University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The effect of globalization and multinational corporations on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica: implications for educational, political, and corporate leaders

(USC Thesis Other)

The effect of globalization and multinational corporations on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica: implications for educational, political, and corporate leaders

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 1
THE EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN COSTA RICA:
IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL, POLITICAL, AND
CORPORATE LEADERS
by
Oryla Wiedoeft
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 2
Dedication
The Costa Rica project, starting as a dissertation, then a job, and rapidly becom-
ing the “Ireland project,” embodies a lifetime of interests and goals. I have always been
engaged by science but developed interests in politics, policy, and international relations
during high school. It was really hard to decide what to major in. I clearly recall a con-
versation with a USC freshman admissions advisor who, after I explained that I wanted
to triple major in politics and policy, international relations, and philosophy, politely
asked me if I ever had any interest in graduating from college. I chose to major in
chemistry and gained an interest in research and start-up companies. I had traveled
around the United States extensively as a youth; but in college, academia became the
ticket for satiating my desire to travel to as many places around the world as possible. I
found that I could attend conferences, learn a great deal, and get to explore foreign
countries all at the same time.
Somewhere along the line, I went into education and became passionate about
educational equality, effective educational leadership, and economics. I currently work
as an assistant principal at a large urban high school and will tell you that the students
are the sunshine in my days. I had sought a job where I could be involved with all the
things I love, including science, education, policy, politics, international relations, and
business. As it stands, our studies include STEM education, understanding the policies
and politics that leading developing economies are implementing for successful growth,
with a focus on the key role of education as the engine for fueling economic growth.
This combines a huge number of my academic interests. I am also excited for the
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 3
seeming start-up of a consulting business and, during the period of completing the
dissertation, enjoyed giving a talk and learning from other researchers at the World
Educational Research Association held in Guanajuato, Mexico. and next to be held in
Edinburgh, Scotland.
There is a saying about “Do what you love and you will never work a day in your
life.” That saying is true for this project. Sadly, I enjoyed reading all the books for
Chapter 2 so much that I was thinking that I would not mind having another year to
write just because I kept finding more interesting books and articles to read that I
wanted to use. Then someone reminded me that this method was crazy. For all this, I
have to thank my committee chair, Dr. Michael Escalante. I have no idea why he asked
me “to help get a thing in Costa Rica started,” and I now feel guilty for thinking that it
was a ploy to have a group that could work while he surfed and golfed in one of the
most beautiful countries on earth. However, I am truly grateful. To this end, this
dissertation is dedicated to him.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 4
Acknowledgments
This journey has been an amazing experience. I have grown personally, profes-
sionally, and intellectually. I am very grateful to the many people who have supported,
inspired, and encouraged me over the past 3 years. I owe a great deal to the following:
• My family and friends who have put up with me not being around the past 3
years and have cheered me on through the process of completing the doctoral
program;
• Fellow Rossier students who have inspired me, shared much knowledge, and
become very dear friends;
• The Rossier faculty and staff, who have been extremely supportive;
• Dr. Andres Rodríguez-Clare, without whom this study would never have
been possible; and
• My dissertation committee—Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Gregory Franklin,
and Dr. Pedro Garcia—all of whom have been tremendously supportive,
have guided and mentored me, and have made completion of this dissertation
possible.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 4
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
List of Abbreviations 10
Chapter 1: Introduction 13
Background of the Problem 14
Statement of the Problem 18
Purpose of the Study 18
Significance of the Study 19
Limitations and Delimitations 20
Assumptions 20
Definitions of Terms 21
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 21
Formal Job 21
Globalization 21
HT-MNC 21
Human Capital 22
Knowledge Age 22
KBE 22
Knowledge-Based Global Economy 22
MNC 23
Twenty-First-Century Skills 23
Organization of the Study 23
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 25
The History of Globalization 27
Impact on the United States From Globalization and the
Flattening of the Earth 33
Globalization and the Rise of the Rest 42
Globalization and Jobs 45
Globalization, Jobs, Innovation, and STEM 46
Economic Growth and Education 50
The Globalization of Education 53
KBEs and Changing Educational Policy and Practice 55
Twenty-First-Century Skills and Creating Innovators 58
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 6
STEM Education and STEM PBL 64
Costa Rica and the Global Economy 66
A Brief History of Costa Rica 67
Development of Costa Rica’s Economy 73
The CINDE Story: Agent in the Economic Development of
Costa Rica 76
Factors Leading to the Intel Investment in Costa Rica 77
Documented Benefits to the Costa Rican Economy From the
Intel Investment 78
Development and Current Status of Costa Rica’s Education System 79
Education Partnership With Intel and Increasing 21st-Century Skills
and STEM Talent 82
Science, Technology, and Innovation Development in Costa Rica 83
Challenges Costa Rica Faces Moving Toward an Innovation- and
KBE and Reducing Dependency on FDI 84
Theoretical Framework 87
Summary of the Literature Review 89
Chapter 3: Methodology 92
Restatement of the Background, Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions 92
Design Summary 94
Participants and Setting 94
Gaining Access 95
Exploratory Trip 96
Research Trip: Participants and Settings 97
Instrumentation 101
Surveys 102
Interviews 103
Documents 104
Observations 105
Data Collection Procedures 105
Data Analysis 106
Step 1: Organizing Data for Analysis 106
Step 2: Reading Through the Data 107
Step 3: Coding the Data 107
Step 4: Generating a Description and Themes for the Setting or People 107
Step 5: Representing Descriptions and Themes in the Qualitative
Narrative 108
Step 6: Interpreting Data 108
Ethical Considerations 108
Chapter 4: Results 109
Participants 111
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 7
Results: Research Question 1 111
Results: Research Question 2 120
Results: Research Question 3 126
Summary 130
Chapter 5: Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions 133
Summary 134
Statement of the Problem 134
Purpose of Study Restated 136
Summary of Literature Review 137
Theoretical Framework 141
Methodology, Data, and Sources of Evidence 143
Discussion of Findings 144
Implications for Educational Leaders and Policy Makers 145
Future Research 146
Conclusions 146
References 152
Appendices
Appendix A:First Letter to the Minister of Education (English and Spanish
Versions) 159
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 161
Appendix C: School Leader Interview Protocol 162
Appendix D: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 165
Appendix E: MNC Leader Interview Protocol 168
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Teachers 171
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Tool 174
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Percentages representing Costa Rican teacher beliefs regarding the
shift toward implementation of 21st-century skills 123
Figure 2: Percentages representing Costa Rican classroom observations for
visible implementation of 21-st century skills 124
Figure 3: Percentages representing Costa Rican teacher beliefs regarding admin-
istrators incorporating 21st-century skills, the use of technology being a
focus of school sites, and holding teachers accountable for implementa-
of 21st-century skills in the classroom 131
Figure 4: Relationship model: Costa Rica’s national goals, supporting organiza-
tions, and role of Intel 147
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 9
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and the
resulting relationships among the Ministry of Public Education, the Costa Rica Invest-
ment Promotion Agency, and Intel have had on the development of 21st-century skills
and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education in Costa
Rican K–12 schools. The theoretical frameworks for this qualitative study were based
on work by Bolman and Deal, Wagner, Capraro, and Spring. Results indicated a shift to
valuing the importance of 21st-century skills and STEM nationally. This study is sig-
nificant as it presents a case study of successful partnerships by education, policymak-
ers, and industry leaders as they work to develop 21st-century skills and STEM educa-
tion in K–12 schools and to ensure equity for all students, regardless of ethnicity,
primary language, socioeconomic status, or education level of the parents.
Keywords: globalization, education, economy
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 10
List of Abbreviations
BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, and China
CAATEC High Technology Advisory Committee for Costa Rica
CEO chief executive officer
CINDE Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency
CITI Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
CONARE Consejo Nacional de Rectores
CONICIT National Council for Scientific and Technological Investigation
CT computerized axial tomography
FDI foreign direct investment
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP gross national product
GPS global positioning system
HP Hewlett-Packard
HT high-tech
HT-MNC high-tech multinational corporation
IEA International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement
IISEF Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
ICT information and communication technologies
IDE innovation-driven economy
IMF International Monetary Fund
IRB Institutional Review Board
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 11
IT information technology
ITCR Instituto Technológico de Costa Rica
KBE knowledge-based economy
MICITT Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (Costa Rica)
MNC multinational corporation
mtDNA mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid
NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progress
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NGO nongovernmental organization
NSF National Science Foundation
NSTA National Science Teacher Association
NSTS National Science and Technology System
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PBL project-based learning
PLN National Liberation Party
PISA Program for International Student Assessment
P21 Partnership for 21st Century Skills
R&D research and development
SES socioeconomic status
STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
UCB University of California, Berkeley
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 12
UCR University of Costa Rica
UN United Nations
UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
USC University of Southern California
WTO World Trade Organization
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 13
Chapter 1
Introduction
According to former chairman of the Gallup poll, Jim Clifton, more and more
often, global leaders ask Gallup the question, “Does anyone know for sure what the
whole world is thinking?” (Clifton, 2011, p.7). A recent worldwide Gallup poll indi-
cated that the primary thing people around the world want is a good job. Clifton defined
a good job, or formal job, as one with a paycheck from an employer and steady work
that averages a minimum of 30 hours per week. Humans used to desire love, money,
food, shelter, safety, peace, and freedom more than anything else. Now people want a
good job, and they also want their children to have a good job. Of the 7 billion people
on earth, according to the Gallup poll cited by Clifton, 5 billion were age 15 or older,
and 3 billion told Gallup that they worked or wanted work. There are currently 1.2
billion full-time, formal jobs in the world. There is a global shortfall of about 1.8
billion good jobs. This fact means that global unemployment for those who are seeking
a formal job approaches 50%, with another 10% wanting part-time work. As a result,
potential societal stress and instability lie with 1.8 billion people globally. If countries
fail to create jobs, their societies will fall apart. Countries, specifically cities, will expe-
rience suffering, instability, chaos, and eventual revolution (Clifton).
Jobs and the gross domestic product (GDP) live together. Job growth and
growth of the GDP are dependent on innovation and the quality of national education
systems (Clifton, 2011; Wagner, 2008; Wessner & Wolff, 2012). In order for nations to
be globally competitive and offer formal jobs that create stability and reduce poverty
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 14
and unemployment-underemployment, schools in each nation must produce students
who are equipped with 21st-century skills and capable of competing in the diverse,
global knowledge-based economy (KBE). Each nation needs a world-class education
system with a global perspective serving as a framework for growth (Wagner). The aim
of this study was to understand what impact globalization and the resulting relationships
among the Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública; MEP), the
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE), and Intel have had on the develop-
ment of 21st-century skills and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) education in Costa Rican K–12 schools. In addition, this study aimed to use
the acquired understanding to develop a framework for successful partnerships among
government, education, and industry for the improvement of social conditions, growth
of human capital, and growth of a KBE.
Background of the Problem
Educational leaders face the challenges of understanding constantly evolving
global demands, the need for matching shifts in education policy, and the need to de-
velop strategic methodology that can be used to create sustainable transformations in
educational systems. There is an increasingly prominent role for public-private partner-
ship in which industry, academia, and government pool resources to improve education
systems and accelerate the emergence of new technologies into the marketplace (Wess-
ner & Wolff, 2012). Public school superintendents and university presidents must think
beyond core curricula and graduation rates.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 15
Students around the globe want more than merely to graduate; they want an
education that results in a good job, and the greatest job growth is in innovation-based
industry (Clifton, 2011; Langdon, McKittrick, & Beadle, 2011). Virtually every key
trading partner with the United States has declared innovation to be central to increasing
productivity, economic growth, and living standards. Wessner and Wolff asserted that
paramount to that effort is investment in education to provide the skills upon which an
innovation-led economy is based.
The effects of globalization on education have become increasingly apparent as
nations recognize that students require the skills and knowledge to help the nation to
attain a competitive edge in a global KBE (Wagner, 2008). These skills and knowledge
are a form of capital and become the most distinctive component of a country’s eco-
nomic system (Schultz, 1961). It is up to the leaders in education, government, and
industry—described by Clifton (2011) as tribal leaders—to collaborate and strategically
plan to ensure competitiveness for the nation in the global KBE.
It is globally recognized that innovation is driven by STEM and that job growth
is greatest in STEM fields. A U.S. policy brief asserted that “the greatest advancements
in our society from medicine to mechanics have come from the minds of those inter-
ested in or studied in the areas of STEM” (Langdon et al., 2011, p. 6). In the United
States, for example, STEM occupations were projected to grow by 17% between 2008
and 2018. Langdon et al. also stated that STEM workers command 26% higher wages
than their non-STEM counterparts, they have a lower rate of unemployment-
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 16
underemployment, and they enjoy higher earnings regardless of whether they work in
STEM or non-STEM occupations.
This study looked at primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. Over the past
30 years, Costa Rica has cultivated tremendous economic growth in the knowledge-
based sector, with a significant portion of growth in STEM fields (CINDE, 2013;
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2012a). Costa
Rica, established as a colony in the late 1500s, was one of the first nations to make
education free and obligatory (Booth, 2008). In 1949 José Figueres Ferrer abolished the
army and the constitution was rewritten, shifting a significant percentage of the GDP to
fund the public education system. Costa Rica has since developed an education system
ranked 20th in the world, boasting a 96.2% literacy rate (CINDE, 2013). Due to the
economic crisis, the 1980s were worse than a so-called “lost decade” for education, with
high school enrollment rates falling significantly and recovering only by the end of the
1990s (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, exemplifying Costa Rica’s commitment to
education, there was an initiative during the 1980s of installing computer laboratories in
elementary school classrooms as tools to aid in the general learning process; this addi-
tion contributed to development of a technology- and KBE (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Since that time, Costa Rica has annually increased the percentage of GDP spent on
public education. In 2010 Costa Rica had a population of 4.56 million and spent 7.2%
of its GDP on education (The World Bank, 2013). In an interesting contrast, Finland
spent 6.8% of its GDP on education in 2010 and the United States spent 5.6% of its
2010 GDP on education (The World Bank). As a result, Costa Rica’s citizenship has a
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 17
higher education and skill level, and enjoys both a higher standard of living in compari-
son to other Latin American countries.
Costa Rica is a stable, democratic, highly literate nation and became an ideal and
attractive nation for high-tech multinational corporations (HT-MNCs) such as Intel,
looking to invest globally (World Bank Group, 2006). During the past 2 decades, Costa
Rica’s economy has evolved from a base of almost entirely banana and coffee exports to
one that thrives on ecotourism, the services industry such as HT call centers, and tech-
nology exports. The education system, which is given credit for creating Costa Rica’s
ability to grow its economy, has been expected not only to keep up with the surge of
economic growth and changes but also to fuel them (CINDE, 2012; L. Garnier, Minister
of Public Education, Costa Rica, personal interviews, March and June 2013; Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Investment by Intel in 1996 provided a signaling effect to other MNCs that Costa
Rica is a prime location for investment. Nearly 63% of the companies that invested in
Costa Rica have done so in the past 15 years, largely after the Intel investment (OECD,
2012a; World Bank Group, 2006). As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and
university systems’ responsibility for developing students with 21st-century skills and
interest in STEM has become increasingly challenging (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Currently in Costa Rica, education leaders,
the government, and industry leaders are working together to cultivate 21st-century
skills in their students and to develop a strong interest among students in STEM. This
step supports Costa Rica’s continued goal to develop a highly competitive workforce for
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 18
the global KBE (CINDE, 2012; A. Cruz, Minister of Science and Technology, Costa
Rica, personal interview, June 2013; OECD, 2012a; World Bank Group, 2006).
Statement of the Problem
In the last 30 years, Costa Rica has moved from an economy based primarily on
coffee and bananas to one thriving on ecotourism, the services industry such as HT call
centers, and technology exports. Costa Rica’s historically outstanding and progressive
education system is conceivably the greatest factor responsible for enabling Costa
Rica’s shift from an agriculture-based economy to a KBE. The problem is that Costa
Rica’s economy has grown at such a rapid pace in the knowledge-based sector that the
education system is now struggling to produce enough students able to meet the de-
mands for human capital in the knowledge-based labor market, especially in the STEM
fields.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. The study also sought to
understand the relationships among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel with respect to the
development of 21st-century skills and interest in STEM in the K–12 schools in Costa
Rica. The three questions that guided the research for this study were as follows:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 19
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Significance of the Study
The government of Costa Rica, the MEP, CINDE, and Intel all share a vision of
Costa Rica as continuing to evolve into a KBE. This shared vision has enabled respect-
ful and synergistic relationships. This study is significant as it presents a case study of
successful partnerships by education, policy makers, and industry leaders as they work
to develop 21st-century skills and interest in STEM at K–12 schools, with the long-term
vision of growth in the knowledge-based sector of the economy. Equally important,
these entities are working collaboratively to ensure equity for all students, regardless of
ethnicity, primary language, socioeconomic status (SES), or the education level of the
parents.
This study provides evidence that all children can learn, irrespective of ethnicity,
primary language, SES, or educational level of parents. If schools provide appropriate
educational opportunities, students can accelerate in STEM subjects and master the
necessary 21st-century skills to be successful in a global KBE. Partnerships by govern-
ment, education, and business can be synergistic. These partnerships can greatly im-
prove socioeconomic conditions in a country, state, or city. Successful partnerships
increase both the number of formal jobs and number of individuals prepared to work at
those jobs. As a result, there is an increase in social stability, economic stability, and
increased growth of the economy, which benefit all stakeholders.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 20
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of the study included the distance from southern California to San
José, Costa Rica. There was a language barrier at times, as both researchers and inter-
viewees lacked high ability in the second language (Spanish or English). The time
allotted for primary data collection was limited to 10 days.
A key delimitation of the study was that, of the seven schools studied, all had
active partnerships with Intel Costa Rica. This situation prevents generalizability of the
findings. All seven studied schools were located in low-socioeconomic communities in
the San José area. Future studies could compare similar non-Intel partnership schools
and schools in both higher socioeconomic areas and rural areas of the country.
Assumptions
Assumptions were made when developing the study:
1. That 21st-century skills are needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor
force to compete in the diverse global KBE;
2. That STEM skills are needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor force to
compete in the innovation sector of the diverse global KBE;
3. That globalization and Intel have had an impact on the educational system in
Costa Rica;
4. That all participants would provide accurate information;
5. That the interviews, surveys, and observation protocols would provide
information required to assess the impact of globalization and MNCs on primary and
secondary schools in Costa Rica; and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 21
6. That the data collected would support an understanding of the relationships
among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel on the development of 21st-century skills and
STEM education in Costa Rica’s K–12 public schools.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are utilized throughout the dissertation:
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
This term refers to investment in a country other than the country where the
company is based. FDI includes mergers and acquisitions, building new facilities,
reinvesting profits earned from overseas operations, and intracompany loans.
Formal Job
This is a job with a paycheck from an employer and steady work that averages a
minimum of 30 hours per week (Clifton, 2011).
Globalization
This is a phenomenon of increased economic integration among nations, charac-
terized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs, and products across borders
(Spring, 2008).
HT-MNC
The term high tech refers to technology that is at the cutting edge—the most
advanced technology that is available. A HT-MNC is a MNC that produces the most
advanced technology available, such as Intel and its microchips for cutting-edge com-
puter processing (Giuliani, 2008).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 22
Human Capital
This term refers to the stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personality
attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce
economic value. It is an aggregate view of the human being acting within economies in
an attempt to capture the social, biological, cultural, and psychological complexity as
people interact in explicit and/or economic transactions. Many theories explicitly
connect investment in human capital development to education; and the role of human
capital in economic development, productivity growth, and innovation has been fre-
quently cited as a justification for government subsidies for education and job skills
training (Schultz, 1961).
Knowledge Age
The 21st-century Knowledge Age is seen as a tipping point, equivalent to the age
of discovery, the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the internal combustion
age (Snape, 2012).
KBE
This term refers to the use of knowledge technologies such as knowledge engi-
neering and knowledge management to produce economic benefits as well as job cre-
ation (Machlup, 1973).
Knowledge-Based Global Economy
This term refers to the use of knowledge, technologies, and skills to produce
economic benefits and job creation in the global market. Knowledge resources such as
knowhow and expertise are as critical as other economic resources in an interconnected
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 23
global economy. A key concept of the global KBE is that knowledge and education
(often referred to as human capital) can be treated as a productive asset or as a business
product or as educational and innovative intellectual products and services that can be
exported for a high-value return (Wagner, 2008).
MNC
This term refers to a corporation that is registered in more than one country or
that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation that both produces
and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a societal responsibility
and commitment to help improve the host country’s education system (Monge-González
& González-Alvarado, 2007).
Twenty-First-Century Skills
The essential skills of the global KBE: (a) critical thinking and problem solving,
(b) collaboration across networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability,
(d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f)
assessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Study
The study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 has provided an overview of
the study: introduction; statement of the problem; purpose of the study; research ques-
tions; significance of the study; limitations, delimitations, assumptions for the study;
and definition of key terms. Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it relates to
the impact of globalization, 21st-century skills, and the MNC Intel Costa Rica on ele-
mentary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. The chapter also includes details of
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 24
Costa Rica’s history, economic development, and the development of the education
system. Topics covered will be examined through four conceptual frameworks used in
the study: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2011) frame theory on organizational leadership; (b)
Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework on the perceptions of globalization; (c) Wagner’s
(2008) conceptual framework of 21st-century skills; and (d) the framework on STEM
and project-based learning developed by Capraro, Capraro, and Morgan (2013).
Chapter 3 presents the research methodology used in this study including re-
search design, sampling and population procedures, instrumentation, and the process for
data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 provides a description and analysis of collected
data. Chapter 5 presents conclusions; a model that may be transferable to other govern-
ment, education, and industry leaders looking for collaboration to increase educational
and socioeconomic growth in a region; and implications for future research.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 25
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
This chapter begins with a history of globalization. Globalization began hun-
dreds of thousands of years ago with the earliest human ancestors moving and migrating
in search of a better life. Over time, globalization was led and spread by adventurers,
traders, preachers, and warriors. After a brief summary of globalization from its earliest
beginnings, the chapter will discuss the current conceptualization of globalization—in
particular, globalization from the perspective of America and the effects of globalization
on the American economy and jobs. Next will be a discussion of research that has been
sponsored by bipartisan groups to inform policymakers of what must be done to ensure
that America continues to prosper in the current global KBE, including the critical
importance of STEM education to drive innovation, the economy, and job growth.
Innovation is focused on because it has historically driven the American economy and
job growth.
After a review of where America is with respect to its place in the global KBE,
how it has reached this point, and what researchers are advising policymakers to empha-
size to support the continued growth of the American economy, the chapter will then
discuss the globalization of education. The impact of education systems on economic
development will be the next topic in the chapter. The World Bank, the largest sponsor
of education in developing countries, will be the source of explaining knowledge-based
economies and the educational policies and practices suggested to grow a nation’s
ability for a KBE. The chapter will deal with the current national changes in U.S.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 26
education and examine the 21st-century skills movement in the United States, the need
for innovation, STEM, and STEM project-based learning (PBL) as a means for develop-
ing a national workforce to lead America’s economic future in the global KBE.
Shifting the focus to Costa Rica, the chapter will then carefully look at the devel-
opment of the country from the mid 1800s to date. A study of Costa Rica is relevant
because, as American education leaders, it is critical to understand not only where
America is and how it arrived at this point but also what successful developing econo-
mies are doing. The comment by Craig Barrett, former chief executive office (CEO) of
the Intel Corporation, stating that “Intel will continue to grow and flourish even if it
never hires another America” (as cited in Friedman, 2007, p. 371), coupled with Bill
Gates noting that of Microsoft’s four main research campuses, the Chinese site far
outperformed all others, should be a wakeup call for the United States to examine its
education system and the changes that must be made to remain competitive and keep
U.S. MNCs to continue to hire Americans (Friedman, 2007).
Studying policy and education in Costa Rica is relevant because its education
system largely paved the way for the monumental growth that the economy has seen
since the 1980s, particularly in the knowledge-based sector, which attracts MNC giants
such as Intel, Hewlett-Packard (HP), and numerous other HT and biotech MNCs
(OECD, 2012a; World Bank Group, 2006). Adding to a historically good education
system, Costa Rica’s education system is currently funded at a higher rate of the GDP
than even Finland and certainly the United States (World Bank, 2013). A number of
MNCs such as Intel and HP have formed successful partnerships with the Costa Rican
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 27
government and K–12 schools and universities to prepare an increasing number of
Costa Rican students for jobs in HT industries, thus increasing both job and economic
growth in Costa Rica.
This chapter will briefly review the history of Costa Rica, development of the
economy, and formation of CINDE. A review of the factors leading to the investment
by Intel in Costa Rica and documented benefits to Costa Rica’s economy since the Intel
investment will be discussed. Next, the chapter will review the development and the
current state of Costa Rica’s education system and the partnership between Intel be-
tween and the MEP to increase STEM education and 21st-century skills for Costa Rican
students. The structures and policies that Costa Rica has enacted to develop science and
technology in education, the workforce, and in businesses will be reviewed. Next will be
a discussion of challenges that Costa Rica faces in moving toward both a knowledge-
based and innovation-driven economy (IDE) and away from dependence on FDI for
economic stability and growth. The chapter will conclude with a summary of the
literature.
The History of Globalization
The history of globalization is explained in Bound Together (Chanda, 2008).
Globalization began as ancient human migrations through which our ancestors searched
for a better life. The history of globalization can traced and documented through genet-
ics studies. The discovery that all humanity stems from common parents came in 1987
by examination of mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (mtDNA). mtDNA remains
intact through generations, altered only by occasional mutations that become “genetic
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 28
markers.” mtDNA is passed through the mother, leaving intact all mutations that one
inherits from maternal ancestors, thus allowing scientists to find the traces of the earliest
mutations. Going back through the family tree of five geographic populations, research-
ers have found that all five populations can be traced to one woman who lived in Africa
some 200,000 years ago, a prophetic “African Eve.” As James Watson put it, she was
“the great-great-great . . . grandmother of us all” (as cited in Chanda, 2008, p. 6). While
this woman was not the only woman alive in the world at the time, her progenies sur-
vived to populate the world while the lines of descendants of other women became
extinct. In a groundbreaking paper published in 2000 by Underhill et al., it was estab-
lished that the Y chromosome that determines male sex also has an African ancestry,
thus an “African Adam.” In the same way that mtDNA is passed on from mother to
progeny, the Y chromosome does not undergo recombination as the rest of the chromo-
somes do. Human ancestors who left Africa all carried African Adam’s Y chromosome,
labeled M168, or the mtDNA of African Eve. Thus, the history of men’s fathers is
carried in perpetuity by sons. Based on extensive genetic studies of the world’s popula-
tions, it has been determined that the most recent common ancestor of us all left Africa
just 50,000 years ago (Chanda, 2008).
The 40,000 or 50,000 years that human ancestors spent walking the earth, expe-
riencing the unimaginably harsh weather of the Ice Age, have drastically altered peo-
ple’s physical features, characteristics, and the skin pigmentation. The effect of the first
globalization from dispersal of people around the globe has been the emergence of an
immensely diverse human species. Over thousands of years of human migrations, four
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 29
world zones emerged: Afro-Eurasian, Australia-New Guinea, American, and Pacific.
Agrarian communities were formed, leading to the second actor of globalization: the
trader. The spread of agriculture gave trade momentum because people in one location
could grow food crops that they could sell or exchange with people who did not have
them. The rise of agrarian society led to the emergence of states, some of whose impe-
rial ambitions or plays to control key resources proved to be the third key factor in
connecting states within the Afro-Eurasian zone and eventually the other three zones.
Groups who migrated reconnected with activities such as trading goods and sharing
experiences. In the early stages of history, the agents of globalization were traders,
preachers, adventurers, and soldiers (Chanda, 2008).
As described by Chanda (2008), trade routes were developed among Europe, the
Middle East, and Asia stemming from the desire to improve the taste of food and to find
luxuries such as silk and precious stones. The search for spices spurred shipping and
literally brought a taste of Asia into continental Europe. Black pepper, along with other
spices from southern and southeast Asia and lands further east, changed the course of
world history. In part, the preciousness of these spices led Portuguese efforts to find a
sea route to China and the European discovery and colonization of the Americas.
Global super powers such as Spain, with the goal of gaining position and wealth, fi-
nanced adventurers such as Marco Polo (1254–1324), who were fascinated by the new
lands and peoples they would encounter on their travels, to lead expeditions. Religious
interest in the teachings of Buddha drove people from India to the east and Chinese and
other pilgrims to India. Christian missionaries traveled deep into Africa to spread the
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 30
message of Christ. The combination of trade, conquest, religion, and adventure led to a
connecting of the Old World and the New with the travels aboard the Santa Maria in
1492. Although originally headed for India, Christopher Columbus landed on San
Salvador in an event that changed the world (Chanda, 2008).
Chanda (2008) explained that slave trade arose in response to the need for plan-
tation labor and mine workers. Silver found in Mexico by the Spaniards was taken back
to boost trade with Asia. In the early 19th century, the dwindling supply of silver led the
British to replace it with Indian opium for trading with China. Imperial Chinese opposi-
tion to the drug trade led to the Opium War (1839–1842), the first war of globalization.
The East India Company, one of the world’s first multinationals, helped to build colo-
nial empires such as that located in Surat, India, in 1613. During the 18th and 19th cen-
turies, the process of globalization received a series of boosts that collapsed distances
and lowered transport costs such as steam engines, steam ships, and airplanes. In addi-
tion, inventions such as the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television collapsed the time
it takes for communication between peoples. The development of satellites and easy
availability of technology and the Internet shrunk the time and cost for people to com-
municate. Freight costs fell 70% between 1920 and 1990. Simultaneously, tariff barri-
ers have been reduced thanks to multilateral trade arrangements such as the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Production of components in off-
shore locations reduced prices and shifted jobs across borders (Chanda, 2008).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 31
Chanda (2008) asserted that in this new environment, new actors emerged to
replace the traders, soldiers, missionaries and adventurers of years past: MNCs,
nongovernment organizations (NGOs), the United Nations (UN) agencies, the WTO,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and billions of consumers and tourists. Global
corporations, intent on finding the best markets, took over from the traders of the past.
In the current debate, the effects on employment as a result of global corporations
seeking out the best markets and the best financial opportunities have created the most
enduring and contentious components of globalization relating to the American public
and mass media.
Initially, it was the injustices from sweatshops and environmental destruction
that moved Americans to oppose globalization, but more recently it has been the mas-
sive outsourcing of jobs and the growth of joblessness facing Americans (Chanda,
2008). Corporations are moving their information technology (IT)-enabled services and
processes to developing countries such as India and Costa Rica. In developing coun-
tries, MNCs are finding they are able to do everything offshore faster, more cheaply, and
sometimes even better. In some instances, when U.S. workers were being laid off, they
were asked to spend the last few weeks of their employment training the foreign work-
ers being hired to replace them (Friedman, 2007). There is a fear that the theory of
creative destruction, in which a continuous rise in productivity leads to the demise of
old industries but also gives rise to new ones (a concept that will be further explored
when reviewing Friedman’s (2007) The World is Flat may not be working this time
around.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 32
To further add insult to the economic situation for so many individuals, particu-
larly in the United States, while wages for average workers have stagnated and
joblessness has increased, profits for corporate America have been rising. After-tax
corporate profit in the United States grew from $292 billion in 1990 to $900 billion in
1994. The median U.S. wage has not risen in real terms over the past 25 years, while
the real wages of the top 1% of earners have more than doubled. The richest 1% of
Americans control 20% of the American economy. These facts have brought great
opposition to the WTO and IMF, which are known for promotion of free trade, capital
market liberalization, secure property rights, deregulation, and the transfer of assets
from the public to the private sectors. Opponents of the WTO, IMF, and G-7
1
govern-
ments have argued against policy that benefits corporations and the wealthy while
denying basic justice to the majority of the world’s people (Chanda, 2008).
Economists examining long-range data have found that the globalization of the
American economy has helped to freeze or lower middle-class incomes, thereby further
widening the gap between the very rich and the middle class. This is a phenomenon
being seen in both developed and developing countries as a result of the globalization of
world economies. Based on the history of globalization, one may argue whether it is
good or bad. However, it is a fact that globalization is an irreversible process and the
questions now arise as to how countries and societies will adapt and compete in the ever
globalized and flattened world (Friedman, 2007).
1
G-7 refers to a forum composed of the world’s wealthiest economies: Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 33
Impact on the United States From Globalization and the Flattening of the Earth
Friedman (2007) pointed out the issues in the United States that he suggested
have caused the increase in job outsourcing and the regression of the United States as a
leader in innovation and economic growth:
There is something about post-World War II America that reminds me of the
classic wealthy family that by the third generation starts to squander its wealth.
The members of the first generation are nose to the grindstone innovators or
entrepreneurs; the second generation holds it together; then their kids come
along and get fat, dumb, and lazy and slowly squander it all away. I know that
this is overly harsh and a gross generalization, but there is nevertheless some
truth to it. American society started to coast in the 1990s, when our third post-
war generation came of age. The dot-com boom left too many people with the
impression they could get rich without investing in hard work. . . . Who needed
to sweat over an engineering degree? But while we were admiring the flat world
we had created, a lot of people in India, China, and Eastern Europe were busy
figuring out how to take advantage of it. (p. 339)
A report prepared for The National Academies (2010) provides some disturbing
factoids about America in the context of a globalized world, some of which include the
following:
China has a $196 billion positive trade balance. The U.S. balance is negative
$379 billion.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 34
Roughly half of America’s outstanding public debt is now foreign owned
—with China being the largest holder.
Of Wal-Mart’s 6,000 suppliers, 5,000 are in China.
Manufacturing employment in the U.S. computer industry is now lower
than when the first personal computer was built in 1975.
IBM’s once promising PC business is now owned by a Chinese com-
pany.
China has now replaced the U.S. as the world’s number one high-
technology exporter.
An American company recently opened the world’s largest private solar
R&D [research and development] facility . . . in Xian, China.
In a recent survey of global firms planning to build new R&D facilities,
77 percent say they will build in India, China or both.
The U.S. ranks 27th among developed nations in the proportion of col-
lege students receiving undergraduate degrees in science or engineering.
The U.S. ranks 20th in high school completion rate among industrialized
nations and 16th in college completion rate.
The World Economic Forum ranks the U.S. 48th in the quality of mathe-
matics and science education.
Sixty-nine percent of U.S. public school students in fifth through eight
grade are taught by a mathematics teacher without a degree or certificate in
mathematics.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 35
[American] youths between the age of 8 and 18 average seven and a half
hours per day in front of video-games, television, and computers—often multi-
tasking.
In 2008, 770,000 people worked in the [American] corrections sector, a
number which is projected to grow. During the same year there were 880,000
workers in the entire U.S. automobile manufacturing sector.
According to OECD data, the U.S. ranks 24th among thirty wealthy
countries in life expectancy at birth. (pp. 6–11)
Friedman (2007) stated that the Industrial Age and the Information Age have
now given way to the Talent Age. He quoted business strategist John Hagel III, who
noted that the “only sustainable edge” (p. 342) for companies and countries is the
distinctive talents and entrepreneurship of their workforce. Economics can always be
win-win, but those who will win the most today are the best and fastest at attracting
talent.
Friedman (2007) suggested that the wealth “in the age of flatness” (p. 342) will
gravitate to countries
who get three things right: the infrastructure to connect as efficiently and speed-
ily as possible the with the flat world platform, the right education programs and
knowledge skills to empower more of their people to innovate and do value-
added work on that platform, and finally, the right governance—that is the right
tax policies, the right investment and trade laws, the right support for research,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 36
the right intellectual property laws, and, most of all, the right inspirational lead-
ership—to manage and enhance the flow with the flat world. (pp. 342–343)
Friedman’s (2007) statement was echoed by Brewer and McEwan (2010), who
discussed the relationship between quality of institutional environment, quality of
education, and economic growth. There is a correlation between having institutions and
policies that facilitate openness to international trade, functional markets and legal
systems in conjunction with a quality education system for the promotion of economic
growth. Finally, the importance of STEM and the driver of innovation must be empha-
sized. During America’s Great Depression in the 1930s, British economist John
Maynard Keynes emphasized the dramatic ability of science, technology, and advances
in technology as providing the innovation which led the United States out of the depres-
sion era (as cited in Sachs, 2005). Science and technology play pivotal roles in the
development process around the world. It has become increasingly recognized that in
order to be competitive in the global economy, nations must have a workforce at least
proficient in math and science, along with a cadre of individuals who possess an ex-
traordinary capacity in STEM areas to increase innovation and create new knowledge
(National Academies, 2005).
Friedman (2007) outlined the “dirty secrets” behind the United States losing so
many jobs to outsourcing and the stagnation of the country as the global economic and
innovation leader. The first secret is dubbed the numbers gap, whereby the current
engineers in the United States are close to or at retirement age and are not being re-
placed in the numbers that Friedman suggested are necessary for the U.S. economy to
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 37
remain at the head of the pack. The second secret he called the education gap at the top,
noting that as a nation, the United States is not attracting young people to enter the
STEM fields. Friedman highlighted the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
(IISEF), which in 2004 attracted about 65, 000 U.S. students versus 6,000,000 in China
who were competing to represent China at the IISEF. Friedman pointed out that every 4
years, the United States takes part in the Trends in International Mathematics and
Science Study (TIMSS), which accesses students after the fourth eighth grades. He
noted that based on results from the 1990s, Asian countries are setting the pace in
advanced science and math. To highlight this assertion, Friedman quoted Ina Mullis
from Boston College as saying, “As one example, 44 percent of eighth-graders in
Singapore score at the most advanced level in math, as did 38 percent in Taiwan. Only
7 percent in the United States did” (pp. 350–351).
The 2011 report from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP,
showed that Chinese Taipei, China (Taiwan); Hong Kong; the Republic of Korea; and
Singapore had math scores that were higher that all 50 of the United States. To high-
light this statistic, more than 40% of students from the Republic of Korea, Taipei, and
Singapore scored advanced and more than 60% scored advanced or high on the mathe-
matics exam in comparison to less than 10% of U.S. students scoring advanced and less
than 30% scoring high. To explain this statistic, a study from the National Academy of
Sciences (The National Academies, 2005) found that in 1999, only 41% of eighth-grade
students received instruction from a mathematics teacher who specialized in mathemat-
ics in comparison to the international average of 71%, and 93% of U.S. public school
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 38
students in Grades 5–8 were taught the physical sciences by a teacher without a degree
or certificate in the physical sciences (also see Friedman, 2007).
In addition to international gaps in math and science between the United States
and other countries, the United States is experiencing steep declines in adult literacy
among college graduates, according to results from the U.S. Department of Education’s
National Assessment of Adult Literacy (as cited in Friedman, 2007). When the test was
administered in 1992, 40% of the nation’s graduates scored at the proficient level versus
31% in 2003. One theory to explain this statistic is a substantial decline in reading for
pleasure that has been replaced with surfing the Internet and watching television (Fried-
man, 2007).
The love of television, surfing the Internet, and the popularity of online games
which led Friedman (2007) to what he called the third dirty little secret, the ambition
gap. When American CEOs were interviewed regarding reasons for sending American
jobs abroad, they said that they saw a 100% increase in productivity while simulta-
neously saving 75% on wages. The theory behind this phenomenon is that when an
American company takes a low-wage, low-prestige job such as a call center and moves
it over to a developing country such as India, where it becomes a high-wage, high-
prestige job, the workers are more highly motivated (Friedman, 2007).
Friedman’s (2007) fifth dirty secret, the funding gap, refers to the lack of fund-
ing continuing for investments in physical science and the impact on the quality of
graduate-level science and engineering in the United States. According to Craig Barrett,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 39
the CEO of Intel Corporation from 1998 to 2005, Chinese graduate programs in science
and engineering
will get to the same level as us after a decade. We are not graduating the vol-
ume, we do not have the lock on the infrastructure, we do not have a lock on the
new ideas, and we are either flat-lining, or in real dollars cutting back, our in-
vestments in physical science. (p. 361)
The 2004 U.S. Task Force on the Future of American Innovation found that
federal funding for research in physical, mathematical, and engineering sciences as a
share of GDP declined by 37% between 1970 and 2004. The 2004 Republican-led
Congress further cut the budget to the National Science Foundation (NSF) by another
$105 million, or 1.9%. An outcome of the decreased funding is that between 1996 and
1999, 157 new drugs were approved in this country. In the corresponding period 10
years later, the number dropped to 74. Additionally, the percentage of U.S. patents fell
from 60% in 1980 to 52%, while at the same time there was a surge in the number of
patents awarded to Asian countries (Friedman, 2007). In 2009, 51% of U.S. patents
were awarded to non- U.S. companies. (The National Academies, 2010). The percent-
age of patents is a critical marker in identifying the innovation and productivity of a
country and its potential for growth of its GDP (OECD, 2012a).
According to Friedman’s (2007) sixth dirty secret, the infrastructure gap, in
2007 the United States was the only industrialized state without an explicit national
policy for promoting broadband. The question then becomes why Americans should
care. According to Friedman, broadband and information technologies are important
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 40
not only because they are big global businesses in and of themselves, but also because
they are critical to advancing productivity and innovation in every sector of the econ-
omy. The more one connects an educated population to the flat-world platform in an
easy and affordable way, the more things can automate, and therefore the more time and
energy they have to innovate. The more they innovate, the more they produce things
that improve the platform. It is a virtuous cycle, one that you always want to promote.
According to the 2010 report by The National Academies, the United States
ranks 22nd among the world’s nations in the density of broadband Internet penetration.
According to the World Bank (2003), access to computers and use of high-speed
Internet is a critical factor in creating students to compete in the global economy.
Friedman (2007) asserted that the bottom line is that the rest of the world is not
racing the United States to the bottom but rather to the top. They do not want to work
for America—rather, they want to dominate n the sense that they are creating the com-
panies of the future that people around the world will admire and clamor to work for.
In 2004, the Council for Competitiveness released its long-term study, Innovate
America: Thriving in a World of Challenge and Change, conducted by America’s
leading technologists and industrialists about how to reenergize American competitive-
ness through more research, education, and innovation. Several months after the report
was released, China’s Vice-Minister of Science and Technology informed the head of
the U.S. Council for Competitiveness that China had translated the U.S. plan and was in
the process of integrating it into China’s 20-year strategic plan. The head of the U.S.
Council for Competitiveness remarked that she wondered “whether we are going to
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 41
implement [the Innovate America report] or China is going to beat us to our own plan”
(Friedman, 2007, p. 371).
Intel’s former CEO, Craig Barrett was quoted by Friedman (2007) as saying,
“We will hire talent wherever it resides” (p. 371). He was quick to add that it was not
Intel’s intent or desire but Intel could thrive as a company “even if we never hire another
American” (p. 371). This sentiment was echoed by Ron Rittenmeyer, the Chairman of
the Board, EDS who was quoted by The National Academies (2010) as stating that
“[Outsourcing] is not just a passing fancy. . . . If you can find high quality talent at a
third of the price, it’s not too hard to see why you do this” (p. 80). Friedman concluded
by remarking that where innovation happens really does matter. It matters because
where there is innovation, one finds the best jobs, and the best jobs spin off more good
jobs in every community.
While only 4% of the nation’s workforce is composed of scientists and engi-
neers, this group disproportionately creates jobs for the other 96% (The National Acade-
mies, 2010). For example, when scientists and engineers discovered how to increase the
capacity of integrated circuits by a factor of a factor of 1 million, they made it possible
for entrepreneurs to replace tape recorders with iPods,® maps with global positioning
systems (GPSs), pay phones with cell phones, x-rays with computerized axial tomog-
raphy (CT) scans, paperbacks with electronic books, and much more (The National
Academies, 2010). It is not just the scientist or engineer and entrepreneur who benefit
from progress and innovation. It is the factory worker who builds the item, the adver-
tiser who promotes it, the sales person who sells is, the truck driver who delivers it, and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 42
the maintenance person who repairs it. These benefits do not even include those to the
user from the new technology (The National Academies, 2010). Friedman (2007) stated
that it matters that Microsoft is headquartered in Washington state and Google and Intel
in California—and that one day it will matter if they are not (Intel, 2014).
Globalization and the Rise of the Rest
In a more optimistic assessment of the effects of the flattened earth and the
United States in the context of the history of globalization, editor-at-large of Time
Magazine and also host of CNN’s “Fareed Zakaria GPS,” Zakaria (2012) asserted that
the United States is experiencing not so much of a decline, but that “the rise of the rest”
(p. xi), or developing countries, is catching up to the United States—a position that is
uncomfortable for this country that has enjoyed being the global economic superpower,
particularly since the end of World War II. Zakaria suggested that the United States has
a history of worrying that it is losing its edge. He further suggested that the current era
of concern is the fourth since the 1950s and the Soviet Union’s launch of its Sputnik
satellite. This view was fueled by comments such as those made by Warren Buffett,
who was quoted as saying, “The 19th century belonged to England, the 20th belonged to
the United States, and the 21st belongs to China. Invest accordingly” (as cited in The
National Academies, 2010, p. 80). However, Zakaria asserted that the problem today is
that the American political system seems to have lost its ability to create broad coali-
tions that solve complex issues.
Zakaria (2012) explained how the United States has come to its current state of
concern about declining while developing economies such as Brazil, Russia, India, and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 43
China (BRIC), and Costa Rica (as this study examined) have grown by leaps and
bounds. He asserted that the world is experiencing the largest expansion of the global
economy in history, driven by the movement of Western capital to Asia and across the
globe. The result has been that the global economy grew from $22.1 trillion to $62
trillion and global trade increased by 267% between 1990 and 2010. Emerging markets
have accounted for over 47% of this global growth, and increasingly the growth of
newcomers is being powered by their own markets—not simply by exports to the West.
Zakaria suggested that there are three forces fueling these changes: politics, economics,
and technology.
Zakaria (2012) noted that the financial force that has fueled the new era has been
the free movement of capital. In the post-World War II era, there was a period of fixed
exchange rates where countries restricted the movement of currency in and out of
national borders. However, as global trade grew, fixed rates caused inefficacies and
prevented capital from being put to its best use. As a result, most Western countries
removed controls during the 1970s and 1980s, which has resulted in a vast and ever-
growing supply of capital that is traded at a rate of about $2 trillion a day.
With the free flowing of money, policy emerged from independent central banks
to tame the forces of inflation. This factor is critical because hyperinflation is worse for
a nation than a deep recession. It wipes out the value of money, savings, assets, and
work and has on more than one occasion toppled governments and produced revolution.
Learning from U.S. policy to prevent inflation, developing countries have adopted the
same tactics or linked their currency to the euro or dollar, and as of 2007, just 23
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 44
countries had an inflation rate higher than 10%. The atmosphere of low inflation has
been crucial to the political stability and economic growth of countries with emerging
economies. Countries such as Japan and Korea were persuasive examples of the bene-
fits of free trade and smart economic governance, despite the coercion theorists protest-
ing the G-20
2
and WTO summits. As a result, many developing countries saw the
benefits of adopting such policies and reforms that, in turn, encouraged foreign invest-
ment and created new jobs (Zakaria, 2012).
Finally, innovations in technology paired with the political and economic factors
have made the prices of products become globalized. In the 1970s there was a huge
business in arbitrage because price comparisons were difficult. In today’s era, it takes
only a few moments to cross-compare global prices for a good or service on the Internet
or app on a smartphone (Zacharia, 2012).
As a result of the expansion of communications, the world has become more
deeply connect, or “flat” as Friedman (2007) described it. Cheap phone calls and the
Internet now make it easy for people in one country to work with or for people in an-
other country. What began with the trading of agricultural goods between towns, the
creating of large ships in the fifteenth century expanded, making goods globally mobile.
During the 17th century, capital became mobile, and in the 1990s labor became mobile.
The three forces—politics, economics, and technology—have both pushed and enabled
2
G-20 refers to the group of 20 major advanced economies: Argentina, Australia,
Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia,
Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United
States, and the European Union.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 45
an open, connected, and exacting international economic environment. This has given
countries globally new opportunities for economic growth. As described by Clifton
(2011), this situation has created a global war among countries for good jobs.
As other countries increase in productivity and contribution to the world output,
America will face the most intense economic environment it has ever experienced
(Zakaria, 2012). It will have to confront a global order much different that the one in
which it is used to operating. Currently, the United States is still the most powerful
player, but every year the balance shifts and more developing countries are feeling com-
fortable not doing things by America’s rules. In order for American to remain the vital,
vibrant economy at the forefront of science, technology, and industry, it must embrace
and adjust to the challenges it faces. The consequences may be that generations from
now, historians will write about America’s success in globalizing the world but how it
sadly forgot to globalize itself along the way (Zakaria, 2012). This concept of an ex-
tremely interconnected and globalized society leads to the discussion of jobs, jobless-
ness, GDP, and economic growth.
Globalization and Jobs
After two editions of Rising Above the Gathering Storm (The National Acade-
mies, 2005, 2010), reports focusing on the ability of Americans to compete for employ-
ment in a job market that increasingly knows no geographic boundaries, a Gallup poll
was developed examining globalization and jobs. According to former chairman of the
Gallup poll, Jim Clifton (2011), more and more often, global leaders ask Gallup the
question, “Does anyone know for sure what the whole world is thinking” (p. 7)? A
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 46
recent worldwide Gallup poll indicated that the primary thing people around the world
want is a good job. Clifton defined a good job, or formal job, as one with a paycheck
from an employer and steady work that averages a minimum of 30 hours per week.
Humans used to desire love, money, food, shelter, safety, peace, and freedom more than
anything else. Now people want a good job, and they want their children to have a good
job. Of the 7 billion people on earth, according to the Gallup poll cited by Clifton, 5
billion were age 15 or older and 3 billion told Gallup that they worked or wanted work.
There are currently 1.2 billion full-time, formal jobs in the world. There is a global
shortfall of about 1.8 billion good jobs. This fact means that global unemployment for
those who are seeking a formal job approaches 50%, with another 10% wanting part-
time work. As a result, potential societal stress and instability lie with 1.8 billion people
globally. If countries fail to create jobs, their societies will fall apart. Countries, specif-
ically cities, will experience suffering, instability, chaos, and eventual revolution
(Clifton, 2011).
Globalization, Jobs, Innovation, and STEM
It is globally recognized that innovation is driven by STEM, and job growth is
greatest in STEM fields. A U.S. policy brief asserted that “the greatest advancements in
our society from medicine to mechanics have come from the minds of those interested
in or studied in the areas of STEM” (Langdon et al., 2011, p. 6). In the United States,
for example, STEM occupations were projected to grow by 17% between 2008 and
2018. Langdon et al. (2011) also stated that STEM workers command 26% higher
wages than their non-STEM counterparts, that they have a lower rate of unemployment/
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 47
underemployment, and that they enjoy higher earnings regardless of whether they work
in STEM or non-STEM occupations.
In 2012, The National Academies, the advisors to the nation on science, engi-
neering, and medicine, published Rising to the Challenge: U.S. Innovation Policy for
the Global Economy (Wessner & Wolff, 2012) The statement of task begins:
The global economy is characterized by increasing locational competition to
attract resources necessary to develop leading-edge technologies as drivers of
regional and national growth. One means of facilitating such growth and im-
proving national competitiveness is to improve the operation of the national
innovation system. This involves national technology development and innova-
tive programs designed to support research on new technologies, enhance the
commercial return on national research, and facilitate the production of globally
competitive product. (p. xvi)
It continues: “The first step towards understanding the implications for public policy of
these global trends is to inform ourselves about the new nature of global competition for
human and financial capital—not only between companies, but between governments”
(p. xvii).
The preface to the study by Wessner and Wolff (2012) indicates that other
nations and regions have developed strategies to commercialize and industrialize tech-
nological advances. Noted is that Germany and Taiwan have remained successful
export manufacturers in advanced industry despite high labor costs; that Finland and
Belgium have demonstrated the power of public-private partnerships; and that through
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 48
investment in education, Singapore is seeking to raise the bar for competition in knowl-
edge industries. In addition, India is driving economic growth and making use of
intellectual capital in innovation networks; and China is seeking to redraw the map of
the global economy with its investments in science, technology, and next-generation
industries.
The policy study asserts that the innovation world is changing rapidly and
requires a new policy approach for the United States that is based on a clearer under-
standing of the complexity and global dimensions of innovation. While increased
investments in research and development (R&D) are needed to keep the United States at
the technology forefront, those investments alone will not guarantee that the country
will have competitive industries and a prosperous economy. Three components are
critical: public-private partnerships, understanding what other countries are doing, and
collaboration (Wessner & Wolff, 2012).
The first of these critical components, public-private partnerships, when well
designed, can help to ensure that the United States remains a world leader in creating
knowledge (Wessner & Wolff, 2012). It also can enable the country to capture more of
the economic value of innovation by making U.S. regions more competitive places to
translate inventions into products, companies, industries, and as highlighted by Clifton
(2011), into jobs.
The United States must learn from other countries. It can no longer be assumed
that by merely increasing R&D spending, American industrial competitiveness in the
global knowledge age will remain at the forefront. As innovation becomes more
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 49
globalized, absorbing and capitalizing on product and process innovations from abroad
will become increasingly important for U.S. competitiveness. The innovative strategies
being undertaken abroad offer valuable lessons for U.S. policymakers. Government
actions around the global are being taken in increase nations’ innovation capacity, and
global competitiveness in emerging technology-intensive industries. While in some
countries governments are emulating the most successful features of the U.S. innovation
ecosystem, such as university–industry collaboration, other nations, such as in Asia and
Europe, are pioneering new models of public-private partnerships that far exceed the
scale and scope of comparable U.S. programs (Wessner & Wolff, 2012).
Finally, new policies must take into account the importance of collaboration in
the increasingly global and open nature of the innovation process. Collaboration has the
power to rapidly discover cures for diseases, develop renewable energies, and technolo-
gies to curb the negative impacts of climate change. Collaboration is taking place
between private industry and public education systems to enhance learning for students
and improve outcomes. As nations around the world increase their innovation capacity
and R&D workforces, leveraging technology and brainpower abroad will become
increasingly important for U.S. competitiveness (Wessner & Wolff, 2012).
According to the policy study (Wessner & Wolff, 2012), the U.S. innovation
system has long been the envy of the world; but as noted by both Friedman (2007) and
Zakaria (2012), the rest of the world is racing successfully to catch up. Virtually every
important trading partner has declared that innovation is central to increasing economic
and job growth, productivity, and living standards. Governments—especially in Asia,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 50
Europe, Latin America (including Costa Rica)—are implementing policies to increase
innovation with sharp boosts in investments to R&D, investing heavily in K–12 edu-
cation, pushing universities and national laboratories to commercialize technology,
building incubators and prototyping facilities for start-ups, amassing early-stage invest-
ment funds, and reforming tax codes and patent laws to encourage HT entrepreneurial-
ism (Wessner & Wolff, 2012).
To better understand global trends in innovation policy, the National Research
Council (as cited in Wessner & Wolff, 2012) compared and contrasted the policies of
many nations. What was found is that there is great importance for nations to establish a
far-thinking national innovation strategy that lays out broad science and technology
priorities and a policy framework that addresses the need for skilled talent, commercial-
ization of research, coordination of government agencies, sustained funding, and collab-
oration with stakeholders at the regional and local levels. There is an increasingly
prominent role for public-private partnership in which industry, academia, and govern-
ment pool resources to accelerate the translation of new technologies into the market-
place. Relevant to this research study, it was found that paramount importance is given
to investment in education to provide the skills on which an innovation-led economy is
based.
Economic Growth and Education
Education has been viewed for many years as a key factor in determining eco-
nomic well-being. There are three factors through which education may affect economic
growth. First, education can increase human capital built into the labor force, which
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 51
increases labor productivity and thus transitional growth toward a higher equilibrium
level of output. Second, education can increase the innovative capacity of the economy;
the new knowledge on new technologies, products, and processes promote growth.
Third, education can facilitate the diffusion and transmission of knowledge needed to
understand and process new information and to successfully implement new technolo-
gies devised by others, which again promotes economic growth (Brewer & McEwan,
2010).
Research shows that a number of factors contribute to knowledge development
and cognitive skills, including both quality and quantity of education as well as factors
outside of school such as family and peers. As a result, it becomes challenging to
compare students among countries because the education systems in Finland, Korea,
Ghana, and the United States are all different, as well as the social, economic, and
educational factors. In an attempt to develop a quantitative system for comparing per-
formance and cognitive skills in the children of nations around the world, organizations
such as the International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement
(IEA) and the OECD have conducted many tests such as the TIMSS and the Program
for International Student Assessment (PISA). The measure of the quality of education is
calculated by the mathematics and science scores over international tests. This score
can be interpreted as a proxy for the average educational performance of the whole labor
force. The measure encompasses overall cognitive skills, not just those learned in
schools. Thus, whether skills are developed at home, in schools, or elsewhere, they are
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 52
included in growth analyses and used to project economic growth (Brewer & McEwan,
2010).
Results of these tests are significant, as research has shown that there is a statisti-
cal relationship between quality of education and economic growth. Hanushek and
Kimko (2000) presented a model suggesting that 1 country-level standard deviation on
higher test performance yields about a 1% higher annual economic growth. Evidence
suggests that the quality of education, measured by the knowledge that students gain as
demonstrated by tests of cognitive skills such as TIMSS and PISA, is substantially more
important for economic growth than the mere quantity of schooling. High TIMSS
scores are also significant because it has been found that countries with more engineer-
ing students grow faster and countries with more law students grow more slowly
(Murphy, Shleifer, & Vishny, 1991).
In order to understand policy reforms designed to improve educational out-
comes, it is useful to relate policy reforms directly to the pattern of economic outcomes
consistent with feasible improvements. The first step is to set a metric goal for im-
provement on the international tests such as the PISA. For example, the United States
may wish to increase its performance to that of the top performers within OECD coun-
tries such as Korea. The timing for reform is then important in two ways. First, move-
ment of student performance cannot be achieved instantaneously but requires change in
schools that will occur over time. This may require the retirement and subsequent
rehiring of teachers, as well as changes in teacher practices and reshaping of national
standards and curriculum. The time frame for an entire nation achieving a .5 standard
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 53
deviation may take 20–30 years. Second, if educational reforms succeed, their impact
on the economy will not be immediate; initially, the new graduates will be a small part
of the labor force. Faster reforms will have a larger impact on the economy due to the
fact that better workers become a dominant part of the workforce sooner. Put in terms
of relating GDP growth to cost and time for educational reforms to take place, a 20-year
plan put in place in 2005 would yield a 5% higher GDP in 2037. This 5% GDP growth
would more than cover the spending made on primary and secondary schooling. Over a
75-year period, a 20-year reform on educational quality yields a real GDP 36% higher
than without a change in educational quality. This factor implies that policies must be
considered over long periods of time and requires patience—something that is not
always evident in national policy making. In conclusion, the quality of education
measured on an outcome basis of cognitive skills, has powerful economic effects.
Economic growth is strongly affected by the skills of workers to compete in the global
KBE.
The Globalization of Education
Spring (2008) asserted that the globalization of education refers to the world-
wide discussion, processes, and institutions affecting local educational policies and
practices. He posited that events are happening on a global scale and are affecting
school systems in nations around the world. He suggested an image of global educa-
tional policies and practices existing in a superstructure above national and local
schools. These systems are all in constant dynamic interaction; global ideas about
school practices interact with local school systems while, through mutual interaction,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 54
both global and local practices are changed. Today, many nations adopt policies from
this global superstructure in order to compete in the global economy. The superstruc-
ture is comprised of international organizations that directly and indirectly influence
national school systems. Illustrative of major global institutions affecting worldwide
educational policies and practices are the World Bank; the OECD; the WTO and its
GATT; the UN and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO); and other organizations related to human rights, environmental rights, and
women’s rights. The development of English as the language of global business is
another factor that has an impact on local schools around the globe. In addition, global-
ization triggered the use of English as the working language for scientific endeavors
(Altbach & Salmi, 2011).
Due to the global outsourcing of jobs and skills within a variety of industries,
nations have an increasing need to ensure that their children are educated with the
knowledge and skills to compete not only with people in their cities, states, and coun-
tries for jobs and economic security and status but also with their peers in countries
around the world who now, as a result of the flattening of the world, have access to the
same jobs and opportunities (Friedman, 2007). The growth of worldwide educational
discourses and institutions has led to similar educational agendas, particularly the
concept that education should be viewed as an economic investment with the goal of
developing human capital or better workers to promote economic growth (Spring,
2008).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 55
KBEs and Changing Educational Policy and Practice
The global KBE is transforming the demands of the labor market around the
world (World Bank, 2003). A KBE relies primarily on the use of ideas than on physical
abilities. It utilizes the application of technology rather than the transformation of raw
materials or the exploitation of cheap labor. Education in the KBE helps to reduce
poverty, increases tolerance for gender and racial equity, improves health outcomes and
child welfare, and helps to build human capital to increase economic growth (World
Bank, 2003).
KBEs have four features: Knowledge is being applied in new ways; product
cycles are shorter and the need for innovation greater; trade is increasing worldwide,
thus placing increasing competitive demands on producers; and finally, small- and
medium-sized enterprises in the service sector have become increasingly important
players for both economic growth and employment. A KBE, according to the World
Bank Institute and the Inter-American Development Bank (2001), rests on four pillars:
A supportive economic and institutional regime to provide incentives for the
efficient use of existing and new knowledge and the flourishing of entrepreneur-
ship.
An educated and skilled population to create, share, and use knowledge.
A dynamic information infrastructure to facilitate the effective communi-
cation, dissemination, and processing of information.
An efficient innovation system of firms, research centers, universities,
consultants, and other organizations to tap into the growing stock of global
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 56
knowledge, assimilate and adapt it to local needs, and create new technology.
(p. 2)
According to the World Bank (2003), to prepare people for the workforce of the
KBE, a new model of education and training and of lifelong learning is required.
Educational systems can no longer emphasize task-specific skills but must focus instead
on developing learners’ decision-making and problem-solving skills, as well as teaching
them how to learn on their own and with others. The World Bank (2003) suggested that
there are certain competencies that people must have in order to function successfully in
the KBE. These competencies fall into three categories:
Acting autonomously: Building and exercising a sense of self, making choices
and acting in the context of the larger picture, being oriented toward the future,
being aware of one’s environment, understanding how one fits in, exercising
one’s rights and responsibilities, determining and executing a life plan, and
planning and carrying out personal projects.
Using tools interactively: Using tools as instruments for an active dia-
logue; being aware and responding to the potential of new tools; and being able
to use language, text symbols, information and knowledge, and technology
interactively to accomplish goals.
Functioning in heterogeneous groups: Being able to interact effectively
with other people, including those from different backgrounds; recognizing the
social embeddedness of individuals, creating social capital; and being able to
relate well with others, cooperate, and manage and resolve conflict. (pp. 21–22)
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 57
The World Bank (2003) asserted that in order to perform in the global economy
and function in a global society, there are certain technical, interpersonal, and method-
ological skills required. Technical skills include literacy, foreign language, math,
problem solving, and analytical skills. Interpersonal skills include teamwork, leader-
ship, and communication skills. Methodological skills include the ability of one to learn
on one’s own, pursue lifelong learning, and to cope with risk and change.
In order to accomplish the competencies, the World Bank (2003) suggested
reform in education policy. New policy would change learning environments, become
student centered (flipping from the ages-old teacher centered), focus on learner compe-
tencies, and alter the role of the teacher from gatekeeper of knowledge to guide in
locating knowledge. The World Bank (2003) suggested the environment for learning
should be created based on the way that learners learn. This means that learning envi-
ronments are learner centered, knowledge rich, assessment driven, and community
connected. The implication is that students do not memorize facts only but can analyze
and solve complex problems, taking information and skills learned to create new knowl-
edge. It is also suggested that the role of the teacher is changed as the guide to finding
knowledge, rather than being the keeper of knowledge. The World Bank (2003) sug-
gested that learning can be conducted through the use of technology platforms that
expand accessibility and increase efficiency of administration. In addition, it is sug-
gested that the use of technology platforms creates a more learner-centered environment
and supports a culture of innovation (World Bank, 2003). This model has recently been
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 58
put into practice near the campus of the University of Southern California at the charter
school, USC Hybrid High School (2013).
While the World Bank’s (2003) book was targeted at developing countries,
many of the suggestions for competencies, technology, and student-centered learning
environments are now becoming national U.S. educational policies, as seen in the
Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards. In urban
districts, variations of the model suggested by the World Bank (2003) are being used to
create new schools. In addition, these competencies are evident in the work of 21st-
century skills guru, Tony Wagner.
Twenty-First-Century Skills and Creating Innovators
In his search for what young people need in order to be prepared for the 21st-
century workforce, Wagner (2008) interviewed a large number of CEOs from leading
U.S. companies. A number of the CEOs interviewed were the same individuals, or
individuals from the same companies, who were members of the bipartisan policy
advising report committee members for Rising Above the Gathering Storm (The Nation-
al Academies, 2005) and Rising to the Challenge: U.S. Innovation Policy for the Global
Economy (Wessner & Wolff, 2012). Wagner decided to interview employers about the
skills they looked for when they hired young people and was surprised with his findings,
as he was expecting a list of technical skills. Wagner was told by the CEO of a large
chemical company that the number one important skill is the ability to ask the right
questions. In addition, the ability to engage in a good discussion, to work well in teams,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 59
and to engage others were the critical skills that the company looks for when hiring
young people.
In a conversation with a CEO of one of the world’s largest medical device
companies, the CEO explained to Wagner (2008) that she essentially asks questions for
a living. She explained that if she is able to ask the right questions, she is able to be
more successful in a variety of ways. When speaking with customers, asking the right
questions allowed her to better understand their business, their needs, and understand
their perspective on a problem that had to be solved. When speaking with employees,
she wanted to understand how they thought, where they were coming from as they tried
to solve a problem, and what they had done so far to address an issue. Understanding
the things that CEOs are looking for when they hire young people to fuel their 21st-
century workforce led Wagner to explore the achievements gaps in America’s education
system.
Setting the stage for America’s need to focus on 21st-century skills and the need
to create innovators, Wagner (2008) explored both an achievement gap within the
United States as well as the achievement gap between the United States and the rest of
the world. The gap within the United States refers to the difference in the quality of
education available to middle-class and above students and that provided to the rest of
the students in the country, in particular socioeconomically disadvantaged students (i.e.,
low SES). By having a large percentage of U.S. children not succeeding in schools,
America is creating stratification that leads to social instability and eventually civil
unrest. In addition, America is setting itself up to be at a tremendous disadvantage in
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 60
contrast to other countries that are focusing on educational equity and thereby creating a
significantly larger skilled workforce that ultimately contributes to national economic
growth. The failing school system is giving the rest of the developed world and devel-
oping countries a large advantage over the United States in the emerging economic and
job wars (Clifton, 2010).
Some disturbing statistics about the current state of the American school system
include that about 30% of U.S. high school students fail to receive a high school di-
ploma on time, thus placing the country near the bottom of industrialized nations
(Darling-Hammond, 2010; The National Academies, 2010). Fifty percent of minorities
drop out or fail to graduate on time; 43% of Black males drop out of high school, and
more than half of those will eventually go to prison validating the New York Times
“prison nation” title for the U.S. (Clifton, 2011; Darling-Hammond, 2010). Only 1 in
10 low-income kindergarteners becomes a college graduate at a time when by 2025,
ethnic minorities will become the national majority (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Teach-
ing in these failing schools are some of the lowest-paid teachers of all developed na-
tions. According to an OECD (2012b) report, “teacher salaries in the U.S. compare
poorly” (p. 8). A primary school teacher in the U.S. United States can expect to earn
67% of the salary of a peer with the same education level; a lower secondary teacher can
expect to earn 69% of the salary of a peer with the same education level; and an upper
secondary teacher earns 72% of the salary of a peer with the same education level
(OECD, 2012b). It may be appropriate for the United States to consider comments
quoted in The National Academies (2010), such Bill Brock, former U.S. Secretary of
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 61
Labor: “We can no longer accept the bottom third of students becoming our teachers
and expect success” (p. 75) and contrast those with teacher salaries relative to what
people with equivalent degrees earn. One may then ask oneself why a highly talented
STEM major would enter the teaching profession with the prospect of, at entry level,
earning 30% less than peers in developed nations globally and a greater disproportion
less over a career.
Examining the achievement gap between the United States and the rest of the
world, Wagner (2008) highlighted that there is an achievement gap between what even
America’s best schools are teaching and testing versus what all students around the
world will need to succeed as citizens in today’s global economy. He noted that even in
the so-called “good” schools, the American system of public education was created in a
different century for the needs of another era and are “hopelessly outdated.” Darling-
Hammond (2010) noted that at the beginning of the 20th century, only 5% of jobs
required specialized knowledge but now over 70% do, with that number growing.
In countries around the world, major changes and overhauls of education have
occurred, transforming schools to meet the demands of the global KBE. Singapore is an
excellent example of an effective national education system. This system ensures that
all students, regardless of their SES, are being highly educated. In 2003, 80% of its
population lived in public housing, yet the fourth through eighth graders scored first in
the world in math and science on the TIMSS (Darling-Hammond, 2010). In only one
generation, South Korea catapulted from having less than 25% of its citizens completing
high school to currently ranking third in the world for college-educated adults (Darling-
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 62
Hammond, 2010). During the 1980s, Finland, the envy of the world for education,
started dismantling its tracking system and hired highly trained teachers and curriculum
and assessments focused on problem solving, creativity, independent learning, and
student reflection. All of these countries rank at the top of the world in terms of the
quality of their education system, and subsequently, the growth of their economies has
followed (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Friedman, 2007; NAEP, 2011).
The 21st-century skills that Wagner (2008) described mirror those seen in Fin-
land’s updated education system—those suggested by Darling-Hammond (2010) and
the World Bank (2003). Wagner described 21st-century skills as a blend of content
knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and literacies The American organization, Part-
nership for 21st Century Skills (P21; 2012), described the need for 21st-century skills in
American skills as follows: “Our ability to compete as a nation . . . to attract growth
industries and create jobs. . . . We need to recognize that a 21st century education is the
bedrock of competitiveness—the engine, not simply an input, of the economy” (p. 1).
When schools and school districts engage in these skills, students are much more pre-
pared to thrive in the new global knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008).
Wagner (2008) explained that even our best schools are failing to prepare stu-
dents for the demands and rigors of the global KBE. He outlined that seven key survival
skills that students must master in order to succeed and solve some of the most pressing
issues and challenges of the 21st century: (a) “Critical Thinking and Problem Solving,”
(b) “Collaboration and Leadership,” (c) “Agility and Adaptability,” (d) “Initiative and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 63
Entrepreneurialism,” (e) “Effective Oral and Written Communication,” (f) “Accessing
and Analyzing Information,” and (g) “Curiosity and Imagination” (pp. 14–41).
A report from the P21 calls for schools to implement Wagner’s seven key ele-
ments for 21st-century skills development (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010). These
recommendations created a framework for what 21st-century education in the United
States should be. Remarkably, these skills resemble the competencies suggested by the
World Bank (2003) and by the education guru, Darling-Hammond (2010), for competi-
tiveness in the global KBE. In addition, they have become the basis for the new U.S.
Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards. That said, as a
country with the goal of creating young people who will drive an innovation-based
economy, America may be missing the mark by completely dismissing rote learning and
focusing only on the 21st-century skills as described by Wagner (2008). Bill Gates was
quoted in reference to shifting an education system that focuses on creativity:
I have never met the guy who doesn’t know how to multiply who created soft-
ware. . . . Who has the most creative video games in the world? Japan! I never
met these “rote” people. . . . Some of my best software developers are Japanese.
You need to understand things in order to invest beyond them.” (Friedman,
2007, p. 365)
Fusing the ideas of 21st-century skills with traditional rote learning are STEM education
and STEM PBL.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 64
STEM Education and STEM PBL
Making a case for STEM education and offering a guide to the strategic national
implementation of STEM education policy reform is Rodger Bybee. According to the
National Science Teacher Association (NSTA), the meaning of STEM has become
broader, applicable to everyone, and interwoven with 21st-century skills (Bybee, 2013).
STEM literacy for all is a major goal of STEM education. It includes the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills to identify questions and problems in life situations; to explain the
natural and designed world; and to draw evidence-based conclusions about STEM-
related issues such as health choices, environmental quality, and resource use. It in-
cludes understanding the characteristic features of STEM disciplines as forms of human
knowledge, inquiry, and design. It also includes awareness of how STEM disciplines
shape the material, intellectual, and cultural environments as well as a willingness to
engage in STEM-related issues and with ideas of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics as constructive, concerned, and reflective citizens. Bybee (2013) argued
that STEM education is critical for all citizens as it provides a means to understand
some of the most significant challenges of the time, including energy efficiency, climate
change, and hazard mitigation. Translating this need into an educational approach
follows what was suggested by Darling-Hammond (2010), Wagner (2008), and the
World Bank (2003),Wagner (2008)—namely, the development of competencies in ad-
dressing situations, problems, or issues and not exclusively knowledge of concepts and
processes within the respective STEM disciplines (Bybee, 2013). School systems with
effective STEM instruction utilize research-based elements that engage students’
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 65
interests and experiences, build on prior student knowledge, uses STEM practices, and
provide experiences that sustain student interest. In addition, they have a coherent set of
standards and curriculum, teachers with a high capacity to teach that discipline, a sup-
portive system of assessment and accountability, adequate instructional time, and equal
access to high-quality STEM opportunities (Bybee, 2013).
Bybee (2013) noted a comparison to the Sputnik era’s pushing STEM education
in America and the current era of business leaders calling for commitments to innova-
tion, presumably led by new knowledge created by STEM and a need to “win the fu-
ture” (p. 25) for the security of America’s future. There are four components that make
STEM education reform different from other reforms: addressing the global challenges
that citizens must understand, changing perceptions of environmental problems, recog-
nizing and teaching 21st-century workforce skills, and being aware of continuing issues
of national security. In summary, the general recommendation made by Bybee was the
following: “To sustain the position of the United States as a global competitor, our
nation needs a vision, a first tactical response, and a long-term plan strategic plan that
outlines a decade of actions for reforming STEM education” (p. 42).
STEM PBL, as described by Capraro et al. (2013), provides a model for imple-
mentation of STEM education at the classroom level and incorporating 21st-century
skills. STEM PBL is a defined task with a well-defined outcome situated within a con-
textually rich task requiring students to solve several problems that, when considered in
their entirety, showcase student mastery of several concepts of STEM subjects. PBL is
the use of a project that often results in the emergence of various learning outcomes in
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 66
addition to the ones that were anticipated. The learning is dynamic as students use
various processes and methods to explore the project. The project is generally informa-
tion rich, but directions are kept to a minimum. The richness of the information is often
directly related to the quality of the learning and level of student engagement. The
information is often multifaceted and includes background information, graphs, pic-
tures, specifications, generalized and specific outcome expectations, narrative, and in
many cases formative and summative expectations. STEM PBL is relevant due to real-
world connections and association with facilitating student development of a personal
connection to the project and fosters “buy-in” for solving individual problems presented
in the project. STEM PBL also provides students with both the knowledge of STEM
and the 21st-century skills needed to drive innovation and be successful in the global
KBE.
Costa Rica and the Global Economy
Costa Rica is a nation that has seen tremendous growth, particularly in the HT
sector, since the 1980s. Contributing factors to this growth have been a well-established
and progressive education system. In addition, Costa Rica has a stable democratic
government that facilitates research and collaborates across government organizations
and with MNCs in the country. The government is constantly enacting policy to work
for the sustainable growth of Costa Rica’s economy, poverty reduction, and equity for
Costa Rican citizens while preserving the environment.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 67
A Brief History of Costa Rica
Costa Ricans are proud of their country, the political stability, high literacy rate,
long life expectancy rate, and the well-preserved great natural beauty (Biesanz, Biesanz,
& Biesanz, 1999). Archeological evidence indicates that humans have inhabited Costa
Rica for at least 11, 000 years. Spearheads found from both North and America show
that the region was a bridge for human cultures. At the time that Columbus landed in
1502, there were probably between 400,000 and 500,000 people living in the area that is
now called Costa Rica, mostly in the Central Valley and northwest. Columbus first
landed on the Caribbean side at Cariay (now Limón) and stayed 18 days to repair his
ships. The steep mountainsides on the Caribbean side of Costa Rica prevented easy
exploration of the country. In 1522, Spanish Captain Gil González, who was exploring
the Nicoya Peninsula, was given so much gold that the Spaniards came to think of the
area as costa rica (the rich coast), and by 1539 the territory between Panama and Nica-
ragua become known as Costa Rica. However, much more gold was found in Guate-
mala, which Spain then made as its administrative center for Central America. Spanish
colonization reduced the number of native people living in Costa Rica to 2,000 in 4
centuries, with the remaining indigenous people moved to pueblos de indios. Colonists
maintained tiny settlements with only family labor to work it. Due to the absence of
visible mineral wealth, Costa Rica was largely ignored by the Spanish empire and
became a country. As a result, the poor farmer is viewed as a humble person loving
liberty and autonomy and the foundation of modern-day Costa Rican democracy
(Biesanz et al., 1999).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 68
Largely due to the isolation that Costa Rica experienced, there was little push
from Costa Rica’s 65,000 inhabitants to become independent from Spain. However, on
September 15, 1821, in Guatemala, the independence of all Central America was an-
nounced. In the first years of independence from Spain, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and
Mexico all sought to dominate the new nation. This period was marked by division and
conflict. Inside Costa Rica were four main towns: Cartago, San José, Heredia, and
Alajuela. These towns formed independent city states, and each claimed the right to be
the capital of the country. On issues they formed two factions that would clash for
years. The conservative and aristocratic leaders of Cartago and Heredia joined forces
against the progressive and republican leaders of San José and Alajuela with differences
that sometimes led to armed confrontations (Biesanz et al., 1999).
In 1823, Costa Rica joined the Central American Federation, and in 1824 the
Guanacaste-Nicoya region asked to be annexed from Nicaragua. The region did so in
order to remove itself from the massive strife that Nicaragua was experiencing, and
disputes over the province flared up for years to come. In 1825 the Central Americans
eligible to vote in the Federation (on the basis of property) voted to choose a congress
and draft a federal constitution that proclaimed freedom of thought and abolished
slavery in the area. It left to each state the right to establish its own head of government,
congress, supreme court, and army. By 1838 the Federation existed virtually in name
only, subsequently leading Costa Rica to withdraw and form its own sovereign state
(Biesanz et al., 1999).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 69
Costa Ricans had long since organized their own government, and in 1824 an
elected congress chose Juan Mora Fernández as the first chief of state. Mora Fernández
led the country to its beginnings of economic growth of Costa Rica by offering rewards
to anyone who would open up roads, ports, or other means to promote commerce. Costa
Rica’s first newspaper appeared shortly after his reelection in 1829 (Biesanz et al.,
1999).
Following Mora Fernández was the dictator, Braulio Carrillo, from 1835 to
1842. Although Carrillo is known for being “heavy handed,” he was also known for
imposing measures that increased national unity, an orderly public administration, and
for replacing the Spanish laws with ones patterned after those of France. He was also
known for not lining his pockets with public funds and starting coffee production in
Costa Rica. Coffee would become Costa Rica’s first major export and a trademark of
the country (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The first coffee trees were planted more as botanical curiosities, as Costa Ricans
preferred to drink chocolate and aguadulce (raw sugar water). However, because coffee
was a popular drink in Europe, Costa Rica’s local and national governments encouraged
coffee cultivation as a source of new economic growth. Coffee trees were given to the
poor with the decree that every homeowner must plant a few trees near the house annu-
ally, and free land was offered to anyone who would plant coffee trees on it. In 1843, an
English captain sailed into Puntarenas in search of cargo and established the coffee trade
between Costa Rica and England. This trade made Costa Rica become the most pros-
perous nation in Central America and contributed to the large middle class that became
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 70
the bedrock of Costa Rican social and political stability (Biesanz et al., 1999; M. A.
Rodriguez, former President of Costa Rica, personal interview, March 5, 2013). Al-
though coffee is no longer the most important or profitable export for Costa Rica, the
“grain of gold” is still beloved by the Costa Ricans, and coffee trees can be seen grow-
ing around much of the Central Valley area (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Bananas became the second major export beginning in 1876 when a railroad was
built connecting the Central Valley of Costa Rica to the Caribbean coast. Costa Ricans
had been growing bananas in small portions since 1874, but banana venture attracted
both foreign capital and government support. Between 1883 and 1890, banana exports
increased from 100,000 stems to 10 times that number. Unfortunately Costa Rica de-
veloped an economy that caused it to be reliant on other countries. Although prospering
in contrast to other Central American nations, Costa Rica’s economic stability was
dependent on other countries purchasing only bananas and coffee. Moreover, Costa
Rica was dependent on other countries for a wide variety of manufactured products and
raw materials rather than being self-reliant. The system of dependence on others for
economic well-being is a place where Costa Rica still finds itself today, with an econ-
omy growing primarily based on FDI (Biesanz et al., 1999; Monge-González,
Rodríguez-Álvarez, Hewitt, Orozco, & Ruiz, 2011).
From its inception until the 1880s, Costa Rica had been a republic, not a true
democracy; however, beginning in 1882, many changes occurred: A free press guided
public opinion; cemeteries were secularized; laws allowing divorce and civil weddings
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 71
were passed; and primary education become both obligatory and secular. In 1889, the
first truly democratic election took place (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The 1940s constituted a decade of turmoil marked by the civil war of 1948. In
1941, the night before the U.S. Congress declared war against Germany and Japan,
Costa Rica declared war against Germany and Japan. While only a few Costa Ricans
fought in World War II by enlisting in Allied armies, an alliance between Costa Rica
and the United States was forged. Costa Rican President Rafael Angel Calderón
Guardia met with U.S. President Roosevelt and agreed that Costa Rica would help
protect the Panama Canal in case of war. The alliance resulted in financial assistance
from the United States and in such projects as construction of the Inter-American High-
way. Dr. Calderón also instituted a health insurance program for urban workers and
established a labor code and social guarantees, which meant creation of a minimum
wage, an 8-hour work day, and a 6-day work week; the right to organize; protection
against arbitrary dismissal; and mandating collective bargaining during labor disputes.
He also had a law passed that allowed the landless to acquire title to unused land by
cultivating it and established the University of Costa Rica. While Calderón had the
admiration of workers and some members of the working class, landowners and busi-
nessmen felt that the new programs were at their expense (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Vocally opposing Calderón was Acción Demócrata, José “Pepe” Figueres
Ferrer, who was supported by the post-World War II United States against Calderón due
to Calderón’s continual alliance with the Communist Party, Vanguardia Popular. In
1948, shortly after the Costa Rican Congress, dominated by Calderonistas, annulled the
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 72
election between Ulate and Calderón, Figueres declared war on the government. After 6
weeks of fighting and over 2,000 deaths, a peace treaty was signed. Figueres pledged to
honor Ulate’s election but only after he held the office with a junta for 18 months
(Biesanz et al., 1999).
During the 18 months that Figueres was in power, his junta issued 834 decree-
laws and rewrote the constitution. Some changes made in the new constitution included
abolishing the army and shifting a portion of army funding to public education, thereby
creating what would be know as an army of teachers. The new constitution also out-
lawed the Vanguardia Popular and barred former presidents from reelection for 8 years
after leaving office. The legislative branch was given more power than the executive
branch; a Supreme Electoral Tribunal was established as an independent guarantor of
fair elections; and the franchise was extended to women, illiterates, and any child born
in Costa Rica regardless of the origin of the parents. Finally, the constitution provided
for “autonomous institutions” to take over basic services such as banking and public
utilities. These changes soon came to be regarded as Costa Rican traditions (Biesanz et
al., 1999).
In the legacy that has existed from Figueres, it has been generally agreed that all
elections have been honest since 1948 and that every 4 years, with two exceptions, the
presidency has alternated between two main parties. President Figueres and his Na-
tional Liberation Party (PLN) is given credit for shaping the direction of Costa Rica for
the 3 decades following 1948, including the increased budget allocation to education,
health, and human services. Due to the reform policies enacted, the cafetaleros and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 73
merchants who had long dominated the country shared much of their power with the
growing middle class with a government committed to social justice achieved through a
welfare state and to attracting FDI to industrialize the country (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Development of Costa Rica’s Economy
Costa Rica’s economic development and integration into the world economy is
marked by three major episodes, concluding with the current state of developing a
technology- and KBE (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In the first
episode that lasted from the 1850s through the early 1960s, Costa Rica’s economy
revolved heavily around the agricultural sector, which was critical in terms of employ-
ment, product contribution, exports, and fiscal revenues (OECD, 2012a). This concen-
tration on a limited set of primary agricultural commodities, mainly coffee and bananas,
made the economy vulnerable (OECD, 2012a). During the second episode, beginning
in the 1960s, the country embarked on a state-led industrialization program aimed at
reducing its dependence on primary products. As industry became a fresh source of
growth, Costa Rica entered a long period of expansion in the 1960s and 1970s with
annual GDP growth averaging 6% (OECD, 2012a; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). To deal
with the debt crisis in the late 1970s and early 1980s that sent many Latin American
countries into deep recession, Costa Rica adopted a strategy that relied on FDI to in-
crease its share of nontraditional exports (OECD, 2012a). Costa Rica’s economic base
has changed dramatically over recent decades as a result of the financial crisis of the
1980s (Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González & Gonzáles-Alvarado, 2007).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 74
As a consequence of targeted actions to attract FDI since the mid-1980s, Costa
Rica has progressively shifted its export composition from primary products (e.g.,
coffee, bananas, and sugar) to HT manufacturing and services (CINDE, 2012; OECD,
2012a). The arrival of Intel in the late 1990s helped Costa Rica to forge a reputation as
a place for investment. Since then, the country, which has a small, open economy, has
managed to attract several world-class companies (OECD, 2012a; Monge-González et
al., 2011). First-mover companies have been upgrading their business activities by
adding to basic business services more knowledge-intensive activities, including soft-
ware design and research and development (OECD, 2012a). The recent growth of the
Costa Rican economy has been associated with the increase of exports, mostly related to
HT goods. In fact, the country is now the fourth leading HT exporter in the world in
terms of HT exports as a percentage of total exports (Monge-González et al., 2011).
The government has adopted a more selective approach to FDI attraction, focus-
ing on companies operating in more knowledge-intensive sectors or innovation-related
activities. This action has resulted in the number of jobs in the knowledge sector grow-
ing by significant percentages on an annual basis (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2012a).
In 2006, Intel Costa Rica employed 2,900 direct workers. These jobs were 50%
better paid than traditional agroindustrial jobs and provided significantly safer and
higher quality working conditions (P. Chico, Director of Community Outreach, Intel
Costa Rica, personal interview, June 26, 2013; World Bank Group, 2006). Jobs created
by FDI from MNCs (including Intel between 2000 and 2011) in advanced manufactur-
ing increased from 4,500 to 15,590 (OECD, 2012a). Jobs created by MNCs between
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 75
2000 and 2011 in medical devices increased from 1,500 to 13,561 (OECD, 2012a). The
total number of jobs created by FDI rose from 7,758 in 2003–2005 to 34,385 in 2009–
2011 (OECD, 2012). As a result of the increase in jobs and productivity, in 2012 the
“knowledge-intensive” sector of the Costa Rican economy comprised 53.3% of national
exports (CINDE, 2012). The country is now embarking on a fourth stage, although not
yet labeled, of moving toward an innovation-based economy as a result of the knowl-
edge spillovers that have occurred as a result of the FDI by HT-MNCs, particularly since
the 1980s (Monge-González et al., 2011).
Due to the great benefits of FDI for the Costa Rican economy, the country has
continued working to attract a diversified base of MNC investment and has been suc-
cessful largely due to the efforts of CINDE, although more recently Costa Rica has been
striving to become an innovation-based economy utilizing the benefits of knowledge
spillover after years of HT-FDI (Monge-González et al., 2011).
Former Coordinator of the Council of Presidential Advisors in Costa Rica, Dr.
Rodríguez-Clare (2001), asserted that the national strategy leading to the attraction of
HT-FDI and the development of a technology- and knowledge-driven economy was not
the result of any collective and explicit decision. Rather, it was the result of a series of
achievements in the technological area, mutually reinforcing policies dating back to the
nineteenth century converging, and no significant opposition to a development strategy
based on technology and human capital with HT-MNCs playing a key role. In addition,
Rodríguez-Clare noted several prominent institutions in Costa Rica – from CINDE, the
national agency in charge of attracting foreign investment to the public universities to
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 76
the ministry of education, progress with programs in concert, transitioning Costa Rica’s
economy towards the new knowledge-intensive age.
The CINDE Story: Agent in the Economic Development of Costa Rica
The CINDE is a private, nonprofit, and apolitical organization. It was founded
in 1983 by prominent business people, supported by the Costa Rican government, and
financed by grants from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID).
During its 30 years, CINDE has attracted more than 200 companies to Costa Rica,
including Intel, Procter & Gamble, Hospira Inc., Baxter International Inc., St. Jude
Medical Center, and Western Union (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
During the 1980s CINDE gained expertise regarding the promotion of the
country abroad and regarding FDI attraction mainly toward the agriculture and unskilled
labor-intensive manufacturing sectors. The success that CINDE achieved was due to
the fact that it was nonpolitical and nongovernmental, which allowed it to have continu-
ous programs and a long-term strategy without being affected by periodic changes in
government (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In the early 1990s CINDE realized that, due to NAFTA, Costa Rica was losing
competitiveness in unskilled labor-intensive industries. At the same time, it was losing
sources of funding from USAID. Funded by grants from USAID, in the 1980s, CINDE
had annual budgets between $4 million and $8 million, ran seven international offices,
and employed 400 people. When Costa Rica no longer qualified for USAID funding,
CINDE’s budget was reduced to the interest income from the initial endowment. In
2006, the organization had an annual budget of nearly $1.5 million, a staff of 29 people,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 77
and one foreign office located in New York City. Given these circumstances, CINDE
decided to focus its FDI attraction efforts on fewer sectors, choosing ones that were a
better match for Costa Rica’s relatively high education levels (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
CINDE’s 1993 strategic plan focused on sectors associated with the electrical,
electronic, and telecommunication industries. These sectors not only required higher
skilled labor but also were experiencing fast growth in the United States. The strong
competitive pressures forced companies to search for low-cost locations around the
world. Based on this strategy, CINDE was able to attract DSC Communications Corpo-
ration as well as other HT-MNCs to the country. Thanks to these successes, CINDE
acquired a deeper understanding of the industry and learned that Intel was starting the
site selection process for an assembly and testing plant for one of its newest chips.
CINDE’s specialists on FDI attraction designed a campaign that landed Costa Rica a
spot on the list and, ultimately, the $300 million U.S. dollar investment by Intel
(Cordero & Paus, 2008; CINDE, 2013; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; World Bank Group,
2006). With Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica, it became clear that attracting HT-
MNCs to the country was feasible and potentially effective as a part of the development
strategy of the country. What was then a CINDE strategy became a national strategy
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Factors Leading to the Intel Investment in Costa Rica
Costa Rica has been able to successfully attract FDI inflows from HT-MNCs due
to the abundant, highly educated, and healthy labor force (Spar, 1998). Spar (1998),
after analyzing Intel’s decision process, concluded that Costa Rica was chosen because
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 78
it offered location-specific advantages. Among these, the most important ones were the
already existing tax exemptions for any firms satisfying certain conditions under the free
zone scheme, the high educational level of the labor force, a stable political scenario,
and a relatively corruption-free environment. In the case of Intel, a relatively well-
educated labor force as well as stable and business friendly economic and political
conditions in Costa Rica were fundamental factors for the firm’s decision to invest in
the country (Spar, 1998; World Bank, 2003).
Documented Benefits to the Costa Rican Economy From the Intel Investment
Nearly 63% of companies investing have done so in the past 15 years, largely
after the Intel investment in the country, which is given credit for causing a “signaling
effect” to other companies to invest in Costa Rica (OECD, 2012a; World Bank Group,
2006). The signaling effect is well recognized by global investing companies (World
Bank Group, 2006). In addition to Intel’s investment, other MNCs dedicated to the
production of electronics, or firms that make intensive use of information and communi-
cation technologies (ICTs), have established branches in Costa Rica since 1996.
Among these are Hospira Inc., Cisco, Microsoft, Baxter International Inc., Procter &
Gamble, and Motorola Inc. (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). According
to CINDE estimates, a total of 173 foreign companies invested in services, advanced
manufacturing, and medical devices between 1970 and 2011. This trend has increased
in the past decade, as 75% of those companies invested in the past 10 years and 43% in
the past 5 years (OECD, 2012a). Today, these three industries employ more than 66,200
people compared with only 7,061 in 2000 (OECD, 2012a). Larraín, López-Calva, and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 79
Rodriguéz-Clare (2006) asserted that there has been an overall net positive effect of
Intel moving into Costa Rica. Intel increased the export capacity of the country, diversi-
fied exports, had a signaling effect to attract other companies into the country, and
established important links with the education community to develop human resources
for the benefit of the whole industrial sector. In addition, Costa Rica is now working
toward benefitting from knowledge spillover in the movement to develop from a
knowledge-based to an innovation-based economy (Monge-González et al., 2011).
Development and Current Status of Costa Rica’s Education System
In 1949 José Figueres Ferrer abolished the army and the constitution was rewrit-
ten, shifting a significant percentage of the GDP to fund the public education system.
The 1980s were worse than a so-called “lost decade,” with high school enrollment rates
falling significantly and recovering only by the end of the 1990s (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). However, exemplifying Costa Rica’s commitment to education, there was an
initiative during the 1980s of installing computer laboratories in elementary school
classrooms as tools to aid in the general learning process; this addition contributed to
development of a technology- and KBE (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Since that time, Costa Rica has annually increased the percentage of GDP spent
on public education. In 2010 Costa Rica had a population of 4.56 million and spent
7.2% of its GDP on education (OECD, 2012b; World Bank 2013). In an interesting
contrast, Finland spent 6.8% of its GDP on education in 2010 and the United States,
5.6% of its 2010 GDP on education (World Bank, 2013). As more MNCs invest in
Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility for developing interest in
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 80
STEM, and inquiry-based curricula focused on 21st-century skills in students has
become increasingly challenging (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Paus
& Gallagher, 2008). Currently in Costa Rica, which boasts an education system that is
recognized as one of the best in Latin America, education leaders, the government, and
industry leaders are working in concert to cultivate 21st-century skills in their students
and are developing a strong interest in STEM education to develop a highly competitive
workforce for the global KBE (CINDE, 2012; A. Cruz, Minister of Science and Tech-
nology, Costa Rica, personal interview, June 27, 2013; OECD, 2012b; World Bank
Group, 2006).
CINDE (2011) explained that the school primary and secondary school system in
Costa Rica differs from that in the United States. The primary and secondary school
systems have four distinct cycles: Cycle 1 encompasses elementary Grades 1–4; Cycle
2, Grades 5-6; Cycle 3, Grades 7–9; and Cycle 4, Grades 10–12. Examinations are
given to students at the sixth- and ninth-grade levels as comprehensive assessment of
their skills in mathematics, science, social studies, and Spanish. In the 12th grade,
students take an extensive comprehensive exam that acts as a college entrance assess-
ment, and nationally there is a low pass rate on this exam.
Costa Rica has a national centralized school system. The democratically elected
president appoints a Minister of Public Education, who, in turn, appoints a cabinet with
departments that focus on finances, curriculum, and teacher preparation. Dr. Leonardo
Garnier, the current Minister of Education, is the head of the national school board and
the National Education Council. There are seven provinces in Costa Rica, each with an
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 81
administrator and school board. School boards are democratically elected (L. Garnier,
personal interview, June 24, 2013).
According to the 2011 Estado de la Educacion report (Consejo Nacional de
Rectores [CONARE]; 2013), Costa Rica has seen positive changes in the education
system in the past couple of years. Secondary school and university attendance has
increased, and dropout rates have decreased. The Costa Rican MEP has worked to
increase secondary school attendance and graduation rates by implementing programs at
elementary and secondary schools aimed at improving teacher training, developing a
new national mathematics curriculum, teaching students logic through the Spanish
curriculum, and deploying mobile computer laboratories to schools in rural areas (L.
Garnier, personal interview, June 24, 2013; World Bank Group, 2006). In addition,
partnerships between the schools in Costa Rica and high-tech MNCs such as Intel and
HP were formed to support national and corporate goals for developing 21st-century-
skilled students capable of competing in the diverse global KBE (Monge-González et al,
2011; World Bank Group, 2006).
CINDE (2013) published an education outlook highlighting that Costa Rica now
has 128 technical high schools with 77,000 students enrolled. The 60 universities (five
public and 55 private) graduated 44,575 students in 2012. Universities have shown an
8.8% annual growth in graduates per year since 2008, including 5.4% in engineering
programs and 7.9% in software and informatics.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 82
Education Partnership With Intel and Increasing 21st-Century Skills and STEM
Talent
To increase 21st-century skills and STEM as part of a corporate vision for social
responsibility, Intel has worked collaboratively with the MEP and CINDE to develop
programs at schools and universities in Costa Rica. Intel supports long-term investment
by beginning early in primary school STEM education (M.-H. Bialas, Director of Edu-
cational Programs, Intel Costa Rica, personal interview, June 25, 2013). Examples
include the Intel Educar para el Futuro—in English, Intel® Teach to the Future—
which has donated microprocessors valued at more than $1.1 million to modernize
laboratories in schools for teaching technology and engineering. The Teach to the
Future program trained 49,000 primary and middle school teachers in the use of technol-
ogy as a learning tool from 2001 to 2012 (M.-H. Bialas, personal interview, June 25,
2013; P. Escalante, former Director of Intel Teach the Future Program, Costa Rica,
personal interview, June 26, 2013). The Students as Scientists program was launched in
2004 as a 40-hour professional development course for teachers. This program, which
trained over 6,000 teachers between 2004 and 2011, promotes scientific research in
schools and was launched in coordination with the MEP, the Ministry of Science,
Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT), and the National Program of Technol-
ogy Fairs. The latter program was designed to train 2,000 teachers to raise students’
interest in the sciences and places an overall emphasis on 21st-century skills (M.-H.
Bialas, personal interview, June 25, 2013; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; World Bank Group,
2006).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 83
Science, Technology, and Innovation Development in Costa Rica
In June of 1990, Costa Rica passed a law for the Promotion of Scientific and
Technological Development, which created a National Science and Technology System
(NSTS) and the MICITT (Monge-González et al., 2011). The MICITT is formally
responsible for improving the competitiveness of Costa Rica through the promotion of
science, technology, and innovation in the country. The MICITT has carried out activi-
ties to meet recommendations contained in the National Development Plan (2006–2010)
and has created a Department for Innovation that developed and published an Atlas for
Innovation in Costa Rica (MICITT, 2013).
The MICITT developed a National Science, Technology, and Innovation Plan
(2011–2014) with priority areas related to innovation, including new sources of financ-
ing; creation of technology parks that bring together public, private, and academic
sectors; improved access to intellectual property protection; business incubation; inno-
vation in small businesses; improved cooperation between universities and the private
sector; promotion of entrepreneurship; and the creation of a national innovation agency
(Monge-González et al., 2011).
Another major actor for Costa Rica in the area of innovation has been the Na-
tional Council for Scientific and Technological Investigation (CONICIT). It was cre-
ated in 1972 and is charged with strengthening the role of science and technology in the
country through the promotion of research and educational investigators. It supports
innovation mainly through administration of research and development funds (Monge-
González et al., 2011).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 84
In addition, the current presidential administration created a Presidential Council
on Competitiveness and Innovation. Members of this council include the President,
both vice presidents, the head of the MICITT, and most government institutions such as
the branch of the Ministry of Labor that is in charge of technical training. The Council
is assisted by a Technical Secretariat that provides diagnostics; assists in the design of
solutions in priority areas; and monitors the execution of policies, plans, and actions
related to the promotion of innovation. The creation of the council has provided the
first forum in which innovation and its economic impacts are regularly discussed by the
highest government authorities (Monge-González et al., 2011).
Challenges Costa Rica Faces Moving Toward an Innovation- and KBE and Reduc-
ing Dependency on FDI
Since the times of banana and coffee exportation dominating the economy to the
current status of a high percentage of Costa Rica’s economy being generated from jobs
brought in by FDI, the country’s economic stability has been highly dependent on
foreign countries. Costa Rica currently faces challenges in maintaining continued eco-
nomic growth via FDI as well as development of a strategic plan to move toward an IDE
to reduce dependency on foreign investment, thereby leading to self-sufficiency and
economic prosperity in the global KBE. The main challenge is generating enough
human capital capable of working at all levels within knowledge- and innovation-based
industry.
Some researchers claim that there is currently a shortfall in the supply of a well-
trained workforce in Costa Rica, especially with respect to HT-MNCs (Céspedes &
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 85
González, 2002). This shortfall constitutes serious limitations for the development of
such firms in the country and a major barrier for attracting more FDI inflows. Monge-
González and Gonzáles-Alvarado (2007) posited that, if Costa Rica wants to make a
transition to a KBE, then the country is facing an important challenge regarding skills
development and training. There is a need to raise public awareness among people in
the public, private, and academic sectors, especially in education centers (high schools
and technical-vocational institutions) with respect to training requirements in areas
related to a KBE. In addition, it is important to strengthen existing relationships be-
tween universities and businesses to establish priorities regarding professional educa-
tion, help define careers that more closely respond to the demand in the productive
sector, create more dynamic curricula, and develop and implement online education.
Another important challenge that Costa Rica faces due to the insufficient amount
of highly educated human resources is related to the limitations found by HT-MNCs
when they have attempted to undertake R&D activities. In fact, having highly trained
personnel at the PhD level is critical to guarantee R&D development. For example, if
Intel was interested in setting up a R&D lab, there are currently not enough PhDs in
science and engineering to make it possible (Monge-González & Gonzáles-Alvarado,
2007; OECD, 2012b).
Finally, recognizing that innovation is a driver for increased productivity and in
order to capitalize on potential knowledge spillovers from FDI, Costa Rican authorities
began designing and implementing policies a few years ago to encourage firm-level
innovation investment (Monge-González et al., 2011; OECD, 2012a). A recent study by
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 86
Monge-González et al. (2011) conducted interviews of Costa Rican firms striving to be
innovative. A list of barriers to innovation for Costa Rican firms was compiled that
included the following:
Existing government efforts to promote research, development, and innovation
are not systematically organized and integrated, with a consequent lack of over-
all effectiveness.
There is a shortage of technical workers and skilled researchers, and the
creation of such workers is hampered by a lack of coordination between univer-
sities, technical schools, and other creators of skilled human resources, on one
hand, and the private sector, on the other hand.
Financial resources for research, development, and innovation are diffi-
cult to obtain, and the amount of resources awarded is small. This situation is
exacerbated by an almost complete lack of access to private sector angel and
venture capital funding.
Costa Rican firms are unfamiliar with the mechanisms and benefits of
formal methods of intellectual property protection, and a lack of staff and staff
training in the Registry of Intellectual Property makes the process of obtaining a
Costa Rican patent unduly lengthy and complicated.
The fact that the national telecommunications market is only now open-
ing to competition means that telecom infrastructure in general, and penetration
of broadband Internet connectivity for Costa Rican firms in particular, does not
yet provide optimal levels of Internet access to information that would facilitate
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 87
innovation, for example through better connectivity to partners, suppliers, or
clients. (pp. 13–14)
Because innovations can often destroy jobs, the country is working to develop a
better understanding of the consequences of innovation for employment generation.
The complexity of the relationship between innovation and employment comes from the
fact that innovation affects both employment quantity and employment quality.
However, a policy recommendation set forth by Monge-González et al. (2011) is that
improving the possibilities for product innovation in Costa Rican firms seems likely
generate new employment opportunities, especially for workers with some qualifica-
tions.
Costa Rica must continue attracting FDI while moving toward an IDE. Chal-
lenges that the country faces in shifting to an IDE is the need to increase productivity,
generate enough sources of employment to reduce both poverty and inequality, and
upgrade the education system in order to develop a highly skilled labor force, thereby
achieving higher economic growth and sustainable development (Monge-González et
al., 2011).
Theoretical Framework
The work of Bolman and Deal (2003) served as the framework for analyzing
Costa Rican leadership moving the country toward a knowledge-based economy.
Organizational theory, such as the work of Bolman and Deal (2011), presents a multi-
frame model comprised of four frames: (a) structural, (b) human resource, (c) political,
and (d) symbolic. All four frames contain features that are utilized in representation and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 88
approaches to attaining goals within organizations. These frames are clearly visible in
the programs that can be found in the successful partnerships of the MEP, CINDE, and
Intel Costa Rica.
The work of Wagner (2008) served as the framework for understanding the
growth of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican teaching and learning. Wagner described
21st-century skills as a blend of content knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and
literacies. The American organization P21 (2012) described the need for 21st-century
skills as follows: “Nations [should] attract growth industries and create jobs. . . . We
need to recognize that a 21st-century education is the bedrock of competitiveness—the
engine, not simply an input, of the economy” (p. 1). When schools and school districts
engage in these 21st-century skills, students are much more prepared to thrive in the
new global knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008).
The work of Capraro et al. (2013) acted as the framework for understanding
STEM education. STEM PBL is a defined task with a well-defined outcome situated
within a contextually rich task requiring students to solve several problems, which when
considered in their entirety, showcase student mastery of several concepts of STEM
subjects. PBL is the use of a project that often results in the emergence of various
learning outcomes in addition to the ones that were anticipated. The learning is dy-
namic as students use various processes and methods to explore the project. The project
is generally information rich, but directions are kept to a minimum. The richness of the
information is often directly related to the quality of the learning and level of student
engagement. The information is often multifaceted and includes background
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 89
information, graphs, pictures, specifications, generalized and specific outcome expecta-
tions, narrative, and in many cases formative and summative expectations. STEM PBL
is relevant due to real-world connections and association with facilitating student devel-
opment of a personal connection to the project and fosters “buy-in” for solving individ-
ual problems presented in the project.
The work of Spring (2008) provided the framework for understanding the
globalization of education. Spring asserted that globalization of education refers to the
worldwide discussion, processes, and institutions affecting local educational policies
and practices. He posited that events are happening on a global scale and affecting
school systems in nations around the world. He suggested an image of global educa-
tional policies and practices existing in a superstructure above national and local
schools. These systems are all in constant dynamic interaction; global ideas about
school practices interact with local school systems while, through mutual interaction,
both global and local policies are changed.
Summary of the Literature Review
In conclusion, the impetus for globalization began as a means to improve the
way of life, which continues to do so, but the preachers and warriors as agents of global-
ization have been replaced by MNCs, NGOs, and organizations such as the World Bank.
America was at the forefront of innovation and economic growth for most of the 20th
century but now faces massive job loss, slower economic growth, and an education
system not preparing nearly half the students in the country for success in the 21st
century workforce—which is needed to fuel the future of the U.S. economy. Many
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 90
relationships among the quality and equity of a nation’s education system, skill in
STEM for developing innovation-led industry, and economic growth were made.
However, America drastically reduced funding to support STEM over the past 40 years
and, as a result, there has been a tremendous reduction of talent coming from America; a
reduction of innovation produced in the United States; and a significant increase of out-
sourcing to countries where MNCs can find highly skilled, educated, and motivated
labor at a cheaper price. The world has flattened. Many countries have followed
America’s examples from the 20th century and have taken the ideas to the next level,
thus catapulting economic development and job growth in their own countries and
consequently draining jobs previously found in the United States. It is time that Ameri-
can leaders learn from what countries with growing economies are doing rather than
complain about job loss while the national education system continues to fail the major-
ity of students, the government continues not to fund science and technology research,
and America’s top companies leave to hire better talent outside America. Policy brief
after policy brief have asserted that to have a competitive 21st-century economy, a
country must have (a) a high-quality education system where all children are educated
with the skills required to compete in a KBE and an IDE, (b) investment in the STEM
sectors at all levels from K–12 schools to national research laboratories; and a coordi-
nated national policy among government agencies to foster innovation, entrepreneur-
ship, and business growth.
Costa Rica is an interesting and relevant study. This small country with slightly
over 4 million people is now the fourth leading HT exporter in the world. Costa Rica
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 91
has been a stable democracy only since 1948. It has enjoyed an education system that
was good before 1948 but significantly improved to its current boast of a 98% literacy
rate thanks to the government making education equity, access, quality, and funding a
national priority for the education system. Costa Rica’s government has made science
and technology a national priority, coordinating with multiple ministries within the gov-
ernment, schools and universities, MNCs, and the private sector. Finally, the Costa
Rican government has collaborated with multiple ministries within the government,
schools and universities, MNCs, and the private sector to develop and implement eco-
nomic policies with a long-term vision to reduce poverty and inequity and to create
sustainable economic growth. As a result, Costa Rica continues to see annual improve-
ments in the outcomes of its education system, increases in good jobs, and continued
growth of the national economy.
In the era of the flat world and the globalized KBE innovation, greatly fueled by
STEM, and intellectual skill gained by countries with superior education systems,
corporations and individuals position themselves for better jobs, the accumulation of
wealth and power, and—ideally—a better life. This is the current face of globalization
and the global knowledge-based and IDE.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 92
Chapter 3
Methodology
Restatement of the Background, Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions
The global KBE has created what Clifton (2011) called an “all out war for good
jobs” (p. 1). While America continues to loose jobs, developing countries are creating
substantial job growth in the knowledge-based sectors to become global economic
competitors. Costa Rica was the site of this case study that examined the impact of the
relationship among government, education, and corporate leaders on primary and
secondary schools in Costa Rica, as the country moves toward a knowledge-based and
IDE. Costa Rica is of particular interest to American educators and policymakers
because of the exponential growth and development of the economy that have taken
place over recent years, the trajectory of which was largely enabled by the excellent
education system. This country of 4.56 million people (OECD, 2012a) has shifted since
the 1950s from a country whose economy was based almost entirely on the export of
bananas and coffee to being the fourth largest exporter of HT products in the world,
with an education system funded with a higher percentage of GDP than Finland
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2011; World Bank, 2013).
In the last 30 years, Costa Rica has moved from an economy based primarily on
coffee and bananas to one thriving on ecotourism, the services industry (e.g., HT call
centers), and technology exports. Costa Rica’s historically outstanding and progressive
education system is perceivably the greatest factor responsible for enabling the shift
from an agriculture-based economy to a knowledge-based one. The problem is that
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 93
Costa Rica’s economy has grown at such a rapid pace in the knowledge-based and
innovation-driven sectors that the education system is now struggling to produce enough
students capable of meeting the demands for human capital in the knowledge-based
labor market, especially in the STEM fields.
The aim of the study was to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs
on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. The study also sought to understand
the relationships among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel on the development of 21st-century
skills and interest in STEM in K–12 schools in Costa Rica.
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The preceding chapters provided an overview of the study and a review of the
literature that was relevant to the topic under examination. This chapter provides an
outline of the study and methodology. It specifically includes the purpose of the study,
the research design, sample population, data collection protocols, and the data analysis
process that was used.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 94
Design Summary
In conducting a research study, Creswell (2009) has identified six explicit steps:
(a) identification of a research problem, (b) review of the current literature, (c) having a
purpose for the research, (d) collection of data, (e) analysis of the data, and finally (f)
reporting the evaluation of the research.
The methodology that was employed for this study involved a multimethod,
qualitative approach. Interview, survey, and observation protocols were designed with
the understanding that research questions are best answered by first-hand information.
This information was provided by the leaders at each level from the heads of the govern-
ment and corporations, to the leaders at the school sites, to the teachers in the classroom
who were implementing curriculum fueled by new national strategies and practices.
This qualitative data provided a platform for better understanding the relationships
among leaders at every level driving Costa Rica’s national economic and educational
success. Qualitative data also provided rich information that allowed the researcher to
understand the elements and components that led to the successful relationships among
leaders related to this study (Maxwell, 2005; Merriam, 2009). The multimethod, quali-
tative approach allowed participants to share in their reality, as constructed by their
experiences.
Participants and Setting
Purposeful sampling was used to maximize learning about the impact of global-
ization and MNCs on Costa Rican schools (Merriam, 2009). Maxwell (2005) stated that
there are certain goals for the purposeful selection of participants, with one goal being to
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 95
deliberately select individuals who are critical for testing theories in relation to the re-
searcher’s studies. Selecting participants is dependent on what they can contribute to
the research as well as the researcher'’ understanding of what is being studied.
Thus, rather than selecting any Costa Rican school, only schools that had an
affiliation with MNCs (specifically Intel) were selected for this study. In addition,
national and corporate leaders were interviewed. A snowball sampling effect, as de-
scribed by Creswell (2009), occurred because the sample population for this study grew
from one initial contact with Andrés Rodriguez-Clare, a Costa Rican economist at the
University of California, Berkeley (UCB).
Gaining Access
In reviewing the literature examining Costa Rica’s economic growth from the
1980s to the present, two researchers were prominent authors: Ricardo Monge-González
of the High Technology Advisory Committee for Costa Rica (CAATEC) and the Insti-
tuto Technológico de Costa Rica (ITCR), and Andrés Rodríguez-Clare, former coordi-
nator of the Council of Presidential Advisors in Costa Rica and current professor of
economics at UCB. I emailed Dr. Rodríguez-Clare and arranged a meeting with him in
the Berkeley area. I met with both him and Dr. Escalante to explain the study we were
trying to conduct and ask for guidance on how best to proceed. Dr. Rodríguez-Clare
provided an incredible wealth of helpful information with respect to understanding the
changes that had occurred, predominantly since the 1980s, and the forces that drove the
changes. He offered to connect us with the Costa Rican leadership so that we could
conduct an effective study. These people included Ricardo Monge-González of
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 96
CAATEC, who would connect us to many other leaders who were interviewed; Mrs.
Gabriela Llobet of CINDE, who was also a significant support for resources, informa-
tion, and participants to interview; and the former president of Costa Rica, Dr. Miguel
Ángel Rodríguez, who is currently a professor at the University of Costa Rica (UCR)
and met with us during our exploratory trip to Costa Rica. A debt of much gratitude is
owed to Dr. Rodríguez-Clare for being to willing to help with this research study from
the beginning through completion of the study and without whom this study may never
have succeeded.
Exploratory Trip
Four students took the responsibility for making all the contacts for the research
project and then going on an initial trip to Costa Rica to develop relationships and refine
the procedure that would be utilized for data collection for the entire research team that
was comprised of 12 students. One exception, Megan Burton, a student who was unable
to join us on the exploratory trip, was the responsible individual for the connection with
Intel Costa Rica. The four students were Sam McVey and Sebastian Puccio, who con-
tacted leaders at the University of Costa Rica's School of Education; Felipe Martinez,
who contacted leaders at ITCR, the Estado de Nacíon, and the Minister of Public Educa-
tion; and myself, who contacted Ricardo Monge-González of CAATEC, Mrs. Gabriela
Llobet of CINDE, Dr. Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, and communicated with Mrs. Mary-
Helen Bialas of Intel Costa Rica. All individuals who would be formally interviewed as
part of the data collection process with the entire research team were contacted using a
letter such as the one in Appendix A, which was addressed to the Minister of Public
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 97
Education. During the very brief exploratory trip to Costa Rica, the four students and
Dr. Escalante had the pleasure of meeting all the aforementioned contacts; subsequently
snowballing, as described by Creswell (2009), again occurred. The team was connected
with multiple leaders in education and the government with whom the entire team
would have the opportunity to meet and interview during the research expedition in June
2013. The highlight to the trip for the exploratory team was the final evening. We had
the distinct privilege of dining at a restaurant seated above the jaw-dropping view of the
San José Central Valley with none other than the former president of Costa Rica, Dr.
Miguel Ángel Rodríguez. Currently serving as a history professor at UCR, he is a
charming and captivating story teller. Over a dinner that lasted many hours, Dr. Rodrí-
guez told our group the story of Costa Rica from the 1500s to the present time. He gave
us copies of his manuscript on the history of Costa Rica to help us with the review of the
literature for our dissertation processes. Dr. Rodríguez continued his support of our
dissertation group through completion of the project.
Research Trip: Participants and Settings
Mrs. Mary-Helen Bialas currently holds the position of Academic Relations
Manager for Costa Rica at Intel Costa Rica. She originally came to Costa Rica as a U.S.
citizen as part of the Peace Corps and stayed in Costa Rica working with the USAID for
CINDE. She is passionate about developing innovative opportunities for Costa Rican
children across the country to engage in STEM education.
Mrs. Patricia Chico is the Director of Community Relations for Intel Costa Rica.
Mrs. Chico handles all the relationships with the directors and sub-directors. She
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 98
explained that the reward she gets from working for Intel as a Costa Rican is the higher
standards that Intel has brought to Costa Rica pertaining to workplace quality for work-
ers and policies for corporations with respect to preserving the environment. She
explained that since the entry of Intel, the standard has been set for both national and
foreign companies to have high standards for workers and introduced ergonomics to the
workplace. She also explained that as a small token toward environmental preservation
in Costa Rica, Intel has a very highly organized recycling program and sends the pro-
ceeds from all recycling to fund programs in Costa Rican public schools.
Dr. Alejandro Cruz at the time of the interview held the position of Minister of
Science and Technology with the MICITT for Costa Rica; he is currently enjoying
retirement. He grew up in Costa Rica and had the opportunity to study in the United
States where he completed his education. Upon returning, he worked briefly as a
chemistry teacher before becoming part of the team that developed the foundational
programs at ITCR and eventually served as Dean of ITCR. He is passionate about
facilitating the growth of programs and HT industries in Costa Rica to enable Costa
Ricans and the country of Costa Rica to reach the highest potential.
Mrs. Patricia Escalante Arauz served as the Director of Intel Educate the Future
for the country of Costa Rica from 2000 to 2012. Currently, she is a professor at UCR.
During her tenure as Director of Intel Educate the Future, she developed and facilitated
many trainer-of-trainer programs to improve the ability for Costa Rican schools to
integrate technology into the curriculum from urban school settings to remote rural
locations.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 99
Dr. Leonardo Garnier currently holds the position of Minister of Public Educa-
tion for the country of Costa Rica. He holds two PhDs earned in the United States, one
in economics and one in philosophy. He has held other positions in the Costa Rican
government and has been a very progressive leader of Costa Rica’s public education
system. His candor and ability to work with all groups enabled him to make a tremen-
dous positive impact on Costa Rica’s educational system and programs.
Mrs. Gabriella Llobet holds a degree in law and is the Director General of
CINDE. Mrs. Llobet works with many sectors within the Costa Rican government to
develop strategies for attracting FDI that will best support the long-term growth goals of
Costa Rica as a nation.
Ricardo Monge-González of CAATEC is an associate researcher at CAATEC.
He holds a PhD in economics that he earned in the United States. Dr. Monge-González
is arguably the most prolific author of publications and the foremost expert on Costa
Rica’s economy, including the factors necessary to grow to a knowledge-based and IDE.
Dr. Miguel Ángel Rodríguez is the former president of Costa Rica and currently
holds the position of professor of economics at UCR. He earned a PhD in economics
from the UCB, where his son is currently a professor. He was generous with his time
and has been truly interested in and supportive of this research project. Dr. Rodríguez is
a phenomenal story teller when speaking of Costa Rica.
Ms. Nathalie Valencia Chacón currently holds the position of the Director of the
Costa Rican Science Fairs as part of the MICITT. She was originally a biology teacher
and made the transition to her current position after one of her students won the Na-
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 100
tional Science Fair and qualified for the IISEF. As the teacher of such a successful
student, she was then provided with the opportunity to participate in programs for
science teachers at IISEF. Ms. Chacón described the teacher training programs as life
changing; she said they made her want to share her experience with teachers and stu-
dents across the country, thus leading her to her current position directing the National
Science Fair program.
Mr. Christian Jimenez is the Sub-Director of Don Bosco, one of the premier
technical secondary schools in the country. Because the Director is a priest, Mr.
Jimenez serves as the director over the instructional programs at the school. The school
is located in the province of San José in the Cantón of Alajuelita, one of the most
impoverished urban areas in the country. Don Bosco is a public school subsidized by
both the Catholic Church and partnerships with multiple MNCs such as Intel. The pop-
ulation of the school is 1,250 students.
Mr. Ronny Morales Guabamus is the Director of Fidel Chavez Murillo, which
boasts a one-on-one program between students and personal computers. Fidel Chavez is
a public primary school in the urban Cantón of Belén in the province of Heredia with a
student population of 160 preschool students and 700 first to sixth graders. The school
is considered urban; however, most of the homes surrounding the school are growing
coffee or banana plants and have livestock visible in the yards.
Mr. Rudyard Miranda Rojas is the Director of Escuela España, serving the
largest immigrant population in the San José area. The school is located in the Cantón
of Belen in the province of Heredia. It serves a population of 965 first to sixth graders.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 101
It is one of the most challenging schools due to the transient and ethnically heteroge-
neous student population.
Mr. Abraham A. Bermudez Quesada is the Director of Escuela Mañuel Del Pilar
Zumbado, a public primary school located in the Cantón of Belen in the province of
Heredia. The school is considered urban; however, most of the homes surrounding the
school are growing coffee plants and have livestock visible in the yards. The school
serves 86 preschool students, 363 first to sixth graders, and boasts a well-equipped
computer and robot-building lab for the students.
Mr. Wagner Alfaro is the Director of Liceo De Belen, a public community
secondary school. While the school is considered urban, most of the homes surrounding
the school are growing coffee or banana plants and have livestock visible in the yards.
The school boasts a population of 1,209 and is located in the Cantón of Belen, in the
province of San Antonio.
Mr. Raul Cabezas Alvarez is the Director of Colegio Técnico Profesional de
Carrizal. The school is a large, rural high school with a population of 733 students. It is
located in the Cantón of Alajuela in the province of Quizarrases.
Mr. Edgar Evans Meza is the Director of Colegio Tecnico Profesional Dulce
Nombre. This public rural school is located in the Cantón of Cartago and has a student
population of 390 students.
Instrumentation
Four distinct data collection methods were used in this study in order to generate
a thick description of the case and allow for triangulation to increase the validity of the
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 102
research study (Merriam, 2009). Data were gathered through surveys, interviews, docu-
ment collection, and classroom observation. Prior to administering any of the instru-
ments, approval was secured from the USC Institutional Review Board ( IRB) and all
participants were required to sign a consent letter (see Appendix B). As indicated for the
IRB, the real names of all individuals, sites visited, and organizations participating in
the study were used.
Surveys
The thematic dissertation group created the self-administered teacher survey
used in this study (see Appendix C). The survey has 14 items, and responses are on an
ordinal scale (Fink, 2009) of 4 to 1, with 4 being strongly agree, 3 being agree, 2 being
disagree, and, 1 being strongly disagree. Additionally, the respondent could select 0 for
do not know.
In developing the survey items, the following characteristics were taken into
consideration to develop clear and valid items: Jargon was avoided; standard grammar
and syntax were used; items were kept concrete and close to the participants’ experi-
ence; and translation was done by individuals fluent in the target language (Fink, 2009)
The teacher survey gathered data for two of the three research questions. Items 1–9
addressed the second research question, “What results of globalization and the presence
of MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica?” Items 10–14 addressed
the third research question, “How has educational leadership been impacted directly by
policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?”
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 103
Interviews
Three interview protocols were developed for this research study. Each was
intended for individual interviews with different types of participants: government and
policy leaders (Appendix D), corporate leaders (Appendix E), and school leaders (Ap-
pendix F). Despite the differences in the protocols, there were many commonalities
among them. All consisted of five distinct domains: personal background, globaliza-
tion, 21st-century learning, leadership traits, and STEM education. Additionally, each
interview protocol ended by asking the participants if they had any documents that they
would be willing to share that addressed any of the five domains about which they were
being interviewed.
The interview protocols developed for this study were semistructured and con-
tained a mix of more and less structured interview questions (Merriam, 2009). For
example, the first two questions were highly structured because they were intended to
obtain demographic data: position at their respective organization and number of years
in that position. The other questions were experience and behavior questions and
opinion and value questions (Merriam, 2009). These interview questions were more
open-ended and allowed for more variability in responses. All questions were asked of
all participants, and it was intended that they be asked in the order in which they were
listed. The interview protocols were completed in approximately 60 minutes.
According to Merriam (2009), in constructing the items for any interview proto-
col, the information necessary to answer the research questions related to the study
should be the driving force. Thus, when developing the questions for the interview
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 104
protocols, the questions were aligned to the research questions in the following manner:
Items 1–6 in the Globalization Domain aligned to Research Question 1; Items 1–5 in the
21st-Century Learning Domain aligned to Research Question 2; and Items 1–6 in the
Leadership Traits Domain aligned to Research Question 3.
When writing the individual items, consideration was given to the features of
good questions according to Fink (2009). There was an attempt not to write leading
questions and to keep them neutral, devoid of jargon, and brief.
Documents
The study included the collection and review of three of the four types of docu-
ments: public records, popular culture documents, and visual documents (Merriam,
2009). Specific examples of these documents included but were not limited to mission
statements, videos, master schedules, official websites, partnership agreements, pic-
tures, staff bulletins, organization calendars, and textbooks that were collected and
reviewed. Due to the nature of this study, it was considered unlikely that personal docu-
ments, the fourth type of documents identified by Merriam (2009), would provide
relevant information.
Some documents were gathered in the process of selecting participants for the
study. Others were obtained once the researcher was in Costa Rica and able to gather
the information from site personnel. Documents were used to support evaluation of
how closely aligned what the site actually did with what it said it did.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 105
Observations
For the observation portion of this study, the thematic dissertation team devel-
oped a classroom observation protocol (Appendix G) focused on answering Research
Question 2, “What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in
schools and universities in Costa Rica?” To answer this question, it was essential to
gather evidence of 21st-century skills in the classroom.
Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills was used; therefore, in design-
ing the observation protocol, the main purpose was to capture evidence of the following
skills: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration, agility and adaptability, ini-
tiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication, accessing and
analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.
Data Collection Procedures
According to Merriam (2009), the process of data collection has three states:
entry to the site, data collection, and exit from the site. Equally important are the field
notes or raw data that are written down or mechanically recorded during the period of
observation (Merriam, 2009). Field notes include verbal descriptions of people, setting,
activities taking place, possible direct quotations, and possible observer comments
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). Observers should start with a wide angle and then narrow
down the angle as they being to focus on a specific person, interaction, or activity (Mer-
riam, 2009). Observers may summarize notes if there is no time to recall every detail;
however, in this study all interviews were taped and transcribed to minimize loss of
detail and to maximize accuracy.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 106
It is important to get permission from all participants by being humble and
respectful (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). It is important to put the observed participants at
ease by thinking ahead of what the role of the observer will be, how disruptive the
observation will be to the setting, and why the particular site has been selected for study
(Merriam, 2009). Equally important is the action of informing participants of how the
findings will be used (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The first observation should be rela-
tively passive and unobtrusive (Merriam, 2009).
Data Analysis
Data analysis is best accomplished when researchers are following a comprehen-
sive process that ensures that it is done as effectively and efficiently as possible. In
analyzing the data collected for this research study, Creswell’s (2009, pp. 185–189) six-
step approach for data analysis in qualitative research was utilized:
1. Organizing and preparing data for analysis
2. Reading through all the data
3. Coding the data
4. Generating a description and themes of the setting or people
5. Representing descriptions and themes in the qualitative narrative
6. Interpreting the data
Step 1: Organizing Data for Analysis
After the data were collected, it was prepared for analysis. Preparation for
analysis included the following: transcribing interviews, scanning materials, and typing
filed notes.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 107
Step 2: Reading Through the Data
In the second step of Creswell’s (2009) process, synthesis of the data begins to
occur. Individual pieces of information gathered from multiple data sources begin to
synthesize into general ideas, thoughts, or impressions. Typically, at this stage these
general statements are still rather informal and are often captured as marginalia in the
field notes.
Step 3: Coding the Data
Coding data entails chunking isolated pieces of information into broader catego-
ries and labeling those categories. For this study, the coding process began by attempt-
ing to identify some of the topics that were present based on the literature review: 21st-
century skills as defined by Wagner (2008) and leadership traits as outlined by Marzano,
Waters, and McNulty (2005), for example. Then coding focused on categories that were
not anticipated at the beginning of the study. Having this two-pronged approach to
coding added structure to the coding process, which was essential especially when
multiple researchers were involved (Creswell, 2009), as was the case of this particular
study conducted by a thematic dissertation team of 12.
Step 4: Generating a Description and Themes for the Setting or People
In Creswell’s (2009) fourth step, coding was used to develop a detailed descrip-
tion of the setting and events, as well as to identify a relatively small number of catego-
ries and even fewer themes. These themes eventually transformed into the major find-
ings of this qualitative study because they were the big ideas that surfaced repeatedly
throughout the various data sources.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 108
Step 5: Representing Descriptions and Themes in the Qualitative Narrative
In Step 5, pieces of data and labels for groups of data pieces were transformed
into a narrative aimed at telling a comprehensive story about the people and setting
under study. This narrative was intended to paint a rich picture for the reader and
convey deep understanding of the people and setting.
Step 6: Interpreting Data
In the final step of Creswell’s (2009) data analysis process, data were interpreted
in order to give it meaning. In essence, it was the lessons learned or answering the
question of why these data mattered for the study.
Ethical Considerations
This research study was conducted by gaining information from people; there-
fore, the research has to be done in an ethical manner (Merriam, 1998). Two research
areas readily identified as having the potential to create an ethical dilemma are the
collection of data and the dissemination of findings (Merriam, 1998).
As a result, the researchers were trained and certified by the Collaborative IRB
Training Initiative (CITI). Through this certification, the researchers learned about the
responsibility to protect human subjects and agreed to do so when conducting research.
Furthermore, the researchers applied for and received approval from the IRB for the
interview protocols.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 109
Chapter 4
Results
This chapter provides an analysis of data from the current study. The aim of this
study was to understand what impact globalization and the resulting relationships
among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel have had on the development of 21st-century skills
and STEM education in Costa Rican K–12 schools. In addition, this study aimed to use
the acquired understanding to develop a framework for successful partnerships among
government, education, and industry for the improvement of social conditions, growth
of human capital, and growth of a knowledge-based and IDE.
Costa Rica has had an excellent education system for decades. During the past 2
decades, Costa Rica’s economy has evolved from a base of almost entirely banana and
coffee exports to one that thrives on ecotourism, the services industry such as HT call
centers, and technology exports. Costa Rica has become the fourth largest HT exporter
in the world based on HT exports as a percentage of total exports (Monge-González et
al., 2011). The national focus has been to become a knowledge- and innovation-based
economy and to base GDP growth on increases in productivity rather than availability
and use of human labor and capital factors (Monge-González & González-Alvarado
2007; Monge-González et al., 2011). The education system has been expected not only
to keep up with the economic changes but also to fuel them (CINDE, 2012; L. Garnier,
personal interviews, March and June 2013; Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007). Qualitative data for this study were collected from interviews with school site
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 110
Cleaders, education leaders, corporate leaders, and national leaders as well as teacher
surveys and classroom observations.
Responses to address each of the research questions are framed and elaborated
through triangulation of the interviews, classroom observations, and surveys. Data were
analyzed using four conceptual frameworks to address the research questions: (a)
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frames for leadership theory, (b) Spring’s (2008) perceptions
of globalization, (c) Wagner’s (2008) framework of 21st-century skills, and (d) the
framework for understanding STEM education developed by Capraro et al. (2013)
This chapter presents the findings from a qualitative method study comprised of
interviews, surveys, and observations to answer the research questions of the study.
Findings are reported in order by the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This chapter is organized by a providing a description of the participants. The
chapter will then present results for each research question with emerging themes; con-
nection of the theme to the literature; and supporting data from interviews, surveys, and
observations. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 111
Participants
The following leaders were interviewed for the study. Per IRB protocol, partici-
pants’ names were used: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Public Education; (b) Dr.
Alejandro Cruz, Minister of Science and Technology; (c) Nathalie Valencia, Director of
Costa Rica’s National Science Fairs; (d) Gabriela Llobet, Director General of CINDE;
(e) Patricia Chico, Director of Community Outreach for Intel Costa Rica; (f) Mary-
Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs and Outreach for Intel Costa Rica; (g)
Patricia Escalante, former Director of the Intel Teach the Future Program Costa Rica;
and (h) directors (principals) at seven school sites. Also, 171 teachers were surveyed
and 75 classroom observations were conducted to look for evidence of 21st-century
skills in STEM education.
This case study utilized data collected three primary schools, three technical
secondary schools, and one community secondary school, all with supplemental support
through various resources provided by Intel Costa Rica. School site data included an
interview with the director or subdirector, teacher surveys and classroom observations.
Data were also collected from interviews with Costa Rican national leaders, education
leaders, and corporate leaders.
Results: Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked: What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The aim of this research question was to explore the
different ways that Costa Rica has been impacted by globalization, ranging from
changes in the economy, to changes in skills needed to gain employment in new jobs
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 112
available, to shifts in what is valued. Three themes emerged in response to this
question. The first and predominant theme, as evidenced by virtually every interview
conducted, is that there has been a change in the economic base of the country and the
products and exports produced by the country. The second theme is that there has been
a change in the types of jobs available and skills required to meet the demands of the
evolving labor force. The third emerging theme was a shift to valuing STEM and 21st-
century skills for the future of Costa Rica, as Costa Rica evolves into a KBE.
In reviewing the literature, Costa Rica’s economic development and integration
into the world economy was marked by three major episodes, concluding with the
current state of developing a technology- and KBE (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). Until the early 1960s, Costa Rica’s economy revolved heavily around the
agricultural sector, which was critical in terms of employment, product contribution,
exports, and fiscal revenues (OECD, 2012). This concentration on a limited set of
primary agricultural commodities, mainly coffee and bananas, made the economy
vulnerable (OECD, 2012). Beginning in the 1960s, the country embarked on a state-led
industrialization program aimed at reducing its dependence on primary products. As
industry became a fresh source of growth, Costa Rica entered a long period of expansion
in the 1960s and 1970s, with annual GDP growth averaging 6% (OECD, 2012;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). To deal with the debt crisis in the late 1970s and early 1980s
that sent many Latin American countries into deep recession, Costa Rica adopted a
strategy that relied on FDI to increase its share of nontraditional exports (OECD, 2012).
Costa Rica’s economic base has changed dramatically over recent decades as a result of
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 113
the financial crisis of the 1980s (Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
As a result of targeted actions to attract FDI since the mid-1980s, Costa Rica
progressively shifted its export composition from primary products (e.g., coffee, ba-
nanas, and sugar) to HT manufacturing and services (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2012). The
arrival of Intel in the late 1990s helped Costa Rica to forge a reputation as a place for
investment. Since then, the country has managed to attract several world-class compa-
nies. First-mover companies have been upgrading their business activities by adding to
basic business services more knowledge-intensive activities, including software design
and research and development (OECD, 2012). In addition, the government has adopted
a more selective approach to FDI attraction, focusing on companies operating in more
knowledge-intensive sectors or innovation-related activities. This action has resulted in
the number of jobs in the knowledge sector growing by significant percentages on an
annual basis (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2012).
In 2006, Intel Costa Rica employed 2,900 direct workers. These jobs were 50%
better paid than traditional agro-industrial jobs and provided significantly safer and
higher quality working conditions (P. Chico, personal interview, June 26, 2013; World
Bank Group, 2006). Jobs created by FDI from MNCs, including Intel between 2000 and
2011, in advanced manufacturing increased from 4,500 to 15,590 (OECD, 2012). Jobs
created by MNCs between 2000 and 2011 in medical devices increased from 1,500 to
13,561 (OECD, 2012). The total number of jobs created by FDI rose from 7,758 in
2003–2005 to 34,385 in 2009–2011 (OECD, 2012). As a result of the increase in jobs
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 114
and productivity, in 2012 the “knowledge-intensive” sector of the Costa Rican economy
comprised 53.3% of national exports (CINDE, 2012).
The first theme that emerged is there has been a change in the economic base of
the country and the products and exports produced by the country. This theme is impor-
tant because changing the economic base of the country has far-ranging impacts includ-
ing the types of jobs available, the skills needed to gain employment, changes in eco-
nomic demographics within the country, and shifting of values. This theme was evident
not only from the data collection process but also from observations made while the
research team was in the country. There are industrial campuses such as at Intel, Cisco,
and Allergan, where thousands of Costa Ricans are employed. There is a shopping mall
that boasts numerous high-end European and American stores. When driving around
Costa Rica, one sees that there are a large number of American food chains and retail
companies such as Kentucky Fried Chicken and Walmart. There are a number of
expensive European cars on the roads alongside the more common older small pickup
trucks and sedans. There are also donations from MNCs to parks that mark the presence
of the MNC, such as the Cisco-donated fencing around a park in the center of San José
in the pattern of Cisco’s trademark.
During the interview process, leaders from government, education, and industry
all shared in different ways that there has been a shift in the economic base of the
country. Dr. Garnier, current Minister of Public Education for Costa Rica, who holds
doctorates in economics and philosophy, described the changes:
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 115
[Costa Rica has moved] from exporting coffee and sugar, to industrial products.
To be competitive, Costa Rica started to attract foreign investment. Costa Rica is
expensive compared to other Latin American countries, so we tried to attract
international investments that could pay higher wages either in more technologi-
cal sophisticated sectors. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Similarly, Gabriela Llobet, Director General for CINDE, stated:
We have been able to sophisticate and diversify the types of products that we
produce and the types of services that we provide from Costa Rica. In 1985 we
exported a high concentration of agro products, including banana, coffee, sugar,
and beef. We continue to produce those, but they represent a smaller percentage
of our market. We are very big on the electric and electronic industry, chemi-
cals, metalwork, medical devices, and industrial type of products . . . while at the
same time, preserving our environment. (personal interview, June 17, 2013)
The response summing up the changes to the base of the economy came from
former U.S. Peace Corps volunteer to Costa Rica and long-time Costa Rican resident,
Mary-Helen Bialas, the current Director of Educational Programs for Intel Costa Rica:
“We went from bananas, to banana chips, to computer chips” (personal interview,
June 18, 2013). She was indicating the shift from bananas as a primary export for Costa
Rica to a significant portion of the economy being HT exports, especially after the 1996
Intel investment.
The second emerging theme was a change in the types of jobs available and
skills required to meet the demands of the evolving labor force. This theme is important
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 116
because it required government planning to bring in MNCs to grow the economy in
targeted areas. Changing the types of jobs available and the skills required impacts what
skills students need to be taught in both K–12 and higher education. It impacts the
income differences between those earning high salaries and those at the bottom income
levels, which subsequently creates new challenges for a country that values equality.
In driving around the San José area presently, one can see numerous American restau-
rants, stores, hotel chains, and MNCs such as Intel, Cisco, and HP, compared to 10 years
ago to the same areas when many of these businesses were not visible.
During the interview process, leaders from government, education, and industry
all asserted that the types of jobs and the skills required to obtain those jobs had changed
as a result of globalization. Dr. Garnier shared during his interview, “In the 1920s, 75%
of the workforce had jobs directly related to agriculture; now it is less than 10%”
(June 24, 2013).
Gabriela Llobet noted:
In the last 30 years, the export of high-tech goods and services has increased,
exports reaching nearly 40% of our GDP. They account for most of the eco-
nomic growth in the last years of Costa Rica and the main job generator. (per-
sonal interview, June 17, 2013)
During her interview, Mary-Helen Bialas commented on the contribution that
Intel has made since 1996: “We [Intel] have brought in higher paid workforce opportu-
nities at the technician level, the operation level, and the engineering level” (June 18,
2013).
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 117
The school leader at Don Bosco technical high school commented on what is
occurring at his school site in terms of preparing students with the new skills that they
will need to be competitive in the knowledge based global economy:
In order to prepare our students for a 21st-century work force, we must have a
shift in our traditional paradigm. We tell our kids that we are going from the age
of just knowing to know how to do and how to be. These three components are
essential in our teaching because the knowledge aspect is the bag of tools they
carry, in the knowing how to do is where their skills come into play, and the how
to be is the human values part. I am not an island all to myself; I have to relate
and interact with others, and I have to know how to work in teams. (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel Teach the Future program for Costa
Rica, discussed how the changes to the jobs available have affected her children.
During her interview, she told the research team that she has three children, two who are
engineers and one who is a microbiologist. Mrs. Escalante said that there are many
more job opportunities for her children than there were when she was their age. Prior to
the different MNCs investing as a result of globalization, engineering students only had
the option of working for one of the state owned companies. Now young people have
the option of working for companies such as Intel, HP, or a number of other companies.
The third emerging theme was a shift to valuing STEM and 21st-century skills for the
future of Costa Rica, as Costa Rica evolves into a KBE. One of the most difficult things
to change is beliefs or values. Valuing STEM and 21st-century skills is important
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 118
because these are necessary for Costa Rica to be competitive in the global KBE and to
support Costa Rica in becoming an innovation-based economy. The tremendous shift to
valuing STEM and 21st-century skills was evidenced by surveys, observations, and
interviews.
Of the 171 teachers surveyed, 93% agreed or strongly agreed that STEM educa-
tion is important to the economic future of Costa Rica. At every school site, it was
observed that technology was being used as an instructional tool. In some schools there
were computer and robotics labs; in other schools, one-on-one programs. The main
point is that teachers and school sites were not having computers for a computer class
per se, but rather utilizing the computers for instructional purposes across the disciplin-
ary areas. In addition, in the classrooms at each school site observed, 21st-century skills
were visibly being taught. During the interview process, leaders asserted the importance
of STEM and 21st-century skills.
Costa Rica’s education system is currently led by Dr. Leonardo Garnier. He
described during his interview that, in his two terms as Minister of Public Education, he
has added logic into the Spanish curriculum to improve critical thinking ability, a 21st-
century skill. Dr. Garnier has revamped the national mathematics curriculum, adopting
a PBL approach, and has mandated that every school in Costa Rica hold a science fair.
His actions in implementing these curricula and policies support 21st-century and
STEM skills for all students in Costa Rica. Dr. Garnier stated:
The main objective of education has been to have obedient kids—kids who
know how to follow instructions . . . well behaved. We’ve been trying to change
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 119
this mentality. We smuggled a logics course into the Spanish curriculum. So
from seventh to 11th grade, you would go from understanding language, natural
cultural arguments, valid, invalid, fallacies all the way to p then q. The Spanish
teachers were very scared when they heard what seemed like equations. The
point is that if you don’t understand logic, you cannot have critical thought. It’s
been very interesting. We’ve had 4 years of now trying to do that. We’ll have to
wait 4–5 more years to see if the students who enter universities have a better
ability to confront arguments, to read the papers, and to listen to the news and
advertisements to be able to decide if it is logical or not. So that’s one example.
(personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Dr. Garnier also mentioned specific connections to Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills
of agility, adaptability, initiative, and entrepreneurialism, commenting that through
these skills and an increased interest in STEM, students will be increasingly competitive
in the global KBE:
How does society work, and how do you solve bigger problems? Project-based
education with innovation by students and of course the teachers. We’ve been
trying to improve their ability to relate to each other, to solve problems, to enjoy
life, to learn to live together, to gain the soft skills [21st-century skills]. Now
more kids want to be engineers and biologists, science-oriented jobs and
service-oriented jobs. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 120
Results: Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The aim of this research
question was to understand what, if any, changes have occurred in Costa Rica’s schools
with respect to pedagogy, curriculum, the use of technology, and the impact of MNCs
on school sites. Three themes emerged in response to this question. The first theme
was that the focus at K–12 schools has changed to promote 21st-century skills. The
second theme was that technology is widely available and actively used in schools and
individual classrooms. The third emergent theme was that the relationship with Intel
has had a positive impact on the schools related to STEM education, especially in the
area of technology as an instructional tool.
Literature indicates the development of Costa Rica’s education system over
time. In 1949 José Figueres Ferrer abolished the army and the constitution was rewrit-
ten, shifting a significant percentage of the GDP to fund the public education system.
Costa Rica has since developed an education system ranked 20th in the world, boasting
a 96.2% literacy rate (Booth, 2008; CINDE, 2013). The 1980s were worse than a so-
called “lost decade,” with high school enrollment rates falling significantly and recover-
ing only by the end of the 1990s (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, exemplifying
Costa Rica’s commitment to education, there was an initiative during the 1980s of
installing computer laboratories in elementary school classrooms as tools to aid in the
general learning process; this addition contributed to development of a technology- and
knowledge-based economy (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Since that time, Costa Rica has
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 121
annually increased the percentage of GDP spent on public education. In 2010 Costa
Rica had a population of 4.56 million and spent 7.2% of its GDP on education (OECD,
2012). In an interesting contrast, Finland spent 6.8% of its GDP on education in 2010
and the United States spent 5.6% of its 2010 GDP on education (The World Bank,
2013).
According to the 2011 Estado de la Educacion report (CONARE, 2013), Costa
Rica has seen positive changes in the education system in the past couple of years.
Secondary school and university attendance has increased, and dropout rates have
decreased. The Costa Rican MEP has worked to increase secondary school attendance
and graduation rates by implementing programs at elementary and secondary schools
aimed at improving teacher training, developing a new national mathematics curricu-
lum, teaching students logic through the Spanish curriculum, and deploying mobile
computer laboratories to schools in rural areas (L. Garnier, personal interview, June 24,
2013; World Bank Group, 2006). In addition, partnerships between the schools in Costa
Rica and HT-MNCs such as Intel were formed to support national and corporate goals
for developing 21st-century-skilled students capable of competing in the diverse global
KBE (World Bank Group, 2006).
CINDE (2013) published an education outlook highlighting that Costa Rica now
has 128 technical high schools with 77,000 students enrolled. The 60 universities (five
public and 55 private) graduated 44,575 students in 2012. Universities have shown an
8.8% annual growth in graduates per year since 2008, including 5.4% in engineering
programs and 7.9% in software and informatics.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 122
The first theme was that the focus at K–12 schools has changed to promote
21st-century skills. This finding is important because students in every country must be
able to compete in the global KBE. In order to do so, they must be equipped with the
necessary skills, particularly 21st-century skills. Costa Rica has been working from the
top level of the Minister of Public Education to the individual classroom to ensure that
students have 21st-century skills.
Survey results from 171 teachers reflected the teachers’ positions on 21st-
century skills: (a) 78% agreed or strongly agreed that “the focus of education has
changed at your school site to incorporate 21st-century learning”; (b) 75% agreed or
strongly agreed that “teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills such
as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication”; (c) 80% agreed or strongly
agreed that “collaboration among students takes place daily”; and (d) 75% agreed or
strongly agreed that “students are college and/or career ready with 21st-century skills.”
Figure 1 reflects these findings.
This theme was substantiated by observations of 57 classrooms. The responses
by observers showed that (a) 85% agreed or strongly agreed that “student desks are
arranged in a collaborative manner”; (b) 75% agreed or strongly agreed that “collabora-
tion among students takes place in the classroom”; (c) 74% agreed or strongly agreed
that “lessons promote higher level thinking”; and (d) 70% agreed or strongly agreed that
“curriculum reflects 21st- century skills.” Figure 2 reflects these findings.
The second theme that emerged in relation to the second research question was
that technology is widely available and actively used in schools and individual
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 123
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 124
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 125
classrooms. This factor is important because the ability to utilize technology is a critical
skill for gaining employment in Costa Rica, as the country continues to expand in the
knowledge- and innovation-based sectors.
According to the 171 teacher survey results, teachers agreed that there is evi-
dence of STEM, mainly technology, in their curriculum; also, 85% agreed or strongly
agreed that “technology is used in the classroom”; and 75% agreed or strongly agreed
that “there is access to technology in the classroom.” During the observations in 57
classrooms, the researchers found that technology was available at the school site in the
form of computer labs and/or computers in the classrooms. As researchers walked
through the classrooms, there was evidence of STEM, predominantly in the area of
technology. The researchers saw students actively using technology for innovation and
real-life applications, such as at Don Bosco, where the high school students refurbished
donated computers from Intel and Cisco and then donated those computers to local
primary schools.
The third emergent theme was that relationship with Intel has had a positive
impact on the schools related to STEM education, especially in the area of technology as
an instructional tool. This finding was important because it shows not only is Intel is
advertising involvement and support of schools but also that there is a substantial and
appreciated impact.
According to the 171 teacher survey results, the teachers agreed that the partner-
ship with Intel has had significant impact in the area of STEM, especially in the area of
technology; 72% agreed or strongly agreed that “Intel has positively impacted the school
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 126
ite,” and 71% agreed or strongly agreed that “Intel has improved resources at the school
site.” Ronny Morales Guabamus, director of Fidel Chavez Murillo, a one-on-one
primary school in the San José, commented that the program, Intel: Educate the Future,
in which the staff at his school participated, was of great value. He indicated that the
program was beneficial in terms of informing the school site how to use technology as
an instructional tool and that the program was good in that it taught the school how to
make the most of the resources it had, rather than just providing resources and not
teaching self-sufficiency.
During school tours, the site directors showcased their computer labs and had
students demonstrate the robotics and engineering projects in which they were involved.
It was clear that the technology labs are a source of pride at the schools. The researchers
were informed by site leaders that Intel had donated combinations of technology,
teacher training on the use of technology, and administrator training on the use of tech-
nology as tools for student innovation and learning.
Results: Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted by
policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? The
aim of the question was to understand whether there have been any changes in the way
leadership functions and if any policy changes with respect to education have resulted
from globalization. The first and predominant theme was that leadership for policy and
change has become a shared endeavor. The second theme related to this question was
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 127
that administrators have made incorporating 21st-century skills and the use of technol-
ogy a focus at their school sites.
According to the literature, to increase 21st-century skills and STEM as part of a
corporate vision for social responsibility, Intel has worked collaboratively with the MEP
and CINDE to develop programs at schools and universities in Costa Rica. Intel has
invested $2,500,000 in elementary and secondary schools and in universities in the form
of electronics and English language laboratories (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; World Bank, 2006). Intel supports long-term investment by beginning
early in primary school STEM education (M.-H. Bialas, personal interview, June 18,
2013). Examples include the Intel Innovation in Education program, which has donated
microprocessors valued at more than 1.1 million USD to modernize laboratories in
schools for teaching technology and engineering. The Intel Educate for the Future
program trained 9,000 primary and middle school teachers in the use of technology as a
learning tool (P. Escalante, personal interview, June 21, 2013). The Students as Scien-
tists program promotes scientific research in schools and was launched in coordination
with the MEP, the MICITT, and the National Program of Technology Fairs. The latter
program was designed to train 2,000 teachers to raise students’ interest in the sciences
and places an overall emphasis on 21st-century skills (M.-H. Bialas, personal interview,
June 18, 2013; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; World Bank, 2006).
The first and predominant theme was that leadership for policy and change has
become a shared endeavor. Policy changes have taken place due to synergistic relation-
ships among the MEP, CINDE and Intel. These changes have influenced increases in
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 128
STEM and 21st-century skills that support Costa Rica’s goal of moving toward a KBE.
According to the 171 teachers surveyed, there was significant recognition of the MEP
for support of STEM studies; 71% agreed or strongly agreed that “educational policy
decisions are influenced by MNCs.”
Ronny Morales Guabamus, director of Fidel Chavez Murillo, a one-on-one
primary school in the San José area, commented that
they [the MNCs] have been able to coordinate with the government . . . in order
to operate . . . the alliances of [the] government with companies to generate work
. . . not for the benefit of someone close to the government but to the community
. . . the opening of Intel, the opening including Firestone . . . is to recruit national
[Costa Rican] staff. (personal interview, June 19, 2013)
Additional evidence of synergistic relationships among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel is
the implementation of national education policies with respect to STEM. For example,
every school in Costa Rica is now required to hold a science fair. According to Patricia
Chico, Costa Rican native and Director of Community Outreach for Intel Costa Rica
(personal interview, June 19, 2013), participation in the science and technology fairs has
risen from less than 0.03% to more than 60% nationally since Intel’s 1996 investment in
Costa Rica. Christian Jimenez, Sub-Director at Don Bosco Technical High School,
commented that MNCs’ influence has been extensive in having the capacity to influence
investment in education:
The impact of the MNCs has a great weight on how the political level unfolds
since the arrival of Intel; and from the time they establish, they have a great
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 129
economic impact at the national level. The arrival of these MNCs demands
certain elements from the government; and to keep them here, we must be able
to supply them with these elements. That is why the Ministry of Education and
Science and Technology have been spending greater amounts of money in order
to better the Costa Rican education system. To me, this is the greatest impact
that has unfolded as a result of the arrival and leadership of the MNCs like Intel.
(personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Nathalie Valencia, Director of the National Science Fair program (personal
interview, June 20, 2013) explained that there has been a significant increase in interest
in the science fairs. Students who win the National Science Fair award in Costa Rica go
on to compete for Costa Rica in the Intel International Science Fair. Teachers of those
students also travel to the International Science Fair and participate in teacher profes-
sional development on 21st-century learning, inquiry-based instruction, and use of tech-
nology as an instructional tool. Both Valencia and Llobet of CINDE expressed that the
science fair program has become a source of national pride, as it provides a platform for
the young, innovative talent of the country to be showcased internationally.
The second theme related to this question was that administrators have made
incorporating 21st-century skills and the use of technology a focus at their school sites.
They hold teachers at their sites accountable for implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom. Of the 171 teachers who were surveyed, 78% agreed or strongly agreed
that the focus at the school site had changed to incorporate 21st-century skills; 77%
agreed or strongly agreed that school leaders are active participants in implementation
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 130
of 21st-century skills; 77% agreed or strongly agreed that teachers are held accountable
to implement 21st-century skills in the classroom; and 75% agreed or strongly agreed
that teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication. Figure 3 reflects these findings.
Summary
Findings gathered in this study indicated that the government of Costa Rica, the
MEP, CINDE, and Intel all share a vision of Costa Rica continuing to evolve into a
knowledge-based and IDE. This shared vision has enabled synergistic relationships. As
a result of the shared vision and collaboration by leading entities, many positive out-
comes are visible in the schools that were studied for this project. The data suggested
the following findings related to the three research questions:
1. The first research question asked: What results of globalization and the
presence of MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The first and predominant theme, as evi-
denced by virtually every interview conducted, is there has been a change in the eco-
nomic base of the country as well as the products and exports produced by the country.
The second theme is there has been a change in the types of jobs available and skills
required to meet the demands of the evolving labor force. The third emerging theme
was a shift to valuing STEM and 21st-century skills for the future of Costa Rica, as
Costa Rica evolves into a KBE.
2. The second research question asked: What results of globalization and the
presence of MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Three themes
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 131
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 132
emerged in response to this question. The first theme was that the focus at K–12 schools
has changed to promote 21st-century skills. The second theme was that technology is
widely available and actively used in schools and individual classrooms. The third
emergent theme was that relationship with Intel has had a positive impact on the schools
related to STEM education, especially in the area of technology as an instructional tool.
3. The third research question asked: How has educational leadership been
impacted by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs? The aim of the question was to understand whether there have been any
changes in the way leadership functions and whether any policy changes with respect to
education have resulted from globalization. The first and predominant theme was that
leadership for policy and change has become a shared endeavor. The second theme
related to this question was that administrators have made incorporating 21st-century
skills and the use of technology a focus at their school sites.
Chapter 5 follows with a summary of the research study, including conclusions,
implications, and suggestions for further research.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 133
Chapter 5
Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions
Globalization is a term devised by economist Theodore Levitt (Spring, 2008) in
the 1980s to describe the changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and
investments that, in turn, affect larger segments of the world’s population. Globaliza-
tion has a direct impact on cultural, economic, geopolitical, and social changes, of
which schooling is a part (Spring, 2008). Globalization has created new and complex
issues for countries trying to create or maintain economic stability. According to former
chairman of the Gallup poll, Jim Clifton (2011), more and more often, global leaders
ask Gallup the question, ‘Does anyone know for sure what the whole world is think-
ing?” (p. 7). A recent worldwide Gallup poll indicated that the thing people around the
world wanted was a good job. Clifton defined a good job, or formal job, as one with a
paycheck from an employer and steady work that averages a minimum of 30 hours per
week.
There is a global shortfall of about 1.8 billion good jobs. This fact means that
global unemployment for those who are seeking a formal job approaches 50%, with
another 10% wanting part-time work. As a result, potential societal stress and instabil-
ity may affect 1.8 billion people globally. If countries fail to create jobs, their societies
will fall apart. Countries, specifically cities, will experience suffering, instability,
chaos, and eventual revolution (Clifton, 2011). This factor is relevant to every country
when planning economic and education growth programs.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 134
Job growth and growth of the GDP are dependent on innovation and the quality
of national education systems (Clifton, 2011; Wagner, 2008; Wessner & Wolff, 2012).
In order for nations to be globally competitive and offer formal jobs that create stability
and reduce poverty and unemployment-underemployment, schools in each nation must
produce students who are equipped with 21st-century skills and capable of competing in
the diverse, knowledge-based global economy. Each nation needs a world-class educa-
tion system with a global perspective serving as a framework for growth (Wagner,
2008).
This chapter provides an introduction that includes a statement of the problem,
purpose of the study, research questions, literature review summarized, methodology
and sources of data, followed a discussion of the three research questions, and conclu-
sions. In closing, implications and recommendations for future study will be detailed.
Summary
Statement of the Problem
Educational leaders face the challenges of understanding constantly evolving
global demands, the need for matching shifts in education policy, and the need to
develop strategic methodology that can be used to create sustainable transformations in
educational systems. There is an increasingly prominent role for public-private partner-
ship in which industry, academia, and government pool resources to improve education
systems and accelerate the emergence of new technologies into the marketplace
(Wessner & Wolff, 2012). Public school superintendents and university presidents must
think beyond core curricula and graduation rates.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 135
Students around the globe want more than merely to graduate; they want an
education that results in a good job, and the greatest job growth is in innovation-based
industry (Clifton, 2011; Langdon et al., 2011). Virtually every key trading partner with
the United States has declared innovation to be central to increasing productivity,
economic growth, and living standards. Paramount to that effort is investment in educa-
tion to provide the skills upon which an innovation-led economy is based (Wessner &
Wolff, 2012).
The effects of globalization on education have become increasingly apparent as
nations recognize that students require the skills and knowledge to help a country to
attain a competitive edge in a knowledge-based global economy (Wagner, 2008). These
skills and knowledge are a form of capital and become the most distinctive component
of a country’s economic system (Schultz, 1961).
It is globally recognized that job and industry growth is greatest in the STEM
fields. A U.S. policy brief asserted that “the greatest advancements in our society from
medicine to mechanics have come from the minds of those interested in or studied in the
areas of STEM” (Langdon et al., 2011, p. 6). In the United States, for example, STEM
occupations are projected to grow by 17% between 2008 and 2018. STEM workers
command 26% higher wages than their non-STEM counterparts; they have a lower rate
of unemployment-underemployment; and they enjoy higher earnings regardless of
whether they work in STEM or non-STEM occupations (Langdon et al., 2011).
This study looked at primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. Costa Rica
has had an excellent education system for decades. However, during the past 2 decades,
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 136
Costa Rica’s economy has evolved from a base of almost entirely banana and coffee
exports to one that thrives on ecotourism, the services industry such as HT call centers,
and technology exports. The education system has been expected not only to keep up
with the economic changes but also to fuel them (CINDE, 2012; L. Garnier, personal
interviews, March and June 2013; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Investment by Intel in 1996 provided a signaling effect to other MNCs that Costa
Rica is a prime location for investment. Nearly 63% of the companies that invested in
Costa Rica have done so in the past 15 years, largely after the Intel investment (OECD,
2012; World Bank Group, 2006). As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and
university systems’ responsibility for developing STEM curricula focused on inquiry-
based 21st-century skills in students has become increasingly challenging (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Currently in Costa
Rica, which boasts an education system that is recognized as one of the best in Latin
America, education leaders, the government, and industry leaders are working in concert
to cultivate 21st-century skills in their students and are developing a strong interest in
STEM to develop a highly competitive workforce for the knowledge-based global
economy (CINDE, 2012; A. Cruz, Rica, personal interview, June 27, 2013; OECD,
2012; World Bank Group, 2006).
Purpose of Study Restated
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica. The research team was also
interested in understanding the relationships among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel and the
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 137
impact of the development of STEM education and 21st-century skills on K–12 schools
in Costa Rica. Three research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Summary of Literature Review
Development of the economy. Costa Rica’s economic development and inte-
gration into the world economy is marked by three major episodes, concluding with the
current state of developing a technology- and KBE (Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). Until the early 1960s, Costa Rica’s economy revolved heavily around the
agricultural sector, which was critical in terms of employment, product contribution,
exports, and fiscal revenues (OECD, 2012). This concentration on a limited set of
primary agricultural commodities, mainly coffee and bananas, made the economy
vulnerable (OECD, 2012). Beginning in the 1960s, the country embarked on a state-led
industrialization program aimed at reducing its dependence on primary products. As
industry became a fresh source of growth, Costa Rica entered a long period of expansion
in the 1960s and 1970s, with annual GDP growth averaging 6% (OECD, 2012;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). To deal with the debt crisis in the late 1970s and early 1980s
that sent many Latin American countries into deep recession, Costa Rica adopted a
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 138
strategy that relied on FDI to increase its share of nontraditional exports (OECD, 2012).
Costa Rica’s economic base has changed dramatically over recent decades as a result of
the financial crisis of the 1980s (Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
As a result of targeted actions to attract FDI since the mid-1980s, Costa Rica
progressively shifted its export composition from primary products (e.g., coffee,
bananas, and sugar) to HT manufacturing and services (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2012).
The arrival of Intel in the late 1990s helped Costa Rica to forge a reputation as a place
for investment. Since then, the country has managed to attract several world-class
companies. First-mover companies have been upgrading their business activities by
adding to basic business services more knowledge-intensive activities, including soft-
ware design and research and development (OECD, 2012). In addition, the government
has adopted a more selective approach to FDI attraction, focusing on companies operat-
ing in more knowledge-intensive sectors or innovation-related activities. This action
has resulted in the number of jobs in the knowledge sector growing by significant per-
centages on an annual basis (CINDE, 2012; OECD, 2012).
In 2006, Intel Costa Rica employed 2,900 direct workers. These jobs were 50%
better paid than traditional agro-industrial jobs and provided significantly safer and
higher quality working conditions (P. Chico, Director of Community Outreach, Intel
Costa Rica, personal interview, June 2013; World Bank Group, 2006). Jobs created by
FDI from MNCs in advanced manufacturing, including Intel between 2000 and 2011,
increased from 4,500 to 15,590 (OECD, 2012). Jobs created by MNCs in medical
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 139
devices between 2000 and 2011 increased from 1,500 to 13,561 (OECD, 2012). The
total number of jobs created by FDI rose from 7,758 in 2003-2005 to 34,385 in 2009–
2011 (OECD, 2012). As a result of the increase in jobs and productivity, in 2012 the
knowledge-intensive sector of the Costa Rican economy comprised 53.3% of national
exports (CINDE, 2012).
Growth of the education system. In 1949 José Figueres Ferrer abolished the
army and the constitution was rewritten, shifting a significant percentage of the GDP to
fund the public education system. Costa Rica has since developed an education system
ranked 20th in the world, boasting a 96.2% literacy rate (Booth, 2008; CINDE, 2013).
The 1980s were worse than a so-called lost decade, with high school enrollment rates
falling significantly and recovering only by the end of the 1990s (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). However, exemplifying Costa Rica's commitment to education, there was an
initiative during the 1980s of installing computer laboratories in elementary school
classrooms as tools to aid in the general learning process; this addition contributed to
development of a technology- and KBE (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Since that time,
Costa Rica has annually increased the percentage of GDP spent on public education. In
2010 Costa Rica had a population of 4.56 million and spent 7.2% of its GDP on educa-
tion (OECD, 2012). In an interesting contrast, Finland spent 6.8% of its GDP on educa-
tion in 2010 and the United States spent 5.6% of its 2010 GDP on education (The World
Bank, 2013).
According to the 2011 Estado de la Educacion report (CONARE 2013), Costa
Rica has seen positive changes in the education system in the past couple of years.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 140
Secondary school and university attendance has increased and dropout rates have de-
creased. The Costa Rican MEP has worked to increase secondary school attendance and
graduation rates by implementing programs at elementary and secondary schools aimed
at improving teacher training, developing a new national mathematics curriculum,
teaching students logic through the Spanish curriculum, and deploying mobile computer
laboratories to schools in rural areas (L. Garnier, personal interview, June 24, 2013;
World Bank Group, 2006). In addition, partnerships between the schools in Costa Rica
and HT-MNCs such as Intel were formed to support national and corporate goals for
developing 21st-century-skilled students capable of competing in the diverse global
KBE (World Bank Group, 2006).
CINDE (2013) published an education outlook highlighting that Costa Rica now
has 128 technical high schools with 77,000 students enrolled. The 60 universities (five
public and 55 private) graduated 44,575 students in 2012. Universities have shown an
8.8% annual growth in graduates per year since 2008, including 5.4% in engineering
programs and 7.9% in software and informatics.
Education partnership with Intel. To increase 21st-century skills and STEM
as part of a corporate vision for social responsibility, Intel has worked collaboratively
with the MEP and CINDE to develop programs at schools and universities in Costa
Rica. Intel supports long-term investment by beginning early in primary school STEM
education (M.-H. Bialas, personal interviews, March and June 2013). Examples include
the Intel Educar para el Futuro (Intel® TEACH to the Future), which has donated
microprocessors valued at more than $1.1 million to modernize laboratories in schools
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 141
for teaching technology and engineering. The TEACH to the Future program trained
49,000 primary and middle school teachers in the use of technology as a learning tool
from 2001 to 2012 (M.-H. Bialas, personal interview, March and June 2013; P. Esca-
lante, personal interview, June 2013). The "Students as Scientists" program was
launched in 2004 as a 40 hour professional development course for teachers. This
program, which trained over 6,00 teachers between 2004 and 2011, promotes scientific
research in schools and was launched in coordination with the MEP, the Ministry of and
Science and Technology, and the National Program of Technology Fairs. This last
program was designed to train 2,000 teachers to raise students' interest in the sciences
and places an overall emphasis on 21st-century skills (M.-H. Bialas, personal interview,
June 18, 2013; Rodríguez- Clare, 2001; World Bank, 2006).
Theoretical Framework
The work of Bolman and Deal (2003) served as the framework for analyzing
Costa Rican leadership moving the country toward a KBE. Organizational theory, such
as the work of Bolman and Deal (2011), presents a multiframe model comprised of four
frames: (a) structural, (b) human resource, (c) political, and (d) symbolic. All four
frames contain features that are utilized in representation and approaches to attaining
goals within organizations. These frames are clearly visible in the programs that can be
found in the successful partnerships of the MEP, CINDE, and Intel Costa Rica.
The work of Wagner (2008) served as the framework for understanding the
growth of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican teaching and learning. Wagner described
21st-century skills as a blend of content knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 142
literacies. The American organization P21 (2012) described the need for 21st-century
skills as follows: “Nations [should] attract growth industries and create jobs. . . . We
need to recognize that a 21st-century education is the bedrock of competitiveness—the
engine, not simply an input, of the economy” (p. 1). When schools and school districts
engage in these 21st-century skills, students are much more prepared to thrive in the
new global knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008).
The work of Capraro et al. (2013) acted as the framework for understanding
STEM education. STEM PBL is a defined task with a well-defined outcome, situated
within a contextually rich task requiring students to solve several problems that, when
considered in their entirety, showcase student mastery of several concepts of STEM
subjects. PBL is the use of a project that often results in the emergence of various
learning outcomes in addition to the ones that were anticipated. The learning is dy-
namic as students use various processes and methods to explore the project. The project
is generally information rich, but directions are kept to a minimum. The richness of the
information is often directly related to the quality of the learning and level of student
engagement. The information is often multifaceted and includes background informa-
tion, graphs, pictures, specifications, generalized and specific outcome expectations,
narrative, and in many cases formative and summative expectations. STEM PBL is
relevant due to real-world connections and association with facilitating student develop-
ment of a personal connection to the project and fosters buy-in for solving individual
problems presented in the project.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 143
The work of Spring (2008) provided the framework for understanding the
globalization of education. Spring asserted that globalization of education refers to the
worldwide discussion, processes, and institutions affecting local educational policies
and practices. He posited that events are happening on a global scale and affecting
school systems in nations around the world. He suggested an image of global educa-
tional policies and practices existing in a superstructure above national and local
schools. These systems are all in constant dynamic interaction; global ideas about
school practices interact with local school systems while, through mutual interaction,
both global and local policies are changed.
Today, many nations adopt policies from this global superstructure in order to
compete in the global economy. The superstructure is comprised of international
organizations that directly and indirectly influence national school systems. Illustrative
of major global institutions affecting worldwide educational policies and practices are
the World Bank Group; OECD; the WTO World Trade Organization and its GATT; the
UN; UNESCO; and other organizations related to human rights, environmental rights,
and women’s rights.
Methodology, Data, and Sources of Evidence
This qualitative study utilized interviews, surveys, and observations for data
collection. The study examined three primary schools, three technical secondary
schools, and one community secondary school, all with supplemental support through
various resources provided by Intel Costa Rica. The following leaders were interviewed
for the study: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Public Education; (b) Dr. Alejandro
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 144
Cruz, Minister of Science and Technology; (c) Nathalie Valencia, Director of Costa
Rica’s National Science Fairs; (d) Gabriela Llobet, Director General of CINDE; (e)
Patricia Chico, Director of Community Outreach for Intel Costa Rica; (f) Mary-Helen
Bialas, Director of Educational Programs and Outreach for Intel Costa Rica; (g) Patricia
Escalante, former Director of the Intel Teach the Future Program Costa Rica; and (h)
directors (principals) at seven individual school sites. Also, 171 teachers were surveyed
and 75 classroom observations were conducted to look for evidence of 21st-century
skills and STEM.
Discussion of Findings
In the discussion below, key findings from data presented in Chapter 4 are dis-
cussed in order.
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The first and predominant theme, as evidenced by
virtually every interview conducted, is that there has been a change in the economic
base of the country and the products and exports produced by the country. The second
theme is that there has been a change in the types of jobs available and skills required to
meet the demands of the evolving labor force. The third emerging theme was a shift to
valuing STEM and 21st-century skills for the future of Costa Rica, as the country
evolves into a KBE.
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Three themes emerged in
response to this question. The first theme was that the focus at K–12 schools has
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 145
changed to promote 21st-century skills. The second theme was that technology is
widely available and actively used in schools and individual classrooms. The third
emergent theme was that the relationship with Intel has had a positive impact on the
schools related to STEM education, especially in the area of technology as an instruc-
tional tool.
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The aim of the question was to understand whether there have been any changes in the
way that leadership functions and whether any policy changes with respect to education
have resulted from globalization. The first and predominant theme was that leadership
for policy and change has become a shared endeavor. The second theme related to this
question was that administrators have made incorporating 21st-century skills and the use
of technology a focus at their school sites.
Implications for Educational Leaders and Policy Makers
This study looked at the impact of globalization and the resulting relationships
among the MEP, CINDE, and Intel on the development of 21st-century skills and
STEM education in Costa Rican K–12 schools. This study provides evidence that all
children can learn, irrespective of ethnicity, primary language, SES, or educational level
of parents. If schools provide appropriate educational opportunities, students can accel-
erate in STEM subjects and master the necessary 21st-century skills to be successful in a
global KBE. This study is relevant to American education, political, and industry
leaders as it highlights that partnerships among government, education, and business can
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 146
be synergistic. These partnerships can increase the number of formal jobs, increase
socioeconomic stability, and increase growth in the national economy.
Future Research
We are in the process of coordinating two future studies. The first will take
place in Costa Rica and focus on the role of the National Science and Engineering Fairs
as a vehicle for stimulating interest and skill in STEM and innovation. The second will
take place in Ireland and again examine the role of Intel in the schools and the relation-
ships among the government, education, and business leaders as Ireland works toward
becoming a knowledge-based and IDE. It would also be relevant to study comparable
schools without partnerships with Intel to make the results of the studies more general-
izable.
Conclusions
The government of Costa Rica, the MEP, CINDE, and Intel all share a vision of
Costa Rica as continuing to evolve into a KBE. This shared vision has enabled syner-
gistic relationships that may serve as a model for another small country, state, or city.
The relationships are displayed in Figure 4. The model graphically displays the Costa
Rican government and its goals, the key organizations in Costa Rica supporting the
government’s main goals, and the role that Intel has played. In the first column is the
Costa Rican government, specifically the president. A key goal of the government is to
guide Costa Rica’s movement to a knowledge-based and IDE. There are key support
organizations that are working to support that goal. These organizations can be analo-
gous to the tribal leaders described by Clifton (2011 p. 68). Tribal leaders are often
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 147
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 148
unelected individuals who care very much about the success of their city. These leaders
act for the love of the city and those who live there, and care about the success of the
whole community (Clifton, 2011).
The first support organization is CAATEC. This organization does the research
and studies that are published, predominantly by Dr. Ricardo Monge-González, to
inform the Costa Rican government of the current issues that must be addressed with
respect to education, infrastructure, and policy changes that must occur to shift Costa
Rica toward a knowledge-based and IDE.
The second key organization is CINDE. CINDE is a private, nonprofit, and
apolitical organization that attracts FDI to Costa Rica. While the agency is not a part of
the government, the strategies of CINDE are to attract FDI that supports the movement
of Costa Rica toward a knowledge-based and IDE by attracting companies in HT and
biotech, such as Intel, Baxter, and Allergan. The FDI supports the economy currently,
and in the long term, the country benefits from the knowledge spillover that happens
over time from MNCs to local industry development.
The third agency is the MICITT, which supports the growth of HT and STEM
industry in the country, develops and supports programs to transition Costa Ricans from
school to jobs in HT industry, and creates and supports programs within the K–12
system to increase talent and interest in HT and STEM. The MICIT collaborates with
other agencies such as the MEP and CONARE on initiatives, HT and biotech MNCs
currently invested in Costa Rica, and government business development agencies.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 149
The fourth key agencies are the MEP, which oversees the public K–12 system
for Costa Rica, and CONARE, the higher education organization comprised of the
heads of the universities. Both the MEP and CONARE act to develop and implement
programs to enable Costa Rican children from the K–12 and the university system to
compete in the global KBE and to have the skills that become the human capital for the
country as it moves toward a knowledge-based and IDE. A key defining commonality
among all supporting agencies was that during interviews it was continually said that
they were working to support equality and opportunity for all Costa Ricans and a knowl-
edgeable society that would preserve the environment, not just the development of
skilled human capital and Costa Rica’s economic growth.
Intel is in the third column in Figure 4. It seems that Intel’s goals are on a
corporate level, very similar to the goals set forth by Costa Rica’s government and
supported by leading agencies. Intel is a global HT leader. Their continued success as a
company is dependent on their ability to innovate and produce. Intel understands that
tomorrow’s labor force is in school today and that in order to be successful in Costa
Rica, there must be a steady stream of highly skilled human capital, particularly in the
STEM and HT areas. Intel partnered with the MEP and has invested in the Costa Rican
education system beginning with the primary grades. The corporation has programs to
encourage interest and talent in the sciences through secondary school and development
programs in cooperation with local universities to develop students with specific skill
sets needed by the company.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 150
What makes the system work seems to be that all three groups—the government,
the supporting agencies, and Intel—want to have generations capable of innovation and
competition in the global KBE. There seems to be, then, a shared vision. As such, it
seems that each entity respectfully works in collaboration with other entities to contrib-
ute to this shared vision. As a result, there appear to be very supportive and symbiotic
relationships among all entities. These relationships may be able to act as a model for
other small countries, or perhaps a state or a city looking to increase job growth and
economic growth.
In this model, it is led by a government agency with a clear and long-term vision.
The government is supported by key agencies, including one to supply cutting-edge
research to inform policy makers and leaders of other key agencies, an agency for the
partnering and gaining investment by established corporations, an agency to support
both the business side and education side of the goals, and collaboration with the K–12
and higher education leaders. Finally, all agencies coordinate with a corporation whose
corporate needs and goals are in alignment with government and supporting agency
goals. The keys to success seem to be a shared vision, collaboration, and mutual re-
spect.
As a result of the shared vision and collaboration by leading entities in Costa
Rica, many positive outcomes are visible in the schools that were studied for this
project. There was a high level of access to and use of technology, PBL was highly
visible, 21st-century skills were evident in teaching and curriculum, and interest in and
value of STEM were very evident. Interest in and value for 21st-century skills and
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 151
STEM have led to policy changes in education nationally as 21st-century skills have
been built into the national curriculum and are taught as part of Spanish and mathemat-
ics classes. The requirement for science fairs has increased the number of Costa Ricans
who are prepared to enter STEM professions, which tend to be higher paid. This factor
enables more Costa Ricans to enter higher paying jobs with better working conditions
and enables Costa Rica’s economy to experience continual growth in the knowledge-
based and innovation-driven sectors. The take-home lesson for American leaders is that
Costa Rica has done everything that top economic and business leaders suggest the
United States as a country should do. The difference is that Costa Rica actually takes
action rather than espousing wisdom. Consequently, the results are evident when this
country with 4.56 million people that 30 years ago was known for great bananas and
coffee is now the fourth largest exporter of HT goods in the world.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 152
References
Altbach, P. G., & Salmi, J. (2011). The road to academic excellence: The making of
world-class research universities. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Biesanz, M. H., Biesanz, R., & Biesanz, K. Z. (1999). The ticos: Culture and social
change in Costa Rica. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (2003). Reframing organization: Artistry, choice and leadership
(3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2011). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and
leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Booth, J. (2008). Democratic development in Costa Rica. Democratization, 15, 714–
732.
Brewer, D. J., & McEwan, P. J. (2010). Economics of education. Boston, MA: Elsevier.
Bybee, R. W. (2013). The case for STEM education: Challenges and opportunities.
Arlington, VA: NSTA Press
Capraro, R. M., Capraro, M. M., & Morgan, J. R. (2013). STEM project-based learning:
An integrated science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) ap-
proach (2nd ed.). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Céspedes, O., & González, C. (2002). Recursos humanos para las empresas multi-
ncionales en alta tecnología en Costa Rica: Análisis de las brechas entre oferta y
demanda (Serie Costa Rica Digita No 2). San José, Costa Rica: Fundación
CAATEC.
Chanda, N. (2008). Bound together. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 153
Clifton, J. (2011). The coming jobs war. New York, NY: Gallup Press.
Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE). (2013). Estado de la nación 2011. Retrieved
from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
Cordero, J., & Paus, E. (2008). Foreign investment and economic development in Costa
Rica: The unrealized potential (Discussion Paper No. 13). Retrieved from http://ase
.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/rp/DP13Paus_CorderoApr08.pdf
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE). (2011). Costa Rica: Education
overview. Available from http://www.cinde.org
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE). (2012). CINDE annual report
2012. Available from http://www.cinde.org
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE). (2013). Costa Rica: Qualified
workforce. Available from http://www.cinde.org
Council on Competitiveness. (2005). Innovate America: Thriving in a culture of chal-
lenge and change. Retrieved from http://www.compete.org/images/uploads/File/
PDF%20Files/NII_Innovate_America.pdf
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commit-
ment to equity will determine our future. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Fink, A. (2009). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Friedman, T. (2007). The world is flat 3.0: A brief history of the twenty-first century.
New York, NY: Picador.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 154
Giuliani, E. (2008). Multinational corporations and patterns of local knowledge transfer
in Costa Rican high tech industries. Development and Change, 39, 385–407.
Hanushek, E. A., & Kimko, D. D. (2000). Schooling, labor force quality, and the growth
of nations. American Economic Review, 90, 1184–1208.
Intel. (2014). Intel in California. Retrieved from http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/
en/corporate-responsibility/intel-in-california.html
Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., & Beadle, D. (2011). STEM: Good jobs now and for the
future (ESA Issue Brief #03-11). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.
Larraín, B. F., López-Calva, L. F., & Rodriguéz-Clare, A. (2000). Intel: A case study of
foreign direct investment in Central America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University,
Center for International Development.
Machlup, F. (1973). The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States
(Vol. 278). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works:
From research to results. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 155
Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT). (2013). Atlas for
innovation in Costa Rica. Available from http://www.micit.go.cr/
Monge-González, R., & González-Alvarado, C. (2007). The role and impact of MNCs
in Costa Rica on skills development and training: The case of Intel, Microsoft and
Cisco (Report to the International Labor Organization). San José, Costa Rica: High
Technology Advisory Committee.
Monge-González, R., Rodríguez-Álvarez, J. A., Hewitt, J., Orozco, J., & Ruiz, K.
(2011). Innovation and employment growth in Costa Rica: A firm-level analysis
(Technical Notes. No. IDB-TN-318). Available from http://idbdocs.iadb.org/
wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=36505253
Murphy, K. M., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. (1991). The allocation of talent: Implica-
tions for growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106, 503–530.
The National Academies. (2005). Rising above the gathering storm. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
The National Academies. (2010). Rising above the gathering storm revisited: Rapidly
approaching category 5. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2011). The nation’s report card—U.S.
states in a global context: Results from the 2011 NAEP-TIMSS linking study
(NCES 2013-460). Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/
studies/2013460.aspx
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 156
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2011). Education at a
glance: OECD indicators 2012. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/
CN%20-%20United%20States.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012a). Attracting
knowledge-intensive FDI to Costa Rica: Challenges and policy options. Retrieved
from http://www.oecd.org/dev
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2012b). Education at a
glance, 2012: OECD indicators. Paris, France: Author.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). A framework for 21st-century learning.
Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/overview/skills-framework
Paus, E. A., & Gallagher, K. P. (2008). Missing links: Foreign investment and industrial
development in Costa Rica and Mexico. Studies in Comparative International De-
velopment, 43(1), 53–80.
Rodríguez-Clare, A. (2001). Costa Rica’s development strategy based on human capital
and technology: How it got there, the impact of Intel and lessons for other coun-
tries. Journal of Human Development, 2, 311–324.
Rotherham, A. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2010). 21st-century skills: Not new, but a
worthy challenge. American Educator, 34(1), 17–20.
Sachs, J. D. (2005). The end of poverty: Economic possibilities for our time. New York,
NY: Penguin Books.
Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. American Economic Review, 51(1),
1–17.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 157
Snape, P. (2012, June). Twenty-first century learning in the senior secondary school: A
New Zealand teacher’s innovation. Paper presented at the PATT 26 Conference,
Technology in the 21st Century, Stockholm, Sweden.
Spar, D. (1998). Attracting high technology investment: Intel’s Costa Rica plant (For-
eign Investment Advisory Service Occasional Paper 11). Retrieved from http://
www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/04/01/00000
9265_3980624142943/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Spring, J. (2008). Globalization of education: An introduction. New York, NY: Rout-
ledge.
Underhill, P. A., Shen, P., Lin, A. A., Jin, L., Passarino, G., Yang, W. H., . . . Oefner,
P. J. (2000). Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human popula-
tions. Nature Genetics, 26, 358–361.
USC Hybrid High School. (2013). Home page. Retrieved from http://uschybridhigh.org/
Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools don’t teach
the new survival skills our children need and what we can do about it. New York,
NY: Basic Books.
Wessner, C. W., & Wolff, A. W. (Eds.). (2012). Rising to the challenge: U.S. innova-
tion policy for the global economy. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Wikipedia. (2013). Multinational corporation. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Multinational_corporation
World Bank. (2003). Lifelong learning in the global knowledge economy: Challenges
for developing countries. Washington, DC: Author.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 158
World Bank. (2013). Public spending on education, total (% of GDP). Retrieved from
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS
World Bank Group. (2006). The impact of Intel in Costa Rica: Nine years after the
decision to invest. Washington, DC: World Bank Group/MIGA.
World Bank Institute and Inter-American Development Bank. (2001). Korea and the
knowledge-based economy. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Zakaria, F. (2012). The post-America world: Release 2.0. New York, NY: W. W.
Norton.
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 159
Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education (English and Spanish Versions)
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,
A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and
multinational corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our
study is asking the following questions:
1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and
multinational corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?
As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey
and interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.
After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspon-
dence possible to go over the purpose of our study.
Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. Our team is grateful for your help!
Sincerely,
Oryla Wiedoeft
USC Doctoral Student
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 160
Estimado Dr. Leonardo Garnier,
Somos estudiantes de la Escuela de Educación Rossier en la Universidad del Sur de
California (USC). Como parte de nuestra disertación, decidimos investigar sobre la
educación en Costa Rica. El objetivo de nuestro estudio es entender el efecto que tienen
la globalización y las Corporaciones Multinacionales en las escuelas y universidades de
Costa Rica. Nuestro estudio se enfocara en las siguientes preguntas:
¿Han sido influenciadas las decisiones políticas por los efectos de la globalización y las
corporaciones multinacionales?
¿Qué papel juegan los líderes escolares en este proceso?
Como parte del estudio, estamos planeando visitar Costa Rica por aproximadamente dos
semanas para llevar a cabo nuestra investigación. Visitaremos su país a finales de junio /
principios de julio. Agradeceríamos la oportunidad de hablar con usted y con otros
miembros de la Secretaría de Educación; y si es posible también con líderes educativos
al nivel del distrito y en las escuelas. Es nuestra meta entrevistar a individuos claves
para reunir los datos necesarios para nuestro estudio.
Un representante del consulado Costarricense sugirió que lo contactáramos a usted
directamente. Sabemos que su tiempo es valioso, y agradeceríamos cualquier correspon-
dencia para poder platicar con usted sobre el propósito de nuestro estudio.
Gracias por tomarse el tiempo de leer esta solicitud y no dude en contactarnos si tiene
alguna pregunta. Estamos muy agradecidos por su ayuda!
Atentamente,
Oryla Wiedoeft
Estudiante del programa doctorado en USC
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 161
Appendix B
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date ________________
Dear__________________________,
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that
may shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools
in Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educa-
tional leadership and 21st-century skills.
My name is Oryla Wiedoeft, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direc-
tion and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at
the University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study,
please sign the consent below.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to with-
draw at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anon-
ymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be pre-
sented in a manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identi-
fied.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you
may contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern
California. Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
Oryla Wiedoeft and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu
I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions.
I consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate
in a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.
_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 162
Appendix C
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 163
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 164
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 165
Appendix D
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system in
Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 166
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st cen-
tury?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 167
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your teachers
to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 168
Appendix E
MNC Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 169
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 170
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in the curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports that schools receive to help prepare
teachers in the implementation of science, technology, engineering, and mathe-
matics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 171
Appendix F
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: ____________________ Location of Survey: ______________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration among students
takes place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. Technology is not used in your
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Lessons promote higher level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collab-
oration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has not improved resources at
your school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Students are college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Teachers are encouraged to im-
plement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 172
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. The focus of education has
changed at your school site to incor-
porate 21st-century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
12. Educational decisions are not in-
fluenced by multinational corpora-
tions.
4 3 2 1 0
13. School site leaders are active par-
ticipants in implementation of 21st-
century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders communicate
the goals and the vision of the school
to teachers and students.
4 3 2 1 0
15. Is there evidence of the following
seen in your curriculum?
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
16. Have the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
17. Has the Minister of Education
supported the emphasis on:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 173
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
18. Do you receive adequate support
to teach the curricula in the following
areas:
Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
19. Do you believe that STEM edu-
cation is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
Yes No
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 174
Appendix G
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ____________________
Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically to-
ward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 175
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 176
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 177
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a collab-
orative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Science
Technol-
ogy
Engineer-
ing
Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM be-
ing taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No No No
Field Notes and Examples:
EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION IN COSTA RICA 178
Other Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and the resulting relationships among the Ministry of Public Education, the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency, and Intel have had on the development of 21st‐century skills and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education in Costa Rican K-12 schools. The theoretical frameworks for this qualitative study were based on work by Bolman and Deal, Wagner, Capraro, and Spring. Results indicated a shift to valuing the importance of 21st‐century skills and STEM nationally. This study is significant as it presents a case study of successful partnerships by education, policymakers, and industry leaders as they work to develop 21st‐century skills and STEM education in K-12 schools and to ensure equity for all students, regardless of ethnicity, primary language, socioeconomic status, or education level of the parents.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on education in Costa Rica

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on higher education in Costa Rica and implications for educational leaders

PDF

The impact of globalization, economics and educational policy on the development of 21st century skills and STEM education in Costa Rica

PDF

The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st century skills and STEM education in Costa Rica

PDF

The impact of globalization on the development of educational policy, 21st century learning, and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

PDF

Expanding educational access and opportunities: the globalization and foreign direct investment of multinational corporations and their influence on STEM, project-based learning and the national ...

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

PDF

The impact of globalization, foreign direct investment, and multinational corporations on development of educational policy and 21st-century learning in the Costa Rican educational system

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

PDF

A case study on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the development of 21st-century skills and educational leadership

PDF

The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

PDF

The role of globalization; science, technology, engineering, and math education; project-based learning; and national science fair policy in creating 21st-century ready students in Costa Rica

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

PDF

The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the educational system in Costa Rica

PDF

Impact of globalization and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics on postsecondary education in Costa Rica: a case study of project-based learning and national science and engineering...

PDF

The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the education system in Costa Rica and its implications for the implementation of 21st‐century skills and school leadership

PDF

How the University of Costa Rica is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands of multinational corporations for increased...

PDF

The impact of science, technology, engineering and math education on the development of a knowledge based economy in Costa Rica

Asset Metadata

Creator Wiedoeft, Oryla (author)

Core Title The effect of globalization and multinational corporations on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica: implications for educational, political, and corporate leaders

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 05/14/2014

Defense Date 05/14/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Economy,Education,Globalization,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory A. (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email wiedoeft@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-414089

Unique identifier UC11295456

Identifier etd-WiedoeftOr-2511.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-414089 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WiedoeftOr-2511.pdf

Dmrecord 414089

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Wiedoeft, Oryla

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA