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Cross-cultural training of expatriate faculty teaching in international branch campuses
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Cross-cultural training of expatriate faculty teaching in international branch campuses
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Running head: CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 1
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING OF EXPATRIATE FACULTY TEACHING IN
INTERNATIONAL BRANCH CAMPUSES
by
Martin Jauregui
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Martin Jauregui
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 2
Table of Contents
Dedication 5
Acknowledgements 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Introduction 8
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 17
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations 18
Delimitations 19
Organization of the Study 20
Definition of Terms 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 23
Introduction 23
Internationalization in Higher Education 23
Waves of Internationalization 24
Forms of Internationalization 24
Worldwide Attempts and Internationalization 25
Motives, Drivers, and Rationales for Internationalization 26
International Branch Campuses 28
Current State and Statistics 28
Geographic Locations of Today’s International Branch Campuses 29
Rationales and Motives for International Branch Campuses 30
Creating and Maintaining International Branch Campuses 33
The Challenge of Culture in Qatar 35
Education City and the Cultural Divide 36
Drivers of Academic Growth in Qatar 36
Internationalizing Qatari Higher Education 37
Role of Faculty in International Branch Campuses 39
Effects of Faculty on Branch Campuses 40
Characteristics of Faculty in Branch Campuses 41
Benefits to Faculty Teaching Abroad 42
Incentives and Enticements 43
Qualities of Effective and Successful Faculty 43
Importance of Cross-Cultural Competence 45
Reasons for the Importance of Cross-Cultural Competence 45
Need for Cross-Cultural Competence 46
When Cross-Cultural Competence is Lacking 47
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 3
Institutional Reputation 47
Culture Shock and Adjustment Issues 47
Teaching and Learning 48
Introducing and Improving Cross-Cultural Competence 48
Stier’s Framework for Cross-Cultural Education 51
Cross-Cultural Characteristics 52
Cross-Cultural Competencies 52
Conclusion 54
Chapter Three: Research Methods 56
Introduction 56
Research Questions 57
Rationale for Qualitative Research 57
Research Design 59
Sampling Methods 60
Population 61
Data Collection 62
Document Analysis 63
Interviews 63
Interview Protocol 65
Data Analysis 65
Analytical Framework 65
Validity and Reliability 66
Conclusion 67
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 69
Introduction 69
Education City: History and Mission 70
International Branch Campuses 71
Qatar Foundation and Education City Mission 71
Research Participants 72
Reasons for Teaching in Education City 74
Background of Participating Faculty 75
Orientation and Training in Education City 77
Research Questions 78
Research Sub-Question 1 78
Formal Cross-Cultural Training 79
Informal Cross-Cultural Training 81
Summary 83
Research Sub-Question 2 84
Practical Classroom Skills 84
Adaptability and Differentiation Skills 86
Personal Awareness and Realization 89
Summary 90
Research Sub-Question 3 91
Course Structure 91
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 4
Lesson Delivery 93
Interactions with Students 94
Summary 95
Overarching Research Question 96
Teaching Skills 97
Confidence 98
Advocacy 100
Culture in the Curriculum 103
Recognition of Bias 104
Summary 106
Conclusion 107
Chapter Five: Discussion 110
Summary of the Study 111
Sub-Research Question 1 115
Sub-Research Question 2 116
Sub-Research Question 3 116
Overarching Research Question 117
Discussion and Analysis 118
Stier’s Cross-Cultural Competencies and Characteristics 119
Characteristics of Cross-Cultural Training in Education City 120
Resulting Competencies of Education City Faculty 122
Implications for Practice 123
Recommendations for Education City 123
Recommendations for International Branch Campuses 126
Recommendations for Future Research 128
Conclusion 129
References 131
Appendices
Appendix A: 142
Appendix B: 145
Appendix C: 146
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 5
Dedication
To everyone who ever crossed a river, a desert, or an ocean in search of a better life for
themselves and their children – this dissertation is for you.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 6
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge and thank everyone who guided and supported me
throughout the dissertation process, beginning with my committee co-chairs, Dr. Mark Robison
and Dr. Mike Diamond. I knew going in that this would not be an easy process, but their
commitment to and support of my research helped make this truly a once in a lifetime
experience.
To Dr. Dominic Brewer, my dissertation committee member, thank you for your
encouraging words, and for showing me that a single conversation can lead to a great adventure.
To Dr. Dennis Roberts, my gatekeeper in Qatar, thank you for your unending faith in my
research and in me. None of this would have been remotely possible without your tireless
support and advocacy on my behalf.
For Lauren, Reggie, Job, Anne, Jenn, Sarah, and Anthony … my friends in the R&D
cohort. I cannot imagine having been a part of any other dissertation group. Thank you for your
encouragement, advice, and for the “study breaks” in between classes. I am so proud of all of
you.
Finally, and most importantly, I never would have taken on this challenge had I not
known I could count on the support of my wife Yoli, my parents Luz and Martha, my brother
Adrian, my sister Lizzie, my mother-in-law Beatriz, my brother-in-law Edwin, and my friends
Nish and Janice. Thank you for encouraging me, for always asking about my work, and for not
taking it personal when I disappeared for a couple of years. I love you all very much.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 7
Abstract
This study investigates the intersection between academics and culture in international branch
campus using Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies. The purpose of
this study was to examine the type of cross-cultural training being used by the international
branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City, in particular the form, function, and goals of the
training, and the effect that participating in cross-cultural training may have on the classroom
experiences of Western expatriate faculty teaching in an international branch campus. This
multiple-case study drew upon qualitative research methods, including ethnographic interviews
with expatriate Western faculty and staff, to analyze how incoming Western faculty are trained
to work with students from Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic cultures. Findings revealed the
presence of both formal and informal types of cross-cultural training, with informal cross-
cultural training, in the form of conversations and interactions with colleagues, serving as a key
component to cultural competence and professional success. Closer examination of the cross-
cultural training employed in Qatar’s Education City reveals the development of skills,
competencies, and perspectives that are most often applied in classroom settings and situations.
The research suggests that cross-cultural training plays a significant role in the effectiveness of
individual professors as well as the success of universities looking to expand academic programs
to areas of the Middle East.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Over the past several decades, the demands of globalization have led to in an increase in
the internationalization efforts of colleges and universities (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Childress,
2009). Whether through study-abroad programs, outreach offices, joint degree programs, or
international branch campuses, institutions of higher education have extended the reach of their
programs beyond the borders of their country (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Lane, 2011).
The establishment of international branch campuses currently represents the preferred
method of university expansion and internationalization (Lane, 2011). Mazzarol, Soutar, and
Seng (2003) describe the founding of branch campuses in foreign countries as the “third wave”
of academic internationalization, and a small component of a larger movement in response to
globalization (pg. 92). In fact, as of 2012, there were approximately 200 branch campuses
operating worldwide (Lawton & Katsomitros, 2012). Although academic institutions from
various countries around the world have established a significant number of those branch
campuses, nearly half of all international branch campuses are associated with American
colleges and universities (Lane, 2011).
The branch campus model has allowed colleges and universities to introduce their
programs of study primarily to Asian and European countries (Lane, 2011). Gopal (2011)
however, notes that the influence of branch campuses now extends into non-Western regions of
the world like Qatar. It is in these new locations that concerns have arisen over the cross-cultural
competency of faculty who provide instruction in countries and cultures significantly different
from their own (Gopal, 2011). This study examines cross-cultural training used by the
international branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City for its structure, function, and goals,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 9
and explores the bearing that participating in these programs has on the professional experiences
of Western expatriate faculty who teach in those campuses.
Background of the Problem
Institutions of higher education have been involved in internationalization since medieval
universities in Europe first sought to recruit international students and faculty (Altbach &
Knight, 2007). Through a variety of efforts, colleges and universities have managed to take their
programs outside of their traditional academic boundaries and into more international markets
(Knight, 2004), including internationalization efforts early in the 20th century by Florida State
University in the 1930s (Lane, 2011) and Johns Hopkins in the 1950s (Verbik & Merkley, 2006).
The addition of an international dimension to the function of an institution of higher
education can take many forms (Knight, 2004). Students travelling abroad, faculty teaching
abroad, and institutions entering into various joint ventures represent a few of the possible ways
through which universities have strived to make their academic offerings available to foreign
countries (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). Today, the international branch campus model
represents the preferred method of internationalization for most colleges and universities looking
to expand programs and degrees to overseas locations (Lane, 2011).
International branch campuses involve a home country provider establishing an academic
facility within the borders of a host country, typically in collaboration with a local institution
(Altbach & Knight, 2007; Lane, Brown, Pearcey, 2004; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). A branch
campus is owned and operated under the name of the foreign education provider from the home
country, and usually leads to a degree or credential issued by the same foreign education
provider (Lane, 2011). Although international branch campuses have been established around
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 10
the world, more than half of the existing branch campuses currently operate in locations
throughout Asia and the Middle East (Lane, 2011; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
The reasons for establishing branch campuses vary depending on the perspective of the
provider and the host country, but typically center on economic, political, academic, and socio-
cultural factors (Childress, 2009). Revenue generation represents the primary reason for
establishing branch campuses, as most home institutions look to those ventures as a means of
producing income (Altbach, 2004; Dobos, 2011; Lane, 2011). In addition, branch campuses can
also help provide much-needed access and help meet the excess academic needs and demands of
the host country (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Lane, Brown, & Pearcey, 2004). For some
institutions, the reasons for venturing into a foreign country are more altruistic, and tend to focus
on conducting research and increasing knowledge (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
As with any large-scale endeavor, the opening of an international branch campus comes
with many of its own issues and challenges. Branch campuses often represent the most high-risk
form of internationalization because of the negative impact that a failed effort can have on an
institution’s reputation and finances (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003; Ziguras & McBurnie,
2011). Policy issues and competition from other foreign education providers (Mazzarol, Soutar,
& Seng, 2003; Wilkins & Huisman, 2011), quality assurance (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Mok,
2000), and accreditation (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Knight, 2007) are but a few additional
challenges associated with the establishment and maintenance of international branch campuses.
Culture can be a particularly complicated and difficult issue for international branch
campuses, especially considering that many are located in host countries that are very different
from the location of the home campus (Lane, 2011). Successful internationalization requires a
high level of cultural understanding between both home and host countries, especially when the
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 11
cultural interactions taking place are between students and faculty (Knight, 2004). The faculty
has consistently been a key component of university efforts to expand into foreign markets,
particularly in endeavors involving international branch campuses.
As universities search for and spread out into new overseas markets, faculty play an
important role in promoting institutional missions and goals, especially in relation to
internationalization and the students that make up the new customer base (Stromquist, 2007).
Stohl (2007) views faculty as essential the growth and development universities seeking to
promote themselves through internationalization. The success of international branch campuses
often rests on having faculty with the ability to work effectively with students from countries and
cultures that are unique from the faculty’s own (Di Leonardo, 1984). In these situations, the
greater the difference in the amount of Westernization between two countries, the more difficult
it can be for individuals to adjust to working there (Di Leonardo, 1984).
Today, few places are as different from Western society as the Middle East, where
internationalization efforts and the success of faculty are made potentially difficult by an
individual’s ability or inability to adjust to the strong sense of cultural identity that characterizes
the region (Knight, 2007). The most challenging and high profile internationalization endeavor
in the Middle East is currently taking place in Qatar. An Arab state in the Middle East bordered
on the south by Saudi Arabia and surrounded everywhere else by the waters of the Persian Gulf,
Qatar is home to Education City (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). Established in 2001 by the Qatari
royal family, Education City features six premier American universities that offer programs and
instruction in everything from fine arts to journalism (Asquith, 2006; Wilkins & Huisman, 2011).
As of 2006, more than half of the professors working in Education City branch campuses
were from the United States (Asquith, 2006). The import of Western faculty to teach in
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 12
Education City poses potential challenges for both students and faculty, primarily due to
differences in their individual cultural backgrounds (Bodycott & Walker, 2000). When
instructors are unable to adapt to the culture of the students they are teaching or the country they
are teaching in, a form of culture shock can result (Di Leonardo, 1984). Often, faculty who
make the decision to teach in an international branch campus take with them an attitude that the
responsibility for being culturally competent rests on the students they teach (Bodycott &
Walker, 2000). Some faculty may even see themselves as “saviour[s] … bringing the best of the
West to a developing country” (Bodycott & Walker, 2000, p. 81). This can be especially true in
instances where a college or university from a Western country opens a branch campus in a non-
Western country and is unable or unwilling to adapt its policies and procedures to the local
culture or environment (Lane, 2011).
Some faculty members do make an effort to adjust their instructional approaches and
personal attitudes while teaching in an international branch campus (Bodycott & Walker, 2000).
However, these adjustments take place mainly on an individual basis, and typically involve
knowledge of certain stereotypes of cultural norms, taboos, and gender roles (Stier, 2006), or
very superficial knowledge of the culture in which they are immersed (Gopal, 2011; Otten,
2003). Despite their willingness to learn about a new culture, faculty members lack formal and
sufficient cross-cultural training for working with the diverse students, and rarely have the
opportunity to prepare for or reflect upon their experiences (Smith, 2009; Stier, 2006).
Gopal (2011) questions whether unprepared faculty can work effectively with diverse
student populations and provide the quality education promised by international branch
campuses. Qatar in particular is much more conservative than most Western countries, and the
potential problems that Western faculty can face when teaching in Education City can be
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 13
magnified as a result. Texas A&M University for example, was not allowed to use its canine
mascot at its Education City branch campus because of Qatari beliefs that dogs are bad omens
(Lane, 2011). In a separate situation, a male Texas A&M faculty member was accused of sexual
harassment for accidentally brushing his hand against the hand of a female student while in class
(Wildavsky, 2010). Instances such as these are but a few instances of the cultural clashes that
faculty can experience in academic collaborations between culturally distinct countries.
To maximize the potential benefits of internationalization, and more importantly to
minimize issues between culturally diverse students and faculty and reduce ethnocentric
worldviews, Stier (2006) believes that institutions must help their faculty develop cross-cultural
competency, which Otten (2003) describes as the ability to function and interact effectively with
members of other cultures. Rogers (1995) suggests that the success of an innovation similar to
using Western faculty to provide instruction in Qatar rests significantly on the compatibility of
the innovation with the values, beliefs, and culture of the Qatari people. Gopal (2011)
specifically calls for a comprehensive and consistent approach to building intercultural
competence, which involves everything from examining personal attitudes and challenging
individual beliefs, to developing active listening skills and increasing specific cultural
knowledge, adding that any training program intended to prepare faculty to teach in a different
culture should involve both “pre-departure and ongoing training” (p. 378).
Statement of the Problem
As a growing number of American universities seek to join institutional peers in the
movement toward internationalization, the number of faculty required to help launch, maintain,
and further those endeavors also increases. Whether the initiative involves study abroad, joint-
research, or the opening of an international branch campus, universities continuously look to
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 14
faculty as a factor that can either advance or impede the success of an internationalization
initiative (Fields, 2010). Through their engagement and buy-in as part of a university’s
internationalization team, faculty can help build significant internal and external stakeholder
support for the implementation of a university’s internationalization plans (Childress, 2009).
Most universities depend on their faculty to play a crucial role in their attempts to
internationalize, especially when those attempts involve international branch campuses.
Unfortunately, many faculty take on the responsibility of teaching in an international branch
campus without being properly prepared to work with students from countries or cultures that are
significantly different from their own (Gopal, 2011). These cross-cultural limitations can have
wide-ranging implications on the success and survival of an international branch campus (Gopal,
2011; Lane, 2011). An understanding of the cross-cultural competence of faculty is essential for
any college or university considering internationalization through an international branch campus
model.
In order to be successful, international ventures in education require leaders who can
work effectively in multiple cultures (Lane, 2011). Faculty face unique cultural challenges when
it comes to the traditions, customs, or way of life of the country they will be teaching in and the
culture in which they will be immersed. In non-Western countries, some faculty may struggle
with issues of language, learning and teaching styles, and overall communication (Bodycott &
Walker, 2000; Dedoussis, 2007). Based on Rostron’s (2009) study of the branch campuses in
Education City, expatriate faculty in countries like Qatar may have difficulties encouraging their
students’ in-class participation and involvement as a result of cultural differences. These
classroom challenges are, in most cases, primarily due to an educational system so long rooted in
the cultural and religious traditions of the Middle East (Rostron, 2009).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 15
University faculty might be experts in their chosen fields of study, but they may also lack
the cultural competence necessary to help them connect with and properly educate the students
they work with in a branch campus (Paige & Goode, 2009). This notion is echoed by Bodycott
and Walker (2000), who note that faculty members teaching in international settings often lack
the “inter-cultural understanding and [the] related teaching practices” to be effective in an
international campus setting (pg. 81). For these educators, the result of not being prepared is
tantamount to culture shock as they are unprepared to meet the social and cultural demands of
their new workplace (Di Leonardo, 1984). Gopal (2011) summarizes her work on cross-cultural
preparation of faculty by saying that the development of “intercultural competence is essential
for cross-cultural initiative an, in general, for navigating the continuum of globalization” (p.
379).
Research on faculty teaching overseas has typically focused on foreign-born professors
teaching in the United States, including recent studies by Foote, Li, Monk, and Theobald (2008),
as well as Collins (2008). Considering the number of Western faculty now teaching in locations
like Education City, no study has looked at how universities from Western countries use cross-
cultural training programs to prepare their faculty to teach in countries like Qatar, or the impact
that cross-cultural training programs can have on the professional experiences of faculty who
teach in those international branch campuses.
Deficiencies in the cultural competency of expatriate faculty from Western countries—
defined indirectly by Gopal (2011) as those faculty who teach in the cross-cultural environment
of an international branch campus—can significantly affect the branch institution on a variety of
levels. With so much at stake in an international academic partnership, the cultural competence
of faculty can either be a barrier or a bridge to the success of a branch campus. How students
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 16
perceive faculty (Bodycott & Walker, 2000), student interactions and involvement in the
classroom (Otten, 2003), the quality of instruction (Gopal, 2011), even a branch campus’
continued existence as a viable institution of higher education (Dedoussis, 2007; Fields, 2010),
can be impacted by a lack of cultural competence on the part of faculty. To better understand the
role that cross-cultural competence plays in an international branch campus, research into cross-
cultural competence training programs is essential.
Purpose of the Study
This study analyzes the structure and function of cross-cultural training, and explores the
influence that these efforts have on the professional experiences of Western faculty teaching in
selected international branch campuses in Doha’s Education City. To better understand the
importance of cultural competency—especially as it relates to university faculty who teach
outside of the culture they were raised in—particular attention will be paid to identifying the
presence and components of any formal or informal cross-cultural training that may exist within
the international branch campuses that make up Education City, how training is being
implemented, and what effects participation in cross-cultural training can have on the classroom
experiences of professors.
Ethnographic interviews with administrators involved with institutional
internationalization will provide insight into the use and development of cross-cultural training,
the implementation process, and the overall goals of the training within the context of
establishing an international branch campus. Through an investigation of institutional websites
and existing documents, this study will seek to ascertain information on existing structure and
function of any formal or informal cross-cultural training that takes place as a part of the
globalization efforts of institutions with branch campuses in Doha’s Education City. The
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 17
information gathered will be specific to the existence of cross-cultural training, its structure, and
its function. Additionally, interviews with faculty teaching in Education City will attempt to
reveal their impressions of cross-cultural training and their perceptions of the possible effects
that participation in a form of cross-cultural training may have on their professional experiences
as faculty in Qatar.
Research Questions
This study poses the following primary research question and sub-questions:
1. What effect, if any, does cross-cultural training have on the professional experiences of
Western faculty teaching in the branch campuses in Doha’s Education City?
a. What form and type of cross-cultural training is currently in place within the
universities sponsoring branch campuses in Education City?
b. What competencies and skills do faculty working in Education City perceive they
develop as a result of participating in cross-cultural training?
c. How do faculty apply cross-cultural training to their instructional approach and
their responsibilities as faculty members?
Significance of the Study
Cross-cultural competency becomes more significant as universities across the United
States look to establish branch campuses in foreign countries. As American universities expand
to provide instruction in foreign markets, faculty are increasingly looked upon to contribute to
the process of internationalization as instructors and institutional representatives. The potential
benefits of branch campuses that feature culturally competent faculty are tremendous, and
include greater student and faculty development (Knight, 2007), financial growth (Altbach &
Knight, 2007), and increased multicultural awareness and collaboration (Valiulis & Valiulis,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 18
2006). The benefits however, are equaled only by the potential for institutional failure if plans
for internationalization are not properly developed and implemented (Childress, 2009).
Research into cross-cultural competence as it pertains to higher education and
international branch campuses is limited. The research that does exist fails to consider the role
that cross-cultural training programs play in the overarching plans of an international branch
campus and in the experiences of faculty who teach abroad. An understanding of cross-cultural
training can potentially help universities prepare faculty who teach in an international branch
campus to avoid many of the pitfalls associated with not being ready to work in a cultural setting
different from their own.
By identifying how cross-cultural training is being used in the context of
internationalization, and how those efforts are affecting transnational faculty, this study can serve
as a guide to inform and direct institutional decision-makers and stakeholders during the process
of establishing an international branch campus. Institutional leaders can use the information
from this study as a resource in the development of specific aspects of an internationalization
plan, as an influential tool for transnational faculty recruitment, as a method of legitimizing an
institution’s commitment to an international academic partnership, as a means of maintaining a
university’s prestige in the wake of an effort to internationalize, and as a handbook of best
practices to use in the preparation of expatriate faculty.
Limitations
This study is limited by several factors. Individual literature on the importance of
cultural competence as well as the role of faculty in internationalization efforts is available, but
there is very little literature that looks at the combination of cultural competency and higher
education faculty. Even less has been written about the effect that cross-cultural training has on
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 19
the preparation faculty for international teaching assignments. This study intends to begin filling
the existing gaps in the literature.
This study will look only at the American branch campuses in Doha’s Education City and
not at any other branch campuses. As a result, the information presented in this study will be
limited to the views of individual faculty members and administrators associated solely with
those specific branch campuses. Small sample size and lack of access to participants are
considered limiting factors primarily because both factors are not large enough to be
representative of all expatriate faculty or all international branch campuses.
Methodology and data gathering techniques create additional limitations. The use of
interviews to collect information is a potential limiting factor, particularly if accounts of personal
experiences result in missing or misleading information due to issues with selective memory,
personal bias, and exaggerations. This study is designed and intended to minimize these
limitations in order to increase both the reliability and the generalizability of the data and results.
Delimitations
This study is limited to the information gathered from administrators and faculty working
in or associated with the American-based international branch campuses that make up Education
City in Doha at the time of the research. Interview data obtained from faculty is limited to
Western expatriate faculty raised outside the State of Qatar and outside of the culture of the
Middle East, who teach in a branch campus in Education City.
This study does not attempt to assess the quality of any branch campus in Education City.
This study is not an evaluation of individual faculty, their teaching styles, or their effectiveness
as professors. This study does not seek to determine if cross-cultural training promotes cultural
competence. Rather, this study focuses on identifying the existence of cross-cultural training,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 20
analyzing the form, function and focus of the training, and recording how formal or informal
cross-cultural training may or may not affect the professional classroom experiences of faculty
who have taken part in cross-cultural training.
Organization of the Study
In a five-chapter treatment, this study analyzes cross-cultural training, and explores the
role and influence that it may or may not have on the teaching experiences of faculty working at
an international branch campus in Doha’s Education City. Chapter One provided background
into internationalization through branch campuses and presented the issues and problems
associated with transnational faculty and the lack of cross-cultural competence training. Chapter
Two builds a more extensive literature review and expands the discussion of the topics and
issues presented in Chapter One, including the intersection of expatriate faculty, branch
campuses, and cultural competency. Chapter Three discusses the methodology for this study.
Chapter Four provides an in-depth analysis of documents and interviews with university faculty
and administrators. Chapter Five concludes the study, and presents a discussion of the research
findings and their implications, and provides suggestions for future research.
Definition of Terms
To facilitate an understanding of the discussion presented in this study, the following
terms and concepts—used and discussed throughout this study—are defined.
Cross-Cultural Competence
In a higher education setting, cross-cultural competence refers to a person’s ability and
“effectiveness in drawing upon a set of knowledge, skills, and personal attributes in order to
work successfully with people from different national cultural backgrounds [both] at home or
abroad” (Johnson, Lenartowicz, & Apud, 2006).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 21
Cross-Cultural Training
Cross-cultural training involves any formal or informal attempt or effort on the part of an
institution of higher education that “enables the [participating] individual to learn both content
and skills that will facilitate effective cross-cultural interactions [and competence] by reducing
misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors” (Black & Mendenhall, 1990, p. 120).
Expatriate Faculty
The term expatriate faculty refers to individuals who work—or teach—in a country
outside of the country that is reflected on their passport (Asquith, 2006)
Globalization
Globalization is defined as the broad and inevitable economic, political, societal,
technological, and scientific forces directly pushing 21st century higher education toward greater
international involvement (Altbach, 2004; Altbach & Knight, 2007).
Home Country
The home country is defined as the country of origin, or the original location, of the
academic institution that initiates the international collaboration and transports programs and
degrees to a foreign country (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
Host Country
The host country is defined as the country that receives an academic institution from a
foreign country and allows that institution to establish a physical presence in the form of an
international branch campus (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
International Branch Campus
An international branch campus is an entity—partly owned and operated in the name of a
foreign education provider—that engages in at least some face-to-face teaching and allows
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 22
access to a complete academic program that results in a credential awarded by the foreign
education provider (Lane, 2011).
Internationalization
Internationalization is defined as a process involving the integration of an international,
intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions, or delivery of higher education
(Knight, 2003; 2004).
Transnational Faculty
Transnational faculty are faculty members hired by an academic institution to fly in from
a home country and provide specific content area instruction to foreign students enrolled in an
international branch campus located in a host country (Bodycott & Walker, 2000; Smith, 2009).
Western Faculty
Western faculty are defined as professors of higher education who have been raised or
have lived outside of Middle Eastern, Arab, Islamic, or Qatari culture and possess surface-level
awareness and experiences with the culture, customs, and traditions associated with the Middle-
Eastern cultures, particularly the country of Qatar.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 23
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The internationalization of higher education is a natural and unavoidable response to an
increasingly globalized society. Like other industries that have responded to the trend of a
flattening world, higher education is also aided and impeded by various forces and pressures
(Altbach & Teichler, 2001; Childress, 2009). Lack of funding or support (Altbach & Teichler,
2001), entrenched institutional traditions and cultures (Childress, 2009; Knight, 1994), even fears
of creating a watered-down academic brand (Knight, 2004), can all hinder efforts to
internationalize. Income generation, profile and status improvement, and nation building are all
factors that drive and promote internationalization in higher education (Knight, 2004).
This chapter begins with an overview of internationalization and the various ways that
institutions of higher education respond to globalization. A detailed section on international
branch campuses follows, and includes a discussion the challenges of establishing international
branch campuses in non-Westernized countries, as well as the role of faculty and the obstacles
they face as professors working overseas. The chapter next focuses on the concepts of cultural
competence and cross-cultural training as they relate to higher education, and concludes with an
introduction to the framework that will be used in the analysis of the international branch
campuses in Doha’s Education City.
Internationalization in Higher Education
Internationalization may be a recent endeavor for some universities, but for others, it is a
phenomenon that has been taking place in some capacity for centuries (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
Higher education though has never been more international than it is today (Altbach & Teichler,
2001; Lane, 2011; Scott, 2000). Over the past several decades, an increasing number of colleges
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 24
and universities in the United States have joined the trend of extending their academic missions
for various reasons and through various forms of internationalization (Crabtree & Sapp, 2004).
Waves of Internationalization
The internationalization of higher education has taken place through three distinct waves
(Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). The initial wave of internationalization began in the early
20th century and involved the movement of students across borders through study abroad
programs (Altbach, 2004b; Edwards, 2007; Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). The second wave
of internationalization, which centered on the formation of academic alliances or coalitions
involving twinning or dual degree programs, took place primarily in Asian countries during the
1980s and 1990s (Smart, 1988; Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). Today higher education is
experiencing a third wave of internationalization, characterized by the creation of international
branch campuses in overseas markets (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003).
Forms of Internationalization
According to Ziguras and McBurnie (2011), most international academic collaborations
involve some form of partnership between a local institution and a second institution charged
with awarding a specific qualification. Over time, these collaborations have appeared in a
variety of forms (Edwards, 2007; Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). Altbach and Knight (2007)
as well as Lane, Brown, and Pearcey (2004), refer to these forms of internationalization as
belonging in one of four categories which involve (a) cross-border supply, (b) consumption
abroad, (c) commercial presence, and (d) presence of natural persons.
Cross border supply involves services like distance education and online universities
(Altbach & Knight, 2007; Fields, 2000; Lane, Brown, & Pearcey, 2004). Consumption abroad is
the most commonly recognized method of internationalization, and is characterized by students
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 25
travelling abroad (Altbach & Knight, 2007; Edwards, 2007; Lane, Brown, & Pearcey, 2004).
Commercial presence requires that an institution form an academic partnership with a foreign
institution, such as a twinning or joint degree program or a branch campus (Altbach & Knight,
2007; Fields, 2000; Knight, 2004; Lane, 2011; Lane, Brown, & Pearcey, 2004). Presence of
natural persons means faculty and staff travelling overseas to provide instruction or services
(Altbach & Knight, 2007; Fields, 2000; Lane, Brown, & Pearcey, 2004; Aiello & Clarke, 2010).
Worldwide Attempts at Internationalization
Be it through study abroad programs, dual-degree programs, or international branch
campuses, universities in countries all over the world have reacted to globalization through some
type of effort to internationalize. England, the United States, and Australia are by far the leaders
in academic initiatives involving foreign countries (Wilkins & Huizman, 2011; Ziguras &
McBurnie, 2011).
In Australia, Lane, Brown, and Pearcey (2004) report that education exports totaled close
to six billion dollars just a decade ago. The United States’ long history of higher education
virtually guarantees continued opportunities for internationalization for years to come (Lane,
Brown, & Pearcey, 2004). The newest internationalization endeavors for American higher
education are currently being carried out by for-profit institutions, many of which have taken on
the challenges of opening branch campuses in overseas locations (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
For most European countries, the Bologna process has helped promote academic
collaboration and development across the European Union (Valiulis & Valiulis, 2006). In South
America, several Brazilian universities have developed and maintained graduate-level programs
in collaboration with academic partners in Europe and the United States for more than three
decades (Crabtree & Sapp, 2004). In Asia, changes in academic policy and ideology have
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 26
caused institutions of higher education in Hong Kong to open their doors to foreign faculty,
particularly those from the United States (Bodycott & Walker, 2000).
Not deterred by the dominance of “the big three,” several Arab Gulf States have rapidly
become home to the world’s newest education hubs (Wilkins & Huisman, 2011). Studies into
the region’s outdated and rigid education system paved the way for several international
academic endeavors in Qatar, including Education City (Khodr, 2011). In fact, Gulf States like
Qatar and Dubai currently serve as the largest recipients of transnational higher education
worldwide (Wilkins, 2011).
Motives, Drivers, and Rationales for Internationalization
The decision to internationalize in higher education depends on a variety of factors, many
of which are specific to each individual institution (Friesen, 2011). De Wit (1995) comments
that economic, political, academic, and sociocultural factors have often served as drivers of
internationalization. Knight (2004) divides De Wit’s factors into twenty-nine existing and
emerging rationales for internationalization at both the national and institutional level.
Edwards (2007) argues that philosophically, internationalization can be either
opportunistic and driven by a unique initiative, or planned and guided by a more coherent
arrangement. In considering the individual approaches of two major American universities,
Edwards (2007) notes that the opportunistic approach can create high buy-in and increased levels
of activity, but may lack coherence; a planned initiative, while strategic and controlled, can lead
to lost opportunities and partnerships if they are not included in the initial plan.
Knight and Altbach (2007) identify profit making, enhancement of research, access
provision, and demand absorption as “important stimuli for academic internationalization” (p.
292). Along with a desire to seek commercial gain, universities are equally driven by a need to
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 27
establish or maintain an international reputation (Altbach, 2004b), meet the academic demands
of their country (Altbach, 2004b; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011), and introduce new programs not
available at local colleges and universities (Altbach, 2004b).
Qiang (2003) lists a desire for international security and collaboration, along with a need
to maintain economic competiveness and an aspiration to foster cross-cultural understanding as
the three major reasons for internationalization in higher education. In her remodeling of
internationalization, Knight (2004) introduces the concept of branding, or the development of a
strong international presence and reputation, as an emerging driver of internationalization.
Valiulis and Valiulis (2006) list several reasons for internationalization, including the promotion
of intercultural education, the improvement of student learning experiences, and the personal and
professional development of institutional staff.
Altbach (2004a) comments that for some countries, internationalization results from a
need to expand the global consciousness of its students and meet the academic demands of its
population. Wilkins and Huisman (2011) add that the desire to shift from a manufacturing-based
economy to one that is more knowledge-based is also a driving force behind internationalization.
Ziguras and McBurnie (2011) characterize the motivations of those providing the education as
being primarily driven by financial, academic, and reputational factors.
Regardless of the region or the reason, internationalization in higher education will no
doubt continue, especially as universities seek different ways through which they can expand
their academic programs into foreign markets. As this happens, institutions of higher education
will most certainly face unique challenges. Among these challenges will be figuring out how to
deal with the potential cultural conflicts associated with internationalization efforts that require
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 28
staff and faculty to work in host countries with cultures significantly different from that of the
home country, a problem which represents the focus of this study.
International Branch Campuses
Institutions of higher education have responded to the pressures of globalization by
developing and implementing various international programs and initiatives, including study
abroad, online schools, and joint-degree programs (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Of all these
efforts, Ziguras and McBurnie (2011) identify international branch campuses as the method of
internationalization currently preferred by both home and host countries.
The international branch campus model is expanding at a rapid rate to all regions of the
world. The reasons for choosing to internationalize through the branch campus model can be as
diverse as the missions of each individual institution, though most initiatives are centered
somehow on finances. With so many Western universities expanding their programs into non-
Westernized areas of the world, international branch campuses have the potential to pose unique
cultural challenges to both the home and host countries.
Current State and Statistics
The ability to reproduce the “character of … a traditional university campus” is cited as
one of the main reasons for the popularity of international branch campuses (Ziguras &
McBurnie, 2011, p. 119). Their attractiveness aside, Ziguras and McBurnie (2011) together with
Mazzarol, Soutar, and Seng (2003) warn that international branch campuses are also the most
expensive and most high-risk form of internationalization, particularly because of the negative
impact that a failed effort can have on the finances and reputation of an institution. Altbach
(2004a) echoes the sentiment shared by others, describing internationalization through branch
campuses as a “risky business” (p. 9). Despite their inherent challenges, Gopal (2011) still refers
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 29
to branch campuses as “one of the main manifestations of transnational education” (p. 373), a
sentiment also echoed by Wilkins and Huisman (2011), who note that international branch
campuses are responsible for the “global increase in higher education capacity” (p. 300).
Current estimates indicate the existence of approximately 200 international branch
campuses worldwide (Lawton & Katsomitros, 2012). The United States, Australia, and the
United Kingdom represent the top exporters of international branch campuses (Lane, 2011;
Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011); countries hosting the largest concentrations of international branch
campuses include the United Arab Emirates, China, and Singapore (Lane, 2011; Ziguras &
McBurnie, 2011).
Though there is a tendency for internationalization efforts to move from north to south
(Altbach, 2004a; Altbach & Knight, 2007), international branch campuses actually display a
more multidirectional movement, as developing countries contribute and export a considerable
number of international branch campuses (Becker, 2009; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). In fact
according to Lane (2011), there are thirteen individual countries that import and export
international branch campuses.
Geographic Locations of Today’s International Branch Campuses
As a part of the most recent wave of internationalization, international branch campuses
have been established all over the world (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). Lane (2011) divides
this wave it into three individual phases of growth, the first of which began in Japan during the
1980s, and the latest of which continues around the world today.
Geographically, most of today’s international branch campuses can be found in various
regions of Asia and the Middle East. Fifty-three campuses are currently operating in Asia,
thirty-six in Europe, and fifty-six in the Middle East (Lane, 2011). Africa, Australia, Central
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 30
America and the Caribbean, North America, and South America currently host seven, five, nine,
thirteen, and four international branch campuses respectively (Lane, 2011).
Although Altbach (2004a) comments that the United States has only recently become a
major player in the internationalization of higher education, Lane (2011) notes that close to half
of today’s existing international branch campuses are associated with American institutions of
higher education. The University of Pennsylvania with its branch campus in Singapore, and the
University of Chicago’s campus in Spain, represent some of the more long-term and successful
branch campuses established by American institutions (Altbach, 2004b).
Localized concentrations of international branch campuses have also begun appearing
worldwide (Wilkins & Huisman, 2011). In countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Qatar, Kuwait,
and several of the United Arab Emirates, the international branch campus approach has helped
meet individual countries’ demands for higher education (Wilkins & Huisman, 2011). The
largest concentration of branch campuses is located in the Middle East, particularly in the United
Arab Emirates, which play host to more than three-dozen international branch campuses
primarily through the Dubai International Academic City hub (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
Rationales and Motivations for International Branch Campuses
In many instances, the reasons for the establishment of international branch campuses
mirror those of any effort to internationalize a college or university. According to Altbach
(2004a) and Lane (2011), international branch campuses are first and foremost intended to enrich
the financial status of the home campus and that of the host country. In fact for some providers,
an international branch campus can help serve as an additional source of revenue outside of the
home campus (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). Still, the reasons for opening an international
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 31
branch campus can be as diverse as the countries that host them, and decisions are often driven
by the policies of the home country government (Mazzarol, Soutar, and Seng, 2003).
Some international branch campus initiatives are driven by the educational needs of a
country. In some cases, the goal of international branch campuses is simply to help meet the
local academic needs or demands of a particular country (Altbach, 2004a; Lane, Brown, &
Pearcey, 2004; Wilkins & Huisman, 2011). In locations like Singapore and Malaysia,
international branch campuses are part of a national desire to create a regional education hub,
which both countries see as means of minimizing the loss of human capital as a result of students
going overseas to study (Lane, 2011; Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). In China and the United
Arab Emirates, international branch campuses are considered a means to strengthen the country’s
academic infrastructure and its academic capacity (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003; Wilkins &
Huisman, 2011).
Changes in the skills required of the world’s labor force, as well as a country’s worldwide
reputation, have also influenced and encouraged the establishment of international branch
campuses. In Malaysia specifically, the government’s decision to promote the development of
international branch campuses came out of a desire to satisfy the country’s demand for higher
education, reduce the economic impact created by students studying abroad, and more
importantly, to create a shift in its workforce to one that is more knowledge driven (Wilkins &
Huisman, 2011). Singapore has been motivated to develop international branch campuses partly
because of the prestige that collaborations with specific foreign institutions of higher education
can create (Becker, 2009; Wilkins & Huisman, 2011).
Around the world, international branch campuses are often considered better choices for
local students both in terms of academic quality and overall experience (Lane, 2011). Lane and
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 32
Kinser (2011) for example, found that international branch campuses are looked at in some
countries as existing for the public good, which means they are often called upon to provide
certain services to the local community. In certain countries, international branch campuses are a
more viable option given specific economic and cultural conditions (Gopal, 2011; Wilkins &
Huisman, 2011; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). For local students, many of the logistical issues
such as visa requirements and potential disruption of work or family life can be avoided by
enrolling in an international branch campus (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
Lane (2011) includes similar motivations for institutional internationalization involving
international branch campuses. In his study, generating new streams of revenue, increasing
institutional prestige, and improving the educational quality of an institution are considered the
primary drivers of internationalization associated specifically with international branch campus
initiatives (Lane, 2011). Increasing local demand for higher education, attracting foreign
students, and reducing the loss of local academic talent are also listed as specific reasons for
internationalization through international branch campuses (Lane, 2011).
In considering who benefits most from the establishment of international branch
campuses in the Arab Gulf States, Wilkins (2011) identifies various stakeholders who benefit
from these ventures. International branch campuses benefit the host country overall by bringing
with them economic and human development, particularly through increased access and greater
employment opportunities (Wilkins, 2011). When students choose to study in an international
branch campus rather than in a home institution, the government is often relieved of the burden
of paying tuition (Wilkins, 2011). Wilkins (2011) adds that the cost to students is generally less
than it would be at the university’s home campus. The benefits to students are more than
financial, as studying in an international branch campus can bring with it the opportunity to study
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 33
subjects not offered by a home institutions, the satisfaction of having earned a respected foreign
degree, and the chance to interact with students from other cultures (Wilkins, 2011).
Creating and Maintaining International Branch Campuses
Whether they are founded for the purpose of generating a profit or for promoting social
change, international branch campuses still rely on several key factors in order to be successful.
Edwards (2007) notes that having a cohesive focus and developing a strategic
internationalization plan are key to the success of any international academic initiative. Given
the high level of risk involved in developing an international branch campus, random and
disorganized attempts at internationalization are not, in Edwards’ (2007) words, “the best way of
meeting this challenge” (p. 379).
Research by Childress (2009) arrives at a similar conclusion, finding that institutions
have to arrive at a consensus before any international endeavor, particularly through the
development and implementation of an internationalization plan. In his research, Childress
(2009) notes that internationalization plans can help institutions build internal and external
support for an international branch campus, adding that these plans express institutional
commitment, define institutional goals, and stimulate stakeholder involvement. Stohl (2007) and
Stromquist (2007) support the importance of institutions having a plan before taking on the
challenge of internationalization, adding that such plans should be included in an institution’s
mission statement or strategic plan. These factors, individually or combined, can be central to
the success or failure of an international branch campus initiative.
In addressing the issues of quality assurance and recognition, Altbach and Knight (2007)
discuss the importance of an international branch campus being properly accredited and
recognized in order to reassure students of the quality of the programs being offered as well as to
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 34
maintain the integrity and viability of an international branch campus. Lane, Brown, and
Pearcey (2004) also highlight the importance of quality assurance as well as international
recognition and transferability of degrees and credentials in the long-term success of
international branch campuses. Dedoussis (2006) argues that the long-range success and
survival of an international initiative like a branch campus rests not just on an accredited
program of study, but more importantly on the hiring of qualified faculty and staff.
Wilkins and Huisman (2011) identify the role that finances play in the success of an
international branch campus, noting that in the case of the United Arab Emirate, the richest are
more capable of attracting and sustaining branch campus initiatives with high-profile academic
institutions. Wilkins and Huisman (2011) propose that increased competition from a growing
number of international branch campuses and their home institutions has also made it difficult
for these collaborative ventures to succeed.
In an earlier study also focusing on the United Arab Emirates, Wilkins (2010) found that
branch campuses were being hindered by their inability to reach student recruitment targets or
sustain their enrollment. Becker (2009) suggests that recent branch campus closures have
resulted from a lack of market research, which has in turn resulted in poor enrollment. Ziguras
and McBurnie (2011) also point to high operating costs and low enrollment as contributing to the
failure of a branch campus established in Singapore by the University of New South Wales.
Lane’s (2011) work on the expansion of international branch campuses reveals perhaps
the most detailed list of barriers and factors that can hinder the success of an international branch
campus. Lane (2011) indicates that successful branch campuses are those that are able to
properly understand local cultural and academic conditions, as well as additional sources of
competition. Lack of flexibility, specifically the inability to adapt both recruitment and
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 35
admissions practices, is also viewed by Lane (2011) as a hindering factor in the effectiveness and
success of a branch campus. Limited vetting of local conditions can also result in failed efforts
to internationalize through branch campuses, as can a mismatch between a host country’s
academic goals and those of its student population (Lane, 2011). Finally, failure to account for
the unique culture of a host country can also be a barrier to an international branch campus,
especially because it can impact classroom teaching, student activities, relationships, and basic
business operations (Lane, 2011).
The unique characteristics of international branch campuses, particularly their ability to
capture the essence of Western institutions of higher education, can be intriguing to universities
looking to expand overseas. The establishment of international branch campuses is both inspired
and affected by a host of factors, many of which can have far-reaching implications for all
stakeholders involved. The fact that many branch campuses originate in Western countries but
are situated in non-Western regions of the world like the Middle East, means that stakeholders
must consider the implications of partnerships that mesh distinct cultures, paying particular
attention to how differences in culture will impact both students and faculty in these international
branch campuses.
The Challenge of Culture in Qatar
Regions of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America have traditionally turned to other
countries for help in creating education industries of their own. Today, countries throughout the
Middle East have begun to look to the United States and other Western countries for help in
facilitating the development of their own institutions of higher education (Altbach, 2004b;
Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). Most development in terms of international branch campuses is
currently taking place throughout the Middle East, where the State of Qatar in particular has
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 36
experienced significant growth—and challenges—by internationalizing through the branch
campus model (Lane, 2011).
Education City and the Cultural Divide
Recently established international branch campuses are located in areas of the world that
are considered non-Westernized in comparison to the home campus country (Asquith, 2006;
Lane, 2011). Education City is a collection of eight international branch campuses, six of which
count the United States as their home country (Haber & Getz, 2011). The six American
universities that have established branch campuses in Education City include Northwestern
University, Georgetown University, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth
University, Cornell University, and Carnegie Mellon University (Asquith, 2006; Haber & Getz,
2011).
As a result of these academic partnerships, cultural differences between countries have
the potential to complicate various aspects of an international branch campus. In some cases, a
cultural divide between home and host countries can develop. The cultural differences between
the countries involved in creating an international branch campus can impact everyday business
operations (Lane, 2011), the curriculum (Rostron, 2009), even living arrangements and student
activities (Lane, 2011).
Drivers of Academic Growth in Qatar
In most situations, the principle reason behind internationalization in the Middle East
stems from a desire to promote what is often referred to as brain gain, or an increase in a
country’s intellectual capital (Knight, 2007). For the Qatari royal family, the decision behind
the creation of Education City and to look to foreign universities for help in establishing an
advanced system of higher education is based on the need to update the country’s current system
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 37
(Asquith, 2006; Khodr, 2011), provide greater access to its population (Rostron, 2009), as well
as by the desire to replace foreign workers with a more skilled and competent domestic work
force (Khodr, 2011; Mangan, 2002; Rostron, 2009).
Khodr (2011) identifies five main drivers instrumental to the development of Education
City. The first major driver is the general desire in Qatar to import best practices, specifically in
terms of the “best” approach to education. The necessity to compete regionally and globally,
recent education reforms and policy changes, national liberalization initiatives, and—like other
countries around the world—the response to globalization are the four other factors driving the
decision to establish Education City in Qatar (Wilkins, 2011).
Internationalizing Qatari Higher Education
Education City’s geographic location makes it an ideal place for both tension and
dialogue. For some home countries, the fact that the host country is often responsible for all of
the expenses associated with operating an international branch campus creates concerns over
who will control and influence the mission of the institution (Mangan, 2002). Rostron (2009)
notes though that some Qataris see change as coming too fast; they equate it to “an outright
betrayal of indigenous cultural and societal values and standards” (p. 221).
Regardless of the more progressive mindset of the current emir, Qatari society is very
conservative, and remains strongly rooted in Islamic beliefs and traditions, including a reliance
on a strict code of honor and shame (Rostron, 2009). Qatar’s religious-based system of
education has strong support from religious scholars, parents, educators, and even students, all of
whom have expressed their opposition to the liberal arts approach taken by the American
universities in Education City (Rostron, 2009).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 38
Residents in conservative countries like Qatar are weary of the social and political impact
that international branch campuses, especially those based out of Westernized countries, bring to
their way of life. Despite increasing the capacity for higher education in locations like Qatar,
Wilkins (2011) contends that some critics still view international branch campuses as the newest
form of colonialism. Wilkins (2011) adds that concerns exist over Western universities
delivering standardized or generic academic content, which might not be relevant for the
countries hosting an international branch campus.
While social and political change have been taking place for close to two decades in
Qatar, the country’s strict Muslim beliefs can create a noticeably challenging situation for the
American universities in Education City (Rostron, 2009). The liberal arts approach to education
taken by most Western universities can directly conflict with Qatar’s existing and more
traditional system of values, beliefs, and education (Rostron, 2009). Rostron (2009) highlights
the Qatari perspective that education should be practical, and extrinsically motivated, meaning
there is typically little interest in the content and quality of instruction. Some Qatari students fail
to see the benefits of a liberal arts-based education in helping them secure high-status jobs in a
country that is becoming increasingly industrialized (Rostron, 2009).
Memorization and rote learning are common to the Islamic approach to education, as is
the idea of teachers as givers and students as the receivers of knowledge (Rostron, 2009). This
traditional method of education poses unique challenges for the branch campuses in Education
City, which rely on a liberal arts approach to educating students. Approximately fifty percent of
the students in Education City are Qatari (Asquith, 2006; Wilkins & Huisman, 2011); most of
those students have been prepared for the university using a more religion-centered approach to
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 39
education, which means they may face challenges inside the more liberal classrooms in
Education City (Rostron, 2009).
The Middle East, an area of the world that is deeply traditional and conservative,
currently boasts the highest global concentration of international branch campuses. For countries
like Qatar and others throughout the region, international branch campuses can provide access
and innovation to an inadequate and outdated system of higher education. However, the deeply
religious and traditional culture of places like Qatar means that the benefits of
internationalization through branch campuses also come with certain challenges. Navigating the
conservative and religious culture of the Middle East can be a challenge for Western universities
looking to establish overseas campuses. This can be especially true in areas involving
curriculum, instruction, and the overall role and experiences of faculty who, despite playing a
key role in academic expansion, might not be familiar with the culture of the Middle East.
The unique nature of international branch campuses established in non-Western countries
requires a better understanding of the cultural challenges faced by faculty working in branch
campuses in the Middle East. The cross-cultural training being used to prepare Western faculty
for teaching assignments in the Middle East is of particular interest and importance. The primary
purpose of this research is to analyze cross-cultural training and investigate how such training
may or may not influence and contribute to the classroom experiences of Western faculty
teaching in the international branch campuses in Doha’s Education City.
Role of Faculty in International Branch Campuses
Faculty can play an important role in the internationalization process and can be
especially significant to the success or failure of international branch campuses (Cummings &
Finkelstein, 2012). In order to gain the most from any internationalization initiative, Stohl
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 40
(2007) argues that faculty have to be more engaged and sold on the rewards of their involvement
in the internationalization of their institution. Cummings and Finkelstein (2012) assert that the
long-term success of international branch campuses depends in part on faculty buy-in.
Effects of Faculty on Branch Campuses
In their study of what influences international students’ decisions to study in an
international branch campus, Wilkins and Huisman (2011) found that eighty-six percent of
students chose their particular branch campus based on the expertise and reputation of the
faculty. Wilkins and Huisman (2011) point out that the recruitment of high-quality faculty is key
for branch campuses hoping to compete with more established home campuses. Dedoussis
(2006) adds that because of their visibility, faculty hired to serve at an international branch
campus should be culturally diverse, and comprised of professors from the home country, host
country, and neutral third countries.
According to Ziguras and McBurnie (2011) and Friesen (2011), faculty can contribute to
the prestige and perception of a branch campus, which can in turn impact recruitment of students
as well as potential overseas partnerships. Faculty can also serve as liaisons between an
international branch campus and the local community, specifically by conducting research that is
relevant to local area needs (Lane, 2011; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). In some cases, faculty
may even come to be perceived as pseudo-diplomats for their home country as a result of their
involvement in an international branch campus (Lane, 2011).
Childress (2009) on the other hand, notes that faculty can simultaneously hinder and
enable an institution’s internationalization efforts. In a study of faculty and the role they play in
the development and implementation of internationalization plans, Childress (2009) finds that
through a lack of expressed support, some faculty can discourage the implementation of
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 41
internationalization plans. At the same time, their direct involvement in faculty taskforces can
help increase institutional stakeholder support for internationalization plans (Childress, 2009).
Characteristics of Faculty in Branch Campuses
Sometimes referred to as transnational faculty or expatriate faculty (Aiello & Clarke,
2010; Gopal, 2011), the professors at an international branch campus travel from their own home
country and provide instruction to students in the branch campus host country. No data exists
that looks at either the number or qualifications of faculty in international branch campuses
(Lane, 2011). What is known though is that expatriate faculty work in environments that are
generally different from their own (Smith, 2009), and that most faculty are very familiar with,
and rely heavily on, the tradition of a liberal arts education (Rostron, 2009).
Faculty who take on the responsibility of teaching abroad do tend to fall into one of two
categories. Professors working in the international branch campuses in Education City for
example, tend to either be “young couples looking for adventure and [a chance to] travel,” or
faculty getting close to retiring who “see Qatar as a final career stop” (Asquith, 2006, p. 2;
Laigo, 2013). Bao (2009) noted similar personal and professional characteristics when
interviewing transnational faculty teaching in China. For the younger faculty, teaching in China
represented an opportunity to travel, while for more seasoned professors, the trip was seen as
chance for professional development (Bao, 2009).
Since international branch campuses generally do not offer comprehensive academic
programs, faculty who teach there are typically experts in a specialized content area, particularly
one that is in line with the overall academic mission of the branch campus (Bodycott & Walker,
2000). In addition to content area expertise, faculty in branch campuses may also be heavily
involved in conducting research (Cummings & Finkelstein, 2012). Cummings and Finkelstein
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 42
(2012) describe younger scholars as lacking experience in the international academic arena,
though they do have the advantage of having been educated in a more global era. While women
remain a minority in higher education, they do experience greater representation in more
international fields like the arts and the humanities (Cummings & Finkelstein, 2012).
Benefits to Faculty Teaching Abroad
The benefits of establishing an international branch campus also extend to the faculty and
staff who work there. Participation in an international branch campus can increase an individual
faculty member’s international experience and the cultural understanding and awareness (Gopal,
2011; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). Intercultural sensitivity as well as a broader worldview are
also seen as key benefits of being involved in overseas teaching (Friesen, 2011).
Smith (2009) and Friesen (2011) both indicate that some professors see the overseas
teaching experience as a way of internationalizing their own teaching and learning practices.
New and innovative research opportunities, particularly those that are specific to the host
country, can also result from faculty involvement in an international branch campus, as is the
case in one Vietnamese branch campus (Wilkins, 2011; Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011).
In an account of her own teaching abroad experiences, Garson (2005) found that her
work in Egypt helped her break cultural stereotypes, and develop more flexible teaching
methods. Friesen (2011) notes that professors can experience an increase in their personal
visibility and reputation as a result of a successful international teaching experience. Bao (2009)
found that faculty who participated in transnational teaching endeavors were able to break
stereotypes of Chinese students and developed a greater sensitivity toward international students
enrolled in both the home and host countries.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 43
Incentives and enticements. Friesen’s (2011) study of Canadian faculty and
internationalization found that some faculty were in fact motivated to become involved in their
institution’s efforts by a desire to promote “community development and peace building” (p.
126). Though some faculty see their work as an opportunity to create a dialogue between the
East and the West, some who have signed on to work in Education City have been encouraged in
part by the financial benefits, which often include higher salaries, free housing, and free
education for children (Asquith, 2006). Faculty employed at an international branch campus
may also be offered earlier promotions, greater financial packages, and tax-free salaries
(Wilkins, 2011).
For some faculty, the inclusion of international research and teaching experiences in their
institution’s tenure and promotion system—and the subsequent benefits that their experiences
can have on their personal reputation—can be considerably important benefits and motivators
(Friesen, 2011). Of course, there is also the possible “excitement and glamour” of living in a
foreign country and being a part of a new academic initiative which can entice faculty to teach
overseas (Wilkins, 2011, p. 80).
Qualities of Effective and Successful Faculty
Faculty who are successful in an international academic setting possess certain qualities
and characteristics, which often are related to the culture of the faculty and the culture of the host
country. Bodycott and Walker (2000) provide extensive insight into the factors that helped them
succeed as transnational teachers working in Hong Kong. The cultural differences between
faculty and students required them to change their approach to communicating in the classroom
as well as their ethnocentric views of Asian culture (Bodycott & Walker, 2000). Overcoming
stress and the sense of alienation that result from working in a different country was also
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 44
important, as was the realization that the role of the teacher is different in different cultural
settings (Bodycott & Walker, 2000).
Dobos (2011) looked at faculty working in an Australian international branch campus and
noted that multiple skills and attributes were needed to ensure the continued success of the
faculty and the branch campus. From an organizational perspective, Dobos (2011) recognized
that branch campus faculty can benefit from the level of professional recognition they receive
from home campus peers, as well as from the commitment that is shown to them from the home
campus through effective communication, professional treatment, and regular feedback. On an
individual level, a personal sense of belonging to a larger academic community, awareness of
their own ethnocentric views, flexibility in their approach to teaching, personal cultural
backgrounds, and their ability to effectively deal with stress and isolation were all seen factors
that are key to the success and effectiveness of branch campus faculty (Dobos, 2011).
Stohl (2007) argues that effective faculty are those who can be convinced of the
important role they play in the education of international students. Previous international
teaching experiences together with home campus leadership roles are two factors that LeBeau
(2010) identifies as contributors to the effectiveness of a transnational faculty member. Garson
(2005) notes that to be effective in an international academic setting, faculty must be able to
understand that their roles as educators may differ in a new country. In addition, being aware of
their own culture, being able to manage stress, learning the language of the host country, and
being able to navigate even the most mundane daily routines can all determine a transnational
faculty member’s success (Garson, 2005).
Faculty have a significant impact on international branch campuses, simultaneously
promoting and hindering the efforts of the home country. For faculty, the reasons for teaching
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 45
overseas can vary from curiosity to a career change. Regardless of the reason, there are benefits
to teaching overseas, including greater pay for faculty and greater prestige for universities. In
order to ensure that everyone involved is able to reap the benefits of an international branch
campus, it is particularly important that faculty are able to navigate through the challenges that
come with teaching in a foreign country and culture and develop the cross-cultural competence
needed to provide their students with the best-quality instruction and experience. Trainings
offered by international branch campuses to promote cross-cultural competence—the focus of
this study—are often a way to help faculty steer through these challenges.
Importance of Cross-Cultural Competence
The growth of international branch campuses has made cross-cultural competence
increasingly important, especially to faculty who are often responsible for “producing globally-
minded citizens, [and] preparing them to work in international contexts” (Gopal, 2011, p. 379).
Although a variety of factors have been identified as contributing to the success and
effectiveness of an international branch campus and the faculty who work there, cross-cultural
competence is considered essential to the success of an international academic initiative.
Reasons for the Importance of Cross-Cutural Competence
Both Gopal (2011) and Stier (2006) consider cross-cultural competence—particularly the
communication between culturally different groups—to be the key to successful
internationalization. The importance of cross-cultural competence is magnified by the number of
faculty who must fly in and provide instruction in a host country that is different from the branch
campus home country (Aiello & Clarke, 2010; Otten, 2003). Many transnational faculty are also
expected to work directly with students who are culturally very different to themselves (Smith,
2009). According to Maadad (n.d.), some faculty can experience a type of shock when they
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 46
teach in a country where the culture, language, and religion are significantly different from their
own.
The shock experienced by working in different cultural settings in not limited to faculty
working outside of Westernized countries, as non-Westernized faculty can encounter similar
issues and problems when they choose to teach in American universities (Collins, 2008; Foote,
Li, Monk, & Theobald, 2008). In addition, the level of culture shock is dependent on the degree
of difference between the faculty member’s culture and the culture of the host country, a fact that
has significant implications for international branch campus initiatives (Di Leonardo, 1984).
Need for Cross-Cultural Competence
In a study that looked at an American branch campus in Brazil, Crabtree and Sapp (2004)
found that faculty from the United States experienced significant stress as a result of cultural and
ethnic differences between themselves and their students. Issues related to time orientation,
formality and length of introductions, and even social interactions between students during class
time all impacted the effectiveness of American faculty working with Brazilian students
(Crabtree & Sapp, 2004). Additional challenges arose as a result of different views on classroom
seating arrangements, classroom breaks, and the nature and appropriateness of personal
relationships between students and faculty (Crabtree & Sapp, 2004). Gopal (2011) argues that
these issues and challenges most likely result from situations where faculty lack cross-cultural
competence related to the new culture in which they are working.
Smith (2009) shares that an overseas teaching experience in a setting such as a branch
campus can be transformative and result in changes to a faculty member’s behaviors,
perspectives, and commitments, but only if cross-cultural competence is promoted and learned
throughout the experience. Friesen (2011) adds that the existence of cross-cultural competence
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 47
can contribute to a faculty member’s willingness to participate in localized research, as well as to
the faculty member’s personal and professional development.
When Cross-Cultural Competence is Lacking
Institutional reputation. Despite the positive impact that cross-cultural competence can
have on the stakeholders involved in an international branch campus, few institutions provide
any type of training before professors leave for an overseas assignment (Caligiuri, 2000; Gopal,
2011). The dangers of a culturally unprepared transnational faculty member can be problematic
for the home institution, which beyond the financial expenses can also suffer damage to its
national perception and reputation (Caligiuri, 2000). According to Friesen (2011), a lack of
cross-cultural competence can reinforce negative stereotypes and harm the collaborative
relationship between host and home countries, while also potentially damaging an institution’s
reputation in a specific region.
Culture shock and adjustment issues. The shock experienced by faculty teaching in a
country and culture outside of their own has been widely documented. Di Leonardo (1984)
clarifies that the level of shock is related in part to the degree of difference between the host and
home country cultures. The shock and adjustment issues associated with a lack of cross-cultural
competence are not limited to Western faculty who teach overseas; non-Western faculty who
teach in Western countries can also experience problems.
Collins (2008) highlights the obstacles faced by faculty from the United Kingdom
teaching in the United States, noting that even these comparable peers have to deal with issues
related to teaching style, interactions with students, and feelings of loneliness. Foote, Li, Monk,
and Theobald (2008) also note the challenges faced by specifically by foreign-born geographers
teaching in America, revealing that these faculty face difficulties adjusting to life overseas.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 48
Problems with isolation, alienation, and even homesickness can also result from a lack of cross-
cultural competence (Bodycott & Walker, 2000; Garson, 2005).
Teaching and learning. Haber and Getz (2011) reveal that cross-cultural competence is
important for both faculty and students, as it can directly impact the ability of both groups to
learn. In a classroom setting, Stier (2006) argues that without cross-cultural competence,
professors may struggle to facilitate cooperation between groups, think critically about global
issues, develop awareness of personal bias, and deliver instruction in ways that are culturally
relevant. Rostron (2009) comments that the inability to adjust their instructional approach to
meet the cultural needs of Qatari students, can serve as a barrier for Western faculty.
Dobos (2011) states that the faculty’s ability to effectively deliver instruction rests
significantly on their cultural background, and the degree to which that can in turn impact their
teaching approach. Schuerholz and Lehr (2007) comment that faculty are responsible for
developing students who are more than just sensitive to other cultures, but who possess a sense
of cross-cultural competence which makes them socially responsible on a global level.
Introducing and Improving Cross-Cultural Competence
Johnson, Lenartowicz, and Apud (2006) state that regardless of the approach used to
promote cross-cultural competence, training programs must educate individuals beyond basic
culture-specific knowledge and provide a solid foundation of general cultural learning. Stier
(2006) suggests that cross-cultural competence training programs should (a) be focused on
intercultural themes and perspectives, (b) take an interdisciplinary approach to training, (c) be
driven by an investigative curiosity, (d) have structure composed of integrated groups, (e) be
interactive in nature, and (f) integrate theory to practice.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 49
Due to its location in the Middle East, there is great interest on the part of outside
institutions of higher education to observe the operations of Education City and its individual
branch campuses. Haber and Getz (2011) note that many of these visiting groups fail to become
fully engaged in the culture of the region, specifically Qatar. To increase the benefits of even
short-term visits, Haber and Getz (2011) suggest the need for professional development for
individuals who take on a faculty or staff position in any international branch campus,
specifically recommending the use of professional peers working in Education City as context
experts in even the most basic cultural preparation program.
Otten (2003) and Gopal (2011) suggest that cross-cultural competence develops best
through programs specifically tailored to the individual cross-cultural competency levels of
faculty, and that these training programs should include both pre-departure and ongoing training
components. Caligiuri (2000) also identifies pre-departure training focused on cross-cultural
competence as an important factor in faculty success in overseas settings.
Friesen (2011) suggests the development of a centralized office dedicated to
internationalization, which can in turn serve as a “go-to-place” on campus where initiatives can
be coordinated, programs can be promoted, and experiences can be shared (p. 150). Stohl (2007)
also calls for institutions to develop a central office that can coordinate international activities
beyond basic study abroad programs.
Smith (2009) recommends the use of workshops as a way helping transnational or
expatriate professors develop cross-cultural competence. Among her suggestions are workshops
focused on understanding non-Western learning styles, basic foreign language skills
development, and the creation of cross-culturally competent classroom strategies and
methodologies (Smith, 2009). To provide the ongoing support suggested by Otten (2003) and
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 50
Gopal (2011), Smith (2009) and Friesen (2011) also suggest using networking activities to
promote cross-cultural competence. These activities can include pairing new branch campus
faculty with more experienced mentors, developing global support networks, making use of
structured reflections and conversations, and using home and host country faculty to
collaboratively develop curriculum and class content (Smith, 2009).
Black and Mendenhall (1990) argue that the use of cross-cultural training “allows
individuals to more rapidly adjust to the new culture and … be more effective in their new roles”
(p. 118). In fact, despite the findings by some that simple exposure to different cultures can
result in measureable increases in cross-cultural competence, training programs can actually
promote the content and skills development which can effectively reduce many of the issues
experienced by faculty who lack specific cross-cultural competence (Black & Mendenhall,
1990). Black and Mendenhall (1990) further note that these training efforts can build faculty
self-confidence, and if carried out properly, can effectively minimize the ethnocentric views
possessed by most Western faculty.
Regardless of the specific method or approach, effective cross-cultural training must,
according to Deardorff (2009), develop three core elements of a faculty member, including
positive attitudes toward other cultures, knowledge about other cultures, and skills that enhance
the faculty member’s ability to function within and alongside a different culture. In addition,
Deardorff (2011) suggests that proper cross-cultural development must also involve teaching
opportunities with students from diverse backgrounds, and the identification of allies and
advocates that can help engage faculty in conversations and experiences meant to foster cross-
cultural competence. Despite the potentially transformative nature of the international teaching
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 51
experience, Smith (2009) comments that systematic and formal methods of transnational teacher
preparation and support are absent from most internationalization efforts.
In an increasingly globalized world where international academic partnerships are often
formed between culturally distinct nations, cross-cultural competence on both sides has become
summarily important. To reduce the culture shock experienced by a growing number of faculty
working in countries and cultures different from their own, and to maximize the benefits of
international branch campus partnerships, steps need to be taken to ensure the effective cross-
cultural education and preparation of professors before, during, and after their experiences
working in international branch campuses.
Stier’s Framework for Cross-Cultural Education
With a focus on the impact that globalization has had on the missions and goals of
universities around the world, and in order to specifically understand how cross-cultural
competence can assist institutions of higher education in achieving their internationalization
goals, Stier (2006) proposes a detailed model for cross-cultural competence education. Stier’s
(2006) framework provides the ideal lens through which to analyze a study that looks at
international branch campuses, and focuses specifically on how participating in cross-cultural
training can affect the teaching experiences of Western faculty who teach in international branch
campuses.
Formal and informal trainings must take into account the role of cross-cultural
competence in international academic ventures and the proper approach to promoting cross-
cultural competence (Stier, 2006). Stier’s (2006) model identifies key six characteristics that are
essential to efforts that promote cross-cultural competence along with six competencies that
should result from participation in cross-cultural training. Although a more detailed analysis of
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 52
Stier’s (2006) framework for cross-cultural competence education will be carried out in Chapter
Three, what follows is a brief introduction to the components that make up the framework
through which the results of this study will be analyzed.
Cross-Cultural Characteristics
To enhance the cross-cultural competence of faculty members, training and education
programs must help participants develop both content and processual competencies. To
accomplish this, Stier (2006) identifies six characteristics that must be incorporated into the
curriculum of a cross-cultural training or education program, including : (a) focusing on
intercultural themes, (b) adopting an interdisciplinary perspective, (c) investigating new cultural
experiences, (d) integrating both host and home country stakeholders, (e) facilitating
communication in an interactive manner, and (f) stressing integrative views that connect theory
to practice (Stier, 2006).
Cross-Cultural Competencies
As a result of participating in a cross-cultural training or education, Stier (2006) asserts
that participants should develop six competencies that represent measurable development of
cross-cultural competence. The six characteristics include the development of (a) communicative
competencies in two languages, (b) cooperative competencies for teams and groups, (c) personal
and professional confidence, (d) a sense of commitment to universal human rights, (e) the ability
to use critical thinking, and (f) the ability to make use of comparability in the recognition of the
relative and contextual nature of cultural knowledge (Stier, 2006).
Table 1 lists more detailed description of the cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies proposed by Stier (2006) as components or as results of cross-cultural training or
education programs.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 53
Table 1
Characteristics and Competencies of Cross-Cultural Training Programs
Characteristic/Competency Description
Intercultural training programs employ themes and examples that reflect
varying cultural perspectives, beliefs, and views
Interdisciplinary training programs take a point of view which incorporates multiple
disciplines
Investigative curriculum of a training program evokes curiosity for learning
about new cultures, and eliminates existing cultural stereotypes
Integrated learning groups are made up of individuals from both the home
and host country
Interactive
instruction facilitates student to student and instructor to student
interaction and communication
Integrative instruction integrates and connects theory to practice
Communicative
participants develop communication skills in at least two
languages
Cooperative
participants develop the ability to work in and with mono-cultural
and multi-cultural teams and groups
Confidence
participants develop a higher sense of personal and professional
confidence
Commitment
participants’ commitment to and advocacy for universal human
rights is positively impacted
Critical Thinking
participants are better able to understand and analyze cultural
processes and the influence of culture on personal worldview
Comparability participants recognize that cultural knowledge is contextual and
that one’s reality is often culturally relative
Source: Stier, J. (2006). Internationalisation, intercultural communication and intercultural
competence. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 11(1), 1-11.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 54
Conclusion
Universities around the world have responded to the phenomenon of globalization
through various forms of internationalization. Over the past several decades, waves of
internationalization have resulted in the establishment of different forms and types of academic
partnerships. Their potential impact on individuals, institutions, and to a degree on entire
countries and populations, has made international branch campuses the preferred method of
internationalization in higher education. The United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia
have traditionally been the top exporters of international branch campuses, primarily to countries
like China and Singapore. The attention now being focused on regions throughout the Middle
East has given the area the highest concentration of international branch campuses worldwide.
Countries in the Middle East which form academic partnerships with Western universities
through international branch campuses can use the model to effectively and efficiently provide
much needed access and upgrades to their systems of higher education.
Despite their benefits, international branch campuses can still pose significant challenges
to both home and host countries, particularly since most recent international branch campuses are
located in non-Western regions of the world. Many of those challenges are associated with
cross-cultural competence. The culture of countries like Qatar, where the royal family only
recently opened its borders to Western approaches to education, can be different enough to create
a form of culture shock in the faculty who choose to work in one of Education City’s
international branch campuses.
Although they play a significant role in the effectiveness and success of international
branch campuses and international academic partnerships, many Western faculty are unprepared
for the challenges they will face as a result of differences between their culture and the culture of
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 55
the country where they will be teaching. One way to create culturally competent faculty is
through cross-cultural training, which can take on many forms, but in the end should contain and
promote certain core characteristics and competencies.
Chapter three presents the specific research approach and methodology that will be used
to conduct a study of the cross-cultural training employed by Education City international branch
campuses. The chapter contains the rationale behind the use of a qualitative research approach,
specific details regarding research design and data collection, as well as a brief discussion of the
framework that will be used to analyze the research findings.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 56
Chapter Three: Methodology
In recent years, American universities have made their way into various regions of the
Middle East, primarily through the establishment of international branch campuses (Lane, 2011).
Beginning in 1997 and continuing through 2008, six American universities entered into a
partnership with the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development in
an initiative designed to help reform the country’s outdated system of higher education (Khodr,
2011). As increasing numbers of American universities establish branch campuses in non-
Western countries like Qatar, it has become increasingly important to understand the role that
cross-cultural competence will play in the experiences of the Western faculty who teach in these
new international branch campuses.
This chapter discusses the methodology that used in carrying out a study of cross-cultural
competence training programs and the role they play in the experiences and perceptions of
Western international branch campus faculty. The purpose of this study was to explore the form
and type of cross-cultural training used by the international branch campuses in Doha’s
Education City for their structure, function, and goals, and to analyze the bearing that
participating in cross-cultural training has on the professional experiences of the Western faculty
who teach in those campuses.
Education City was selected as the focus of this study because of its non-Western culture,
and because of the number of Western expatriate faculty who are currently teaching in one of the
six Education City branch campuses that call the United States their home country. The distinct
differences between Qatari culture and the culture of the faculty teaching in Education City who
have been born and raised outside of the culture of Qatar represent a unique dynamic that had yet
to be explored by researchers.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 57
Research Questions
The research questions for this study were best answered using an in-depth qualitative
approach involving document analysis and interviews. Hatch (2002) describes qualitative
research as an approach that considers “the lived experiences of real people in real settings” to be
the central focus of a study (p. 7).
Unlike quantitative research that lends data that provides results that can be contextually
narrow or artificial, the primary intent of qualitative research is to explore the actions and
behaviors of individuals “within the contexts of their natural occurrence” (Hatch, 2002, p. 7).
The research questions in this study focused on the experiences and perceptions of individuals
and groups, and as a result, a qualitative research approach represented the most appropriate
method of conducting this study.
This study posed the following primary research question and sub-questions:
1. What effect, if any, does cross-cultural training have on the professional experiences of
Western faculty teaching in the branch campuses in Doha’s Education City?
a. What type of cross-cultural training is currently in place within the universities
sponsoring branch campuses in Education City?
b. What competencies and skills do faculty working in Education City perceive they
develop as a result of participating in cross-cultural training?
c. How do faculty apply cross-cultural training to their instructional approach and
their responsibilities as faculty members?
Rationale for Qualitative Research
Through quotations, observations, and documents, qualitative research methods result in
detailed and thick descriptions of particular and personal experiences and stories (Patton, 2002).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 58
In order to obtain detailed data though, qualitative researchers must be willing and able to
directly enter the specific field they are studying, be it as onlookers, participants, or something in
between. Doing so allows researchers to more completely describe and understand external
behaviors and internal values and attitudes (Patton, 2002).
Qualitative research data is used principally for research or evaluation. The evaluative
aspects of qualitative data typically involve comprehensive inquiries into a program, policy, or
specific personnel in order to determine effectiveness or future directions (Patton, 2002).
Individuals conducting an evaluation of a place like Education City for example, are able to
capture detailed narratives about the specific program or organization using qualitative research
methods. The information and findings that result in turn inform the decision-making process
related to the program, policy, or personnel being evaluated. The research aspect of qualitative
methods exists primarily as a source of grounded theory (Patton, 2002). Policy-makers and
researchers alike can benefit from the insight provided by qualitative research data, which more
recently has been obtained increasingly through dissertations and graduate research (Patton,
2002).
Qualitative data are obtained through fieldwork that typically involves in-depth
interviews, field observations, and analysis of written documents (Patton, 2002). Interviews give
researchers the opportunity to record people’s experiences, feelings, and opinions; through
observations, detailed descriptions of activities, interactions, and experiences can emerge; using
document analysis, researchers are able to study and analyze the contents of specific
organizational reports, publications, and paperwork (Patton, 2002).
Unlike quantitative research that requires large amounts of numerical data to fit into
predetermined categories, qualitative research produces smaller but richer and more detailed
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 59
data. The field data that results from interviews, observations, and document analysis are
organized into themes, patterns, and descriptive insights that once analyzed provide a
comprehensive and narrative-style account of a specific program, organization, or experience
(Patton, 2002).
Whether for research or evaluation, for a dissertation or for personal purposes, qualitative
data obtained through interviews, observations, or document analysis, can provide rich and
descriptive information to help key institutional stakeholders evaluate and assess the current and
future effectiveness of an organization or program (Patton, 2002). While it is not without its
drawbacks and limitations, a qualitative research approach is still ultimately the best approach
for a study of the international branch campuses in Education City and the cross-cultural training
used to prepare Western faculty for teaching positions in a culture that is unique from their own.
Research Design
According to Yin (2008), there are four basic types of case study designs. The first two
case study types described are single-case holistic designs and single-case embedded designs; the
second types of case study designs include multiple-case holistic designs and multiple-case
embedded designs (Yin, 2008). A holistic approach involves researching a single unit of
analysis within either a single or multiple cases; an embedded approach requires research into
multiple units of analysis within either a single or multiple cases (Yin, 2008). Single-case
designs are ideal when researching a critical or unique case, or when looking at a specific
phenomenon at different points in time (Yin, 2008). Multiple-case designs are typically reserved
for instances where either similar or contrasting results are predicted before researching multiple
cases or phenomena (Yin, 2008).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 60
The focus of this study was Education City, a collection of international branch campuses
located in the State of Qatar. The unit of analysis for this study was the cross-cultural training
programs being used by the American branch campuses in Education City. A multiple-case
study approach involves research into several individual cases within a given context, typically
for the purposes of more thoroughly understanding a particular phenomenon (Yin, 2008).
Appropriately, this dissertation used a multiple-case study approach and concentrated on the
American-based international branch campuses currently located in Education City, specifically
those which use varying methods of cross-cultural training to prepare faculty for teaching
positions in Qatar.
Subunits that aided in understanding the primary unit of analysis included individuals
currently directing or administering cross-cultural training by Education City branch campuses,
as well as Western faculty currently teaching in one of the six American branch campuses in
Education City. The use of a multiple-case study design was considered appropriate for a study
of the American international branch campuses in Education City primarily because it allowed
for an understanding of a single unit of analysis through a focus on multiple cases. The results of
a multiple-case study often provide more robust and detailed results that generally lead to
stronger findings (Yin, 2008). The detailed results that emerged allowed for cross-case analysis
and comparison of the data to determine if commonalities or themes existed among or between
the six American branch campuses in Education City (Yin, 2008).
Sampling Methods
Purposeful sampling was used throughout this qualitative study. Research on university
websites was first used to identify international branch campuses in Education City that were
using cross-cultural training; branch campuses that did not use cross-cultural training were
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 61
excluded. Once identified, email communications with branch campus administrators were used
to seek a university’s participation in the study. Purposeful sampling was used to secure an
initial sample of both faculty teaching in Education City and directors or administrators in charge
of cross-cultural training. Participants were asked to sign up for a 45-minute interview using an
online scheduling website.
Population
For the purposes of this study, the six current American international branch campuses in
Education City were examined for the existence of cross-cultural training programs. Within
those six American international branch campuses, only those that used cross-cultural training
were included in the sample. Cross-cultural training involved any efforts or attempts by home or
host campuses to provide faculty with any given level of cross-cultural training or preparation in
association with a professorship in Qatar. Program directors or administrators included any
groups or individuals who were given supervisory or administrative responsibilities over the
development, implementation, or management of a cross-cultural training program specific to an
international branch campus in Education City.
Western faculty included professors of higher education, of any race or ethnicity, who—
beyond surface-level awareness and experiences—lacked knowledge of, or familiarity with, the
culture, customs, and traditions associated with Middle-Eastern culture, particularly the culture
of Qatar. This did include faculty with personal or professional experiences in countries outside
of the United States. However, individuals with significant experiences with Middle Eastern
cultures—including living or studying abroad in countries with strong Middle Eastern traditions
or high Middle Eastern populations—were excluded. The sample for this study only included
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 62
faculty who (a) were currently teaching in Education City and living in Qatar, and had been
doing so for a minimum of six months.
Three program directors and nineteen faculty members from the international branch
campuses in Education City participated in one-on-one, personal interviews. Flying faculty,
which Aiello and Clarke (2010) describe as professors who regularly travel to a branch campus
and back for short periods of time, were not included in this study. No restrictions were placed
on the sample participants in terms of the courses they taught, their tenure status, or professional
rank, age, or gender.
Data Collection
The researcher used document analysis and interviews, and served as the sole instrument
for collecting data related to the role that cross-cultural training programs play in the experiences
of Western faculty teaching in Education City. Of the four types of triangulation commonly used
in qualitative research, methodological triangulation—which involves the use of multiple
methods to study a single program—represented the most appropriate approach to data collection
given the focus of this study (Patton, 2002).
Patton (2002) argues that studies that use only one method of data collection “are more
vulnerable to errors linked to that particular method” (p. 556). As a result, the use of multiple
methods offers a means through which to reduce systematic bias and distortion, as well as a
method for increasing the quality, validity, and credibility of a study (Patton, 2002). Because
one of the goals of this study involved capturing the perspectives and experiences of specific
stakeholders, data from this study were verified using multiple sources, including interviews and
document analysis, which together helped the researcher integrate more diverse data, and provide
a more in-depth account of the experiences of Western faculty in international branch campuses.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 63
Document Analysis
Bowen (2009) defines document analysis as “a systematic procedure for reviewing or
evaluating documents [including] printed and electronic material” (p. 27). The documents that
can be used as part of a case study can vary, and may include everything from meeting agendas
and memoranda, to institutional reports and organizational websites (Bowen, 2009). When used
in combination with other qualitative research methods, document analysis can be a vital
contributor to the process of triangulation, serving as a means to discovering the deeper
meanings related to a specific research problem (Bowen, 2009; Merriam, 1988).
Bowen (2009) ascribes five specific functions to document analysis when used in a
research setting, including providing context, allowing additional questions to be asked,
providing supplementary data, tracking change, and verifying findings from other sources of
information. The first three of the five functions of document analysis as identified by Bowen
(2009) were applicable to this study.
In this study, document analysis was used as an efficient, cost-effective, and unobtrusive
method of collecting contextual data on the international branch campuses and the cross-cultural
training programs currently being used in Qatar’s Education City (Bowen, 2009). Institutional
websites and records pertaining to the international branch campuses in Education City served as
the study’s source of data. The data obtained through document analysis helped answer specific
research sub-questions pertaining to the structure, function, and implementation methods of
cross-cultural training.
Interviews
Interviews represented the primary means of collecting data in this study. Kvale and
Brinkmann (2008) describe an interview as “a conversation that has a structure and a purpose”
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 64
(p. 3). Using interviews, researchers in fields from education to marketing are able to describe,
understand, and concretely conceptualize specific phenomena through “an inter-change of views
between [interviewer and interviewee] about a theme of mutual interest” (Kvale & Brinkmann,
2008, p. 2). Ultimately, the purpose of an interview, in the context of qualitative research, is to
attempt to understand an aspect of the daily lives of the subjects involved in a given study (Kvale
& Brinkmann, 2008).
Qualitative studies typically use a semi-structured interview approach, which are neither
open conversations nor closed questionnaires (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2008). According to Kvale
and Brinkmann (2008) and Patton (2002), a semi-structured interview serves as a method
through which researchers attempt to elicit descriptions of an individual’s world within the
context of a study’s focus using an approach similar to an everyday conversation. Despite noting
that no standard method of making meaning from interviews exists, Kvale and Brinkmann
(2008) nevertheless suggests a six-step process for analyzing interviews, which includes
collecting interviewee responses, allowing for interviewee self-discovery, transcribing the
interview, condensing and interpreting interview data, conducting follow-up interviews, and
observing any changes that result from being involved in the research.
This study made use of a semi-structured interview approach to elicit rich and
comprehensive data from Western faculty and program administrators and directors regarding
the cross-cultural training employed by the American branch campuses in Education City. The
responses to these questions in turn, according to Bowen (2009), provided a richer, more in-
depth analysis of the study’s problem, while also strengthening the study’s credibility and
limiting its bias.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 65
Interview Protocol
An interview protocol combining a standardized open-ended interview with a general
interview guide approach was developed using Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural education
framework. Stier’s (2006) framework for cultural competence was used as a lens for
understanding the role that cross-cultural training plays in the professional experiences of
Western faculty teaching in the branch campuses in Doha’s Education City. A combined
interview approach was chosen primarily because it allowed for flexibility in the interview
without compromising the specific objectives of the interview (Patton, 2002).
The six question types highlighted by Patton (2002) guided the development of the
questions that were asked during the 45 to 60-minute interviews (see Appendix A). The
interview questions were vetted through both peer and committee chair review. The two-part
cross-cultural education model proposed by Stier (2006) was in turn used to analyze and make
meaning of the interview data (see Appendix B).
Data Analysis
Analytical Framework
In order to analyze the role of cross-cultural competency as it relates to Western faculty
who teach outside of their own culture, Stier’s (2006) model for cross-cultural education and
training was employed. Stier’s (2006) model proved beneficial in identifying the components of
the forms and types of cross-cultural training implemented by the international branch campuses
in Education City, and in analyzing the effects that participation in cross-cultural training had on
the professional classroom experiences of international branch campus professors.
Stier’s (2006) model features two distinct frameworks, the first of which describes the six
characteristics that should be present in the curriculum of any training program designed to
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 66
promote cross-cultural competence, and a second that discusses the six competencies that
participants in cross-cultural training should develop. As summarized in Chapter Two, cross-
cultural education, according to Stier, (2006), should be intercultural, interdisciplinary,
investigative, integrated, interactive, and integrative; cross-cultural education should in turn
develop participants who are communicative, cooperative, committed, confident, comparable,
and able to think critically.
The six characteristics and the six competencies identified by Stier (2006) were used as
guides for organizing the data obtained from interviews and document analysis. Data were
collected, coded, and assigned into themes based question responses, which themselves were
based on Stier’s (2006) framework. Analysis of these emergent themes allowed for patterns and
relationships between each individual case to be identified and verified against Stier’s (2006)
framework. The patterns identified as a result of cross-case analysis in turn helped further the
understanding of the factors—characteristics and competencies—that are most important to the
development of cross-cultural competence and to the overall teaching experiences of Western
faculty working in Education City.
Validity and Reliability
While the concepts of validity and reliability are most often associated with quantitative
research, Golafshani (2003) comments that both concepts can be redefined for use in qualitative
research. According to Golafshani (2003), trustworthiness, rigor, and quality are more
appropriate representations of validity and reliability in qualitative studies. Qualitative research
studies inherently suffer from issues with validity and credibility, which qualitative approaches
like observations, interviews, and in-depth descriptions, often help address (Patton, 2002).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 67
As the sole instrument for data collection, the researcher acknowledges having no prior
association with Education City or any of its international branch campuses. Although the
researcher was not himself a faculty member at any university, there are similarities in his
background and in the background of the faculty being interviewed, primarily his status as an
individual born and raised in the United States and outside of the culture of the Middle East.
This may in fact have created some level of researcher bias, especially given that case study
research is typically subject to some level of bias on the part of the researcher, particularly in
terms of how events, documents, and data from interviews are interpreted (Darke, Shanks, &
Broadbent, 1998).
The ideal method for improving and validity and reliability of qualitative research is
through multiple sources, which Patton (2002) argues gives strength to a study by combining
various research methods. The research design in this study, as well as the small number of
participants, limited the generalizability of the results even though Patton (2002) posits that
depth of inquiry has a greater impact on the trustworthiness of a study than its sample size. The
use multiple sources and methods of data collection, specifically in-depth interviews together
with detailed document analysis and on-site observations, aided in minimizing researcher bias
and promoted validity and reliability (Darke, et al., 1998; Patton, 2002).
Conclusion
A qualitative research study was used to understand the effect that cross-cultural training
had in the classroom experiences of Western faculty teaching in international branch campuses.
A combination of document analysis, observations, and interviews helped to ensure the
credibility of the study and provided the most descriptive data. Stier’s (2006) model for cross-
cultural education was used to analyze the structure and function of the current cross-cultural
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 68
training being used by the international branch campuses in Education City, and the effects that
cross-cultural training had on the professional experiences of faculty teaching in the international
branch campuses in Education City. Results of the data were grouped into themes centering on
cross-cultural training as well as Western faculty experiences. The proceeding chapter presents
the results of this study.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 69
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter presents the results and findings from qualitative research conducted with
Western expatriate faculty working in Education City, a collection of international branch
campuses situated in Doha, Qatar. The data in this chapter focuses on the form, function, and
effects of the cross-cultural training being used by these international branch campuses. Using
Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework as a guide for
analyzing the role of cross-cultural training in the professional experiences of Western faculty,
this study aims to increase current knowledge related to cultural competence training and
international branch campuses.
Chapter four begins with a brief description of the history and mission of Education City,
including descriptions of the six American international branch campuses and their individual
programs and roles as components of Education City. Document analysis, online research, and
data from in-person interviews offer background information on the branch campuses and
provide details on the cross-cultural training currently taking place in Education City. The
overarching research question and sub-questions provide the structure for the remainder of
chapter four, and rooted in Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies, also
serve as the overall focal point of the chapter.
Overarching Research question:
What effect, if any, does cross-cultural training have on the professional experiences of
faculty teaching in the international branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City?
Sub-questions:
1. What form and type of cross-cultural training is currently in place within the
universities sponsoring branch campuses in Education City?
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 70
2. What competencies or skills do faculty working in Education City perceive they
develop as a result of participating in cross-cultural training?
3. How do faculty apply cross-cultural training to their instructional approach and
their responsibilities as faculty members?
Chapter four concludes with a general discourse on the findings resulting from the qualitative
data obtained through document analysis and interviews with Education City faculty and staff.
Education City: History & Mission
Education City was officially established in 1998 as the brainchild of Sheikh Hamad Bin
Khalifa Al-Thani, the Emir of Qatar, who through the non-profit Qatar Foundation sought to
prepare Qatar for what he perceived as an inevitable shift from an economy reliant on oil to a
knowledge-based economy (Wilkins, 2011). Qatar Foundation’s original goal was to recruit one
foreign university that would help meet the country’s academic and economic needs (Asquith,
2006). When it became apparent that no single university could help Qatar Foundation address
its mission of building human capital and carry Qatar to and through the 21st century, the
decision was made to recruit individual universities, each with a specialization in a distinct
discipline (Haber & Getz, 2011).
In 2013, Qatar Foundation will celebrate the 15th anniversary of its first international
branch campus in Education City, Virginia Commonwealth University Qatar. Today, a total of
six American universities have established branch campuses in Education City, including
Northwestern University, Georgetown University, Texas A&M University, Weill Cornell
Medical College, and Carnegie Mellon University (Qatar Foundation, 2013). The branch
campuses in Education City cover an area slightly larger than 2,500 acres, and provide
undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees to more than 4,000 students (Seminara, 2012).
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 71
International Branch Campuses
Education City’s six American branch campuses were selected specifically for their
expertise in areas of importance to Qatar Foundation. Virginia Commonwealth University, the
first Education City branch campus, was brought to Qatar to provide instruction and training in
art and design by merging contemporary art with regional culture (Qatar Foundation, 2013).
Georgetown University, with a branch of its Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, has a
focus on civic life and service and provides a liberal arts education intended to prepare students
for leadership positions in government, business, and non-profit arenas (Qatar Foundation,
2013). Carnegie Mellon University, which opened its branch campus in 2004, makes use of the
most modern technology to conduct research into business and computer science that will have
both a local and regional impact (Qatar Foundation, 2013). Northwestern University emphasizes
a curriculum focused on communication and journalism (Qatar Foundation, 2013). By using an
approach rooted in practical experiences, Northwestern University prepares Education City
students for careers in the media. With its world-renowned engineering program, Texas A&M
University offers both graduate and undergraduate degrees in chemical, mechanical, electrical,
and most relevant to the region, petroleum engineering (Qatar Foundation, 2013). As the only
American medical school outside of the United States, Weill Cornell Medical College offers an
academic program leading to a medical degree, and through a variety of partnerships, is looking
to provide world-class medical care and research (Qatar Foundation, 2013).
Qatar Foundation & Education City Mission
Each of the international branch campuses in Education City has a unique expertise and
focus reflective of its home university. Regardless of the individual reasons driving their
presence, and their existence as individual and separate entities, the branch campuses are all part
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 72
of Qatar Foundation and thus work together to help the foundation achieve its larger mission and
goals. Education City staff and faculty acknowledge this dichotomy, noting their awareness that
each branch campus has a role to play in the mission of both Qatar Foundation and the home
university. As one Education City professor commented, “[As an American university] our goal
is to promote the idea of the liberal arts tradition that goes back to the 19th century, but as one of
‘the six’, we are also here to help achieve the Qatar National Vision 2030.” According to the
Qatar Foundation website. “Education City, Qatar Foundation's flagship project is envisioned as
a Center of Excellence in education and research that will help transform Qatar into a
knowledge-based society” (Qatar Foundation, 2013). In essence, each branch campus operates
as an individual university, driven by the policies and procedures of the home campus, but under
the administrative supervision of Qatar Foundation.
Along with its mission, Qatar Foundation’s website also highlights it vision, which
involves developing people through “investments in human capital, innovative technology, state
of the art facilities, [and] partnerships with elite organizations” in order to “raise the competency
of people and the quality of life” (Qatar Foundation, 2013). Both the mission and vision of Qatar
Foundation exist to help Qatar prepare for a time when it will no longer be able to rely on oil
reserves, but on education, research, and community development as the foundation to help
citizens become the “engine driving the development” of the country (Qatar Foundation, 2013).
Research Participants
The ability of Qatar Foundation to achieve its mission and vision depends in part on the
work of faculty, who research states can play a significant role in the internationalization process
and can be particularly important to helping an international branch campus succeed (Cummings
& Finkelstein, 2012). Whether an Education City faculty member’s role involves what one
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 73
English professor described as “providing globally transferrable and respected skills … or
creating poet engineers,” Qatar Foundation is dependent, to some degree, on faculty for its
success. Accordingly, the mission and vision of Qatar Foundation are directly relevant to the
focus of this study, which involves an analysis into the cross-cultural training Western faculty
receive when teaching in Education City, and how that training affects classroom experiences.
For the purposes of this study, the researcher collected interview and document-based
data during a 10-day visit to Qatar in January 2013. A total of 22 face-to-face interviews were
conducted over the course of the visit. Of the 22 interviews, 19 involved faculty and 3 took
place with human resources directors. The interviews ranged in length from 25 to 120 minutes,
and were guided by the interview protocol discussed in chapter three and listed in Appendix A.
Interview participants were restricted to human resources directors and expatriate Western
faculty from five of the six international branch campuses in Education City. Consequently, data
related to cross-cultural training in branch campus are limited to the perspectives of human
resource directors and Western expatriate faculty drawn from a sample of Education City staff
and faculty. Given the significant amount of qualitative data collected, particularly the
involvement of faculty and staff from five of the six branch campuses in Education City, the data
are considered representative of the individuals directly conducting and participating in cross-
cultural training in Education City.
In-person interviews were conducted on-site, in the human resource conference rooms of
the branch campuses or in the offices of individual faculty or staff. In addition to interview data,
the researcher also collected and analyzed documents posted online, as well as documents made
available by human resource directors. Data from interviews and documents were analyzed
using the cross-cultural characteristics and competencies outlined by Stier (2006). Stier’s
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 74
(2006) framework delineates the six characteristics that must be found in cross-cultural training
or education, as well as the six competencies that participants in cross-cultural training should
develop as a result. The cross-cultural characteristics and competencies (Stier, 2006) serve as
an appropriate perspective through which to understand the cross-cultural training taking place in
Education City and the effect, if any, that this training can have on the professional experiences
of international branch campus faculty teaching in Qatar.
Reasons for Teaching in Education City
Faculty are driven to work in Education City by different factors. While it is not
surprising to have a number of individuals identify professional or business-related reasons for
working in Education City, some faculty are also attracted to Education City by their sense of
adventure as well as their sense of social responsibility and opportunity.
Education City faculty are individuals who are either at the beginning of their careers in
higher education or those approaching retirement (Asquith, 2006; Laigo, 2013). For some, the
chance to work in Qatar represents a financially sound decision, while for others teaching in
Qatar is, according to one faculty member, “a call to adventure.” The financial incentives made
available by Qatar Foundation are attractive to some faculty, though other faculty take a more
altruistic perspective, describing Education City as “an opportunity to educate not only today’s
students, but future generations as well.” Overall, professors recognize the larger role they have
in Qatar’s master plan. Echoing that recognition, one professor of design noted that as a branch
campus, “our largest contribution has been establishing higher education and providing first
generation students—particularly women—with an opportunity to pursue a university
education.” Although varied in their reasons, faculty are nevertheless aware of the contributions
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 75
they can and often do make to helping their individual branch campus and Education City as a
whole, promote change in Qatar and across the region.
According to research conducted by Laigo (2013), a combination of personal and
professional factors tends to drive expatriate American professors to teach in the international
branch campuses in Education City. While salary considerations represent the primary
professional reason for teaching in Education City, a sense of adventure and a desire to promote
positive change also served as key personal factors that inspired both younger and veteran
expatriate professors to teach in Qatar (Laigo, 2013). Laigo’s (2013) findings are in agreement
with the responses provided by expatriates who were interviewed in this study, as the majority of
participants noted the opportunity for adventure in a new country as a driving force behind their
decision to move to and teach in Qatar.
Background of Participating Faculty
More than half of the faculty teaching in Education City comes from the United States
and other Western countries (Asquith, 2006). In fact, expatriates—individuals working in a
country outside of what is reflected on their passport—make up the majority of Education City’s
teaching faculty. A small percentage of Education City’s faculty comes from Middle Eastern or
Arab countries; Qatari nationals make up an even smaller segment of the faculty population.
The nineteen professors whose responses are included in the study met the criteria of
having limited, surface-level knowledge of and experiences with, Middle Eastern, Arab, Muslim,
or Qatari cultures. A significant difference between the cultures of faculty and students was
deemed necessary in order to analyze and understand the effects of cross-cultural training on
professors from Western countries teaching in the Middle East. Accordingly, the answers
provided by three specific professors who were interviewed for this study were not included in
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 76
the results because their personal ties to Middle Eastern, Arab, Islamic, or Qatari culture would
essentially render cross-cultural training unnecessary. The responses given by one professor
were not included in the results because of her marriage to a Qatari national; the perspective of a
second professor was not considered due to her having worked and lived throughout the Middle
East for a period of ten years; a third professor was excluded from this study because of his
mixed cultural heritage, which included several Arab cultures.
Of the nineteen professors who were interviewed, fifteen were American, three were
Western European, and one was Southern Asian. All three human resources directors
interviewed were American. The American professors hailed from across the major geographic
regions of the United States, with the majority coming to Qatar from various parts of the eastern
United States. Twelve of the nineteen participants in the study were women, half of who were
married and had a husband who worked either in Education City or in a separate industry in
Qatar. Of the men who participated in the study, four were married and three were single. Three
of the four married men had wives who worked at Education City as either faculty or staff.
The teaching experiences of the faculty who participated in this study varied from newly
arrived professors who had been in Education City for less than six months, to several with more
than six years of teaching experience in Education City. The overwhelming sense from the
younger faculty participants—those who had been at Education City for less than two years—
was that for them, working in Education City was primarily a chance to experience a new
country and an opportunity to live with and work with people from different cultures. For their
part, veteran Education City professors—those with more than two years of experience working
in Education City—seemed to have a more long-term perspective, commenting that along with a
desire to experience a new country, their role in Education City was to educate future generations
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 77
of students, provide a world-class education, and help “bring the world to Qatar, and Qatar to the
world.”
Twelve of the professors who were interviewed were involved with writing or language
instruction. Three professors were members of academic support centers. Four individuals
interviewed were subject-matter professors, with two coming from Education City’s graphic
design program and two from its engineering program.
Orientation & Training in Education City
In Education City, human resource directors described the training provided to incoming
faculty as designed to help incoming faculty acclimate to both the culture of the institution and
the culture of the region. In his analysis of globalization and higher education, Stier (2006)
discusses the six specific characteristics that should be found in any effective cross-cultural
education or training program. If these characteristics are present and properly applied,
individuals who participate in cross-cultural training have been shown to eventually develop a
more complete and in-depth understanding of a specific culture (Gopal, 2011; Stier, 2006).
According to Stier (2006), cross-cultural training should be structured in a way that
allows it to feature intercultural themes and an interdisciplinary perspective. In addition, cross-
cultural training should be investigative in nature, focus on integrated groups and interactive
instruction, and come from an integrative perspective that connects theory to practice (Stier,
2006). Though not rooted in any specific theory, Education City training does reflect some of
the suggestions made by Stier (2006), including the use of a Qatari national to speak about local
and regional culture, driving trips through the city of Doha, and access to a variety of online
resources. Current faculty members also discuss their experiences in Education City in a formal
setting as well as during various social gatherings.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 78
Research Questions
Information collected through interviews and document analysis, as well research
conducted on the Qatar Foundation website, describes the form, function, and outcomes of the
cross-cultural training utilized by the international branch campuses in Education City. Using
Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework, which describes the
six characteristics included in, and the six competencies that result from, cross-cultural training,
the researcher addresses both the overarching and sub-research questions comprising this study.
Responses to the overall research question revealed that cross-cultural training does affect the
teaching experiences of Western expatriate faculty, ultimately resulting in the development and
application of specific skills and competencies. Through the sub-questions, the research reveals
the existence of both formal and informal types of cross-cultural training. For incoming Western
faculty, the informal training that takes place during conversations and interactions with peers
and students is more beneficial and impactful than the formal training given by Education City.
It is this informal cross-cultural training that eventually leads to the development of specific
teaching, adaptability, and awareness skills that are primarily applied to the way faculty deliver
lessons and the way they interact with students. Because the sub-questions relate directly to the
findings of the overarching research questions, the results of the sub-questions are presented in
more detail below, and are followed by a discussion of the overarching research question.
Research Sub-Question 1
What form and type of cross-cultural training programs are currently in place
within the universities sponsoring branch campuses in Education City? When asked about
the type of cross-cultural training they received in association with working in Education City,
professors described taking part in both formal and informal types of cross-cultural training,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 79
which were provided through a combined approach between the individual branch campuses and
Qatar Foundation. Qatar Foundation’s portion of the training focuses primarily on paperwork
and the governmental aspects of working in Education City; the individual branch campuses
handle additional administrative issues as well as cross-cultural training.
Formal cross-cultural training. In his cross-cultural characteristics and competencies
framework, Stier (2006) notes that any effective cross-cultural education curriculum must be
intercultural, interdisciplinary, investigative, integrated, interactive, and integrative. Education
City branch campuses provide formal cross-cultural training to incoming faculty, though despite
its importance and official status, the training can best be described as cursory, inconsistent, and
lacking many of the aforementioned components. When describing her training, which only
involved a five-page handout on Qatari culture, one professor remarked that, “It really probably
is the same thing that tourists read. It’s as if I was visiting here for a week.” In some cases, the
branch campuses conducted cross-cultural training through websites, emails, and online
documents, while in other cases the training took place during brief on-site orientation sessions.
Regardless of the delivery method, the overall sense from professors is that Education City’s
cross-cultural training is “generally lacking in scope” and not at all what faculty need in order to
be successful.
The content of the formal cross-cultural training given to Education City faculty consists
primarily of surface-level information on Middle Eastern, Arab, or Muslim cultures. While some
attempts have been made to offer more in-depth subject matter during training, faculty are
primarily presented with the most basic information on the culture of the region and the students
who populate the branch campuses is Education City. “All I really got,” one professor offered,
“was a handout on how to dress, how not to act … you know, all the do’s and don’ts.” Several
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 80
professors described the content as consisting mostly of tips and advice on proper behaviors
associated with living and working in Qatar, with very little emphasis on anything of depth or
substance. Even instances that involved a more profound topic such as Ramadan were given a
very basic treatment, and beyond a simple description, really only included “what you should not
or [what] you should do” during the holy month. By failing to take a more in-depth approach to
cross-cultural training, the formal training provided to incoming Western creates greater
misperceptions of even the most basic cultural issues, and ultimately contributes to professors
developing a sense of being cultural outsiders who are simply in Qatar to fill a role.
Efforts are made to deliver cross-cultural training in a variety of ways. In most cases
though, cross-cultural information is delivered through emails that contain culturally-based tips
and advice either in the body of the email text, or links that lead the email recipient to an external
website that contains specific culturally-based information. According to one recently-hired
professor, “there was like a … link to a five-paragraph blurb on some website that discussed
cultural things … but that was really it.” Only a small number of the professors who were
interviewed reported having taken part in any cross-cultural training that went beyond online
communications. “Most of it was through email,” recalled one professor. Beyond emails and
web links, some professors also received different culturally based information in the form of
packets and handouts during orientation sessions. These handouts, typically distributed to
faculty during orientation, covered everything from traffic laws to appropriate ways for men and
women to dress and interact.
Professors typically described their orientations or trainings as centered primarily on
administrative tasks and paperwork and not on any type of cross-cultural training. The general
consensus regarding these orientations is that they were poorly planned, erratically scheduled,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 81
and not at all relevant to the needs, requirements, or experiences of Education City faculty. “I
saw this big list during orientation, and to be honest,” commented one professor, “I still feel that
a lot of the information—not the one concerning teaching—maybe the administration stuff and a
lot of the financial stuff, shouldn’t be in the training … it’s too general and too much. Anyone
can read the regulation book and know what is sexual harassment.” By taking an impersonal
approach to presenting important cultural information, Education City not only risks failing to
reach professors on a meaningful level, but it also effectively minimizes the importance of
culture in an academic setting, particularly in the minds of incoming faculty.
Informal cross-cultural training. As a result of the focus on superficial information, the
erratic schedule, and inconsistent delivery methods of formal cross-cultural training provided in
Education City, professors acknowledged a greater reliance on informal cross-cultural training.
For many of the professors interviewed, informal cross-cultural training proved to be more
accessible and more helpful than any formal training provided through Education City or the
individual branch campuses. Informal cross-cultural training indirectly featured many of the
components described in the cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework (Stier,
2006). The most common types of informal cross-cultural training involved conversations with
colleagues or in-class discussions with students. Whether through colleagues or students,
professors generally felt that informal opportunities to acquire deep-level knowledge,
understanding, and experiences regarding how to work with students from Middle Eastern, Arab,
Islamic, or Qatari cultures were invaluable to their success as educators.
When asked specifically about the role of students in helping faculty develop a better
understanding of Arab culture inside and outside of the classroom, one professor proudly offered
that, “Oh, that’s the best teacher is being with the students. I mean, in being here, I found that
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the best teachers to learn about anything … is the students. They’re the ones who know. If I talk
to students, they’re gonna know and they’re gonna tell me.” Students proved to be a valuable
source of information for professors on many levels. One faculty member mentioned a
conversation with students where she established “an open dialogue … of, I’ll ask you questions
all the time about the culture and what’s expected, and you guys [the students] can ask me
anything that you want to about the United States … let’s just have a mutually open kind of
space.” For her and other faculty, open and honest classroom discussions and conversations
served as a form of cross-cultural training, and represented the interactive, integrated, and
intercultural aspects of the cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework (Stier,
2006). In many cases, conversations led to students educating professors on topics ranging from
accepted classroom behaviors and how to greet, describe, and address students in a classroom
setting, to what students expected of their professors. Beyond student expectations, informal
conversations with students also helped professors become “more aware of who students really
are and why they are here [in Education City].” Even negative instances and situations provided
professors with learning opportunities, confirming to Education City professors what an asset
students were in helping them develop or expand their cross-cultural competence on a
professional level.
Conversations and interactions with colleagues and peers—what one professor described
as “informal and ad-hoc meetings”—serve as a primary and extremely important form of cross-
cultural training for professors in Education City. For many Western expatriates, information on
the interaction between Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic culture and academics is not included
in their formal training. As a result, these professors often seek out the help, advice, and
opinions of other faculty members, particularly those who they consider veterans or “experts that
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have been here a while.” Faculty peers play the role of mentor, guide, and advisor for new
Western faculty. More importantly though, veteran Education City professors function as a
major source of cross-cultural information, particularly in terms of how Western faculty can best
work with students of Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic cultures. “We all hang out together,”
declared one faculty member, “we work, play, and live together … it’s like the world’s best
dorm.” During these informal interactions and conversations, professors discussed classroom
structure, faculty-student dynamics, discipline, even lecture topics and first-day procedures. As
one professor revealed, “Your colleagues, they’ll show you the ropes. They answer your
questions … and it’s just so valuable to have that culture.” One Western expat professor made it
known that “the stuff that’s online is not really in line … with Qatar, and doesn’t really illustrate
what expats need. For that, you have to talk to other expats.” In comparing the official cross-
cultural training provided by Education City with what resulted from informal conversations
with colleagues, there was a sincere sense that conversations with colleagues were deeper, more
meaningful, and more useful and practical.
Summary of research sub-question 1. While professors from Western countries and
cultures do receive some formal level of cross-cultural training in association with working in
Education City, the training they receive provides only the most surface-level introduction and
exploration into the culture of the Middle East. Professors described the delivery methods and
scheduling of formal cross-cultural training as erratic and inconsistent, often involving random
email messages and lasting anywhere from an hour to a week. Overall, informal discussions and
interactions with both colleagues and students represent the most effective and impactful
approach to cross-cultural training. During classroom discussions with students, professors learn
a great deal about culture as well as who their students are and what they expect from their
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higher education experiences. From other colleagues, professors learn about pedagogy, best
practices, and the role they play in the lives of students Education City. Ultimately, informal
cross-cultural training appears to lead to a deeper understanding of the regional culture and how
it intersects with academics.
Research Sub-Question 2
What competencies or skills do faculty working in Education City perceive they
develop as a result of participating in cross-cultural training? By taking part in formal and
informal types of cross-cultural training, incoming Western faculty have the perception of
developing a variety of skills and competencies, many of which are aligned with Stier’s (2006)
cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework. Because little time is spent on
teaching strategies during formal cross-cultural training, professors gain the most skills during
informal discussions and interactions with their colleagues. Education City professors disclosed
the development of three broad types of skills and competencies, including practical classroom
skills, adaptability and differentiation, and skills associated with personal development and
growth. Collectively, these three skills groups reflect the communicative, cooperative,
confidence, and comparability competencies that encompass the cross-cultural characteristics
and competencies framework (Stier, 2006).
Practical classroom skills. Among the skills that faculty acknowledged they developed
as a result of informal cross-cultural training were practical skills related to different aspects of
classroom structure. Professors credited cross-cultural training as having led to the development
of classroom strategy skills, including developing the “feel” of their classroom, as well as
creating guidelines for planning lessons and designing a complete course. “During the training,
we had an informal ‘roundtable’ with faculty—like an hour long—where they talked about
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things that worked and didn’t work in the classroom with this particular student population.”
Through their colleagues, incoming faculty were able to gain useful knowledge about everything
from the type of art to hang on their walls, to how to best incorporate collaborative and social-
based learning into their lessons.
Classroom management, particularly learning how to establish behavior guidelines and
discipline, was a skill that a majority of professors highlighted as having resulted from their
informal cross-cultural training. Professors expressed having initial concerns over disciplinary
issues with students, but as one faculty member commented, “I was advised that we have to be
rather strict because a lot of the students, especially the freshman that are new here, don’t really
know how high school and college are different, so its okay to tell them that they can only leave
the room during the actual break time. That kind of information was so useful … and now I sort
of lay down the rules at the beginning.” More than a few professors spoke about learning to
anticipate and prepare for certain classroom issues as well as the appropriate level or extent to
which students should be disciplined as a result. One professor mentioned that he had “learned
to be a little bit more patient with behavioral issues thanks to seeing other people and how they
handle certain situations—definitely learning from others’ mistakes for sure.” In the majority of
cases, participants described some type of informal conversation with another colleague as
having led to an understanding of what issues to expect from students and how to properly and
constructively resolve those issues. Unlike the unrealistic surface-level information provided
during formal cross-cultural training, veteran professors effectively provided incoming Western
faculty with real-world case studies for many of the issues that Education City professors
inevitably experience.
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For many of the professors interviewed, the key to establishing effective classroom
management included the design of their syllabus, which served as a tool for communicating
with students and holding them accountable for performance and behavior. “When you are
designing your course,” said one professor, “the syllabus matters. You have to really think about
things like assignments, grading, office hours, and the kinds of problems that can come out of
[those things] and become issues in the classroom and address all of that in your syllabus.”
Because of the tendency for some students to challenge professors’ decisions and circumvent
their authority in order to deal directly with school administration, syllabus design became one of
the most important ways for professors to establish classroom policies and outline disciplinary
procedures. Since syllabus design was not addressed in formal training sessions, incoming
faculty once again turned to veteran faculty for advice on how to approach this key aspect of
their classrooms.
Adaptability and differentiation skills. In addition to practical classroom skills, Western
faculty were also able to learn how to adapt to the needs, perspectives, and skills of the students
in Education City. A number of professors mentioned adaptability and differentiation in the
classroom as being essential to getting the most from their students. In terms of adjusting
classroom lessons and individual teaching approaches, professors spoke about the importance of
making lessons relevant for Education City students through the use of examples, readings, and
materials rooted in the culture of the Middle East. For some, adapting their lessons was an
adjustment, but one that was seen as necessary in order to connect with students and deliver
effective instruction. “You don’t have to dumb it down,” held one professor, “but what you can
do is you can tweak it or tailor it. In a ‘regular classroom’ setting … you will have kids of
[different abilities], and as a teacher, you have to be able to differentiate between students and be
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able to … extend learning to all students.” Some professors even found themselves learning to
adapt their lesson delivery by providing explanations for their own Western slang and
terminologies. In general, the ability to adapt appeared to result primarily as a consequence of
professors speaking with colleagues as well as by interacting with and truly understanding their
students and what they were looking for out of their higher education experience.
The ability of professors to adapt extended beyond just lesson-based adjustments and also
involved developing the ability to work within the context of a different culture. By speaking
with colleagues and hearing about the successes and failures of their peers, faculty learned about
the importance of the relationship-based aspects of Middle Eastern society. By understanding
the importance of group work and collaborative tendencies, professors were able to incorporate
what was seen as a “social-learning or collaborative learning culture,” chiefly through in-class
activities as well as through group assignments outside of the classroom.
By understanding the role and importance of collaboration to Education City students,
professors were also able to adjust certain policies and outlooks on students. Professors, for
example, modified their grading systems to include a group work component and also set their
office hours to accommodate groups. “You learn to tailor how you grade and weight your course
in terms of classroom work versus outside work because [students] tend to work a lot in groups
and don’t have the sense of independence that Western students have” expressed one professor.
According to another faculty member, “The way you make your office available to students
since many will not come in to see you one-on-one … you have to have an office that can handle
groups for questions.” Once again, learning to adapt to the collaborative nature of Middle
Eastern students was attributed to the advice of colleagues as well as interactions with students.
Because relationships and collaboration play a key role in the academic experiences of Education
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City students, professors were willing to adapt and include group work and collaborative
assignments as part of their examinations, assessments, and overall classroom content.
Professors also learned to modify their academic expectations of students to reflect an
understanding of various cultural aspects. Often, this meant adjusting lesson or discussion
topics, but also included changes to what students were required to do as part of a project or
assignment. “I certainly learned what my students wanted from me … and at the same time how
far I could push them on an assignment or in a discussion. In fact, I would say we learned to
push each other, even about things that I thought would be uncomfortable to discuss or bring up
in class.” Professors also commented on learning how important it can be to not generalize
students despite shared commonalities. This realization was especially true given the diversity of
the Middle East in terms of varying cultural, religious, and gender-based perspectives. In
sharing his thoughts on the value of remembering to treat students as individuals and not to
generalize them as a group, one professor mentioned that “When I first got here, I had a couple
Al-Thani’s in my class, but as a colleague put it, ‘There are the Virginia Al-Thani’s and the West
Virginia Al-Thani’s,’ and they aren’t both the same.” In this particular case, the faculty member
realized that similar last names do not necessarily equate to similar views and values. Though
the Al-Thani’s are the ruling family of Qatar, different branches of the family have different
views on different issues and matters. “Professors have a tendency to assume and put students
into certain groups,” added one faculty member, “but that won’t help you here—in fact, that
won’t do much to help you back home [in the United States] either.” The recognition that some
Middle Eastern families are more liberal and others are more conservative, especially in terms of
the role of education, served to remind professors to be flexible and open-minded in their
classroom practices and their expectations of students.
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Personal awareness and realization. Outside of practical teaching skills and the ability
to adapt to teaching in a different culture, cross-cultural training—whether in the manner of
formal training, casual conversations with other professors, or through experiences and
interactions with students—also helped incoming Western faculty undergo a certain degree of
personal self-awareness and self-realization. Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies framework identifies this competency as comparability, or the recognition that
one’s reality is usually culturally relative,
From conversations with colleagues, incoming faculty learned about the way their
students can perceive and interpret certain comments and actions. Coming in, faculty were
aware of their tendencies to perceive students in certain ways. However many expressed having
to learn when students themselves were developing perceptions of professors. “I had to learn I
wasn’t in Kansas anymore—literally,” commented one professor. In other words, incoming
faculty often found themselves so concerned with trying to avoid generalizing or stereotyping
students that they sometimes failed to recognize when they were sending specific messages to
students. By speaking with other colleagues, Western faculty were able to develop a greater
awareness and recognition of the subtle messages that they communicate to students through
simple comments or gestures. One professor expressed the importance of being aware of his
own appearance and mannerisms, and how much that could impact student perceptions and
classroom interactions. He offered that “being less threatening and more approachable” was key
because his physical size and appearance could in his words, make him “downright frightening”
to his students. “I have a presence that I have to be aware of,” he added, and by being conscious
of his own physical appearance and the messages it sent to students, this particular faculty
member was able to minimize potential misperceptions and create an environment that he
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considered less conducive to generalizations and more favorable to both teaching and learning.
In addition to physical self-awareness, the ability to read student body language, and the
recognition of the picture that students can form of a professor through her or his use of certain
words and expressions—particularly slang and colloquialisms—were additional aspects of
awareness that developed as a result of informal cross-cultural training experiences. In essence,
professors learned to recognize that as much as they were forming images and opinions of their
students, those students were also forming images and opinions of their professors.
Through their classroom experiences, professors were able to gain a more complete
understanding of their students, and also gradually began to better understand themselves and
their role within Education City. The result of this self-realization led to professors making
concerted efforts to “better themselves,” which often meant looking for and taking part in
professional development opportunities inside and outside of Education City. By recognizing
students’ needs, as well as their personal role in the mission of Education City, professors were
also encouraged to seek out additional on-campus resources to help improve their classrooms
and their students’ experiences. In some cases, these resources were financial in nature, but
more often, professors were simply encouraged to seek out any resource that they believed
would make them more effective in working with students of cultures different from their own.
While several faculty members expressed a sense that “working here is just a job, nothing more,
so I don’t go too far out of my way,” the majority of professors interviewed made it a point to
learn more “about how this ‘system’ works and what person or department to contact” in order to
access specific resources for the classroom.
Summary of research sub-question 2. Whether through informal or formal
opportunities for cross-cultural training, it is evident that incoming Western faculty feel they
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develop quite a few important skills and competencies. Classroom interactions with students
lead to the development of useful skills, but typically, Western faculty who are new to Education
City and new to teaching to students from Middle Eastern cultures tend to view their colleagues
as the primary source of skill development. Through extensive and in-depth discussions and
conversations with their peers, usually in informal settings, new professors learn classroom
management, lesson planning, and discipline skills. More importantly, colleagues and students
contribute to helping new professors from outside of the culture of the Middle East develop
adaptive skills as well as increased sense of self-awareness and self-realization.
Research Sub-Question 3
How do faculty apply cross-cultural training to their instructional approach and
their responsibilities as professors? Through their participation in both formal and informal of
cross-cultural training, professors recognize that they acquire a variety of useful skills and
competencies, ranging from practical classroom skills to adaptability and self-awareness.
Although the skills professors develop as a result of cross-cultural training are useful both inside
and outside of the classroom, faculty members acknowledge that the skills they learn are much
more beneficial and applicable to situations inside the classroom. Overall, the skills acquired by
incoming Western faculty through cross-cultural training are applied in situations involving
course structure, lesson delivery, and interactions with students.
Course structure. When asked how they were applying the skills they learned from
cross-cultural training, professors discussed becoming more communicative and cooperative, as
described by the cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework (Stier, 2006).
Professors overwhelmingly stated that the structure of their courses was noticeably affected by
what they had learned as a result of conversations with colleagues and interactions with students.
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Faculty commented that what they learned in their trainings was useful specifically in the
development of their classroom curriculum and course content.
Given that the curriculum of the courses offered by the branch campuses in Education
City was developed primarily for students in the United States, professors were able to use the
knowledge and skills they developed in their formal and informal training experiences to adapt
courses to the culture and needs of the students in Education City. This meant ensuring that the
course curriculum reflected, to some degree, the culture of the Middle East through the use of
culturally relevant examples in daily lessons, or the inclusion of books written by Middle
Eastern, Arab, or Muslim authors as components of long-term assignments. Several art
professors, for example, mentioned integrating traditional Islamic art in their design courses,
while more than a few English and journalism professors added that they had made a concerted
effort to make sure that topics of papers and assignments included issues relevant to the region
and the culture.
While the goal of each individual branch campus is to deliver essentially the same
curriculum in Qatar that is available in the United States, professors nevertheless recognize the
importance of structuring their courses in a manner that is inclusive of local and regional culture.
Outside of the content of their courses, professors also made efforts to structure their daily
discussions and classwork assignments to reflect their cross-cultural competence. “I’ve been
surprised by what my students want to talk about,” shared one professor, “and I’m also not
concerned that an administrator is going to come in and say ‘You can’t talk about that issue.’ So
the more I get to know [my students], we are critically more able to analyze so many of these
issues in class.” Increased knowledge and comfort with the culture of the region and the
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organization encouraged professors to be more confident both in the topics they brought up
during class discussions and more importantly in their general approach to teaching in Qatar.
In addition to expanding the topics discussed in class, professors have also made it a
point to give students more time in class to do work and complete assignments, and also assigned
more group-based projects, all as a result of their understanding of the collaborative nature of
their students’ culture and recognition of their students’ responsibilities to their families. “In this
culture … once they leave school and they go home … they have different obligations and it’s
like stepping into a different world once they go home. So, I try to do as much as I can within
class because I know that once they get home, they will not be able to work on certain things
there.” Rather than become frustrated with students for not meeting expectations typical of
Western students, or for having different learning styles, professors learned to structure their
courses according to their new setting and to the needs of their new students. By recognizing the
cultural responsibilities of Education City students in comparison to the responsibilities of
students in America, incoming Western faculty were able to maximize both the effort of their
students as well as their own effectiveness as educators.
Lesson delivery. Critical thinking skills, an important component discussed in Stier’s
(2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework, also result from cross-
cultural training. More specifically, the approach that faculty take to delivering lessons to
students in Education City is directly impacted by the skills they learn as a result of informal
cross-cultural training. Several professors commented about the idea of “face-saving” as being
something that is very important to Middle Eastern culture. “What one can say in terms of
humor or informal expression—especially in the classroom—I’ve learned that one has to be
more self-censoring because … there are many more issues that are touchy or sensitive.”
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Professors understand that they cannot be too forceful or direct in their lesson delivery either,
especially when a lesson requires student participation. “In the classroom,” commented one
professor, “calling on students is considered something … it has to sound less-threatening and
should not give the impression that you are checking up on them.” Doing something that can
offend or humiliate a student can have negative and lasting implications for faculty. As a result,
faculty have to be very cautious of how they present material for their course and even how and
if they choose to call on students.
For Education City professors, delivering lessons in the context of the local and regional
culture also meant choosing their words and language carefully, specifically being more clear,
concise, and less ethnocentric in their language. One professor spoke about the type of language
he used in class changing as a result of becoming more sensitive about the culture. “I don’t use
acronyms,” he said, “I don’t use American culture or idioms they won’t understand … I changed
my vocabulary, I changed my illustrations you know. I don’t use football as an example, I use
soccer. So, I changed kind of the … word choices a lot.” Professors also commented that they
often found themselves “streamlining or being more efficient with words” because of the number
of English language learners enrolled in their courses, and when possible, made additional efforts
to make their lessons more visual in order to minimize issues with language differences and take
advantage of different learning styles.
Interactions with students. Along with the structural aspects of their classroom and
lessons, professors also found themselves applying learned skills and competencies to their
interactions with students. Though their interactions with students were limited to classroom
settings, professors nevertheless used the skills they developed through cross-cultural training to
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find ways to make the most of those interactions and create positive experiences with and for
their students.
In several instances, professors found that they applied cultural competence skills to
helping students “feel more at ease with me as an [American] professor,” as one faculty member
commented. Faculty often found themselves having to be more open with students about their
own concerns and misconceptions in order ease classroom tensions. This openness on the part of
faculty often resulted in what one professor described as “a much stronger relationship with
students than even [I] would have expected.” While many professors admitted to beginning their
Qatar careers with some level of hesitancy and concern over their ability to work with students of
Middle Eastern, Arab, and Islamic cultures, their training opportunities helped them realize that
students had concerns of their own. Appropriately, faculty made concerted efforts to help ease
student fears in order to maximize what they gained from a course.
The cultural competence training professors received—primarily through their informal
interactions with colleagues and students—allowed faculty to send a clear message to their
students about their commitment to teaching in Education City. This ultimately led to more
positive interactions with their students and an overall more positive experience for faculty.
“Socially,” one professor remarked, “[the training] helped me understand Islam, but
professionally, it’s also helped me understand the background of my students.” For Education
City faculty, this cultural understanding has proven to be a helpful tool in the classroom for
numerous reasons.
Summary of research sub-question 3. Faculty who took part in cross-cultural training
gained valuable skills related to course structure and development, lesson delivery, and
interactions with students. Professors took advantage of having participated in formal and
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 96
informal cross-cultural training and were able to take those skills and apply them directly to their
classrooms. The primary way in which professors applied the skills they developed was inside
of the classroom, specifically instances that involved the way courses were designed and
structured, the style that was used to deliver course content, and the manner in which professors
interacted with students.
Overarching Research Question
What effect, if any, does cross-cultural training have on the professional experiences
of faculty teaching in the international branch campuses in Education City? The findings
from the research sub-questions highlight the presence of formal and informal types of cross-
cultural training in Education City. These trainings, primarily the informal types, lead to the
development of particular skills and competencies which in turn have a distinct effect on the
classroom experiences of incoming expatriate faculty teaching in Education City.
Education City represents the chief initiative intended to help Qatar accomplish this
economic shift and achieve its mission and national vision. Because more than half of the
professors teaching in Education City come from the United States, a major factor in helping the
international branch campuses in Qatar achieve their mission is the faculty’s level of cross-
cultural competence. Without cross-cultural competence, professors may struggle to facilitate
cooperation between groups, fail to think critically about global issues, fall short of developing
awareness of personal bias, and deliver instruction in a culturally irrelevant manner (Stier, 2006).
While cross-cultural training may not be critical to the success or sustainability of
international branch campuses in all parts of the world, the cultural differences between Western
countries and countries in the Middle East are significant enough to warrant a system of cultural
training for faculty. Cross-cultural training can be especially important when branch campuses
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 97
of Western universities are established in areas of the Middle East. Stier (2006) argues that
cross-cultural education and training can play an important role in internationalization, and
proposes his cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework as a guide for
internationalization efforts. Cross-cultural training—when made available to the professors
responsible for educating the Middle Eastern students who populate Education City—may have a
noticeable effect on the classroom experiences of professors and students, and can also
contribute to the achievement of Qatar Foundation’s larger mission and vision.
In response to questions about the cross-cultural training received from Education City,
faculty revealed that formal and informal cross-cultural training included several of the cross-
cultural characteristics and competencies described by Stier (2006) as essential to the
effectiveness of culturally based education and training. To some degree, both formal and
informal cross-cultural training led to the development of specific skills and competencies
described by Stier (2006). Professors, however, acknowledged that informal cross-cultural
training had a more noticeable effect on their teaching experiences, specifically areas involving
teaching skills, confidence levels, sense of advocacy, inclusion of Middle Eastern culture into the
curriculum, and self-awareness of personal worldviews.
Teaching skills. The cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework
proposed by Stier (2006) makes no mention of pedagogical skills development, yet teaching
skills represent one of the most significant effects of cross-cultural training in Education City.
Faculty entered Education City with varying degrees of teaching experience, and some revealed
having little to no direct experiences working with Middle Eastern, Arab, or Muslim students. In
their interviews, professors also indicated that Education City did not provide much training in
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the area of teaching. Consequently, new faculty found cross-cultural training to be extremely
important to their teaching experiences in Education City.
As they took part in cross-cultural training—primarily informal cross-cultural training in
the form of discussions with colleagues and interactions with students—professors learned
important and practical classroom skills that were key in their roles as teachers, including
pedagogic skills, lesson delivery, curriculum design, and classroom management. Professors
applied what they had learned from informal cross-cultural training to their classroom
management approach, including their disciplinary practices and syllabus design. The
curriculum of the course was also affected by what faculty learned from their cross-cultural
training experiences. In particular, professors were able to take their increased cultural
knowledge and use it to adapt their course content and teaching methods to fit the perspectives of
Education City students. Professors described using multimodal teaching approaches and
culturally relevant examples and avoiding the use of ethnocentric examples when trying to
explain specific concepts. As they learned about their students’ reasons for enrolling in
Education City, professors’ lessons were also often adapted in order to make them more relevant
to the students’ needs.
Confidence. To a minimal degree, one effect that cross-cultural training had on Western
faculty was in the area of confidence. Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies framework notes that individuals who take part in cross-cultural training should
become more confident in their professional abilities. Because faculty received little to no
formal cross-cultural training, professors attribute increases in their level of confidence for
working with students from Middle Eastern, Arab, or Muslim countries to their participation in
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informal cross-cultural training. At the same time, the minimal formal training they received is
credited with developing feelings of professional inadequacy and fears of making a mistake.
Given their general lack of experience working with Middle Eastern students, professors
entered Education City with many misconceptions about the culture. Faculty lacked a certain
degree of flexibility and as a result, described themselves as being confident in their professional
skills, though not necessarily their ability to work with students of Middle Eastern cultures. One
professor described feeling terrified, adding, “I come from an area of the country where people
don’t travel. This was one of my first experiences with [traveling] overseas. I was somewhat
frightened, and I remember feeling terrified of the women in all black.” Another professor
described always feeling like she had to be “on guard” in the classroom, watching everything she
did and said around her students. For these professors, the general sense was that formal cross-
cultural training, even in its minimal form, did more to strengthen stereotypes and generate
unfounded fears than it did to minimize them.
In comparison to their formal cross-cultural training, the informal training that faculty
received, specifically discussions and interactions with veteran professors, seemed to provide the
foundation for feeling positive about working with Education City students. One journalism
professor described his conversations with colleagues as an opportunity to “learn the rules,”
while a colleague in the same department added that “Basically, the training gave me the skills,
and applying those skills gave me confidence.” Because the opportunities to interact and speak
with colleagues about professional fears and concerns were not presented to incoming faculty
during their initial trainings, many were able to develop a higher level of confidence for working
in Education City by simply speaking with other veteran professors who shared similar concerns
and experiences during their time as incoming faculty.
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Applying what they learned as a result of informal cross-cultural training helped
professors become more comfortable taking risks with course content and with students. When
speaking about introducing what he perceived as a remedial concept for college students, one
engineering professor mentioned, “This year for the first time, I taught [students] how to use a
math book … and they really seemed to appreciate that. That kind of thing wouldn’t have
dawned on me if it hadn’t been for talking with some faculty.” As their confidence increased,
professors also felt they were able to speak more openly with students about academic matters
and expectations, and even felt “comfortable enough to joke, say things, and tease students …
like they were my little sisters.” By and large, incoming Education City faculty credited their
informal cross-cultural training experiences as contributing to their feelings of confidence about
everything from personal interactions with students to decisions about course content.
Advocacy. By having the opportunity to learn about the needs and culture of Qatar
during their cross-cultural training, some professors found themselves becoming more aware of
local issues and needs, and advocating to different degrees for particular changes in certain
aspects of the local and regional culture. The cross-cultural characteristics and competencies
framework described by Stier (2006) includes the concept of commitment, particularly a
commitment to human rights advocacy. Although several professors expressed hesitancy over
getting too involved in social, political, or cultural matters, there was a common feeling of
faculty having been made aware of and wanting to advocate for issues such as gender equity,
socio-cultural awareness, and greater access to higher education.
Issues of women’s rights and gender equity appear to be at the heart of the advocacy
efforts of some professors in Education City. As professors interacted with students and
conversed with colleagues, casual conversations eventually led them to learn more about and
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discuss important social, cultural, and political issues. Several professors discussed their
constant dedication to promoting gender equity, especially in the classroom, through lessons,
discussions, and assignments. As one writing instructor described it, “Women’s rights is my
thing – we talk a lot about that.” In their professional capacities, faculty described personal
attempts to advocate for equality among genders both inside and outside of the academic world,
including calls to increase the number of women in higher education and the number of
extracurricular activities available for female students, with one professor advocating directly to
administrators for “more Arab women in general to get a western education.” Though professors
were aware of the progress made and the continued challenge, conversations with colleagues and
students helped them learn more about the limitations often placed on Arab women in regards to
higher education as a result of traditional family values. “What we are doing for the females
here,” recognized one professor, “could be better, but at least it means they don’t have to leave
the country to get a [Western] education.” In many cases, professors credited their informal
cross-cultural training as being what one engineering professor described as “an eye-opening
experience” that allowed them to see that more needs to be done in terms of promoting gender
equity in higher education.
In addition to advocating for gender equity, professors were surprisingly supportive of
the rights of Education City workers. The Education City staff—including security guards,
custodians, cooks, drivers, laborers, and servers known as “tea boys”—is comprised mainly of
Southeast Asian men and women. “I am concerned about workers being exploited here … low
wages for the staff, but … I’m still learning how things work here, so it hasn’t gotten to the point
where I need to take action.” Professors commented on the poor treatment of Education City
workers, though many also expressed feelings of not being in a position, either personally or
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professionally, to do something about the treatment of migrant workers. “In here, I don’t really
feel as if I have a voice,” noted one professor, “and it’s not as if they would care anyway if I said
anything.” In some cases, professors commented that they purposefully encouraged students to
“recognize their own privileges and advantages and … advocate for those who can’t advocate for
themselves.” Given their personal feelings on the matter of workers’ rights, and their perception
of being in a powerless position, faculty often found themselves using their influence in the
classroom to make students advocate for the rights of Education City workers.
On a more personal level, professors also spoke about becoming advocates for the
country of Qatar and Middle Eastern culture as a whole. As they found opportunities to meet
and speak with veteran expatriate colleagues, several professors mentioned that their
conversations often centered on how they tended to find themselves addressing stereotypes both
at home and abroad. Finding that many of their colleagues shared similar experiences
strengthened professors’ desire to advocate on behalf of the culture of the region. “I find myself
being an advocate for Qatar in general … especially with my family,” commented one faculty
member who had recently arrived in Qatar, “… because I want to tell people that it is not what
you think it is … like its my job to tell as many people to quit thinking it is a scary, terrorist-
filled place.” Another professor mentioned constantly trying “to contextualize the culture and
trying to address stereotypes that people might have back home about the culture here.”
Additionally, while one professor found herself “defending and promoting Middle Eastern
culture,” another noticed that he also found himself “code-switching and … defending Qataris
when I’m with Americans … and Americans when I’m around Qataris.” Professors
acknowledged that it was their conversations with colleagues that often led them to become
advocates for varying degrees of change. This was primarily the case because these
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conversations led to the development of an awareness that may not have otherwise appeared.
While faculty did express a general sense of not wanting to get too personally involved in socio-
political issues, they nevertheless recognized their role in promoting social change locally and
across the region. At least in their capacity as professors, incoming faculty certainly expressed
their thoughts on promoting specific change and did in fact make personal, if minimal, efforts to
encourage some level of change in areas of inequity.
Culture in the curriculum. Despite a number of faculty who limited the inclusion of
culture into the curriculum, most admitted that an effect of their involvement in cross-cultural
training was that they were more willing to incorporate aspects of Middle Eastern, Arab, or
Islamic culture into their classrooms and curriculum. One professor commented that, “At times I
use examples of mostly Arab, sometimes Islamic, culture in terms of examples—culturally
relevant examples. In one course, I use materials that actually refer to things like … the Arab
Enlightenment during the Middle Ages.” The use of culturally relevant textbooks, examples, and
assignments represented what the majority of professors did to include regional culture into their
classrooms. However, faculty also recognized that Education City students possess different
learning styles, and these professors made a concerted effort to deliver instruction in the style
that was most beneficial to their students. As one faculty member revealed, “The students here
can be unbelievably collaborative, to the point of making it difficult to give them [certain
assignments], but I find it very satisfying to be able to take advantage of working in small
groups.” Once they had made this realization, faculty who were willing to include local and
regional culture in their lesson went as far as to tailor their instructional approach to the needs
and learning styles of each individual class or course.
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Despite the willingness to include aspects of local and regional culture into their
classroom lessons and course curriculum, more than a few professors expressed an unwillingness
to include too much Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic culture into their classrooms. One
professor expressed that, “I have a responsibility to prepare [students] for a globalized world and
work in the private sector, so … I try to avoid using too much of just one culture or perspective.”
As a result of their feelings on developing globally conscious students, this group of professors
felt that in order to promote what was described as “a global perspective” it was important to
avoid incorporating too much local and regional culture into their classrooms. In referring to the
inclusion of culture into classroom lessons, one professor declared, “I try to resist that a bit. I
want my students to be individuals … I try to hold them to a professional standard of time … so
there is a limit to how much culture I am willing to include, for practical reasons.”
Reflecting the concepts of critical thought, described in Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural
characteristics and competencies framework as the ability to critically analyze cultural processes
and practices, the most common ways in which professors included culture in their classrooms
was through the use of culturally relevant classroom materials and techniques, and through the
incorporation of varied learning styles. Despite some resistance, as professors became more
confident, committed, and aware of the needs of the culture, they in turn found ways to make
their classrooms more culturally inclusive.
Recognition of bias. An additional effect of informal cross-cultural training was the way
in which the majority of the professors interviewed recognized their own ethnocentric or biased
views, especially when dealing with students. Faculty identified conversations with other
colleagues as the primary ways through which they became aware of personal impositions and
assumptions, with one professor referring to those conversations as “something like an early-
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warning system for things I should look out and prepare for.” Through cross-cultural training,
professors acquired the comparability and cultural awareness skills discussed in the cross-
cultural characteristics and competencies framework (Stier, 2006).
Professors were aware that they were entering into a different culture, and several faculty
described beginning their careers in Education City with a limited, or as one professor explained,
“an inflexible” perspective. This same professor also described his understanding of how to
work in a different culture as being in a state of constant growth and improvement, adding
specifically that he consistently had to “realize that what I assign can be misinterpreted by my
students, so I have to be careful with what I ask and how I present my assignments.” In a similar
manner, another faculty member described her initial concerns over being too ethnocentric in the
classroom by saying, “Well … given how imperialistic we can be as Americans when we try to
help, I think it’s my job, especially as a teacher, to be aware of my biases. I think it’ll be a
lifelong thing for me.” Despite their initial inflexibility, by speaking and interacting with
colleagues, incoming faculty were able to have important conversations about their role as
Western professors in a non-Western region. For some professors, the results of these
conversations were eye opening, as many had never had to address their ethnocentric views as
professors teaching in America. Ultimately, these conversations led to a greater sense of self-
awareness, and a more conscious approach to avoiding bias in the classroom.
Several professors mentioned making conscious efforts to hold back on their opinions
and thoughts during classrooms discussions to avoid imposing their views on students. “I try not
to lead them to my answer.” commented one professor, “I want my students to get to a certain
place, and I try not to cloud [their views] with my view of the world because I have to remember
that my opinion is not always the right opinion.” By becoming more aware of personal bias,
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faculty were also able to adapt their lessons and assignments, as well as in-class discussions, to
reflect a more globalized perspective. Professors mentioned that becoming more aware of their
ethnocentric views led them to become more conscious about their models and approaches to
teaching and delivering lessons, including being open to and including more non-Western
discussion topics, avoiding the use of solely American-based examples and anecdotes, and
allowing students to speak first before providing personal interpretations and views on topics.
Summary of overarching research question. The cross-cultural training that Western
faculty receive when they begin working in Education City has an effect on the teaching
experiences of incoming professors, particularly those who are from cultures outside of Middle
Eastern, Arab, and Islamic cultures. While experience over time also plays its own role,
professors acknowledged that what they learned through informal cross-cultural training directly
affected their classroom experiences. Most of the competencies described in Stier’s (2006)
cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework appear to have resulted through
cross-cultural training, especially informal training, versus simple time and experience. For a
majority of incoming Western faculty, cross-cultural training affects the approach they take to
teaching in Education City, particularly by helping them adapt their classroom content and
curriculum, as well as their pedagogic approach to fit the needs of Middle Eastern students.
With most of the professors interviewed having limited experiences with Middle Eastern, Arab,
and Islamic students, cross-cultural training also helps increase professors’ level of confidence.
As professors continue to meet and speak with veteran Education City colleagues, they also gain
a broader perspective on Middle Eastern culture, often finding themselves advocating for change,
being more inclusive of local and regional culture, and becoming more aware of their own
culturally-centered biases and worldviews.
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Conclusion
The results of the sub-questions and overarching research question reveal that cross-
cultural training did in fact have an effect on the professional teaching experiences of incoming
Western, or expatriate, faculty. The formal or official training that Education City provides for
incoming professors focuses primarily on administrative or organizational information. The
aspects of the training that center on cultural competence are minimal, and very superficial in
nature. Efforts to provide some level of cross-cultural training to incoming professors,
particularly those who are from countries and cultures outside of the Middle East, tend to
highlight only the most basic, surface-level knowledge of the local and regional culture and do
not appear to lead to increases in cultural competence. While formal training served to educate
professors on the administrative workings of Education City, culturally centered training only
provided the most basic information about Middle Eastern culture, and seldom included any
focus on teaching in a different culture.
Additionally, the formal training that was provided to professors rarely incorporated
individuals or representatives of Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic cultures. For some professors,
the information that was provided during formal cross-cultural training only resulted in
confusion, frustration, and in some cases, a sense of fear over making a culturally insensitive
mistake. Using Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework, it is
evident that the formal training provided to incoming Western faculty by Education City is
lacking a deeper intercultural focus, and while it is interdisciplinary, it needs to be more
investigative, integrated, and carried out in a more interactive manner.
For Western faculty who are new to Education City, the most beneficial and impactful
form of cross-cultural training comes not from any official training given by Education City, but
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rather from the informal training that takes place during conversations and interactions with
peers, and to some degree, with students. Overall, the results of this study indicate that veteran
expatriate colleagues play an important role in helping new Western faculty develop the level of
cultural competence necessary to work effectively with students from Middle Eastern, Arab, and
Islamic cultures. Informal cross-cultural training included on and off-campus conversations with
colleagues, as well as casual and informal discussions that took place during social gatherings
and as components of official events. Through these “informal formal interactions” with peers,
as one professor described them, professors developed skills and competencies that proved
useful in their new classroom settings. Much of what professors gain through their informal
cross-cultural training mirrors what Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies framework highlights as the results of cross-cultural training.
Among the skills and competencies that resulted from informal cross-cultural training
were practical pedagogic or teaching skills. Through their interactions with colleagues, new
professors learned about classroom and lesson design, syllabus construction, classroom
management, and discipline. In addition, professors also learned how to adapt and differentiate
those skills and competencies in order to meet the needs of the students in Education City. This
adaptability led to adjustments in their interactions with students and course grading policies, and
also caused professors to learn to include various aspects of the local and regional culture—such
as collaboration and social learning—into their lessons.
On a personal level, faculty became more aware of the expectations and perceptions that
students had of them as professors. Despite initial concerns, confidence related to incorporating
culture into the classroom also increased as a result of informal cross-cultural training, as did
professors’ levels of self-awareness. Incoming Western expatriate faculty gained a greater
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appreciation for the culture, which in turn led to professors working to minimize and change
their own ethnocentric and biased worldviews and work as advocates for different aspects of the
lives of their Middle Eastern, Arab, Islamic, and Qatari students.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this study was to analyze the cross-cultural training used by the
international branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City for their structure, function, and goals,
and to explore how participating in cross-cultural training can affect the classroom experiences
of Western faculty who teach in those campuses. Despite an apparent slowdown, there are
currently two hundred international branch campuses operating worldwide, with plans to open an
additional thirty-seven more over the next few years (Lawton & Katsomitros, 2012). As of 2013,
American universities are involved in the development of thirteen of those proposed thirty-seven
new international branch campuses (Lawton & Katsomitros, 2012).
International branch campuses are generally looked at as a means for satisfying a
country’s demand for higher education and as a way of creating a knowledge-based economy
(Wilkins & Huisman, 2011). Because of the growth in the number of international branch
campuses—particularly those where American universities are expanding into non-Western
countries—there is a need for further research into cultural competence and the cross-cultural
training that faculty are receiving in association with working in these international settings.
Given Cummings and Finkelstein’s (2012) findings that the long-term success of branch
campuses depends in part on faculty, it is important to determine how cross-cultural training is
being used to prepare professors to work in international settings with students from cultures
outside of the professor’s own.
Due to their role as educators, university professors are uniquely important to the success
of international branch campuses. However, regardless of their recognized impact on such
endeavors, significant numbers of faculty who teach in international branch campuses continue
to lack the cross-cultural competence necessary for working effectively with students of different
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cultures (Gopal, 2011). Lack of cultural competence, together with a significantly Western pool
of professors, can be a troubling combination. If American universities are to continue to export
academic programs overseas and establish international branch campus in non-Western areas
like the Middle East, more care must be paid to the development of effective and meaningful
cross-cultural training programs in order to ensure that faculty and students can work together,
and that both groups are in a position to maximize the benefits of teaching and learning in an
international branch campus setting.
Chapter five begins with a synopsis of chapters one through four, starting first with a
brief review of the international branch campus phenomenon and the associated challenges of
internationalization in chapter one, followed a summation of the literature review addressing the
role of faculty and cultural competence in the international branch campus model in chapter two,
moving into an overview of the methodology applied to this study in chapter three, and finally a
detailed summary of the major findings of this study in chapter four. Next, this chapter provides
an analysis and discussion of cultural competence and cross-cultural training as they apply to the
international branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City. Chapter five concludes with
recommendations for current practice and a discussion of the implications of the findings for
future research.
Summary
Chapter one provided the foundation for a discussion on the cross-cultural competence of
expatriate Western faculty who teach in the international branch campuses in Qatar. Background
information addressed the growing number of branch campuses worldwide, their recent
expansion into the Middle East, as well as the reasons and challenges associated with the
establishment and continued expansion of international branch campuses (Knight, 2004; Lane,
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2011). In addressing the specific challenges related to the founding of international branch
campuses, chapter one noted that the faculty is often a key factors contributing to the success or
failure of an international branch campus (Gopal, 2011). With countries around the world
looking to the international branch campus model as an instrument for promoting social,
political, or economic change, the cultural competence of branch campus faculty becomes
increasingly important to both home and host countries (Stohl, 2007). Given the significant
number of branch campuses in non-Western countries relying on the services of Western faculty,
there are potential challenges associated with differences in the individual cultural backgrounds
of professors and students (Bodycott & Walker, 2000). In order to be successful, international
ventures in education must be led by individuals who can work effectively in multiple cultures
(Lane, 2011). As a result, a better understanding of cross-cultural training, and the role that
cross-cultural competence plays in an international branch campus is essential.
Chapter two offered comprehensive literature review with details on the international
branch campus phenomenon, and provided an in-depth framework for the study. The literature
indicates that in an increasingly globalized society, universities around the world continue to
look for opportunities to expand their academic programs through the development of
international branch campuses (Mazzarol, Soutar, & Seng, 2003). For developing and non-
Western countries that take on the challenge of hosting a branch campus, the motivation to do so
can involve a variety of reasons. A section of the literature review explored the reasoning and
the challenges involved with establishing branch campuses, with De Wit (1995) for example,
identifying economic, political, academic, and sociocultural factors as reasons and challenges
faced by countries that choose to host international branch campuses. As Western universities
continue to expand their programs into less Western regions of the world, professors and
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students are forced to confront the cultural differences that can emerge in classroom settings
(Gopal, 2011). The lack of research exploring the effects of cultural differences between faculty
from Western countries and students from across the Middle East, as well as the existing
research on the importance of cross-cultural competence, suggests that a more in-depth analysis
of cross-cultural training in international branch campuses be carried out.
Chapter two also presented a synopsis of the specific challenges associated with higher
education in Qatar, particularly the ways in which culture and academics intersect in a setting
like the Middle East. Given what Lane (2011) and Rostron (2009) describe as a cultural divide
between Western faculty and Middle Eastern, Arab, and Islamic students, Wilkins (2011)
establishes that the desire to create a knowledge-based economy represents the most important
factor in the creation of Qatar’s Education City. A significant portion of chapter two addressed
the role of both faculty and cross-cultural competence in the success of international branch
campuses. Cummings and Finkelstein (2012) assert that faculty can play an important role in the
internationalization process and can be especially significant to the success or failure of
international branch campuses. Similarly, Gopal (2011) and Stier (2006) regard the cross-
cultural competence of faculty as the key to successful internationalization efforts. Despite its
importance however, cross-cultural competence is often lacking in Western faculty, and
ultimately, its absence can lead to a series of negative consequences for all stakeholders. The
observed lack of cross-cultural competence among Western faculty teaching in branch campuses,
specifically in the branch campuses in Qatar’s Education City, provides support for this study of
the cross-cultural training provided to expatriate Western faculty teaching in Qatar.
Chapter three focused on the methodology for this study. In order to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the effects of cross-cultural training on the experiences of
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expatriate faculty, this study made use of qualitative research methods, namely individual in-
person interviews with professors in Education City. A ten-day visit to the Education City
campus in Doha, Qatar—which included twenty-two individual interviews—yielded valuable
data and insights into how cross-cultural training is preparing Education City professors for
working with Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim students. An interview protocol that centered
on understanding cross-cultural training in Education City was developed using Stier’s (2006)
cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework. Stier’s (2006) framework proposes
that effective cross-cultural training must contain six specific characteristics, and should result in
six distinct competencies. Each interview question incorporated specific aspects of Stier’s
(2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework, which also served as a guide
for coding, analyzing, organizing the responses of faculty who participated in this study.
The data that emerged from the individual qualitative interviews with expatriate
professors were analyzed and presented in chapter four. The cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies framework proposed by Stier (2006) helped in analyzing and organizing both the
interview questions and the subsequent responses by faculty. Professors were asked about the
type of cross-cultural training they received in association with working in Education City, and
the skills and competencies they perceived were developed as a result of their participation. In
addition, faculty were asked about the application of these skills and competencies, and the
effects they had on their classroom experiences. These responses, summarized below, offer a
unique insight into cross-cultural training and how it is being used to help prepare expatriate
faculty for working with Education City students.
Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework was used to
develop a series of protocol questions for incoming expatriate faculty, revealing a variety of
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themes related to classroom effects, training type, and skills and competency development and
application. Interview responses are summarized in the following sub-sections, beginning first
with the research sub-questions, which focus on specific details related to cross-cultural training,
and proceeding to the overarching research question, which addresses the overall and general
effects of cross-cultural training on the experiences of incoming Western faculty.
Research Sub-Question 1
What form and type of cross-cultural training programs are currently in place
within the universities sponsoring branch campuses in Education City? Despite the high
number of expatriate professors who teach in Education City, very little time was committed to
providing faculty with significant or impactful cross-cultural training. Formally, professors did
receive training, but the primary focus of the training was on paperwork and administrative tasks.
What little formal cultural-based training was provided only addressed the most surface-level
aspects of Middle Eastern culture. In some situations, the cultural information was not presented
in person, but rather through erratic and impersonal online communications such as emails and
links to various websites.
For incoming expatriate faculty, most of their cross-cultural training took place
informally, primarily through conversations and interactions with veteran colleagues and to some
degree, classroom interactions with students. Because of the lack of formal cross-cultural
training, many new professors—especially Western expatriates—found themselves looking to
colleagues as a source for developing a deeper understanding of the Middle Eastern, Arab, and
Islamic cultures of their students. For Western expatriates, veteran Education City professors
served as mentors, guides, and advisors, as well as an important source of cultural information.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 116
Over the course of professional and personal interactions, new faculty were able to gain the
cross-cultural competence lacking in the formal training provided to them by Education City.
Research Sub-Question 2
What competencies or skills do faculty working in Education City perceive they
develop as a result of participating in cross-cultural training? Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural
characteristics and competencies framework notes that professors who take part in cross-cultural
training should develop six specific skills or competencies. As of result of their cross-cultural
training, both formal and informal, professors in Education City gained practical classroom
skills, adaptability and differentiation skills, and personal awareness.
Lesson planning, classroom design, and implementation of group strategies are all
practical skills that resulted from participation in cross-cultural training. Through informal
conversations with colleagues, incoming Western faculty learned about the best approach to
incorporating the collaborative aspects of Middle Eastern culture, as well as how to prepare for
and approach disciplinary issues with students. Outside of learning classroom skills, incoming
faculty also gained the ability to differentiate and adapt their classroom policies, lessons, and
teaching approaches to fit the cultural needs of students. Through their conversations with
colleagues, Western expatriates gained a better understanding of their students, and eventually, a
better understanding of themselves and their role within Education City.
Research Sub-Question 3
How do faculty apply cross-cultural training to their instructional approach and
their responsibilities as professors? Western expatriate faculty applied the skills and
competencies they gained from both formal and informal cross-cultural training in a variety of
ways. While for some professors, cross-cultural training was helpful in personal situations
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 117
outside of Education City, the primary way that those skills were applied was inside of the
classroom. Course structure, teaching approach and lesson delivery, and personal interactions
with students were all classroom-based situations where professors found themselves applying
the skills gained during cross-cultural training.
As professors learned more about their students’ reason for enrolling in Education City,
they made significant efforts to ensure that classroom lessons, assignments, and the course
curriculum all reflected aspects of Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim cultures. Discussions in
the classroom and content exams also reflected professors’ understanding of local and regional
culture. Additionally, professors applied skills learned during cross-cultural training to the way
that they presented lessons, typically through the examples they used during lessons and the
topics they chose to address and discuss. Incoming Western faculty also found themselves
feeling more confident and comfortable in their interactions and communications with students,
as well as in their willingness to express personal views and expectations to their students.
Overarching Research Question
What effect, if any, does cross-cultural training have on the professional experiences
of faculty teaching in the international branch campuses in Education City? The “great
experiment,” as described by several of the faculty who participated in this study, provided a
great opportunity for expatriates from Western countries to work with students from across
various regions of the Middle East. In association with teaching in Qatar’s Education City,
professors were provided with varying forms and degrees of cross-cultural training. Whether
formal, informal, or a combination of both, cross-cultural training noticeably affected the
classroom experiences of Western expatriate faculty teaching in Education City.
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Cross-cultural training affected various aspects of professors’ teaching experiences. In
some cases, training led to the development of useful classroom skills, especially changes to the
way professors taught their Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim students. Though not discussed
in Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies framework, classroom skills
development represented one of the most significant effects of cross-cultural training. In
addition to affecting their classroom practices, cross-cultural training also helped professors learn
to recognize their own biased and ethnocentric views when working in the classroom, which in
turn resulted in an increase in their level of confidence and their ability and willingness to
incorporate local and regional culture into their classrooms. By far, the most impactful effect of
participating in cross-cultural training was the way that expatriate professors found themselves
advocating for increased academic equality and opportunities for women, as well as calling for
increased cultural openness and understanding from both their Western and non-Western friends
and colleagues.
Discussion and Analysis
Education City has the potential to continue to foster great change in Qatar and
throughout the Middle East. Over the past fifteen years, Qatar—through Education City—has
broken cultural, political, and gender barriers on their way from a single branch campus focused
on art and design, to a collection of six branch campuses providing degrees for Middle Eastern
women and men in areas ranging from journalism and engineering, to international relations and
medicine. Regardless of this positive impact, Education City faces a range of challenges. Like
other international branch campuses, the success of the branch campuses in Education City is
largely dependent on the ability of expatriate Western faculty to work effectively with students
from Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic cultures.
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Colleagues and students often serve a tremendous source of cultural education and
information for incoming Western faculty. However, by failing to provide incoming expatriate
professors with an official and formal level of cross-cultural training that is meaningful, in-depth,
and relevant, the entities most responsible for preparing faculty to teach in Education City—
mainly the international branch campuses themselves—continue to perpetuate a common and
tired approach to training that leaves professors with only the most stereotypical and surface-
level knowledge of their students’ culture. In many cases, the lack of formal cross-cultural
training has forced incoming faculty from Western countries and cultures to seek out
knowledgeable and supportive faculty, or to rely on their personal experiences, as ways of
developing cross-cultural competence. Rather than apply a training approach more strongly
rooted in theory, like that proposed by Stier (2006), Education City branch campuses continue to
train their incoming faculty in a manner more appropriate for tourists than for teachers.
Stier’s Cross-Cultural Characteristics and Competencies
In analyzing the impact of globalization on higher education, Stier (2006) comments that
the acquisition of cultural competence requires a greater dedication to training pedagogy. Given
Stier’s views on the role that training can play in a higher education setting, his framework for
cross-cultural education can serve as a useful means for analyzing the cultural training being
used in Education City. Stier (2006) suggests that rather than provide “simplified and commonly
stereotypical cookbook-recipes of cultural competence,” trainings should focus on generating a
more in-depth understanding of culture (p. 7). More specifically, training programs should
possess six specific characteristics, which when properly applied, can lead to a more
comprehensive and complete cultural understanding that ultimately results in the development of
six key competencies.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 120
Cross-cultural training, according to Stier (2006), should contain intercultural themes,
feature an interdisciplinary perspective, be investigative in nature, focus on integrated groups and
interactive instruction, and come from an integrative perspective that connects theory to practice.
If these components are present, Stier (2006) suggests, individuals who participate in cross-
cultural education should develop six specific competencies or outcomes, which include
communicative skills in at least two languages, cooperative competencies, professional
confidence, a commitment to universal human rights, culturally-relevant critical thinking skills,
and comparability in terms of individuals recognizing “the contextual nature of cultural
knowledge” (p. 8).
Characteristics of cross-cultural training in Education City. Using Stier’s (2006)
framework for cross-cultural training as a guide for examining the training provided by
Education City, it is evident that the formal training given to incoming expatriate faculty lacks
breadth and depth. When it is provided, Education City’s cross-cultural training focuses
primarily on surface-level knowledge such as traditions, gender roles, and typical “do’s and
don’ts” associated with living in Qatar and the Middle East. Rarely does the training provide the
level of cross-cultural training that can significantly impact a professor’s classroom experiences.
Efforts to provide richer knowledge of the culture and how it interconnects with academics are
often limited by organizational and institutional requirements, which tend to take up a significant
portion of the time allotted for training. In the end, Western faculty who are new to Education
City receive ineffective and insufficient formal cross-cultural training, and must ultimately look
to colleagues as a primary source for acquiring and fostering meaningful cultural knowledge and
information.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 121
The cross-cultural training taking place in Education City is best characterized as
minimally intercultural. While it does make use of some small degree of culturally relevant
examples, perspectives, and beliefs, most of the information that is provided is based on surface
level stereotypes of the local and regional cultures. In terms of an investigative component, the
Education City training does well to evoke interest and curiosity in Middle Eastern culture,
though its surface-level approach often does more to overplay and exaggerate many of the
stereotypes it attempts to address and eliminate. Formal cross-cultural training in Education City
is, to an extent, interactive and does facilitate exchanges between individuals participating in the
training and those conducting it. Unfortunately, these interactions are infrequent, and the
majority of training tends to be conducted using a traditional lecture-based approach, which
ultimately limits interactions between individuals.
The areas of cross-cultural training where Education City is noticeably deficient include
the interdisciplinary, integrated, and integrative aspects of its cross-cultural education. While
efforts are being made to develop intercultural, investigative, and interactive cultural trainings,
areas that involve incorporating multiple disciplines and departments, using mixed learning
groups, and connecting theory to practice are virtually non-existent. Rather than have its training
program use multiple perspectives from various departments, trainings are very one-sided and
often characterized by a silo mentality, where the administration holds and delivers the necessary
knowledge to the faculty. While the use of integrated learning groups has been shown to be a
beneficial approach to conducting cross-cultural training, trainings in Education City tend to be
conducted either individually as faculty are hired, or in classroom settings where faculty have a
tendency to gather into homogenous learning groups. In the area of research-based practices,
Education City bases its instructional training curriculum not on pre-existing and tested theories,
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 122
but on faculty-generated evaluations and answers to survey questions that take place after
individuals have participated in a training session. The responses provided by faculty who
participate in formal trainings are then used to make changes to future orientations and trainings.
Resulting competencies of Education City faculty. Despite lacking truly effective
formal cross-cultural training, incoming Western faculty in Education City are surprisingly
gaining many key skills and competencies. These competencies, in turn, are affecting the
classroom experiences of incoming Western faculty. However, since official cross-cultural
training is lacking in Education City, it is important to note that the development of these
competencies is attributed to factors outside of formal training. In the case of Education City
expatriates, informal cross-cultural training—characterized by social interactions and informal
meetings and discussions with colleagues—is the major factor contributing to increased cultural
awareness and understanding.
Competencies such as the ability to communicate in Arabic and the ability to work
cooperatively with culturally diverse groups have emerged primarily as a result of informal
interactions between incoming and veteran colleagues, as well as through in-class discussions
with students. Confidence levels, particularly in terms of being able to deliver curriculum
content to Education City students, have also increased. It is more likely though, that increases
in confidence have resulted more from long-term exposure and experiences with Education City
students, than from formal or informal cross-cultural training. By having the opportunity to
interact professional and socially with veteran expatriate colleagues, incoming Western faculty
have gained insight into various social issues in Qatar. As a result, informal training has, to a
degree, contributed to the advocacy efforts of Western faculty. While it is evident from
interview data that some of the faculty in Education City are there to simply to perform their
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 123
duties as professors, informal cross-cultural training that takes place through interactions with
faculty has helped develop the critical thinking skills of many incoming Western faculty,
particularly in they these professors are able to recognize and analyze the role that culture can
play in the development and expression of individual worldviews.
Despite the positive gains that have resulted from informal cross-cultural training, the
lack of formal training means that these competencies are not necessarily being fully and
properly developed and maintained. Because informal interactions are inconsistent and specific
to each individual faculty member, not all professors have an equal opportunity to develop their
cultural knowledge and understanding in relation to working in Qatar. This informal training,
while beneficial in many ways, is still not where it needs to be in order to help incoming
Education City professors effectively work with Education City students.
Implications for Practice
Recommendations for Education City
The cultural differences that exist between professors and students, paired with Qatar
Foundation’s mission of creating a new knowledge-based society in Qatar, make cross-cultural
training increasingly important across Education City. Few places in the world have to address
the intersection of culture and academics more than Education City, where a majority of the
faculty comes primarily from Western countries like the United States. An analysis of the cross-
cultural training methods employed in Education City revealed that key cultural information is
transmitted to incoming expatriate faculty through both formal and informal methods, with
informal interactions and conversations serving as the principle method of helping faculty
develop or increase cultural competence. In order to maximize the acquisition or growth of
cultural competence and situate expatriate Western faculty in a position to work effectively with
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 124
students from Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim cultures, Education City must simultaneously
build upon existing success and improve areas of deficiency.
The informal training that takes place when incoming professors interact with veteran
faculty and students is an area of strength that has proven to be extremely beneficial in the
development of essential culturally based skills and competencies. However, the informal nature
of these interactions is itself an inhibiting factor, largely because the opportunities to network are
erratic and irregular. Incoming expatriate faculty in Education City enjoy these informal
interactions and have a tendency to seek out and turn to veteran faculty for cultural information,
but not all faculty are equally adept at seeking out or maximizing these opportunities. When new
faculty are able to locate a veteran expatriate to serve as a mentor, the opportunities to meet are
often hindered by personal and professional schedules. Education City administration must take
advantage of this inclination on the part of incoming faculty to seek out veteran mentors by
providing a greater number of opportunities for both new and veteran faculty to interact. In
doing so, these interactions must be made more systematic and organized. Essentially,
Education City must provide scheduled opportunities for incoming faculty to casually interact
with expatriate colleagues. These “formal informal” events can take place on a regular basis,
perhaps bi-weekly or monthly, and should continue for an entire school year. By taking the time
to properly organize these events and making them regularly available, Education City officials
can address the inconsistent nature of these interactions, which is currently preventing some
incoming faculty from fully developing cross-cultural competence. By simply scheduling
opportunities to interact and making these events known to professors, Education City can still
gain from the positive aspects of informal cross-cultural training without taking anything away
from the informal nature of the interactions that faculty benefit from and enjoy.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 125
In addition to providing opportunities for regularly scheduled interactions, Education
City officials must examine their existing formal cross-cultural training approach and address its
superficial characteristics. While some efforts are being made to provide incoming Western
faculty with an education about local and regional cultures, the information presented lacks
depth, concentrates on cultural stereotypes, and rarely results in meaningful learning. A well-
developed formal approach to cross-cultural training—one that goes beyond providing surface-
level information and creates opportunities for in-depth learning—can truly complement the
informal training taking place and result in Western faculty who are better prepared for working
with the population of students in Education City.
In order to address the lack of depth associated with its existing cross-cultural training
and better prepare Western faculty for the challenges of working with students from Middle
Eastern cultures, Education City officials must concentrate on increasing the presence of veteran
expatriates and students and incorporating both groups into the current training model as
speakers, panelists, and lead presenters. The perspectives and experiences of veteran faculty and
current Education City students can be of greater relevance to incoming faculty compared to
those of administrators, and can thus serve as a more trusted and genuine source of important
cultural information. In addition to including the perspectives of both veteran expatriates and
current students, going forward, cross-cultural training must be more far-reaching, on going, and
move beyond the current early post-hire timeframe. Cross-cultural training for incoming
Western faculty should begin as soon as contract terms are agreed upon, and extend into a
yearlong process where issues and topics related to local and regional culture, as well as
academics, can be more thoroughly and comprehensively addressed. In doing so, the individuals
charged with training incoming faculty can move beyond the standard surface-level information
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 126
that is currently provided and help promote the development of meaningful cultural knowledge
that will better serve faculty in their classrooms.
The lack of a teaching component is easily the most notable deficiency in Education
City’s existing cross-cultural training. With a strong focus on organizational tasks and
requirements, very little time is dedicated to providing incoming faculty with useful classroom
strategies. As is the case with important cultural information, incoming faculty often turn to
veteran expatriates as a source of information on how to best deliver classroom lessons and
maximize student learning. Faculty in higher education may be experts in their respective fields,
yet they receive little if any training on how to teach students who come from Middle Eastern,
Arab, or Muslim cultures. Given the cultural differences between students and incoming
Western faculty, cross-cultural training in Education City must purposefully incorporate
pedagogic elements where veteran expatriates can teach incoming faculty about the unique
learning styles, academic expectations, and cultural responsibilities that affect the classroom
experiences of students in Qatar.
Recommendations for International Branch Campuses
With more than three-dozen projects currently in varying stages of development, the data
seems to indicate that international branch campuses will continue to grow and serve as a
primary means for the internationalization of higher education. As branch campuses spread
worldwide, more and more of these international partnerships will take place between countries
that are culturally distinct from one another. As a result, both faculty and students will be forced
to address the issue of cultural competence, particularly as it relates to maximizing the impact of
higher education in the developing world. Interviews with faculty teaching in Qatar’s Education
City led a better understanding of how cross-cultural training is used in preparing Western
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 127
expatriates for working with students from cultural backgrounds that are much different from
those of their professors. Analysis of interview data revealed that both formal and informal types
of cross-cultural training are used to develop cultural competence, though informal training
appears to play a much more important role than formal training.
In attempting to understand the role of cross-cultural training in international branch
campuses, this study revealed that the international branch campuses that form Education City
are not fully applying existing research-based training models and frameworks. The cross-
cultural characteristics and competencies framework proposed by Stier (2006) can be one
effective model for the development of a formal training curriculum, yet this and other
frameworks are neither being considered nor applied. Research indicates that some level of
formal training represents an effective approach to promoting and developing the cross-cultural
competence needed to effectively teach in an international setting, and that informal training is
just as, if not more, important. For institutions of higher education considering such
international ventures, a balanced combination of formal and informal training may in effect
yield maximum and ideal results. The key is to find a way to successfully merge the two forms
of training, especially given that the most successful faculty are those who are able to maximize
formal cross-cultural training while still successfully seeking out informal opportunities to learn.
Knowing the importance of a balanced approach to cross-cultural training, in particular
an approach that is rooted in theory that does not limit the curiosity of the faculty, universities
may wish to consider developing training methods that make better use of formal training, while
also “formalizing” the informal aspects of a program. In essence, universities must consider
developing and providing trainings where incoming faculty are given structured opportunities to
have informal interactions, discussions, and conversations regarding the culture of their students
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 128
and the best ways to teach within that culture. Institutions that successfully find a middle ground
between formal research-based training methods and informal opportunities for discussion stand
to reap the greatest benefits.
While cross-cultural training, or a lack thereof, does not serve as a barrier to all
internationalization efforts, in instances where significant cultural differences exist between
home and host countries, effective cross-cultural training can prove to be a bridge to short and
long-term success. Universities with goals of internationalization must recognize that cross-
cultural training is important to the goals of higher education, regardless of the manner in which
training is presented. Universities must equally recognize what can happen if cross-cultural
training is not used in the preparation of incoming professors. Recruiting and hiring faculty who
are academically qualified is important, but the culturally-based preparation that those professors
are given before they deliver their first lesson, especially when working with students from
cultures that are significantly different from those of the faculty, is just as important.
Recommendations for Future Research
Given that no previous research exists looking into cross-cultural training in international
branch campuses, more extensive and in-depth research into the intersection between culture and
higher education is recommended. Research focusing on a similar collection of international
branch campuses may serve as an extension of this study, as would a study that looks into other
international branch campuses that apply Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and
competencies framework or other similar models. Since it was not addressed in this study,
additional inquiries looking at training methods should take place and should center on an
analysis of the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. Considering the indirect role that students
were shown to play in the training of new faculty, researchers may also with to consider
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 129
exploring student perspectives on and contributions to faculty who participate in cross-cultural
training and cross-cultural training in general.
Because so many faculty in Education City are successfully developing the recommended
cultural competencies that Stier (2006) suggests should result from properly designed cultural
training and education programs without the benefit of formal training, research on the
characteristics of faculty outliers—particularly the pre-existing attitudes, backgrounds, and
experiences of faculty who are succeeding despite certain organizational deficiencies—is highly
recommended. Similarly, studies centering on individuals who openly serve as partners and
mentors through the cross-cultural training process—mainly veterans, colleagues, and cultural
hybrids—may also lead to a better understanding of which staff members to include during
training. The importance of making data and research based decisions means there is an
additional need to research the origins of cross-cultural training programs, especially the
theoretical foundations and reasoning behind curriculum development and application.
Various departments and programs are often assigned the responsibility of delivering
cross-cultural training to incoming faculty. Thus, future research must also explore which
departments and programs are best suited for delivering effective cross-cultural training.
Additionally, the role that Stier’s (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies
framework played in the inquiry conducted through this study merits a more comprehensive
examination, particularly in terms of whether Stier’s suggested characteristics and competencies
are even necessary for the success of an international branch campus.
Conclusion
International branch campuses have existed for decades, and in an ever-globalizing
society, they will continue to serve as a popular method for universities to expand their academic
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 130
programs. For home institutions, international branch campuses can bring financial wealth and
international recognition. Host countries, for their part, can use the international branch campus
model as a method for revamping outdated systems of higher education, and as way of
encouraging social, political, and economic changes. For all of their promise however,
international branch campuses can only succeed when efforts at comprehensive development are
made. The same care and attention that is given to the physical, financial, political, and
academic components of an international branch campus must also be given to its cultural
components. Cross-cultural training, and the cultural competence that can result, represent two
determining factors in the success of international branch campuses. When cultural dissonance
prevents professors, who represent the primary givers of knowledge, from effectively reaching
their students, who represent the primary receivers of knowledge, an international branch campus
stands to create more barriers than it eliminates.
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 131
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Appendix A
Faculty and Director Interview Protocol
Introductory / biographical questions (Both Directors and Faculty)
1. Education City is such a fascinating location, and your university in particular
(branch: _______________) plays an important role in helping Qatar Foundation
achieve its mission. To get started, I would like to hear your thoughts about the
nature / purpose of higher education in Qatar.
a. What do you feel your university in particular contributes to the overall
mission of Education City and to the country and people of Qatar?
b. How do you compare the work that you do here versus elsewhere? Does your
role differ?
i. What would you say (personally) is your biggest challenge working in
Education City / Qatar?
Cultural competencies prior to working in Education City (Both Directors and Faculty)
2. Can you please describe for me your general experiences with Middle Eastern, Arab,
Islamic or Qatari culture prior to coming to Education City?
Characteristics of cross-cultural training programs (HR Director Questions)
3. Culture is a factor that must be accounted for with most international ventures. What
type of cross-cultural / multicultural training does your branch university provide?
a. Length, format, content, implementation, location, development, etc.
b. Would you describe the training as being more formal or informal?
4. What types of interactions take place during the training?
5. Does your training incorporate or include Qatari nationals? If so, how?
6. Is the training based on a pre-existing model or theory?
7. What are the overall / general goals that your training is designed to accomplish?
8. Are faculty required to take part in cross-cultural training? Is it voluntary?
9. What support does the program provide beyond any initial training?
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 143
10. If I were to take part in your institution’s cross-cultural training, what would I see,
hear, or experience?
Cross-cultural training for Education City (Faculty Questions)
11. I believe that culture is a factor that must be accounted for with most international
ventures, including those involving international branch campuses.
a. Can you describe for me the type of cross-cultural training you received in
association with coming to work in Education City?
i. Did this Education City-based training incorporate a component
specifically focused on teaching in Qatar?
12. Other than the Education City-based cross-cultural training, have you had any
additional training specifically in teaching students from Middle Eastern, Arab, or
Islamic cultures?
13. Going back to your cross-cultural training, what specific skills or competencies do
you think you developed as a result of your participation?
a. (i.e. language skills, ability to better cooperate / collaborate with Qatari
citizens)
14. What aspect(s) of the training have you found yourself using or applying the most?
a. How have you applied those skills?
15. Have the skills you learned in the training been more useful in professional (inside the
classroom) or social (outside the classroom) settings? How so?
16. Would you say your participation in the training has helped increase your level of
confidence in your ability to teach / work with Qatari students? In what ways?
17. Did your training in any way make you an advocate for any aspects of Qatari culture?
a. Did you enter your teaching assignment feeling like there was something
specific you wanted/needed to advocate for?
18. If you were to describe 3 or 4 distinctive aspects of Qatari culture that you see as
important to incorporate into your teaching strategies, what would they be?
19. As someone from a Western country, did participating in cross-cultural training make
you aware of how culture impacts the way you and others see the world? How so?
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 144
a. In other words, did the training make you aware of your cultural
worldviews/bias and that of others?
b. How did this realization impact your classroom teaching / interactions?
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 145
Appendix B
Qatar Branch Campus Recruitment Letter
Dear _______________,
My name is Martin Jauregui and I am a student in the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) program at
the University of Southern California (USC) Rossier School of Education in Los Angeles. I am
in the early stages of the dissertation process, and I plan to focus on a case study of American-
based international branch campuses. I am specifically interested in the concept of cultural
competence, particularly how American faculty are being prepared to teach in countries and
cultures outside of United States.
After carefully reviewing the Qatar Foundation website, as well as the website for your
institution, I am wondering if you would be willing to share with me some information about the
training programs, if any, that _______________ uses to train faculty before they teach in Qatar.
Do you have any materials or documents that are provided to faculty as part of a training session
before teaching in Education City that you might be able to share with me? Also, would you be
willing to have a conversation with me by phone or Skype to discuss the training that your
institution uses to prepare faculty to teach in Qatar? I have attached for you a one-page summary
of my proposed study.
I would very much appreciate your willingness to share information about your program. To be
perfectly clear, I am not yet conducting research and nothing you send or say to me at this time
will be quoted or used as part of my dissertation, nor will your name or the name of your
program or institution be used in my eventual research without your consent.
Regards,
Martin Jauregui
Doctoral Candidate
USC Rossier School of Education
jauregum@usc.edu
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING IN BRANCH CAMPUSES 146
Appendix C
Faculty / Staff Recruitment Letter
[Date}
Dear Faculty / Staff Member,
My name is Martin Jauregui, and I am a candidate for the doctoral degree in Educational
Leadership from the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. As part of
my dissertation, I am conducting a research study centering on the cross-cultural competence
training of faculty teaching in Education City.
I would like to invite you to participate in the study. If you agree, you will be taking part in a
one-time, open-ended interview focused on any formal or informal cross-cultural competence
training that you may have participated in as a professor in Education City.
The interview is expected to take no more than 45 minutes to complete and may be audio taped.
Your interview may also be followed by an email to clarify any issues. Participation in this
study is voluntary, and your identity as a participant will remain confidential at all times during
and after the study.
If you have any questions, or would like to confirm your interest to participate, please feel free to
contact me by email at jauregum@usc.edu, or by phone at (323) 369-6322. Thank you very
much for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Martin Jauregui
University of Southern California
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study investigates the intersection between academics and culture in international branch campus using Stier's (2006) cross-cultural characteristics and competencies. The purpose of this study was to examine the type of cross-cultural training being used by the international branch campuses in Qatar's Education City, in particular the form, function, and goals of the training, and the effect that participating in cross-cultural training may have on the classroom experiences of Western expatriate faculty teaching in an international branch campus. This multiple-case study drew upon qualitative research methods, including ethnographic interviews with expatriate Western faculty and staff, to analyze how incoming Western faculty are trained to work with students from Middle Eastern, Arab, or Islamic cultures. Findings revealed the presence of both formal and informal types of cross-cultural training, with informal cross-cultural training, in the form of conversations and interactions with colleagues, serving as a key component to cultural competence and professional success. Closer examination of the cross-cultural training employed in Qatar's Education City reveals the development of skills, competencies, and perspectives that are most often applied in classroom settings and situations. The research suggests that cross-cultural training plays a significant role in the effectiveness of individual professors as well as the success of universities looking to expand academic programs to areas of the Middle East.
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Creator
Jauregui, Martin
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Core Title
Cross-cultural training of expatriate faculty teaching in international branch campuses
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
10/02/2013
Defense Date
08/27/2013
Publisher
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Tag
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jauregum@gmail.com,jauregum@usc.edu
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