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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA AND
ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
by
Anita Arora
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to all of my family and friends who
were so supportive through this entire journey. Specifically I want to thank my mom,
Sunita Arora, for her endless support and guidance and my dad, Mahesh Arora, for
always believing in me and instilling the value of discipline, hard work, and persever-
ance. A big thank you goes to my brother, Suraj Arora, for inspiring me to always go
for my dreams and give 110% to everything I do. His passion for all aspects of life is
contagious.
A special dedication goes to my new husband, Reza Dawood. We began this
journey as a new couple, and from day one, his patience, support, and positive outlook
kept me going throughout this process. I thank him for everything he does for me, for
always being there for me, and most of all for always encouraging me to keep going
even when I was exhausted. He pushed me to the end, and I could not have completed
this dissertation without him!
I thank everyone so much for standing by me and getting me to the finish line.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
It is my pleasure to thank the various participants in Costa Rica for providing the
necessary access to implement this study. I am grateful to the Ministry of Education of
Costa Rica, specifically Dr. Leonardo Garnier; Intel Corporate in Costa Rica, specifi-
cally Mary Helen Bialas; Costa Rica educators, specifically Mr. Edgar Meza; and all the
other organizations and individuals who took time to support this research.
A big thank you goes to the guide of our research team, Eduardo. We would
have been lost without him. I thank him for welcoming us into his country and sharing
valuable information based on his experiences and insights. This partnership was more
than I could have asked for, and this process was inspiring and illuminating for the
purpose of this research and more.
Special thanks are owed to my dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante, without
whom this vision for such an exciting research opportunity would not have been possi-
ble. His advice and guidance have been invaluable. I thank him for all of his feedback
and for always offering to provide support in any way to help me excel and move
forward. Along with Dr. Escalante, I offer my sincere gratitude to the committee
members of the dissertation team: Dr. Pedro Garcia, Dr. Dave Cash, and Dr. Jan Britz.
Their feedback through this process has helped the team shape and fine tune the re-
search process to ensure its effectiveness.
I would also like to thank the many professors from whom I had the pleasure of
learning during my journey at USC. Specifically, I would like to thank Dr. Robert
Rueda for challenging me to reach a greater potential than I could have imagined. His
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
teachings will forever be with me as I take what I have learned and implement it in all of
my future endeavors.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge and thank my entire dissertation team for
representing the definition of perseverance. It would not have been the same without
each and every one of them. I am so proud to walk away from this process with a larger
family—a life-long family of Trojans. Fight on!
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 11
Abstract 13
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 15
Background of the Problem 16
Education in Costa Rica 19
Statement of the Problem 20
Purpose of the Study 22
Research Questions 23
Significance of the Study 24
Definitions of Terms 25
Costa Rica Ministry of Public Education 25
Foreign Direct Investment 25
Global Achievement Gap 26
Globalization 26
Human Capital 26
Knowledge Age 26
Knowledge-Based Economy 26
Knowledge-Ready Worker 27
Multinational Corporations 27
Twenty-First-Century Skills 27
Organization of the Study 27
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 29
Globalization 30
A Global Economy and Policy 32
Globalization of Education 35
Globalization’s Impact on Educational Reform 38
Global Achievement Gap 40
Globalization in Costa Rica 41
History of Costa Rica to Current Times 43
Government 44
Economy 47
Education in Costa Rica 50
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Costa Rican Education System 52
Secondary Education System 56
Defining the Role of MNCs in Education 65
Intel 66
Cisco 70
Microsoft 71
Omar Dengo Foundation 72
Impact of MNCs on Education 74
Educational Leadership: Leaders for a Global Society 76
Bolman and Deal 80
Marzano 81
Northouse 83
Twenty-First-Century Skills 85
Twenty-First-Century Skills in Costa Rica 94
Summary of the Literature Review 96
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 98
Research Team 99
Exploratory Visit 100
Research Questions 104
Research Design 105
Population and Sample 106
Instrumentation 111
Data Collection 115
Data Analysis 117
Validity and Reliability 119
Limitations 120
Delimitations 121
Assumptions 122
Ethical Considerations 123
Summary 123
Chapter 4: Study Findings 125
Participants 128
Data Analysis and Synthesis of Findings 131
Research Question 1, Findings, and Framework 132
Research Question 2 and Framework 150
Research Question 3 and Framework 167
Chapter Summary 189
Chapter 5: Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusions 191
Research Questions Overview 194
Synthesizing the Results 195
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Implications for Practices and Recommendations 197
Research Question 1 197
Research Question 2 198
Research Question 3 200
Conclusions 202
References 204
Appendices
Appendix A: Survey Protocol for Teachers 217
Appendix B: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 223
Appendix C: MNC Leader Interview Protocol 226
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 229
Appendix E: Classroom Observation Tool 232
Appendix F: First Letter to the Minister of Public Education 237
Appendix G: Recruitment/Consent Letter 239
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms in Costa Rica,
by Sector: 2006 54
Table 2: Summary of Interviews for Case Study 110
Table 3: Data Sources and Type for Study 129
Table 4: Research Question 1, Results of Globalization and Presence of
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) Seen in Costa Rica—Finding 1,
Shift in Economic Focus and Labor Markets from Agrarian-Based
Economy to Service-Oriented and Technology-Driven One (by
Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 133
Table 5: Findings for Research Question 1, Results of Globalization and
Presence of Multinational Corporations Seen in Costa Rica—Finding
2, Increase in Global Awareness and Common World Language That
Creates More Bilingual Citizens With Support of Bilingual Education
(by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Question and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 138
Table 6: Findings for Research Question 1: Results of Globalization and
Presence of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) Seen in Costa
Rica—Finding 3, Increase of MNCs Invested in Costa Rica and
Education System to Support Development of More Knowledge-
Ready Workers (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who
Agreed With Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom
Observations) 143
Table 7: Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the
Presence of Multinational Corporations Seen in Schools and
Universities in Costa Rica—Finding 1, Focus on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and Access to Technology to Remain Globally
Competitive and Meet Demands of Today’s Global Society (by
Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 151
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Table 8: Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the
Presence of Multinational Corporations Seen in Schools and Uni-
versities in Costa Rica—Finding 2, Focus on Development of Teacher
and Leadership Training to Support Sustainable and Systemic Growth in
Quality and Implementation of 21st-Century Skills and Use of Tech-
nology (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With
Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 156
Table 9: Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the
Presence of Multinational Corporations Seen in Schools and Universi-
ties in Costa Rica—Finding 3, Focus on Technical Education (by
Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 163
Table 10: Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has
Been Directly Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influ-
ence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations (MNCs)—
Schools Building Team That Is Prepared to Embrace and Be Equipped
for Necessary Progressive Vision That Supports Implementation of
21st-Century Skills and Technology (by Numbers and Percentages of
Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Questions and Researcher’s
Classroom Observations) 169
Table 11: Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has
Been Directly Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence
of Globalization and Multinational Corporations—Finding 2, Focus on
Instructional Leadership to Support Teacher Growth Toward 21st-
Century Skill Teaching and Use of Technology (by Numbers and Per-
centages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Questions and
Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 173
Table 12: Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has
Been Directly Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence
of Globalization and Multinational Corporations—Finding 3, Focus on
Creating United Vision to Be Globally Savvy and Competitive with
21st-Century Practical Skills and Use of Technology to Meet Today’s
Demands (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With
Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations) 178
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Table 13: Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational Leadership Has
Been Directly Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influ-
ence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations—Finding 4,
Sense of Social Responsibility by Corporate and Educational Leaders
(by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Questions and Classroom Observations) 183
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
List of Figures
Figure 1: Distribution of the cohort for people 21–33 years of age based on the
educational level, occupation and type of activity 59
Figure 2: Percentage of the population to complete high school at the beginning
of each decade 61
Figure 3: Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high school 62
Figure 4: Framework for 21st-century learning 87
Figure 5: Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa Rica:
Shift in economic focus and labor markets from an agrarian-based
economy to a service-oriented and technology-driven one 134
Figure 6: Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa Rica:
Increase in global awareness and a common world language that
creates more bilingual citizens with support of bilingual education 139
Figure 7: Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa Rica:
Increase of MNCs invested in Costa Rica and the education system to
support the development of more knowledge-ready workers 144
Figure 8: Results of globalization and the presence of multinational corpora-
tions seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on devel-
opment of 21st-century skills and access to technology to remain
globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s global society 153
Figure 9: Results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations
seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on development
of teacher and leadership training to support sustainable and systemic
growth in quality and implementation of 21st-century skills and tech-
nology use 158
Figure 10: Results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations
seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on technical
education 164
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
Figure 11: How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Schools building
team that was prepared to embrace and be equipped for the necessary
progressive vision that supports implementation of 21st-century skills
and technology 171
Figure 12: How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Focus on instruc-
tional leadership to support teacher growth toward 21st-century skill
teaching and use of technology 175
Figure 13: How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Focus on creating a
united vision to be globally savvy and competitive with 21st-century
practical skills and use of technology that meet today’s demands 180
Figure 14: How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Sense of social
responsibility for corporate and educational leaders 184
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Abstract
Multinational corporations (MNCs) such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco began
investing in education in Costa Rica starting in 1994. The purpose of investment was to
support and increase the number of knowledge-based skilled citizens of Costa Rica who
would later be able to enter the growing and knowledge-based labor force required due
to globalization. This new economic demand for Costa Rica has led to policy changes
for the education system, including a change in the Costa Rican Constitution’s article
for education that focuses on providing approximately 8% of its gross domestic product.
The Ministry of Education has detailed this educational vision even further by develop-
ing a focus on a new set of 21st-century aims and objectives.
The doctoral research team of 12, led by Dr. Michael F. Escalante, studied the
impact of globalization and MNCs on the school system in Costa Rica and its implica-
tions on educational leaders. The data collection process for this qualitative case study
included the use of various instruments such as surveys, observations, and interviews.
The use of multiple sources allowed triangulation to occur and increased validity of the
findings. Once data were analyzed, findings were reported and implications and recom-
mendations provided to all stakeholders (i.e., MNCs, Ministry of Education, policy-
makers, school-site leaders) in Costa Rica.
The principal finding from the comprehensive analysis was that the partnership
among Intel, policy leaders, and school sites has made a change in the education system
to better prepare the students for a global society. These partnerships give Costa Rican
students access to tools and opportunities that prepare them to be stronger, competitive,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
knowledge-ready workers. Although there is always room for growth when looking at
access to resources, teacher training, leadership, and other areas, the vision established
by these entities has proven to catalyze a positive change in the Costa Rican education
system that embraces new knowledge ideas such as 21st-century technical skills. With
the continued support of the Ministry of Education, corporations such as Intel, and
school-site leaders, the hope is for further growth and an increase in opportunities for
the students of Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
Multinational corporations (MNCs) have enhanced their role in education as a
response to greater economic and political demands driven by globalization (Dale,
2005). Foreign direct investments (FDIs) have increased to support both the human
capital needs of various MNCs as well as the development of skills and abilities for
those employed in the global market (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Educational leaders must
understand and embrace this need for change in order to invest in efficient and effective
measures to prepare students for the demands of a knowledge-based labor force and the
careers of the 21st century.
Many facets of life including culture, politics, economics, and education are
transformed by the globalization process (Vaira, 2004). Governments all over the world
are being forced to look at the methods of how to prepare their citizens so that they can
be useful, productive members of their polity (Torres, 2002). Specifically looking at
education, a demand for knowledge-workers in a global society of the 21st century has
opened doors for a different type of teaching, learning, and knowledge-base for students
who need to be well equipped for global competition (Torres, 2002). These changes in
education include a focus on technically skilled, bilingual students who have an entre-
preneurial ability and can collaborate with and communicate their ideas to those in their
work environment (Wagner, 2008). Educational leaders face a new challenge that
requires them to understand global demands, the need for a shift in educational policy,
and the methodology that can be used to create sustainable transformations for the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
education system. This study analyzed the impact of globalization and MNCs on the
secondary school system in Costa Rica and how that has helped determine the implica-
tions for educational leaders.
Since the investment of MNCs in schools and teacher training starting in 1994,
Costa Rica’s Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública; MEP) and
the policymakers have focused on discussing possible venues and approaches for
enhancing education while coupling this project with a partnership that can benefit both
the educational component for students and the human capital component for corpora-
tions. Along with the Costa Rican government, other organizations and companies such
as Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft have displayed their interest in building teacher training
programs and providing schools and students with the resources they need to be com-
petitive for the 21st century. The vision for Costa Rican education looks promising to
meet the goals of all the stakeholders involved in the design and development process,
with the ultimate goal of supporting student learning.
Background of the Problem
Globalization has required schools to become more innovative and take an inter-
nationalized approach to their curricula (Stewart, 2008a). This innovation and new
knowledge include embracing the digital revolution in this global age of technology,
allowing schools and leaders to leap into the 21st century and to progress toward meet-
ing global demands (Collins & Halverson, 2009). New goals for any organization come
with a need to address the vision and efficient implementation of a strategic plan that
aim to accomplish these new goals. This new pathway also requires defining leadership
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
roles and responsibilities needed to drive the new initiatives successfully. The Costa
Rican government plays a dominant role in policy decisions related to education
(CostaRicaLaw, 2012). In 1994, the government, in conjunction with the MNC Intel
and the nonprofit organization Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE;
2011a), launched an educational initiative that developed a partnership between corpo-
rations and schools to focus on developing knowledge-ready workers prepared for the
21st century. With the support of current President Laura Chinchilla Miranda, the gov-
ernment has amended the Constitution to include Articles that address 21st-century
needs and greater financial investment in education, with the ongoing goal of educa-
tional advancement (MEP, 2007). The MEP (2007) has furthered this effort by creating
specific aims and objectives as well as goals for the 21st century.
These constitutional amendments and advanced policies are a large part of what
educational leaders must attend to and implement with fidelity to create positive aca-
demic and economic growth. Currently, the Intel-influenced schools in Costa Rica,
ranging from primary and secondary education all the way to higher education, are
focused on creating 21st-century-ready students who are prepared for the knowledge-
ready global market (Intel® Education, 2006). Specifically, the aim of the secondary
schools is to increase their graduation rates and prepare their students for higher educa-
tion at universities such as the University of Costa Rica (UCR) to further enhance their
skills and job opportunities that will meet the demands of the current labor market
(State of Nation Program, 2011).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
Educational leaders need to understand what their roles and responsibilities are
in the education system in order to support the implementation of the 21st-century aims
and objectives set by the MEP. It is important for leaders to recognize that public policy
will continue to adjust to societal needs not only to survive but also to compete; thus,
they must also adjust their approach and leadership styles to aligns them to current
times. This case study delved into the elements of leadership that educational leaders
must be wary of to support the educational goals of Costa Rica.
Resource allocation and strategic decision making are necessary skills for edu-
cational leaders to master as part of their roles and responsibilities (Bolman & Deal,
2008). Over the years, there has been an improvement in educational investment, but
the educational sector still requires greater support (World Bank & Inter-American
Development Bank, 2008). Many corporations have partnered with the MEP to support
the schools financially and with various resources including training services that have
supported the growth of Costa Rican schools. Intel alone has provided an annual
support of one million dollars to the local education programs in Costa Rica (Intel.com,
2013). Once again, the attention goes to the implementation of leadership and policy
necessary to advance education to meet the global competition mandates of today’s
time. Resources include personnel, technology, classroom desks, and other various
aspects that complete a school environment. Areas of growth in Costa Rican education
to meet twenty-first century expectations include highly educated and skilled teachers,
equitable pay based on experience and educational background, accountability reform
for the hiring and firing process, and equitable resources for all socio-economic levels
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
(World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). Despite the room for
growth and improvement, Costa Rica has successfully transformed its economy from
one highly dependent on agriculture to one that is led by high-tech computer and elec-
tronic industries (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). A contin-
ued understanding of expectations, vision, and goals for leaders will help support the
transformation in a positive direction.
Education in Costa Rica
As stated earlier, the MEP leads and supports implementation of educational
decisions made for the Costa Rican school system from pre-K through higher education
(World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). Not only does the MEP
provide free public education through secondary education, but it also transfers funds
for higher education, mainly for public universities (World Bank & Inter-American
Development Bank, 2008). The MEP (2007) consists of many departments (e.g., cur-
riculum, technology, etc.) that support all levels of the schooling system. The mission
of the MEP is to serve the students and their families, teachers, principals, and the
general community so as to develop human capacity to live and integrate in a global
society based on ingenuity, knowledge, and skills.
The public school system in Costa Rica is broken up into four cycles of general
education (Petersen, 2008). Students enter the preprimary school at age 3 and remain
there for about 4 years before moving on to the primary school (Cycles I and II) for
another 6 years (Petersen, 2008; World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank,
2008). The secondary school system (including middle school, Cycle III; and high
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
school, Cycle IV) takes 5 or 6 years, depending on whether the student chooses an
academic or technical pathway (Petersen, 2008; World Bank & Inter-American
Development Bank & Inter-American Development Bank 2008). The Costa Rican
secondary school system has elements of general education, technical education, as well
as an overall focus on agriculture, textile, and ecology (Creach, 2010). Investments by
MNCs have played a large role in the development of technical institutes as well as
maintained a general focus on technical education for the Costa Ricans. From 1990 to
2009, the number of technical high school institutions went from 77 to 98 because of
the involvement of the business and services sector (State of Nation Program, 2011).
Costa Rican educational policy provides a commitment to primary and second-
ary education as well as creates considerable improvements in high school completion
rates so that students are prepared to compete in the knowledge-based labor market
(World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). FDIs and MNCs have
helped prepare the citizens of Costa Rica by funding educational organizations for
greater exposure to technology and 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2011a). Together,
MNCs and the Costa Rican education system focus on various ways to meet the de-
mands of a global society. Overall, Costa Rica depicts great promise and growth in
education and career capacity while keeping alive the values and culture that make the
country so unique.
Statement of the Problem
As school systems around the world respond to globalization, there are many
organizations such as the government, policymakers, MNCs, and of course schools
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
themselves that must get involved. The increase of FDI by MNCs such as Intel has
supported the efforts of educational advancement with a focus on technical skills and
teacher training (Intel® Education, 2006). The Costa Rican government, with the
support of President Chincilla and the MEP, has advanced policies to address the skill
demands of the global economy. Although Gardner (2004) viewed the glacial pace of
policy and institutional change in schools as an immense organizational gap in times of
the strong forces of globalization, Costa Rica is determined to take steps toward ad-
dressing this gap. All stakeholders in Costa Rica understand that this is a priority goal
that requires an action plan that must be embraced and worked on over time.
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s. Due to a developed education system and an increased cost of
living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to
compete in an evolving global market. The resulting growth of technology as a major
export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central American country.
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility
to help students develop technical- and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become
increasingly more challenging. Despite having five national universities, 51 private
universities, and a 95% literacy rate among the population, there remains a low second-
ary graduation rate and pursuit of higher education in the country (MEP, 2007). As a
result, there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new
job opportunities in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
The literature, specifically the State of Education Report (State of Nation
Program, 2011), provides insight into the strengths and weaknesses of the Costa Rican
education system. Although this analysis exists regarding strengths and weaknesses in
the school system, further research specifically in schools supported by MNCs is needed
to understand the impact on education and what school leaders must be aware of to reap
the greatest results from this partnership.
Purpose of the Study
Costa Rica’s constitution depicts the immense focus on education and goal of
empowering the citizens of Costa Rica with the knowledge that they need to be success-
ful (MEP, 2007). The MEP (2007) detailed the focus of educational goals and parame-
ters by developing 21st-century aims and objectives. In 1994, Costa Rica partnered
with various MNCs, including Intel, which allowed the country to embrace the knowl-
edge race that globalization revolutionized (Intel® Education, 2006). While Costa Rica
demonstrates a high literacy rate for its people, there is a need for growth and improve-
ment in the educational sector in order to become competitive with global education
(State of Nation Program, 2011). Although new policy has been set in place to improve
the educational system in Costa Rica, it is not clear how MNCs have impacted this
effort and what the implications have been on educational leaders. The purpose of this
study is to understand what impact globalization and MNCs have had on educational
leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
For the purpose of this dissertation, globalization is defined as changes in the
economy that affect consumption, production, and investment (Spring, 2008). An
element of globalization that has played a large role is the influence of MNCs that has
focused the efforts of the government and policymakers on improving the nation for the
global economy. Understanding the demands of the global economy provides direction
on how to allocate resources and the importance of human and organizational behavior
when designing an organization such as a school site (Brewer, Hentschke, & Eide,
2010). This dissertation study viewed schooling as a global initiative and identified
what role school leaders and MNCs have played in the development and implementa-
tion of policy changes seen in major national educational initiatives. In addition, the
study determined whether these initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-
ready workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of meeting
Costa Rica’s needs, thus analyzing the impact of globalization and MNCs on the school
system.
Research Questions
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
Significance of the Study
Sattin and Suarez-Orozco (2007) argued that there is a demand for global citi-
zens who are culturally sophisticated and prepared to work in a high-skilled, potentially
international environment. This demand ties into the Costa Rican government revising
educational policy to include bilingual education as well as a focus on 21st-century
skills (MEP, 2007). The State of Education Report (State of Nation Program, 2011)
also unveiled weaknesses in the educational program that should be addressed by educa-
tional leaders, including socioeconomic challenges, resources, funding, teacher training,
and other vital elements of the school system. Business leaders and policymakers are
turning their attention to creating a more accountable education system that demands
results (Wagner, 2008). The researcher of this case study looked for evidence of 21st-
century skills when collecting and processing data. The examination of the secondary
schools in Costa Rica developed an understanding of the impact of globalization and
MNCs that address the knowledge, organizational, and other gaps that school leaders
must be aware of to implement positive change.
The findings of the study can guide all stakeholders such as policymakers,
school leaders, and MNCs in Costa Rica. The findings should build on their under-
standing of how to improve education to better prepare students for the global market.
The goal of this study was to recognize the necessary areas of improvement for the
education system including policy implementation, curriculum, resource and funding
allocation, as well as support for 21st-century skill development. The aim was to
empower school leaders with the knowledge on how to establish an effective and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
efficient school system with clear roles and expectations that provide a road map of
success for leaders to follow, including a focus on the vision of education for their
schools site aligned with the aims and objectives defined by the MEP (2007). The
findings provide job aids (Clark & Estes, 2008) for school leaders with methods and
approaches that they can implement to directly support their teaching staff and improve
their specific schools. Additionally, this case study provides guidance to future re-
searchers and practitioners looking to further study the impact of globalization and
MNCs on the school system in Costa Rica and its implications on educational leaders.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are utilized throughout the dissertation:
Costa Rica Ministry of Public Education
As the governing body of the entire education system, the Ministry of Education
is responsible to promote the development and consolidation of an excellent
educational system that allows access for all people to a quality education,
focused on the development of people and promotion of opportunities and social
equity. (para. 1)
Foreign Direct Investment
When residents of one country (the source) acquires ownership of assets of an
organization in another country for the purpose of controlling production, distribution,
establishing a business operation, forming a joint venture, and other activities (Moran,
2011).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
Global Achievement Gap
“The gap between what the best suburban, urban, and rural public schools are
teaching and testing versus what all students will need to succeed as learners, workers,
and citizens in today’s global knowledge economy” (Wagner, 2008, p. 8).
Globalization
Changes in economics that effect production, consumption, and investments,
which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population. It has a direct impact on
cultural, geopolitical, and social changes including schools (Spring, 2008).
Human Capital
“Refers to the intrinsic productive capabilities of human beings . . . that can be
increased through investment in . . . [areas such as] education, on the job training, and
health” (Eide & Showalter, 2010, p. 27).
Knowledge Age
The era focused on technical skills and soft skills such as collaboration, initia-
tive, leadership, and curiosity versus labor intensive skills (Wagner, 2008).
Knowledge-Based Economy
An economy where decisions are made based on skill levels and ability whether
they be through insourcing or outsourcing, aligning organizational structures and incen-
tives with knowledge goals, and/or planning of learning and knowledge growth strate-
gies to meet competitive needs (Foray & Lundvall, 1996).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
Knowledge-Ready Worker
An adaptable and entrepreneurial member of the labor force skilled in the
current demands of society (Wagner, 2008).
Multinational Corporations
Organizations performing at a superior efficiency that have established both a
local headquarters and multiple globally and geographically dispersed subsidiaries that
work as a collaborative unit toward a common focus (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990).
Twenty-First-Century Skills
The seven survival skills for the 21st century: “critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination” (Wagner, 2008, p. 67).
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of this study began with an introduction and background of the prob-
lem, definition of key terms, and the focus of the study conducted in Costa Rica. Chap-
ter 2 provides a literature review on research surrounding the topics of globalization,
MNCs, historical and current background on various elements of Costa Rica, educa-
tional leadership, and 21st-century skills. Chapter 3 addresses the methodology and
research design that were utilized for this case study. This chapter goes into detail on
the participants, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis process, limitations,
delimitations, and assumptions of the study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
Chapter 4 provides a description and analysis of the data collected. Finally,
Chapter 5 presents the findings, conclusions, and makes recommendations to the educa-
tional stakeholders in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
The increased demand for knowledge workers in a global society has also
increased the demand for a new, more innovative, inquiry-based approach to education.
The overall goal of this literature review is to demonstrate how research characterizes
globalization and the efforts of MNCs as a reason for driving forward 21st-century
skills into school systems. While this study addressed the impact of globalization and
MNCs, specifically on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications
for Costa Rican educational leaders, the review of literature and available research
surrounding these concepts provide a systematic description of the past and current
educational systems in order to build a foundation for the study.
The implications for educational leaders were viewed through the leadership
framework of Bolman and Deal (2008), as well as the aspects of leadership outlined by
Marzano, McNulty, and Waters (2005) and Northouse (2010). Bolman and Deal specif-
ically focused on the four areas of symbolic, human resources, structural, and political
leadership needed to establish change and make progress as an educational organiza-
tion. Marzano et al. (2005) described the 21 responsibilities of school leaders—vital to
what leaders need to understand become effective leaders. Northouse (2010) further
developed these frameworks with a focus on many leadership traits and elements, such
as transformational leadership, path–goal leadership theory, and leader–member
exchange theory. The leadership frameworks listed above will help in understanding
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
how to address the implications that Costa Rican educational leaders face in this global
society.
With the focus on educational leadership in Costa Rica, the literature review
provides a foundational understanding of the past and present policy and implementa-
tion and examines the implications of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rican school
leaders. This literature review establishes evidence of the role of MNCs in Costa Rica
due to globalization and the impact that it has had thus far on the education system.
This review emphasizes the importance of establishing an education system that meets
the demands of globalization with the support of MNCs. Knowledge gained from the
review of how globalization and MNCs have impacted the secondary school system in
Costa Rica and its implications on school leaders establish a foundation for looking at
educational policy and the role of Costa Rican educators.
What follows is a review on the existing literature on globalization, followed by
a brief history of Costa Rica and the Costa Rican education system. The literature
review then deals with the established impact of MNCs with a focus on a few specific
companies. The literature review discusses leadership in education and the importance
of 21st-century skills. The review also notes the lack of research in the area of educa-
tional leadership development in Costa Rica to meet the demands of globalization and
21st-century skills with the support of MNCs.
Globalization
Globalization has played a large role in changing the face of education. Global-
ization’s impact on driving economic change, increasing competition by breaking
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
barriers, and demanding a more knowledge based work force that can implement 21st-
century skills is just a part of that change. According to Vaira (2004), there are many
structural components of globalization including the minimalist state, the entrepreneur-
ial and managerial structure, and the knowledge society, that have impacted the global
economy and implementation of policy, as well as the education system. The minimal-
ist state asks for deregulation and evaluation of performance and outcomes to have a
mediating government role with expectations for growth and improvement. The entre-
preneurial and managerial structure looks at trends toward innovation, high flexibility,
and organizational change. Finally, the knowledge society addresses the grand techno-
logical development that is reshaping society, with its focus on knowledge production
and information processing for competitive purposes. All three theoretical constructs
bring attention to the rapidly changing world and the implications that educational
leaders must consider when moving forward with implementation of progressive policy
and programs.
Globalization has been defined in various ways. Meyer, Boli, and Thomas
(1987) viewed globalization as an institutionalized cultural account that describes
reality, makes sense about how the world works, and structures the way that institutions
and actors operate. For the purpose of this study, globalization is defined as changes in
the economy that affect consumption, production, and investment (Spring, 2008). For
this study, the “institutions” and “actors” are focused on schools and school leaders.
The world today can see the importance of investing in education to create a stronger
and larger human capital that promotes economic growth (Spring, 2008). Globalization
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
discourse has affected education in every aspect: policymaking, governance, organiza-
tion, and academic work and identity (Vaira, 2004). Globalization for education also
has its critics who believe that globalization removes the unique ingenuity found in
different regions of the world due to a need for a universal curriculum (Bird & Nichol-
son, 1998).
Critics perceive globalization as a social construct that blurs national boundaries
and shifts solidarities within and outside the national state, thus limiting state autonomy
(Torres, 2002). The proponents of globalization view this same impact as a positive
result of increasing the homogeneity of societies, as well as increasing the hybridization
of cultures and diversity that creates a more collaborative spirit, with common goals and
aims for a greater society (Kellner, 1997). Regardless, understanding globalization and
the reason why MNCs started to play a role in education begins to develop the corner-
stone of this study. The next section deals with the global economy and policy followed
by the globalization of education and its impact on educational reform.
A Global Economy and Policy
Economic globalization is more than international exchange of goods and
services—it is a complete global economy involving planning, design, production, and
marketing on a global scale (Daun, 2002). Drucker (1993) and Porter (1990) empha-
sized the importance of developing the economy by increasing productivity of knowl-
edge as the basis for national competition within the international marketplace. This
increase of education focused for the demands of the global economy can be supported
by FDIs that support the necessity for global knowledge skills. FDIs used to be a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
method of gaining traditional comparative advantages for already industrialized coun-
tries (Daun, 2002). The focus of FDIs is to exploit factor– price differences in the world
by locating the skill-intensive processes in educated and able regions and labor-inten-
sive processes in the low wage countries (Akin & Vlad, 2011). Zhang and Markusen
(1999) provided a theory stating that the relationship between education and FDI depicts
an inverse relationship between human capital and the actual investment. Romer (1993)
argued that FDIs can actually help decrease the gap between the rich and the poor by
providing technological establishments that give a hands-on, “know-how” experience to
the citizens and improve overall economic growth. The possibility of a substantial
spillover effect could impact the entire economy by boosting productivity for all firms,
not just those that are receiving FDIs (Akin & Vlad, 2011). Akin and Vlad’s (2011)
study results indicated an increase in the educational level for those countries impacted
by FDIs. Today, FDIs help create a lifelong learning society and play a vital role for
knowledge management in various countries all over the world to continue to develop
human capital (Peters, 2001). Globalization has led countries and governments to
discuss policy that allows for this shift in thinking and empowers their citizens to meet
the demands of today’s work force.
Globalization has influenced government procedures and processes that, in turn,
produce change in the economy. A very real impact of globalization on the economy
and government is the role of nation-states with diminishing political roles (Carnoy,
1999). Ohmae (1995), a respected Japanese business strategist, stated that the nation-
state has lost its capacity to control its national economy and can no longer generate real
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
economic activity. Ohmae focused more on the four I’s (investment, industry, informa-
tion technology [IT], and individual consumers) as the drivers of the expansion and
operation of the global economy, thus replacing the nation-state. Globalization has
taken the element of choice and decision making away from nation-states and has left
them vulnerable to the borderless economy in terms of real flow (Ohmae, 1995). The
traditional perception of economic nationalism is being overturned by a new culture,
advanced rapidly with the use of technology and the globalization of information
(Ohmae, 1995). Spring (2008) agreed that the intertwined global educational processes
are now seen in the framework of societies versus the nation-state. Dale (2005) also
argued that due to globalization, the world can no longer be seen as autonomous states
—a concept that was fundamentally sound when addressing comparative education.
Today, governments around the world look to other countries to see what they
are doing with their education system, culture, and policies so as to gain perspective on
the most effective methods of approaching education (Spring, 2008). Although national
boundaries seem to be dissolving, this situation does not mean that the nation-state has
no impact on the global economy. The nation-state’s role is increasing as a creator of a
positive condition for economic and social development, including education (Carnoy,
1999). Mughal and Vechiu (2009) also argued that although international financial
institutions and the global economy are starting to follow a one-size-fits-all model, it is
important to tailor national and regional policies to the specific level of human capital
and economic development of a country. Because knowledge is one of the most highly
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
valued commodities in the global economy, countries have very little choice but to
invest in education.
A question facing the investment in education is whether education should be
seen solely as an investment in human capital (Peters, 2001). Studies by the United
Kingdom’s Economic and Social Research Council provided evidence of the impor-
tance of vocational and workplace education as well as the transition between education
and the workplace (Peters, 2001). In 1999, Coffield examined the human capital theory
and its legitimacy as educational policy for alternative visions of the learning society.
Coffield perceived national policy constructions of the “knowledge economy” based on
the assumption that this is what the future global economy will demand from workers in
order to be competitive and qualified for necessary new jobs. This shift from industrial
capitalism to information or knowledge capitalism is transforming the labor market,
requiring elite technical labor force knowledge to earn a job and become productive
members of society (Peters, 2001).
In sum, knowledge-ready workers are in demand in today’s global economy and
governments are aware and moving forward on the changes necessary to meet these
demands. Therefore, how has globalization impacted education so as to remain compet-
itive in the global society?
Globalization of Education
Globalization has revised the face of education in various ways such as interna-
tional studies, online education, global programs with universal standards (e.g., the
International Baccalaureate), and corporate-school partnerships. The latter example
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
brings attention to many MNCs that have invested in schools to bridge the gap between
the current curriculum and the skills and knowledge needed for the 21st century. Glob-
alization has influenced the vision and goals of education to help meet the demands of
the global economy. It has turned the focus to developing technical intelligence in
students to increase the labor pool with sustainable, soft-skilled people with technical
capabilities (CINDE, 2011a, 2011b). Smith (2002) also agreed that the economic and
social forces of globalization have altered the methodology and intention of informal
and formal education, especially due to corporate influence. These concepts are further
developed in the literature review when discussing MNCs and 21st-century skills. In
general, the focus of education and educational curriculum must reflect the change that
the world market is asking to see in order to remain competitive.
An increase in global competition has made it almost impossible for the educa-
tion system to remain stagnant. Global competition has penetrated country lines, as
seen by international business, importing and exporting of goods, and the outsourcing of
services. To create the most knowledgeable and viable option for the demands of
today’s society, education must meet and then exceed these demands to equip students
with the competitive skills they need to become productive, successful members of
society. The U.S. organization, Achieve, Inc., formed in 1996 by the National Gover-
nor’s Association and chief executive officers (CEOs) of major corporations, declared
high schools as the front line in America’s battle to remain competitive for the increas-
ingly competitive global economy (Spring, 2008). This declaration began a discourse
among educational investors, including various MNCs, to develop human capital and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
empower workers with the knowledge necessary to promote economic growth in a
global society.
According to Spring (2008), the four major theoretical processes concerning
globalization and education are world culture, world systems, postcolonial, and cultur-
alist. World culture consists of Western ideals of mass schooling that serve as a model
for national school systems. The assumption is that due to globalization and global
education, cultures are slowly integrating into a single global culture. Once again, the
nation-states are seen as a dissolving entity that draw on world culture to plan their
school systems. The world systems approach views the world as integrated, but with
two unequal zones. The core zone, otherwise known as the wealthy zone, consists of
the United States, the European Union, and Japan. The ultimate goal of the core zone is
to utilize its power and influence on the periphery nations, otherwise known as the poor
zone, to influence the set values and processes of globalization. The culturalist frame-
work draws on the importance of cultural variations and the borrowing and lending of
educational ideas within a global context. For example, world cultural theorists argue
that schooling is based on a Western model that has now become a global cultural ideal
and has resulted in common educational structures as well as common curriculum
models. The postcolonial theoretical process focuses on promoting market economies,
human capital education, and neoliberal school reforms to promote the interest of the
zone countries, or rich nations as well as powerful MNCs. Education is viewed as an
economic investment designed to produce better workers to serve the MNCs. MNCs
and their reasons to invest in education are addressed in greater depth later in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
literature review; however, it is important to keep in mind the possible reason why
globalization is impacting education with specific reforms that create a more
knowledge-ready citizen. Spring’s framework that discusses the various processes of
educational globalization was used in the study to determine how globalization has
impacted education in Costa Rica.
Globalization’s Impact on Educational Reform
Since the 1980s, globalization has created a uniform pattern of policy for com-
pulsory or basic education all around the world, including partaking in educational
restructuring (Daun, 2002). The restructuring has included curriculum change, educa-
tional choice, application of market forces in systemic reforms, increase of teacher
competence, and advancement of broad teaching methodologies. The restructuring
movement required extensive involvement from school policy leaders, school princi-
pals, teachers, and parents for its implementation (Daun, 2002). Educational leaders
need to understand globalization’s impact on educational reform strategies in order to
make effective decisions as they move forward in their own organizations.
According to Carnoy (1999), there are three kinds of responses in the educa-
tional reform and training sectors due to the changes in the world economy. The first of
these responses is the shifting demand for skills in the domestic and world labor market,
as well as new ideas about organizing the production of educational achievement to
develop these work skills to provide students with a competitive edge. The second
response is a finance-driven reform that allows for adjustments in times of public sector
and private company reductions in funding. Finally, equity-driven reform improves
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
education’s vital political role as a source of social mobility and opportunity for all
(Carnoy, 1999). These responses to globalization have created a greater focus for
school leaders to develop the capacity of individuals to participate in the economic life
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 1992). Bolman
and Deal (2008) viewed this as part of the structural and symbolic component of leader-
ship that sets up an organization for a unique and innovative vision and progressive
belief in improvement.
Globalization has required schools to become more innovative and internation-
alized approach to their curriculum (Stewart, 2008a). There is a demand for global
citizens who are culturally sophisticated and prepared to work in an international envi-
ronment (Sattin & Suárez-Orozco, 2007). This innovation and new knowledge include
embracing the digital revolution in this global age of technology, allowing schools and
leaders to leap into the 21st century and progress toward meeting global demands (Col-
lins & Halverson, 2009). Although 21st-century skills are discussed later in the litera-
ture review, it is vital to the study to understand the great importance of attaining these
skills as a natural transition toward embracing globalization. Overall, the need for
greater skill achievement has led to higher, more rigorous standards in many countries
such as the United States, Brazil, Chile, and Costa Rica (Carnoy, 1999). Higher, more
rigorous standards are a clear signal of how globalization has raised the bar of expecta-
tions for academic success that translates into applicable skills for all students. Under-
standing this impact of globalization on the education system is an important part of this
study that led to determining the implications of globalization for the school leaders of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
Costa Rica. The next section goes into the global achievement gap seen in education
that refers to the areas necessary for positive growth.
Global Achievement Gap
Wagner (2008) referred to the global achievement gap as a call to action due to
the lack of technology, lack of collaboration, greater demand for knowledge workers,
and overall economic transformation. The mastery of basic skills such as reading,
writing, and math is no longer enough to be successful and competitive. Today,
students need to become avid inquirers of what they learning by achieving necessary
skills such as reasoning, analysis, weighing evidence, problem solving, and communi-
cating effectively. This achievement gap continues to grow because of the lack of
trained teachers who understand how to instruct students how to become thinkers rather
than rote memorizers (Wagner, 2008). This lack of training and transformation in
schools is an organizational gap, as seen by Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011),
which needs to be addressed with the leaders in education to provide their staff with the
appropriate environment and resources to be successful and serve today’s generation of
students in the right manner. Wagner did see business leaders as the primary advocates
for this change, especially as schools themselves have not shown a sense of urgency to
embrace 21st-century schools. Wagner felt that schools must adapt to current realities
to avoid losing jobs to other countries and to survive economically while aiming to be
competitive in the greater global market, where technology and other 21st-century skills
are required. Today’s global achievement gap is a clear disconnect between current
content being taught with certain expectations and methodologies versus what all
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
students need to succeed as learners, workers, and citizens of the global, knowledge-
based economy (Wagner, 2008).
Creating globally savvy students requires partnerships among various leaders
from business, education and the government (Stewart, 2008a, 2008b). According to
Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011), many gaps can exist that thwart growth or, in
this case, important partnerships that are needed to create a seamless transition to a
stronger, more relevant education system. The different types of gaps can include some
or all of the following: knowledge, organizational, and motivational gaps (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Gardner (2004) viewed the glacial pace of policy and insti-
tutional change in schools as an immense organizational gap in view of the strong forces
of globalization. Organizational gaps reflect on leadership and the ability for leaders
not only to revise policy based on societal demands but also to implement sustainable
changes for the betterment of citizens. The importance of strong educational leadership
ready to face the demands of the global society brings to light a portion of the study
aimed at understanding any existing gaps and methods of improvement for the Costa
Rican education system.
Globalization in Costa Rica
Globalization and the FDIs have influenced countries to make decisions that
support economic growth. Many countries have revised their economic and social
policy to compete with the global society. An example of the influence of globalization
is embracing a common language of trade—in this case, English—to empower people
with communication skills that can lead to greater partnerships (Global Exchange,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
2011). Costa Rica specifically has put much focus on education and developing the
knowledge base of the country for the purpose of preparing its citizens for a competitive
world. Due to its commitment to peace, human rights, and the environment, Costa Rica
maintains a positive global reputation (Global Exchange, 2011). Some of the citizens of
Costa Rica do fear a change of life style for their country due to the impact of globaliza-
tion. Tourist trade has increased has increased due to a rapid growth of beach resorts,
importation of technology, and the possibilities of privatization as a result of trade
agreements. This change has Costa Ricans worried about losing their once peaceful,
traditional lifestyle. Regardless of the concerns, Costa Rica’s high literacy rate has
attracted this progressive focus, taking a once agrarian society and shifting the focus
toward technological development (Global Exchange, 2011).
As stated earlier, the importance of bilingual education with a focus on English
has become an aim for the country’s schooling system so as to competitively participate
in the global market. Regardless of the concerns about change, many, including the
Costa Rican MEP (2007), see the world today as immersed with globalized tendencies
that must be embraced to be successful in today’s world (State of Nation Program,
2011). Before going further into the advancement in Costa Rica’s education of 21st-
century skills and the role of MNCs in Costa Rica due to globalization, the following
portion of the literature review establishes an understanding of the history of Costa Rica
up to current times.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
History of Costa Rica to Current Times
Costa Rica’s history paints a vital image of a once agrarian society evolving to
one that has shifted its focus to technical and skill-based employment. Costa Rica
gained its name, “Rich Coast,” when Columbus explored it in 1502 and found an abun-
dance of natural resources. At that time it was inhabited by approximately 400,000
indigenous people (Infoplease, 2012). According to the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA; 2012), on September 15, 1821, Costa Rica gained its independence and joined the
United Provinces of Central America. In 1949, President Don Jose Figueres abolished
the army, and that ruling has been honored ever since—thus making Costa Rica a very
beautiful and peaceful country. Costa Rica is a very small but rich country with magnif-
icent terrain that has allowed for a strong spotlight on agriculture as well as a focus on
environmental awareness. The traditional agriculture included crops such as bananas,
coffee, sugar, flowers, nuts, root vegetables, and beef. The country is approximately
19,000 square miles in area with coastal plains separated by rugged mountains, includ-
ing over 100 volcanic cones, some of which are major volcanoes. Nature in Costa Rica
contains 5% of the world’s biodiversity, and 25% of the country consists of protected
national parks (CIA , 2012). Overall, Costa Rica is very proud and protective of its
natural beauty and resources regardless of a decrease on its dependency on natural
resources at present.
Demographics wise, Costa Rica is an extremely homogenous country with its
2011 census showing the ethnic make-up as 83% White, 1% Black or Afro-Caribbean,
6% Mulattoes, 2.4% Native American, 0.2% Chinese and 6.6% other ethnicities
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
(CostaRica.net, 2002). It is a rich agrarian society composed of seven provinces: Ala-
juela; Cartago; Guanacaste; Heredia; Limon; Puntarenas; and San José, the largest city
and capital of Costa Rica (CIA, 2012). The seven provinces are divided into 81 cantons
that are each run by a mayor, and the cantons are divided into 421 districts (TutorGig
Encyclopedia, 2011). Overall, Costa Rica prides itself as a country with high levels of
education and health, renowned national parks, and a history of democracy and political
stability (Everyculture.com, 2013). Although a peaceful nation, the country does face
social, economic, and environmental problems with its neighbors as well as the need to
remain competitive with the demands of the global society (Everyculture.com, 2013).
The following sections provide information on Costa Rica’s government and economy
before turning the focus to education.
Government
As stated earlier, Costa Rica gained its independence from Spain in 1821.
During the early 20th century, economic change and hardships drove political transfor-
mations (Spring, 2008). The political turmoil caused by World War I led to moments of
challenges that the democratic party in Costa Rica was able to survive. In the mid to
late 20th century, the National Liberation Party (PLN) led by President Figueres moti-
vated Costa Rica in a direction that ended the aristocracy’s lengthy reign (Spring, 2008).
Due to Costa Rica’s democratic outlook, the politics of Costa Rica was driven by very
thoughtful, stimulated conversation that had no interest in Communism, but instead
examined the country by creating the Center for Study of National Problems (Kantor,
1954). This group was comprised of university professors and students who were inter-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
ested in researching intelligent solutions to the problems of Costa Rica (Kantor, 1954).
Some of the focuses of this group were determining methods to improve the standard of
living, social reforms, and discovering how to establish a democratic framework—all
elements also explained by the emergence of the democratization theory (Booth, 2008).
Costa Rica’s desire to embrace socioeconomic change such as modernization, economic
development, class formation, and redistribution of resources within society has
strengthened the democratic political regime, allowing for a change in leadership
(Booth, 2008). This was quite a feat for Costa Rica, especially due to the failed demo-
cratic regimes and many of the surrounding countries (Booth, 2008).
During this time of democratic growth, another group of Costa Ricans, under the
leadership of President Figures (at that time, an educated agricultural engineer) founded
a new group called the Democratic Action, which started to work hand in hand with the
“Center” in order to establish a country that was keeping to its traditions but was also
moving forward with the current of the world’s progressive movements. On March 11,
1945, the two organizations gained enough political influence to establish the Social
Democratic Party of Costa Rica. As President Figures took office, he promised to
improve the economic and social conditions of Costa Rica to self-maintain and preserve
their lifestyle as well as their culture. President Figueres, along with the PLN, wanted
to transform Costa Rica into a modern state that offered competitive, high standards of
living for its people. This new regime was devoted to democratic procedures whose
goals were to close the gap between the poor and the rich citizens by creating a more
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
efficient economy. As the changes to the country were discussed, a new constitution
was drafted and instilled on November 8, 1953 (Kantor, 1954).
Instability in the political leadership increased as new parties began to form—
the largest opposing party being the Social Christian Unity Party. Party alternation
during election times became the norm in Costa Rica from the late 20th century into the
21st century. In Costa Rica’s 14 elections between 1953 and 2006, the opposing party
has won the election nine times over the incumbent. The election process and consis-
tent fairness have solidified the democratic system, allowing for various interest groups
such as the national coffee and commercial and industrial markets to feel empowered
with a voice to participate and protest as much as they feel needed for their betterment.
The 21st century has established a strong, democratic Costa Rica with no internal or
external forces that can overthrow or prove a threat to the democratic parties (Spring,
2008). According to the Economic Intelligence Unit’s (2012) Country Report, Costa
Rica remains one of the most politically stable countries in Latin America.
Today, Costa Rica is a democratic republic with three branches of government:
the executive, legislative and the judicial. The executive branch is made up of a presi-
dent who is elected for 4 years, two vice presidents, and a cabinet comprised of 22 min-
isters, two of whom are the vice presidents. The current president is Laura Chinchilla
Miranda, elected on May 8, 2010; the vice presidents are Alfio Piva Mesen and Luis
Liberman. The cabinet is appointed by the president. The legislative branch consists of
57 members of the legislative assembly who have a 4-year term and are elected by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
popular vote. The judicial branch is represented by the Supreme Court of 22 magis-
trates elected by the legislative branch and renewable every 8 years (CIA, 2012).
Economy
Coffee was a commodity grown in Costa Rica since the 1740s. When direct
export began in 1845, coffee boomed and so did the government promotion of the crop.
Coffee became the economic driving force for growth and social change. Unfortu-
nately, this economic boom also increased the socioeconomic inequality (Booth, 2008).
In the mid 1950s, President Figures continued this process of growth and change as he
embraced ideas regarding international economics and how to bring Costa Rica into the
competitive market. He opened up ideas for Costa Rica’s economy by addressing the
importance of raw material production and suggesting an international scale to narrow
the gap between developing and industrialized countries. Supporting education to
develop human capital was also part of Figures’s goals to improve the quality of life in
Costa Rica (Kantor, 1954).
Up to the 1960s, Costa Rica’s main economic resource depended on the export
earnings from coffee and bananas (Everyculture.com, 2013). In the 1960s, beef and
sugar established a higher rank in the export business as Costa Rica began to industrial-
ize, protected by Central American Common Market tariffs (Everyculture.com, 2013).
In 1984, Costa Rica initiated a comprehensive structural adjustment program that
included a very important trade liberalization program, including a reduction of tariffs
(Gindling & Robbins, 1999). Costa Rica’s focus went from a development strategy
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
based on industrialization via import to a development strategy of export promotion,
liberalization, and openness to international markets (Monge-Naranjo, 2007).
Globalization has impacted Costa Rica and its focus on developing human
capital and economic strategies, thus allowing Costa Rica to be part of the competitive
world. Trading has opened Costa Rica to the world economy and has begun to increase
and diversify its population of more skilled workers. Importing and exporting have
developed Costa Rica in various ways, such as the building of more urban areas, in-
creasing government and regulatory growth, establishing financial institutions, and
increasing occupational diversification (Spring, 2008). Krueger (1990) noted that trade
liberalization in developing countries closes the wage gap between more and less skilled
workers. This development has also led to transportation and communication, thus
increasing Costa Rica’s progress toward becoming a more powerful trader of goods,
both traditional and nontraditional (Spring, 2008). Over the past 15 years, Costa Rica
has had an average of 4.7% annual economic growth, reflecting its political environ-
ment, strong institutions, and a well-educated, skilled work force (World Bank & Inter-
American Development Bank, 2008).
In the 1990s, Costa Rica became a major apparel supplier to the United States
(its principal trading partner); but as the global competition increases, the county is
finding greater difficulties with the Chinese competition. The increase of economic
competition led to the increase of technology in both the business and educational world
(Sanchez-Ancochea, 2006). The merger of technology and education is addressed later
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
in the literature review and is a large component in studying the impact of globalization
and MNCs on education in Costa Rica.
Technological growth in Costa Rica has added to another prominent aspect of
the country’s economy (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2006). MNCs have found themselves
attracted to setting up companies and investing in the underdeveloped countries such as
Costa Rica. The arrival of companies such as Intel has contributed to the expansion of
exports and the development of human capital; however, according to Sanchez-
Ancochea (2006), the greatest benefactors of this relationship have been the companies
themselves. As of 2009, Costa Rica’s labor pool reflected approximately 2.1 million
people, 37,417 of whom were trained in technical areas such as industry, graphic indus-
try, and trade and services with the support of the National Apprentice Institute
(CINDE, 2011a). In order for Costa Rica to really benefit from these companies and
promote its own economic growth, it still has to develop technical and productive
capabilities in various sectors of the economy (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2006). Despite the
room for growth and improvement, Costa Rica has successfully transformed its econ-
omy from one highly dependent on agriculture to one that is led by high-tech computer
and electronic industries (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008).
Costa Rican state that officials must review and revise policy to take advantage
of the FDI that has contributed to the increase of viable human capital (Sanchez-
Ancochea, 2006). The study done by Sanchez-Ancochea (2006) delineated the impor-
tance of long-term, consistent policy and increasing the country’s comparative advan-
tage based on the demands caused by globalization; the focus was especially toward
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
investment in human capital and public capacities to increase the possible roles of the
Costa Rican labor force. Buitelaar and Padilla (2000) agreed that for middle-income
countries such as Costa Rica to develop their economic status, they must not only attract
new investment in high-tech sectors but also increase the effective utilization of these
skills to create a link between new sectors and the rest of the economy.
Once the resources from FDIs come in, Costa Rica must analyze its education
system to make effective decisions on where investment in education will provide the
greatest potential for continued economic growth. The benefits from globalization
include developing a competitive education system. Specifically for Costa Rica, atten-
tion to the secondary education system is pertinent for it to stand on par with developed
countries—spending the same amount but advancing further when it comes to the
knowledgeable worker (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). The
next section of the literature review deals with Costa Rica’s education system and how
it has evolved to embrace foreign investments and adjust as needed to compete with the
global society.
Education in Costa Rica
The first school in Costa Rica opened in Heredia in 1751 and was supervised by
the Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Religion played a large role in education since
schools at that time were ran by the Church (Encyclopedia.com, 2013). The early
fathers of Costa Rica, such as President José Maria Castro, were former teachers who
were greatly concerned with education in Costa Rica (InfoCostaRica, 2012). Due to this
attention to learning and literacy, education has been free and mandatory for preprimary,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
primary, and the first 3 years of secondary education since 1870 (CINDE, 2011b; World
Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). Costa Rica’s literacy rate of 96% is
the highest in all of Latin America (CINDE, 2011b).
The majority of the education sector is financed by the national budget (World
Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). Since the abolishment of the army
in 1949, President Figures has allocated those funds to education, delineating education
as a very important part of the Costa Rican life and culture. The school systems also
reflect the Costa Rican culture through the youth of the country and how the elements
keep the community focused and united (Creach, 2010). The legal basis of education in
Costa Rica comes from a specific chapter regarding education and culture in the Politi-
cal Constitution, incorporated in 1949 (The Constitution, 2012). The current policies
established in the Costa Rican Constitution are discussed at length in the education
section of the literature review. These policies are a large part of what educational
leaders must attend to and implement with fidelity to create positive academic and eco-
nomic growth. This study delved into the elements of leadership that educational
leaders must be wary of to support the goals of the Constitution.
Public policy continues to adjust to societal needs, not only to survive but also to
compete. The demands of the 21st century are driving education to embrace the skills
and knowledge required to take part in this global society. In 1994, President Figueres
became an advocate for having a computer in each of the nation’s schools as well as
making English classes obligatory (InfoCostaRica, 2012). Part of this need to compete
with the advancing technical world and Costa Rica’s tourist industries has moved Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
Rica forward in bilingual education, mainly focused on English as the secondary lan-
guage. Bilingual capability should increase the effectiveness of the labor market to
further compete with the world, as language barriers are thwarted and relationships
around the world are developed. To that end, 21 million U.S. dollars were committed to
English and IT training in the four main universities (CINDE 2011b). Costa Rican
educational policy provides a commitment to primary and secondary education as well
as making considerable improvements in high school completion rates so that students
are prepared to compete in the knowledge-based labor market (World Bank & Inter-
American Development Bank 2008). FDIs and MNCs have helped prepare the citizens
of Costa Rica by funding educational organizations toward greater exposure to technol-
ogy and 21st-century skills.
Costa Rican Education System
The MEP is responsible for public education in Costa Rica including the pre-
primary, primary, and secondary levels of education, consisting of 90 percent of stu-
dents in the education system and about 50% of the students in higher education (World
Bank, 2008). The MEP not only provides free public education through secondary
education, it also transfers funds for higher education, mainly for public universities
(World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). The MEP is made up of
many levels that support various aspect of education including, planning and develop-
ment, curriculum, technology, and so on, all overseen by the Minister of Public Educa-
tion, currently Dr. Leonardo Garnier. Under the Minister of Public Education are the
two Vice Ministers along with the cabinet and other advisors. The next administrative
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
level consists of the various offices mentioned previously that support the seven prov-
inces run by regional directors, advisors, and departments of their own. The provinces
are broken into nine circuits that are run by circuit supervisors and assistant supervisors,
who oversee a series of school administrative teams (MEP, 2007).
Costa Rica’s education system has been growing and developing over the years.
In 2006, there were 1.2 million students and 68,000 teachers in 7,500 establishments
containing 33,000 classrooms (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank,
2008). The school system is broken up into four cycles of general education (Petersen,
2008). Students enter preprimary school at age 3 and stay there for about 3 years before
moving on to primary school (Cycles I and II) for another 6 years (Petersen, 2008;
World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). The secondary school
system (including middle school, Cycle III; and high school, Cycle IV) takes 5 or 6
years depending on whether the student chooses an academic or technical pathway
(Petersen, 2008; World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008; Petersen,
2008). Table 1 provides a clear description of the educational enrollment, work force,
and facilities as of 2006.
As mentioned earlier, the Costa Rican Constitution, Title VII, established the
role and policies followed by the educational sector and empowers the to preside over
the general administration of public education run by the MEP (CostaRicaLaw, 2012).
Articles 77–83 are aimed at the general education system, whereas Articles 84––88 are
aimed at the university level. The specific laws set by the constitution include free and
compulsory education for the preschool and general education levels. The laws also
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
Table 1
Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms in Costa Rica, by Sector: 2006
Sector Preprimary Primary Secondary Higher Total
Students
Number 114,202 521,460 338,508 246,208 1,220,378
Public (%) 84.9 92.6 89.0 50.6 82.4
Private and semiprivate (%) 15.1 7.4 11.0 49.4 17.6
Teachers
Number 7,384 28,571 21,748 10,230 67,933
Public (%) 67.0 84.8 80.6 63.0 78.2
Private and semiprivate (%) 33.0 15.2 19.4 37.0 21.8
Establishments
Number 2,750 4,026 752 N/A 7,528
Public (%) 86.5 92.4 72.7 ---- 88.3
Private and semiprivate (%) 13.5 7.6 27.3 ---- 11.7
Classrooms
Number 5,102 18,529 9,774 N/A 33,405
Public (%) 76.2 87.1 79.9 ---- 83.3
Private and semiprivate (%) 23.8 12.9 20.1 ---- 16.7
Note. N/A = not applicable. Data taken from Costa Rica—Public Expenditure Review: En-
hancing the Efficiency of Expenditures (Report No. 40774-CR), by World Bank & Inter-
American Development Bank, 2008, retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/
EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/EXTLACREGTOPECOPOL/0,,contentMDK:21808603
~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:832499,00.html
support facilitation of higher education for those lacking monetary resources via schol-
arships and other methods of assistance. Under the constitution, even private sectors in
education are under the supervision of the state along with the responsibility for adult
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
education, intended to reduce the illiteracy rate and provide cultural opportunities for
those who desire it. The university level is granted freedom and legal rights to establish
their school organization and governing procedures while supported by state funds
(CostaRicaLaw, 2012). Costa Rica has four major universities, including the first one
established in 1941: the UCR (Petersen, 2008). The Central Bank of Costa Rica man-
ages the funds for the various universities and the state supports any professional train-
ing to help the universities meet future demands (CostaRicaLaw, 2012).
In 1997, a constitutional reform passed that required the government educational
budget be no less than 6% of the gross domestic product (GDP; World Bank, 2008).
Currently the amount of the country’s GDP going toward education has increased to 8%
effective in 2014 (CINDE, 2011b). The changes to budget allocation for education
include greater funding for preprimary, special, and open education as well as a larger
budget for higher education due to the cost per student. About 80% of the educational
budget goes to salaries and wages; the general education level consists of almost 90% of
the expenditures going toward salaries. This leaves a small amount of funding for other
educational resources such as textbooks, technology, and maintaining school infra-
structure—resources needed to advance learning. For example, approximately 3 out of
10 classrooms in primary and secondary public schools were considered adequate
learning environments (World Bank, 2008).
Although over the years there has been an improvement in educational invest-
ment, the educational sector still requires greater support. Once again, the attention
goes to the implementation of leadership and policy necessary to advance education to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
meet the global competition mandates of today’s times. Areas of growth in education to
meet 21st-century expectations include highly educated and skilled teachers, equitable
pay based on experience and educational background, accountability reform for the
hiring and firing process, and equitable resources for all socioeconomic levels (World
Bank, 2008). The next section hones in on the secondary education system before
demonstrating the impact of economic resources and the FDI’s impact on the Costa
Rican education system.
Secondary Education System
The Costa Rican secondary school system has elements of general education,
technical education, as well as an overall focus on agriculture, textiles, and ecology.
The high school program in Costa Rica, called colegio, takes 4 years, with the first 3
years being general education that is taught to each student. The general education
covers basic fields of study including Spanish, math, social science, science, and a
foreign language that are a part of all 3 years. In the final year of high school, the
students enter a more specialized education system that includes career pathways such
as accounting, medical courses, agricultural studies, ecology, and textile studies (e.g.,
clothing manufacturing). Not only are the textile, agriculture, and ecology sectors
giving students career options, bu5t they are also advancing to move toward environ-
mentally cautious methods. As mentioned earlier, Costa Rica is a beautiful country due
to the rich environment, and the students in the schools are continuing to appreciate and
learn more to keep a clean and healthy Costa Rica, rich in resources for economic suc-
cess (Creach, 2010).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
Creach (2010) asserted that students who choose the agriculture pathway in their
4th year in high school are immersed in a variety of plant growing, cattle roaming, and
barns with pigs being raised and bred. Students in the ecology specialization learn how
to preserve the endangered tree species as well as to protect special animals. This
element of the 4th year really depicts how the school system is a means of teaching the
culture of Costa Rica so that it can live on forever. It is meant for the practical educa-
tion required for students who are not entering the university world and who need to
become immediate productive members of Costa Rican society (Creach, 2010).
Technical high schools are another aspect of secondary schools that have been
established to meet the demands of today’s global society. These technical schools
include components such as a technical English program for service centers, computer
engineering, bilingual accounting, bilingual information technologies with a focus on
programming, network, and technical support. An Adobe Flash® training program was
launched in 2008 and directly hired by avVenta, an interaction agency with operations
in Costa Rica. The technical high schools support the enrollment of all socioeconomic
levels, including English scholarships for low-income families (CINDE, 2011b). The
goal of technical high schools is aimed at developing human capital and increasing the
labor force that can directly impact the Costa Rican economy and improve the quality of
life for its citizens (Gindling & Robbins, 1999).
Investments by MNCs have played a large role in the development of technical
institutes as well as creating a general focus on technical education for Costa Ricans.
From 1990 to 2009, the number of technical high school institutions went from 77 to 98
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
due to the involvement of the business and services sector. Moreover, the technical
schools have a higher completion rate for the academic school year, fewer students
repeating grades, and a similar completion rate to the traditional high schools (State of
Nation Program, 2011). Compared to developed countries, though, the percentage of
students enrolled in vocational-technical programs is approximately half. Figure 1
provides a representation of the various educational levels in Costa Rica as correlated to
potential professions as of 2009 (Consejo Nacional de Rectores [CONARE], 2012).
The areas of developing technical skills and technical education are further
discussed in the portion addressing MNCs and constitute another aspect of what Costa
Rican educational leaders need to consider when developing and implementing policy.
The other aspect of the secondary high school system (both private and public)
to consider is the students who enter and pass the high school exit exam to earn a
diploma, the Bachillerato, and then to further their education. Prior to the high school
exit exam, the MEP has made it mandatory for students to also pass exams at the sixth-
and ninth-grade levels. The final exam for the high school diploma covers the content
areas of math, social studies, Spanish, English, French, biology, and civics (Petersen,
2008). The exams are aligned with the approved national curriculum and standards and
test cognitive skills with sample-based, norm-referenced questions in the form of
multiple choice and open-ended essays. The high school exit exam is a high-stakes test
that accounts for 60% of the individual’s score; the remaining 40% of the score is based
on performance in the required subject areas. Public opinion in Costa Rica is in favor
for the exams; however, there is a concern that the data from these exams are not
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
Figure 1. Distribution of the cohort for people 21–33 years of age based on
the educational level, occupation and type of activity. Source: Estado de la
Nación 2011, by Consejo Nacional de Rectores, 2012, available from http://
www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
utilized for policymaking or adjustment in curriculum, design, and teaching methodolo-
gies—thus only a method of moving students forward toward the next grade or a
diploma (Ferrer, 2006). This may seem as a necessary next step, especially because
high school academic performance has stagnated and/or shown no sustainable advance-
ment over the years (State of Nation Program, 2011). The ultimate goal of earning the
Bachillerato is for students to enter the academic route for higher education such as
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
medicine, engineering, law, and other academic content areas; the problem is that not
very many students achieve and/or pursue this route (CINDE, 2011b).
Information regarding high school completion rates in Costa Rica is collected by
the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC) and by the MEP. The
government-sponsored report, the Estado de la Educación Costarricense, indicates that
35.1% of the population has at least a high school diploma as of 2001 (CONARE,
2013). In 2008, this percentage went up to approximately 52% of the population earn-
ing a high school diploma (State of Nation Program, 2011). Overall educational attain-
ment has improved between 1995 and 2005 for all levels of education; however, there is
still a large gap between the socioeconomically disadvantaged and the middle class and
higher groups (World Bank, 2008). The secondary school attainment is still the lowest
among the Latin American nations, although based on the educational expenditure,
enrollment and degree attainment especially at the secondary level should be much
higher (World Bank, 2008). Instead, the repetition and dropout rates in Costa Rica are
very high, especially for the secondary system (World Bank, 2008).
Figure 2 represents data from the State of Nation Program (2011) that depict
high school completion rates among various countries around the world. As seen by the
graphic, Costa Rica tails behind the competitive nations in the global marketplace, thus
demanding a need for further development and academic improvement to close this
wide gap. Figure 3 represents another gap in the Costa Rican education system when
assessing the dropout and failure rates at various types of secondary schools. Enroll-
ment and graduation rates are the responsibility of school leaders, who must
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
Figure 2. Percentage of the population to complete high school at the
beginning of each decade. Taken from Summary: Third State of Education
Report, by State of Nation Program, 2011, retrieved from http://www
.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php/biblioteca-virtual/costa-rica/english
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
Figure 3. Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high
school. Source: Estado de la Nación 2011, by Consejo Nacional de Rec-
tores, 2013, available from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
promote an environment of learning and establish a strong educational culture where all
students are developing, succeeding, and completing their education. School-site
leaders in Costa Rica can view this challenge as an area of growth when looking to
revise the focus of the school system, including policy, methodology, and curriculum.
Although the literacy rate in Costa Rica is high and attendance and graduation
rates have improved over the years, according to a study done by Creach (2010), Costa
Rican schools still struggle in many areas including classroom management and keeping
a focus on advancing education. The State Nation Program (2011) also unveiled weak-
nesses in the educational program that must be addressed by educational leaders. The
need for all grade levels to vertically and horizontally articulate about curriculum
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
improvements was a general recommendation found in the State of Nation Program’s
(2011) report. The Costa Rican curriculum was seen as unattractive, poorly structured,
and organized to be taught in an inefficient and insufficient manner. These internal
problems were coupled with external concerns of rundown facilities, inappropriate
supervisory practices, and excessive teacher absenteeism (Programa de Investigaciones
Meta Matemáticas, 2007).
Specifically for the secondary system, the lack of a consistent and relevant edu-
cational program, the quality of teachers and instructional methodologies applied in the
classrooms, the poor high school attendance and graduation rates, and the lack of
career- and college-ready pathways all must be addressed by the MEP before the Costa
Rican education system can see improvement, with the goal being sustainable growth
(State of Nation Program, 2011). A specific example of the need for greater improve-
ment in the education system related to the results of the professional skills and knowl-
edge assessment performed in 2010 by the MEP’s Quality Management and Assessment
Office. The assessment delineated that approximately a third of the 1,733 math teachers
assessed were not proficient in their subject area (State of Education Report, 2011).
The meager salaries, lack of performance incentives, poor working conditions, low
degree of prestige, and limited professional development opportunities dissuaded poten-
tial candidates and forced the MEP to hire candidates who were neither best qualified
nor the most motivated for the profession (Programa de Investigaciones Meta Matemá-
ticas, 2007). This lack of prepared human capital was a clear sign for a need to revise
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
the teaching profession and create a better teacher training program as well as higher
standards to motivate Costa Ricans to join the profession.
School improvement is truly effective only when the information and data that
drive decisions are generated at the school sites in terms of various aspects of schooling,
including academic performance, absenteeism, instructional strategies, socio-economic
status of students, and institutional management. There are various aspects of the Costa
Rican school system and leadership regime that should be reviewed before improve-
ments can be made at the school site. Part of creating a more constructive school
environment includes improving the classroom infrastructure and the school curriculum
so that teachers can be attracted to the profession and excited to teach and motivate
students to learn. The 21st-century skills, supported by MNCs and foundations such as
the Omar Dengo Foundation (ODF), must be embraced so that technology and pertinent
skills can be woven into the curriculum. A cultural change is also necessary so that
members of the community support the idea of higher learning because they feel that it
will advance them in their career. An overall method of accountability should be estab-
lished as well so that there are checkpoints for improvement and support for further
growth (State of Nation Program, 2011).
These areas of concern depict the need for strong instructional leadership and
proper school policies to have a positive, flourishing school environment—an area that
Costa Rican leaders should improve so that best practices can be implemented. This
study analyzed the implications for leaders based on the impact of investments by
MNCs due to globalization. The leadership frameworks of Bolman and Deal (2008)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
and Northouse (2010) provided guidelines on what leaders can be aware of and/or do
with respect to their decision-making process. Before going further into the roles and
responsibilities of educational leaders, the next portion of the literature review develops
a better understanding of the types of investments and opportunities that Costa Rica
received due to the country’s corporate partnerships.
Defining the Role of MNCs in Education
According to Solis (2011), FDIs have been a major factor in globalization.
MNCs have increased their role in education, whether it be direct funding or providing
educational curriculum, due to the rapidly growing global economy. In fact, MNCs
generate nearly a third of the world’s output and an even larger portion of the world
trade. Most developing countries grant subsidies as a key component of their develop-
ment strategy; however, Solis argued that countries should attract investments to de-
velop their productivity through research and design, quality of labor force, better infra-
structure and other key aspects to generate positive growth for a country. At this point,
state officials have agreed to the national strategy of increasing FDI because of the
impact of technical advancement and the development of human capital as well as the
lack of clear alternatives to advancing as a competitive nation (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The reasoning behind the impact of MNCs on education can be seen as a reciprocal
effect where underdeveloped countries begin to adjust their educational systems to
improve the country’s capacity and attract MNCs . Once this investment has been
secured, the countries seek further development in their educational system in order to
keep the partnership running successfully (González-Alvarado & Monge-González,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
2007). CINDE, a private, nonprofit organization founded in 1983, has functioned to
help develop the Costa Rican economy with a priority around FDIs. The success of
Intel’s investment has turned FDIs from a CINDE priority to a national strategy
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica has attracted FDI by establishing a Free Trade Zone (FTZ) regime
that provided tax incentives to MNCs to begin startup operations. Various companies
qualify for this FTZ agreement, such as export manufacturing companies, export trade
companies, export service companies, companies or organizations engaged in scientific
research, and manufacturing firms that can potentially export (CINDE, 2010). This
situation, along with Costa Rica’s political stability and high educational level, has
attracted investors to the country (CIA, 2012). FDI has been a valuable asset for Costa
Rica to develop and advance technologically, thus allowing domestic firms to compete
and even export in technologically intensive manufactured goods and services (Monge-
Naranjo, 2007). Monge-Naranjo (2007) argued that the fast and stunning transforma-
tion of the Costa Rican economy was due not only to the emphasis that the country puts
on education but also because of the large investments made by high-tech firms.
Rodríguez-Clare (2001) agreed that Costa Rica’s tremendous leap forward was due to
the increase in technical capacity and a knowledge-driven economy motivated by the
demands of a powerful global society.
Intel
The year 1996 brought the announcement that Intel, the world’s leader in the
semiconductor industry, was going to invest $300 million in Costa Rica to open a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
semiconductor assembly and test plant (World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency [MIGA], 2006). In 1998, the Intel Corporation began operations in
Costa Rica (González-Alvarado & Monge-González, 2007). Intel’s decision to invest
in Costa Rica was shocking to many but not to the Costa Ricans, who had put in a great
effort in marketing and promoting corporate investment explicitly targeting the technol-
ogy sector as an area of potential growth (Spar, 1998). CINDE played a large role in the
marketing and promotion process to convince Intel executives to invest. Overall, many
factors such as stability in the country’s economic and political conditions, potential
human capital, structural cost, the pro-business environment, logistics on manufacturing
time, and other aspects of business influenced Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica
(Spar, 1998). Once the partnership between Intel and Costa Rica began, the economic
and educational impact became quite evident. Intel has had a great impact on the Costa
Rican economy, representing approximately 23.4% of Costa Rica’s total exports and
producing more than 90% of the chips for servers that Intel sells around the world. This
growth in economy has largely to do with the increased capital and the highly qualified
personnel who were available to be hired over the past decade or so (González-
Alvarado & Monge-González, 2007).
Since 2005, Intel has sponsored over 250 research projects in various countries
all over the world, including Costa Rica. Intel has established teacher training programs
and collaborates with the MEP and other governmental agencies to revise curriculum
for the demands of the 21st-century. Intel annually supports the education system in
elementary schools, secondary schools, and universities with a $700,000 investment,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
not including the donations for laboratories to technical high schools and universities.
In 2001, the investments in electronics and English language laboratories reached
$2,500,000 (González-Alvarado & Monge-González, 2007). Intel has began many
programs to support student learning in a variety of content areas such as math, science,
and technical education at all levels: primary, secondary, and higher education. One of
the largest programs that Intel established was the Intel® Teach program (Intel, 2013).
The Intel® Teach program is a stellar program that has made teaching and
learning more effective through the use of technology. The program trains teachers to
integrate technology into their lessons and promote 21st-century skills such as digital
literacy, problem solving, critical thinking, and collaboration. Teachers learn how to
use data and create assessments that utilize technology and build teacher efficacy to
incorporate more technology into the classroom. The Intel® Teach Program curriculum
and training have been adopted by the MEP and is now part of the mandatory profes-
sional development for all teachers. Intel’s approach in this program is to empower
teachers with the knowledge of how and when to use technology tools and resources
while exposing teachers to new approaches for creating assessment tools, aligning
lessons with standards and learning objectives, and monitoring student progress (Intel®
Education, 2006).
This step-by-step training and use of job aids is an effective way to support
learning and close the knowledge gap that teachers have regarding incorporating tech-
nology in the classroom (Clark & Estes, 2008). The goal of this training is to have a
spillover effect whereby trained teachers can teach their colleagues and spread this new
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
approach to their profession. The benefits of this program include student exposure to
inquiry-based, technology-enriched projects that enhance learning and promote higher
order thinking skills. Intel supports all schools, including those in rural areas, by pro-
viding intensive training, computers, printers, and microscopes. As of 2006, approxi-
mately 30% of teachers (approximately 15,000 educators) have taken part in the Intel®
Teach Program, thus impacting the way that teachers teach and students learn in the
classroom (Intel® Education, 2006).
The impact of Intel in Costa Rica can be seen not only through its educational
involvement but also through its creation of jobs for the country’s citizens. A study
carried out in Costa Rica reflected that 27.5% of employees at local suppliers received
training from or worked in a MNC, including Intel. This information adds to the notion
that FDIs produce positive spillovers in host countries. The support in developing
human capital is an extremely valuable asset for Costa Rica, because the country does
not have the secondary- and university-level education it needs to actually support the
establishment of a strong work force. Low high school graduation rates leads to low
university enrollment, thereby giving Costa Rica about 50% of the enrollment that they
should have compared to other countries. The development of technical high schools
and universities such as the Costa Rica Institute of Technology with the support of
MNCs has generated the attention needed toward the requirement for 21st-century skills
and a knowledgeable work force prepared to compete in the global economy (González-
Alvarado & Monge-González, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
Cisco
Like most corporations, a driving force for Cisco, a world leader in Internet
network devices, to invest in Costa Rica was the already established, relatively high
level of education of Costa Rican citizens compared to other developing countries.
Cisco began operations in Costa Rica in 1996 with two employees; this number has now
increased to 20 employees who man the Central American headquarters in Costa Rica.
Cisco’s envisions changing the way in which people work, live, play, and learn by pro-
viding fast access to the latest technology available in Internet networks (González-
Alvarado and Monge-González, 2007).
An educational program begun by Cisco is the Networking Academy Program
that helps provide skills in information and communications technologies in an inno-
vative, dynamic, and hands-on manner. This approach to education supports Costa
Rica’s educational goals for teachers to be facilitators of learning, not just lecturers of
academic content. Cisco’s support also helps transform classroom activities and learn-
ing assessment practices once the educators of Costa Rica take advantage of the digital
resources such as online games and Internet collaborative environments, which are all
part of Cisco’s Networking Academy Program. This process allows Cisco to happily
provide support to developing countries by partaking in their corporate social responsi-
bility (Carreras, 2011).
Students reached by the Networking Academy Program are equipped with skills
to design, create, and maintain computer networks, thus allowing them to be prepared to
attain other relevant IT-related jobs with skills that meet market requirements. The
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
program has its own developed curriculum and training programs that are delivered via
the Internet, in-person teaching, and laboratory sessions. Since its establishment in
Costa Rica in 1999, the Cisco Networking Academy has been the main contributor to
students entering higher education with a focus in information technologies. The
program has expanded to 15 public and private educational institutions, including the
Costa Rican Technological Institute and the UCR (González-Alvarado and Monge-
González, 2007).
By 2006, Cisco has had 6,834 Costa Rican students participate in its program
that is designed to have students enjoy learning via entrepreneurial games such as
Aspire® that stimulate real-life situations that students may face at work (Carreras,
2011). In 2008, the MEP established the Youth Network Administrators Program that
expanded the Cisco program to 59 vocational high schools. Cisco’s support of educat-
ing Costa Ricans with 21st-century skills required by the growing global economy has
had positive impacts in developing its qualified human capital prepared for the work-
force (Carreras, 2011). The skills attained by Costa Ricans via Cisco training have also
added to the benefits that MNCs assess when deciding to invest in developing countries
(González-Alvarado and Monge-González, 2007).
Microsoft
Microsoft began investing in Costa Rica in June of 1995 as one of the first sub-
sidiaries located in Central America. The goal for Microsoft was to develop a local
growth strategy, which now employs a total of 43 Costa Rica (González-Alvarado &
Monge-González, 2007). Today, Microsoft has developed an IT Academy Program that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
sponsors schools around the world, including Costa Rica, with a curriculum that pro-
vides students with 21st-century technology skills (Microsoft IT Academy Program,
2012). One of the most successful programs that Microsoft had is the Partners in
Learning program that integrates three other programs: the Partners in Learning Grants
Program, Fresh Start for Donated Computers, and the School Agreement Subscription
and Licensing Program. Microsoft feels that a possible solution to the 48% of students
who drop out of secondary schools in Costa Rica is improving the quality of teachers
and the quality of evaluation instruments. Increasing teacher capacity is exactly what
the many programs facilitated by Microsoft are gearing to do by providing the resources
and training needed to implement technology into the educational world. By the year
2006, approximately 1,200 teachers and 75,000 students had been trained in Excel
XP®. The goal of the teacher training program was for teachers to pass on this knowl-
edge to their colleagues; for example, each teacher would train 20 more teachers to
create a domino effect on increasing technical capacity (González-Alvarado and
Monge-González, 2007).
Omar Dengo Foundation
The ODF of Costa Rica is a private, nonprofit organization that has been run-
ning since 1987 (Fundacion Omar Dengo, 2011). The goal of the ODF is to support
human development, educational innovation, and new technologies—all elements that
have benefitted over 1 million Costa Ricans, especially in the field of education with a
focus on implementation of technology (ODF, 2011). Most of ODF’s projects involve
an innovative use of technology that empowers students of all socioeconomic levels
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
with knowledge that is useful for their future. These projects are usually in partnership
with MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Wal-Mart, which are already investing in
underdeveloped countries such as Costa Rica to promote economic growth and com-
petition for those countries (SIS Newslog, 2010).
ODF’s partnership with Microsoft helped close the digital divide by implement-
ing the Learning Program that has benefitted approximately 1,175 schools, trained over
13,500 teachers, and reached approximately 764,000 students (Microsoft IT Academy
Program, 2012). ODF has also partnered with Cisco to establish the Cisco Networking
Academy in Costa Rica that supports teacher training and the technological develop-
ment of educational information that helps empower students with digital tools for job
skills and entrepreneurship (Carreras, 2011). Another large partnership for ODF and the
movement toward technology in the classroom is its support of the Intel® Teach
Program in collaboration with the MEP (Intel, 2013). The ODF has also partnered with
the MEP to design and launch the Educational Computing Program (ECP) which has
aimed to emphasize education on information and communications technologies. By
2006, the ECP had established 665 educational centers and reached 316,488 students for
the primary level of education and 197 educational centers that reached 130,615 stu-
dents at the secondary level of education (González-Alvarado & Monge-González,
2007). ODF’s partnership with various corporations and the MEP in Costa Rica has
impacted the education system with greater exposure to necessary 21st-century skills
that will help employ Costa Ricans in the demanding, knowledge-based economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
Impact of MNCs on Education
All of the organizations discussed above (i.e., Intel, Microsoft, Cisco, and ODF)
not only promoted educational changes in Costa Rica but also had a human resources
policy, motivated by developing their workers’ skills through training programs both
inside and outside the firms (González-Alvarado & Monge-González, 2007). Although
Costa Rica has aggressively taken part in developing human capital via education, in
order to match the need to increase its trading business, it still exhibits a shortage of
critical skills that must be developed to match those of competing developed countries
(Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Monge-Naranjo’s (2007) research depicts that the education
and training institutions are not addressing this problem in the appropriate and effective
manner that would allow a sense of growth and improvement. The question remains as
to how businesses’ and industries’ influence actually impacts education (Brown, 1999).
In 1996, corporate spending on education was approximately $3.5 billion, but who
benefitted, student knowledge and learning or the corporation’s bottom line (Brown,
1999)? Brown (1999) saw IT training offered by corporations as a significant contribu-
tor in enhancing technical capacity in students; however, the concern was whether the
technical capacity was too formulaic for a company, thus creating rote memorization
rather than innovative learning applications that could be utilized in any industry.
Brown also saw the impact of technical investment sd greater in vocational educational
programs where business and educational partnerships have supported the skilled
human capital demand in growing industries.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
Whether or not schools, businesses, or both are benefitting from a corporate-
education partnership, it seems like common sense that this partnership is the most
attractive when goals for both organizations are in sight (Brown, 1999). It can be con-
cluded that companies such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco directly and indirectly pro-
moted changes in the Costa Rican education system by supporting its transition into the
knowledge-based economy (González-Alvarado and Monge-González, 2007). How-
ever, critics such as Psacharopoulos (1994) have argued that investments in education
hold a pattern of returns that decline steadily by the levels of schooling and the coun-
try’s per capita income, although investment in women’s education tends to be more
profitable than for men and returns are greater for the private competitive sector of the
economy than the public sector. Brown (1999) suggested that in order for education to
undergo a positive transformation to meet the needs of today’s global societies, cor-
porations have to look at their investments in education not as profit motivators but
rather as investment in the future work force. González-Alvarado and Monge-González
(2007) suggested although they did not have enough data to conduct an analysis of
impact of MNCs on education, they did feel that there is a strong spillover and spinoff
effect generated by this partnership.
The literature is still unclear on the impact of corporate investments on educa-
tion, thus leaving room for further research. Regardless of the direct benefactor of cor-
porate investments in education, this type of investment continues to be a popular and
attractive opportunity for both the private and social sectors involved (Psacharopoulos,
1994). This study looked at the current impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
and what the implications have been for educational leaders to help create a more effec-
tive educational environment that produces positive, productive members of society.
Educational Leadership: Leaders for a Global Society
School leaders face a challenging and rapidly changing world, impacted by
globalization and the need to advance the education system to stay competitive with the
demands of the global society. Friedman (2005) discussed the impact of globalization
through the eyes of a software engineer from India who viewed the advancement in
technology and communication as the tools that are breaking the barriers that once
existed around the world. People can do an increased amount of work and engage in
learning any time, anywhere, due to 21st-century digitalization (Friedman, 2005).
Innovative leaders have embraced the world of computer-based education, thereby
breaking down any barriers and providing unlimited access to global education in a
virtual world (Christensen, 2008). Educational leaders today need to understand how to
prepare all people to participate as productive, responsible citizens of this global society
by learning how the educational systems must change to enable individuals to fulfill
their career potential that are practical for today’s society. This task requires authentic,
relevant learning that has meaning to the learner and an end goal in sight (Brown, 1999).
Ambrose, Bridges, Dipietro, Lovett, and Norman (2010) emphasized the impor-
tance and value of taking learning research and implementing it in teaching practice
with the support of proactive, progressive leaders who see beyond the duties of manage-
ment and embrace the duties of creation for competition in a constantly changing world.
According to McGowan and Miller (2001), an effective leader is able to provide a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
vision, embrace change while making it seem easy for others, engage all stakeholders,
and inspire staff to implement new strategies that are aimed toward the school environ-
ment. This type of transformational leadership requires commitment, risk, empathy,
and persuasive communication that allow for the greater good to be pursued (McGowan
& Miller, 2001).
Gordon (2003) discussed the importance of new leadership roles and visions in
A Nation At Risk. According to Gordon, the world is changing but schools are remain-
ing stagnant in their approach to educating the youth of this world, especially at a time
when the need for highly skilled workers is rapidly increasing. America once led in
commerce, industry, science, and technology but now is being overtaken by competitors
all over the world. Leaders have to walk away from a pure managerial approach and
embrace a visionary, innovative, and unique approach to education that allows for the
elements of change required for success in the global world (Gordon, 2003). McGowan
and Miller (2001) also agreed that leaders today are no longer just managers but have
become risk takers; visionaries; catalysts for sustainable, systemic change; and most
importantly, inspirational figures who can move the masses. Gordon brought his audi-
ence’s attention to four main aspects of the educational process that should be
addressed: content, expectations, time, and teaching. Within these aspects are recom-
mendations and goals to embrace and utilize as leaders create a progressive vision for
the world of education. This process emphasizes how important it is for leaders to
follow through and be held accountable for the implementation of an action plan that
aligns to the new vision.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
Many leaders from the past have set great examples to be followed. Their in-
genuity, charisma, and passion for leadership has left a strong mark on history. Stengel
(2008) discussed eight lessons of leadership that he learned from his conversations and
observations of the great South African leader, Nelson Mandela. Mandela fought for
what was right; he did not care about the risks that he was taking or how much he was
challenging the norm. All he cared about was establishing change for the betterment of
society. Stengel listed Mandela’s eight lessons of leadership as the following: (a)
“Courage is not the absence of fear—it’s inspiring others to move beyond it” (para. 5),
(b) “Lead from the front—but do not leave your base behind” (para. 6); (c) “Lead from
the back—and let others believe they are in front” (para. 7), (d) “Know your enemy—
and learn about his favorite sport” (para. 8), (e) “Keep your friends close—and your
rivals even closer” (para. 9), (f) “Appearances matter—and remember to smile” (para.
10), (g) “Nothing is black and white” (para. 11), and (h) “Quitting is leading too” (para.
12). The overall message by Mandela was the necessity for leaders to be like chame-
leons, changing form and assessing their role constantly to fit the need of the situation.
Leadership requires understanding politics, always being one step ahead, and knowing
when to strike. A strong leader is a powerful tactician—an activist who knows when to
stir up trouble with the aim of making the world a better place (Stengel, 2008).
Another leader who set a powerful tone on the vital aspects of leadership was
Niccolo Machiavelli, as discussed by Baldridge, Julius, and Pfeffer (1999). In a re-
sponse to top executives of a school, Machiavelli addressed the vision of the school
administrators to move forward with a bold tomorrow; to embrace technology, distance
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
learning, and diversity; to increase accountability; and to establish greater partnerships
with the business community. Machiavelli questioned not the goals of these adminis-
trators but rather the method of implementation of how all of the aims would be accom-
plished while providing advice on how to be an effective leader. Machiavelli recog-
nized the complicated decision-making process where leaders had to become more
creative and persuasive in their approach toward change, realizing that people will not
automatically adopt a new vision but will need to be convinced. Machiavelli suggested
10 rules for change-oriented leaders to consider when exploring various tactical strate-
gies to employ in their plan of action. Baldridge et al. listed the following rules as
written by Machiavelli in his memo to the executive school leaders:
1. Integrity, wisdom and selflessness are the cornerstones of building relation-
ships and motivating others to trust in your words, your vision. . . .
2. Build your team with those who are accountable and driven to push for
change. . . .
3. Concentrate your efforts on the most vital issues so that your resources are
used effectively and efficiently. . . .
4. Know when to engage in conflict. . . .
5. Learn the history—make sure you are empowered with the data and research
you need to prove you have made an informed decision. . . .
6. Strategic planning ensures that you have a response to all of the aspects that
you may face as you begin working toward a new vision. . . .
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
7. Use committees effectively by appointing the key members and keeping
them on task through avid participation and reminders of the ultimate goal.
. . .
8. Use the formal system—look for support, ask for what you want. . . .
9. Follow through to push the decision flow by acting in a timely fashion and
not losing momentum. . . .
10. Glance backward and reflect on what was accomplished, what needs to be
revised and what still needs to be addressed. Evaluate the performance and
decide how to move forward. (pp. 115–133)
Machiavelli puts it simply when he said that “true leaders offer and implement
solutions” (Baldridge et al., 1999, p. 129). Machiavelli’s perspective on leadership
along with that of Mandela and others experienced in the role of a leader shares great
insight into the process that it takes for leaders to promote effective sustainable change.
The following three frameworks of Bolman and Deal, Marzano, and Northouse focus on
what it takes for leaders to truly lead their organizations into the 21st-century.
Bolman and Deal
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework was utilized throughout this
study to aid in understanding the implications that Costa Rican educational leaders face
as they encounter global change and try to meet the demands of the 21st-century skills
that will keep their country competitive with the rest of society. There are four main
categories in Bolman and Deal’s framework that support various elements of leadership
that leaders need to be aware of to facilitate successful and sustainable success: a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
structural lens, a human resource lens, a political lens, and a symbolic lens. The struc-
tural lens focuses on the makeup of the organization, including its design, environment,
rules and roles, goals, and policies. The human resources lens focuses on people; their
strengths and weaknesses; their skill, ability, and value to organization; and their overall
readiness to provide a positive resource to an organization. The political lens provides a
competitive view among those fighting for the scarce resources that would give their
organization a powerful and advantageous position in society. Under the symbolic lens,
leaders need to grasp the importance of embracing cultural values while still maintain-
ing a balance with the need to move forward and take on new initiatives that will im-
prove the quality of education. All of these frames together provide great perspective
on what leaders need to be aware of as they make decisions for their organization. As
seen previously in the Costa Rican State of Education Report (State of Nation Program,
2011), there are many areas of growth where Costa Rican school leaders can examine
the various aspects that comprise their school system and methods by which they can
approach improvement toward growth and development. These frames were the tools
utilized by this study to analyze the Costa Rican leadership as it is impacted by global-
ization and, in turn, MNCs.
Marzano
Marzano et al. (2005) defined the 21 responsibilities of a school leader that can
really impact how leaders approach their role and set up their organization for success.
These 21 responsibilities are (a) affirmation; (b) change agent; (c) contingent rewards;
(d) communication; (e) culture; (f) discipline; (g) flexibility; (h) focus; (I) ideals/beliefs;
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
(j) input; (k) intellectual stimulation; (l) involvement in curriculum, instruction, and
assessment; (m) knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; (n) monitoring
and evaluating; (o) optimizer; (p) order; (q) outreach; (r) relationships; (s) resources; (t)
situational awareness; and (u) visibility.
Leaders need to make sure to provide both positive feedback (rewarding individ-
ual and group accomplishments) as well as constructive criticism when needed. Shying
away from addressing the gaps in an organization is not an option. A strong leader
continues to challenge the status quo, communicate with his or her staff and students,
and fosters a culture of shared beliefs and a sense of community. Leaders must be able
to react properly in the moment and be flexible to the needs of current situations while
keeping a focus on their goals and a vision for their organization. Any form of shared
decision making that allows for the staff to input their ideas develops a stronger com-
munity. Professional development that stimulates intellectual growth is an effective
way for a leader to have his or her organization embrace cutting-edge methodologies.
The leader must be knowledgeable on the current curriculum and should be hands on
with any form of curriculum development, including implementation, instructional
approach, and assessment practices. Leaders are responsible for monitoring and evalu-
ating the effectiveness of the various aspects of their organization in order to establish
operating procedures and standards that are geared toward achieving their organiza-
tional goals. Leaders need to be visible to their stakeholders, build relationships, pro-
vide their staff with resources, and—most importantly—inspire and lead the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
organization in directions that allow it to face the world’s challenges and remain com-
petitive (Marzano et. al., 2005).
This study examined how Costa Rican school leaders take on their roles and
responsibilities to meet the challenges of a globalized educational world that requires
the utilization of 21st-century skills.
Northouse
Northouse (2010) provided a way of linking theoretical leadership to practical
leadership by providing a greater understanding of applicable leadership skills and
methodologies. A focus of the study examined the impact of globalization and MNCs
on education. A part of this impact can be viewed by the transformational leadership
lens that focuses on how leaders affect emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-
term goals in order to implement and sustain change. Transformational leadership is
what organizations need today, allowing them to progress toward the calling of the
future and empowering their members with tools that help them succeed. The trans-
formational leader is also seen as the charismatic leader who can persuade others by
raising the level of motivation in all stakeholders. A transformational leader has a
dominant, confident personality with strong morals, who leads by example and wins the
trust of his or her followers through a display of competence and clear communication
of goals that are aligned to the society’s culture and provide for seamless transitions.
This element ties into the leader–member exchange theory, where relationships are de-
veloped so that organizational goals can be successfully implemented with the passion
and drive required to accomplish the goal. This theory emphasizes the importance of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
communication, alignment of goals, and a focus on the leader–member relationship that
leaders must understand to see their organization grow together, in one direction and
toward one vision (Northouse, 2010). The path–goal leadership theory also focuses on
how to motivate employees to achieve their designated goals that add to the vision of
the organization. This task requires leaders to understand the potential of their employ-
ees and provide support where support is needed to accomplish goals. Most signifi-
cantly, it is important for leaders to provide employees with goals that are attainable
with enough of a challenge so that the employees are growing and learning but not
discouraged to work toward for fear of failure.
All three of the leadership theory frameworks provide guidance for leaders to
understand and embrace in order to implement change and see progress in their organi-
zation. This study analyzed how Costa Rican school leaders are impacted by the
changes coming with a globalized world and also how these changes were implemented
in the field with the use of effective leadership strategies and methodologies, as pre-
sented through the aforementioned frameworks. As seen by the State of Education
Report (State of Nation Program, 2011), Costa Rica has plenty of room to grow when it
comes to school attendance, graduation rates, school environment, integration of 21st-
century skills and curriculum, and–most importantly–a strengthened and educated
school leadership workforce. Leaders need to turn their focus to strengthening the skills
and capabilities of their citizens in order to help their economy and remain prosperous
and competitive on a global scale (Christensen, 2008). All of the elements listed above
fall into various categories of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework that Costa Rican
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
educational leaders need to be aware of to begin effecting change for the education
system.
The MEP (2007) in Costa Rica is responsible for the educational leadership,
including policy creation, decision making, and implementing and supporting the vari-
ous elements needed in educational organizations. With FDIs increasing and MNCs
viewing Costa Rica as an area that has a large labor force to develop and equip with the
tools needed for their jobs, educational leaders must revise their vision for the Costa
Rican education system to build on this combined vision set by the encouragement of
greater support. The Constitution of Costa Rica drives the policy changes made by the
MEP (2007), including the addition of 21st-century aims and objectives for school
leaders that are addressed in detail in the following section. The educational leaders at
both the school site and the ministry level were contacted in this study to determine how
they implemented policy change and made decisions through the lenses of the Bolman
and Deal (2008), Marzano et al. (2005), and Northouse (2010) frameworks for the
benefit of Costa Rica.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Globalization has broken national barriers and increased competition that re-
quires 21st-century skill capacity. Technological advancements rapidly change the
global labor market demands, replacing old jobs with new jobs and moving existing
jobs around the globe for cheaper labor or a more creative approach. Globalization has
diversified potential customers for products and services, presenting both challenges
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
and vast opportunities for innovation, specializations, and exponential growth (Zhao,
2013).
Global competence is now a 21st-century imperative in order to be prepared for
the competitive work force (National Education Association, 2010). Various research
studies have surveyed employers to identify the necessary skills to excel in the work-
place. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS; 1991)
listed four areas required to be successful in the workplace: basic skills, thinking skills,
personal qualities, and workplace skills. Basic skills consisted of skills such as reading,
speaking, writing, and listening both in English and in Spanish. Thinking skills in-
cluded creativity, innovation, decision making, and problem solving. Personal qualities
that employers looked for were responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-agency, and
integrity. Finally, vital workplace skills included the ability to allocate resources, inter-
personal abilities, technical ability, a systemic thought process, and the ability to
manage information (SCANS, 1991). The demands of the workplace have driven
educational evolvement around the world so that countries could stay competitive in the
global society.
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) has developed a framework that
is meant to guide educational organizations toward developing successful students for
the new global economy. This is an emerging organization that has taken on a leading
role as advocates of redefining rigor in the knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008). The
main components of the 21st-century skills framework are the following three large
themes that are interwoven throughout the core subject areas of English, world
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
Figure 4. Framework for 21st-century learning. Taken from
Overview: Framework for 21st Century Learning, by Partnership
for 21st Century Skills, 2009, retrieved from http://www.p21.org/
overview/ skills-framework
languages, arts, mathematics, economics, science, geography, history, government, and
civics: (a) learning and innovation skills; (b) life and career skills; and (c) information,
media, and technology skills.
This framework comes with a support system that helps develop these abilities
in students, including standards and assessments, curriculum and instruction, profes-
sional development, and learning environments (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2009). Figure 4 represents the 21st-century student outcomes and support systems as
created by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills organization.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
Learning and innovation skills focus on the four C’s: creativity, critical thinking,
communication and collaboration. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) described
creativity as thinking on a wide spectrum, including working creatively with others and
implementing ideas in creative ways. Critical thinking was broken down into effective
reasoning, systems of thinking, ability to make judgments and decisions as well as
problem solve. Communication included people developing strong and articulate
written and oral skills so that they can collaborate effectively and respectfully with
others whether it be in homogeneous or heterogeneous settings. Life and career skills
are focused on the ability of students to be flexible and have the ability to adapt to
various situations, to take initiative and have self-direction, to have social and cross-
cultural skills, to be productive members of society and be held accountable to produce
results, and to be able to lead responsibly. Information, media, and technology skills
aim to develop literacy to access, evaluate, utilize, and manage information while also
enable the individual to analyze and create media products by applying technology
effectively (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) went into higher levels of learn-
ing in schools by incorporating the following interdisciplinary themes into the core
subjects: (a) global awareness; (b) financial, economic, business, and entrepreneurial
literacy; (c) civic literacy; (d) health literacy; and (e) environmental literacy. The
overall goal of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills was to provide the tools and
resources necessary for schools to utilize and facilitate needed change for the 21st
century. The next section provides a similar vision and framework regarding 21st-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
century skills, but through the eyes and research of Wagner (2008). Both frameworks
were used to analyze the Costa Rican school system and determine the implications for
educational leaders to meet the newly established policy set by their country’s officials
with the goal of remaining active participants in a global society.
Wagner (2008) emphasized that the global achievement gap exists because of
the lack of 21st-century skills instilled in students, especially when looking at technical
capacity in the knowledge age that emphasizes proficiency in soft skills. Today’s
world, impacted by globalization, demands skilled students who can meet the needs of
the current economy. Wagner unraveled what he felt were the seven survival skills
necessary to survive and be successful in the 21st century—skills that are aligned with
the perspective of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) framework discussed
earlier. The seven survival skills discovered and elaborated on by Wagner as he
engaged in a study involving representatives from the new world of work were the
following:
1. Critical thinking and problem solving
2. Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
3. Agility and adaptability
4. Initiative and entrepreneurialism
5. Effective oral and written communication
6. Accessing and analyzing information
7. Curiosity and imagination. (p. 67)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
Critical thinking and problem solving encompass taking initiative, asking good
questions, and—most of all—learning to have a holistic, systemic perspective when
approaching different scenarios (Wagner, 2008). Wagner (2008) held discussions with
high-end corporate executives at Dell and Cisco, both of whom claimed that these are
essential skills for the workplace, especially because business today requires networks
of cross-functional teams that work on projects that do not have prescribed solutions;
therefore, employees are required to think on their feet and discover potential solutions
or plans of action. It is important for educators to approach learning as constant rather
than established because “yesterday’s solution does not solve tomorrow’s problem”
(Wagner, 2008, pp. 17). Wagner portrayed critical thinking and problem solving as a
skill that is not taught well in schools today, thus creating a gap that must be addressed
immediately by educators.
Collaboration across networks and leading by influence are defined as commu-
nication with no boundaries with the support of technology and the creation of virtual
teams. This survival skill described by Wagner (2008) is aligned to the global aware-
ness component in the 21st-century skills framework, both demanding the existence of
“global consciousness,” including diverse cultures, languages, and religions. Wagner
interviewed a Siemens executive who stated that the hardest part of teaching this collab-
orative skill was having her employees understand how to work individually while
trusting and communicating with those afar. The understanding to work fluidly with
very few to no boundaries is an essential skill that must be integrated into the education
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
system so that it becomes a seamless transition for those entering the global market—
whether it be in business, military, or other platforms of the economy (Wagner, 2008).
Agility and adaptability are necessary skills in a world that is constantly chang-
ing, being updated by a tremendous amount of data that are adding to the complexity of
problems that people have to address, whether individually or in teams. This is a chal-
lenge in the current economy because it is a hard skill to learn for those who have been
so set in their ways of business and life in the past. According to Wagner (2008),
executives of various companies such as Dell, BOC Edwards, and Cisco stated that it is
important for their employees to be able to respond to new, unpredictable information
that allows them to perform as needed across various scenarios, new and old. Schools
tend to promote the idea of looking for the one right answer, but today’s world demands
that people can find multiple solutions to a problem and accept that those solutions can
change in a heartbeat, thus forcing them to process the content all over again (Wagner,
2008).
Initiative and entrepreneurism allow people to be prepared to look for new
opportunities, creative ideas, and strategies for improvement (Wagner, 2008). Large
corporations today look for those to employ who are willing to stretch their limits, are
willing to take risks, and are not afraid to fail. Schools today need to equip students
with an entrepreneurial spirit that allows them to meet the needs of today’s knowledge-
based workforce—a term coined by Peter Drucker in 1959 (Wagner, 2008). Chris-
tensen (2008), author of Disrupting Class, also agreed on the value of innovation and
creativity in maximizing human potential. Students today need the type of education
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
that allows them to explore their creativity, build on their ambition, and persevere
through difficult tasks (Wagner, 2008).
Effective oral and written communication is so vital in a world where the walls
of communication are coming down and the partnerships and experiences that people
are facing are on a global scale. Workers and students today not only need to master the
basic etiquette of communication but also must learn to communicate over email, con-
ference calls, web chats, and other forms of virtual communication. Studies conducted
by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (as cited in Wagner, 2008) depicted that over
50% of the employers interviewed greatly valued the importance of written communica-
tion, yet approximately 80% of the respondents said that high school students were
deficient in this skill, approximately 46% respondents stated that 2-year college gradu-
ates were deficient and that approximately 26% of 4-year college graduates were defi-
cient in this skill. The general message is that all forms of communication is an impor-
tant skill that students and workers must acquire in order to be successful (Wagner,
2008).
Accessing and analyzing information has become more challenging in the 21st
century because of the plethora of sources and data to collect and analyze. This skill
also requires the ability to think critically, remain flexible with procedures, and to be
creative regarding the process and potential of the data accessed and analyzed. Employ-
ers look for those who can see beyond the obvious, who can rapidly weed through pro-
digious amounts of information in order to focus on usable data, and who are willing to
be lifelong learners as the pace, model, and vision of businesses evolve with the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
demands of current society. Schools must focus on the skill of synthesis and provide
students with the opportunities to explore, access, and analyze the world of information
that is available at their finger tips (Wagner, 2008).
Curiosity and imagination allow for greater innovation and advancement in
multiple aspects of life. Wagner (2008) discussed this concept with business people,
who stated that they look for potential employees who are inquisitive and ask meaning-
ful questions, as these are the ones who move the fastest and come up with the most
impacting solutions in an innovative fashion. Businesses are looking for people who
are authentic, unique, empathetic to societies needs and able to influence those needs in
directions that enhances their business. Instead, schools today can be formulaic, pre-
scriptive to the basic foundation of learning and knowledge across content areas when
the actual skills students need to be exposed to utilizing is creation—letting their imagi-
nation and curiosity lead them in directions of infinite possibilities (Wagner, 2008).
The seven survival skills for the 21st century described by Wagner (2008) along
with the 21st-century students outcomes and support systems of Partnership for 21st
Century Skills (2009) are two aligned frameworks that were utilized in this study to
analyze the Costa Rican school system and how leaders were integrating these values to
empower their students to prepare for the knowledge-based economy. The disparity
between the “old world” of the classroom and the “new world” of work is the gap that
Wagner highlighted as being required to address by school leaders to keep their student
population competitive for the current job market. The educational leaders in Costa
Rica at all levels must embrace the need to develop a vision that allows for a shift in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
focus for the schools in the country so that they can be considered 21st-century schools.
As seen in the coming section, Costa Rica, with the encouragement and support of
MNCs, has taken on the task of revising their focus on education to prepare citizens for
the current demands of the global society.
Twenty-First-Century Skills in Costa Rica
Officials of Costa Rica are engaged in discussion regarding revisions of the
goals of the Costa Rican education system as represented by the Constitution of Costa
Rica (2012) and elaborated on by the MEP (CINDE, 2011b). As discussed earlier,
Costa Rica’s focus on the development of 21st-century skills has been supported by
various studies that look at skills required for the current labor force and further eco-
nomic growth (CINDE, 2011b).
The MEP (2007) has embarked on an innovative effort to establish and support
the development of 21st-century policy that allows the implementation of constitutional
mandates while meeting today’s realities. On November 8, 1994, the educational policy
going into the 21st century was approved by the higher education council. The follow-
ing aims and objectives listed by the MEP (2007) became the focus of sustainable
development:
1. Close the existing quality of education gap between urban and rural areas.
2. Train human resources that raise the country’s competitiveness necessary to
succeed in international markets.
3. Strengthen fundamental values that have been lost with the passage of time.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
4. Strengthen technical and scientific education while developing extracurricu-
lar and cultural aspects of a person as a way to develop the holistic child.
5. Raise awareness in individuals about the commitment to future generations,
ensuring a sustainable economic and social development in harmony with
nature and the environment in general. (para. 2)
The aims and results stated by the MEP (2007) portray an innovative, purposeful drive
to strengthen the following programs:
1. Foreign language development program,
2. Program for the improvement of the quality of education and life in the
communities of care priority,
3. Computer education program,
4. Teacher capacity in the rural areas,
5. Improvement of the secondary education program,
6. Development of thought program, and
7. Environmental education and sustainable development program. (para. 3)
The educational policy geared toward 21st-century skills development refers to
three philosophical visions: Humanist, Rationalist, and Constructivist (MEP, 2007).
The humanist vision looks at developing the holistic person and understanding a per-
son’s greatest potential with the support of educational law that impacts the individual
and the social nature of society. The rationalist’s philosophy recognizes that people
have the capacity to objectively understand what they must do to continuously improve
and learn with the aims for greater progress toward reaching individual goals. The
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
constructivist philosophy focuses on cultural background and prior knowledge with
which students come to school equipped, thus aligning learning with instructional
strategies that draw in student attention and motivation by using the familiar (MEP,
2007).
The MEP and its partnerships with corporations and foundations constitute a
decisive move toward embracing the need for greater 21st-century skills that can pre-
pare Costa Ricans for the knowledge-driven economy (Intel® Education, 2006). These
public-private sector partnerships are supporting the revision of policy and methods of
implementation to improve teaching and learning through the effective use of technol-
ogy and greater research in the areas needed. The development of 21st-century skills for
students in Costa Rica due to globalization and the impact of MNCs was part of this
study to aid in developing an understanding regarding implications for the Costa Rican
educational leadership.
Summary of the Literature Review
The review of the literature depicted an established understanding of globaliza-
tion’s impact on education, MNCs’ impact on education, the change in policy due to
globalization and the presence of MNCs, as well as the current state of education that
Costa Rican schools face. Understanding the history of Costa Rica, the culture, and the
vision of the country with both history and culture in mind helps the researcher to com-
prehend the decisions made by educational policymakers and change agents of the
country.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
The review also established the gaps in the literature that should be addressed
regarding the education system in Costa Rica and the role of the educational leaders at
various levels. A vital report to this understanding was the Estado de la Nacion (State
of the Nation) report (CONARE, 2013) that portrayed the need for Costa Rica to im-
prove its educational programs based on the low attendance and graduation rates at the
secondary schools. Another highlighted portion was the need to increase a knowledge-
based labor force that can meet the demands for careers in a thriving global market.
Based on these gaps, certain frameworks such as Bolman and Deal (2008) for educa-
tional leadership, Spring (2008) for globalization, and Wagner (2008) for 21st-century
skills were determined as the ones to be utilized as the conceptual blueprints when
analyzing the data collected during the actual study in Costa Rica.
The ultimate goal of the study is to provide implications and suggestions for
Costa Rican educational leaders to help their students and the broader community be
more successful at competing in the knowledge-based global economy. The following
chapter describes the research team, the design of the study, and the plan of action for
this case study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
Over the past few decades, the increase in FDI and its impact on educational
policy in Costa Rica have taken education in Costa Rica in different directions, with the
overall goal of making the students competitive for this global economy. Between 1994
and current times, various MNCs such as Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft have invested in
educational resources and trainings to support the new 21st-century initiatives set by the
MEP (CINDE, 2011a). A significant goal of the MNCs’ investments in the education
sector of Costa Rica was to empower citizens with useful skills that prepared them to be
knowledgeable human capital, ready to embrace the opportunities offered by the new
world economy (Intel® Education, 2006). Corporations not only have depended on
direct training and services provided to the schools and their educators but also have
expected a spillover effect that would spread the new knowledge quickly (Intel® Educa-
tion, 2006). A large part of this strategy was the partnership between corporations and
educational leaders, who understood that policy, accountability, and implementation of
21st-century skills had to be at the forefront of this venture.
Chapter 2 presented an overview and analysis of the existing literature as related
to globalization, MNCs, the history and school system of Costa Rica, as well as global-
ization, leadership, and 21st-century skills frameworks that provide a guiding point for
data collection and analysis. Spring’s (2008) framework on globalization examines the
four major theoretical processes concerning globalization and education: world culture,
world systems, postcolonial, and culturalist. The world culture view perceives one
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
global culture, whereas the world systems process breaks the world into two unequal
zones, rich and poor. The leadership framework on which the research team focused
when collecting and analyzing data is from Bolman and Deal (2008). Bolman and Deal
broke down leadership into four categories—human resources, political, structural, and
symbolic—with the optimal form of leadership being one that finds a healthy blend of
all four categories. Finally, the focus for analysis of 21st-century skills utilized by the
researcher was Wagner’s (2008) framework, wherein seven main elements vital to the
21st century are defined. The depth of these frameworks can be referenced in the
literature review.
A cohort of 12 doctoral students at University of Southern California (USC),
Rossier School of Education, in conjunction with Costa Rican Schools, corporations,
and the government, embarked on a study to establish the impact of globalization and
MNCs on schools in Costa Rica, as well as the implications for the educational leaders.
The next section describes the research team, processes, and the actual research study in
detail.
Research Team
The research cohort conducting the qualitative case study was led by Dr. Mi-
chael Escalante. The 12 students are broken into three focus groups geared toward
studying the various aspects of education in Costa Rica, including the university, sec-
ondary, and primary levels. Throughout the study, the research team collaborated on the
foundational discussions of globalization, the history of Costa Rica, and education in
Costa Rica. As the team worked on laying out the landscape of existing research on the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
main topics of globalization, MNCs, educational leadership, and 21st-century skills,
communication began on building relationships with people who could provide greater
depth and support for the study within these areas. Together, the team developed rela-
tionships with executives at corporations in Costa Rica, the MEP in Costa Rica, and
various leaders and stakeholders of education in Costa Rica. The nature of this interna-
tional study led to the formation of an exploratory group consisting of some of the team
members and Dr. Michael Escalante taking an initial visit to Costa Rica to meet those
individuals from whom the team would need support and access as they prepared for the
design of the study. The next section lays out the initial relationships developed by the
exploratory group that went down to Costa Rica in March, 2013.
Exploratory Visit
The purpose of the exploratory visit was to meet with corporate representatives,
educational leaders, government leaders, and other stakeholders who could give the
research team access to the school-site leaders and policy decision makers who provided
the team members with a sampling of participants whom they were looking to acquire
for the study. Creswell (2009), Maxwell (2013), Merriam (2009), and Patton (2002)
referred to this type of acquisition of participants as the snowball effect. This phenome-
non is discussed further in the research design and sample population sections of this
study.
The exploratory trip resulted in meetings with the former president of the coun-
try; the MEP; the Dean of the College of Education at UCR; the director of the think
tank that informs government policy; the director of CINDE, a Costa Rican nonprofit
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
investment promotional agency; the director of Intel® Education programs in Costa
Rica; the director of the FTZ business association; the director of Costa Rica-United
States of America Foundation for Cooperation (CRUSA; a partnership between the two
countries with respect to educational approach, funding, etc.), and the lead researcher
and author of the Estado de la Nacion, which is the annual report that provides the
status of the educational system in Costa Rica. Informal interviews took place with all
of these preliminary participants. The next section provides a general overview of the
information gained during those informal interviews.
Miguel Angel Rodriguez, was the president of Costa Rica from 1988 to 2002
(personal communication, March 2013). His perspective on the value of MNCs began
as early as the export of bananas from American-owned corporations during the 1940s
and 1950s. Rodríguez felt that globalization is important and is proud to have corpora-
tions such as Intel choose Costa Rica as the competitive place in which to invest, pri-
marily due to the high literacy rate and educational level. The next meeting was with
Alicia Porras Vargas, director of the Institute of Educational Research (INIE). This
organization aims to improve the Costa Rican educational system via research collabo-
ration on both national and international scales (A. P. Vargas, personal communication,
March 2013). The greatest challenge shared by Vargas was the high rate of attrition
(i.e., dropout rate) at the secondary level. This statement was aligned with the state of
education report data on Costa Rican graduation rates (State of Nation Program, 2011).
Dr. Ann Lupita Chaves, Dean of the UCR College of Education, joined this meeting and
added that the greatest impact of corporations like Intel has been in urban centers with
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
some rural areas, specifically in the neighborhood of Belen, where the 12 Intel schools
are located (personal communication, March 2013). Both Chaves and Vargas spoke
highly of the ODF as the initial supporter of technology in the schools around the 1990s.
Dr. Ricardo G. Monge (personal communication, March 2013), an associate
researcher and advisory council member during President Rodríguez’s term in office,
stated his role to support Costa Rica’s continued growth as a knowledge-based economy
was to provide research and inform policy decisions made at the government level. The
next valuable meeting and informal interview was with Gabriella Llobet (personal com-
munication, March 2013), the director of CINDE, a private, nonprofit organization that
has been a significant player in the attraction of various FDIs with MNCs such as Intel,
Procter & Gamble, Hospira, Baxter, St. Jude Medical Center, and Western Union.
Llobet expressed the importance of CINDE’s work and support in increasing the skilled
labor force of Costa Rica.
The next meeting conducted was with Michelle Coffey (personal communica-
tion, March 2013), director of strategic partnerships for CRUSA, a private, independent
nonprofit organization whose mission is to build the greatest cooperation between the
countries of Costa Rica and the United States. A significant focus that Coffey men-
tioned in the informal interview was the importance of organizing and improving inter-
actions among private citizens, corporate citizens, and government institutions, with the
aim to increase government capacity and develop public-private sector relationships.
An interesting perspective that Coffey presented was the belief that there should be a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
skills gap analysis in the country that can drive educational decisions, including a new
direction for the teacher education program at the university levels.
One of the first contacts made in Costa Rica via email was with Dr. Leonardo
Garnier, Minister of Public Education, a very resourceful person in helping the research
cohort gain access to school administrators at the site levels and other valuable indi-
viduals. Dr. Garnier (personal communication, March 2013) discussed his concerns
regarding the educational system, including teacher training, lack of resources for some
schools, and the considerable dropout rate at the secondary level. He proudly (and
rightly so) noted that although there is always room to grow and improve, Costa Rica
was chosen as an investment site by corporations such as Intel due to the strength of the
education system and the high literacy rate.
Along with Garnier, another vital resource was Isabel Roman Vega, director of
research for the State of Nation Program that produces a report discussed in the litera-
ture review. Ms. Vega (personal communication, March 2013) explained how the
purpose of her research, as controversial as it may seem, is to portray the truth and accu-
rate data regarding the educational system so that improvements can be made to meet
assessed gaps such as student enrollment, student graduation rates, access, equity,
teacher preparation and other aspects vital to education (State of Nation Program,
2011). Ms. Vega mentioned that a new report will be released in July of 2013. She and
the Estado de la Educacion report were of significant value to the research team and
valuable tools utilized throughout the research process.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
Finally, the exploratory group made contact with another extremely important
person to the study, Ms. Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Education Programs for Intel,
Costa Rica. Her role is to oversee the partnerships between Intel and the K–12 schools
and universities in Costa Rica (M. H. Bialas, personal communication, March 2013).
Ms. Bialas provided insight into the science and technology initiatives led by Intel in the
Costa Rican schools. Being from the United States, she provided a good parallel be-
tween the American and Costa Rican school systems. Ms. Bialas proved to be an
important resource in this initial informal interview, as she agreed to be the research
team’s liaison to the schools and individuals who help to carry out Intel’s initiatives.
The overall feel from the exploratory visit was that the people of Costa Rica are
very warm, friendly, and willing to support the research process for the doctoral study
that was designed by the research team to be conducted in June of 2013. The sense of
cooperation was due not only to the welcoming culture of Costa Rica but also to the
hope that the findings of this study will benefit and further support the goals of the
national education system, both for the K–12 grades and the higher education systems.
The following sections provided the research questions and go into detail about
the process determined for this qualitative study.
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Research Design
An evaluative and descriptive design strategy was utilized by the research team
in the form of a case study (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Specifically, a case study is
meant to address questions that are aimed at the context of a study—in this case the
Intel primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica (Patton, 2002). Both Creswell
(2009) and Merriam (2009) emphasized that a case study is an in-depth analysis of a
system with boundaries, where the researcher is the primary instrument for data collec-
tion and data analysis. Case studies can consist of a focus on a single phenomenon or a
group phenomenon that is similar in context (Merriam, 2009), such as the Intel-
supported primary and secondary school sites. Maxwell (2013) echoed that case studies
are helpful when investigating real-life situations in their natural state while utilizing the
ability to obtain very detailed, in-depth descriptions on the topic.
The reason why the research team chose a qualitative type of study rather than a
quantitative study was due to the rich description needed to get a holistic and in-depth
perspective that a case study requires (Merriam, 2009). The goal of this case study was
to find patterns and themes at the primary and secondary Intel schools through the data
analysis process, so that the “information rich” data could reveal “manifestations of the
phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2002, p. 40). This preferred research design was
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
utilized to find trends in leadership as well as the implementation of 21st-century skills
in the Intel-influenced classrooms in relation to the impact of globalization and MNCs
in Costa Rica.
The main purpose of this case study is to describe and analyze the details cap-
tured regarding the activities on the school sites and the role of the school-site leaders as
well as other stakeholders at the secondary Intel schools in Costa Rica. Because of the
nature of the study using multiple Intel school sites, this type of case study is called a
“collective case study” (Merriam, 2009, p. 49). A heuristic case study brings forward
new meaning, confirms what is already established, or extends the reader’s knowledge
based on the existing knowledge of the phenomena studied (Merriam, 2009).
Population and Sample
A research study begins with an idea of what one wants to know and how one
plans to implement the study (Merriam, 2009). An important piece of the study was the
unit of analysis or the population and sample selected as participants in the study (Mer-
riam, 2009). The recruitment process began with email communication with various
key leaders in Costa Rica, subsequently leading to a small exploratory group traveling to
Costa Rica, as described previously in this chapter. At first, the research team hoped to
design a study based on whom they could recruit to participate; but as it became clear
that there would be many options for participants, the team members became more
specific about exactly what they were looking for.
Purposeful, criterion based sampling was the method utilized in this qualitative
case study to obtain its participants (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009;
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
Patton, 2002). The criteria for the selection focused on MNCs, school leadership, and
government executives as well as policymakers who have an impact on education and
educational policy. As discussed earlier, based on the information received from the
selected participants, the researchers found a snowball effect in place that resulted in
other participants aside from those who had already been specifically selected (Mer-
riam, 2009). Due to the established understandings and partnerships made with those
already involved in the original trip to Costa Rica, the participants of this case study
were specifically comprised of representatives of school leaders who were influenced
and/or financed by Intel. The researchers aimed to gain participants from the political
team in Costa Rica, including the MEP. The following discussion describes the back-
ground of each participant in order to develop the context and direction of the study.
As stated earlier, the nine participants interviewed ranged from school-site
leaders to MNC leaders and political leaders. For this researcher’s case study, the focus
revolved around the secondary school site, Dulce Nombre, where Edgar Meza had been
the director for 9 years. Prior to becoming a director, he was a teacher of social studies
and did not have a technical background; however, he did have coordinators for the
technical areas to help support that need. His responsibility was to lead the academic
and technical areas at school. Originally the school had only an academic focus, and the
classrooms worked out of the school gym for about 7 years. Mr. Meza had a vision to
add a technical component and was backed by the community. In November of 2010,
the new facilities were built and the school moved into them in October of 2011. The
school-site services students in Cycles 3 and 4. The classes in the gym had about 350
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
students with approximately 20 teachers. At the time of this study, in the new facilities
there were close to 700 students and 60 to 70 teachers. Overall, the coursework focused
on the requirements of the bachillerato as well as technical education directed at four
main areas: design, accounting, call center service, and industrial electronics. Ana
Sivarenes, the technical coordinator at Dulce Nombre, provided further depth to the
interview process with her expertise in the technical area and how it was implemented
in the curriculum as well as in teacher support and training. She had both administra-
tive and coordinator experience, and her academic background was in accounting.
Dr. Garnier, the Minister of Public Education of Costa Rica, provided insight
into the historical and current times of Costa Rica that have impacted the education
system. Dr. Garnier has been the Minister of Public Education for the past 7 years and
is the first Minister of Public Education to have a second term. His academic back-
ground was in economics. Along with the MEP, other groups that influence educational
policy and drive change are those from the ODF, CINDE, and CRUSA. The research
team interviewed representatives from each group. The respondent from PDF was Dr.
Maria Eugenia Bujanda, a research coordinator. She had been in this position for about
2 years but previously worked as a research coordinator for approximately 4 years. Her
organization worked closely with Intel to implement teacher training projects and assess
the need for resources. The participant from CINDE was Gabriela Llobet, who was a
lawyer by profession with a specialization in international trade. What she was doing at
CINDE was very much related to international trade and investment. Finally, a repre-
sentative from CRUSA, Michelle Coffey, was interviewed to provide some perspective
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 109
into the policy perspective of education and the economy in Costa Rica. At the time of
this study, she was the program director at CRUSA. She supported multiple projects
that focused on curricular change via teacher training, creating tools both digital and
textbooks, and working with various members of the MEP to move forward with these
changes.
The interviewed representatives of the MNCs were current and past Intel mem-
bers. The main contact at Intel was Mary Helen Bialas, an Intel educational leader.
Bialas’s full title at Intel was Academic Relations and Education Program Manager.
She was the liaison between Intel Costa Rica and the Intel Corporation groups through
various projects and partnership opportunities. She supported education in Costa Rica
in both K–12 and higher education. She had been with Intel for 16 years; previously she
was a Peace Corps program manager for education and the community.
Another person interviewed was Patricia Chico, a representative of Intel who
was in charge of external communications. Although previously Ms. Chico had worked
with the volunteer base service from Intel, due to her experience with community rela-
tions, including the directors at the school sites, the municipality, and even groups of
women and neighborhood representatives, she was providing this type of support not
only in Costa Rica but in other regions as well.
Finally, Ms. Patricia Escalante was interviewed as the former Director of Intel®
Teach Costa Rica. She was in charge of the Intel® Teach program that started in 1995
and at the time of this study was a professor at UCR, where she had been working since
1991. Outside of teaching she was in charge of several programs including
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
conversation courses, with a large focus on English and Portuguese. Table 2 summa-
rizes the participants who participated in the interview process.
Table 2
Summary of Interviewees for Case Study
Name Position
Edgar Evans Meza Director of Dulce Nombre, a secondary school
Ana Sivarenes Technical Coordinator at Dulce Nombre
Dr. Leonardo Garnier Costa Rica Minister of Public Education
Mary Helen Bialas Academic Relations and Education Program Manager,
Intel Costa Rica
Patricia Chico External Communications, Intel Costa Rica
Patricia Escalante UCR English professor and former director of Intel®
Teach, Costa Rica
Gabriela Llobet CINDE representative
Michelle Coffee CRUSA representative
Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda Research Coordinator, Omar Dengo Foundation
Note. UCR = University of Costa Rica; CINDE = Costa Rican Investment Promotion
Agency; CRUSA = Costa Rica-United States of America, Foundation for Cooperation.
School teachers and classrooms were the focus of the surveys conducted and
observations. The identities of the criterion-based selected participants were protected
as the qualitative case study was conducted. Data collected were kept secure in a locked
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
location in the researcher’s office. The next section describes the process utilized to
drive data collection and analysis.
Instrumentation
As stated earlier, qualitative research studies necessitate the researcher to be the
instrument used for data collection (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). An inductive
research study was implemented to determine a conclusion based on the data collected
and the analysis of patterns discerned when examining the school sites, school and
government leaders, and corporations of Costa Rica. The researchers in this collective
case study utilized the following data sources for data collection in the research process:
surveys, focus group, interviews, and observations. These methods of research allowed
the research team to understand how globalization and the influence of MNCs have
impacted the secondary school system in Costa Rica and what the implications were for
their school leaders.
Surveys allow for a quick collection of data (Fink, 2013; Maxwell, 2013; Mer-
riam, 2009). The research team decided to use close-ended survey questions so as to
easily analyze and interpret the collected data (Fink, 2013; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam,
2009). The creation of the survey was a collaborative effort, allowing multiple levels of
teachers in education to fit into all of the survey questions (see Appendix A). The
close-ended survey questions were written using a 5-point Likert scale with the follow-
ing response options: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree, and don’t
know. The research team felt that surveys were a good way to collect data on the imple-
mentation of educational policy focused specifically on 21st-century aims and objec-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112
tives, as expressed by the MEP in Costa Rica and potentially seen in the classrooms.
For this purpose, surveys were distributed to teachers at the Intel school sites in a
metropolitan area of Costa Rica. The results of the survey of these schools were then
assessed and analyzed as one of the methods of triangulation that was used in the study.
Prior to finalizing the survey questions, a pilot survey was conducted in order to under-
stand and gain perspective regarding any revisions that had to be made. The pilot
survey provided understanding on the necessity to clarify terms, simplify diction, and
avoid the use of loaded statements.
The established partnerships with various people in Costa Rica also provided
access to one-on-one interviews (see Appendix B). The participants in the individual
interviews included representatives of the Intel Corporation, the MEP, policymakers,
and school-site leaders at the Intel school sites. Just as with the surveys, purposeful
sampling was used to select the individuals to be interviewed for the study.
Individual interviews (see Appendices C to E) were conducted to establish
further information that helped to triangulate data from the surveys and observations.
The research team collaborated on the creation of the interview questions while keeping
Patton’s (2002, pp. 86–87) following six types of questions in mind: (a) “experience
and behavior questions,” (b) “opinion and value questions,” (c) “feeling questions,” (d)
“knowledge questions,” (d) “knowledge questions,” (e) “sensory questions,” and (f)
“background/demographic questions.” The aim of the interviewer was to ask specific
questions relevant to school leadership, globalization, and 21st-century skills so as to
understand the perspectives of the various leaders.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113
Overall, the interview questions integrated all of the elements of interviewing a
participant, as described by Patton (2002). The interviewer must keep in mind that
when needed, probing questions may have to be integrated into the established inter-
view to gain further depth or explanation to a response given by a participant (Fink,
2013; Merriam, 2009). The research team piloted the interview questions to gain per-
spective on any need for revisions or clarifications. The interview pilot depicted areas
of clarification as well as questions that had to be rephrased in order to avoid leading the
participant and revealing a bias. The research team focused on presenting future partici-
pants with open-ended questions that would yield descriptive data to analyze and code
for patterns and potential findings in this qualitative case study (Fink, 2013; Merriam,
2009).
Finally, the research team utilized an observation protocol (see Appendix F) that
was coupled with data collected via the surveys and interviews. The use of several
methods allowed the researcher to gain insight into various aspects of the phenomenon
being studied (Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell (2013) described observations as a way to
access direct and powerful learning about people’s behaviors and the environment in
which this behavior occurred. Observations enable the researcher to draw inferences
that cannot be made when relying solely on interviews. Observations allow researchers
to see realistic components of their study that a participant may not have been willing to
share in an interview. Overall, the partnering of interviews and observations provide a
powerful source of data that naturally implements a check and balance on the informa-
tion collected (Maxwell, 2013). Just as with the surveys and the interviews, the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
research team conducted an observation pilot to receive feedback on any revisions that
had to be made before the actual implementation. The challenge with the observation
pilot, as with the survey and interview pilots, was that the location was based in Ameri-
can schools with American school-site leaders and teachers. Regardless of the setting,
the feedback that the research team received revolved around the process of understand-
ing the depth, richness, and details associated with a strong observation protocol. The
research team recognized the necessity to collect as much accurate and descriptive
information as possible for credible and valid data analysis.
The survey, interview, and observation protocols were submitted to the USC
Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval. All survey and interview questions were
developed in order to elicit responses that can be connected to the themes of the Wag-
ner’s 21st-century framework as well as the Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership
framework. Before conducting any surveys or interviews, the researcher verbally oper-
ationalized key terms such as 21st-century skills, globalization, and knowledge-ready
worker in order to stay consistent with the understanding of how the research team
utilized these terms across all participants. The defined terms can be found in Chapter 1
of this study. Each participant in this study received an information letter and a recruit-
ment/consent letter that was signed and returned prior to participation (see Appendices
G and H, respectively). The next section goes into the data collection process that the
research team used to meet the needs of this study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
Data Collection
Data collection involves the art of “selecting data and the techniques of data
collection” (Merriam, 2009, pp. 86) driven by the purpose of the research, the theoreti-
cal standpoint of the researcher, and the sample selected for the study. Due to the inter-
national scope of this study, the researchers who collaborated on this study began by
establishing relationships with key members in Costa Rica via email, telephone, and a
preliminary visit to Costa Rica itself. Through these partnerships, the research team
created a list of potential participants to whom the team would have access once in
Costa Rica. From this list the decision was made to base the criteria around teachers
and school-site leaders working at Intel Schools as well as Intel Costa Rica corporate
leaders, the Minister of Public Education, and any other leader who may impact educa-
tional policy.
According to Maxwell (2013), the process of triangulation, or use of various
data sources, is vital in providing checks and balances on the results that may support a
single conclusion. By triangulating data, the research team increased the validity in the
findings by reducing the risk of any bias based on the use of only one method (Maxwell,
2013). As mentioned in the instrumentation section of this chapter, the data sources for
this study included surveys, individual interviews, and observations. The checks and
balances that these instruments provided helped to establish a more secure understand-
ing of the findings and a potential single conclusion (Maxwell, 2013). All of these
methods were used to uncover the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in
Costa Rica as well as the implications for their leaders.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
Classroom observations in the Intel-influenced Costa Rican school sites pro-
vided the researcher with a detailed description on data and delineated the infusion or
varied level of influence of 21st-century aims and objectives, as defined by Wagner
(2008) and detailed by the MEP (2007) in the establishment of the Costa Rican 21st-
century aims and objectives. The researcher took detailed field notes during the obser-
vation. The data collected via observations were compared to and analyzed with the
data collected through the teacher surveys. Additional data were collected during the
interviews of school-site administrators, policymakers, and MNC leaders. The inter-
views approximately 60 minutes in length and followed the interview guide that was
preestablished by the research team. Both Creswell (2009) and Patton (2002) agreed
that interview guides are the most effective in studies where time is a limitation and
every minute must be used effectively. Interviews allowed for participants to provide
personal perspectives as well as historical background regarding change over time
(Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002), all of which were a critical aspect of
this case study. Potential probing during the interviews based on participants’ responses
varied by members on the research team.
The goal of the data collection was to conceptualize the impact of globalization
and MNCs on schools in Costa Rica while also understanding the implications for edu-
cational leaders. Once collected, the data from the various sources (i.e., surveys, indi-
vidual interviews, and observations) were transcribed and analyzed using Spring’s
(2008) globalization framework, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century framework, as well as
Bolman and Deal’s (2002) framework.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
Data Analysis
Creswell (2009) viewed data analysis as a simultaneous occurrence during the
data collection process. The more data that were collected, the deeper the researcher
was able to go with the analysis, looking for common threads or themes in the collected
information. The goal of data analysis was to take qualitative data a step further, such
as seen in grounded theory in which the researcher utilizes open coding where general
categories are created and then embeds one of those categories into a theoretical model
(axial coding). At the end the researcher uses selective coding that allows for a story to
emerge once the interconnectivity of the two categories is analyzed. The findings from
a grounded-theory study are “grounded” in the views of the participants. There are
aspects of grounded theory that were utilized in this study; however due to the case
study nature of this qualitative study, the researcher was required to go into greater
depth within the bounded time while utilizing various data sources (Creswell, 2009).
Creswell (2009) provides a methodical layout for data analysis that will be utilized by
the research team. The data analysis process seen in Creswell consisted of the following
six-step strategy:
1. Organize and prepare data.
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin detailed analysis within a coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as
well as categories or themes for analysis.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
5. Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualita-
tive narrative.
6. A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation or meaning of
the data. (pp. 151–152)
The research team worked collectively and individually on the data analysis
portion of this study. The collective data that came from the teacher survey results,
observations, MNC and policy leaders, were analyzed through a collaborative effort.
Because of this process, some common data were utilized in their individual case
studies. The research team also broke off into smaller groups or individuals when it
came to the interviews conducted with school-site leaders, corporate officials, and/or
government officials and policymakers. As stated earlier, the research team utilized
Creswell’s (2009) six-step data analysis method when organizing, reviewing, and
analyzing data. All instruments of data collection had protocols developed with a direct
connection to the frameworks. The collected data were coded and analyzed utilizing the
leadership framework established through the four elements described by Bolman and
Deal (2008), Spring’s (2008) globalization framework, and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-
century skills framework. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations for the school-
site leaders, MEP, and policymakers were developed once the research team identified
themes and patterns from the data collected during the qualitative case study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
Validity and Reliability
Threats to validity are a real concern in qualitative studies (Creswell, 2009;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Threats to validity fall under two categories: internal
and external threats. The internal threat in this qualitative study was “selection,” or the
specific selection of participants who fell under an established criterion, because they
had certain characteristics that predisposed them to certain outcomes. The external
threat in this qualitative study was an attempt to generalize the results, which could be
inaccurate due to the narrow characteristics of participants, the specific setting of the
study, and the time spent on the study (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam,
2009). Researcher bias and reactivity were other threats of concern because both the
preconceived notions of the researcher or the impact of the researcher’s presence on an
environment could interfere with the validity of the results (Maxwell, 2013). As long as
the research team was cognizant of such threats to validity and reliability, the research-
ers was able to employ strategies to address these concerns.
Considering that the researcher was the instrument that was used for data col-
lection and interpretation of data, there was an inherent researcher bias that could
interfere with the study. Before beginning the study, the researcher had to understand
and be wary of any personal bias so as to move forward with an ethical and honest study
as data were collected. As stated earlier, the process of triangulation was used in the
research design to increase the validity and reliability of the findings (Creswell, 2009;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). Maxwell (2013) defined triangulation
as the collection of data through the use of a diverse set of individuals as well as the use
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
of a variety of methods. This process reduces the chance of researcher bias or random
associations based on the method used (Maxwell, 2013). In this collective case study,
the various methods of triangulation that were used included surveys, observation, and
interviews. Another method of increasing validity and reliability is to provide rich,
detailed descriptions of the interviews conducted in the study so that a more complete
picture is evident when analyzing the data (Maxwell, 2013). Overall, the acknowledg-
ment of potential threats and the application of methods to reduce these threats were
critical for the researcher as the analysis of data took place and conclusions were drawn.
The research team focused on rich descriptions, peer debriefing, triangulation, and
clarifying individual bias.
Limitations
Time and distance were definite limitations to this qualitative case study, espe-
cially due to its international setting and the travel time of approximately 5 days. This
limitation of time was further exacerbates by a national strike on June 24, 2013, the 1st
day of planned interviews and visits. Due to the strike, offices and even roads were
closed, thus limiting the team to the research that could be implemented on that day.
Other limitations during the survey and interview process were potential political or
financial influences that may have driven participants’ responses. Participants may also
have been restrained or limited in their responses based on their concern for job security
or the level of anonymity of their response in the results section of this study, regardless
of the information provided in the consent forms assuring anonymous reporting of
survey and observation data. There may have been a language barrier, especially in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
survey portion where technical terms could not be explained further to the participants
when needed.
The purpose of this study was to look at the impact of globalization and MNCs
on schools in Costa Rica as well as the implications for educational leaders. Due to the
purposeful sampling focused on only Intel-influenced schools in Costa Rica, the gener-
alizability of the findings was limited to only similar campuses in Costa Rica and not
the entire schooling system. Although the research team is choosing to use Intel schools
in Costa Rica, the location of the schools in a suburban area of Costa Rica was still out
of the research team’s control and is seen as a limitation. Regardless of the generaliz-
ability, this case study was still able to provide an in-depth and rich analysis of what
occurs when corporations are invested in schools as well as what the implications are
for educational leaders to meet the demands of this partnership. The findings from this
case study offers conclusions that can be utilized and applied by institutions in a similar
context.
Delimitations
Research of Intel schools in a suburban neighborhood of Costa Rica was a
delimitation in this qualitative study due to the fact that the research team was specifi-
cally choosing schools funded by Intel. Through the knowledge gained during research
for the literature review and collaborative discussion among members of the research
team, it was decided that although there are multiple MNCs invested in the Costa Rican
education system, Intel was the chosen corporation around which this study revolved.
The scope of the data sources for this case study in Costa Rica was a delimitation. The
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
consideration of a small sample of schools in Costa Rica specifically influenced by
Intel, along with the teachers, administrative team, and government officials who were
involved in policymaking that impacted this specific population of Costa Rica, limited
the generalizability of the study findings. The perspectives of those interviewed, sur-
veyed, and observed were not meant to represent the viewpoints of all stakeholders in
the Intel-influenced schools in Costa Rica. Additionally, the interpretation of the
findings from a researcher coming in with an American education perspective may also
have been an influence in the study that must be noted.
The purpose of the study was another delimitation to be considered. The re-
search team decided that the purpose, problem, and focus of the study as well as the
design would produce the most meaningful results to support any conclusions and
findings. The overall focus was intended to look at the impact of globalization and
MNCs on schools in Costa Rica and the implications for school leaders. The study did
not evaluate the effectiveness of the policies and various implementations at the school
sites. Because the 21st-century aims and objectives are a recent development for the
Costa Rican school system, the researcher argues that it may be too soon to do an eval-
uative study of the potential implementation of 21st-century skills in the classrooms as
well as the resourcefulness and effectiveness of school-site leaders. However, best
practices and suggestions can be formulated based on the findings of this case study.
Assumptions
An assumption of this case study was that the interview, surveys, and observa-
tion protocols as well as the participants provided the research team with an accurate
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
perception of Intel schools in Costa Rica. The researchers were presuming that there
was a positive impact of globalization and MNCs on the schooling system in Costa
Rica; however, the “what” and “how” of the impact were yet to be established and were
part of what this case study focused on. Another assumption made by the research team
is that 21st-century skills and bilingual education create a stronger, knowledge-ready
worker prepared for the global market. The research team assumed that a qualitative
case study was the best approach to this problem and that the research design would
provide validity and reliability to the findings.
Ethical Considerations
Each member of this research team involved in this dissertation participated in
the IRB application process. Mandatory to the completion of the IRB was passing the
Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). The CITI is an online training program
that provided various modules that members of the research team chose to complete to
help build understanding of the necessary ethical considerations when doing research.
The IRB process ensured that the study was completed in its entirety with great fidelity
and without harming any participants (physical, mental, or otherwise) in the process of
the study.
Summary
Chapter 3 of this dissertation has provided an understanding of the process of
designing this study in Costa Rica with the goal of determining a conclusion regarding
the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in Costa Rica as well as the impli-
cations for school leaders. The chapter gave an explanation on how the utilization of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124
document analysis, surveys, and interviews resulted in data to analyze in a collaborative
as well as an individual effort by the research team. The importance of understanding
the criteria for selecting the participants and the reasoning behind the design of the
surveys and interviews should help readers to comprehend the connection of the team’s
process with respect to the research questions. Ultimately, the literature review and the
perspective of the chosen frameworks of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership theory
and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills were vital in providing perspective through the
data analysis process. The research team’s dynamics and collective efforts were key
components to the success of this study. Implementation of this research design led to
the final two chapters of the dissertation that discuss the results, analysis, implications
of the findings, recommendations, and conclusion of the qualitative study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125
Chapter 4
Study Findings
This chapter presents the results from the qualitative case study conducted in
Costa Rica. The study not only uses a narrative analytical approach to interpret data
based on a total of nine interviews but also provides data points from teacher survey
results and classroom observations that depict the nature of the findings. The data were
triangulated via the use of surveys, observations, and interviews as well as through the
use of three pertinent sources: school-site leaders, MNCs, and government representa-
tives. The disaggregated data have been analyzed, synthesized, and presented so that
the reader can understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in Costa
Rica. The next section will provide an overview of the purpose of the study as well as
the research questions that drove the study forward.
The purpose of the present study was to understand what impact globalization
and MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century
skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The research questions investigated
were the following:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
As will be seen in the findings, the significance is to guide all stakeholders such
as policymakers, school leaders, and MNCs in Costa Rica with support and information
that will build on their understanding of how to improve education to better prepare
students for the global market. The goal of this study was to recognize the necessary
areas of improvement for the education system including policy implementation, curric-
ulum development, resource and funding allocation, as well as support for 21st-century
skill development. The aim was to empower educational leaders at all levels with the
knowledge on how to establish an effective and efficient school system with clear roles
and expectations that provide a road map of success for leaders to follow, including a
focus on the vision of education for their school sites aligned with the aims and objec-
tives defined by the MEP (2007). The findings should indicate direction on the needed
job aids (Clark & Estes, 2008) for school leaders for methods and approaches that they
can implement to directly support their teaching staff and improve their specific
schools. Additionally, this case study can provide guidance to future researchers and
practitioners looking to further study the impact of globalization and MNCs on the
school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders.
The following discussion is a review of the frameworks that were used when
analyzing the data that were collected. The three frameworks focused on were Bolman
and Deal’s (2008) leadership perspective, Spring’s (2008) definition of globalization,
and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills. All three frameworks were described in detail
in Chapter 2 but are summarized in a quick overview below.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 127
Spring’s (2008) framework on globalization examined the four major theoretical
processes concerning globalization and education: world culture, world systems, post-
colonial, and culturalist. The world culture view was the main perspective utilized in
this study that defines the world as one global culture, whereas the world systems
process breaks down the world into two unequal zones: rich and poor. Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) leadership framework analyzed leadership in four categories—human
resources, political, structural, and symbolic—with the optimal form of leadership being
one that finds a healthy blend of all four categories. Finally, the focus for analysis of
21st-century skills was Wagner’s (2008) framework wherein seven main elements vital
to the 21st century were defined as the following:
1. Critical thinking and problem solving
2. Collaboration across networks and leading by influence
3. Agility and adaptability
4. Initiative and entrepreneurialism
5. Effective oral and written communication
6. Accessing and analyzing information
7. Curiosity and imagination. (p. 67)
The present case study focused mainly on the elements of critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration, effective oral and written communication as well as accessing
and analyzing information.
This chapter examines the case study in five parts. The first section reviews the
participants and their contribution to the study. The next three sections focus on each
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128
research question and its findings. Within each section is a brief background on the
participants that was discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Each of these sections uses data
in three layers: (a) looking directly at the case study data from Dulce Nombre (the focal
point of this study), (b) comparing data between Dulce Nombre and other secondary
school sites that were studied by other members of the research team, and (c) analyzing
Dulce Nombre compared to all of the K–12 school sites that were also site locations that
other researchers were focusing on in their individual case studies. All sites were con-
sidered Intel schools, meaning they had received support and/or investment from Intel.
The secondary school data utilized in this study were the following school sites: Dulce
Nombre, Don Bosco, Liceo De Belen, and Colegio Tecnico Professional (CTP) Car-
rizal. The primary school data utilized in this study were the following school sites:
Fidel Chavez, Espana, and Manuel del Pilar. The three-layer analysis allows a broader
understanding of the impact of MNCs on school sites in Costa Rica. Along with the
data analysis, the sections discussing the research questions will also integrate findings
with frameworks leading up to the fifth and final section of the chapter, which provides
a conclusion that synthesizes the overall findings for this case study.
Participants
As reviewed in detail in Chapter 3, the participants of this study were school
leaders, teachers, MNC leaders, and government leaders. Table 3 summarizes all of the
participants of this study.
This section gives a brief review of each interviewed participant so as to provide
some perspective on the collected data that support the findings for this study. Edgar
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129
Table 3
Data Sources and Type for Study
Data source Position Data Type
Dulce Nombre teachers various secondary subject areas surveys, observations
Edgar Evans Meza Director of Dulce Nombre interview
Secondary school teachers various secondary subject areas surveys, observations
Primary school teachers various primary subject areas surveys, observations
Dr. Leonardo Garnier Minister of Public Education interview
Mary-Helen Bialas Academic Relations & Education Program interview
Manager, Intel® Costa Rica
Patricia Chico External Community Relations, Intel interview
Costa Rica
Patricia Escalante former Director of Intel Teach and interview
English professor at UCR
Gabriela Llobet CINDE representative interview
Michelle Coffey CRUSA Program Director interview
Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda Research coordinator, Omar Dengo interview
Dengo Foundation
Note. UCR = University of Costa Rica; CINDE = Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency;
CRUSA = Costa Rica-United States of America, Foundation for Cooperation.
Meza was the current Director of Dulce Nombre, the main school site for this case
study; he had been the director of Dulce Nombre for 9 years. Ana Sivarenes was Mr.
Meza’s technical coordinator who provides support to teachers with curriculum, design
and implementation. Dr. Leonardo Garnier was the Minister of Public Education and at
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
the time of the study in his 2nd term in office. Gabriella Llobet was a representative of
CINDE; she is a lawyer by profession and at the time of the study was working with
international trade and investment. Michelle Coffey was the program director at
CRUSA and worked with schools and the MEP on progressive curricular change. Dr.
Maria Eugenia Bujanda was the research coordinator at the ODF and also worked
closely with Intel to implement teacher training initiatives. Mary-Helen Bialas was the
main contact at Intel for the researcher. At the time of the study, she was working as
liaison between Intel and K–12 education to meet the needs of today’s education sys-
tem. Patricia Chico was the previous volunteer coordinator at Intel and at the time of
the study was working closely with the school sites as the person in charge of external
communications. Finally, Patricia Escalante, the previous director of the Intel Teach
Program, was working as a professor at UCR and oversaw multiple projects including
conversation courses.
The data collection process of the study included surveys, interviews, and obser-
vations. The teachers at each school site were provided surveys to complete and return
to the researcher. As stated in Chapter 3, the school sites consisted of the case study
school site, Dulce Nombre, which was compared to the secondary and overall K–12
school sites to analyze the responses given. The surveys for this portion of the study
consisted of a variety of teacher responses from subject areas such as math, technical
studies, English, foreign language (e.g., Spanish, French), and other subject areas vital
to the success of the school. The Dulce Nombre survey data were from 23 teachers.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
The overall count for secondary school surveys taken and returned was 80. The overall
count for K–12 school surveys taken and returned to the researcher was 141.
All interviewed participants were school, political, and MNC leaders who
provided insight during the data collection process. The observations took place on all
K–12 school sites. The case study school site of Dulce Nombre had a total of 11 class-
room observations where data were collected and used to analyze the three research
questions. The secondary school sites had a total of approximately 38 classroom obser-
vations completed; the overall K–12 count for observations was 71 classrooms. The
classrooms, just like the teachers, represented a variety of subject areas including the
technical classrooms, math, and English. All three of the data collection methods—
surveys, interviews, and observations—were utilized to analyze data and determine
findings focused around common themes, all three research questions, and the frame-
works as well as in the review of each research question and discussion of findings and
implications.
Data Analysis and Synthesis of Findings
A comprehensive analysis of surveys, observations, and interviews led to com-
mon themes and findings for each of the three research questions. Each theme sup-
ported the concept of a progressive change in the education system of Costa Rica with
the support and partnership of MNCs and the MEP to meet the demands of a global
society and empower the students for a brighter future. The following sections will
review the teacher survey responses, observations, and interviews that supported the
findings for each research question. The implemented survey can be found in Appendix
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
A; the observation chart, in Appendix E; and the interview questions, in Appendices B-
D. The survey data represent the number and percentage of teachers who agreed or
strongly agreed with the question or statement in the survey.
Research Question 1, Findings, and Framework
What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica?
Research question 1 is analyzed with the use of Spring’s (2008) perspective on global-
ization. World culture is one of the main view utilized in Spring’s theory. The world
culture view embraces the idea of a global world where skills and necessary aspects of
life must be constantly revised to meet new demands due to global changes. This idea
of life-long learning and adaptation to reality is what the following findings and data
reflect. Table 4 summarizes the data collected for research question 1.
Finding 1. There is a shift in the economic focus and labor markets from an
agrarian-based economy to a service-oriented and technology-driven economy.
As seen in Spring’s (2008) views, embracing a new focus and/or culture is what
allows societies to progress and remain competitive in a more global world. Multiple
survey questions (3, 6, 12, and 19) supported the idea of a shift in the economic focus
(see Table 4). Figure 5 consolidates the survey data supporting the finding that there
has been a shift in economic focus from an agrarian-based economy to a service-ori-
ented, technology-driven one.
To further substantiate the findings from the survey results, the observation data
were analyzed for common threads that supported this finding for research question 1.
Overall, the observations at all three levels depicted a shift from agrarian to 21st-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133
Table 4
Research Question 1, Results of Globalization and Presence of Multinational Corpora-
tions (MNCs) Seen in Costa Rica—Finding 1, Shift in Economic Focus and Labor
Markets from Agrarian-Based Economy to Service-Oriented and Technology-Driven
One (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Questions and
Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#3: Whether technology was used in classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 64 80
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 120 86
#6: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 102 72
#12: Educational decisions influenced by MNCs
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 55 69
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 92 66
#19: STEM education important to economic future of Costa Rica
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 79) 74 94
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 134 96
Observation: Technology used in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 35 49
Observation Access to technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 43 61
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134
Figure 5. Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa
Rica: Shift in economic focus and labor markets from an agrarian-based
economy to a service-oriented and technology-driven one.
Table 4 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Student work posted in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 7 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 classrooms (n = 69) 29 42
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and math.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
century, technology-based instruction in the classrooms. Dulce Nombre clearly por-
trayed the vision of a progressive learning environment that meets the demands of
today’s society.
To complete the triangulation, interview responses were analyzed to corroborate
the common ideas disseminated among survey responses, observations, and interviews.
The interviews were analyzed through the three lenses of policy–government leaders,
MNCs, and school-site leaders. Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Public Education,
shared how
not just in Costa Rica, but Latin America in the 50s and 60s were basically
primarily good producers of coffee, sugar, commodities, etc. There was a lot of
policy making trying to industrialize Latin America. Costa Rican, Chile, and
other countries, little less in others, stared to attract foreign investment. (per-
sonal interview, June 24, 2013)
This revolution was necessary to stay competitive with the world. Dr. Garnier contin-
ued by commenting that
these investments could pay higher wages, either in more technologically
sophisticated sectors or jump into tourism, using the environment as an attrac-
tion. I think foreign investment is very important, but it’s certainly not enough.
A country has to develop their own productive resources as well. Costa Rica has
always been a very open economy. For one thing it is true in our country—you
cannot make your decisions without taking into account what is going on in the
global economy. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136
Dr. Garnier noted not only the importance of global awareness but also the need to stay
competitive with ideas moving forward, similar to Spring’s (2008) world view of
embracing the global society and moving forward with the times.
Gabriella Llobet agreed with the minister of education when reiterating that “we
continue having great bananas, great coffee, but they now represent a smaller percentage
of our market. Yes, we’re very big on the electric and electronic industry, and the
chemicals, metalwork, etc.—the industrial type of products” (personal interview,
June 24, 2013).
Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda, representative of the ODF, shared similar senti-
ments stating that the
Omar Dengo Foundation has also taken a part of the new landscape that the
Costa Rican economy is made of. Our economic model has changed to global-
ization, so now I think everyone in Costa Rica is well aware that we have to
provide the rightly prepared people for the labor market. When FDI penetrated
Costa Rica, Costa Rica joined the cultural global tendencies—a clear example
that Costa Ricans don’t tend to resist global tendencies. (personal interview,
June 28, 2013)
Mary-Helen Bialas, representative of a MNC, specifically Intel, could not agree
more with the idea of a shift in the economy, stating that “we went from producing
bananas to banana chips and now computer chips” (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
Ms. Bialas and the other interviewees’ common thoughts about the shift in economy
validated the idea of a progressive movement taking place based on global demands.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137
Ms. Bialas felt not only that was there a shift but also that it was highly supported by
Intel:
We’ve brought in higher paid workforce opportunities, and it’s at the technician
level and the operation level as well as the engineering level. There are more
opportunities for engineers. There’s also transfer of knowledge that happens
because we have a really low turnover rate. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
The school-site leaders agreed with change in the economic outlook for Costa
Rica, stating that “there was a dynamic shift from agriculture to technology. A lot of the
high schools are opening up that relate to services and the service industry” (E. Meza,
personal interview, June 27, 2013). Ana Sivarenes, the Technology Coordinator, at
Dulce Nombre, also agreed that “globalization is very important because it brings com-
petition and pushes a necessary vision forward that allows people to better themselves
and learn more and it also helps the industries improve” (personal interview, June 27,
2013).
Finding 2. There is an increase in global awareness and a common world
language that creates more bilingual citizens with the support of bilingual education.
Global awareness and the need for bilingual education, especially with English
seen as the language of information, were supported through the data collected and
analyzed. Survey question 11 was used to support this finding. (See Table 5 and
summary in Figure 6).
Observation by the researcher was once again used to support triangulation of
data. Table 5 depicts the number of classrooms that reflected utilization of English as a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 138
Table 5
Findings for Research Question 1, Results of Globalization and Presence of Multi-
national Corporations Seen in Costa Rica—Finding 2, Increase in Global Awareness
and Common World Language That Creates More Bilingual Citizens With Support of
Bilingual Education (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With
Survey Question and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey question and observations n %
#11: Focus of education changed at school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
Observation: Classrooms that reflected emphasis on bilingual education
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 26 68
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 35 49
Observation: Curriculum that reflected 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 35 92
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 50 70
Observation: Student work posted in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 7 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 teachers (n = 69) 29 42
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 139
Figure 6. Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa Rica:
Increase in global awareness and a common world language that creates more
bilingual citizens with support of bilingual education.
second language, whether it was through student work on the walls or curriculum text-
books that emphasized English as the world language for use of technical skills. For
example, informational manuals in the classrooms were mainly in English, implying
that students were required to learn a second language so that they could move forward
in their education and remain competitive for the global society.
Interviewed participants from the policymaker/government level to the school-
site level agreed with the increase of global awareness and importance of bilingual edu-
cation. Dr. Leonardo Garnier viewed education as something that
has very much been oriented to what Costa Rica perceives is the world with dif-
ferent countries having the larger influence. For Costa Rica it’s Europe, it’s the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 140
States, and now even China, Latin America in a different way. If you look at the
education, kids would have history classes and they would of course have a little
bit of Europe and U.S. history as well as the key things in Latin American his-
tory, and now we’re talking about the history of China. Now kids are saying
instead of learning French or English, maybe I should learn Mandarin. Kids
start asking questions and your educational system starts moving in one direc-
tion, and then your idea of the world changes and your labor market changes.
(personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Michelle Coffey focused more on the importance of English, commenting that “every-
body is scrambling for English. Now we need our engineers to speak English; now we
need our high school students to graduate” (personal interview, June 28, 2013).
The Intel corporate representatives also agreed with this finding. Mary-Helen
Bialas specifically felt that
Intel had a huge influence in getting English into the curriculum. At the time the
current Minister mandated that English be taught in first grade, from first grade
up, because then it was only in high school. They had to do a lot of policy
around it, to do teacher training, and improve the teachers. (personal interview,
June 25, 2013)
Patricia Escalante echoed the belief as well, giving her background about the
need for bilingual education “because of all these enterprises that have businesses in
Costa Rica, the professionals now need to speak English or Portuguese and be able to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 141
write and converse” (personal interview, June 28, 2013). She continued by discussing
how the implementation of foreign language is occurring:
Teacher training and curriculum has changed to now increase offering of foreign
languages to support MNCs in tech, call centers, and other industries. Lan-
guages include English, Portuguese, and Chinese. When Intel first came to
Costa Rica, they were suggesting some changes in the curriculum in relation to
technology but also in relation to the language system. English is a very impor-
tant part of the curriculum. (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
Patricia Chico shared the same sentiments with the recognition that “English was one
policy change at the national level” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). Finally school-
site leader, Edgar Meza, shared his belief about bilingual education when stating that
the greatest impact has been in foreign language instruction and in this case
English. The MEP has required the schools to take a series of tests to bench-
mark the performance levels of classes to make sure the students are receiving
proficiency and if they are not then the classroom teacher receives the proper
support to reach the goal. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
The triangulated data from survey, observation and interview responses sup-
ported the importance of global awareness and bilingual education as a necessary area
of focus for the Costa Rica school system.
Finding 3. There is an increase of MNCs invested in Costa Rica and the educa-
tion system to support the development of more knowledge-ready workers.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 142
Part of the requirements of meeting the demands of today’s global society is
preparing the future work force with the tools they will need to be successful. Data
from multiple survey questions (7–9 and 12) supported this finding (see Table 6 and
Figure 7). Observation data reinforced the validity of finding 3 for research question 1;
overall, the data indicated the understanding that technology was important in the
classroom.
Interviews from the policy–government leaders, corporate leaders, and school-
site leaders helped triangulate the third finding for research question 1. Dr. Garnier
provided some background on the changes of economic strategies into current times:
“Starting in the 70s and 80s, we changed strategies to transform our external sector. We
have to export different things not just coffee and sugar” (personal interview, June 24,
2013). This idea was consistent with a previously discussed concept regarding the
importance of lifelong learning and constant growth. Dr. Garnier continued by stating
that
it is not just about protecting the internal market—we have to actually be com-
petitive, and international investments can be very useful for this. Costa Rica,
and other countries, a little less in others, started to attract foreign investment.
What we tried to do is attract international investments that could pay
higher wages either in more technologically sophisticated sectors or jump into
tourism, using the environment as an attraction, trying to be at least partially
careful of not destroying the environment. Our gamble was human and natural
resources being used in such a way that you could try to develop . . . to try to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 143
Table 6
Findings for Research Question 1: Results of Globalization and Presence of Multi-
national Corporations (MNCs) Seen in Costa Rica—Finding 3, Increase of MNCs
Invested in Costa Rica and Education System to Support Development of More
Knowledge-Ready Workers (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed
With Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#7: Intel has positively affected school site
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 54 68
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 108 77
#8: Intel has improved resources at school site
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 112 79
#9: Students are college and/or career ready with 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 103 73
#12: Educational decisions influenced by MNCs
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 55 69
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 92 66
Observation: Technology in classroom used to build more knowledge-
ready workers
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 35 49
Observation:: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 53 75
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 144
Figure 7. Results of globalization and presence of MNCs seen in Costa
Rica: Increase of MNCs invested in Costa Rica and the education system
to support the development of more knowledge-ready workers
Table 6 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 43 61
Observation: Student work posted in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 9 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 teachers (n = 69) 20 40
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and math.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 145
increase productivity so that you can pay higher wages and protect the environ-
ment. We started a very progressive program of informatics education in the
80s, and it was presented in three different ways. I think it was a beautiful
decision. A lot of our current programmers emerged from that program. (per-
sonal communication, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda from the ODF agreed with the need to meet today’s global eco-
nomic demands. She stated that
there is a general worry about the level of skills that the young people have.
Omar Dengo helps provide frameworks on how to incorporate curriculum that
relates to the issues. These frameworks are quite comprehensive and are used to
convince governments and organizations that they need to do something about
it. (personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda also shared her beliefs on Intel’s impact on this global initiative: “Intel has
done a great job with the Teach Program” (personal communication, June 28, 2013).
Gabriella Llobet shared her thoughts about the impact of MNCs and creating
more knowledge-ready workers:
Even though Costa Rica has increased tremendously the number of engineers,
we’re still not producing enough. What’s happening is if we want to do the next
step, we still need to improve our university level of education and that obvi-
ously costs money. Companies or industries have been able to impact and have
been able to work with this. They have a great collaboration with our educa-
tional system. Intel is not only dedicating full time resources, but they have very
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 146
specific goals and they have metrics. Procter & Gamble is another example in
the same industry where they have resources and specific programs in place.
(personal communication, June 24, 2013)
Michelle Coffey felt the same way sharing that
MNCs have heavily impacted the changes in Costa Rica. The education and
vision these engineers, these workers received from working with large compa-
nies are significant. I definitely think Intel has had a very significant and posi-
tive impact on the country. I think it’s our window to the outside. Schools are
preparing students for entry-level work by incorporating use of computers, doing
collaborative work in the classrooms, teaching English, etc. (personal com-
munication, June 28, 2013)
Representatives of Intel agreed about having a focused goal on creating more
knowledge-ready workers who are prepared for the global economy. Part of this cre-
ation was their corporate responsibility to be involved and support this venture as well
as possible. Mary-Helen Bialas stated in her interview:
I think it was a huge interest in the part of the government to bring in higher
level workforce opportunities to develop the economy, and they went after it.
Intel was one of the companies that attracts other companies. With Intel here we
became the example to others, and we were perhaps in the right place. Intel was
used as an example other organizations that want to promote the industry invest-
ment in Costa Rica. The minister has made more initiatives, but I don’t think
that was just because of his vision of how the world works and the economy. He
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 147
found partnerships with the multinationals and companies that can help support
that effort. (personal communication, June 25, 2013)
Patricia Escalante, another representative of Intel, shared similar thoughts:
MNCs have contributed to Costa Rica in many ways including increase in job
opportunities, changes in the education programs that are offered to students,
changes in teacher training, increased educational opportunities for students,
increased importance on multilingualism, increased value of STEM subjects,
and increased STEM educational programs and policies. Intel has provided
great support to the education system in many ways—for example, the Intel
Teach the Future Program. Other MNCs have provided many jobs that did not
previously exist. The schools of education are now more open to the integration
of technology than 5 or 6 years ago. I think the main reason is the participation
of international companies in our country, and Intel was the first big one. There
are many students being educated with the tools necessary to gain entrance into
the workforce. (personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Patricia Chico, Intel representative, echoed the same idea that “the workforce in Costa
Rica is more prepared. Intel meets with schools every year, and we tell them these are
the opportunities and do they need something more, something less, or something
different to support them” (personal communication, June 26, 2013).
The school-site leaders brought a third, more hands-on perspective to how the
partnerships with corporations are supporting their efforts and focus on creating more
knowledge-ready workers out of their students. Edgar Meza felt that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 148
the goal is that every student walks away ready for the workforce. Intel has the
greatest focus and impact on the industrial electronics element of the technical
education. Intel has provided equipment that students take apart, and then the
pieces are sold to get funding for other equipment needed for classes. Intel also
offers visits and field trips to their sites that benefit the students to really visual-
ize what they could do in the future. What the students demand in order to have
labor opportunities has been drastic in the past 10 years. (personal communica-
tion, June 27, 2013)
A specific example given by Mr. Meza about Intel’s employees was the following:
Hugo Murillo, a parent volunteer for Dulce Nombre who also worked at Intel,
. . . contacted me to discuss how he and Intel could support the school progress
towards its vision. Hugo helped with donations of equipment, setting up guest
speakers and field trips to Intel, and especially focused on changes to the elec-
tronics department to align the needs of Intel with the education system in order
to help kids get jobs at Intel. Hugo wanted the kids to be career ready right after
high school. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
Ana Sivarenes, the Dulce Nombre Technology Coordinator, shared her perspec-
tive as well, stating that
the situation is twofold. Intel provides resources that were mentioned earlier,
but in addition to that, the local industries allow for internships to take place so
students can go there and practice what they have learned. The focus is very
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 149
entrepreneurial so that when the student reaches industry level, the students are
completely ready. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
As seen with the in-depth interview responses for this research question, Intel
and corporations in general have played a large role in supporting the progressive
movement for education in Costa Rica.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1. As seen in Spring’s (2008)
definition of globalization, the importance of embracing a world culture to stay compet-
itive with the global society was a perspective adopted by the leaders of Costa Rica. As
previously discussed, research question 1 reflected the following three findings that
embraced change and competition. First, there was a shift in the economic focus and
labor markets from an agrarian-based economy to a service-oriented and technology-
driven economy. Second, there was an increase in global awareness and a common
world language that creates more bilingual citizens with the support of bilingual educa-
tion. Third, there was an increase of MNCs invested in Costa Rica and the education
system to support the development of more knowledge-ready workers. All three of
these findings addressed the overarching research question, What results of globaliza-
tion and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? Survey responses, observa-
tions, and interview data that were synthesized and analyzed were triangulated to pro-
vide validity to the findings. The next section will address the framework, findings, and
data for research question 2.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 150
Research Question 2 and Framework
What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
Wagner’s (2008) 21st’century framework was the lens utilized to analyze the
data results of this research question. Specifically, the areas of Wagner’s framework
that were focused on were critical thinking, collaboration, effective written and oral
communication, and accessing and analyzing information. All of these skills are vital to
successful learning and opening doors to more opportunities in the labor market.
Research question 2 had three findings that all revolved around the development
of tools that better equip students for success in a global society as developed,
knowledge-ready workers (see Table 7).
Finding 1. There was a focus on the development of 21st-century skills (collab-
oration, communication, and inquiry-based learning) and access to technology to remain
globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s global society.
Teacher focus on the skills necessary to support what the world demands of
students today is vital for the success of students (Wagner, 2008). Survey questions that
supported finding 1 of research question 2 (2, 4, 10, and 11) focused on multiple ele-
ments of 21st-century skills as described by Wagner (2008). Figure 8 summarizes the
results of the survey data for finding 1 of research question 2. All evidence pointed in
the direction of an understanding for the need to develop 21st-century skills and use of
technology in order to compete in the global society.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 151
Table 7
Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the Presence of Multi-
national Corporations Seen in Schools and Universities in Costa Rica—Finding 1,
Focus on Development of 21st-Century Skills and Access to Technology to Remain
Globally Competitive and Meet Demands of Today’s Global Society (by Numbers and
Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Questions and Researcher’s Class-
room Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#2: Whether collaboration among students took place
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 17 74
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 116 82
#4: Whether lessons promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 18 78
Secondary school teachers (n = 79) 66 84
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 114 82
#5: Whether curriculum reflected 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 47 59
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 92 66
#10: Teachers held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 103 74
#11: Focus of education changed at school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 152
Table 7 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Collaboration taking place among students
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 29 38
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 35 49
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Curriculum that reflected 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 35 92
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 50 70
Observation: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 43 61
Observation: Student work posted in classroom that was reflective of 21st-
century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 7 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 classrooms (n = 69) 29 42
Observation: Students desks set up in collaborative manner
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 31 84
K–12 classrooms (n = 70) 60 86
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 153
Figure 8. Results of globalization and the presence of multinational
corporations seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on
development of 21st-century skills and access to technology to remain
globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s global society.
To further substantiate finding 1 for research question 2, observation data were
gathered to understand the depth of the use of 21st-century skills in the classrooms.
Once again, based on Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills perspective, multiple ele-
ments were addressed such as critical thinking, accessing information, and collabora-
tion. The observation data coincided with the survey data that there was a focus on
developing 21st-century skills in agreement with Wagner’s layout and focus on 21st-
century learning.
The final piece of triangulation to the data collection was the interviews. All
three levels of interviews echoed agreement with the idea of a focus on development of
21st-century skills in the schools. Dr. Leonardo Garnier stated that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 154
kids have to solve problems, kids have to ask questions, kids have to debate,
they have to think. I think in the last 7 years we have done more for
constructivism than the entire educational faculty in the last 20 years. (personal
communication, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda furthered this idea by noting that “teacher training included a new
way of seeing students and student-based learning, thinking centered. This has always
been the focus of the trainings” (personal communication, June 28, 2013). As far as
access to technology was concerned, Michelle Coffey felt that there had been a major
focus on and therefore an increase in access:
What countries have been doing is introducing computers at schools, mostly
being in labs which the children go to for 1 or 2 hours a week. There is access to
computers, even through Internet cafes. I was told the other day by Omar Dengo
that about 20–25% of kids in public schools have smart phones. (personal com-
munication, June 28, 2013)
Intel and school-site leaders felt that not only was technology a large part of the
development of education but so was the focus on 21st-century skills. Mary-Helen
Bialas stated: “I think also its important to help the future workforce get developed for
how to work in our kind of an environment because everything is done in teams around
the world” (personal communication, June 25, 2013). Critical thinking, collaboration,
accessing and analyzing information, as well as learning a common shared global
language, are all part of developing the workforce to be prepared for global competition
(Wagner, 2008). Patricia Escalante reported to the researcher that “from 2008 to 2012
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 155
the focus was more on developing cognitive skills and the 21st-century skills. The Intel
Teacher webpage has courses that are online and are devoted to developing 21st-century
skills” (personal communication, June 28, 2013). Edgar Meza felt that the focus was
so large that “now even the most remote schools in the mountain areas have access to
technology” (personal communication, June 27, 2013). Overall, the survey, observa-
tion, and interview data aligned with common themes to validate finding 1 for this
research question.
Finding 2. There is a focus on the development of teacher and leadership
training to support sustainable and systemic growth in the quality and implementation
of 21st-century skills and use of technology.
Another aspect of the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in Costa
Rica could be seen not only in the development and implementation of 21st-century
skills and technology, as discussed in the previous section, but also the development of
teacher and leadership training to support an effective implementation of this new focus.
Teachers identified and agreed with three survey questions (1, 10, and 13) that sup-
ported this finding (see Table 8 and Figure 9). As seen in Figure 9, Dulce Nombre and
the other two data groups understood the importance of the development of teacher and
leadership training to support sustainable and systemic growth in the quality and imple-
mentation of 21st-century skills and use of technology.
Observation data of classrooms solidified the finding that there had been an
impact on teacher and leadership training to support implementation of 21st-century
skills and use of technology. The overall observation data supported the finding that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 156
Table 8
Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the Presence of Multi-
national Corporations Seen in Schools and Universities in Costa Rica— Finding 2,
Focus on Development of Teacher and Leadership Training to Support Sustainable and
Systemic Growth in Quality and Implementation of 21st-Century Skills and Use of
Technology (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Ques-
tions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#1: Teacher training changed to promote 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 18 78
Secondary school teachers (n = 79) 65 83
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 113 80
#10: Teachers held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 103 74
#13: School-site leaders active participants in implementation of 21st-
century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 48 60
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 100 72
Observation: Collaboration among students
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 29 76
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 53 75
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 157
Table 8 (continued)
Observation: Use of technology
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 36 51
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 classrooms (n = 71)
53 75
Observation: Curriculum that reflected 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 35 92
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 50 70
Observation: Student work that reflected use of 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 7 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 classrooms (n = 69) 49 69
Observation: Evidence of student-centered instruction
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 29 76
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 49 69
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 158
Figure 9. Results of globalization and the presence of multinational corpo-
rations seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on development
of teacher and leadership training to support sustainable and systemic growth
in quality and implementation of 21st-century skills and technology use.
there was development of teacher and leadership training that allowed establishing
sustainable and systemic implementation of technology and 21st-century skills.
For further validity, interview data were assessed for common patterns among
the three groups of leaders: policy, corporate, and school-site leaders. Interview data
revealed interesting information that provided further insight and depth to the survey
and observation results. Overall, the various leaders felt that teacher training had
improved and there were organizations and plans in place to address this issue; how-
ever, there was much more work to be done. Dr. Garnier specifically stated that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 159
the problem is that the kind of teachers we receive at the Ministry are not very
good, so we have to spend a lot of money retraining the teachers and that’s not
really fair. I mean, if you give a lot of money and students pay a lot of money to
private universities, at least they should prepare them for the classroom. (per-
sonal interview, June 24, 2013)
Part of the elements that Dr. Garnier felt were being implemented to address this
need was the Ministry’s partnership with the ODF. He noted that
we have a great relation with the Omar Dengo foundation which is like our main
partner in increasing access and supporting the use of technology. It is a very
responsible institution, always reflecting on what we’ve been doing right and
what have been the mistakes. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda from the ODF provided more insight from her institution by adding
that
teacher training included a new way of seeing students and student-based
learning; thinking centered has always been the focus of the trainings. Teachers
get an assessment and they have to do it every year to make sure they’re doing
their job, but I’m not sure how solid those assessments are and I don’t think they
are assessing things like incorporated 21st-century skills. Intel has done a great
job with its training program: Teach Program. I think that the number of teach-
ers that they have trained is about 30,000 teachers. (personal interview, June 28,
2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 160
Gabriella Llobet also echoed Intel’s praise for supporting teacher training: “Intel
has supported specific programs to teach these professors of how they can use the tech-
nology and be better teachers” (personal interview, June 24, 2013). Mary-Helen Bialas
had more to add to Intel’s input regarding developing teacher and leadership training:
One of the direct impacts we’re working on from K–12 to higher ed is how to
support the learning of 21st-century skills focused on preparing students to be
successful in any career in the future in the knowledge economy and in the
globalized economy. That focus has a direct relation to a lot of our materials, a
lot of our preparation, and it’s working with schools to develop those skills. If
the teachers are going to be able to provide 21st-century skills and help their
children develop, they have to have leadership support and resources and they
have to have professional development. It has to be integrated and they need
curriculum, or they need to have these processes evaluated and the goals to work
towards stuff. Teachers have to give to it, but they have to have all the structure
to support them. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Mary-Helen Bialas felt strongly about teacher training and support as she de-
scribed what Intel had done so far: “So we develop senior trainers, and the senior
trainers develop master teachers, and the master teachers will work with the participant
teachers—kind of like train-the-trainer process” (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
Patricia Chico added to the concept of developing master teachers: “Intel had an agree-
ment with Omar Dengo, and we had a group of trainers trained with our materials
implement teacher training with Omar Dengo” (personal interview, June 26, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 161
Intel representative Patricia Escalante provided further insight to these data by discuss-
ing the value of Intel Teach program:
The Intel Teach to the Future program began in Costa Rica in the year 2000. It
was sponsored by Intel but implemented by Fundacion Omar Dengo in
collaboration with the Ministry of Education. They are all in charge of all the
programs that have to do with technology and education. Fundacion Omar
Dengo was more devoted to the informatics teacher, but Intel Teach to the
Future was a little bit different because they wanted every teacher and student
from every level to have the opportunity to access and learn technology. We
first trained around 250 master teachers, and our objective was to at least have
one or two master teachers in every school district around the country. (personal
interview, June 28, 2013)
School-site leader Edgar Meza expressed the need for teacher training to support
changes in curriculum and improve instruction:
The greatest challenge and the change needs to take place in the teachers. In
order for me to pursue my vision, the teachers need to be on board. One of the
greatest challenges is the number of interim teachers who know they will not be
at Dulce Nombre permanently and do not take teacher training and the school
vision seriously. The director does not hire his own teachers; they are placed by
the ministry. Because of this new technical focus, the Ministry is forced to place
teachers, and they take those who may not have educational background but
come from the technical field. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 162
The value of teacher training was clear among all the interviewed representa-
tives; however, the greatest need was expressed directly by Dulce Nombre Director
Edgar Meza, who felt the direct impact of working with teachers who were not prepared
to do the tasks asked of them. Although there are changes occurring in a positive
direction, there is more to be done to continue this pursuit of providing the best, most
pertinent and relevant education for the students.
Finding 3. There was a focus on technical education. Along with the impor-
tance of 21st-century skills is Wagner’s (2008) focus on access and analyzing informa-
tion. This includes the use of technology and advanced critical thinking and problem
solving, all of which was observed in the focus on technical education in the Costa
Rican school system. First, survey data (questions 3, 6, 11, and 19) supported the idea
that there was a focus on technical education (see Table 9 and Figure 10). As seen in
Figure 10, the data groups depict an overall focus on technical education.
To further support the finding that there is a focus on technical education,
observations were made. The fact that access to technology was at a much higher
percentage for all three groups was interesting for the researcher to observe because it
presented more of an implementation concern than an access concern.
Interviews at the policy, corporate, and school-site level agreed with the focus
on technical education. Dr. Garnier shared how Costa Rica
started a very progressive program of informatics education in the 80s, and it
was presented in three different ways. A lot of our current programmers
emerged from that program. They started learning how to program computers
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 163
Table 9
Findings for Research Question 2: Results of Globalization and the Presence of Multi-
national Corporations Seen in Schools and Universities in Costa Rica—Finding 3,
Focus on Technical Education (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed
With Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#3: Technology used in classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 64 80
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 120 86
#6: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 102 72
#11: Focus of education changed at school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
#19: Importance of STEM education for future of Costa Rica
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 79) 74 94
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 134 96
Observation: Technology used in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 35 49
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 164
Figure 10. Results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations
seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica: Focus on technical education.
Table 9 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 43 61
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and math.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 165
early on in school. So yes, we use a lot of technology, but we know this is not
about technology—it’s about education and having a computer for every kid.
When you don’t know what your educational policy is or your strategy or how
the teacher is really helping the kids to learn, you will spend a lot of money.
(personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda expanded the information on the emphasis of technology and
technical skills:
Some of the Costa Rican goals include a focus on developing skills for the IT
industry, especially because we are one of those countries with a big industry
relative to its size. There are great efforts that come out of the educational
system and has increased IT skills, so I think that we are moving our educational
system in the direction towards preparing them to be successful in the labor
markets. Omar Dengo’s impact on education includes showing teachers the
possibilities out there for lessons and use of technology, that something different
could be done. (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
She also felt that “IT corporations have tried to help to make education be stronger or
richer” (personal interview, June 28, 2013). Michelle Coffey not only agreed about the
value but also had a comment about the effective use of technology: “We need to be
smarter and use the equipment for tomorrow’s technology and the day after tomorrow’s
technology, and if we find that this is limited, then let’s buy others” (personal interview,
June 28, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 166
Corporate and school-site leaders also agreed that there was a focus on technical
education. Mary-Helen Bialas provided information on Intel’s impact on this:
We’ve brought in higher paid workforce opportunities, and it’s at the technician
level and the operation level as well as the engineering level. There are more
opportunities for engineers. There’s also transfer of knowledge that happens
because we have a really low turnover rate. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
Patricia Escalante felt it was important to embrace an opportunity that many
students already had based on their own means. Her perspective was that “most of the
students have an I-Phone® or any type of cell phone they bring to school . . . so why not
use those cell phones as a tool for learning” (personal interview, June 28, 2013)? Dulce
Nombre Director Edgar Meza also echoed the importance of technical education: “The
focus of the curriculum and teaching has been to meet the demands of the multinational
corporations, especially in the technical field, so the student can be prepared for the
workforce” (personal interview, June 27, 2013).
Summary of Research Question 2. Today’s society demands the proficiency
and ability to utilize 21st-century skills and technical knowledge in order to be effective
and efficient in the workforce. Due to this factor, it is important that the focus on edu-
cation also shifts to meet these demands and support the students to prepare them for the
knowledge-intensive workforce. The three findings supported the idea focused on in
research question 2. Finding 1 established that there was a focus on the development of
21st-century skills (collaboration, communication, and inquiry-based learning) and
access to technology to remain globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 167
global society. Finding 2 established that there was a focus on the development of
teacher and leadership training to support sustainable and systemic growth in the quality
and implementation of 21st-century skills and use of technology. Finally, the third
finding established that there was a focus on technical education.
Data were analyzed utilizing Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills
and triangulated with the use of surveys, observations, and interviews, thus establishing
validity to the findings. The next section will address research question 3, the frame-
work and findings that were established after analyzing and triangulating the collected
data.
Research Question 3 and Framework
How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frames were used to analyze the data collected that
supported findings associated with research question 3. All four frames—symbolic,
human resources, structural, and political—were utilized in the analysis. Research
question 3 had a total of four findings (see Table 6) as a result of the triangulation of
survey, observations, and interview data among the three sources of policy leaders,
corporate leaders, and school-site leaders and representatives.
Finding 1. Schools are building a team that is prepared to embrace and be
equipped for the necessary progressive vision that supports the implementation of 21st-
century skills and technology.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 168
Finding 1 was analyzed through the human resources and symbolic framework
that focuses on the vision of a school and the personnel perspective on how people are
placed where their strengths are utilized the most (Bolman and Deal, 2008; see Table 10
and Figure 11). Survey data indicated that teachers in all three data groups felt that
teacher training had changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication (survey question 1). Survey questions 10–12 also
supported this finding, Figure 11 summarizes all of the survey data for finding 1 of
research question 3. It clearly delineates support for the finding that schools were
building a team that was prepared to embrace and be equipped for the necessary pro-
gressive vision that supports the implementation of 21st century skills and technology.
Observation data also supported the idea that teams were being built to develop
a more sustainable and systemic change to support the implementation of 21st-century
skills and technology in the classrooms.
The policy-level participants provided an interesting and clear perspective that
supported this finding. Dr. Garnier stated that
during our time, more teachers have dared to be more creative. The one thing
we did that I hope worked in 10 years is that we almost doubled the salaries of
teachers. Basically we hope that will mean that better students will go to the
faculties of education, and that improves the quality of teaching in spite of the
faculty of education. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda agreed with this progress in developing teachers and overall teams
to support the new vision for the education system. She felt that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 169
Table 10
Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has Been Directly
Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence of Globalization and Multina-
tional Corporations (MNCs)—Schools Building Team That Is Prepared to Embrace and
Be Equipped for Necessary Progressive Vision That Supports Implementation of 21st-
Century Skills and Technology (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed
With Survey Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#1: Teacher training changed to promote 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 18 78
Secondary school teachers (n = 79) 65 83
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 113 80
#10: Teachers held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 103 74
#11: Focus of education changed at school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
#12: Educational decisions influenced by MNCs
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 55 69
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 92 66
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 170
Table 10 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Technology used in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 35 49
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Curriculum in classrooms that reflected 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 35 92
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 50 70
Observation: Student work posted in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 10) 7 70
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 21 57
K–12 classrooms (n = 69) 29 42
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 171
Figure 11. How educational leadership has been impacted directly by
policy decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Schools building
team that was prepared to embrace and be equipped for the necessary pro-
gressive vision that supports implementation of 21st-century skills and
technology.
educational leaders today are more responsive to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands. They are more aware of the necessity of changing educa-
tion, but we still have a lot of work to do in the field of training. We need to do
it at the Ministry and the school site level” (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda did agree with the sentiments previously stated by school-site leader Edgar
Meza that “teacher hiring and training is one of our biggest issues and challenges, but
Costa Rica is really trying and encouraging teachers to be prepared” (personal inter-
view, June 28, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 172
Finding 2. There is a focus on instructional leadership to support teacher
growth toward 21st-century skill teaching and use of technology.
An important part of implementing change is having proper support and guid-
ance through the process, and the survey results supported this finding (survey questions
10, 11, and 13; see Table 11).
As noted by Bolman and Deal (2008), a leader needs to be able to lead, support,
guide, and inspire those around him or her. According to these survey results, the
leaders of Costa Rica were heading in that direction. Figure 12 summarizes all of the
survey data for finding 2 of research question 3.
Observation data further corroborated the finding that there was a focus on
instructional leadership to support teacher growth. To support creating a collaborative
tone in a classroom, the environment and classroom setup can make a difference (Wag-
ner, 2008).
The triangulation of the data for this finding was completed with interviews
from political leaders, corporate leaders, and school-site leaders. Dr. Garnier had an
interesting anecdote to share that provided an example of the importance of vision and
stronger leaders:
I wrote my first circular letter to all the administrators called “Authority and
Responsibility,” basically saying that you are the director and you should run the
schools. The problem is people who don’t take chances who don’t take risks—
the director, the supervisor, the regional director, all the way to the Minister. Be
in charge and do what’s best for children. Trying to change the rules and the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 173
Table 11
Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has Been Directly
Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence of Globalization and Multi-
national Corporations—Finding 2, Focus on Instructional Leadership to Support
Teacher Growth Toward 21st-Century Skill Teaching and Use of Technology (by
Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey Questions and Re-
searcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#10: Teachers held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 19 83
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 103 74
#11: Focus changed at school site to incorporate 21st-century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
#13: School-site leaders active participants in implementation of 21st-
century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 48 60
K–12 teachers (n = 139) 100 72
Observation: Focus on instructional leadership to support teacher growth
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 11
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 35 49
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 174
Table 11 (continued)
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Access to technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 43 61
Observation: Student desks set up in collaborative manner
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 37) 31 84
K–12 classrooms (n = 70) 60 86
Observation: Evidence of student-centered instruction in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 29 76
K–12 classrooms (n = 71) 49 69
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 175
Figure 12. How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Focus on instructional lead-
ership to support teacher growth toward 21st-century skill teaching and use of
technology.
styles of some of the administration has been difficult with incredible resis-
tance. Supervisor wants to be the boss. For example, if a principal wants to take
the kids to the zoo, he should ask permission from the supervisor. I mean, why?
He’s the principal—can’t he go to the zoo? So that’s what we’re trying to do—
take risks, don’t ask for permission. Some understand and are grateful, and
others get really scared. I do hope that at least a will have changed in my 8
years. (personal communication, June 24, 2013)
This symbolic frame, as seen in Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership descriptions, was
valued by the Minister, who felt that without a vision and the willpower to go after what
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 176
one thinks is right, no change will occur. He was not only looking for but also trying to
develop this type of leadership.
Patricia Escalante and Edgar Meza had similar perspectives with respect to the
importance and value of leadership. Patricia Escalante shared that
if we want to integrate the skills and if we want to change methodology, we
definitely have to change the way we evaluate progress in Costa Rica. We’re
still behind. We measure; we test; we don’t assess. Very few people are doing
assessments; very few teachers [have]—and I think it’s really important—an
accountability system. We’ve had this discussion with the Ministry of Educa-
tion. The Ministry of Education have been in charge officially for all teacher
training in the country. The opportunities have improved to have training during
their working hours, which brings more interest from the teachers to be trained
because they now have time. The ministry offers training in integrating technol-
ogy and math, English, all kinds of things. (personal communication, June 28,
2013)
As a school-site leader directly involved with teachers, Edgar Meza shared some impor-
tant insights as to how teachers were supported to meet his expectations:
Classroom visits and feedback to teachers through conversations and evaluations
is how I try to hold teachers accountable for the method of teaching. Coordina-
tors help in the specific content training. The accountability also falls with the
Coordinator of Industry, because that coordinator needs to keep up to date with
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 177
what the industry wants and provide resources so that students will learn and
eventually be employable. (personal communication, June 27, 2013)
Overall, the understanding of working as a team with a strong instructional
leader who can guide teachers toward the changes and demands of the 21st-century and
the global society was shared among all stakeholders.
Finding 3. There is a focus on creating a united vision to be globally savvy and
competitive with 21st-century practical skills and the use of technology that meet to-
day’s demands.
Survey data supported the above finding (questions 5, 6, 11, 11, and 14; see
Table 12). Figure 13 summarizes all of the survey data for finding 3 of research ques-
tion 3. It clearly delineates support for the finding that there was a focus on creating a
united vision among all stakeholders to further support students and prepare them for
the global society.
Observation data validated the results of the survey in support of a united vision
that would help schools to be globally competitive. Various aspects of the observation
data supported this concept. Lessons that promoted higher level thinking were evident
in all classrooms as well.
Once again, the process of triangulation was completed with a comprehensive
review of the interview data utilized to support the finding that a united vision existed to
meet the demands of the global society. Dr. Garnier shared his vision for his school
sites:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 178
Table 12
Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational leadership Has Been Directly
Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence of Globalization and Multina-
tional Corporations—Finding 3, Focus on Creating United Vision to Be Globally Savvy
and Competitive with 21st-century Practical Skills and Use of Technology to Meet
Today’s Demands (by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With Survey
Questions and Researcher’s Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#5: Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 47 59
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 93 66
#6: Access to technology in classroom
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 102 72
#11: Focus of education changed at school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 62 78
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 117 83
#14: School-site leaders communicated goals and vision of school to
teachers and students
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 14 61
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 50 63
K–12 teachers (n = 138) 102 74
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 179
Table 12 (continued)
Survey questions and observations n %
Observation: Collaboration among students in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 29 76
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Use of technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 8 73
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 25 66
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 35 49
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Access to technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 43 61
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 180
Figure 13. How educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy
decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Focus on creating a united
vision to be globally savvy and competitive with 21st-century practical skills
and use of technology that meet today’s demands.
Our objective is that every kid should have access to technology and to use it
intelligently. Some of this happens through the Ministry of Education and some
just because it happens [through their own access]. Kids have to solve prob-
lems; kids have to ask questions; kids have to debate; they have to think. I think
in the last 7 years, we have done more for constructivism then all the educational
faculty in the last 20 years. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Bujanda agreed: “There are great efforts that come out of the educational system
and has increased IT skills, so I think that we are moving our educational system in the
direction towards preparing them to be successful in the labor markets” (personal inter-
view, June 28, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 181
Corporate leaders Mary-Helen Bialas, Patricia Escalante, and Patricia Chico
agreed with these sentiments of a shared venture for the betterment of all. During Mary-
Helen Bialas’s interview on June 28, 2013, she noted that
it was through partnership, public-private partnership with the Ministry of Edu-
cation, the Science and Technology, the University of Costa Rica, which is
where the National Science Fair is based; and even a law was promoted so every
school in the country has to have a scientific fair. There are many initiatives
from the Ministry of Education to try to create a new process or change and
bring in some core base learning and to bring in project-based learning and
definitely bring in technology.
Patricia Escalante viewed this issue as follows:
We all believe that education is the best way to become a better person, a better
society. One thing is giving students access to education; another thing is to
give them access to good education. And I think that is one of the things our
leaders have been careful about. (personal interview, June 28, 2013)
Patricia Chico echoed the idea that “we need thinkers, and we asked how can a country
boost from early stage the capacity of thinking outside of the box and using 21st-century
skills, cooperation, problem solving and so on” (personal communication, June 26,
2013)?
Edgar Meza shared his vision as the Director of Dulce Nombre:
My vision as principal is to have better quality of instruction for all of the pro-
grams. The goal is that every student walks away ready for the workforce. This
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 182
has been difficult because early on the school did not have the right staff, the
right equipment, or the right resources; however the school is now moving
forward. The ultimate vision is to follow in the footsteps of Don Bosco [another
secondary school in Costa Rica] and become as technically advanced so that the
students have the best opportunities possible. Mary-Helen at Intel is aware and
supportive of this vision. (personal communication, June 27, 2013)
In general, the participants felt the value of a shared vision that allowed various
leaders to come together to meet the demands of the global society as a powerful
method of moving forward toward success.
Finding 4. There is a sense of social responsibility by corporate and educational
leaders.
Ultimately, the focus of this study was aimed at examining access and opportu-
nity so that students could reach their greatest potential if leaders in various realms
involved in this process embraced lifelong learning and worked toward staying
competitive with global demands. Survey questions 6–9 and 13 dealt with this concept
(see Table 13).
Figure 14 summarizes all of the survey data for finding 4 of research question 3.
The data clearly depicted an established sense of corporate and educational leader
responsibility that is important to continue the growth and development of students so
as to best prepare them for their future. Observation data provided further validity to
the results.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 183
Table 13
Findings for Research Question 3: How Educational Leadership Has Been Directly
Impacted by Policy Decisions as a Result of the Influence of Globalization and Multi-
national Corporations—Finding 4, Sense of Social Responsibility by Corporate and
Educational Leaders(by Numbers and Percentages of Teachers Who Agreed With
Survey Questions and Classroom Observations)
Survey questions and observations n %
#6: Access to technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 102 72
#7: Intel has positively affected school site
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 54 68
K–12 teachers (n = 140) 108 77
#8: Intel has improved resources at school site
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 16 70
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 59 74
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 112 79
#9: Students are college and/or career ready with 21st-century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 15 65
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 60 75
K–12 teachers (n = 141) 103 73
#13: School-site leaders active participants in implementation of 21st-
century skills
Dulce Nombre teachers (n = 23) 12 52
Secondary school teachers (n = 80) 48 60
K–12 teachers (n = 130) 100 72
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 184
Figure 14. How educational leadership has been impacted directly by
policy decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs: Sense of social
responsibility for corporate and educational leaders.
Table 13 (continued)
Observation: Lessons that promoted higher level thinking
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 7 64
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 34 89
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 53 75
Observation: Access to technology in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 11 100
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 33 87
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 43 61
Observation: Curriculum reflected 21st-century skills in classrooms
Dulce Nombre classrooms (n = 11) 9 82
Secondary school classrooms (n = 38) 35 92
K–12 teachers (n = 71) 50 70
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 185
The interviews of various leaders proved fruitful in triangulating the previously
stated survey and observation data to validate the finding that there was an element of
social responsibility for corporate and educational leaders. Dr. Garnier discussed how
he felt that “there are a lot of good people in the education system and they can do
wonderful things” (personal interview, June 24, 2013). He described how important it
was not only to support students in becoming academically sound but also to also
prepare them for real-world, real-life situations that they would face in their future. A
specific example was the following:
Based around projects done through collaboration with students, collective
problem solving. Now civics education in seventh grade—3 terms—think about
some problem in terms of traffic safety (find a problem in their community or
neighborhood and propose a solution). In order to do this project, the students
have to understand the law, what institutions are involved, local government,
Ministry of Transportation or whatever and then propose a solution. In the 2nd
term, if I remember, it was about health problems in the community, and the 3rd
term was about risk. Risk was tough to put into the curriculum because Costa
Rica is one of those countries that have a lot of difficulties thinking in terms of a
risk society. So it’s really important to get kids thinking, “What risks does my
neighborhood have?” Maybe the flood from the river or the mountain can fall—
I don’t know. So let them think about those risks and then again propose
something. Basically through this project-based education with innovation by
students and of course also the teachers. So yes, I think we’ve been trying to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 186
improve their ability to relate to each other, to solve problems, to enjoy life, to
learn to live together, to gain the soft skills . . . (personal communication, June
24, 2013)
Michelle Coffey took the responsibility of revising curriculum and focusing on
the need at hand by looking at what Intel had accomplished with its partnerships with
the schools in Costa Rica: “Intel is a very good company with a large corporate social
responsibility program. They are supporting science fairs; they are donating computers
to schools. Their facilities are also donated, and they work with the Ministry of Public
Education” (personal communication, June 28, 2013). Both Dr. Garnier and Ms. Coffey
provided a clear example of social responsibility met by both policy and corporate
leaders.
Intel representatives Mary-Helen Bialas, Patricia Escalante, and Patricia Chico
also offered some insight into what they felt was Intel’s responsibility to the citizens of
Costa Rica as well as the world:
We’ve brought in higher paid workforce opportunities, and it’s at the technician
level and the operation level as well as the engineering level. There’s more op-
portunities for engineers. There’s also transfer of knowledge that happens
because we have a really low turnover rate. It’s just a global process of creation,
and I think that has mostly influenced how to make our kids successful—influ-
ences the kind of projects we’re going to implement. (M.-H. Bialas, personal
interview, June 25, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 187
Patricia Chico, colleague of Mary-Helen Bialas, noted that “it’s about giving
feedback to the kids and if they need mentoring. But if you don’t invest in children
when they’re more susceptible, later on they won’t care” (personal interview, June 26,
2013). Patricia Escalante shared her overall belief that due to the teamwork and part-
nership of corporations and schools in Costa Rica, “there are many students being
educated with the tools necessary to gain entrance into the workforce” (personal inter-
view, June 28, 2013)
Dulce Nombre Director Edgar Meza felt the same as far as his duty to support
students. His goal was that “every student walks away ready for the workforce” (per-
sonal interview, June 27, 2013). His community also had many expectations because
“the minister spent 5–6 million dollars building their new facility, which for Costa Rica
public education is a lot of money. They were also given a lot of equipment” (personal
interview, June 27, 2013). With this support from the ministry and volunteer workers
such as Hugo Murillo from Intel, as discussed previously, Mr. Meza wanted to focus on
“the policies regarding technical education and strengthening this education to increase
opportunities for people who have low paying jobs to come in and learn mid-range
technical skills because that is what all of the companies really want” (personal inter-
view, June 27, 2013). According to Mr. Meza, “the accountability also falls with the
Coordinator of Industry because that coordinator needs to keep up to date with what the
industry wants and provide resources so that students will learn and eventually be (per-
sonal interview, June 27, 2013). Although change has been slow due to the “difficult
approval process that it has to go through with the Ministry, which can take from 3 to 4
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 188
years, which is what the school is going through right now” (personal interview, June
27, 2013). The goal to work together and stand behind supporting all students to be as
successful and prepared as possible was what drove Mr. Meza forward every day.
Overall, all of these respondents agree on the value of enhancing the potential of their
citizens for an overall societal benefit.
Summary for research question 3. The data collected indicated that there was
progress being made with the implementation of 21st-century skills and technology with
the support of trained teachers and leaders. Although the indicators were positive, there
was still room for improvement, as recognized by many of the interviewed participants.
Awareness of gaps in the pathway toward progress is extremely beneficial with regard
to coming up with more effective action plans to respond to gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The Costa Rican school system is focused on development toward meeting the needs of
the global society; and with the visionaries from various sectors of the political, corpo-
rate, and school-site realms, this result is becoming more and more tangible for the near
future.
As expressed by Bolman and Deal (2008), it is important for leaders to under-
stand all elements of leadership that create the best balance for decision making. These
elements are structural, human resources, symbolic, and political perspective when
addressing various situations. The findings for research question 3 were analyzed
utilizing Bolman and Deal’s perspective. Finding 1 for this question established that
schools were building a team that was prepared to embrace and be equipped for the
necessary progressive vision that supports the implementation of 21st-century skills and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 189
technology. Finding 2 established that there was a focus on instructional leadership to
support teacher growth toward 21st-century skill teaching and use of technology.
Finding 3 established that there was a focus on creating a united vision to be globally
savvy and competitive with 21st-century practical skills and the use of technology that
meet today’s demands. Finding 4 established that there was a sense of social responsi-
bility on the part of corporate and educational leaders.
The data that were collected, analyzed, synthesized, and utilized for research
question 3 corroborated the findings via surveys, observations, and interviews. Overall,
the educational leaders of Costa Rica depicted an understanding of and growth in
empowering leaders to do what is best for the students of Costa Rica.
Chapter Summary
Participant survey results, observations, and a comprehensive analysis of all
interviews demonstrated the progressive vision of Costa Rica’s education system as
well as the perspective of the stakeholders involved. Furthermore, the three vantage
points of policymaker, MNC, and school-site leader interviews provided great insight
and depth to the data analyzed that supported the findings for each research question.
Dr. Garnier, the Minister of Public Education; Ms. Bialas, the Educational Director at
Intel; Mr. Meza, director of the secondary school, Dulce Nombre; and other interview
participants were extremely helpful in expressing their vision and existing partnerships
among those invested in education at all levels. The overall idea conveyed was that
Costa Rica’s education system was embracing the world culture view (Spring, 2008)
and addressing all of the demands of today’s global society so that their students would
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 190
be empowered by the necessary skills to compete in the current labor market. These
skills include both (a) technical skills; and (b) 21st-century skills such as collaboration,
communication, critical thinking, and more, as described by Wagner (2008).
Most importantly, the leaders were driven to create and sustain an environment
that supported their progressive vision while assessing the resources they currently had
with respect to a budget that they would need to continue to develop, improve, and
continue on this pathway of lifelong learning (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Although the
partnership among Intel, policy leaders, and educational leaders is still considered a
young and blossoming relationship, the short-term impact, as seen by this case study,
has been a positive one. The long-term impact remains to be seen, but all stakeholders
have agreed on maintaining their course for the betterment of all students and a positive,
fruitful future.
The final chapter of this dissertation provides an overview of the dissertation as
well as the synthesized results and implications of the study. Chapter 5 ends with
recommendations for the stakeholders involved as well as possibilities for further
research to continue assessing the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in
Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 191
Chapter 5
Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusions
The focus of this study revolved around understanding the role and impact of
Intel on the schools in Costa Rica, what resources were provided, what areas are excel-
ling, and what areas of need still exist. Chapters 1 and 2 presented an overview of the
study and explained the historical background of Costa Rica’s economic changes and
the new focus in education from an agrarian society to a service-based, technical soci-
ety. Chapter 3 established the methodology and design of the researcher. Chapter 4
presented findings based on the data analyzed and synthesized, culminating in this
current chapter that offers recommendations and provides a conclusion for the entire
case study. The next few sections will give a more detailed overview of the previous
chapters prior to establishing the recommendations based on the findings encompassing
the topic of globalization and MNCs and their impact on secondary schools in Costa
Rica.
Chapter 1 noted a few concerns for the Costa Rican education system, one being
a low secondary graduation rate and another being a low percentage of students pursu-
ing higher education enrollment to further enhance their academic standing. These low
percentages are part of the reason why there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers to
embrace the new knowledge-based job opportunities in Costa Rica. This case study
specifically examined Dulce Nombre, a secondary school in Costa Rica that received
support and investment from Intel and the MEP. The intent of this study was to iden-
tify the significance of MNCs and the changes in education due to the need to embrace
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 192
the demands of a global society. The central purpose of this study was to understand
what impact globalization and MNCs have had on educational leadership and the devel-
opment of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica.
The literature review in the second chapter provided a foundation for under-
standing the concepts of globalization, MNCs, education, leadership, and in general all
of these areas with a focus on Costa Rica. It further outlined current policy and changes
that have occurred to help Costa Rica progress to meet global demands. Part of this
policy change was an addition of 21st-century aims and objectives as set forth by the
MEP. This element was really important in pushing the Costa Rican education system
forward so that the students could develop as more inquiry-based, critical thinkers rather
than those who just knew how to follow instructions. The literature review also estab-
lished the frameworks that were utilized to analyze the data collected during the study.
The focus of the frameworks was around globalization, leadership, and 21st-century
skills.
Globalization was viewed through Spring’s (2008) perspective, presenting a
variety of methods to see and analyze the world. These methods include utilizing the
four major theoretical processes concerning globalization and education: world culture,
world systems, postcolonial, and culturalist. The world culture view perceives one
global culture, whereas the world systems process breaks the world into two unequal
zones, rich and poor. The main perspective utilized from Spring’s framework was the
world culture view.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 193
Leadership was viewed through Bolman and Deal’s (2008) perspective that
focuses on four elements of leadership vital to the success of a leader—human re-
sources, political, structural, and symbolic frames—with the optimal form of leadership
being one that finds a healthy blend of all four categories. All four frames were utilized
when analyzing the data collected and determining the findings.
Finally, the topic of 21st-century skills was analyzed through Wagner’s (2008)
framework that focused on seven elements vital to the success of embracing new meth-
ods and knowledge to empower the students of today: “critical thinking and problem
solving,” “collaboration across networks and leading by influence,” “agility and adapt-
ability,” “initiative and entrepreneurialism,” “effective oral and written communica-
tion,” “accessing and analyzing information” and “curiosity and imagination” (p. 67).
For this case study, the focus on Wagner’s 21st-century skills revolved around collabo-
ration, critical thinking, effective communication, and accessing and analyzing informa-
tion. All three of these frameworks were utilized in Chapter 4 to support data collec-
tion, data analysis, and the synthesis process when establishing findings for this case
study.
Chapter 3 established the design of the study as well as the limitations. One
limitation was that a national strike that occurred on the 1st day of data collection for
the research team. Another important limitation was the restriction on time and distance
for this case study. An important delimitation to review was the choice of Intel-invested
schools to analyze for this study. The research team collaborated to establish survey,
observation, and interview protocols to help triangulate the data collected, as seen in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 194
appendices. The triangulation also included the three levels of interviews: corporate,
political, and school site leaders. Data were collected not only from the case study site
of Dulce Nombre but also from other K–12 Intel-invested school sites. This procedure
allowed for a more in depth understanding of what the impact of globalization and
MNCs has been on the school sites in Costa Rica. Overall, the data collected and
analyzed consisted of nine interviews, 23 teacher surveys from the case study site
(Dulce Nombre), 80 surveys overall for secondary schools, and 141 surveys overall for
K–12 schools. Observation data collected were from 11 classrooms at Dulce Nombre,
38 classrooms representing secondary school sites, and 71 classrooms representing K–
12 school sites.
Research Questions Overview
In Chapter 4, the three research questions were analyzed based on the data col-
lected through surveys, observations, and interview questions. The data were collected
during a 1-week timeline of school site visits as well as multiple interviews with corpo-
rate leaders, political leaders, and school site leaders. This dissertation sought to answer
three questions and to suggest best practices and recommendations that could be gener-
alized to other similar school sites and a general vision for the Costa Rica school sys-
tem. The recommendations are based on the findings discovered for the following three
questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 195
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Synthesizing the Results
Data were collected pertaining to each research question. These data were then
analyzed and synthesized to establish findings based on patterns and common themes
found among surveys, observations, and interview data. Research question 1 asked
what the impact of globalization and MNCs has been on Costa Rica and had a total of
three findings. Finding 1 stated that there was a shift in the economic focus and labor
markets from an agrarian-based economy to a service-oriented and technology-driven
economy. Finding 2 stated that there is an increase in global awareness and a common
world language that creates more bilingual citizens with the support of bilingual educa-
tion. Finding 3 stated that there is an increase of MNCs invested in Costa Rica and the
education system to support the development of more knowledge-ready workers.
Research question 2 narrowed the perspective and looked more closely at the
impact of globalization and MNCs on actual school sites. This question also had a total
of three findings. Finding 1established that there is a focus on the development of 21st-
century skills (collaboration, communication, and inquiry-based learning) and access to
technology to remain globally competitive and meet the demands of today’s global
society. Finding 2 established that there is a focus on the development of teacher and
leadership training to support sustainable and systemic growth in the quality and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 196
implementation of 21st-century skills and use of technology. Finally, Finding 3 estab-
lished that there is a focus on technical education. Data were analyzed utilizing Wag-
ner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills and triangulated with the use of surveys,
observations, and interviews, thus establishing validity to the findings.
Research question 3 narrowed the focus even further and asked for the impact of
policy change on educational leaders in Costa Rica. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frame-
work was utilized to analyze the data collected and develop an understanding of the
leadership strengths and areas of growth. Research question 3 had a total of four find-
ings. Finding 1 established that schools are building a team that is prepared to embrace
and be equipped for the necessary progressive vision that supports the implementation
of 21st-century skills and technology. Finding 2 established that there is a focus on
instructional leadership to support teacher growth toward 21st-century skill teaching
and use of technology. Finding 3 established that there is a focus on creating a united
vision to be globally savvy and competitive with 21st-century practical skills and the
use of technology that meet today’s demands. Finding 4 established that there is a sense
of social responsibility for corporate and educational leaders. Overall, the findings
depicted a positive growth for the Costa Rican school system as the stakeholders focus
on improving school resources, policy, and forming partnerships that will best meet the
needs of today’s global expectations.
In the next section are discussed the implications of the findings for each re-
search question, followed by recommendations for each research question and a general
conclusion for the entire case study.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 197
Implications for Practices and Recommendations
Research Question 1
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica was evident in the data
collected and analyzed in chapter four. Data analyzed proved to support a shift in the
Costa Rican economic structure from an agrarian society to one focused on a more
service- and technology-oriented economy due to the demands of the global society.
Despite the concern of losing the Costa Rican culture and harming the naturally beauti-
ful and rich environment, the goal to move forward and stay competitive with the world
was a focus for Costa Rican stakeholders while maintaining preservation of elements
that make Costa Rica unique.
Part of the cultural shift was language. Although the data reflected an increase
in bilingual citizens as well as a larger population of knowledge-ready workers, these
were still elements that are in their beginning stages of growth. There is much to be
done to continue down the pathway of constant growth. The recommendation for
schools is to increase exposure to languages at an early age and to emphasize learning a
second language throughout students’ adolescent years. Specifically, as mentioned by
many interview participants, English as a powerful world language of communication is
a priority as the second language learned by students at an early age. The current united
vision for the value of bilingual education supports the growth of increasing the number
of citizens who are actually bilingual. This vision should remain strong to continue
bilingual growth and empower citizens to compete in a global society.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 198
Globalization and MNCs have had a positive impact on establishing a new
vision for Costa Rica that is focused on meeting the demands of the global society with
the resources and support necessary to be successful. Moreover, this impact has perme-
ated into the educational platform and supported the process of creating more
knowledge-ready workers to meet the demands of the evolving Costa Rican technical
labor market. It is recommended that all educational stakeholders, including policy
leaders, MNC leaders, and school site professionals, stay in communication to fully
understand and analyze the impact of their investments at the actual school-site level.
An increase in monitoring and feedback would benefit all levels and only support the
progress that has already been made to establish stronger schools in Costa Rica that are
relevant to students’ needs in today’s world.
Research Question 2
The MEP in Costa Rica has set a clear vision on improving the educational
system by embracing partnerships to support schools with the ultimate goal to become
globally competitive. An increase in FDI due to globalization has really changed the
landscape and perspective of policymakers in Costa Rica. Dr. Garnier, Minister of
Education, and Mary-Helen Bialas, educational leader at Intel, understand the impor-
tance of this collaboration that will in the short term, and hopefully in the long term,
benefit both the people of Costa Rica and the MNCs. The partnership between Intel and
schools in Costa Rica was pivotal in moving toward a more progressive outlook not
only for education but also for the labor force. It is recommended that this partnership
continue to strengthen its collaborative efforts to support and guide policy development
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 199
and directly impact the school site with resources and technical support to further
enhance the learning experience for all students.
MNC investments as well as hands-on curriculum development approaches have
enhanced the ability of Costa Rican schools to gain access to technology and learn how
to implement and teach 21st-century skills. School site leaders such as Edgar Meza, the
Director of Dulce Nombre, a secondary school site, really appreciated the support from
both policymakers and Intel to help him meet his vision for his students focused on
empowering them with technical skills to be prepared for the labor market right after
high school. Moreover, Intel facilitates career options for students by allowing visits to
Intel plants and supporting school sites with career information and internship place-
ments, all of which has really allowed effective change in the educational exposure that
students are receiving today. All educational stakeholders are striving to do what is best
for students and to carry out the 21st-century goals and vision. The recommendation is
to continue this partnership that has allowed for an increase in resources and an im-
provement in curriculum to empower students with the skills they need to be successful.
An area of growth identified by many of the individuals interviewed was teacher
and leadership training. In order to establish sustainable systemic growth, there should
be a teacher training program that supports knowledgeable professionals entering the
field of education. Mr. Meza felt that the fact that he had no control over who was
working at his school was a difficult problem because it made it harder for him to move
toward a progressive vision when his staff was not prepared. It is recommended that a
focused, rigorous credentialing and professional development program be established
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 200
with an accountability system to ensure that those entering the field of education are
qualified to enter the career path. A key element of this would be the need for constant
professional development to keep up with the changes that are occurring to remain
competitive with a fast-moving global society. A final recommendation addressing this
research question would be to continue to support the donation of technical resources to
increase exposure and learning at the school sites.
Research Question 3
Educational leadership has faced a significant change due to the global focus on
technology and 21st-century skills. Edgar Meza and other educational leaders echoed
how schools have to be ready to embrace change because regardless of whether or not
they are prepared, change is continuing to happen. These leaders have all stepped
forward to adjust their perspective on methodologies used in the classroom and the
focus of education. Their vision for the schools is more progressive and in line with the
vision and goals of the MEP. Due to these changes, teacher training and leadership
training has increased. In order to support changes at the school site level, there has to
be a strong level of instructional leadership to establish change and motivate staff to
adjust curriculum and method of teaching to meet the demands of today's world. Use of
technology, critical thinking, project-based learning, and inquiry-based approaches are
just examples of what the new expectations are for teachers in the classrooms. Once
again, these stages of change are so new that there is plenty of work to do to create a
seamless transition at the school sites and at the policy level. It is recommended that
constant communication, monitoring, professional development, accountability, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 201
feedback be a process utilized by leaders as they move forward to meet the demands of
a global society and keep their students globally competitive. An evaluation system will
provide good data to the educational leaders to analyze the implementation of the new
vision and focus on 21st-century aims and objectives as well as the use of technology.
Bolman and Deal (2008) emphasized the importance of the symbolic framework
where leaders can establish a vision and motivate their staff to follow through, regard-
less of the work that is ahead of them. School site leaders will have to be strong and
learn how to encourage their staff; to motivate all stakeholders to embrace change; and
to make decisions to meet expectations set by this shared vision for education among
policy leaders, MNCs and school sites. Social responsibility for corporate and educa-
tional leaders has led to the support of this vision through various means. Dr. Garnier
also emphasized this value with respect to his leadership team. He wants them to lead,
and he wants people in leadership positions who can make decisions that are best for
their students—not people who just follow what they are told to do and are afraid to
take risks. A great leader is a risk taker, not a follower. More importantly, a leader
must understand how to support the staff to make the pertinent changes at the school
site (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The recommendation is to continue to build strong leaders
by improving leadership training so that they can understand what it means to lead
versus manage and actually implement change.
Overall, school site leaders have embraced and, in fact, even asked for greater
partnerships with MNCs to receive the resources and tools they need for their students
to be successful. There is an evident impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 202
Costa Rica as well as all the stakeholders who are looking to constantly improve the
opportunities for Costa Ricans. Nevertheless, there is more to be done on this journey
toward a vision of greatness for the Costa Rican education system and the expectation
for more knowledge-ready workers to meet the demands of the Costa Rican labor
market.
Conclusions
Globalization and MNCs have impacted the education system by embracing the
world culture view (Spring, 2008) and incorporating 21st-century skills as defined by
Wagner’s (2008) framework to meet the demands of a competitive global market. The
theoretical perspective of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework demonstrated how
leadership traits were being utilized by the stakeholders to establish an effective and
efficient approach toward change.
The overall conclusion drawn from the data collected and analyzed is that
changes continue to occur in the Costa Rican education system all the way through the
K–12 and university fields. The results from interviews, observations, and surveys
indicated that more MNCs such as Microsoft, Procter & Gamble, Cisco and others are
taking an active role in supporting the development of the education system not only
because of their social responsibility but also because of the ultimate need of the corpo-
rations that are looking to hire more knowledge-ready workers who can embrace the
challenges of today and tomorrow.
Based on the scope of the data collection and analysis, it is difficult to predict
the long-term implications of the impact of globalization and MNCs on the schools and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 203
universities in Costa Rica. However, the short-term results have demonstrated a posi-
tive growth in schools, access to technology, and development of 21st-century skills as
well as teacher and leadership training that help to continue development of a stronger
school system. A stronger school system will, in turn, support an increase in
knowledge-ready workers for the Costa Rican labor market, and this progress is likely
to continue into the future. Further research can be done in this area to determine the
long-term impact of globalization and MNCs on schools and universities in Costa Rica.
This case study did show a positive transformation in the Costa Rican school system
due to the policy changes and progressive vision established to meet the needs of an
ever-changing and competitive global society.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 204
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IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 217
Appendix A
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: ____________________ Location of Survey: ______________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration among students
takes place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. Technology is not used in your
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Lessons promote higher level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collab-
oration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has not improved resources at
your school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Students are college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Teachers are encouraged to im-
plement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 218
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. The focus of education has
changed at your school site to incor-
porate 21st-century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
12. Educational decisions are not in-
fluenced by multinational corpora-
tions.
4 3 2 1 0
13. School site leaders are active par-
ticipants in implementation of 21st-
century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders communicate
the goals and the vision of the school
to teachers and students.
4 3 2 1 0
15. Is there evidence of the following
seen in your curriculum?
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
16. Have the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
17. Has the Minister of Education
supported the emphasis on:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 219
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
18. Do you receive adequate support
to teach the curricula in the following
areas:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
19. Do you believe that STEM edu-
cation is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
Yes No
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 220
PROTOCOLO DE LA ENCUESTA PARA MAESTROS
Fecha: ____________________ Sitio: ______________________
Instrucciones: Clasifique sus opiniones con respeto a las siguientes declaraciones
marcando con un circulo el número que mejor represente lo que usted piensa.
Pregunta Totalmente
de Acuerdo
De
Acuerdo
En
Desacuerdo
Muy en
Desacuerdo
No
Se
1. El entrenamiento de
maestros ha cambiado para
promover las habilidades del
siglo 21, tales como el pensa-
miento crítico, colaboración
y comunicación.
4 3 2 1 0
2. La colaboración entre los
estudiantes se lleva a cabo a
diario en el aula.
4 3 2 1 0
3. La tecnología se usa en su
aula.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Las lecciones promueven
pensamiento a alto nivel.
4 3 2 1 0
5. El currículo ha cambiado
para promover las habili-
dades del siglo 21 (como el
pensamiento crítico, la
colaboración y la comunica-
ción).
4 3 2 1 0
6. Hay acceso a la tecnología
en el aula.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Intel ha tenido un impacto
positivo en su escuela.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel ha mejorado los re-
cursos en su escuela.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 221
Pregunta Totalmente
de Acuerdo
De
Acuerdo
En
Desacuerdo
Muy en
Desacuerdo
No
Se
9. Los estudiantes están pre-
parados para la universidad
y/o para una carrera que re-
quiere habilidades del siglo
21.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Los maestros rinden
cuentas de implementar las
habilidades del siglo XXI en
la clase.
4 3 2 1 0
11. El enfoque de la edu-
cación ha cambiado en su
escuela para incorporar el
aprendizaje de las habili-
dades del siglo XXI.
4 3 2 1 0
12. Decisiones educativas
son influidas por las corpora-
ciones multinacionales.
4 3 2 1 0
13. Los líderes de la escuela
son participantes activos en
la implementación de las
habilidades del siglo XXI.
4 3 2 1 0
14. Los líderes de la escuela
comunican las metas y la
visión de la escuela con los
maestros y estudiantes.
4 3 2 1 0
15. Los siguientes elementos
son enseñados como parte de
su currículo:
Ciencias
Si No
Tecnología
Si No
Ingeniería
Si No
Mathemáticas
Si No
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 222
Pregunta Totalmente
de Acuerdo
De
Acuerdo
En
Desacuerdo
Muy en
Desacuerdo
No
Se
16. Como resultadode la
colaboración conIntel, hay
un mayor énfasis en:
Ciencias
Si No
Tecnología
Si No
Ingeniería
Si No
Mathemáticas
Si No
17. El currículopromovido
por elMinistro de Educa-
ciónpone el énfasis en:
Ciencias
Si No
Tecnología
Si No
Ingeniería
Si No
Mathemáticas
Si No
18. Se le da apoyo adecu-
adopara enseñarcada área:
Ciencias
Si No
Tecnología
Si No
Ingeniería
Si No
Mathemáticas
Si No
19. Ciencia, Tecnología, In-
geniería y Matemáticasson
importantes parael futuro
económico de Costa Rica¿
Si No
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 223
Appendix B
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 224
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 225
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your teachers
to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 226
Appendix C
MNC Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system in
Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 227
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st cen-
tury?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 228
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in the curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports that schools receive to help prepare
teachers in the implementation of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 229
Appendix D
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 230
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 231
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 232
Appendix E
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ____________________
Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically to-
ward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 233
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 234
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 235
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a collab-
orative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Science
Technol-
ogy
Engineer-
ing
Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM be-
ing taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No No No
Field Notes and Examples:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 236
Other Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 237
Appendix F
First Letter to the Minister of Education
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,
A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our disserta-
tion process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and
multinational corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our
study is asking the following questions:
1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and multina-
tional corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?
As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey
and interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.
After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspon-
dence possible to go over the purpose of our study.
Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!
Sincerely,
Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 238
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 239
Appendix G
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date ________________
Dear__________________________,
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that
may shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools
in Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educa-
tional leadership and 21st-century skills.
My name is Anita Arora, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction
and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to with-
draw at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anon-
ymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be pre-
sented in a manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identi-
fied.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you
may contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia. Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
Anita Arora and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu
I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions.
I consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate
in a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.
_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Multinational corporations (MNCs) such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco began investing in education in Costa Rica starting in 1994. The purpose of investment was to support and increase the number of knowledge‐based skilled citizens of Costa Rica who would later be able to enter the growing and knowledge‐based labor force required due to globalization. This new economic demand for Costa Rica has led to policy changes for the education system, including a change in the Costa Rican Constitution’s article for education that focuses on providing approximately 8% of its gross domestic product. The Ministry of Education has detailed this educational vision even further by developing a focus on a new set of 21st-century aims and objectives. ❧ The doctoral research team of 12, led by Dr. Michael F. Escalante, studied the impact of globalization and MNCs on the school system in Costa Rica and its implications on educational leaders. The data collection process for this qualitative case study included the use of various instruments such as surveys, observations, and interviews. The use of multiple sources allowed triangulation to occur and increased validity of the findings. Once data were analyzed, findings were reported and implications and recommendations provided to all stakeholders (i.e., MNCs, Ministry of Education, policymakers, school‐site leaders) in Costa Rica. ❧ The principal finding from the comprehensive analysis was that the partnership among Intel, policy leaders, and school sites has made a change in the education system to better prepare the students for a global society. These partnerships give Costa Rican students access to tools and opportunities that prepare them to be stronger, competitive, knowledge-ready workers. Although there is always room for growth when looking at access to resources, teacher training, leadership, and other areas, the vision established by these entities has proven to catalyze a positive change in the Costa Rican education system that embraces new knowledge ideas such as 21st‐century technical skills. With the continued support of the Ministry of Education, corporations such as Intel, and school‐site leaders, the hope is for further growth and an increase in opportunities for the students of Costa Rica.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Arora, Anita (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/03/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,Education,Educational Leadership,foreign direct investment (FDI),Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Britz, Jan (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email msanitaarora@gmail.com,uclatennisgal@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-374457

Unique identifier UC11296433

Identifier etd-AroraAnita-2322.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-374457 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AroraAnita-2322.pdf

Dmrecord 374457

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Arora, Anita

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA