
Martin, “Snowboard Craze Fades.”

42

CHAPTER 2 – DEVELOPMENT OF SKIING IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Skiing in California is usually associated with the regions of Northern California,
conjuring up images of the Lake Tahoe area, which is famous for its collection of
expansive ski resorts, impressive snowfalls, and hosting the 1960 Winter Olympic games.
It comes as somewhat of a surprise to many that there is a rich tradition of skiing within a
few hours drive of the palm tree lined boulevards of Los Angeles. The cliché that one can
both surf and ski in the same day in California is not without its truth, becoming a widely
publicized and celebrated component of the California landscape since winter sports first
became integrated into the recreational ethos of the region in the 1920s.
98
The mountain
ranges are considerably more limited in terrain options, snowfall, and appropriate ski
temperatures, but these formidable challenges did little to deter the individuals that
established downhill skiing in the region.

EARLY CALIFORNIA
Downhill skiing first appeared in California in the years that followed the Gold
Rush of the mid-nineteenth century. Skiing already existed in North America, but it was
primarily in the Nordic traditions that more closely resembled contemporary cross-
country skiing and embodied the notion of Idraet; an ethos of masculinity and strength
through endurance, perseverance, and outdoor sport.
99
The skiing practiced in California
was a world apart from this Scandinavian tradition in that it was secular and was more
reflective of sport purely in the name of recreation and leisure. Mining camps had been
moving beyond the streambeds of California for a number of years as the promise of gold
continued to bring in thousands of people to the region in the hopes that they too would
strike it rich. Camps were soon established in areas of the Sierra Nevada that receive
infamously heavy snows during the winter months.
100
Miners first used skiing simply as a
means of transportation, most famously as a way to bring the postal service to the far-

98
“From Snowy Upland Slopes to Surf Washed Sunlit Beach: Outdoor Winter Sports in Southern
California,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1920, accessed February 14, 2014,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/160790065.
99
E. John B Allen, From Skisport to Skiing: One Hundred years of and American Sport, 1840-1940
(Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 11.
100
Ibid., 13.

43

flung and otherwise inaccessible camps. The use of the “Norwegian Snowshoe,” which
was the common name for skis at the time, became popular because of individuals like
John A. “Snowshoe” Thompson, a Norwegian immigrant who famously carried mail
throughout the region to the mining camps and towns with relative efficiency and
consistency, which was somewhat of a marvelous feat at the time.
101
Eventually, the use
of skis evolved from utility to sport. Places that were snowed in for several months used
skis as a recreational way to pass the time until the snows receded. Furthermore, it
provided an opportunity for competition and gambling.
Early ski races were organized in the mining camps of the 1860s and would
provide entertainment and a social element to those in these remote areas of the Sierra
Nevada. These races would usually entail several men lining up at the top of a steep slope
wearing twelve-foot long skis that were coated in homemade wax, which were pointed
downhill and helped these early skiers achieve speeds over sixty miles per hour.
102
Clubs
started to form around this sport and whole winter carnivals would be organized around
the spectacle of these downhill races, which could offer the winner a substantial purse,
usually upwards of $1,000.
103
This was not only limited to the men of the mining camp,
but became a relatively universal activity as many women and ethnic groups outside of
the Anglo-American dominant demographic would also participate, including the
Chinese.
104
Granted, these events were still very segregated, but even in the early days of
the sport there was a hint that the sport of skiing was capable of transcending prejudices
and contributing to an overall positive atmosphere and experience. As the popularity of
these early races grew, the organization of the races became a much more serious and
formalized affair. Judges and timers would be employed and courses would be cleared of
vegetation and other obstacles for about 2,000 feet down a slope, which ultimately served
as the earliest example of the ski trail type in California.
105
This spectator-centric
embodiment of the sport would by-and-large disappear as many mining camps turned

101
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing 16-17.
102
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing (Lebanon: University Press of New England, 2006), 5.
103
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 21.
104
Ibid., 25.
105
Ibid., 25.

44

into ghost towns, but skis would remain as an important piece of equipment in the Sierra
Nevada not only as a transportation implement, but for recreation.
106

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Early Southern California
The earliest known written account of skiing in Southern California comes from
Joseph and Charles Tyler, who were two brothers that had come to the San Bernardino
Mountains to begin a sawmill operation in 1871 after almost a decade of mining for gold
in the Sierra Nevada.
107
It is very likely that the two brothers had learned about and
utilized skis during their years in the mining camps of Northern and Central California,
ultimately importing the idea to the Big Bear Valley when they relocated to the area. Ski
racing did not become the phenomenon in Southern California as it had in the mining
camps located further north, but the Tyler brothers and others certainly would have
implemented them as a method of transportation when heavy snowfalls did blanket the
region’s mountain ranges, making more conventional means of getting around
difficult.
108
As the region began to become more accessible with increasing road
improvements, the ski would lose its already limited use as a means of transportation and
become implemented increasingly as a form of recreation. Ski touring – more along the
lines of cross-country than downhill – would become the most popular manifestation of
ski sport in the region. This form would be practiced in relatively small numbers and
usually through the efforts of organizations that viewed outdoor recreation as a
celebration of nature, like the Sierra Club.
109
The popularity of downhill skiing started to
grow in Southern California with the invention of the Winter Carnival and the spectacle
that was ski jumping.

106
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 28.
107
Ingrid P. Wicken, Pray For Snow: The History of Skiing in Southern California (Norco: Vasa Press,
2001), 5.
108
Ibid., 5.
109
Ibid., 6.

45

Winter Carnivals
In the early twentieth century, access to the mountain communities of Southern
California during the winter was still limited to skis, sleds, horse-drawn sleighs, and
snowshoes. Many would often leave the mountains and spend these months in San
Bernardino, Redlands, and other communities nestled in the foothills of the surrounding
ranges, waiting for access routes to open up in the spring. Even then, roads were
primitive and often resulted in a lengthy journey. New routes were constructed,
improvements were made, and snow removal techniques were developed so that by the
early 1920s, the once isolated mountain communities could be accessed throughout the
entire year.
110
(Figure 2.1) This increased access meant that a number of recreational
opportunities were now readily available, including those that required snow.

Figure 2.1: Big Pines Arch and Snow Blower. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

110
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 6-7.

46

At the turn of the century, organized winter sport activities, although likely a
familiar concept to many who relocated to Southern California, were by and large non-
existent. Many California residents had immigrated from other areas to escape snow and
enjoy the famous Mediterranean climate that the region offers, so the notion of embracing
winter sports seemed ridiculous for many, yet nostalgic for others. In fact, those with
interests in promoting the land of “sunshine and roses” sought to quash this notion of
winter sport in Southern California, fearing that it would detract from the image that
many were bolstering to the rest of the world.
111
Regardless, a few individuals and the
Baldwin Lake Chamber of Commerce started to organize the region’s very first Winter
Carnival. The affair was held over three days in February 1924 at Baldwin Lake in the
San Bernardino Mountains, a few miles east of Big Bear Lake. The carnival featured a
series of events, including tobogganing, curling, ski jumping, skating, snowshoeing, and
ski races.
112
These winter carnivals continued at a handful of locations for a number of
years following, but it was still a struggle overall to promote the recreational and
economic possibilities of winter sport in an area that was selling the image of sun, sand,
and citrus fruit. (Figure 2.2)

111
“History,” Far West Ski Association, accessed February 17, 2014, http://www.fwsa.org/About/history-
1.html.
112
“To Stage a Winter Carnival,” Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1924, accessed February 19, 2014,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/161618753.

47

Figure 2.2: Orange Grove and Snowy Mountains postcard. Image courtesy of the California Ski Library.

The State Chamber of Commerce, finally convinced of the potential that winter
recreation possessed in the economic sense, created the Southern California Winter
Sports Association in 1929, which was charged with organizing events, establishing new
facilities, and promoting skating, tobogganing, and skiing throughout the southern
counties.
113
The winter carnivals had been increasingly popular affairs in the year’s prior,
but with the increasing investments in promotional materials and organization, the
carnivals would exceed expectations in terms of attendance. The Camp Seeley Snow
Carnival took place in January of 1930, just a few months following the creation of the
Southern California Winter Sports Association, and approximately 15,000 people were in
attendance, jamming the highways leading towards the camp.
114
Local business interests

113
“Sports for Winter Now on Program,” Los Angeles Times, November 14, 1929, accessed February 19,
2014, http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/162441408.
114
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 20.

48

realized the opportunities that winter sport provided and investments in winter tourism
throughout Southern California increased accordingly. The following season featured a
winter sporting event each and every weekend and attendance numbers multiplied
exponentially. Southern California was quickly establishing itself as a leader in the
pursuit of winter recreational activities.
115

These carnivals and winter sport events usually took place at either at private
resort spaces already established in the mountains or at recreational camps that were
leased and operated by municipal or country governments. The infrastructure and
landscape differed, depending on the specifics of the location, but there were a few
consistent features. Slopes and outruns designated for tobogganing were cleared of
vegetation and other obstacles, occasionally with permanent slide structures built out of
lumber and sheet metal. When lakes and other naturally occurring bodies of water were
not present, skating rinks were built in natural or artificial clearings to accommodate the
thousands who would partake in the activity. Campsites varied, but many were built to
accommodate automobiles and would feature cooking shelters and rudimentary rest room
facilities.
116
Some more permanent accommodations would exist in the form of cabins,
lodges, and hotels, but this depended on the specifics of the location and proximity to
established municipalities.

Ski Jumping
Ski jumps were the most impressive features of these early winter carnival
landscapes as they were often the largest structures and provided the necessary setting for
the spectacle of ski jumping. Ski jumping was introduced by Scandinavian immigrants to
North America at the end of the nineteenth century and continued to rise in popularity
well into the 1930s.
117
This form of skiing could be conducted in any given location, just
so long as the infrastructure of the jump was in place. Jumps usually incorporated slopes
and other topographical features into their design, moving earth and constructing other
elements in order to shape the staging, takeoff, and landing components. In Southern

115
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 20-21.
116
Pat Krig and Barbara Van Houten. Images of America: Wrightwood and Big Pines (Charleston: Arcadia
Publishing, 2004), 92-93.
117
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 7.

49

California ski jumps were often built in locations that would eventually evolve into the
contemporary ski hills, particularly the established recreational areas in the San Gabriel
and San Bernardino Mountains. The more prolific of these recreation areas would often
build a series of jumps, to accommodate ski jumpers of varying proficiency from
beginners to the world-record-breaking masters.
118
The popularity of ski jumping as a
spectacle led to the construction of demonstration jumps being established at the
Hollywood Bowl, as well as the Los Angeles Coliseum in 1935 and 1938, respectively.
119

Ski jumping events were a large draw for the thousands that ventured to the winter
carnivals, but the dangerous nature of the sport made it inaccessible for the general
population as a participatory recreational option.

Development of Downhill Skiing
There are a few accounts of downhill skiing existing in the early twentieth
century, but these are usually specific instances where an individual, usually of Germanic
origin, would descend a mountain in the region by skis. The sport as it exists in the
modern sense of downhill skiing really did not gain momentum until the 1930s. Ski
jumping and touring were the previous incarnations of ski-related sports and they both
presented a number of issues regarding accessibility with the population at large. Ski
jumping was primarily an activity for those brave enough to ascend to the top of any one
of the given jumps. Many shared the sentiment that skis offered a number of recreational
possibilities outside the realm of jumping.
120
Ski touring, on the other hand, was
considerably more accessible to the public at large, but it still required a great deal of
athleticism, endurance, and a decent understanding of the outdoors. Downhill, which was
emerging as a sport in the 1920s and 1930s, quickly established itself as the most
enjoyable, accessible, and popular form of skiing. The Winter Sports Committee of
California State Chamber of Commerce outlined in a 1937 report that downhill skiing
was the best manifestation of skiing and the state desperately needed new lifts, trails, and

118
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 22.
119
“Ski Jumping Archive – Los Angeles, California,” Ski Sprungschanzen, accessed February 25, 2014,
http://www.skisprungschanzen.com/EN/Ski+Jumps/USA-United+States/CA-California/Los+Angeles/.
120
“Ski Trails at Big Pines,” Trails Magazine, V.2 N.4, Autumn 1935, 14.

50

facilities in order to attract and accommodate this growing sport.
121
The CCC, WPA, and
many of the early ski clubs had already cleared trails of vegetation, built warming huts,
and established other facilities in the mountains of Southern California for ski touring,
which became more than ample places for downhill to take place. New trails were
cleared, existing trails were widened, a few lifts were installed, and ski schools were
established so that the techniques of downhill skiing could be taught to anyone willing to
participate. By the season of 1938-1939 there were several rope tows operating in
Southern California, providing the necessary infrastructure for downhill skiing to make
the sport truly accessible to the general population.
122

Advances in Ski Equipment
Skiing in Southern California, and the shape of the ski hills that were created there, were
greatly influenced by changes that were occurring in the sport, particularly the
innovations in skiing techniques and ski equipment. These improvements would allow
skiers to access and utilize terrain that would have been considered impossible with
previous knowledge and equipment. The technology behind the equipment itself has had
a significantly larger impact on the ski hill landscape.
The nuances of ski technique is not something that will be explored at great
lengths, but the evolution and innovation of which has had lasting impacts on the
landscape reflected in the ski trails around North America. From the Arlberg technique,
which was popular prior to the Second World War; to the parallel turn, the quintessential
from of modern skiing; to the snowplow, which is the staple to every beginner, skiing
technique has played an important part in defining where one can ski and how one can
ski.
123
(Figure 2.3)

121
Ingrid P. Wicken, Lost Ski Areas of Southern California (Charleston: History Press, 2012), 14.
122
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 23.
123
Richard Needham, Ski: Fifty Years in North America (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc, 1987), 74.

51

Figure 2.3: Ski school at Snow Valley, CA and rope tow, circa 1952. Photo courtesy of USC Libraries
Special Collections/Los Angeles Examiner Collection 1920-1961; filename EXM-N-9446-017-5
(http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15799coll44/id/34065/rec/1).

Skis were originally homemade creations that could vary in length and wood type,
but with the standardization of manufacturing processes in the early twentieth centuries,
the ski became a much more consistent piece of equipment.
124
The early downhill skis
were constructed out of ash, maple, and hickory, the latter of which was considered to be
the best. Although they were originally comprised entirely of wood, steel edges were
eventually introduced to allow the skier better control and stability, ultimately making the
carving turn possible. These early steel edges were originally a series of small steel
pieces that one could insert into the ski. The continuous edge was developed in the
1960s.
125
One of the more substantial developments in ski technology came when
Howard Head developed a metal ski that was assembled from aluminum alloy sheets,
steel edges, new adhesives, and sidewalls that were strong enough to withstand increasing

124
Allen, From Skisport to Skiing, 63.
125
E John B. Allen, Historical Dictionary of Skiing (Lanham: Scarecrow Press Inc., 2012), 173.

52

lateral pressure.
126
This combination of materials and sandwich construction made for a
new ski that was considerably more durable, easier to initiate turns with, and had more
torsional stability that its wooden predecessors.
127
This allowed skiers to exercise
increased control on different terrain types, particularly steeper slopes and sections with
natural hazards and features.
The experimentation would continue with materials and construction types, but
the next big evolution with ski technology came with the introduction of the shaped ski.
This hourglass shape essentially shortened the ski length by a significant amount while
maintaining the contact edge, thus making turn initiation easier and the ski lighter without
compromising edge hold or strength. This technology was adopted in 1992 after the
introduction of snowboarding to the ski industry.
128
The influence of snowboard
technology in the 1990s and 2000s can certainly be felt in the ski industry. It was during
this time that the “twin-tip” skis, adopting the side profile of a snowboard, became
popular and allowed for skiers opportunity to ride backwards and have a greater range of
play when performing tricks.
129

The ski binding is one of the more essential, yet unsung, components of the
equipment required. Its function is simple: keep the skier attached to the skis when
skiing, but be able to safely eject the skier when a potentially dangerous fall occurs. One
of the earlier downhill binding types was the “bear trap.” It received this moniker
because it was comprised of fixed metal toe irons and a heel strap that did not allow for
one to release from the ski.
130
This inability for release from the skis was a major safety
concern and spurred much of the further development in binding technology, in addition
to convenience. From the 1950s onwards there were a number of binding types that were
created to allow for upward, torsional, and other forms of release in the hopes of reducing
traumatic ski injuries.
131
These included the “cubby,” “metal plate bindings,” “step-ins,”
and “heel release” bindings.
132
(Figure 2.4)

126
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 75-76.
127
Ibid., 77.
128
Ibid., 89.
129
Ibid., 358.
130
Ibid., 350.
131
Ibid., 86-88.
132
Needham, Ski: Fifty Years in North America, 104-108.

53

Figure 2.4: Advertisement for U.S. Star Ski Binding. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

In addition to safety, these new binding forms allowed for skiers to have increased
torsional control, stability, and turn initiation, progressing the sport to new levels while
drastically reducing the number of injuries on hill.
133
With the reduction of injury through
binding safety improvements, skiers could take on the challenge of skiing new terrain
types and expand the definition of the ski trail with new confidence.
It is almost cliché within the ski community, but the ski boot is the most important
piece of equipment. In the earliest form, the ski boot was just that; a leather boot that
could be clipped into the binding by a metal clip in the toe. The ankle, instep, arch, and
lateral support that these boots provided was negligible at best. This meant that the skier
was limited in power, stability, turn initiation, and overall control, although they were

133
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 88-89.

54

often thought to be relatively comfortable.
134
The first advancements were to simply
increase the thickness and stiffness of materials in the boot, particularly along the sole
and instep. Comfort features were added, such as padding along high-pressure areas and
the introduction of a “double-tongue” feature, to keep snow from entering the boot.
135

The most substantial improvement in boot technology came during the 1960s with
Robert B. Lange’s plastic boots. Lange had been experimenting with plastic boot designs
in the hopes of creating something stiff and supportive to take the sport to new levels.
Though many of his early designs were influential, the moment of change came in 1966
when his polyurethane boots were being used in ski racing competitions.
136
The design
continued to evolve as Lange tried to make it more marketable to the average consumer,
which came to include a higher cuff and a more comfortable liner. There were still many
issues with the Lange product, but the industry soon changed around it as countless
companies started to innovate and improve upon the plastic boot to provide an ideal level
of performance and comfort for every level of skier.
137
The new level of performance that
advancements in boot technology provided meant terrain types and areas that were once
not conceivably skiable were open to the masses. This shift in perception of difficulty had
a substantial impact on the definition of what could be considered a ski trail.
These advancements in ski technology of the 1960s and 1970s coincided with the
rise of the freestyle skier, or the “Hot Dogger” as they are nostalgically called. These few
wild-eyed individuals, often associated with the counterculture of the era, started to
incorporate features of the mountain that were largely off-piste – skiing areas that are not
located on traditional ski trails, usually involving steeper terrain, natural features, and
hazards - and seen as very dangerous.
138
The earliest examples of freestyle were often
very fast, uncontrolled, and alcohol fueled runs that would send the individual off various
features - both natural and the manmade “mogul” - in an often-catastrophic display of

134
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 97.
135
J.M. Mensinger, “What’s New in Winter Sports Equipment,” Ski Heil V.1, N.2 (1939): 17.
136
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 83-84.
137
Ibid., 85.
138
“Off-piste” is a term that refers to skiing terrain that is in a more natural state, rather than a traditionally
cleared ski trail. Off-piste trails retain natural features and hazards such as cliff bands, rock outcroppings,
trees, and other vegetation types. Off-piste usually implies a lack of grooming, no snowmaking, and
challenging terrain.

55

tumbles and tricks.
139
These individuals, and those that followed in their increasingly
extreme wake, have helped to challenge the traditional perception of what comprises a ski
“run.” This has left a lasting impression on the cultural landscape of the ski hill, opening
up a number of terrain types to skiers far beyond the traditional cleared ski trail.
Other equipment advances that have helped to progress alpine sports include
goggles, avalanche gear, wax, outerwear fabrics, helmets, ski touring equipment,
orthotics, braces, ski poles, personal protective padding, and many others. All of these
elements, in addition to the aforementioned, have allowed skiers to go bigger, faster, and
further than they had been able to before, thus altering what places one could consider
“skiable.” All of these changes in the skier’s perception of the terrain have led to multiple
impacts on the landscape by blurring the lines between a traditional ski trail and the
overall mountain environment. In a sense, the ski trail is no longer just a downhill swath
through the vegetation on a hillside; it is wherever the skier choses to point the tips of
their skis. This includes glades, chutes, bowls, cliffs, cliff spines, cornices, “pillow lines,”
and any other geographical feature that one might encounter in the backcountry.
140

(Figure 2.5)

139
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing 219-220.
140
A “pillow line” is a term that describes a series of stepped rocks that, when covered with snow, appear
to be a vertically sequential series of pillows. This allows the skier to drop and float down this stepped
terrain type. Ian MacIntosh, “How to Slay a Pillow Line,” Skiing Magazine, December 11, 2008, accessed
February 8, 2014, http://www.skinet.com/skiing/how-to/how-to-ski/2008/11/how-to-slay-a-pillow-line.

56

Figure 2.5: Snowboarder riding a “pillow line” in the backcountry. Photo courtesy of Teagan Milaney.

Post-war Skiing Boom
When the United States entered the Second World War in 1941, the growth of
skiing came to an instantaneous halt. The manpower and resources that had been creating
the equipment, developing technique, building the facilities, and altering the landscape,
were directed entirely towards the war effort. Most ski hills and plans for expansion were
on hold while the war raged on in Europe and the Pacific. Once the conflict was over,

57

those involved came back and the development of skiing in Southern California began
with a renewed fervor.
141

As of the first season following the conclusion of the Second World War, there
was only one chairlift in all of Southern California: the single-chair at Mount Waterman.
Just ten years after, the regions ski infrastructure would include thirteen chairlifts, sixty-
four rope tows, and three poma-lifts throughout the mountain ranges surrounding Los
Angeles, particularly around Big Bear Lake and Lake Arrowhead in the San Bernardino
Mountains.
142
Big Bear Mountain actually had the largest number of ski lifts in the entire
United States upon the completion of their first single-chair lift in 1949.
143
Beyond the
more established Big Bear Mountain, many of these early ski hill operations were modest
and family run. Regardless of how a ski area came into existence, operators found it
necessary to make immediate improvements and upgrade from rope tows to chairlifts,
widen and expand ski trails, create new parking facilities, and construct modern base
amenities, all in order to stay competitive in the growing ski industry of Southern
California. Not only was the popularity of the sport was growing exponentially; the
population of the region was exploding as well during the post-war decades.
144
Southern
California was quickly becoming one of the largest markets in the United States as the
population increased, so many of the more entrepreneurial ski hill operations sought to
capitalize on this.
The rapid growth of ski hills in Southern California resulted in dozens of
operations of varying size and scale, all in direct competition with each other. (Figure 2.6,
2.7) These were sometimes located a few minutes drive from each other, ultimately
intensifying competition. This period of rapid ski hill development created too much
supply, overshooting demand for skiing facilities in the region. This meant that many of
the early areas, particularly the smaller family-owned operations, were defunct,
abandoned, or appropriated in the span of a few seasons.
145
The erratic snowfalls and lack
of modern infrastructure exacerbated the ability of the smaller ski hills to compete with

141
“History,” Far West Ski Association, accessed February 17, 2014, http://www.fwsa.org/About/history-
1.html.
142
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 16.
143
Ibid.
144
Joan and David Landman, Where to Ski: Ski Guide to the U.S. and Canada (Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1949), 271.
145
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 16.

58

the more established operations of the region. Many started to combat this direct
correlation between business viability and snowfall by exploring artificial alternative
surfaces and snowmaking.
146

Figure 2.6: Inventory of Southern California ski hills. Compiled by author, source information; Wicken,
Pray for Snow (2001) & Lost Ski Areas of Southern California (2012).

146
There are examples of several ski hills that used alternatives to snow in Southern California. Pine
Needle Ski Slope, Mount Baldy, and Ski Villa are examples of hills that used substitutions for snow that are
well documented in Lost Ski Areas of Southern California and Pray for Snow, both by Ingrid P. Wicken.
Historic(Name(s) Contemporary(Name County Closest(Municipality
Year(
Founded
Current(Status Founder
Mt.(Waterman,"Angeles"Crest"Resort Mt.(Waterman Los"Angeles Altadena,"CA 1938 OPEN Lynn"Newcomb"Sr.
Kratka(Ridge,"Snowcrest,"Angeles"Crest"Resort Kratka(Ridge Los"Angeles Altadena,"CA 1950 CLOSED San"Gorgonio"Ski"Club
Buckhorn(Ski(Area Buckhorn(Ski(Area Los"Angeles Altadena,"CA 1948 OPEN Santa"Monica"Ski"Club
Blue(Ridge Mountain(High((west) Los"Angeles Wrightwood,"CA 1937 OPEN Tom"Triol,"Frank"Springer
Holiday(Hill Mountain(High((east) Los"Angeles Wrightwood,"CA 1949 OPEN Sepp"Benedikter
Table(Mountain,"Ski"Sunrise Mountain(High((north) Los"Angeles Wrightwood,"CA 1938 OPEN Harlow"Dormer
Mt.(Baldy(Ski(Tows Mt.(Baldy Los"Angeles San"Antonio"Heights,"CA 1944 OPEN Jim"Chaffee,"Herb"Leffler
Movie(Slope n/a Los"Angeles San"Antonio"Heights,"CA 1938 CLOSED Earl"Merrit
Moonridge,"Goldmine Bear(Mountain San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1943 OPEN Loris"Cady
Snow(Summit Snow(Summit( San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1952 OPEN Tommi"Tyndall
Fish(Camp Snow(Valley San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1935 OPEN unknown
Lodge(Hill(Ski(Tow n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA Unknown CLOSED Les"Salm
Hook(Hill n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA Unknown CLOSED unknown
Blue(Jay n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA 1948 CLOSED unknown
Harmon(Ski(Tows n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA 1947 CLOSED Walt"&"Wayne"Harmon
Ski(The(Rim n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA 1965 CLOSED Bob"French
Green(Valley(Lake(Snow(Bowl ,"Ski"
Green"Valley,"Big"Air"Green"Valley,"Big"
Trinity(Mountain(Resort San"Bernandino Running"Springs,"CA 1945 CLOSED
Larry"Ferguson,"Joe"Fox,"Ernest"
C."Vawter
Green(Valley(Lake n/a San"Bernandino Running"Springs,"CA 1937 CLOSED Les"Salm
Grout(Creek(Ski(&(Rec.(Area n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1948/1951 CLOSED
Jes"Wilson,"J.P."McVeigh,"Austin"
Glaz,"Ray"Kious,"D.W."Gage
Happy(Hill(Ski(Tow n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA unknown CLOSED unknown
Upper(Miller(Creek(Ski(Bowl n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1947 CLOSED John"Sipe,"John"Webster
Swiss(Ski(Tows n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA Unknown CLOSED Virgil"Foust,"Ralph"Stewart
Snow(White(Ski(Tow n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA Unknown CLOSED Bill"Goold
Lone(Star(Tow,"Crystal"Ridge Snow(Forest San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA Unknown CLOSED Max"Files
Lynn(Sling(Lift,"Clifford"Lynn"Lift"Area, Snow(Forest San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1938 CLOSED Clifford"Lynn
Little(Siberia,"Snow"Forest Snow(Forest San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA Unknown CLOSED unknown
Lower(Mill(Creek(Ski(Bowl Magic(Mountain San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1947 CLOSED John"Sipe,"John"Webster
Upper(Miller(Creek(Ski(Bowl n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1947 CLOSED John"Sipe,"John"Webster
Stillwell(Ski(Tows n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1954 CLOSED Stillwell
Rebel(Ridge n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1955 CLOSED Chuck"Smith
Lagomita(Lodge n/a San"Bernandino Big"Bear"Lake,"CA 1947 CLOSED unknown
Camp(O'Ongo(Ski(Tows n/a San"Bernandino Lake"Arrowhead,"CA 1945 CLOSED Tom"Preston
Running(Springs((Martin(Tows) n/a San"Bernandino Running"Springs,"CA 1945 CLOSED Howard"Martin
Running(Springs((Soutar(Tows) n/a San"Bernandino Running"Springs,"CA mid[1950s CLOSED Lloyd"Soutar
Halona(Hill n/a Riverside Idyllwild,"CA 1948 CLOSED Bob"O'Donnell
Hidden(Lodge n/a Riverside Idyllwild,"CA 1946 CLOSED Tommi"Tyndall
Mt.(San(Jacinto n/a Riverside Palm"Springs,"CA 1939[1963 TRAM(ONLY Francis"Crocker
Palomar(Mountain n/a San"Diego Pauma"Valley,"CA 1966 CLOSED Charles"H."Darby
Mt.(Laguna n/a San"Diego Alpine,"CA 1938 CLOSED San"Diego"Ski"Club
Cuyamaca(Mountains n/a San"Diego Alpine,"CA 1938 CLOSED San"Diego"Ski"Club
Ski(Villa n/a San"Bernandino Chino,"CA 1939 CLOSED John"Kramer
Pine(Needle(Ski(Slope n/a Los"Angeles North"Hollywood,"CA 1966 CLOSED Sepp"Benedikter

59

Figure 2.7: Map of major ski hills of Southern California, current and historic. Illustration by author.

Stagnation and Decline of Skiing
The sport of skiing plateaued and then declined through the 1970s to the
beginning of the twenty-first century. Snowmaking, ski hill expansion, amenities
improvement, environmental review processes, and improved sporting equipment all
contributed to the rising cost of the sport. This in itself has made skiing less accessible for
many Americans. This was exacerbated further by the energy crisis and recessions of the
1970s, which drove operation costs higher for ski hills, leading to higher lift ticket
prices.
147
All of these factors had a lasting impact on the ski hills in Southern California.
Snowfall is the barometer for whether a particular season will financially
successful or disastrous, especially for the ski hills of Southern California. The invention
and installation of snowmaking systems was key to alleviating the financial and
operational pressure from poor snow conditions. This was unattainable for many resorts,
because they did not have access to the water resources required for snowmaking, or the
capital was not available to install and operate snowmaking equipment. Snowmaking
allowed for a handful of the resorts to stay operational, while others sat snowless,
underutilized, and eventually unviable
148
Following the implementation of the National
Environment Policy Act of 1970, even investigating the potential implementation of
artificial snowmaking became a lengthy and expensive process. This was true not only
for snowmaking, but any expansion to the operations of a ski hill that resided on publicly

147
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 294.
148
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 16.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1. Mt. Waterman
2. Kratka Ridge
3. Mountain High North
4. Mountain High West
5. Mountain High West
6. Mt. Baldy
7. Green Valley
8. Snow Valley
9. Snow Summit
10. Bear Mountain

60

held lands.
149
The ski hills of Southern California are largely situated within the
boundaries of the US National Forests, so any expansion to the operational capacity –
new lifts, trails, lodges, snow-making, parking – had to be studied, planned, and
presented before any construction could take place. This was an important milestone in
field of conservation, but proved to be a hindrance to the expansion and operation of ski
hills all around the United States.
150

In light of these changes to the process of expansion, many of the ski hills in
Southern California chose instead to adjust to the modern perceptions of skiing in order
to stay viable in an increasingly competitive market. Many of the hills expanded lodges,
built new parking lots, continued their investments in snowmaking, built faster ski lifts,
and expanded new terrain when possible. (Figure 2.8) Expansions used to be conducted
by a group of committed individuals and extensive hours of manual labor. However,
towards the end of the twentieth century, ski hill expansion and innovation required vast
amounts of investment capital and planning.
151

149
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 294.
150
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 294.
151
Ibid., 297-299.

61

Figure 2.8: Architectural rendering for Rebel Ridge Alpine Village & Lodge, Big Bear, CA. Photo courtesy
of the California Ski Library.

The family-owned operation largely became a thing of the past as investment groups,
usually associated with resort and recreational property management bought up the most
profitable of the Southern Californian ski areas. It was with this new corporate influx of
capital that many of these changes to the ski hills could be made. Regardless of these
changes and improvements to ski hill infrastructure that many of these corporations
provided, the sport had become stagnant in terms of growth.
152
Ski hills desperately
needed renewed energy, passion, interest, and lift ticket sales.

Snowboarding in Southern California
Snowboarding was not necessarily invented in Southern California, but it
certainly was an incubator for the sport. Long known as a place for surf and skateboard
culture, many young males in Southern California explored this new sport applying their

152
Fry, The Story of Modern Skiing, 64-68.

62

techniques, knowledge, and sub-culture to this snow-covered context. This was both
positive and negative for the proliferation of the sport. It was positive in that many
pushed the limits of the sport, capitalizing through invention with the pioneering spirit
that was associated with snowboarding during the late 1980s and early 1990s. However,
the negative aspect was that this “skate-punk” subculture often fueled the fears held by
many in the ski industry, resulting in the overall ban from most ski hills. When tensions
between snowboarders and ski hill area management were increasing around the country,
Southern Californian operators jumped at the opportunity to increase revenue by allowing
snowboarders access to their slopes.
153
The cultural prevalence of single-board sports in
the region transferred directly into ridership numbers at many resorts once snowboarders
were granted access. At Bear Mountain during the1992 season, the percentage of
snowboarders on hill could vary between 35% to 60%; substantial when compared to the
national average that same year of 17%.
154

The following season, Ski Green Valley near Running Springs, California,
attempted to capitalize on the growing craze of snowboarding by making the resort
snowboard-only. The name was changed to Big Air Green Valley with the hope that this
would further cater and entice the snowboarders of Southern California by using
freestyle-oriented lexicon. The ski runs and facilities of the hill itself were small in
comparison to hills in the immediate region, but the features of the terrain park and
snowboard friendly atmosphere were intended to compensate for the more typological
and topographical shortcomings of the operation. Poor snowfall and lack of snowmaking
eventually lead to the closure of this hill a decade later, but it was important in its efforts
to cater to the growing number of snowboarders in Southern California.
155
Now every ski
hill in the region has a number of terrain parks to cater to freestyle snowboarders and the
growing number of freestyle skiers. In fact, Bear Mountain is widely considered to
possess one of the best collections of terrain parks and freestyle features in the world,
placing in the top rankings of the best terrain park destinations every season.
156

153
David Ross, “Southern California’s Landed Market on New Wave-Rage – Snowboarding,” The
Baltimore Sun, January 26, 1992.
154
Ibid.
155
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 134.
156
“Best Terrain Parks in the World,” World Snowboard Guide, accessed February 22, 2014,
http://www.worldsnowboardguide.com/resorts/bestterrainparks.cfm.

63

Contemporary Skiing in Southern California
There were once dozens of ski hill operations of varying sizes throughout the
mountain ranges of Southern California, but only five ski areas remain operational today:
Big Bear, Snow Summit, Snow Valley, Mount Baldy, and Mountain High.
157
These active
ski hills are the product of the aforementioned development of the sport in the region, as
well as the resulting adaptations and impacts on these intricate cultural landscapes. The
main reasoning for their longevity is that these operations have managed to adapt to
evolutions in the sport, changes in the ski industry, and the climatic challenges of
operating in a relatively dry temperate region. Most of these remaining areas feature
varied ski trail types, extensive snowmaking capabilities, modern lift systems, and
additional amenities that have allowed them to stay competitive in an increasingly
difficult market. Regardless, these ski hills are not safe from obsolescence.
Skiing and snowboarding are sports that are under threat in Southern California,
more so than most regions in North America. The contemporary season of 2013-2014 has
been the worst snowfall season on record for California, which not only has repercussions
for the ski industry, but will also exacerbate the ongoing drought.
158
Of the five ski
resorts still operating, none are operating at full capacity with the entirety of their terrain
open.
159
The lack of snowfall and unseasonably high temperatures is one of the primary
concerns facing ski hill operations. Extensive snowmaking capacities have helped stave
off some of the financial hardship that can accumulate from a poor season, but this can
only do so much. Mount Waterman, the location of Southern California’s first chairlift,
relies entirely on natural snow and has been inoperable for several seasons, leaving the
future of this once prominent ski area in a state of uncertainty.
160
The areas surrounding

157
“Southern California Ski Resorts Reviews & Statistical Comparison,” On the Snow, accessed February
19, 2014, http://www.onthesnow.com/southern-california/ski-resorts.html.
158
Alan Neuhauser, “Snowfall No Longer a Sure Bet, Booming Ski Towns Fight Going Bust,” US News,
February 14, 2014, accessed February 17, 2014,
http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/02/14/snowfall-no-longer-a-sure-bet-booming-ski-towns-fight-
going-bust.
159
Information was derived from the trail status reports from each resort’s website (see bibliography).
Accessed February 19, 2014.
160
Art Bentley, “Ski Column: Big Bear Lake a Boon to Southern California Ski Resorts,” Daily Bulletin,
February 20, 2014, accessed February 20, 2014, http://www.dailybulletin.com/sports/20140220/ski-
column-big-bear-lake-a-boon-to-southern-california-ski-resorts.

64

Big Bear Lake are in a better position than most given their access to the lake as a water
source for snowmaking. This ready source of water has allowed for Bear Mountain, the
largest of the resorts in the area, to expand its snowmaking capabilities to cover 100% of
its cleared ski trails without the concerns of water access and environmental concerns that
many of their regional competitors face.
161
Snowmaking has become increasingly
essential for ski hills in the region and the improvement of these systems is one of the
biggest points of investment.
In addition to snowfall, the type of terrain available at ski hills in Southern
California is an issue that plagues many of the operations. It is well known within the
skiing community of the region that the best terrain available to Southern California
skiers, without boarding an airplane, exists at Mammoth Mountain. This hill, although not
technically in Southern California, is often considered to be associated with the region
because of the relatively easy access to or from the southland. Mammoth Mountain offers
an extensive area, more amenities, longer ski trails, faster lifts, and higher volumes of
natural snowfall than the immediate ski areas of Southern California. All of these
offerings result in many making the five-hour drive through the Owens Valley to
Mammoth Mountain, rather than frequenting the more convenient local hills.
162
The
regional hills cannot compete at the same level with the mega-resort of Mammoth
Mountain, so they have had to establish their own niches within the regional ski industry
and aggressively market these attributes accordingly. One can see numerous billboards
along the highway leading to Mammoth Mountain that advertise the ski hills of Southern
California, adorned with slogans like “you could be skiing by now,” which reflect their
closer proximity and subsequently shorter commutes. This competition between the
smaller ski hill operations and the mega-resort now extends beyond regional constraints.
Air access provides the opportunity for many to go to the resorts of their choosing, which
often depends on snowfall, terrain quality, as well as vacation amenities. With numerous
direct flights between Los Angeles and the major western resorts -particularly the ski

161
Bentley, “Big Bear Lake a Boon to Southern California Ski Resorts,”
162
“Southern California Ski Resort Reviews & Statistical Comparison.”

65

destination resorts of Colorado and Utah- the immediate regional hills now have
competition on an increasingly national level.
163

163
“United Adding More Flights to Colorado Ski Destinations,” Vail Business Journal, October 17, 2013,
accessed February 23, 2014, http://www.vailbusinessjournal.com/article.php?id=9822.

66

CHAPTER 3 – Evolutions of a Ski Hill: Big Pines to Mountain High

BIG PINES
Geographical Context
The Big Pines Recreation Area is located in the San Gabriel Mountains of the
Angeles National Forest. It is situated within the Swarthout Valley, four miles west of the
town Wrightwood, California, at an elevation between 6,000 and 10,000 feet above sea
level. (Figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1: Location map of Wrightwood, California. Illustration by author and Google Maps.

Its position within the higher elevations of the San Gabriel Mountains gives it a climate
that the U.S. Forest Service has identified with the zone name, “The Angeles High
Country.” Steep slopes, rounded mountaintops, and deep ravines characterize the
topography of this ecological and geographical region.
164

Big Pines is home to a variety of fauna and flora. The most primary vegetation
includes Douglas and White Fir; Lodgepole, Coulter, Ponderosa, and Jeffery Pine;

164
USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region, “Big Pines Recreation Area”, issued June, 2010,
http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/angeles/landmanagement/planning/?cid=stelprdb5329374.

67

California Live Oak, Cottonwood and Incense Cedar; Chamise, Ceanothus, Scrub oak,
and Toyon shrubs; and a wide ranging number of wildflowers.
165

Early Development of Big Pines: 1851-1924
The site where Big Pines is located was first settled by Anglo-Americans in 1851
by Nathan and Truman Swarthout; two Mormon brothers who attempted to establish
ranching and farming in the valley that now bares their name.
166
The brothers abandoned
the endeavor when the Mormons of the area moved back to Salt Lake City, ultimately
leaving the land available. Local rancher Sumner Wright acquired over 3,300 acres of the
valley over a number of years with the intentions of planting apple orchards and to
continue using it for ranching.
167
By the 1920s, Wright was in financial trouble and sold
off his land to a number of different buyers, including the Los Angeles County Board of
Supervisors, who managed to acquire 760 acres for $60,000.
168
(Figure 3.2) R.F.
McClellan, chairman of the Board, was a crucial player in acquiring the land to develop
an outdoor camp where Angelinos could “have a place to enjoy the outdoors without
restraint.”
169
In 1923, the Los Angeles County Department of Parks and Recreation began
building the initial tourist infrastructure in order to open the park to the public. This
included construction of the administrative building, recreation hall, coffee shops, the
main lodge, a central campground, housing for employees, and improvements to the
access road, which was constructed by a large number of contract employees and convict
labor.
170
Utilities were also established during this time with a water distribution system,
a telephone switchboard, a trash incineration facility, a chlorination plant, and an
electrical power transmission system.
171

165
USDA Forest Service, “Corridor Management Plan”, 19.
166
Ibid., 19.
167
Pat Krig and Barbara Van Houten, Images of America: Wrightwood and Big Pines (Charleston: Arcadia
Publishing, 2004), 7.
168
USDA Forest Service, “Corridor Management Plan,” 24.
169
Ingrid P. Wicken, Pray for Snow: The History of Skiing in Southern California (Norco, CA: Vasa Press,
2001), 25.
170
“County Starts Improvements,” Los Angeles Times, March 8, 1925.
171
Ed Kushner, “History of Big Pines Park” (Masters Thesis, California State Polytechnic College Pomona,
CA, 1963), 10.

68

Figure 3.2: 1930s map of routes from Los Angeles to Big Pines Recreation Camp. Photo courtesy of James
W. Young, original source Rich McCutchan (http://www.youngsphotogallery.com/TMOHistory.html)
Permission pending.

The park opened on Labor Day of 1924 and became a popular destination almost
overnight. Construction continued throughout the fall of 1924 in preparation for the first
winter season of the park. This was to include the slopes necessary for ski touring and
tobogganing, as well as trails that would be suitable for sleigh rides.
172

Due to the success of Big Pines Park, the LA County Department of Parks and
Recreation wanted to acquire another 3,500 acres west of the initial property from the US
Forest Service.
173
The Forest Service resisted, but with the help of sympathetic members
in the House of Representatives, a resolution was passed in 1925 allowing the County to
use the new 3,560 acres with a free lease, while the Forest Service retained ownership.
174

Big Pines Recreation Camp: 1925-1941
With the new lands secured, the County continued its construction of the camp
facilities. First, a new road that was suitable for increased automobile traffic had to be

172
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 69.
173
Ibid., 26.
174
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 26.

69

constructed. The highway was intended to open up the expanded area to further
recreational development and enjoyment.
175
A second lodge, known eventually as Big
Pines Lodge, was built next door to the original lodge. This was to house a general store,
post office, and dining hall/restaurant. A number of rental cabins were built on the slopes
behind the lodge to serve as accommodations for the park patrons. (Figure3.3) The two
lodges were connected by an elevated walkway constructed of rough stone masonry and
unpeeled logs, lending to the rustic aesthetic of the park itself.
176
(Figure 3.3) The
architecture of the lodge was very similar to the first Recreation hall; both were Arts and
Crafts with the rustic stylizations that were derived from the “National Park Rustic” style
that had been created and popularized by the work of Gilbert Stanley Underwood and
many of the his iconic buildings within the National Park system.
177

Figure 3.3: Swarthout Valley Lodge, Big Pines Recreation Hall, and cabins on the rear slope, circa 1933.
Photo courtesy of Terry Graham.

175
“County Starts Improvements.”
176
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 74-77.
177
Christine Barnes, Great Lodges of the West (Bend: W.W.West Inc., 2002), 123.

70

The iconic Big Pines gateway arch that spanned the highway adjacent to the
Lodge and recreation hall was completed in 1926. It was designed by architect William
Davidson of Los Angeles and served as an elevated pedestrian walkway, connecting the
recreation hall and Big Pines Lodge with the central campground and recreation area
across the highway. In addition to its programmatic role and function as a pedestrian
bridge, it was fitted with a jail cell reserved for unruly park patrons.
178
The gateway was
composed of two massive turret structures on either side of the highway with a
connecting arch. The gateway was composed of rough masonry and monumental in its
massing. (Figure 3.4) It quickly became centerpiece of the park and a symbol of Big
Pines’ golden age.

Figure 3.4: Big Pines Arch with the two lodges in the background, circa 1926. Photo courtesy of the Los
Angeles Public Library/Big Pines View collection; image 00071050
(http://jpg3.lapl.org/pics43/00071050.jpg). Permission pending.

178
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 72.

71

Further development continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s. At its height of
popularity, it was not uncommon for 10,000 people to come to Big Pines for a
weekend.
179
This made improvements to roads leading to, and around, Big Pines
absolutely essential to the development of the area. The once seemingly impassible San
Gabriel Mountains were soon made accessible so that people could flock to Big Pines
from a number of directions.
180
Maintenance programs in the summer, and snowplowing
in the winter helped keep access open to the county park. Good roads were also
fundamental for the park rangers and firefighters to have access to supplies and areas of
Big Pines in event of a forest fire. This has been a constant consideration in managing the
area.
181

Big Pines has three access points. Two are situated along the “Angeles Crest
Highway,” or the eastern portion of California State Route 2, which was started in 1929,
but would not be fully completed until 1956.
182
The southern access on Route 2 is
approached from Wrightwood, and the western access is an extension of the Glendale
Freeway, which runs its course through the San Gabriel Mountains. The northern access
point is along the “Big Pines Highway,” or County Road N-4, which ultimately leads out
of the Angeles National Forest towards the Antelope Valley, the city of Palmdale, and the
Mojave Desert.
183
Los Angeles County built the Big Pines Highway and the southern
access from San Bernardino via the Cajon Pass during the 1930s.
184

The recreational facilities underwent a widespread expansion during the 1930s.
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built campgrounds, picnic sites, and campsites
throughout the valley in the early 1930s. Some of the more established areas had large
stone stoves for cooking, shower facilities, piped water, and electric lighting, while others
were more modest with a simple fire-pit and cleared vegetation.
185
A community of larger
cabins, named McClellan Flats, was built on the slopes near Table Mountain to provide a

179
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 69.
180
"Big Pines Road Approved," Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File), Jun 27, 1927.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/161998736?accountid=14749, accessed December 11, 2012.
181
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 107.
182
“Angeles Crest Highway,” Wrightwood, California, accessed March 4, 2014,
http://angelescrestscenichighway.com.
183
USDA Forest Service, “Big Pines Recreation Area.”
184
“World Ski Champions in Contests on Program – All rRads to County Playground Clear of Snow to
Permit Trip Without Skid Chains,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1931.
185
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 92-93.

72

more modern and comfortable lodging option for the park supervisors and more
influential patrons.
186
Swimming pools, playgrounds, stables, rodeo grounds, fishing
ponds, softball fields, further hiking trails, and expansions to Jackson Lake were all built
to add to the recreational infrastructure within Big Pines. The Park staff also created a
number of well-organized events, activities, classes, and festivals to further enhance the
repertoire’ of recreation that one could enjoy while staying at Big Pines.
187
The vision for
the camp extended beyond just recreation and embraced early ideas of outdoor and
natural education, by establishing an early wildlife park. It housed a number of different
animals, including bears, reindeer, elk, and buffalo, which the patrons could visit and
even feed. The park was ultimately disbanded and the animals were sent to zoos in the
early 1930’s and most of the animals were moved to the Griffith Park Zoo in Los
Angeles, except for the Bison, whom remained at Big Pines until 1939.
188

As mentioned previously, winter sports were particularly popular with the patrons
of Big Pines. Part of this was through the promotion of winter recreation through the
popular Big Pines Winter Carnival. Those native to Southern California saw the winter
carnival as a fascinating novelty, whereas those originally from other regions that were
no stranger to winter could embrace old activities for nostalgia with the promise of
sunshine when they return to their homes.
189
The several day spectacle of the Winter
Carnival started to develop in the winter of 1926 with a large effort to promote winter
sports, and would come to fruition in the early months of 1927.
190
Jackson Lake was used
for ice-skating and a new 20,000 square foot skating rink was built near the recreation
hall to further increase the capacity for the sport.
191
Trails were cut and cleared, often by
the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), through the valley for ski touring, sleigh rides,
and dogsledding. Tobogganing was also popular in the park. People would often slide
down the hills that were abundant in the valley, but the park had also built special

186
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 101.
187
Ibid, 94-98.
188
Ibid., 102-103.
189
“Snow Plentiful at All Near-By Mountains,” Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1931.
190
“Park Popular During Winter,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1926, accessed March 10, 2014,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/161816390.
191
“Winter Sports – Fact Sheet,” Los County Department of Parks and Recreation, 1938, courtesy of the
California Ski Library, Wicken Collection.

73

toboggan slides out of sheet metal bent into a U-Shape and supported by wooden
frames.
192
(Figure 3.5)

Figure 3.5: Toboggan slope at Big Pines, circa 1928. Photo from USC Libraries Special
Collection/California Historical Society Collection,1860-1960; filename CHS-47994
(http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15799coll65/id/23667/rec/61).

Cross-country ski races would take place, as well as the famous “Mutt-Dog Derby,”
which involved a race where children were pulled by dogs on small sleds.
193
The most
popular of all the events that took place was ski jumping, which could draw thousands of
spectators who would come to see the professionals attempt to set new world records, as
well as the amateurs who attempted to simply land without injury.
194
In 1929, a new
1,150-foot ski jump, the world’s longest at the time, was built in the hopes that it would
allow for Los Angeles to host not only the Summer Olympics in 1932, but the Winter
Olympics as well. In its debut at the third annual Big Pines Winter Carnival, some of the

192
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 80-86.
193
“Ski Jump Record Broken,” Los Angeles Times, February 2, 1931.
194
Ibid.

74

world best ski jumpers were there to compete and set a number of world records. The
Winter Olympics ultimately went to Lake Placid, NY, but the facility was still integral to
the area and the development of skiing in Southern California.
195
Big Pines would
continue to expand their ski jumping facilities over the next several years, establishing it
as one of the premiere ski jumping locations in the world. This included a series of ski
jumps that would cater to beginners, novices, intermediates, and the professionals. With
each passing year, a new world record was set on the slopes of Big Pines as international
competitors awed the spectators that gathered around the outrun of the Master’s Jump,
which is where the professionals and bravest amateurs competed.
196
(Figure 3.6)

Figure 3.6: Crowd watches as ski jumpers compete at Big Pines, circa 1925. Photo courtesy of the Los
Angeles Public Library/Big Pines Camp Collection; image 00070935
(http://jpg3.lapl.org/pics42/00070935.jpg). Permission pending.

195
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 26-27.
196
Ibid., 28.

75

Ski touring was also a popular, and much more accessible, recreational activity at
Big Pines. By 1935, the CCC had constructed and cleared four different trails that
navigated over five miles through the forested slopes of the Big Pines area. (Figure 3.7)
Each trail had its own characteristics and level of difficulty, which could range from very
accessible to those that were steep and difficult enough that they warranted a warning
from park officials. In addition to these trails, a ski lodge that provided overnight
accommodation was constructed at the summit of Blue Ridge, which involved a 1,600-
foot ascent.
197
Ski touring, although much more accessible than ski jumping, was still a
rigorous endeavor and did not capture the imagination of the overall public.

Figure 3.7: Big Pine Camp ski trail map, circa 1935. Image courtesy of the California Ski Library.

197
“Ski Trails at Big Pines,” Trails Magazine, Autumn 1935, V.2 N.4, 14.

76

By 1934, there was a new skiing event on the Winter Carnival bill at Big Pines –
slalom.
198
This new event implemented the techniques from the emerging sport of
downhill skiing. It was seen as much more enjoyable and much more accessible to the
general public. Downhill skiing was still very rudimentary, with skiers hiking up the hill
for just a few quick, yet enjoyable, descents down the slopes.
199
With no lifts and few
trails, the early skiers often were forced to share cleared areas that were used for sledding
and tobogganing, which often resulted in crashes, confrontations, and injury.
200
This
created the need for ski specific trails and lifts, which not only made the day more
enjoyable by eliminating the descent, it also established a circulation system that would
improve safety by removing those ascending from the paths of those descending. By
1940, there were two rope tows – one at Table Mountain and one at Blue Ridge - in
operation and several downhill skiing specific trails that were cleared of brush,
vegetation, and stumps by the US Forest Service, the CCC, and a few enterprising
individuals.
201
(Figure 3.8) With these improvements, downhill skiing ultimately
surpassed ski jumping in popularity and accessibility. In 1940 the once world-class ski
jump at Big Pines was dismantled and replaced by a toboggan slide.
202

By 1934 the Great Depression was having an increasingly negative effect on the
park’s operations. Los Angeles County began reaching out to the US Forest Service in
the hopes that they would take Big Pines off their hands and incorporate the area back
into the National Forest system. These negotiations were lengthy and contentious.
203
By
1940, the US Forest Service and the County came to an agreement and Big Pines
Recreation Area was re-incorporated into the Angeles National Forest in 1941.
204

World War Two meant that the activities in the park decreased significantly. The
heyday of the Big Pines Recreation Park had, by and large, come to an end.

198
Jack Singer, “Four Norsemen Shatter Marks of Big Pines,” Los Angeles Times, February 5, 1934.
199
Ethel Severson, “Skiing has Come to Stay,” Trails Magazine, Autumn 1937, V.4 N.4, 8.
200
“The New Big Pines – Playground for All,” Western Skiing, April 1947, V.2 N.6, 11.
201
California Winter Sports Guide: 1939-1940,” California State Chamber of Commerce, 1939-1940,
Sacramento,CA: 1-3.
202
“News from Clubs and Resorts,” Ski Heil, January 1940, V.2 N.3, 24.
203
"Big Pines Park Plan Opposed." Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File), Aug 22, 1937.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/164749320?accountid=14749.
204
Krig and Van Houten, Wrightwood and Big Pines, 121.

77

Figure 3.8: Blue Ridge rope tow. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

MOUNTAIN HIGH
The rise of Big Pines as an important area in winter recreation helped to institute
the foundations for three individual ski resorts to be established within the area: Blue
Ridge, Holiday Hill, and Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise. These small, often family-run,
operations would grow substantially over the following decades. The three ski hills are all
now incorporated as parts of the Mountain High resort area, which is one of the largest
and most established ski hills in Southern California. (Figure 3.9)

78

Figure 3.9: Overlay map of contemporary Mountain High, illustrating the three originally independent ski
hills, the contemporary names, as well as historic names. Diagram by author and Google Maps.

79

Blue Ridge/Mountain High West
Frank Springer and Tom Triol, two local ski enthusiasts, started to clear and
develop a number of ski trails on the Slopes of Big Pines in the season of 1937-1938.
205

(Figure 3.10) Their extensive efforts would result in the opening of the Blue Ridge ski
area in 1941, which featured a rope tow and several trails that were situated on the site of
the original Big Pines slopes.
206

Figure 3.10: Periods of development of Blue Ridge/Mountain High West. Illustration by author and Google
maps.

205
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 166.
206
“History,” Mountain High.

80

The outbreak of the Second World War ground development of the area to a
standstill and a fire in 1945 set Triol and Springer back as their lift system was destroyed.
Undeterred, Springer installed a replacement rope tow that was considerably faster,
featuring a sixty-five horsepower engine that powered the rope tow up the 600-foot slope.
Another rope tow was planned and installed soon after, which opened up new terrain near
where the Big Pines slalom course was once located and the Big Pines warming hut.
207

With further investment, Triol and Springer pushed ahead plans for expansion and
managed to complete Blue Ridge’s first chairlift in 1947 after over a year of work. The
single chairlift was 2,000 feet long, covered a 700-foot vertical rise, and had the capacity
to move up to 450 skiers per hour.
208
(Figure 3.11) It extended from the bottom of the
original Big Pines jumping hill to the summit of Blue Ridge. From there a skier could
take one of the five main ski trails to the base. Three new trails and two new rope tows
were installed near the top of the lift in the subsequent seasons.
209

Figure 3.11: Blue Ridge single chairlift and lift line. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library

207
“Western… Ski Slopes,” Western Skiing, October 1945, V.1 N.1, 3.
208
Information derived from Blue Ridge/Big Pines Advertisement in Western Skiing, March 1947, V.2 N.5,
28.
209
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 167.

81

The Blue Ridge operation was very small and lacked many of the formal buildings
typical of ski hills. It relied heavily on the pre-existing facilities of the former Big Pines
Recreation Camp, including the small dirt parking lot, which was located nearby.
Shuttles transported skiers from the highway next to Big Pines Lodge up to the base of
the lift. These shuttles were eventually made obsolete in 1955 when Springer and Triol
constructed their second chairlift; a double chair that extended 2,000 feet from the road to
the existing lift network, which also opened up new terrain to their patrons.
210
(Figure
3.12)
Few improvements were made to Blue Ridge over the following two decades. In
1975 the ski hill, its few lifts, limited ski trails, and its rich history, were sold and
incorporated as Mountain High.
211
(Figure 3.13)

Figure 3.12: Blue Ridge double chairlift with parking lot and base facilities in background, circa 1960.
Photo Courtesy of the California Ski Library.

210
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 167.
211
Ibid., 167.

82

Figure 3.13: Blue Ridge location and trail map, circa 1975. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

Holiday Hill/Mountain High East
The early development of Holiday Hill was the product of a collaborative effort
between John Steinmann and the ski hall of famer, Josef “Sepp” Benedikter. Benedikter,
an Austrian-born downhill skiing pioneer, had been active in the United States for a
number of years, most famously working as a ski school instructor at Sun Valley, Idaho
for their premiere season in 1936-1937. Benedikter would travel around the United States
in the following years, promoting skiing, and ultimately arriving in Southern California to
establish the Pine Needles Ski Slope in North Hollywood for the summer of 1939.
212
He
would return to Sun Valley to resume teaching the following season. Although the Second
World War effectively put a pause on most skiing operations, Benedikter remained in
Idaho where he taught recreational skiing to soldiers stationed in the state, in addition to
establishing a winter carnival for those who were at the Naval Hospital established at the
then repurposed Sun Valley.
213
Following the end of the Second World War, Benedikter
arrived back in Southern California once again to establish the “Sepp Benedikter Ski
School” in the region, which operated at many of the ski hills, but particularly focused on
the Big Pines area.
214

212
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 167-168.
213
Bill Southworth, “Sepp Benedikter,” biographical profile for KNXT – CBS Channel 2 News, Los
Angeles, unkown date, courtesy of California Ski Library, Wicken Collection.
214
“Sun, Moon, & Starlets,” Ski Magazine, December 1, 1948, 16-17.

83

While operating in Big Pines, Benedikter, whom had plenty of experience in
planning ski hills, sought to establish his own operation adjacent slopes to Blue Ridge.
The topography features a broad ridge that rises from the valley floor to intersect with yet
another broad ridge, creating a series of steep canyons and bowls, as well as gentle slopes
better suited for the beginner skier.
215
Benedikter chose the location because of the
northern exposure, established access infrastructure, and varied topography, which he
claimed was “suitable for every need of the experience and inexperienced skier.”
216

He started clearing six ski trails in the summer of 1948, making sure they were sure they
were completely cleared of rocks so minimal snowfall would be required to operate. An
800 foot-long rope tow was installed for the 1949-1950 season, some of the earliest
infrastructure of Holiday Hill.
217
Benedikter had ambitious plans for the emerging ski
hill, but lacked capital. In order to improve the budding operation, Benedikter formed a
partnership with John Steinman, who invested heavily in Holiday Hill in preparation for
the 1950-1951 season. This would include the installation of a new double chairlift that
would measure 5,800 feet in length and have a rise of 1,600 feet; almost double the
length of any other lift in the region.
218
(Figure 3.15, 3.16) Benedikter had done much of
the construction work for this new lift himself; installing the concrete foundations,
clearing the lift lines, and building the lift towers from logs that remained from the
clearing efforts. Despite these efforts, the partnership between Steinman and Benedikter
became contentious, resulting in litigation and forcing Benedikter out of the operation in
the late months of 1951.
219

With Steinman as the sole proprietor, the expansions of Holiday Hill continued.
By the beginning of the 1955 season, Holiday Hill had two chairlifts – a single (2,500’)
and a double (5,800’) - two rope tows, toboggan hills, a skating rink, and a base lodge
that included ski rentals, a repair shop, and a first aid station.
220
(Figure 3.17)

215
Burt Sims, “Speaking of Holidays,” Western Skier, December 1968, 27.
216
“Holiday Hill,” The Skier, December 15, 1949, courtesy of the California Ski Library, Wicken
collection.
217
Ibid.
218
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 171.
219
Ibid., 171.
220
“Holiday Hill Completes Expansion Program,” Wrightwood News, December 1952, V.1 N.4, 1.

84

Figure 3.14: Periods of development of Holiday Hill/Mountain High East. Illustration by author and
Google maps.

85

Figure 3.15: The Benedikter chairlift at Holiday Hill. Photo courtesy of the Los Angeles Public
Library/David Siddon Collection; image 00109397 (http://jpg1.lapl.org/00109/00109397.jpg). Permission
pending.

86

Figure 3.16: Photo of Holiday Hill with double chairlift. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

87

New trails were cleared, particularly an area called “Christmas Run,” which ran
off the summit of Holiday Hill down a wide and gentle slope, which was perfectly suited
for beginners and intermediates. In addition, a warming hut reminiscent of a goat house,
aptly named “Heidi’s House,” was constructed at the summit of Holiday Hill that
featured concession services, spectacular views of the surrounding area, and actual live
goats.
221
Another single chairlift was installed in 1954, which ran alongside the original
double chairlift, but only went half the distance, providing a mid-mountain unloading
point and alleviating some of the congestion that was already occurring. A brand new,
single story, 4,000 square foot base lodge was constructed this year as well.
222
(Figure
3.17) This lodge was much more modern in appearance compared to the Swiss influenced
“Heidi House” that was at the summit of Holiday Hill. By the end of the initial expansion
period in 1959, Holiday Hill had three rope tows, a double chairlift, and two single
chairlifts.
223
(Figure 3.18)

Figure 3.17: Postcard of Holiday Hill with base facilities, original double chairlift, parking lot, and
“Olympic Bowl.” Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

221
Sims, “Speaking of Holidays,” 27.
222
Holiday Hill Advertisement in Far West Ski Association’s The Skier, November 1955, V.9 N.7, 6.
223
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 172.

88

Figure 3.18: Trail map of Holiday Hill. Image courtesy of the California Ski Library.

Expansion of the facilities at Holiday Hill continued rapidly in the decade
following. The summit lodge was replaced by a brand new facility (after the original
burned down in 1968), larger and still featuring fantastic views. (Figure 3.19)
Existing trails were widened; new trails were cut, and even the iconic “Olympic Bowl”
was slightly graded in the hopes that it would not provide such an intimidating sight as it

89

was one of the most visually prominent features of the hill and was suspected of scaring
off potential patrons.
224

The original chair was replaced by a considerably faster double chair in 1968, and
the parallel single chairlift was converted to a double in 1974 in the hopes of further
alleviating congestion.
225
(Figure 3.20)
Just as with other ski hills in Southern California, the benefits of artificial
snowmaking systems became apparent to the Steinman family, so in 1963, they installed
their first snowmaking system, which was doubled and expanded upon every season
following through the 1970s.
226
The Steinman family sold Holiday Hill in 1978. They
had managed to turn the small rope tow operation of Sepp Benedikter into one of the
most established ski hills in Southern California with four chairlifts, two poma-lifts, a
rope tow, expansive paved parking lot, maintenance facilities, base lodge facilities, a
newly remodeled “American Alpine” summit lodge, and a snowmaking system that
covered seventy-five acres with manmade snow.
227

The new ownership started to make improvements, most notably a new beginner
oriented ski area, but Holiday Hill was bought again in 1981 before any major changes
could be implemented. However, future changes were certain as the new owner was their
longtime competitor and neighbor, Mountain High.
228
(Figure 3.21)

224
Sims, “Speaking of Holidays”, 27-28.
225
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 171-172.
226
Sims, “Speaking of Holidays,” 28.
227
Holiday Hill Press Release, “Fact Sheet,” March 5, 1979, courtesy of the California Ski Library.
228
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 172.

90

Figure 3.19: New summit lodge at Holiday Hill, circa 1968. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

Figure 3.20: Chairlifts and ski trails at Holiday Hill, circa 1974. Photo courtesy of the California Ski
Library.

91

Figure 3.21: Photograph of Mountain High East, formerly Holiday Hill. Photo courtesy of the California
Ski Library.

92

Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High North
Skiing on Table Mountain began during the 1920s when people, particularly the
member of the Big Pines Ski Club, started to use the terrain for ski touring. Access was
somewhat limited until 1926, when a dirt road was constructed from the valley floor to
the summit to reach the newly constructed Smithsonian Institution Solar Observatory.
229

The introduction of this road made the slopes of Table Mountain much more accessible to
the early ski enthusiasts. As part of the Big Pines Camp area, Table Mountain’s
recreational potential was developed through the efforts of the CCC during the 1930s. By
the season of 1935-1936, two of the major ski trails in the Big Pines network: trails 1 &
1A began at the observatory and descended 800 feet of Table Mountain, providing the
skier with differing levels of difficulty.
230

The Big Pines Ski Club, which had been steadily growing in members since
skiing had become a popular recreational form at Big Pines Recreation Camp, was
hoping to build a rope tow on the slopes of Table Mountain in 1936. The rope tow would
not come to fruition until a Special Use Permit was established with the US Forest
Service in 1939, which allowed for the construction of the lift and a warming hut. These
efforts were spearheaded by Harlow “Buzz” Dormer, one of the founding members of the
Big Pines Ski Club. Dormer was an experienced outdoorsman and early ski enthusiast
who served as an Assistant Chief Ranger at the Big Pines Park for a number of years.
231

His familiarity and expertise with the topography of the site and proved beneficial when
he and others started to clear the trails, build the lift, and construct the warming hut that
would eventually develop into the Table Mountain Ski Area.
232
By the time the United
States entered the Second World War, Table Mountain was outfitted with a single rope
tow - 950’ in length with a rise of 200’ – a ticket booth, as well as a simple lunch
stand.
233
(Figure 3.22, 3.23, 3.24)

229
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 165.
230
W.A. Treadmill Jr.,”The Ski Hills of Big Pines,” Trails Magazine V.2 N.4, Autumn 1935, 25
231
Ibid., 70.
232
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 165.
233
“California Winter Sports Guide: 1939-1940,” California State Chamber of Commerce, 1939-1940,
Sacramento,CA: 1.

93

Figure 3.22: Periods of development of Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High North. Illustration by
author and Google maps.

94

Figure 3.23: Rope tow drive engine at Table Mountain. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

Figure 3.24: Ticket booth at Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

95

One of the most interesting aspects of the landscape at Table Mountain that came
out of these developments of the late 1940s and 1950s is its “upside-down” orientation.
234

The majority of ski resorts follow the pattern where one parks adjacent to the base of the
ski hill, then walks to where the lifts are situated, which then takes the skier up the hill for
their descent. Where Table Mountain differed is that one parked near the summit of the
ski hill and was able to descend the ski trails to the bottom of the lifts. These lifts then
took the skier to their unloading terminus, which was either adjacent to the parking lot or
situated above it, allowing for the skier to ski down towards the parking lot. This
orientation of the parking facilities, ski trails, and ski lifts created a circulation of
convenience that Table Mountain was very vocal about in their marketing of the ski
hill.
235
(Figure 3.25)
Howard More, an early ski pioneer from Colorado, bought the Table Mountain
lease in 1943 and quickly set to upgrading and expanding the area in the hopes that it
would become a popular destination once the war had been concluded and recreational
activities could resume.
236
When Table Mountain was able to open again for business for
the 1945-1946 season, More’s efforts from the previous years were made clear when it
was published that the ski area now had an operational warming hut, new ski trails, and
two rope-tows that a skier could take in succession, equaling up to a length of 1,900’ and
a vertical rise of 500’.
237
Accessing these new lifts was still problematic as many were
forced to park their automobiles down in the valley in the limited spaces surrounding the
Big Pines Arch. From there one would take a shuttle to the summit, given that the roads
had been cleared of snow. The need for an improved roadway and surface parking at the
summit of Table Mountain became one of the most pressing concerns, which was
addressed over the following seasons. By 1951, Table Mountain could boast having a
fully paved access road and parking lot that could accommodate several hundred
vehicles.
238
Other improvements to the trails, lifts, and amenities were needed if the
budding Table Mountain were to compete with the surrounding ski areas of Blue Ridge

234
Table Mountain Trail Map,” c. 1955, courtesy of California Ski Library.
235
“Table Mountain Has Slopes for Everyone,” The Skier, V.9 N.7, January 1955, 6.
236
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 165.
237
“California Winter Sports Guide: 1945-46,” California State Chamber of Commerce, 1945-1946,
Sacramento, CA: 6.
238
“California Winter Sports Guide: 1950-51,” California State Chamber of Commerce, 1950-1951,
Sacramento, CA: 1.

96

and Holiday Hill. A new three-story day lodge was constructed for the 1952-1953 winter
season. It was built of local stone and lumber that was acquired from the expansion and
clearing of the adjacent ski trail network.
239
The lodge housed ticket sales, administration
offices, first aid facilities, concession services, a rental shop, and modern restrooms.
240

The 2,700 square foot lodge was similar in style to many lodges of the time, evoking
Tyrolean and Swiss Chalet forms, although executed in a more a much more American
rustic interpretation. (Figure 3.27) There was a central fireplace comprised of native stone
and an expansive sundeck that extended out from the lodge, offering views of the
surrounding forest and the Mojave Desert below.
241

The expansions of the ski hill infrastructure continued so that by the season of
1955-56 Table Mountain featured a poma lift, seven rope tows, and an entirely new ski
trails geared towards beginners and intermediate skiers.
242
In the years following, Table
Mountain was starting to experience a series of financial and operational issues. This was
due in large part to poor snowfall, short operating seasons, and difficulty competing with
the nearby resorts of Blue Ridge and Holiday Hill. One of the major issues facing Table
Mountain in terms of competition was the type of terrain its ski trails offered skiers. The
majority of the trails had a gentle incline, so they were cleared and widened to serve as
ideal beginner and intermediate trails. This was included as part of their marketing
campaign as they often branded themselves as a family-oriented ski hill, which was less
crowded and more beginner friendly than the other ski areas in the Big Pines region.
243

This niche of being a family hill was limiting, so expansion to include more challenging
types of terrain was necessary.
By 1960, another poma lift was installed, 2,200 feet in length with a vertical rise
of 754 feet. This new lift serviced an area that featured steeper terrain that was gladed
and altered into an expansive bowl, contributing much more challenging terrain into the
ski trail network of Table Mountain. (Figure 3.25, 3.26) Other trails in this new area were
cleared and graded in a way that would allow more intermediate and beginner skiers the

239
“Table Mountain Ski Area Adds Facilities,” Wrightwood News, V.1 N.4, December 1952, 2.
240
“Table Mountain Trail Map,” c. 1955, courtesy of California Ski Library .
241
“Table Mountain Ski Area Adds Facilities,” 2.
242
“California Winter Sports Guide: 1950-51,” California State Chamber of Commerce, 1950-1951,
Sacramento, CA: 1.
243
“Table Mountain Trail Map,” c. 1960, courtesy of California Ski Library.

97

option of an easy route to the loading terminal of this new lift.
244
This area of expansion
was ultimately closed off, although the remnants from the poma lift and trail alterations
are still plainly visible.

Figure 3.25: Table Mountain Trail Map, circa 1960. Image courtesy of the California Ski Library.

244
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 74.

98

Figure 3.26: Skiers on Table Mountain advanced terrain with poma lift in the background. Photo courtesy
of the California Ski Library.

More, the owner of Table Mountain, was trying to combat the issue of poor
snowfall by installing a snowmaking system, similar to those that were being installed at
Holiday Hill and Blue Ridge. There is lengthy correspondence between More and the US
Forest Service, outlining the concerns of both parties in relation to maintaining the
watersheds of the region as well as being able to stay in business.
245
More began his
proposals in 1968 for the installation of wells and storage tanks for a snowmaking
system, but the concerns for water levels and the previous use of the watershed for the
other resorts of the area stalled the proposals and ultimately demanded further
environmental review. This continued for several years, which lead to further frustrations
at Table Mountain. In a letter to the US Forest Service from Howard More, dated May
26, 1972, More stated: “I have been almost overcome with discouragement when I

245
Courtesy of the California Ski Library, Wicken Collection, accessed February, 13, 2014.

99

contemplate all of the obstacles which appear to lie ahead… I hope that we can
accomplish the preliminary objectives we had hoped to accomplish in the 70-71 season,
or 71-72 season, in the 72-73 season. To do this, we must try snowmaking on the areas
requested in our original proposal.”
246
In 1973, the year following this letter to the US
Forest Service, More sold his operation to Tamount, Inc.
When Tamount, Inc. took control of Table Mountain, it possessed three poma
lifts, three rope tows, some grooming equipment, the day lodge, fully equipped rental
shop, and the small snowmaking operation that was limited to the beginner terrain and
the trail west of the intermediate poma lift.
247
It was under this new management that
changes to the resort were planned, including a new chairlift, increased snowmaking, and
a new name, Ski Sunrise, to further illustrate the transition of ownership.

Figure 3.27: The original day lodge rebranded. Photo couresy of the California Ski Library.

246
Letter to William T. Dresser, Forest Supervisor, US Forest Service from Howard More, Table Mountain
Ski Lifts Inc. May 26, 1972.
247
“Ski Sunrise: Fact Sheet” Tamount, Inc., prior to 1976, courtesy of California Ski Library, Wicken
Collection.

100

The chairlift took several seasons to come to fruition, evolving from a triple to a quad
chair, which was eventually installed in 1979.
248
Tamount Inc. also had financial
problems with the resort during its time of operation, which led to Howard More
becoming the owner once again in 1993 after the operation was foreclosed upon. Upon
receiving control of the ski hill again, More began investing approximately $360,000 in
upgrading the lifts, acquiring new equipment, and expanding what small snowmaking the
mountain possessed.
249
This proved to be too little too late. Poor snowfall, limited
snowmaking, lack of investment capital, and competition became far too overwhelming
for the small ski hill. Ski Sunrise saw ridership of 12,000 during 1997-1998 season drop
to just 750 the following season. Many of the lifts fell into disrepair or were closed with
all efforts concentrated along the remaining quad chair and the ski trails it serviced. The
100-acre operation, its day lodge, and one remaining lift was sold to Mountain High in
2004.
250

Mountain High: 1975-2012
Mountain High first evolved from the remnants of the Blue Ridge ski area, which
was sold by Springer and Triol to Dick Woodworth in 1975.
251
The name change from
Blue Ridge to Mountain High signaled the new ownership. Woodworth instantly started
implementing his plans, which called for upgrades to the lift systems, a new sundeck and
modern restrooms for the mid-mountain lodge, new ski rental equipment, and portable
snowmaking systems. Prior to starting their first season under the new ownership, five
new intermediate and beginner trails were cleared, and existing trails were cleared of
buckthorn bushes that had taken root on the slopes.
252
A new double chairlift was
installed with the use of a helicopter, which transported the ten massive lift towers to
their respective locations along the lift line up the slope. The use of helicopters in aerial
ski lift installation is common practice in contemporary times, given the substantial
weight of the lift towers, but the aforementioned instance was a first within the Angeles

248
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 74.
249
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 166.
250
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 74-75.
251
Ibid., 167.
252
“Ski Facility Under New Management,” Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1976, accessed March 1, 2014,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/158027893.

101

National Forest.
253
It was recognized that a modern base lodge was required in order for
Mountain High to assert itself in the already competitive region. Temporary structures
were put in place to address the immediate lack of proper base facilities and Woodworth
purchased the historic Big Pines Lodge, which was then renovated and used by the
resort.
254
The following season, additional improvements to the landscape began when
the US Forest Service approved Mountain High’s Ski Area Master Plan. This plan
outlined a number of projects for the 1977-1978 season, including a new 2,100-foot
double chairlift; a new lodge with septic systems, installation of lights for night skiing
operations, and ski trail improvements that required grading. The plan also outlined
substantial expansion of their snowmaking system with over 21,000 feet of underground
piping, twenty-one snow guns, new wells, a new pump house, relocation of a 250,000-
gallon water storage tank, and a new 450,000-gallon storage tank for their water
reserves.
255
Regardless of a positive reception to these changes and improvements, the
resort became mired in financial troubles when the primary shareholder of Mountain
High went bankrupt during the 1978-1979 season.
256

Terry Tongnazzini, the owner of several hotels and avid skier, bought the resort
and continued to make improvements. In 1980, Mountain High had been expanded to
include the new double chair included in the previous master plan, two new triple chairs –
3,360 and 1,060 feet long – new lighting for night skiing, a 1,300,000-gallon water
storage system for snowmaking, and new compressors.
257
Ski trails also were the focus of
a lot of work with the expansion of six of the major runs, as well as the creation of
steeper terrain oriented for advanced skiers. (Figure 3.28)

253
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 167.
254
“Wrightwood Lifts Get New Name,” Los Angeles Times, November 19, 1976, accessed March 1, 2014,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/158041177.
255
“Mountain High Gets Permits,” Far West Ski News, October 1975, 21.
256
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 167.
257
Ibid., 167.

102

Figure 3.28: Mountain High West, formerly Blue Ridge. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

103

A new beginner ski slope and ski school area was cleared on the site of one of the
old Big Pines campgrounds, adjacent to the Big Pines cabins. The cabins themselves
were renovated and provided an onsite accommodation option.
258
This area featured was
400 feet wide on a gentle slope and featured its own beginner-oriented chairlift that was
1,200 feet in length and moved at a slower pace allowing for easier loading and
unloading. (Figure 3.29) New infrastructure projects were conducted as well, with
particular focus on drainage pipes, culverts, and a paved surface parking lot at the base
lodge that could accommodate 1,100 automobiles. The parking lot measured 230,000
square feet and required over twenty feet of elevation to be removed from the preexisting
hill, which was then used as fill for the expansion of the lower parking lot facilities.
259

Figure 3.29: Mountain High East ski school on beginner slopes with base area below. Photo courtesy of the
California Ski Library.

258
“Get a Mountain High,” The Skier, November 1, 1980, 9.
259
“Mountain Hi,” The Skier, November 15, 1980, page unknown, courtesy of the California Ski Library
Wicken Collection.

104

Mountain High expanded exponentially once again in 1981 when Tongnazzini
acquired the neighboring Holiday Hill, integrating it into the operation as Mountain High
East, making the ski area one of the largest and most popular in Southern California.
260

(Figure 3.30)

Figure 3.30: Mountain High trail map with West (right) and East (left) areas illustrated, circa 1981. Photo
courtesy of the California Ski Library.

Improvements continued under Tongnazzini, with the addition of a new
intermediate ski trail, wider existing trails, further expansion of the snowmaking system,
increasing lift capacity, and the introduction of California’s first high-speed detachable
quad chairlift, the “Mountain High Express.”
261
The new chair was located on Mountain
High East and could transport 2,000 skiers per hour to the top in just six minutes,
whereas the Steinmann era chair that ran parallel could only transport a fraction of the
people in over double the amount of time.
262
During this time attendance had reached
350,000 skiers a year, making Mountain High the second most visited ski hill in the
region. This declined significantly in the following years, particularly during the early
1990s, as the Southern Californian economy slowed down and capital for further

260
“History,” Mountain High, accessed March 3, 2014, http://www.mthigh.com/mountain/history.
261
Information taken from Mountain High Trail Maps of the 1986-1990 seasons, courtesy of the California
Ski Library Wicken collection.
262
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 172.

105

improvements became harder to acquire.
263
This was somewhat alleviated with the
introduction of snowboarding, which Mountain High sought to promote and capitalize on
with the introduction of snowboard lessons to their ski school program in 1990.
264

Business continued to decrease regardless, which left the existing base lodge facilities - a
collection of portable trailers filled with nothing more than video games and vending
machines - in an increasing state of neglect.
265
This, in addition to the 14-25 year old
male “newcomers,” managed to deter many skiers, particularly families, from coming to
Mountain High and using their facilities.
266

Tognazzini ended up selling Mountain High in 1997 to Mountain High Holdings,
Inc, part of the venture capital company Oaktree Capital Management, which
immediately started working on the ski hill. They instigated an aggressive marketing
campaign and made improvements to the operations of the ski hill, as well as aesthetic
improvements to the base facilities at both resorts. All of these efforts resulted in 1998-
1999 being one of the best seasons with almost 400,000 skiers and snowboarders coming
to Mountain High.
267
The new owners continued to invest millions of dollars into the ski
hill, which included the removal of the “Blue Ridge Triple” chairlift and the installation
of Mountain High’s second high-speed “Blue Ridge Express” quad chairlift.
268

Improvements to the lift systems and snowmaking system of Mountain High East and
West would continue over the following decade.
Mountain High would expand again in November 2004 with the purchase of the
Ski Sunrise operation, renaming it Mountain High North. This newly acquired 100 acre
area would largely stay inoperable, until the 2011-2012 season when the former Holiday
Hill beginner slopes were converted to a tubing park.
269

263
“History” Mountain High.
264
“Mt. High Offers Top-notch Skiing at its State-of-the-Art Complex,” Mountaineer Progress, January
15, 1992, 7.
265
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 172-173.
266
Wendell Bendetti, “Fact Things at Mountain High,” Skiing, October, 1997, 1C-2C.
267
Wicken, Pray for Snow, 173-174.
268
Ibid., 174.
269
Wicken, Lost Ski Areas, 75-76.

106

Contemporary Mountain High
Mountain High exists on 515 acres of the Angeles National Forest, which is
permitted for special use as a ski hill. Of that permitted acreage, 219 acres are considered
skiable with 80% of that terrain having access to artificial snowmaking. The season
typically starts in November and finishes in April and typically operates seven days a
week, but this is subject to snowfall levels and weather conditions. Mountain High is
comprised of the three original resorts that make up the East, West, and North locations.
Although each area is within the operation of Mountain High, they are occasionally
marketed as individual resorts, stressing the specific qualities and amenities of that
particular area. (Figure 3.31)
Although the three areas are considered to be part of the same resort, the
developmental history, present condition, and overall lack of physical integration with
each other means that each area – East, West, North – shall be addressed as individual
spaces.

Resort Surface
Lift*
Double
Chair
Triple
Chair
Quad
Chair
Beg.
Trail
Int.
Trail
Adv.
Trail
Exp.
Trail
West 1 3 2 1 5 12 16 1
East 1 2 - 2 4 7 4 1
North 2 - - 1 3 7 - -
*All surface lifts are of the “Magic Carpet” conveyor belt type.
Figure 3.31: Comparison of North, East, and West Resorts Lifts and Trails (2013-2014 season). Figure by
author.

107

Mountain High West, which evolved from Blue Ridge, is the main area of the
resort and features the primary base lodge, administrative offices, maintenance facilities,
après ski location, ski school, and other amenities. (Figure 3.32) It has 1,000 feet of
vertical and is where the resort’s night skiing infrastructure is situated. The terrain caters
to skiers of all ability, with a number of advanced runs, as well as the primary beginner
slopes. This area is also oriented towards a younger demographic with terrain park
features that are located throughout the ski trail network, après ski facilities, and concert
venue spaces.
270

Figure 3.32: Periods of development of Blue Ridge/Mountain High West. Illustration by author and Google
maps.

270
All information for this section, unless stated otherwise, was accessed through the Mountain High
Resort Website, March 10, 2014, http://www.mthigh.com/.

108

Mountain High East, which evolved from Holiday Hill, has 1,600 feet of vertical
and has some of the longest ski trails in Southern California. (Figure 3.33) It is known for
its more traditionally alpine orientation and advanced technical terrain, including glades,
bowls, and mogul trails. Although much quieter and less busy than Mountain High West,
it still features many amenities, including base lodge facilities and summit restaurant.

Figure 3.33: Periods of development of Holiday Hill/Mountain High East. Illustration by author and
Google maps.

109

Mountain High North, site of the former Table Mountain and Ski Sunrise, is
seldom operated as a ski hill, but still offers 600 feet of vertical over seventy acres of
beginner oriented terrain. (Figure 3.34) Most of the former advanced terrain is no longer
accessible by ski lifts and remains permanently closed. These closed areas, original
lodge, and remnants of the earlier ski hill operations contribute to the historic integrity of
this particular area, which Mountain High outlines in their descriptions and marketing of
the North resort. This area of the resort is now used for the “North Pole Tubing Park.”
This involves sliding on inner tubes down large landscaped slides and chutes that have
been constructed adjacent to the parking lot. One series of chutes has a steeper grade than
the other, allowing for “fast” and “slow” alternatives. These tubing facilities have two of
their own specific surface lifts from the tubing slide outruns to the top. Mountain High
North is also where the summer “disc-golf” facilities are installed, which ensures the
continued utilization of the landscape and association with the historic fabric that
remains.

Figure 3.34: Periods of development of Table Mountain/Ski Sunrise/Mountain High North. Illustration by
author and Google maps.

110

CHAPTER 4 - CONSERVATION OF SKI HILLS

The notion of ski hills as landscapes worthy of conservation efforts is a relatively
new concept. It first became apparent with the rise of environmental awareness in the
1960s and 1970s, following the exponential increase in ski hills of the postwar years.
271

The expansion of ski hills created a number of environmental issues: waste disposal,
watershed depletion, deforestation, destruction of wildlife habitat, and other issues more
indicative of an increasingly urbanized setting. This expansion of ski hills also resulted in
the creation of large destination ski resorts. Resort property management companies often
bought these larger ski hills and implemented them as a central element to develop
vacation real estate, leading to the development of massive ski resort villages and towns.
Many see these large-scale ski resorts as a corporate interpretation of what an ideal and
picturesque ski town, often drawing a comparison to Disneyland in its fabrication.
272

This heavily engineered and orchestrated environment, although popular with the
majority of skiers, was not enough to satisfy all. The craving and pursuit of an “authentic
experience” is as alive in the recreational sub-culture of skiing as it is in any other
cultural facet of our societal makeup. This, in combination with a nostalgic appreciation
for the colorful history and traditions of the sport, has created the impetus to conserve the
ski hills and significant landmarks of the skiing and snowboarding community.

LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION FRAMEWORK
Practices of conserving the built and natural environment is a process that has
been evolving for centuries, but has only been codified in the U.S. by a regulatory
framework in the last fifty years. The National Environmental Protection Act and the
National Historic Preservation Act are the fundamental pieces of legislation in these
fields.
273
These documents addressed the conservation of natural and historic resources,
but did so in a way that viewed the two as being separate. Buildings, sites, structures, and

271
Margaret Smith, American Ski Resort: Architecture, Style, Experience (Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 2013), 157.
272
Hal Clifford, Downhill Slide: Why the Corporate Ski Industry is Bad for Skiing, Ski Towns, and the
Environment (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 2002),127-128.
273
Donald L. Hardesty, “Ethnographic Landscapes: Transforming Nature into Culture,” in Preserving
Cultural Landscapes in America, ed. Arnold R. Alanen and Robert Z. Melnick (Baltimore: John Hopkins
University Press, 2000), 182.

111

objects were viewed differently than the natural environment, even though these elements
have a direct correlation with each other. In the last few decades there has been serious
discussion about how these two forms of conservation are inherently intertwined,
particularly through the exploration cultural landscapes.

Types of Cultural Landscapes
Cultural landscapes are often complex resources that can vary greatly in size and
scale, which feature a combination of natural and topographical aspects in conjunction
with some form of human interaction. In a sense, almost any aspect of our environment
could be addressed as a cultural landscape. The conservation of all landscapes is
impractical and completely unattainable as the environment is very dynamic and ever-
changing. However, landscapes of significance warrant conservation. These means that in
order to successfully and realistically conserve cultural landscapes, a balance between
“change and continuity” must be established and maintained.
274

In order to better understand the concept of cultural landscapes, the National Park
Service has outlined four specific types:
1. Historic Designed Landscapes – “a landscape that was consciously designed or
laid out by a landscape architect, master gardener, architect, or horticulturalist
according to design principles, or an amateur gardener working in a recognized
style or tradition… Aesthetic roles play a significant role in designed landscapes.”
2. Historic Vernacular Landscapes – “a landscape that evolved through use by
people whose activities or occupancy shaped that landscape. Through social or
cultural attitudes of an individual, family or community, the landscape reflects the
physical, biological, and cultural character of those everyday lives. Function
plays a significant role in vernacular landscapes.”
3. Historic Site – “a landscape significant for its association with a historic event,
activity, or person.”

274
Charles A. Birnbaum and Christine Capella Peters, ed., The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the
Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes (Washington
DC: National Park Service Historic Landscape Initiative, 1996), 6.

112

4. Ethnographic Landscape – “a landscape containing a variety of natural and
cultural resources that associated people define as heritage resources.”
275

These definitions, although helpful to conceptualize and identify the complexity of
cultural landscapes, are rigid in their orientation. Ski hills can be in several of the
aforementioned categories.
They are historic designed landscapes in that many ski hills are carefully planned
when it comes to ski lift circulation, trail development, and the siting of base facilities.
They are historic vernacular landscapes through the association of natural and
topographical features through use. For example, free-ride snowboarders use vegetation,
rock outcroppings, and other elements as features in their descent, often attributing
associative ownership towards these elements. A ski hill could be a categorized as a
historic site if it was the host location of the Winter Olympic Games. Lastly, a ski hill
could be significant in the ethnographic sense because of the role that Scandinavian or
Germanic immigrants had in the proliferation and development of the sport in North
America.

Cultural Landscape Conservation
As with the conservation of other significant historic resources, the primary form
of protection and recognition is through listing on the National Register of Historic
Places, which is administered by the National Park Service. Although cultural landscapes
do not have their own individual category on the National Register, they are evaluated as
either historic sites or districts under the same criteria.
276
This requires a detailed
nomination form that details the historic development of the place, evaluation of
significance through thematic contexts, documentation of existing conditions, and an
evaluation of integrity. This is a particularly intensive task given the complexity of
cultural landscapes.

275
Charles A. Birnbaum, “Protecting Cultural Landscapes: Planning, Treatment and Management of
Historic Landscapes,” Preservation Briefs, N.36, (Washington DC: National Park Service Cultural
Resources, 1994): 2, accessed March 12, 2014, http://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-
preserve/preservedocs/preservation-briefs/36Preserve-Brief-Landscapes.pdf.
276
“Chapter 7: Management of Cultural Landscapes,” NPS-28: Cultural Resource Management Guideline
(Washington DC: Department of the Interior National Park Service, 2002): 4, accessed March 12, 2014,
http://www.nps.gov/cultural_landscapes/Documents/NPS-28_Ch7_Mgt_%20Cultural_Landscapes.pdf.

113

In order to conserve a cultural landscape, there is a great deal of documentation,
research, and planning involved, through the use of the Cultural Landscape Inventory
(CLI) and Cultural Landscape Reports (CLR). The CLI is a database that includes all
cultural landscapes that the National Park Service has legal interests in. It provides
information regarding history, integrity, management plans, and treatment
recommendations of these landscapes. Much of this information comes from the CLRs,
which are the primary documents that outline the historic context of a cultural landscape
and the appropriated treatments, as well as management procedures, in order to
successfully maintain the landscapes significance. These are multi-disciplinary
documents requiring research in history, architecture, geology, archaeology, engineering,
anthropology, geography, horticulture, and ecology.
277
With all of these facets to
consider, CLRs are documents that require highly professional consultation in order to
appropriately identify, document, evaluate, and create a treatment/management plan for
the cultural landscape in question. Once this information is established, the appropriate
conservation technique can be chosen.
278

As with other historic resources, there are four main conservation techniques that
can be implemented: preservation, restoration, reconstruction, and rehabilitation. Each
treatment has a specific set of standards and guidelines in order to successfully manage a
cultural landscape without detracting from the historic significance. Where cultural
landscapes differ from other resources is they often include treatments that also pertain
specifically to the natural and ecological aspects of the environment, which are
significant within the context of the landscape. This includes specimen plant
management, vegetation systems management, pest management, and endangered
species.
279

277
“Chapter 7: Management of Cultural Landscapes,” 3-4.
278
Birnbaum and Peters, ed., Treatment of Cultural Landscapes, 14.
279
“Chapter 7: Management of Cultural Landscapes,”13-15.

114

CONSERVATION PRECEDENTS & CHALLENGES

Environmental Conservation
Skiers traditionally hold a high esteem for the natural setting in which they
practice their sport. Ironically, skiers are also responsible for having a negative impact on
the very environment they utilize.
280
This dichotomous relationship that exists between
skiers and the natural environment presents a difficult set of circumstances when trying to
approach the issues surrounding conservation. The 2011 ski film, “All.I.can.” produced
by Sherpa’s Cinema, helped to illustrate this point by taking the contemporary
environmental issues and placing them within the context of skiing. Many of the
professional skiers interviewed in the film expressed their realization that when they push
the sport to new limits and go further into the backcountry, they are ultimately opening
up that terrain to further use by humans. This love of the sport and love of the exploring
the natural environment is somewhat self-destructive and is certainly self-perpetuating.
281

Regulations have been established in order to reduce and manage the impact of skiing on
the environment.
Ski hills that are located within National Forests are subject to a set of
environmental regulations, set forth in “The National Forest Ski Area Permit Act of
1986” (NFSAPA).
282
This legislation enables the U.S. Forest Service to deny special
permits to those ski hill operators that are implementing practices that are not compatible
with National Forest management plans, other U.S. Forest Service objectives, or are no
longer suitable in terms of use for National Forest lands.
283
Environmental issues
surrounding ski hills in National Forests, and elsewhere, include increasing use of lands,
air quality, water quality, increased development, and lasting effects on flora and fauna.
Ski area operators are fully aware of their extensive environmental footprint, as well as
their dependence on the success of that environment in order to continue operation.
Environmental stewardship is becoming an increasingly primary component of ski hill

280
“Chapter 7: Management of Cultural Landscapes,” 75-77.
281
Sherpas Cinema, “All I Can,” directed by Eric Crossland, Dave Mossop, and J.P. Auclair, 2011.
282
James Briggs, “Ski Resorts and National Forests: Rethinking Forest Service Management Practices for
Recreational Use,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review, V.28 N.1 (2000): [79-118]accessed
March 13, 2014, http://www.bc.edu/dam/files/schools/law/lawreviews/journals/bcealr/28_1/03_FMS.htm
283
Ibid.

115

master plans all over the United States, but particularly within the National Forests.
284

However, some environmental conservation issues are beyond the management and
jurisdiction of the U.S. Forest Service and similar agencies.
In recent years, snowfall and season length have become erratic. Artificial
snowmaking is a method that is being employed to combat the unpredictable tendencies
of natural snowfall, but these counter efforts are only enough to avoid immediate
bankruptcy, rather than provide a profitable season. The financial health of a ski hill is
still directly correlated with consistent and substantial snowfall. Artificial snowmaking
also has an impact on local hydrology and watersheds as these systems employed by ski
hills rely on underground wells, reservoirs, and other storage systems to accumulate the
water necessary for snowmaking. The reality is that artificial snowmaking could have a
lasting negative effect on water supplies when climate change is increasing the severity
of drought conditions in particular regions.
285
The implications of this are not only
distressing for ski hills, but also dire for the overall population.
Climate change is one of the most pressing issues that we face in our
contemporary society. The effects of climate change have resonated in countless ways
with a degree of severity that extends beyond recreation. That being said, the ski and
snowboard community has come out as some of the most vocal advocates for mitigating
climate change. Organizations, like Protect Our Winter (POW), Save Our Snow (SOS),
and others, were established to spread awareness of how climate change is impacting
snow sports and what can be done, both by an individual and at the international level.
286

Other organizations, like the “Ski Area Citizens Coalition,” monitor and evaluate the
policies and practices of individual ski hills for their efforts towards reducing their
environmental impact and increasing sustainability.
287
The discussion of environmental

284
Briggs, “Ski Resorts and National Forests.”
285
Lindsey Konkel, “Snowmakers Save Ski Season in Warming World, For Now,” The Daily Climate,
February 3, 2014, accessed March 18, 2014, http://www.dailyclimate.org/tdc-
newsroom/2014/02/snowmakers-ski-climate.
286
Information about these organizations, their missions, and similar operations can be found at the
following sources: “About Us,” Save Our Snow, accessed March 13, 2014,
http://www.saveoursnow.com/about.htm. “About Us,” Protect Our Winters, accessed March 13, 2014,
http://protectourwinters.org/about#sthash.fQXaUaEk.dpbs.
287
“Home,” Ski Area Citizens Coalition, accessed March 13, 2014,
http://www.skiareacitizens.com/index.php.

116

issues is constant in the dialogue of our contemporary society, but this it is absolutely
paramount within the skiing and snowboarding community.

Base Lodges, Villages, and Facilities
The ski lodge is one of the more identifiable features of the ski hill typology. As
such, they have received the most attention in terms of conservation in comparison to
other elements of the landscape. The conservation issues surrounding ski lodges are site
specific and vary respectively, but they have often been pursued within the existing
framework that is used for the conservation of buildings. As such, the conservation of ski
lodges has had the same varying degrees of success as other building types in terms of
eligibility. Some lodges have been designated, including the highest designation of
National Historic Landmark, while others have been demolished or altered to a point
where little integrity exists.
288
(Figure 4.1)

Figure 4.1: Front elevation, with ground loor entrance of National Historic Landmark Timberline Lodge,
Mount Hood, Oregon. Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress/Historic American Building Survey; call
number HABS ORE,3-GOCA.V,1—6 (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/or0356.photos.044737p/).

288
Information for this section has been extracted from William Chad Blackwell, “Silver Slopes:
Preserving North America’s Ski Lodges” (MHP Thesis, University of Georgia, 2005).

117

Given the dynamic nature of the ski industry and the changes that have occurred
in the sport, the preservation of lodges has proven to be extremely difficult. In William
Blackwell’s Masters of Historic Preservation thesis entitled “Silver Slopes: Preserving
North American’s Ski Lodges,” Blackwell outlines this sentiment:
This unique building type, designed and built for a singular purpose, poses
significant problems for preservationists. Ski lodges that continue to be
used as base lodges for a ski area have constantly adapted to significant
changes in ski technology over the course of the twentieth century. Interior
and exterior alterations to the lodge are a requisite for the continued
financial viability of any operational ski area. Ski lodges in abandoned ski
areas often prove difficult to adapt to new uses not associated with the ski
area given the unique and specific purpose for which they were
constructed.
289

This is true not only for ski lodges, but for many of the other base facilities as well.
The buildings and structures that make up the base facilities of a ski resort can
vary greatly in appearance and functionality. It can range from highly architecturally
stylized tourism amenities to utilitarian and simplistic maintenance facilities. Regardless
of appearance, the buildings in a base village make up a functional landscape where each
building has a role to play within the overall context of the ski hill. One strategy to
conserve these utilitarian buildings, which are often overlooked in relation to the more
aesthetically pleasing lodges, is to consider the base area, or village, as a district. There
are currently no examples of a base village listed on the National Register. However, Sun
Valley’s village, which is significant for its role as a prototype for North American ski
resort development, was found to be eligible in 1989.
290
(Figure 4.2) Sun Valley was not
listed due to lack of consent from the owner and reasoning behind this was the perceived
restrictions that listing would put on future development and alterations.
291

289
Blackwell, “Silver Slopes,” 4.
290
Ibid., 32-33.
291
Ibid., 32-33.

118

Figure 4.2: Village from Sun Valley Lodge, circa 1940. Photo courtesy of University of Idaho
Library/Northwest Historical Postcard Collection; identifier pg_9_07_02m
(http://digital.lib.uidaho.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/nwpostcards/id/411/rec/1). Permission pending.

Ski Lifts
As with many aspects of a ski hill, ski lifts are not often conserved. As of 2010,
less than 1% of fixed grip chairlifts were installed prior to 1960, with 83% of fixed grip
chairlifts installed after 1970.
292
The single chairlift - one of the fixed grip type lifts
mentioned - makes up an even smaller percentage with only one fully operational
example at Mad River Glen in Vermont.
293
(Figure 4.5) The competitive nature and
growth of the ski industry since its inception has meant that developments in lift design
and technology were essential to the financial success of many operations. The speed,
capacity, distance, and orientation within the circulation network of the hill itself were all
factors that determined whether a lift was successful. Generally, once a ski lift is seen as
too inefficient, creating bottlenecks as skiers line up at the loading terminal, a hill

292
Troy Hawks, “NSAA Ski Lift Safety Fact Sheet,” National Ski Areas Association, October 1, 2012: 12,
accessed March 6, 2014, https://www.nsaa.org/media/68048/NSAA-Ski-Lift-Safety-Fact-Sheet-10-1-
2012.pdf.
293
David Brooks, “Single-Chair Ski Chairlifts Almost Gone in US,” Nashua Telegraph, April 7, 2013,
accessed March 6, 2014, http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/granitegeek/999540-468/single-chair-ski-
chairlifts-are-almost-gone-in.html.

119

operator would investigate replacing it with a new lift that could move more patrons at a
faster rate. Ski lifts are one of the most common elements within the ski hill typology to
be replaced or altered.
294

Safety is another considerable factor in the longevity of a ski lift. Ski lifts are
rigorously monitored for safety concerns by the ski hill operators and are required to do
so by state and federal law. When the ski hill is located within a U.S. National Forest, the
U.S. Forest Service specifically monitors and outlines the safety aspects of the operation
and maintenance of the ski lift.
295
Generally ski lifts are very safe with the majority of
accidents equating to the error of a particular patron rather than the operation of the
lift.
296
Many of the early lifts were rudimentary in construction, often being the work of
an individual, rather than the standardized and regulated lifts of today, so they are viewed
as being particularly haphazard. However, contrary to public perception, all ski lifts can
operate safely if the proper maintenance and inspections are conducted, regardless of
their age and installation date.
297

Comfort of the skier is also a factor when lift systems are evaluated in terms of
longevity, especially when oriented for beginners. Many of the early surface lift types –
rope tows, T-bars, poma lifts – are infamous for not only being uncomfortable, but for
being physically demanding on those using them. Many beginners found these lift types
very difficult to use, so they have been removed from most beginner slopes in favor of
the “magic carpet.” The magic carpet is essentially a moving walkway, or conveyor belt,
that transport skiers up the slope.
298
These factors of lift capacity, safety, and comfort
have all contributed to the mass disappearance and removal of rope tows, most surface
lifts, and single-rider chairlifts. There are only two ski lifts that have been listed as
individually significant resources on the National Register of Historic Places: Sun
Valley’s Proctor Mountain Ski Lift and Aspen’s Boat Tow.
299

294
Hawks, “NSAA Ski Lift Safety Fact Sheet,” 10-11.
295
Ibid., 9-10.
296
Ibid., 8.
297
Ibid., 12.
298
“About Magic Carpet Lifts,” Magic Carpet Lifts, accessed March 6, 2014,
http://www.magiccarpet.rmce.com/company.htm.
299
Other ski lifts are included on the National Register as contributing resources to historic districts. These
examples will be discussed in the following sections.

120

The Proctor Mountain Ski Lift was engineered and constructed by James Curran
as one of the first two chairlifts for Sun Valley in 1936. As such, it is one of the first
chairlifts to have existed not only in the United States, but also in the world. The Proctor
Mountain Ski Lift served as the premier ski lift model for modern ski hill development on
a global level. Although it is no longer operational, this crucial component of ski hill
evolution still remains largely intact and is formally recognized as a significant structure
on the National Register.
300

The Aspen Boat Tow was constructed in 1937, a decade before the formal ski area
of Aspen was founded. The Boat Tow lift was a unique type of surface lift that
implemented a series of twelve foot-long toboggans and old industrial equipment that
was left over from the town’s mining era. (Figure 4.3) The toboggans, or “boats,” were
dragged up the slope by cables alongside wooden towers, none of which are extant. All
that remains are two of the boats, which are located next to Aspen’s first chairlift, which
is also inoperable, but retains integrity. In spite of its incomplete nature, the remaining
elements of the Boat Tow are listed on the National Register as objects.
301

Ski Trails
Ski trails are arguably the easiest part to conserve in the short term, although they
present their own unique set of challenges. At ski areas that are still in operation, the
trails are maintained and utilized consistently. Many trails have been altered over the
years. The most common alteration is the widening of a trail by clearing the vegetation
that borders and defines the trail. However, this usually has a minimal impact on the
trail’s orientation and appearance. An operator might also reduce the gradient of a slope,
or provide a traverse trail that would alter the verticality of the original run by imposing a
horizontal trail, occasionally in a switchback pattern. These alterations are sometimes
hard to visually observe, but have an effect on the skier’s experience on the trail by
reducing the potential speed and interrupting the vertical continuity of a ski trail.

300
Don Hibbard, “Proctor Mountain Ski Lift – National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form,”
United States Department of the Interior – National Park Service, April 3, 1978, 7-9, accessed March 6,
2014, http://history.idaho.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/Proctor_Mountain_Ski_Lift_80001294.pdf.
301
Roxanne Eflin, “Aspen Boat Tow – National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form,” United
States Department of the Interior – National Park Service, August 31, 1989, accessed March 7, 2014,
http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NRHP/Text/90000866.pdf.

121

The biggest concern, not only with ski trail conservation, but ski trail
management, is erosion. Granted, erosion and weathering are unavoidable challenges that
can effect the conservation of any cultural landscape on an extensive timeline; however,
the removal of vegetation from a particular trail without the proper remediation
techniques would result in erosion at an increased rate.
302
In order to address erosion of
ski trails, the introduction of low-profile vegetation types to the exposed slope is
necessary. This practice not only helps to reduce erosion of the slope and provide a more
appealing aesthetic during other seasons, it also helps to maintain snow cover when the
ski trails are in use.
303

There are abandoned ski hills throughout North America that are easily
identifiable because of the ski trails that are still evident. The removal of vegetation and
potential erosion of the slopes has left the remnants of these trails visible and clear as to
their original function as character defining features of the ski hill typology. (Figure 4.4)
Depending on the duration of functional obsolescence, the regrowth of vegetation along
these abandoned ski trails have remained limited and the original form and appearance of
the trail remains largely intact. Ski trails easily retain their integrity, even after years of
functional obsolescence, which is beneficial when addressing issues of conservation.
There are currently no ski trails listed as individual resources on the National
Register of Historic Places.

302
Céline Granjou, Stéphanie Gaucherand, and Elaine Chanteloup, “From Repairing the Damaged
Landscape to Restoration project: The Revegetation of the Ski Runs of Alpe d’Huez,” Journal of Alpine
Research/Revue de Géographie Alpine (2010): 2, accessed March 13, 2014, doi: 10.4000/rga.1257.
303
Ibid., 4.

122

Figure 4.3: Aspen Boat Tow. Photo courtesy of the National Park Service/National Register for Historic
Places, image number 9000086 (http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NRHP/Photos/90000866.pdf).

Figure 4.4: Abandoned ski trail at Mountain High North with evident erosion patterns. Photo by author.

123

Other Typological Elements
Lodges, base villages, ski trails, and ski lifts are the most recognizable features of
the ski typology. However, as was previously discussed, there are other components that
can be attributed to a ski hills. Utilities systems, natural features, snowmaking systems,
parking facilities, access types, and circulatory implements are all elements that are not
recognized as being individually significant, but all are essential within the overall
context of a ski hill.
The recent addition of the terrain park to the ski hill typology has some interesting
implications as well. Outside of the very first manifestation of the terrain park at the
Tahoe City Dump, and the professional level features that require earth moving, terrain
parks are ephemeral creations. They are redesigned at least once a year and are often
rearranged throughout one season to create different experiences and challenges for the
skier or snowboarder. This means that the terrain park may not hold integrity in the sense
outlined by the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines. In addition, the sport
of snowboarding and slopestyle skiing are not fifty years old, let alone the invention of
the terrain park, meaning that these elements do not meet other criteria of evaluation.
However, this is not to say that a terrain park is not significant within the ski hill
typology, as previous chapters have illustrated. The retention of a terrain park in form,
albeit different in design from the original feature orientation, may be significant in and
of itself.

Ski Hills as Cultural Landscapes and Historic Districts
Approaching ski hills as cultural landscapes is one of the most recent, and
certainly the most comprehensive approach. The complex and interconnected nature of
ski hill typological elements lends itself to this level of evaluation and designation.
Historic districts can be composed of elements that might not be significant individually,
but within their context and adjacent to other elements, would contribute to the
significance of a space. It is with this recognition of cultural landscapes – under Historic
Districts as stipulated by the National Park Service – that ski hills are currently listed on
the National Register of Historic Places.

124

The first ski hill listed on the National Register is Mad River Glen, which was
formally included in 2012.
304
This Vermont ski hill was established in 1947 and has
undergone very few alterations since then, retaining the original 1947 single chairlift,
which is the only operational single chairlift remaining in the United States. The cultural
landscape evaluated a number of typological elements as buildings, sites, and structures.
Buildings include lodges, other shelters, ski patrol offices, the ski repair shop, utility
sheds, and other maintenance related facilities. Sites included natural features of the
landscape (waterfalls, rock outcroppings, caves, tree groves, streams), and ski trails,
which were inventoried extensively and identified either as contributing or non-
contributing, based upon their construction date and the relation to the identified period
of significance. Structures identified consisted of the ski lifts, as well as the operating
buildings and landscape elements that are associated with the lift system. (Figure 4.5)
Miscellaneous features, such as the parking lot and components of the snowmaking
system, were also evaluated for significance within the context of the ski hill. Of the
resources identified, forty-five were found to be contributors and thirty-seven were
considered non-contributors, although eighteen resources will be eligible for contributor
status once they are fifty years old.
The second ski hill on the National Register, which was included July 2013, is the
Leavenworth Ski Hill in Chelan County, Washington.
305
Leavenworth is evaluated in a
very similar way as the previous example, although on a much more simplistic scale.
Buildings, structures, and sites are all evaluated within the context of the overall location
and period of significance. Buildings evaluated include a base lodge, restroom facilities, a
ticket booth, and maintenance facilities. Structures consist of the remaining CCC era ski
jump and the rope tow operator shack. Where this resource differs from the Mad River
Glen example is how the sites are evaluated. Instead of approaching each ski trail and

304
All information for the following section, unless cited otherwise, was acquired from: Lyppa Papazian,
ed.,“Mad River Glen – National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form,” United States Department
of the Interior – National Park Service, January 2012, accessed March 7, 2014,
http://madriverglen.com/forms/MRG%20NR%20final%20draft%20Feb%202%202012%20without%20pho
tos.pdf
305
All information for the following section, unless cited otherwise, was acquired from: Susan Johnson,
“Leavenworth Ski Hill Historic District– National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form,” United
States Department of the Interior – National Park Service, October, 2012, accessed March 7, 2014,

125

landscape element as individual contributing resources, the landscape in its entirety is
treated as one single contributor.

Figure 4.5: Tower 4 Mad River Glen single chairlift, Vermont, circa 2006. Photo courtesy of the Library of
Congress/Historic American Engineering Record; call number HAER VT-38-23
(http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/vt0134.photos.222658p/).

126

Mad River Glen was identified as a significant cultural landscape and was
nominated as a historic district, according to the process outlined by the National Park
Service. Leavenworth, on the other hand, was identified as a historic district and
evaluated as such, with most of the evidence placed upon the buildings. Both methods
achieved the same goal in becoming listed on the National Register; however,
approaching the ski hill as a cultural landscape is clearly the more comprehensive and
stronger evaluation/nomination process.
By examining the landscape holistically, the number of contributors can be raised
significantly, which is very important to a successful nomination. The number of
contributing elements must outnumber the non-contributors. With the historic district
approach, the landscape is considered one single contributing resource. By comparison,
the cultural landscape approach identifies all of the elements imbedded within the
landscape as resources and greatly increases the number of contributors. With the
importance of the contributor to non-contributor ratio, having the entire landscape as one
resource, rather than vast collection of resources, means that the framework of the
resources protection is skewed. For example: if some ski trails lost integrity in the event
of a forest fire, the cultural landscape approach would still retain other contributors to
keep the ratio intact and the protection viable. If the same scenario occurred within the
framework of the historic district approach, the entire landscape could be considered non-
contributing, ultimately skewing the ratio and leading to the removal of the resource from
the National Register. This situation is entirely hypothetical, but illustrates the
comprehensive approach of how evaluating these sites as cultural landscapes provide a
different level of protection through the cohesion of all the contributing landscape
elements.
Part of the confusion between these two approaches is that although they are very
different, they are evaluated as the same resource: historic districts. This presents the
need for a specific cultural landscape methodology in the evaluation/nomination process.
Alternatively, with the possibility of increasing our understanding and protection of
historic districts, perhaps historic districts should always be approached as cultural
landscapes. The aforementioned examples of ski hills on the National Register present

127

some interesting nuances about the conservation of ski hills in the current framework.
However, neither of these precedents are the most comprehensive examples in existence.
In August 2009, a “Determination of Eligibility” report was produced for the
Badger Pass Ski Area in Yosemite National Park.
306
The document evaluates the cultural
landscape of Badger Pass Ski Area by examining the following major categories:
vegetation, topography, spatial organization, land use, circulation patterns, buildings,
structures, small-scale features, views, and vistas. Individual elements and resources
within these categories are listed and analyzed within the context of the cultural
landscape and its determined significance. This all-inclusive approach to the ski hill as a
cultural landscape accounts for all major elements within the ski hill typology. Although
the site is not yet registered on the National Register of Historic Places, the
“Determination of Eligibility” report for Badger Pass provides an important precedent
for how to address the conservation of ski hills as cultural landscapes.

CASE STUDY: MOUNTAIN HIGH

Natural Systems & Features
Mountain High is located within the Swarthout Valley, approximately four miles
west of Wrightwood, California.
307
(Figure 4.6) The ski resort is comprised of three areas
– North, East, West – that were established and primarily developed independent of each
other. The East and West components are situated on the slopes of the Blue Ridge
geographic feature, which is characterized by steep slopes and a rounded precipice. The
two areas are on different slopes of Blue Ridge and are separated by a broad spine that
stems from the valley floor to the summit of the ridge. The East resort base is located on
the valley floor at 6,600 feet and extends vertically up to 8,200 feet. (Figure 4.6) The
West area base is at 7,000 feet and is located on a small plateau above the Swarthout
Valley floor. The West resort extends vertically up to 8,000 feet above sea level. The

306
Page & Turnbull, et al, Determination of Eligibility: Badger Pass Ski Area, Yosemite National Park, CA
(San Francisco: Page & Turnbull, 2009), accessed March 13, 2014,
http://www.nps.gov/yose/historyculture/upload/Badger-Pass-low-res.pdf.
307
Information included in this section, unless otherwise stated, is largely a reiteration of information
included in Chapter 3.

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North area is situated on the adjacent Table Mountain, which is across the Swarthout
Valley from the other resorts. This geographic feature has a vertical summit of 7,800 feet.
The relatively dry climate is an important feature of the Mountain High area.
During the summer months, the threat of wildfires is a constant concern. For winter
operation, the dry climate can result in poor snowfall or have lasting effects on the water
table the ski hills depend on for their artificial snowmaking systems. Reservoirs have
been installed at the summits of the East and West resorts to help supplement the
snowmaking system and reduce the reliance on groundwater wells and impact on the
local watersheds.

Figure 4.6: Swarthout Valley with Mountain High East in the distance. Photo by author.

Spatial Organization
Mountain High’s spatial organization is largely dictated by its developmental
history as three separate ski areas. Although it is now operated as a single ski area, it
lacks cohesion and is still reflective of the independent ski hills. In this way, the current
spatial organization still conveys the historic development of the landscape. The original
spatial organization was heavily influenced by the creation and development of the Big

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Pines Recreation Park, which was instrumental in the development of downhill skiing
within Southern California. The three original ski hills developed from the context of the
original Big Pines site in the 1940s and 1950s and are located adjacent to the main access
route of the Big Pines Highway. The proximity between these three resorts spurred a
great deal of competition, which in turn created the demand for increased facilities and
amenities. This pattern of independent development continued until the late twentieth and
early twenty-first centuries, when the resort was consolidated into a single resort.
Each ski hill is organized upon the premise of several key elements. The first
involved developing ski trails on different slopes to create a variety of skiable terrain that
would cater to beginners, intermediates, and those with advanced skills. Slope gradient,
topographical transitions, circulation, vegetation patterns, and lift access were
fundamental considerations. The second involved convenience. All three areas reflect
this. Mountain High East, which is viewed as having challenging terrain, developed
areas referred to as “beginner canyon” and “Christmas trail” to cater to beginner skiers.
(Figure 4.20) Mountain High North developed an area east of the main ski trails in the
1960s intended to provide a more advanced alternative to their beginner oriented slopes.
(Figure 4.22) Mountain High West developed all levels of terrain in their expansion
efforts following its transition of ownership in 1975. (Figure 4.19)
The second important component to spatial organization is convenience for the
skiers. Having easy access to base facilities and ski lifts from adjacent parking lots was
important in the spatial organization of these places. Mountain High West developed a
parking lot and base facility system that eliminated the need for taking a shuttle from the
valley floor. Mountain High East was fortunately situated in a convenient manner since
its inception. The base facilities and loading terminals for the ski lifts are situated within
a large flat meadow, which allowed for having a large parking lot in the immediate
vicinity. Mountain High North, as noted earlier, has a particularly unique spatial
organization for a ski hill. Its “upside down” orientation meant that the parking lot was
situated near the summit of Table Mountain; meaning skiers accessed the top of ski trails
immediately from their cars.

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Land Use
The land use of Mountain High is primarily for winter recreation. Winter
recreation, specifically downhill skiing, was the driver for development and the formation
of the landscape. Ski trails, ski lifts, parking lots, access, base facilities, snowmaking
infrastructure, utilities, and terrain parks were all fundamental components that stemmed
from winter recreational uses. However, in recent years there has been the introduction of
summer activities - specifically “Frisbee golf” at Mountain High North - in the hopes of
diversifying the operation outside of skiing. (Figure 4.7) Since the Big Pines area was
originally developed as a year-round recreational facility, the recent addition of summer
activities does not detract from the historic significance. In fact, the introduction of
summer oriented recreational activities is an appropriate adaptive reuse for the ski hills.

Figure 4.7: Hole 6 on “Frisbee-Golf” course at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

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Circulation
The separate development of the East, West, and North areas as competing ski
hills means that they each have their own circulation patterns. The common circulation
element that the three areas share is the primary access route of the Big Pines Highway.
(Figure 4.8) Beyond that, they are all independent from each other.
Mountain High West has an access road leading from the main highway to the
plateau that features the parking lot that was expanded in the 1980s. (Figure 4.9) From
there, one buys their lift tickets from the base lodge offices and proceeds to the ski lift
loading terminals. There are also series of maintenance roads that provide access to the
summit of the ski hill.
Mountain High East’s circulation pattern remains unaltered from its original state.
The parking lot is located in the meadow space at the base of the ski hill with the base
lodge and ski lift loading terminals in the immediate vicinity. (Figure 4.15) Maintenance
roads extend from those of Mountain High West and continue to the summit of the East
section.
Mountain High North retains its circulation patterns as well, which are
particularly significant. The road from the Big Pines Highway to the summit of Table
Mountain was opened in 1951, eliminating the need for shuttles to transport skiers up to
the ski hill. (Figure 4.10) This allowed for patrons to drive straight to the surface parking
lot. This was immediately adjacent to the ticket office and top of the ski trails. The
“upside-down” circulation is a unique pattern that was specific to the topography, but was
executed in a way that established a circulation pattern that was very convenient for
skiers. (Figure 4.11) This is one of the central character defining features for the North
resort.

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Figure 4.8: Intersection on Big Pines Highway with Big Pines Lodge and remnants of the Big Pines Arch.
Right turn-off leads to Mountain High West, far left to Mountain High North. Photo by author.

Figure 4.9: Mountain High West parking lot with lodge on right. Photo by author.

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Figure 4.10: Road from Big Pines Highway to Mountain High North. Photo by author.

Figure 4.11: Mountain High North “upside-down” orientation with parking lot at top of “North Pole Tubing
Park.” Photo by author.

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Vegetation
The selective clearing and retention, primarily as a way of defining ski trails or
allowing for the development of other necessary typological components, shaped the
vegetation patterns of all three ski areas. Vegetation provides the necessary boundaries
and framing of many trails, as well as providing features and obstacles that can increase
the difficulty of the trail or contribute to the experience of the skier. The slopes that have
been cleared previously now feature low-profile vegetation types as a way of combatting
erosion of the ski trail, as well as mechanisms for maintaining snow coverage during the
operational season. One of the biggest threats to vegetation in this landscape is from
forest fires. Fire is a common threat in this particularly dry region and is closely
monitored by the U.S. Forest Service.

Buildings & Structures
Mountain High West, the primary ski area of the resort, is where most of the
buildings and structures are situated. Since it is the focal point of ski activities, it is also
where recent development has occurred. Most of the facilities are from the periods of
development that followed the change of ownership of the resort in the 1970s through
the1990s. (Figure 4.12) There are a series of cabins located along the beginner oriented
ski trail of “Easy Street,” which date to the Big Pines Recreation Camp era. (Figure 4.13)
Of the lifts that are in place, only the “Exhibition Chair” remains from the Blue Ridge era,
the rest have been installed in the decades following. (Figure 4.14) The parking lot was
expanded and paved in 1980. Utilities and snowmaking continue to receive upgrades in
recent seasons, attracting the majority of development.
Mountain High East retains some of its original buildings. The 1953 base lodge
remains, although in an altered state. (Figure 4.15) The original summit lodge burned
down in 1968, but was promptly replaced with a new restaurant and lounge that still
remains. It too has been altered, but relatively minimally. There has also been the
addition of maintenance facilities adjacent to the base lodge. The parking lot remains,
although it has since been paved and expanded in the decades following its original
grading for Holiday Hill. (Figure 4.15) The lift systems are not original and have been
replaced since the 1980s.

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Figure 4.12: Base lodge at Mountain High West. Photo by author.

Figure 4.13: Cabins adjacent to “Easy Street,” Mountain High West. Photo by author.

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Figure 4.14: “Roadrunner” and “Coyote” double chairlift loading terminals, Mountain High West. Photo by
author.

Figure 4.15: Mountain High East “Olympic Bowl and original base lodge.” Photo by author

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Mountain High North retains many of its original structures, including the 1952
Table Mountain Lodge, as well as many of the original buildings associated with lifts.
(Figure 4.16) The area is now used primarily for the “North Pole Tubing Park,” which
has lead to the addition of two “magic carpet” type surface lifts. The main quad chairlift
is also a recent addition, dating to 1979. The other lifts – poma lifts and rope tows - are
inoperable and in a state of disrepair, but remain largely intact. (Figure 4.17, 4.18) Many
of the towers and machinery that were essential to the operation of these lifts remain to
this day.

Figure 4.16: Original Table Mountain Lodge at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

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Figure 4.17: Table Mountain rope tow drive terminal at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

Figure 4.18: Table Mountain 1960 poma lift drive terminal at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

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Landscape Features
The primary landscape features are the ski trails. At Mountain High West, the
original five ski trails remain, although they have been widened considerably since their
first development. The ski trail network was expanded again in the 1980s, so little
remains of the original network. The current ski trails include a variety of terrain that
caters to skiers and snowboarders of varying proficiency. (Figure 4.19)
Mountain High East has undergone similar alterations to its network by the
widening and grading of trails, particularly in the beginner oriented areas along the “Easy
Rider” and “Discovery” chairlifts. (Figure 4.20) The majority of the ski trails, although
having been altered in ways as well, retain their original appearance and orientation, still
conveying their significance as character defining features. The ski trails, for the most
part, still catered to those seeking a traditional and challenging alpine skiing experience,
but beginner trails do exist.
Mountain High North has been altered with the addition of the recent “North Pole
Tubing Park,” although most of the ski trail systems remain unaltered. This includes the
original beginner areas that are adjacent to the parking lot, as well as the 1950s-1960s
advanced expansion on the eastern part of the mountain. (Figure 4.21, 4.22)
All three areas were oriented in a way that was to provide views and vistas from
an outwards perspective of the surrounding terrain, as well as from an inward perspective
that focuses within the ski hill areas and frames of the ski trails. The outward perspective
focuses on the Swarthout Valley, the San Gabriel Mountains, and the Mojave Desert. One
of the more interesting views that can be experienced is from Mountain High North. The
“upside down” orientation of the ski hill allows for an inward and outward perspective,
simultaneously. The ski trail serves as an axis that opens up to a view of the Mojave
Desert below, presenting the interesting dichotomy between desert and snow. This unique
view lends further to the theme of Southern California being a region of sun and snow.
(Figure 4.23)

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Figure 4.19: Mountain High West on Blue Ridge. Photo by author.

Figure 4.20: Surface parking lot and “Easy Rider” chair and beginner area at Mountain High East. Photo by
author.

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Figure 4.21: Original Table Mountain ski trail at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

Figure 4.22: 1960s advanced terrain Table Mountain expansion. Photo by author.

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Figure 4.23: Ski trail at Mountain High North looking out over the Mojave Desert. Photo by author.

Analysis
Although Mountain High is considered one ski hill by name, the physicality of the
place truly reflects upon its history as three separate ski resorts, each with a unique
narrative that reflect upon the development of the sport, the specific area, and the overall
ski industry.
Mountain High West, the central component to the Mountain High operation, is
by far the most altered. As the former location of the ski jumps, slalom course, and a few
of the original ski touring trails of Big Pines Recreation camp, this area was central to the
development of downhill skiing. However, with most of the development occurring after
1975, much of the integrity and original fabric has been altered and incorporated into the
current fabric of the ski hill. The five original trails do remain, as well as some of the
original Big Pines resources, but much of the context has been lost. This is not
necessarily negative. The story that the landscape of Mountain High West tells is one that
resonates throughout many ski hills, reflecting upon the increasingly corporate
development of contemporary ski hills. In addition, this site is by the far the most
significant of the three in relations to the development of snowboarding. The narrative

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that Mountain High West provides for skiing and snowboarding will likely continue, as
development efforts are most likely to stay concentrated on this area of the overall resort.
It is within this evolutionary context that skiing and snowboarding will be encouraged to
develop, lending to potential conservation through rehabilitation and reuse in the future.
Mountain High East is an area that retains many of its character defining features.
The main issue surrounding the conservation of this hill is its functionality. In the 2013-
2014 season this section was not open to the public due to poor snowfall. The continued
use of this space as a ski hill is certainly a question that needs to be addressed. The
rehabilitation and reuse of Mountain High East through the diversification of recreational
activities is certainly a possibility, however the difficult and advanced nature of the ski
trails might not be characteristically suitable for other activities, particularly that of
mountain biking. In its current state, other recreational options should be explored,
although activities that would require invasive infrastructural adjustments would be
detrimental to the remaining integrity of this particular ski hill. The most immediate and
ideal use would be its continuation as a ski hill. This could warrant investigating into
innovative snowmaking systems that have an increasing emphasis on sustainability. At
Mt. Buller, one of Australia’s only ski hills, they have an arid climate very similar to
Mountain High and are also experiencing decreasing snowfall. They have initiated a
water-recycling program that uses recycled gray water and purified waste-water in their
snowmaking systems, which helps to alleviate some of the pressures on the stressed
aquifers and tributaries of the region.
308
These practices could prove beneficial in the
longevity of Mountain High as an operational ski hill.
Mountain High North is the area that retains the most character defining features
and is most accessible in terms of conservation efforts. Although the ski hill is largely
inoperable, aside from the “North Pole Tubing Park,” many of the original features that
were developed as Table Mountain – lift towers, buildings, ski trails, views/vistas,
vegetation, utilities, access, parking facilities, etc. – remain to this day. (Figure 4.24,
4.25) This includes several examples from each of the aforementioned categories that
were used in evaluating the space as a cultural landscape: landscape features,

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“Water Recycling & Snowmaking,” Mt. Buller, accessed March 28, 2014,
http://www.mtbuller.com.au/Summer/Environment2/Water-Recycling-Snowmaking.

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buildings/structures, circulation, vegetation, natural systems/features, and spatial
organization. The one category of analysis that does not retain integrity is that of land
use. Mountain High North is largely abandoned and functionally obsolescent as a ski hill.
It is, however, still used for recreational purposes through the “Frisbee-golf” course that
operates during the course of the off-season. This recreational activity employs many of
the trails for the circulation of the course. It does so in a way that is not original with the
intended design, but ultimately provides a non-invasive way to reuse and experience the
cultural landscape of Mountain High North. With the existing quad chair, well cleared
trails, relatively gentle slopes, beautiful views of the Mojave desert, and “upside-down”
orientation, this particular area would be well suited to accommodate mountain biking as
a recreational form. Albeit more invasive than the “Frisbee golf” use that exists currently,
it would provide a recreational use that would be consistent with the original use,
circulatory patterns, and function. This combination of obsolescence as a ski hill and high
retention of character defining features would make Mountain High North an ideal
candidate for rehabilitation and reuse as an experimental precedent that could be exported
and employed to other abandoned, yet significant, ski hills in North America.

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Figure 4.24: Table Mountain era poma lift unloading terminal. Photo courtesy of the California Ski Library.

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Figure 4.25: Table Mountain era poma lift unloading terminal at Mountain High North. Photo by author.

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CONCLUSION
As illustrated in the previous text, ski hills are complex cultural landscapes and
can vary in a number of ways. The major typological elements and necessary components
have been established, outlined, and analyzed to provide a holistic framework in order to
address the conservation of these spaces. The typology built in chapter one should be
applicable to any ski hill, from the most humble, family operated area, to the major
destination resorts in North America. The previous conservation efforts of ski hills were
discussed and analyzed to provide a holistic evaluation methodology for the evaluation of
these landscapes. In addition, the evaluation of the current efforts within the context of
skiing in Southern California illustrates many of the issues that ski areas will soon be
facing, particularly the challenges related to climate change. All of the above ultimately
provides the necessary tools to evaluate ski hills as cultural landscapes with a forward-
looking perspective, yet within the contemporary conservation structure. However, the
discussion of conserving ski hills is far from over.
Skiing is a sport that is practiced throughout the world, so the ski hill will be a
cultural landscape type that appears on a relatively global scale. The typology and
subsequent conservation efforts presented in this paper are specific to the sport as it exists
in North America. Further study could involve a comparison of how other countries and
regions are addressing significant ski hills and their unique typological, as well as
cultural, conditions. Exploring international cultural landscape conservation could be
taken further. It would be interesting to examine how cultural landscapes are being
evaluated and conserved on a greater scale and how those methods could be applied to
the North America and, perhaps, significant ski hills.
Another issue is something that one could call ski hill gentrification. In the fourth
chapter, a news publication that discussed the displacement of local skier populations in
Whistler, British Columbia outlined the desire of many locals to have a hill that was more
reflective of an idealized skiing past.
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Although not conservation in a physical sense,
the desire to conserve intangible cultural aspects through establishing a new tangible
environment has some merit. Effectively, what has occurred in these major ski

309
Michael Beaudry, “Searching for Soul – Could a Rootsy Alternate-Style Ski Area be Developed in Sea
to Sky?,” Pique News Magazine, March 6, 2014, accessed March 8, 2014,
http://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/searching-for-soul-andndash-could-a-rootsy-

148

destinations is a form of gentrification where the alterations to a recreational landscape
have displaced previous populations through the gentrification aspects of increased costs,
higher rent, and the loss of cultural spaces of significance. Given the corporate nature of
ski hills and the increasing global competiveness of the ski industry, these are largely
unavoidable. The study of how, or if, populations subject to this ski hill operation are
coping and adapting within the framework of these evolving cultural landscapes.
With the increased globalization of the ski industry and the tourism industry, it
has been an increasing trend of young adults travelling to other regions, or countries, for
working holidays at ski hills. For example: in Western Canada, a small minority of
employees are Western Canadian, whereas the overwhelming majority come from the
eastern provinces or overseas; particularly Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand,
Germany, Sweden, South Africa, Ireland, and the Czech Republic.
310
These populations
are there temporarily to work with very few turning seasonal contract employment into a
year-round permanent position. Although this is not a socio-cultural trend that has been
exhibited at Mountain High, it is a phenomenon that has affected other ski hills in North
America. It would be interesting to see how these internationally diverse transient
populations are affecting the cultural landscapes and heritage makeups of the ski hill
typology.
Although snowboarding has been touched upon and identified as a significant
component to the development of the contemporary ski hill, snowboarding history is still
somewhat unknown. This is because the development of the sport is still seen as a recent
development and not seen as particularly “historic” when compared to the development
of skiing. However, the impact that snowboarding has had on the ski hill typology, as
well as the sport of skiing itself, is plainly evident. As such, significant snowboarding
landscapes merit further study, particularly the proliferation of terrain parks and the
conservation of these largely ephemeral elements.
The effects of seasonal diversification in relation to the conservation and ongoing
use of ski hills are another topic that should be examined in the future. If the grim climate
change trends and predictions are true, skiing is an endangered cultural activity. The

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“Ski Resort Jobs,” Working Holiday Canada, accessed March 20, 2014,
http://workingholidayincanada.com/143/ski-resort-jobs/.

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further study of the rehabilitation and reuse of these spaces through other recreational
forms could be essential to the continued conservation and appreciation of ski hills as
cultural landscapes.
One aspect of ski hills that is beyond the scope of this thesis is their orientation in
terms of design. It was acknowledged that ski hills are often developed in particular ways
that are meant to be efficient, yet provide the skier with an ideal experience through slope
grade, sinuous spaces, open prospects, and compressed areas. Design perspectives on
how the outlined typological elements interact could contribute further to the perception
and understanding of the ski hill as a cultural landscape.
Lastly, the analysis of the ski hill conservation precedents raised some interesting
questions about the evaluation/nomination process for both historic districts, as well as
cultural landscapes. The holistic and all encompassing evaluation of a collection of
resources as a cultural landscape appears to establish a greater understanding of the
intricacies of a resource by taking into account elements that are not traditionally viewed
when strictly approaching a resource as a historic district. A comparative study of historic
districts and cultural landscapes within the framework of the National Register of
Historic Places could have profound implications for the field of heritage conservation. It
would also be beneficial to explore the theoretical background and variance of definition
within the conceptualization of cultural landscapes and how that may affect further
conservation efforts.

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Ski hills are complex cultural landscapes. Changes in the ski industry, the rise of environmentalism, and the onset of climate change and the resulting shifts in weather patterns, have had a dramatic impact on this now somewhat threatened resource type. These issues have affected ski hills throughout North America, but especially in the context of Southern California, where winter recreation has always had a tenuous existence due to inconsistent snowfalls. This thesis analyzes and outlines the typological elements of ski hills as cultural landscapes, with a particular focus on historic Mountain High, California. Through site analysis and examination of a handful of precedents, this thesis develops a framework for the evaluation and conservation of ski hills as cultural landscapes.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Herrick, Daniel J. H. (author)

Core Title SoCal ski hills: a typological analysis of a cultural landscape

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Heritage Conservation

Degree Program Heritage Conservation

Publication Date 06/02/2014

Defense Date 04/05/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Architecture,Big Pines,California,conservation,cultural landscape,culture,heritage,Landscape,OAI-PMH Harvest,Planning,preservation,ski,ski hill,Skiing,Snowboarding,Southern California,Typology,Wrightwood

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sandmeier, Trudi (committee chair), Hirsch, Alison (committee member), Tichenor, Brian (committee member)

Creator Email danjhherrick@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-415701

Unique identifier UC11295759

Identifier etd-HerrickDan-2528.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-415701 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HerrickDan-2528.pdf

Dmrecord 415701

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Herrick, Daniel J. H.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA