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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the education system in Costa Rica and its implications for the implementation of 21st‐century skills and school leadership

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the education system in Costa Rica and its implications for the implementation of 21st‐century skills and school leadership

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS
AND SCHOOL LEADERSHIP
by
Alejandra Maria Mendoza
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2014
Copyright 2014 Alejandra Maria Mendoza
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
The completion of this dissertation was made possible by many influential,
inspiring, and amazing human beings in my life. First and foremost, I dedicate this
dissertation to the man who has made me a better person and has always believed in my
abilities even when I did not: the love of my life, my best friend, my husband, Eduardo
Mendoza. He supported me through sleepless nights and moments of frustration. I would
not be the person I am now without his unconditional love and encouragement. These last
3 years have been tough and I am looking forward to spending more time with him.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my mother, Josephine, and my godmother,
Mary. I would not be at this point in my life and career had it not been for their
unconditional love, support, and encouragement. Their belief in me was instrumental in
my success through three degrees at USC. Whether it was finding money to help me buy
a laptop or coming to my dorm room to bring flu medicine, they have always been there
for me. I hope I make them proud!
I also dedicate this dissertation to my favorite and only brother, Santos; my sister-
in-law, Janette; my cousin, Jasmine; and my sister, Gaby. I hope to be an inspiration and
example for them. I want them to know that, with hard work and dedication, everything is
possible. Their belief in me has been significant in those times of doubt.
Finally, this work is dedicated to my friend and colleague Suzy Zeitlin. Suzy and I
start working together in 2008 as middle school history teachers, then as adjunct
professors for the MAT@ USC program; we applied to the Ed.D program together and
we continue to support each other both personally and professionally.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
Going back to school to earn a doctorate was a 3-year commitment that has
allowed me to grow both personally and professionally. I owe much of my professional
success to the University of Southern California, specifically to the Rossier School of
Education (RSOE). I earned a bachelor’s degree in Social Science and Communication in
2006, a Master of Arts in Teachers Single Subject History credential and Spanish
BCLAD credential in 2007, and now with the completion of this dissertation, I am proud
to say that I am a triple Trojan!
I was encouraged by Dr. Barbara Rossier and Dr. Roger Rossier to apply for the
EdD program. They advised me not to take more than 5 years after earning the MAT to
apply. Before this life-changing conversation at a USC tailgate in 2009, I had been quite
reluctant to take that step and apply for such a rigorous program. Finally, both Suzy and I
decided to submit applications. I will never forget the day I received my admissions
letter. Once again, I proved to myself that I could accomplish anything with hard work
and dedication. Coming back to USC as a doctoral student brought feelings of joy,
excitement, and fear. However, I knew I was in the right place, yet again.
I acknowledge several professors, as their support has been instrumental in my
academic success. I took Dr. Escalante’s leadership course in my first semester of the
EdD program. I immediately felt comfortable in his class because of his engaging and
dynamic teaching style. It was his great leadership style and unique ideas that prompted
me to choose the Costa Rica thematic dissertation group. Dr. Sandra Kaplan was my
professor while in the MAT program at USC. I took another course with her as an EdD
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
student. Her depth of knowledge and passion for education are two reasons I admire her
so much. I also acknowledge and thank Dr. Robert Rueda, whose belief in me was very
important in the first semester as a doctoral student. I will never forget how encouraging
he was toward me. His learning class was one of the most influential classes that I have
taken at USC. These professors are my inspiration and I hope to be like them when I
grow up.
I am very lucky that I had the support of my loved ones and friends in applying to
the RSOE EdD program. In this program I have made many lifelong friends. The Costa
Rica dissertation team members—Josh, Orlya, Anita, Brad, Megan, Sebastian, Felipe,
Monica, Star, Elizabeth, and Dr. Escalante—are amazing educators and have made the
dissertation process much easier. Every single member of this team had various skill sets
that played a part in our success. It comforts me to know that these kind of people are
leading our educational system to help our children of the future. I am honored and
humbled to have worked with all them and I hope to get to work with them in the future. I
truly enjoyed the time that we spent together and I most certainly will miss my Trojan
family. Fight on!
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 11
Background of the Study 12
Globalization and MNCs 12
Costa Rica’s History and Education System 14
Twenty-First-Century Skills and Educational Leadership 17
Statement of the Problem 23
Purpose of the Study 24
Research Questions 24
Significance of the Study 25
Limitations 26
Delimitations 26
Definition of Terms 27
Organization of the Dissertation 28

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 29
Globalization and Education 31
Bottery’s Analysis on Globalization and Education 31
Spring’s Four Definitions of Globalization 35
Further Background on Globalization 38
History of Costa Rica 39
Historical Context 39
Government 40
Economics 46
Education in Costa Rica 48
The Education System 49
Preschool and Primary Education 50
Secondary and Higher Education 51
Teacher Education and Teacher Quality 57
Multinational Corporations 59
Attracting FDI 60
The Case of Intel 64
MNCs and the Costa Rican Economy 67
MNCs and Support for Education 70
Twenty-First Century Skills in Costa Rica 71
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills for the 21st Century 73
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Leadership in Education 78
Summary of the Literature Review 81

Chapter 3: Methodology 83
Research Design 84
Research Team 86
Sample and Population 87
Instrumentation 89
Frameworks 89
Survey 91
Interviews 92
Observations 92
Data Collection 93
Data Analysis 94
Ethical Considerations 95
Chapter Summary 96

Chapter 4: Results 97
Purpose of the Study 98
Participants 98
Surveyed Participants 99
Interviewed Participants 100
Observed Participants 102
Results for Research Question 1 102
Economic Development 103
School Improvement 105
Better Living 108
Summary 109
Results for Research Question 2 110
Focus on English and Technology in Schools 111
Human and Capital Resources for Education 113
Twenty-First-Century Skills in the Classroom 118
Summary 120
Results for Research Question 3 120
Shared Responsibility for Implementation of 21st-Century Skills 121
Changes in the Focus of Schools to Meet the Needs of MNCs 124
Summary 125
Chapter Summary 126

Chapter 5: Conclusion 128
Purpose 129
Research Questions 130
Summary of Themes 130
Discussion of Findings Related to Each Research Question 131
Research Question 1 131
Research Question 2 133
Research Question 3 136
Summary of Findings 137
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Implications for Practice 138
Recommendations for Research 139
Conclusion 141

References 143
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 149
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 151
Appendix C: Survey Protocol for Teachers 152
Appendix D: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 154
Appendix E: MNC Interview Protocol 157
Appendix F: School Leader Interview Protocol 160
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Tool 163
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Distribution of Employment in Costa Rica Based on Sector 68
Table 2: Summary of Participants for Surveys and Observations 99
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
List of Figures
Figure 1: Distribution of Costa Ricans ages 21–33 years by education level and
occupation 54
Figure 2: Twenty-first-century student outcomes and support systems 73
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Abstract
The world has become more economically interconnected and education is
significantly linked to the global economy. Costa Rica went through changes in economic
development in the 1980s that set the stage for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the
1990s. The county once relied on agricultural exports, but the political leadership decided
that the direction of the country should move toward attracting FDI. Since the 1990s,
Costa Rica has seen major investments by multinational corporations (MNCs) because of
the country’s commitment to education. The Ministry of Education (MEP) has made
changes in the school system to prepare students with technology skills and 21st-century
skills, as this will impact the country’s knowledge-ready work force. However, the Costa
Rican school system faces challenges in ensuring that all students finish secondary school
and are equipped with the skills needed to work for MNCs.
Shifts in the focus of education have been made in the county, but more work is
needed if Costa Rica is to keep up with the needs of MNCs and continue to develop its
knowledge-based economy. Changes in the economy unequivocally mean changes in the
education system; for this to occur, political, corporate, and education leaders must work
together as these changes greatly affect these stakeholders. This study describes the
impact of globalization and MNCs on the education system in Costa Rica and the
possible implications for implementation of 21st-century skills and school leadership. It
also identifies how political, corporate, and school leaders have contributed to the
development of policies that ensure implementation of 21st-century skills that prepare
students to be part of a knowledge-ready work force.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
The education system in a country is linked to the economic prosperity of that
country (Akin & Vlad, 2011; Monge-Naranjo, 2007). In the past two decades a large
number of multinational corporations (MNCs) have established centers for business in
countries all around the world, specifically in Asia and Latin America (Carnoy, 1999).
Preparation for living and participating in a global economy must begin early in a
person’s education. Currently, this preparation is conceptualized as 21st-century skills, or
skills that are needed to compete in the global economy.
Globalization has made the world more interconnected. One example is the case
of MNCs and their impact on a country’s economy. The choice to invest in a host country
is driven largely by the human capital found in that country, and human capital is directly
influenced by the education system. Costa Rica has a long-term commitment to education
that which has led to foreign direct investment (FDI) by MNCs. The Costa Rican political
leadership and organizations such as the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency
(CINDE) have been instrumental in promoting the country to MNCs. Intel’s investment
in Costa Rica in 1998 prompted other MNCs to consider investment in the country. These
MNCs need skilled workers to produce and conduct their business. The challenge is that
there is a shortage of skilled workers in Costa Rica. The reasons for this gap can be found
in education. Primary education is free and obligatory but the law does not mandate that
students graduate from secondary school. The purpose of this study was to examine how
MNCs are affecting the educational system in Costa Rica and how leaders have
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
responded to the human capital needs of the country’s economy. The growth of MNCs in
Costa Rica has led to changes in educational policy and practice.
Background of the Study
Globalization and MNCs
“Current globalizing forces are profoundly affecting the policies of nation states,
and in particular those in education” (Bottery, 2006, p. 95). Education is directly linked to
human capital and the ability of countries to participate in the global economy. MNCs
contribute to the globalization phenomenon in economic, political, and educational terms.
The economic stability of nations such as Costa Rica relies heavily on the prosperity of
the MNCs. MNCs also influence government polices because of their capability to
relocate in another country, causing competition among nations. Intel set forth some
goals that Costa Rica had to accomplish before an initial investment was made in the
country (World Bank Group, 2006). For this reason, the Costa Rican government and
CINDE began to work “resourcefully and with a novel sense of urgency to enhance the
country’s technical education, incentives law, regulation, and infrastructure” (World
Bank Group, 2006, p. 5).
Globalization has led to greater interdependence in the world economy. It has also
allowed MNCs to invest in countries where they can produce goods or provide services at
a cheaper cost. This has both positive and negative implications. The negative
implications include destruction of the environment and exploitation of the people in
these countries; positive implications include economic growth, an emphasis on
educating the public, and influencing the government to create societal changes.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Globalization affects education because countries must rethink and restructure schools to
reshape cognitive skills, interpersonal sensibilities, and cultural sophistication (Torres,
2002). The goal is to create a workforce ready to meet the needs and demands of the job
market. Globalization cannot be ignored because of its “profound effect on education at
many different levels,” and its tie to global economy (Carnoy, 1999, p. 14). MNCs have
influenced the political, economic, and educational course that Costa Rica has taken.
Economic globalization affects the political and educational perspectives of
globalization. It is implicated in political globalization because MNCs can influence
political activity in a country; such was the case of Intel and its choice to invest in Costa
Rica (World Bank Group, 2006). Economic globalization has implications for education
in terms of preparing and training the workforce (Bottery, 2006). Surprisingly, this also
leads to standardization of education and less curricular flexibility within the education
systems, which can be seen as a negative influence. In contrast, the economic
implications for education can lead to more cohesive expectations that are conceptualized
in 21st-century skills. Universities around the world are now being forced to compete
with global markets. For example, in Costa Rica, Intel works in conjunction with the
University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the Costa Rican Technical Institute (ITCR) to create
programs that prepare students to meet the needs of the company (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). This partnership benefits all parties—Intel, the universities,
and the students—and in turn has a positive effect on the economy.
Sanchez-Ancochea (2006) noted that Costa Rica has benefited from a long history
in human capital and FDI. During the Figueres Administration (1994–1998), the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
government focused on making assertive changes to policy to attract investments from
firms that make “sophisticated and well paid use of productive resources and not
extensive and poorly rewarded use the cheap labor” (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2006, p. 50).
Costa Rica is advertised as a business friendly country with a well-educated labor force.
The commitment of the government and CINDE to support high-tech FDI has allowed
dozens of MNCs to establish businesses in Costa Rica.
Rodríguez-Clare (2001) explained that Costa Rica was included on Intel’s list of
possible countries in which to establish a branch of the corporation. The country was
selected over Brazil, Chile, and Mexico in November 1996. The reasons included
political and social stability, high quality of life, rule of law and low corruption levels,
high levels of economic freedom (particularly with regard to international trading and
capital flows), relatively high levels of education with acceptable knowledge of English,
nonunion work environment, probusiness environment with favorable attitude toward
FDI, and established transportation logistics (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Globalization has
led to the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica; however, there is still a need for more
knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica. If Costa Rica does not address the knowledge-
ready worker gap, it will not be able to keep up with the human capital needs of MNCs.
Costa Rica’s History and Education System
According to CINDE’s Department of Research (2011), Costa Rica has long been
recognized for its high educational standards that stem from a history of commitment to
economic development. Education has been free and mandatory since 1870, which has
led to improvements in university and technical education (CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica’s
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
commitment to education has attracted many MNCs. The Costa Rican State of Education
Third Report (State of the Nation Program, 2011) stated, “By the next generation, a
highly skilled and productive workforce will be indispensible for meeting the production
and development needs of the country” (p. 11). MNCs will need to hire highly skilled and
productive workers; therefore, the government, corporations, and organization of interest
such as CINDE and the Omar Dengo Foundation must work together to ensure the
continued improvement of the education system.
There is a need for a larger percentage of knowledge-based workers in Costa
Rica. The 2011 State of Education Report noted that awareness of this need can change
the mindset of families that think that a ninth-grade education is sufficient to be
successful in the workforce. In addition, low academic performance can lead to dropping
out of school. This leads to the question, why do only 40% of Costa Rican students
graduate from high school? According to Clark and Estes (2008), one explanation could
be that a knowledge gap exists, as students do not know how to succeed in high school or
do not have the skills to earn a high school diploma. A knowledge gap also exists in the
literature and how it is portrayed to the rest of the world. Most articles and readings
describe Costa Rica as having high education standards. But these standards are set for
primary school. A 40% high school graduation rate for a country growing in the
technological and service sectors is a problem (State of the Nation Program, 2011).
Another educational problem in Costa Rica is the low percentage of earned
bachelor’s degrees; currently, the figure is 6.4%. Considering this low rate, how are
MNCs to find human capital needed for the jobs that require a higher skill set than just
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
vocational training? Costa Rica’s low secondary graduation rate has a direct impact on
higher education. The Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educacion Publica;
MEP) has made efforts to retain students in high school; the organization has outlined
these goals in the Education for All 2003-2015 report. Clark and Estes (2008) would call
this an organizational gap. Goals for the educational system are established at the national
level, but a breakdown in the process of implementation is experienced at the school site
level. Other organizational issues include the deteriorating infrastructure of many schools
and high school coverage, which has not yet reached 100% of the population. Both of
these organizational barriers can affect student achievement and therefore affect the
number of students graduating from high school.
Costa Rica’s students fall behind in terms of academic performance. This
academic underachievement is disturbing because the country has focused on attracting
FDI from MNCs for the past 20 years by promoting its commitment to education and
high literacy rates (CINDE, 2011). However, high school coverage remains low, which
according to the 2011 State of Education report (State of the Nation Program, 2011), has
resulted in few high school graduates. The country depends on the quality of work force,
which is dependent on the education that these students receive. This factor plays a role
in attracting more MNCs to the country, leading to the significance of improvements and
reform in secondary education. A way to combat this is to offer universal mandatory
access to secondary education (State of the Nation Program, 2011).
Collaboration by government, corporate, and educational leaders is essential to
build connections between the education system and the needs of MNCs. Another
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
essential component is the implementation of 21st-century skills in order to develop
people who possess the skills needed to enter college or be prepared for a career.
Twenty-First-Century Skills and Educational Leadership
Globalization has led to a more interconnected world in which a certain skill set is
necessary to participate in the global economy (Zhao, 2013). Currently, MNCs outsource
jobs to countries where the human capital and a lower price for labor exist. Human
capital is achieved via the education system, and a way of creating a knowledge-ready
workforce is with the implementation of 21st-century skills. According to the Assessment
and Teaching of Twenty-First Century Skills (ATCS) framework, “Learning to
collaborate with others and connect though technology are essential skills in a
knowledge-based economy” (ATCS, 2013). Twenty-first-century skills are crucial for
continued development of MNCs in Costa Rica. ATCS described the 21st-century skills
for Costa Rica in terms of the following categories: (a) ways of thinking—creativity,
critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making and learning; (b) ways of working—
communication and collaboration; (c) tools for working—information and
communications technology (ICT) and information literacy; and (d) skills for living in the
world—citizenship, life and career, and personal and social responsibility. These skills
are not only academic, but also technological, personal, and social. The aim is to develop
global citizens of the world who are capable of adapting to change.
The Partnership for Twenty-First Century Skills (2009) published a framework
that described student outcomes and support for four main areas: (a) core subjects and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
21st-century themes, (b ) life and career skills, (c) learning and innovation skills, and
(d) information, media, and technology skills.
Mastery in the core subjects of English, reading or language arts, world
languages, arts, mathematics, economics, science, geography, history, government and
civics is an essential component of the framework. Beside core subjects and 21st-century
themes, a set of interdisciplinary themes is incorporated: global awareness, financial,
economic, business and entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy, health literacy, and
environmental literacy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). Similar to ATCS, the
Partnership for Twenty-First Century Skills explained, “The skills, knowledge, and
expertise students must master to succeed in work and life” (2009, p. 1). These skills
include critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and collaboration. The aim to
equip every student with the skills necessary to be college and/or career ready is a
worldwide effort.
Schools must change with the times and adapt their curricula to teach the skills to
be successful in a global knowledge economy. Wagner (2008) suggested seven survival
skills for the 21st century: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration across
networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination. These skills are on par with ATCS and the
Partnership for 21st century skills frameworks. Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills can
be applied to the education systems in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
The first survival skill is critical thinking and problem solving. Learning how to
ask good questions is an essential component of being successful in the new global
knowledge economy. It is also significant in being an active participant of democracy.
MNCs, such as Cisco, emphasize the importance of critical thinking and problem solving
as competencies for a knowledge-based economy (Wagner, 2008).
The second survival skill is collaboration across networks and leading by
influence (Wagner, 2008). Being able to work with people across networks, boundaries,
and cultures has become an increasingly important qualification for employees of MNCs
(Cisco, 2011).
The third survival skill is agility and adaptability (Wagner, 2008). Workers must
be able to adapt to the changing nature of jobs in the global knowledge economy. The
Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje (INA) trains Costa Ricans in technical/vocational
careers but it is important to note that these careers, especially in the field of technology,
can change, making it important to emphasize the significance of dealing with new and
rapid variations in the job market (CINDE, 2011).
The fourth survival skill is initiative and entrepreneurialism (Wagner, 2008).
Taking initiative and being proactive are valued skills in the global knowledge economy.
Workers who are self-starters and who seek opportunities for improving on the job are
highly valued. Costa Rican MNCs need knowledge workers who apply these skills and
fill managerial positions.
The fifth survival skill is effective oral and written communication (Wagner,
2008). Many college students and people going into the workplace lack effective
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
communication skills, so it is important to teach students about this skill early in their
education. The problem in Costa Rica is that 60% of students do not graduate from high
school, which means that there are fewer people going into the workforce with effective
written and oral communication skills (State of the Nation Program, 2011). This poses a
problem for MNCs that are in need of these skills.
The sixth survival skill is accessing and analyzing information (Wagner, 2008).
There is an infinite amount of information and the most successful workers are those who
can synthesize and present data pertaining to a company’s strengths and needs.
The seventh survival skill is curiosity and imagination. How can this be taught?
One solution for Costa Rica is expansion of technical/vocational schools where students
can explore their interests.
These seven survival skills are the “new basic skills” that Wagner (2008)
compared to the Three Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) of previous generations.
The world has changed due to globalization, which leads to a greater economic
connection among countries. This change must be reflected in the educational policy and
teaching practices of education systems around the world. Schools must change with the
times and adapt educational curricula to teach the skills that are needed to be successful
in a global knowledge economy. The effectiveness of this change will depend on the type
of leadership in schools.
Northouse (2010) defined leadership as “a process whereby an individual
influence a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 3). The author argued that
leadership is a highly valued commodity that involves influence. Marzano, Waters and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
McNulty (2005) addressed the question “to what extent does leadership play a role in
whether a school is effective or ineffective?” in their book School Leadership That
Works. Leadership is paramount to the success of the school. Important factors include a
school’s clear mission and goals, the overall school climate, attitudes of teachers,
classroom practices of teachers, the organization, the curriculum and instruction, and
students’ opportunities to learn. Marzano et al. (2005) concluded that school leadership
has a significant effect on student achievement. The research to date on Costa Rica’s
education system has placed strong emphasis on policy and economics. However, little is
known about the school sites and how principals are dealing with fiscal change.
Bolman and Deal (2008) offered four distinct frames for analyzing and reframing
organizations: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. An brief explanation
of each follows.
The structural frame is defined by the structure of the organization. Bolman and
Deal (2008) explained that, in order for an organization to perform well, clear goals,
relationships among staff members, and sufficient direction must be established. The
Costa Rican bureaucracy is very complex and not linear. Costa Rica has an action plan
for providing education for all. This plan explains the educational goals for the country
and role and responsibility of the ministry of education. However, there seems to be a
breakdown in passing on the information to the school sites (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The human resource frame focuses on the interaction between people and their
organization, that is, what the organization can do for the worker and what the worker
can do for the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008). An educated work force in Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
Rica is needed so MNCs can hire skilled workers who exhibit mastery of 21st-century
skills that are needed to adapt to an ever-changing world economy. Hiring highly
motivated and skilled people is part of this leadership frame and applies not only to
MNCs but also to school sites. Another human resource problem is the fact that the MEP
hires all teachers and places them where there is a need. School principals do not have a
say in hiring the teachers, which can impact the educational outcomes at their sites
(personal communication, Wagner Alfaro, June 24, 2013).
The political frame in connected to the idea of power. Building relationships and
networking to gain power are of utmost importance in this frame (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The authors described politics as the decision-making process used for the allocation of
resources in an organization where individual interest and limited resources are present.
Public education in Costa Rica relies on the allocation of public money. The Costa Rican
Constitution makes education free and obligatory and stipulates that a percentage of the
country’s gross domestic product (GDP) be allocated to schools. Currently, 6% of Costa
Rica’s GDP is distributed to the education system; however, this does not guarantee that
all schools have equal access to public money.
The symbolic frame is based on organizational culture. Culture is built over time
and refers to the beliefs, values, and customs of an organization. Understanding the
mission and vision of the educational system within Costa Rica will allow this
dissertation group to analyze the culture of the educational leadership and its
effectiveness. Inspirational and motivational leaders fall within this frame. Great school
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
leaders are needed to deal with the challenges of a changing global knowledge economy
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
These four lenses offer a way to study the effectiveness of the leadership within
an organization. The educational and political leadership within Costa Rica has set up
structures and policies to allow for improvement of the educational system, which can
better meet the needs of MNCs. Such policies include incorporation of 21st-century
skills. Educating the Costa Rican children to be college or career ready is the
responsibility of political, corporate, and educational leaders.
Statement of the Problem
Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the presence of
MNCs. Costa Rica was once primarily based on an agricultural economy; the growth of
technology as major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central
American country. As MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’
responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in students has become increasingly
more important. Despite the presence of five national universities and 51 private
universities and a 96% literacy rate, there remains a lack of knowledge-ready workers.
The problem is that 6 of every 10 students who begin primary school do not graduate
from secondary school, and only a few of the students who earn a diploma move on to a
university (Economist Intelligence Unite, 2012). The country has failed to prepare its
labor force for the ensuing future demands of MNCs; “Costa Rica today exhibits
shortages of critical skills and these shortages are prompt to interrupt the catching up of
the country with developed countries” (Monge-Naranjo, 2007, p. 2). According to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
Monge-Naranjo (2007), Costa Rica is facing some problems and challenges that have
made the country lose its economic momentum in the growth process. Policy has failed
“to ensure the timely supply of relevant skilled workers, entrepreneurs and managers” (p.
2).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of globalization and
MNCs on leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study determined how globalization and MNCs affect
educational policy decisions. In addition, the study identified how school leadership plays
a role in the process of policy change and implementation in the four-tiered school and
university system in Costa Rica. The study determined whether these initiatives are
improving the human capital needs of MNCs and producing larger numbers of
knowledge-ready workers to sustain Costa Rica’s thriving economy.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the research team in gaining an
understanding of the impact of globalization and MNCs on the education system in Costa
Rica and the implications of this impact on implementation of 21st-century skills and
school leadership.
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Cost Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The theoretical frameworks that were used in this study are related to
globalization, 21st-century skills, and leadership: (a) Spring’s (2008) four theoretical
perspectives concerning globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills for the
21st century, and (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four leadership frames. These
frameworks were chosen to aid in the process of addressing the research questions.
Significance of the Study
There is little evidence on how MNCs have affected education in Costa Rica.
Therefore, the research conducted in this study will influence stakeholders such as
political, corporate, and educational leaders in Costa Rica. The findings will allow these
people to understand how the education system in Costa Rica can be improved to prepare
and support students as they enter into the knowledge-based economy. Political leaders
will gain insight into implementation of 21st-century skills and how corporate funding is
affecting the education system in Costa Rica. Corporate leaders will gain knowledge
regarding the allocation of the resources to schools and the impact on the education
system in Costa Rica. Educational leaders will gain understanding of the implications of
policies and practice at their school sites. Recommendations on how to implement and
promote 21st-century skills, giving feedback on resource allocation, suggesting specific
leadership strategies that can create effective and efficient schools, and giving feedback
on the alignment of policy and practice, will be significant contributions, as well.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
Limitations
The team faced a few limitations in completing this research. Distance and time
were the two main limitations, as the research was conducted in Costa Rica in a period of
5 days. The study included a limited population because the research team worked only
with schools that receive support from Intel. Schools that receive support from other
MNCs, as well as those that do not have any partnerships with MNCs, were not included
in the study. Another limitation was the validity and reliability of the instruments that
were used in the study. The target population could have been influenced by political,
financial, and/or personal factors, such as job security, that could result in subjective or
biased answers to the survey and interview questions. Language and the degree of access
to schools and administrators was another limitation. Each member of the team studied a
specific school in Costa Rica; however, the team paired up to visit the school sites. Each
pair included at least one Spanish-speaking member for the purpose of translating.
Generalizability of the findings will be limited because the results will not be applicable
to the entire Costa Rican education system.
Delimitations
The data sources were delimitations in this qualitative case study, as the
dissertation team chose to research schools that receive support from Intel. Intel was
chosen based on the literature review, group discussions, and the connections established
with individuals of interest from this MNC. The scope of the study and the
instrumentation were also delimitations because the team decided to work with political,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
corporate (Intel), and educational leaders to gather data using surveys, interviews, and
observations.
Definition of Terms
The following terms will be utilized throughout this dissertation:
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is investment made by a company in a country
different from that of the company; this is highly influenced by human capital (Akin &
Vlad, 2011).
Globalization is a phenomenon that involves changes in global economy that
affect production, consumption, and investments, which in turn affect larger segments of
the world’s population. It has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes,
of which schooling is a part (Spring, 2008).
Knowledge-based economy is the use of knowledge technologies such as
knowledge engineering and knowledge management to produce economic benefits and
create jobs (Machlup, 1962).
Multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that is registered in more than
one country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation that
produces and sells goods or services in various countries.
Twenty-first-century skills are a blend of content knowledge, specific skills,
expertise, and literacies. These skills include critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration across networks and leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative
and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and
analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction
and overview of the case study; it includes the statement of the problem, the purpose of
the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, the definition of key
terms, and the limitation and delimitations of the study. Chapter 2 offers a review of the
literature related to globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica: (a) an
overview of globalization and various meanings of the term; (b) a historical perspective
of Costa Rica, with the purpose of setting the context of the study; (c) the education
system in Costa Rica; (d) MNCs and their impact on a country’s economy and education;
(e) a synopsis of 21st-century skills; and (f) educational leadership. Chapter 3 describes
the methodology to be used to conduct this case study. The research design, research
team, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis are
described. Chapter 4 presents the research findings from data collection and analysis as
they relate to each research question. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the findings and
the overall study. The implications for Costa Rican political, corporate, and educational
leaders are addressed, as well as implications for future research.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
presence of MNCs. Although the country was once primarily based on an agricultural
economy, the growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and
opportunity to this small Central American country. As MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the
K–12 school and university system’s responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in
students has become a priority due to the increased demand for knowledge-ready
workers. The goal of this literature review is to demonstrate how globalization and MNCs
are described in the research and how these have influenced the implementation of 21st-
century skills in school systems.
Despite 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 96% literacy rate,
there remains a lack of knowledge-ready workers in the country. The problem is that 6 of
every 10 students who begin primary school do not graduate from secondary school, and
few students who earn a diploma move on to a university (State of the Nation Program,
2011). The country has failed to prepare its labor force for the future demands of MNCs;
“Costa Rica today exhibits shortages of critical skills and these shortages are promote to
interrupt the catching up of the country with developed countries” (Monge-Naranjo,
2007, p. 1).
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of globalization and MNCs
on leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica. Second, this study will determine how globalization and MNCs affect
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
educational policy decisions. Third, the study will identify how school leadership plays a
role in this process and how the effects of globalization and the involvement of MNCs
can be followed through the four-tiered school and university system in Costa Rica. The
following research questions will guide the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Cost Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been affect directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The education system in a country is linked to the economic stability of that
country (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). In the past two decades a large number of MNCs have
established centers for business in countries around the world, specifically in Asia and
Latin America (Carnoy, 1999). Hence, preparation for living in a global economy must
begin early and continue throughout each person’s education. Currently, this preparation
is conceptualized as 21st-century skills; these are the skills needed to compete in the
global economy. This literature review explains what is known about globalization,
MNCs, Costa Rica, and the country’s political and education systems, setting the context
for the study.
The first section of the literature review provides an overview of globalization
and the various meanings of the term. The second section includes a historical
perspective of Costa Rica, focusing on government, economics, and education. The third
section delves into the education system in Costa Rica. The fourth section touches on
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
MNCs and their impact on a country’s economics and education. The fifth section is a
synopsis of 21st-century skills. The sixth and final section focuses on educational
leadership, which is essential in the implementation of change in schools and the
development of knowledge-ready workers.
Globalization and Education
Globalization refers to the sharing of people, ideas, wealth, and goods among
countries and regions (Bottery, 2006; Spring, 2008). According to Bottery (2006),
globalization can be defined in a variety of meanings: environmental, cultural,
demographic, political, and American. Spring (2008) offered four perspectives on
globalization and its impact on education: world systems, world cultures, postcolonial,
and culturalist. This section explains the phenomenon of globalization as it relates to
education, based on work by Bottery (2006), Spring (2008), Torres (2002), Jenkins
(2005), Vaira (2004), and Carnoy (1999).
Bottery’s Analysis on Globalization and Education
“Current globalizing forces are profoundly affecting the policies of nation states,
and in particular those in education” (Bottery, 2006, p. 95). The author examined five
definitions of globalization. The first definition is environmental globalization, which
includes oceans, forest, deserts, rivers, lakes, and mountains, as well as a human concern
for ecology and a global interdependence of living things and how humans influence
these processes. Global warming, the destruction of the ozone layer, and the spread of
diseases are all examples of environmental globalization. This phenomenon transcends
political boarders. Costa Rica has a rich biodiversity, and it is the responsibility of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
education system to teach students about the environmental issues that threaten the local
ecology, as the future generations will have to protect the delicate environment in order
to continue to prosper economically. The presence of MNCs in Costa Rica has
contributed to a rise in the country’s carbon footprint, as more companies transport their
products within the country (Program Estado de la Nacion, 2012).
Bottery’s (2006) second definition is cultural globalization, which can be
conceptualized in two ways. First, the globalization of culture means that people can eat
virtually any dish and practice any religion anywhere in the world. The dominant cultures
influence those that are less dominant. For example, McDonalds
®
, Disney
®
, global free
market capitalism, education, and so forth are a few concepts that influence people
around the world (Bottery, 2006). Second, “We also have an opposing cultural
globalization—one, instead, of standardization,” which mainly stems from Western ideals
(Bottery, 2006, p. 98). Higher education is even venturing into this view of globalization.
Some examples are the MAT@USC program for the University of South California’s
Rossier School of Education and the Harvard Business School in Costa Rica. These
institutions have spread their resources to reach students from various parts of the world,
providing greater access to education and contributing to the globalization of education.
According to Akin and Vlad (2011), there is a relationship between education and FDI.
Western ideals of education have spread, allowing people from all over the world to earn
degrees from reputable universities. These people form part of a nation’s human capital,
and human capital is directly related to an MNC’s decision to invest in a country.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
Bottery’s (2006) third definition is demographic globalization, which can also be
explained in two ways. First, there is a growing tension between the aging population and
younger counterparts. People are living longer and fertility rates are decreasing, which
means that the burden of taxes for education, welfare, and social security will fall on the
young. Demography is linked not only to economics but also to politics. According to
this explanation, older generations will control politics due to their voting power. This
trend is seen in Costa Rica, as a majority of the workforce is under the age of 40. The age
distribution in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) is relatively young; 40.2% of workers are
18-25 years old, 25.5% are 20-25 years old, 25% are 30-40 years old, and 9.3% is over
the age of 40 years (Jenkins, 2005). The pattern shows that MNCs hire younger workers;
they depend on the education system to prepare Costa Rican citizens for the workforce.
Bottery’s (2006) fourth definition is political globalization, which Bottery
claimed can be conceptualized in three ways. First is the relocation of political power
from the nation state to global organizations, with the purpose of increasing global
competition. Some global organizations that fit this description are the European Union,
the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, and the World Bank,
among others. These organizations offer financial assistance to countries that are willing
to remove trade barriers and enter the global system of free markets (Bottery, 2006).
Second, transnational companies (MNCs) have the power to move from one country to
another and therefore affect the economy of each country, either positively or negatively.
The interconnectedness of political globalization, economic forces, and national domestic
policies can greatly influence a country’s ability to attract FDI. This was the case in Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
Rica. The combination of Free Trade Zones (FTZs), a stumbling economy in the 1980s,
and organizations such as CINDE and USAID assisted in the transformation of Costa
Rica into a desirable nation for MNCs for investment (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Second,
political globalization can be viewed as weakening the nation state and increasing the
supremacy of the powerful nations at the expense of the peripheral countries. However,
globalization has led to the spread of political ideas, such as democracy and human
rights. Third, global political change affects education because economic objectives can
set political and social agendas. Intel is an example of the pressure that an MNC can
place on a government; this change influenced the education system (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007).
Bottery’s (2006) fifth definition is American globalization, which refers to
military, exportation, and technological power and dominance by the United States. The
United States spends more on their military than the combination of the eight countries
that precede it in this category. In terms of economic power, the United States holds a
27% “share of the world product, equal to the next three largest economic powers
combined” (Bottery, 2006, p. 101). In terms of technological power, the United States.
ranks first, with 50% of all Internet users. The technological power of the United States is
relevant to this study, as many technological and service-based U.S. businesses have set
up MNCs in Costa Rica, thereby spreading the power and dominance of the United States
to other countries.
Bottery’s (2006) sixth definition is economic globalization. The locking of
nations into free market agreements by organizations such as the International Monetary
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
Fund, the World Trade Organization, and the World Bank has led to “the rapid, largely
unrestricted movement of finance around the world, a process which prevents nation
states from protecting welfare agendas” (Bottery, 2006, p. 102). The economic stability
of nations such as Costa Rica relies heavily on the prosperity of the MNCs. MNCs also
influence government polices because of their capability to relocate in another country,
causing competition between nations. The Costa Rican government and CINDE have
worked in conjunction to establish policies that make the country attractive to MNCs and
FDI.
Economic globalization affects all other forms of globalization. It is implicated in
the environmental perspective as firms move to countries to exhaust nonrenewable
resources. It is implicated in cultural globalization “through the standardizing effect of
much global economic activity” (Bottery, 2006, p. 102). It is implicated in American
globalization because the United States supports global sponsorship of free markets and
foreign aid. It is implicated in political globalization because MNCs influence political
activity in a country. Managing knowledge and controlling access to ideas, knowledge,
and expertise is the means by which a global knowledge economy is created. Economic
globalization has implications for education in terms of preparing and training the
workforce. This also leads to standardization of education and less curricular flexibility
within education systems (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Spring’s Four Definitions of Globalization
Spring (2008) posited four perspectives on globalization. The first is world
systems. This view explains that the world is integrated, with powerful nations controlling
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
less powerful nations. Powerful or core nations try to get other nations to buy into their
beliefs and values, such as capitalism and Western thought and analysis, thereby
establishing their legitimacy and power. Dominant nations also try to legitimize their
power by using aid organizations to expand their influence (Spring, 2008). The United
States is one of these dominant nations that has exerted power in Costa Rica, as evident
by the FDI from Intel, Microsoft, Cisco, and others (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
The second global perspective that Spring (2008) posited is world cultures. This
perspective emphasizes the idea that there is one culture among the world’s populations,
a melting pot of nations. Countries use this world culture concept as a focal point to
establish their education systems and curricula. What works best in other countries or has
been the most successful is emulated. According to this viewpoint, Western schooling is
the most widely used because of the ideals that it sets forth, such as education as a right
and the importance of education for economic development and democratic rights.
Secondary schools in Costa Rica are required to offer English as a second language (State
of the Nation Program, 2011). English is the language of commerce, and many countries
incorporate it in their secondary curriculum, contributing to this world cultures
perspective.
The third global perspective posited by Spring (2008) is the postcolonial global
perspective, which stresses the idea that powerful nations impose their economic and
political knowledge and agendas on the global society at the price of the poor countries.
Based on this idea, Western schooling dominates as a result of European imperialism.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
This reinforces the ideals of market economies and human capital education. The
interests of the rich nations are promoted to ensure “the hegemony of global elites”
(Spring, 2008, p. 352). This interest is economic, which is why there is an emphasis on
21st-century skills and the development of knowledge-ready workers to create a more
educated human capital capable of meeting the needs of MNCs (Akin & Vlad, 2011).
Although these ideals are crucial to the development of people in a global knowledge
economy, they are taken from Western thought.
The fourth global perspective posited by Spring (2008) is the culturalist
perspective, which emphasizes sharing educational ideas globally. This perspective is
very similar to the postcolonial global perspective in terms of the view on multiple world
knowledges. These world knowledges include “other educational ideas beside human
capital, such as religious, Freirian, human rights, and environmental education” (Spring,
2008, p. 336). However, the ideals that prevail are those that are chosen by national
leaders.
Globalization influences education in the expansion of human capital, lifelong
learning, and economic development. Spring (2008) explained that the standardization of
education is both positive and negative. The positive aspect is that it affects human rights,
democracy, and environmental issues by creating greater awareness. The negative aspect
is that dominant countries impose their views of education and establish a standardized
global curriculum. An example of this is the use of English as the language of commerce.
About three fourths of all countries incorporate English as a foreign language in their
curriculum (Spring, 2008). This stems from European imperialism and again establishes
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
the dominance of the power nations. However, globalization is not taking culture into
account. “Nations in the developing world fear the increase of cultural, economic, and
political imperialism by powerful developed nations” will lead to a loss of language and
traditions (Spring, 2008, p. 9). People benefit from globalization, but sometimes at the
expense of their own beliefs, language, and culture. Costa Rica has benefited from
globalization; however, the presence of MNCs has created changes within the country
that can be viewed negatively.
Further Background on Globalization
Torres (2002) explained that education has two components: economic and
societal. The economic component is that the nation state and formal education come into
conflict with globalization because this phenomenon limits state autonomy. Globalization
and MNCs drive the needs of the education system in Costa Rica and economic policy
has supported the demands and needs of MNCs. Hence, economics and policy have
affected the education system in Costa Rica. This change has been for the most part
positive, as people working for these companies tend to be paid more than the average
income (Jenkins, 2005). According to this perspective, globalization is a double-edged
sword that has benefits and implications (Torres, 2002).
Globalization has led to a greater interdependence in the world economy. It has
also allowed MNCs to invest in countries where they can produce goods and provide
services at a cheaper cost. This has both positive and negative implications. The negative
implications include destruction of the environment and exploitation of the people in
these countries. However, the positive implications include economic growth, an
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
emphasis on educating the public, and influencing the government to create societal
changes. Globalization affects education because countries must rethink and restructure
schools to reshape cognitive skills, interpersonal sensibilities, and cultural sophistication
(Torres, 2002). The goal is to create a workforce ready to meet the needs and demands of
the global job market. Globalization cannot be ignored because of its “profound effect on
education at many different levels,” and its tie to the global economy (Carnoy, 1999,
p. 14).
History of Costa Rica
MNCs have influenced the political and economic course that Costa Rica has
taken. This section sets the historical, political, economic, and educational context to
elaborate on the impact of MNCs on the educational system in Costa Rica. The following
is a review of the history of government, economics, and education in Costa Rica. The
purpose of this section is to set the context for the study. Factors such as geographic
location, political stability, and a commitment to education have made Costa Rica an
attractive country for investment by MNCs (Monge-Naranjo, 2007).
Historical Context
Christopher Columbus arrived in what is now the nation of Costa Rica in the year
1502. He gave the country its name, “Rich Coast.” Disease and resistance by the local
population prevented colonization of the Costa Rican people, but Costa Rica became a
viceroyalty of New Spain in the 1540s and in 1561 Juan de Cavallon colonized the entire
area. On September 15, 1821, Central America gained independence from Spain; in 1823,
Costa Rica joined the United Provinces of Central America, which includes El Salvador,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. In 1838 Costa Rica became fully independent
(Interknowledge Corporation, 2006). From its beginnings, the country has been
committed to democracy and education.
Government
A shift in Costa Rica’s history occurred in the 1940s, establishing the foundation
of the political stability that the country enjoys today. According to Lopez (1996), two
great forces prompted the changes that occurred in this decade: “the social reformism of
Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia, and the developmentalism of the social democratic
movement” (p. 115). In terms of social reformism, three features influenced the political
arena. The first feature was the creation of a social security system in 1941, establishing
the retirement age at 60. The second feature focused on amending the Constitution to
include a social security system, regulation of working conditions, establishment of a
minimum wage, and settlement of labor disputes in terms of collective bargaining. The
third feature was the formation of the Labor Code, which created the Labor Ministry in
1943 to guarantee workers the right to organize and create labor unions (Lopez, 1996).
The developmentalism of the social democratic movement gave way to economic
development in Costa Rica. Linking social reforms to economic development was key in
establishing a new concept of the role of government, one that gave priority to social
investment, health and education (Lopez, 1996). An investment in the Costa Rican people
and their well-being was a step in creating a stable country where its citizens had the
opportunity to prosper. In the process of developmentalism, the state was also involved in
the economic productive cycle and reproduction of capital, giving way to Costa Rica as
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
an enterprise state (Lopez, 1996). The emphasis on democracy and economics resulted in
a new era in the country’s history.
Costa Rica went through a civil war that completely changed the economic and
political course of the country. At the end of the civil war José Figueres Ferrer became
the provisional President. In 1948 and 1949 he took several actions that forever changed
the course of Costa Rica’s history (Lopez, 1996). One of the most meaningful political
actions by President Figueres was to abolish the army. Lopez (1996) explained that this
act had four significant implications for the country. First, the unclear distinction between
civil and military power was eradicated. This is meaningful because many of the political
problems faced by Costa Rica were the result of the use of military power. Second, the
national budget was changed because the country no longer had to spend money on the
military and could focus its attention on social expenditures, such as health and
education. Third, the elimination of the army stopped any possible coup or revengeful
retaliation by those who opposed the new government. Fourth, “The abolition of the army
helped to develop a pacifist mentality in civil society” (Lopez, 1996, p. 118). These
developments, along with others mentioned below, elevated the status of Costa Rica in
the decades to come to one of the most attractive countries for investment by MNCs.
The Constitution of 1949 was a major factor in developing a new role for the
government and establishing Costa Rica as an enterprise state. The Constitution
recognized the importance of public regulation of private property and business “and
empowered the sate to direct and stimulate production and to ensure the widest possible
distribution of wealth” (Lopez, 1996, p. 117). This document created three branches of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
the Costa Rican government: executive, legislative and judiciary. It also created a fourth
branch to oversee all elections: the Supreme Electoral Tribunal. The Constitution
established new institutions such as the General Comptrollership of the Republic, charged
with regulating the national budget and the civil service system, which “guaranteed job
stability, advancement, and retirement benefits” (Lopez, 1996, p. 117). According to
Lopez (1996), it was these processes that began to establish and legitimize social order in
Costa Rica, thereby creating social peace and political and economic stability and making
Costa Rica an attractive country for investment by MNCs.
A strong middle class has established peace and stability in Costa Rica. The
middle class acts as a shield from social conflict. The country used education as a way to
encourage social mobility and promote social justice. This was accomplished in three
ways: Spending in health and education increased, distribution of national income
increased and became much better than that of other countries in Latin America, and the
1961 Lands and Colonization Institute helped to regulate the distribution of land (Lopez,
1996). A social framework was used to explain Costa Rica’s political stability, setting up
the country for future FDI. The country began to focus attention on providing greater
equity and access for its citizens.
Kantor (1954) explained the significance of Figueres’s presidency to Costa Rica.
Even then, the intellectual world was recognizing the changes that were occurring in the
country. It is not implicit but implied that Kantor compared Figueres to U.S. President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933–1945), which is evident by the title of the article “A
New Deal” Government for Costa Rica. The author explained that the new President and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
his political party had the primary goal of transforming the country into a modern state in
which a higher standard of living would provide more opportunities for the people. The
new movement was a result of social inequalities in Costa Rica. Education became the
means by which people could move up the social ladder, thus providing a literate
workforce that was needed for economic development. Kantor (1954) explained that the
President hoped to pay for economic development by using the country’s national savings
resort to foreign loans and investments only as a last resort. Little did he know that this
would eventually happen a few decades later. Under Figueres, Costa Rica pledged its
loyalty to the United Nations and sided with Western countries during the Cold War
(Kantor, 1954). This alliance aided the government’s efforts to stabilize the country. Just
as FDR forever changed the course of U.S. history, so too did Figueres in Costa Rica.
Costa Rica is a “presidential democracy with a legislative assembly” (Economist
Intelligence Unit, 2012, p. 16). Three branches of government share power in Costa Rica:
executive, legislative and judicial. The President is head of the state, elected for 4-year
terms by the citizens. The President appoints the cabinet heads of public agencies
(Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012). The cabinet is composed of 22 ministers, 2 of whom
are Vice Presidents. The current President is Ms. Laura Chinchilla of the Partido
Liberacion Nacional (PLN); she began her 4-year term in May 2010. The legislative
branch includes 57 members in the Legislative Assembly who serve 4-year terms. The
judicial branch is composed of 22 magistrates elected by the legislative branch; their
positions are renewable every 8 years (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012). The
governmental structure and commitment to democracy make Costa Rica one of the most
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
politically stable countries in Latin America. However, the current President faces
challenges and low public approval due to corruption scandals involving her cabinet and
her volatile relationship with opposing political parties (Economist Intelligence Unit,
2012).
Political organizations that oppose the PLN include the Partido Accion
Ciudadanas (PAC), Movimiento Liberacion (ML), Partido Unidad Social Cristiana
(PUSC), Partido Union para el Cambio (PUC), Bloque Patriotico Paralamentario (BP),
Partido Autentico Herediano (PAH), Partido Renovacion Costarricense (PRC), Partido
Union Nacional (PUN), Partido Accesibilidad Sin Exclusion (PASE), and Partido Frente
Amplio (FA; Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012). The current state of politics in Costa
Rica is troublesome, as most political bills take over a year to be discussed in the
Legislative Assembly (Programa Estado de la Nacion, 2012).
Every year the Department of the State of the Nation compiles a document
containing data concerning the economy, society, the environment, and politics. The
2011 document is the most recent report; it includes two new themes: the indigenous
situation (on which it is difficult to gather data because there are 24 tribes/areas and 68
institutions, suggesting that this information must be centralized) and culture.
Researchers work with four public universities to gather data for the report. The
conclusions from this document have implications for politics (Programa Estado de la
Nacion, 2012).
The 2014 elections are predicted to be ordinary in a time that is anything but
ordinary. Politicians must not only state what they would do to improve the political,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
educational, economic, and social aspects of Costa Rica; they must also explain how they
plan to achieve these goals. The report highlighted that (a) Costa Rica has seen a 4%
economic increase and low inflation rates, as the colon (Costa Rica’s currency) has
stabilized but environmental and political problems plague the country, and (b) economic
development and democracy are not promising advances for some people (Programa
Estado de la Nacion, 2012).
According to the director of the State of the Nation report, Dr. Vargas Cuellell,
Costa Rica has accumulated a range of economic, political and social problems. In terms
of economics, the modern sector has seen $2 million in technological exports, but this has
benefitted less than 20% of the working population. The other 80% of workers are in
companies that have a 2% growth rate, in comparison to the 9% growth rate for the
modern sector. Inequality exists in the population as a result of the fractured economy
(Programa Estado de la Nacion, 2012).
In terms of politics, Dr. Vargas Cuellell explained in the State of the Nation
television special that politicians pass laws and do not back them up with resources
(money). For example, one such law is that all people have the right to safe living
conditions, but the government has not given the proper organizations the resources to
fulfill these responsibilities. This creates tension between the population and the
government. It is also of importance to note that, at the beginning of the 1990s, only 2%
of the people claimed no affiliation with a political party; now, this number reaches 40-
60% of the people with a claim of no political affiliation. Political parties are losing
force, which is a result of the tension between the government and its citizens. The Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
Rican political system has been debilitated; MNCs depend on the political cooperation of
the government. A weak political system can affect the economic, social, and educational
arenas in Costa Rica.
In the social category, many jobs were created and the median household income
increased. But once the data are disaggregated, a disparity in income is revealed: The
poor are getting poorer and the rich are getting richer. The national debt is growing and
has become a fiscal problem (Programa Estado de la Nacion, 2012). This will affect
public services such as education.
In terms of the environment, Costa Rica has a history of protecting the
environment and marine life; however, this has recently become a problem due to the use
of fossil fuels to meet the country’s demands for electricity and transportation. Costa Rica
is experiencing an increase in contamination; its carbon footprint is growing because of
the growth of MNCs. Costa Rica was a country that prided itself on being green, but
things seem to be changing (Programa Estado de la Nacion, 2012).
One of the selling points of Costa Rica to MNCs was its political stability and
long history of democracy. The country maintains its democracy but is plagued by many
national fiscal problems that will force the country’s leaders to effect change if they wish
to maintain the political stability that has been a source of pride.
Economics
In the past, Costa Rica depended on exportation of agricultural products for its
economic advancement. Coffee became the major export and in 1845 boomed with the
support of the government (Lopez, 1996). The Costa Rican government has played a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
major role in the economic development of the country, dating back to the 1800s. It was
in part due to the government’s support that FTZs were established, which resulted in the
investment of MNCs in Costa Rica. The Costa Rican government has also been key in the
creation of state-owned monopolies. The Institute of Electricity was developed in 1949 to
“control the producing and distribution of electrical energy through the country” (Lopez,
1996, p. 116). The government also controls oil and telecommunications. These moves
were aimed to set up the country’s infrastructure for future economic and population
growth.
Costa Rica’s social inequality problems have worsened, despite higher spending
on social programs. “Structural factors leading to inequality include an educational
system in which six out of every ten students starting primary school fail to finish
secondary school” (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012, p. 22). The consequence of this
structural disintegration has been a lack of skilled labor in the workforce: skilled/
knowledge-ready workers whom MNCs seek to hire. Although spending on social
programs remains high, 2011 saw cuts to basic and technical education, poverty reduction
programs, school cafeterias, scholarships, and welfare pensions (Economist Intelligence
Unit, 2012). The current administration has devised new strategies for reducing high
school dropout rates (discussed in the next section). Costa Rica has been a very attractive
nation for MNCs looking for a new location for investment. However, the current
situation could pose a threat to future investment and distribution of wealth.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
Education in Costa Rica
The first school in Costa Rica was established in Heredia, a province in Costa
Rica, in 1751. The Bishop of Nicaragua in Costa Rica supervised it; at this time in
history, the church ran schools (Lopez, 1996). In 1870, Costa Rica became one of the
first nations to make education free and obligatory. Funding for education came from the
state’s share of great coffee wealth. Early leaders were among the nation’s first teachers,
which led to a large investment in education. Currently, Costa Rica has a 96% literacy
rate, making it the most literate nation in Central America (CINDE, 2011).
According to CINDE’s Department of Research (CINDE, 2011), Costa Rica has
long been recognized for its high educational standards that stem from a history of
commitment to human capital and economic development. Education has been free and
mandatory since 1870. This commitment to education has led to improvements in the
university system and technical training. This fact has attracted FDI from MNCs. CINDE
explained that the Costa Rican government is required to appropriate 8% of the country’s
annual GDP to education by 2014; currently, the budget appropriation is 6% of GDP
(MEP, 2002).
Costa Rica’s literacy rate is 96% and the country’s education system ranks 22nd
in the world and first in Latin America (CINDE, 2011). The MEP is in charge of the
education system. One of its goals is to help students to develop literacy in computer
science so they can compete at an international level. English as a second language has
been a significant push in schools, especially since the creation of the National English
Plan, called Costa Rica Multilingue, in 2008 (Fundacion Costa Rica Multilingue, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
This benefits the MNCs, as there is a high demand for human capital with English
language skills. The goal of Costa Rica Multilingue is to increase the percentage of high
school students who are proficient in English by 2017 (CINDE, 2011).
The country has seen positive changes in the education system in last couple of
years. According to the 2011 State of Education Report (State of the Nation Program,
2011), high school and university attendance has increased and dropout rates have
lowered compared to previous years, but the infrastructure of secondary schools is poor,
academic performance in high schools is subpar, and dropout rates continue to be a
challenge to the education system. The report also complained that Costa Rica’s
education system “has not yet been able to produce a highly skilled workforce” (p. 2).
Costa Rica lags in terms of high school coverage and student enrollment in technical
schools. A significant problem with this information is that there is a lack of consistent
data to determine the magnitude of the educational gap between Costa Rica and other
countries in terms of secondary indicators of success or failure.
The Education System
The education system in Costa Rica is divided into four cycles. Cycle 1
encompasses Grades 1–4 in elementary school, Cycle 2 includes Grades 5 and 6 in
elementary school (Sistema Educativo Nacional de Costa Rica, 1997), Cycle 3 includes
Grades 7–9, and Cycle 4 includes Grades 10–12. Students receive a diploma at
completion of secondary school. However, most students do not pass the required exams
to receive a high school diploma. Costa Rica’s MEP requires testing for all students in
both public and private schools. Testing occurs in Grades 6 and 9 and in the final year of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
high school. After high school, students have the option of attending a university or
technical school. Currently, there are four state universities and more than 51 private
universities. The UCR is the oldest and largest university, with an enrollment of
approximately 35,000 students, most of whom attend on scholarship (CINDE, 2011).
Preschool and Primary Education
Costa Rica’s primary education enrollment rate is ranked first in the world.
According to the MEP, the country has 2,809 preschools and 4077 elementary schools
(CINDE, 2011). According to Estado de la Nacion (2011#) statistics, these schools enroll
505,614 students ages 7–12 years. “Schools are allowed to change the curricula to satisfy
the needs of a changing society, but are also monitored to ensure excellence in quality”
(CINDE, 2011, p. 4). For this reason, Costa Rica has developed a diverse educational
framework that, according to this organization, “fulfills the needs of the private sector
through enhancing the abilities and knowledge of the students” (p. 4). However, Roman
and colleagues (State of the Nation Program, 2011) contended that preschool coverage
must be expanded to reach more areas, especially rural locations, and that the curriculum
must be updated, since this has not occurred in more than a decade. There is a gap in the
information that CINDE has provided and the reality presented by the State of Education
report. The power of schools to change the curricula is not indicative of an actual action;
just because schools can make curricular changes does not mean that they will actually
accomplish this task (State of the Nation Program, 2011). The information in the CINDE
(2011) report is therefore misleading and assumes that preschools are actually changing
their curriculum to keep up with the push for 21st-century skills. Another issue is the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
transition between preschools and elementary schools. According to the State of
Education Report (State of the Nation Program, 2011), “There is a need for greater
articulation between preschool and first grade to facilitate a smooth transition between
these levels and reduce widespread academic failure in the first grade” (p. 3).
The State of Education Report (State of the Nation Program, 2011) explains that
Costa Rica has experienced a decline in primary school enrollment in the past decade.
The main reason for this decline is lower birth rates. According to the 2011 report, this
situation gives the MEP an opportunity to address some of the challenges that this level
experiences, such as large class sizes and poor school infrastructure. The closure of
elementary schools due to low enrollment rates is an issue that the MEP must follow
closely, especially since this could greatly affect poor or rural area coverage. If this level
of education were affected negatively, it would be detrimental to secondary education
(State of the Nation Program, 2011).
Secondary and Higher Education
An increase in the number of students completing elementary school has led to
more students moving on to high school, which has influenced the secondary graduation
rates. Secondary education in Costa Rica is divided into two tracks: academic and
technical (CINDE, 2011). The academic track involves 5 years of study, including
Grades 7 through 11; most students gradate by age 17. The technical track is completed
in 6 years, including Grades 7 through 12, with students graduating at the age of 18 with
a technical degree. CINDE (2011) reported that high schools are focusing on new
competitive skills and that computer science and English courses are now mandatory in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
secondary schools. Just as in many other nations, Costa Rica requires that students pass
an exit examination to graduate from high school. Receiving a diploma, as well as being
able to apply to a university, is dependent on passing this examination. The high school
curriculum has not changed since the 1970s, which poses a problem for MNCs due the
rapid changes in the global knowledge economy (State of the Nation Program, 2011).
High schools are mandated to offer computer science and English courses, but these
courses are currently electives.
Costa Rica can benefit from making high school graduation mandatory for all
students, as there remains a need for a stronger knowledge-based work force. The 2011
State of Education Report (State of the Nation Program, 2011) notes that this can change
the mindset of families that think that a ninth-grade education is sufficient to be
successful in the workforce. Low academic performance can lead to dropping out. Why
do only 40% of students graduate from high school? According to Clark and Estes
(2008), a knowledge gap exists, as students do not know how to succeed in high school
and earn a diploma. A knowledge gap also exists in the literature and how it is portrayed
to the rest of the world. Most articles and readings describe Costa Rica as having high
education standards, but these standards are set for primary school? A 40% high school
graduation rate is a problem (State of the Nation Program, 2011).
Another educational problem in Costa Rica is the low percentage of earned
bachelor’s degrees, currently only 6.4%. How are MNCs to find the human capital
needed for the jobs that require a higher skill set than vocational training? Costa Rica’s
low secondary graduation rate has a direct impact on higher education. The MEP has
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
made efforts to retain students in high school; the organization has outlined these goals in
the Education for All 2003-2015 report. Clark and Estes (2008) would call this an
organizational gap. Goals for the educational system are established at the national level,
but a breakdown in the process of implementation is experienced at the school site level.
Other organizational issues include the deteriorating rate of school coverage, which has
not yet reached 100% of the population. Both of these organizational barriers can affect
student achievement and therefore affect the number of students graduating from high
school.
In terms of motivation, there seem to be no repercussions for not graduating from
high school. Students who do not graduate from high school have the option to enroll at
INA to learn a trade; the education provided at this institution is free (CINDE, 2011). A
higher incentive for high school graduation must be established because some students
who graduate have jobs similar to those held by students who dropped out and attended
INA. Clark and Estes (2008) would classify this as a motivation gap, due to the lack of
persistence to finish high school. Going to a university does not seem to be a significant
motivating factor, even though it is known that education can elevate one’s socioeco-
nomic status. Figure 1 shows the distribution of Costa Ricans ages 21–33 based on level
of education, occupation, and job sector. The majority of those ages 21–33 did not
complete high school, which means that they have unskilled, manufacturing jobs. The
problem is that MNCs are in need of more educated human capital.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
Students who take the secondary education technical route are considered ready
for the work force upon graduation. In the technical route, the technical portion is taken
in the 4th year of high school (CINDE, 2011). There are 96 technical high schools.

Figure 1. Distribution of Costa Ricans ages 21–33 years by education level and
occupation. Source: Summary: Third State of Education Report, by State of the Nation
Program, 2011, retrieved from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php/biblioteca-
virtual/costa-rica/english
According to CINDE (2011), “In 2010, 69,423 students were enrolled in 52
different specialties in 3 main areas of expertise (services, industrial, and agriculture)” (p.
5). Yet only 20% of all students are enrolled in technical high schools, especially since
the MEP has focused on creation of academic high schools for the past two decades
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
(State of the Nation Program, 2011). Roman and colleagues recommended that the
coverage of technical high schools must be expanded to reach more locations, leading to
lower drop out rates, as “technical/ vocational high schools have a higher percentage of
students that pass the academic year” (State of the Nation Program, 2011, p. 12).
According to this report, the country has not taken advantage of the opportunities that
technical/vocational education can provide for young people seeking to enter the job
market (State of the Nation Program, 2011). The result of a lack of technical high schools
has led to low numbers of skilled workers to advance Costa Rica’s human development
and productivity. The country is also lacking a system to monitor requests by the MNCs
and the job market in general, which could be an excellent strategy to boost enrollment
and attendance in technical high schools. Since approximately 6 of every 10 students do
not graduate from high school, an alternative route for technical training exists (State of
the Nation Program, 2011).
The National Training Institute (INA) provides free vocational careers to “people
who have been excluded from the formal education system” (State of the Nation
Program, 2011, p. 12). Among these careers are electronics, electricity, mechanical and
process engineering, body shop, industrial maintenance mechanics, precision mechanics,
casting of metal alloys, refrigeration, telematics and microelectronics, and so forth.
According to the 2011 State of Education Report (State of the Nation Program, 2011),
51,349 people graduated from INA in 2009, of whom 73.8% were certified as skilled
workers, 22.8% as medium-level technicians, and only 0.92% as specialized technicians.
The numbers show a dismal number of highly trained or specialized technicians. Also,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
the changing face of the job market could make some of these careers obsolete in a
couple of years, making it a necessity for universities to monitor the needs of MNCs and
the job market in Costa Rica (State of the Nation Report, 2011).
According to CINDE (2011), “Costa Rica’s investment in higher education is
yielding substantial benefits” (p. 5). Universities produce highly trained people who are
valued by MNCs. The country has five public universities and 51 private universities.
The UCR is the oldest and largest university. Some students have ventured to foreign
universities, especially in the United States. Harvard recognized the potential for profit
and established a business school extension program in Costa Rica called INCAE, which
is ranked third in Latin America (CINDE, 2011).
Costa Rica’s students lag in terms of academic performance. This academic
underachievement is disturbing because the country has focused on attracting FDI from
MNCs for the past 20 years by promoting its commitment to education and high rates of
literacy (CINDE, 2011). However, high school coverage remains low, which, according
to the 2011 State of Education report, has resulted in few high school graduates. The
country depends on the quality of its workforce, which is dependent on the education that
students receive. This factor plays a role in attracting more MNCs to the country, hence
the significance of improvements and reform to secondary education. A way to combat
this problem is to offer 100% universal mandatory access to secondary education (State
of the Nation Program, 2011).
According to the 2011 State of Education report, 1 of every 5 students fails to
move on to the next grade, also factoring in to the high dropout rates at the secondary
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
level. Violence, abuse, crime, and the proximity of the high school all contribute to
school attendance rates (State of the Nation Program, 2011). Of note is the condition of
the infrastructure in many high schools that lack essentials such as running water and
stalls in restrooms.
Teacher Education and Teacher Quality
A higher level of professionalization in teaching must be reached. Teacher quality
is the prime influence in determining educational quality. Darling-Hammond (2006)
explained that policy affects teacher quality and student achievement. Policy can be used
to improve the quality of teacher education programs. The author’s analysis suggests that
the “policies adopted by states regarding teacher education licensing, hiring, and
professional development may make an important difference in the qualification and
capacities that teacher bring to their work” (p. 5). If policy efforts have improved teacher
education programs and student achievement, then states must continue to use data and
research to effect new policy that will enhance educational quality and provide equity for
all students in public school systems. Costa Rica faces a problem in the timely collection
of data needed to effect changes in its school system.
The essential question is, what constitutes teacher quality? According to Cochran-
Smith and Fries (2005), “Educational research and policy makers can not agree on a
single definition of teacher quality” (p. 40). The authors offered two broad classifications:
(a) teacher quality as defined by student achievement, and (b) teacher quality as defined
by teacher qualifications. Indicators that measure teacher quality are used to suggest
policy for educational reform. The first definition uses student performance as measured
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
by standardized test scores to determine teacher quality. The second definition identifies
the “characteristics, attributes and qualifications generally considered indicators of
teacher quality” that are associated with student achievement, teacher evaluations, and/or
teachers’ sense of self-efficacy (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 40). Darling-Hammond
stated that student learning “depends substantially on what teachers know and can do”
(2006, p. 11). Hence, teacher education programs are significant in preparing qualified
teachers who can meet the needs of all students and produce positive outcomes in student
achievement. According to the 2011 State of Education report, the Costa Rican education
system has a poor teacher recruitment system. As in many other countries, teachers in
Costa Rica are bogged down by the workload of teaching without enough time to plan
lessons. Another factor that may affect teacher quality and student achievement is that
“more than 50% of full-time high school teachers do not have a contract” (State of the
Nation Program, 2011, p. 8). The Costa Rican MEP must provide better teacher
recruitment and continued professional development for teachers, especially in the realm
of technology (State of the Nation Program, 2011). In this manner, education can remain
current with the changing global knowledge economy.
The education system in Costa Rica has not worsened in the past couple of years
but it has not kept pace with improvements made by other Latin American countries.
According to the State of Education Third Report, this failure is partially due to the MEP
“complex bureaucratic structure and the continuous power struggle among multi-interest
groups” (State of the Nation Program, 2011, p. 2). The national and local authorities do
not allow the MEP to establish general priorities as they lobby for their own interests. If
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
no general consensus can be reached, it is difficult to effect change to improve
educational outcomes that can lead to a more educated workforce.
A few years ago, the MEP began to reform its organizational structure to address
the needs of the education system. However, these efforts have not yet produced larger
numbers of highly skilled workers. Costa Rica lags in academic performance when
compared to developing countries, but there are not enough data to provide precise
information about the academic performance gap. Education is key to promoting human
development, economic development, and social mobility. Education serves to prepare
people to become a part of a society that is politically, socially, and environmentally
aware (State of the Nation Program, 2011). Motivational and organizational barriers
prohibit the country’s education system from achieving its full potential.
The past 20 years have seen the most significant growth in educational standards.
In 1994 President Figueres, son of the former President and transformational leader in the
1940s and 1950s, advocated for computers in each of the nation’s 4,000 schools, with an
emphasis on primary schools. He supported obligatory English classes in Costa Rican
schools (CINDE, 2011). The proposals resulted from an increase in technological
investments and tourism in the country. The President saw the importance of preparing
students to join a workforce with knowledge of English. President Figueres, like his
father, wanted to leave a legacy.
Multinational Corporations
According to CINDE’s Department of Research (2011), Costa Rica has long been
recognized for its high educational standards that stem from a history of commitment to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
economic development. Education has been free and mandatory since 1870, which
through the decades has led to improvements in university and technical education
(CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica’s commitment to education has attracted many MNCs. The
Costa Rican State of Education Third Report (2011) stated, “By the next generation, a
highly skilled and productive workforce will be indispensible for meeting the production
and development needs of the country” (p. 11). MNCs will need to hire highly skilled and
productive workers; therefore the government, corporations, and organizations of interest,
such as CINDE and the Omar Dengo Foundation, must work together to ensure continued
improvement of the education system.
Attracting FDI
Sanchez-Ancochea (2006) explained that the key policy in Latin America is
economic growth, much of which has been achieved by means of FTZs. Costa Rica used
FTZs earlier than other Central American countries, which helped with its economic
growth during the 1990s. The Costa Rican government understood early on that the
apparel sector was unlikely to produce sustainable economic growth and development.
Therefore, investing in human capital was a major factor in allowing the country to move
away from the textile/garment industry to the technology sector. In Costa Rica,
transnational corporations or MNCs have contributed to expansion of exports and direct
employment but, according to the author, the main beneficiaries have been the MNCs.
However, a way that the Costa Rican people have benefited is through workers’ wages,
investment in the country, and the use of local businesses by the MNCs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
Sanchez-Ancochea (2006) noted that Costa Rica has benefited from a long history
of human capital and FDI. During the Figueres administration (1994–1998), the
government focused on making assertive changes to policy to attract investments from
firms that make “sophisticated and well-paid use of productive resources and not
extensive and poorly rewarded use of cheap labor” (p. 50). Costa Rica is advertised as a
business-friendly country with a well-educated labor force. The commitment by the
government and CINDE to support high-technology FDI has allowed dozens of MNCs to
establish in Costa Rica.
Sanchez-Ancochea (2006) described the concept of backwards linkage. It is not
only about having a knowledgeable labor force but also about creating economic links in
the home country. The author mentioned that Intel, Abbot, and Baxter in Costa Rica are
simple assembly operations and do not contribute or purchase goods and services from
the local economy. However, wages for people working in MNCs in Costa Rica are
higher than the average for the country. Backwards linkage between new firms and the
rest of the economy is significant in that a greater impact can be felt in the country.
However, this concept is not in widespread use.
The 1980s proved to be a difficult decade for the economy, as well as for
education. High school enrollment fell significantly and did not return to 1980s numbers
until the end of the decade (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2006). During the 1990s the country
focused on installing computer labs in schools. The concentration was on elementary
schools, which is where it was thought the greater impact would be. The focus was not to
teach computer skills but to use computers as a tool for the general process of learning
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
(computer literacy). According to Rodríguez-Clare (2001), Costa Rica has made great
leaps in developing a technological and knowledge-driven economy. MNCs such as Intel
noted this commitment to technology and education and decided to invest in the country
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
According to Rodríguez-Clare (2001), CINDE made the difference for Costa
Rica. Prominent business people founded the organization in 1983; it is supported by the
Costa Rican government and funded by grants from USAID. The objective of the
organization was to help in the development of the economy, but attracting FDI was its
main priority. In the early 1990s Costa Rica began to lose its competitiveness in unskilled
labor and foreign aid. Therefore, the focus moved toward skilled labor-intensive
industries because of Costa Rica’s high education levels. In 1993 CINDE began to focus
attention on sectors associated with electrical, electronic, and telecommunications
industries. These sectors were seeing as fast growth in the United States; therefore,
exporting their business would keep them competitive. In 1995 DSC Communications
Corporation established a manufacturing plant in Costa Rica (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Jenkins (2005) explained that Costa Rica went from import substitution policy to
export promotion in early 1980s due to the debt crisis of the 1980s. At first, the country
attracted the textile/garment industry; however, in the 1990s the country moved toward
attracting the technological sector, which requires knowledge workers. The Costa Rican
government, under the Corporacion de Zonas Francas, was set to manage EPZs. This law
was passed at the end of 1981 and has been reformed many times to disregard any
regulatory restrictions that could pose a threat to FDI. At this time, Costa Rica begins to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
move away from agricultural exports and focus efforts on attracting FDI from technology
MNCs with the help of an important organization.
EPZs give MNCs in developed regions a tax break of 100% for 8 years and 50%
for 4 years after that (CINDE, 2010). In backwards regions or less-developed regions, the
tax break if 100% for 12 years and 50% for 6 years after that, plus a “yearly bonus equal
to ten per cent of the salaries paid” for 5 years (Jenkins, 2005, p. 3). Legislation also
allows the establishment of an EPZ anywhere within Costa Rican territory with a
minimum investment of $150,000 by firms that operate inside an industrial park and a
minimum investment of $2,000,000 by firms that operate outside an industrial park
(Jenkins, 2005). There are definitely higher incentives for firms located in less-developed
regions; however, most firms opt to set up business in areas where the infrastructure and
facilities are better, where there are more skilled workers, and where they have access to
specialized services.
EPZs play a significant role in the Costa Rican economy, which in turn attracts
more FDI. Seventy percent of the foreign companies that established operations in Costa
Rica during the late 1980s did so in EPZs. Growth in these zones has led to greater
employment and higher exports. Traditional exports (i.e., bananas, sugar, and beef) have
decreased due to the increase in foreign companies in the EPZs. Exports in EPZs are
more dependent on the United States as a “destination market than the rest of the Costa
Rican economy,” but the dependence has been decreasing since the mid 1990s (Jenkins,
2005, p. 8). EPZ exports sell more goods to Mexico, Canada, and Asian markets than
domestically in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
The Case of Intel
Rodríguez-Clare (2001) explained that Costa Rica was included on Intel’s list of
possible countries in which to establish a branch of the corporation, finishing ahead of
Brazil, Chile, and Mexico when it was chosen in November 1996. The reasons Intel
decided to invest in Costa Rica included political and social stability, high quality of life,
rule of law and low corruption levels, high levels of economic freedom (particularly with
regards to international trading and capital flows), relatively high levels of education with
acceptable knowledge of English, a nonunion work environment, a probusiness
environment with favorable attitude toward FDI, and established transportation logistics
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In 1997 “Intel began the construction of a $600 million assembly plant for
microprocessors in Costa Rica” (Jenkins, 2005, p. 9). This prompted other countries to
look at Costa Rica as a potential for investment. Intel has more than 230 local suppliers
of inputs and services, such as computer equipment, office supplies, spare parts,
construction materials, and security equipment. This MNC also purchases local
electricity, telecommunications, water, and services such as cafeteria services, translation
of documents, security, engineering and maintenance, garbage disposal, hotel rooms, and
transportation. Intel purchases an estimated $60 million annually in inputs and services
from the local Costa Rican economy. This investment has led to improvements in
logistics, as well as health and safety for the country. It has diversified exports, attracted
other companies, contributed to development of local suppliers, and “established business
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
practices that have become the new standard for other local companies and regulatory
institutions” (Jenkins, 2005, p. 10).
The existence of an aggressive and knowledgeable foreign investment promotion
agency such as CINDE has been key in Costa Rica’s economic success. This organization
provided a link to the government and established credibility for the country. It is also
nonpartisan and not influenced by political change or political disagreements. The Costa
Rican government quickly understood the importance of an investment by Intel;
therefore, the President and government officials worked diligently to respond to Intel’s
concerns about education, electricity, and taxes. It can be said that Intel inspired reforms
to improve the country’s competitiveness (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The impact of Intel on Costa Rica is notable. The country has investment more
than $500 million dollars. By December 1999 it had already invested $390, employing
more than 2,200 people with higher wages than in the manufacturing sector. In 1999 Intel
accounted for more than 60% of the total growth experienced that year and almost 40%
of total exports (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
The most important contribution that Intel has made to the economy is in
education. The company has worked with public universities to improve curriculum and
training in technical fields. The Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica (ITCR) has
introduced new degree programs and strengthened and updated its teachers’ knowledge
in several technical fields. The presence of Intel has created awareness about career
opportunities in technical fields at public universities. Enrollment numbers in
technological fields at ITCR have increased over the past decade. Engineering went from
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
an enrollment of 577 (9.5% of the student body) in 1997 to 874 (12.5%) in 2000, and the
numbers continue to grow (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Rodríguez-Clare (2001) argued that there are some lessons to be learned from the
investment in Costa Rica by Intel. First, the country has focused on increasing school
coverage for primary and secondary education. However, even more technical high
schools and universities are needed to guarantee the steady flow of technicians and
professionals in the areas where the country has a competitive advantage. Second,
economic developments are validated due to Costa Rica’s political and economic
stability, rule of law, economic liberalization, and a pro-business environment with a
favorable attitude toward FDI. Third, the EPZ law was an important element in attracting
FDI. Fourth, CINDE played an essential role in attracting FDI and in determining a
strategy aimed at attracting the electronics sector that has become so successful in Costa
Rica. The organization has strong ties with the public and private sectors and is apolitical
in nature. Fifth, policies to promote growth were significant enough to make Costa Rica
an appealing country for investment. Sixth, government cooperation, CINDE, public
universities, industry chambers, and technical schools have created a partnership that
affects society, education, and the economy. Seventh, the importance of transportation
logistics cannot be minimized. Costa Rica provides reliable transportation that is
necessary for high-tech companies with high volumes of exports. Eighth, the government
has adopted policies and reforms that influence all companies, not just one (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
MNCs and the Costa Rican Economy
All firms are required by law to pay social security and pension fund
contributions each month. This helps to “finance the public health and pension systems
and represents an important sources of income for the Costa Rican authorities from EPZ
operations” (Jenkins, 2005, p. 11). Table 1 shows that in 1999 the textile/garment
industry was the largest sector, with 33 firms accounting for 40% of all employment. The
second largest sector was electronics, with 30 firms and 24% of employment. The
`majority of the EPZ firms that have invested in Costa Rica are from the United States
and account for 82% of the total employment in Costa Rica; 15% of firms are from Costa
Rican firms with 6% of employment, and 8% were European firms with 3% of the total
Costa Rican employment (Jenkins, 2005). The data show that foreign firms have allowed
Costa Rica to move steadily toward a knowledge-based economy.
MNCs tend to hire a younger- than-average workforce; 40.2% of MNC workers
are 18-25, 25.5% are 25-30, 25.0% are 30-40, and only 9.3% are over the age of 40. A
large number of 18- to 25-year-olds work in the electronics/electric industry. The level of
education of the workforce is minimal. The majority of workers have a small number of
years of formal education. More than half (53.8%) have not completed high school,
24.2% have completed only elementary school, and 29.6% attempted but did not
complete high school. Workers with a high school diploma account for 21.6% of the
workforce, 7.5% have a technical vocation, 6.1% have not completed university studies,
and 11% have a university degree (Jenkins, 2005). Although Costa Rica’s
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
Table 1

Distribution of Employment in Costa Rica Based on Sector

Industry Firms % of total Employees % of total

Textile/garment 33 23 11,971 40
Electric/electronics 30 21 7,107 24
Footwear/leather 7 5 1,578 5
Machinery/metal 9 6 1,646 6
Pharmaceutical/medical 4 3 1,688 6
Other manufacturing 40 28 4,334 15
Services and commercial 22 15 1,485 5
Total 145 100 29,809 100

Source: Economic and Social Effects of Export Processing Zones in Costa Rica (Working
Paper No. 97), by M. Jenkins, 2005, Geneva, Switzerland: International Labor
Organization.
knowledge-based economy is growing, there is a lack of skilled workers that MNCs need
to sustain their businesses (Monge-Naranjo, 2007).
Textile and electronic firms tend to hire worker with only elementary school
education, while other manufacturing firms tend to hire workers with at least some years
of high school education, although high school completion is not necessary. It seems that
the education system is set up to teach people how to read and write and learn how to
take orders from superiors. Call centers, business services, and software companies hire
workers with at least some university education. The textile, electronics, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
manufacturing sectors hire workers with a high school education or less. The service
sector mostly hires a university-educated workforce; 84.6% in this sector have a
bachelor’s degree. Three quarters of workers in EPZ firms have jobs that require few
skills (low-skill jobs). However, salaries paid by EPZ firms are higher than the median
salary in the Costa Rican local economy for the same occupation groups. The data show
that Costa Rica has moved toward a knowledge-based economy; this is apparent by the
number of MNCs that have invested in the country. Many EPZ firms in Costa Rica are
well-known MNCs with internationally recognized brand names, such as Hanes
®
,
Levi’s
®
, Fruit of the Loom
®
, Conair
®
, Intel
®
, Baxter International
®
, and Procter &
Gamble
®
(Jenkins, 2005).
Intel and Proctor & Gamble’s Global Business Services (GBS) make great efforts
to train their workers. In 1997 Intel signed an agreement with the Costa Rican
Technology Institute to develop special programs to train personnel in what the company
needed for its operation in the country. A 1-year program called Electronics Diploma and
Intel’s Associate Degree were designed to meet the needs of Intel. Intel provides
corporate training in managerial skills and leadership and team building, as well as
technical training in accounting and taxation. Intel has helped to improve the curricula in
electrical engineering and computer sciences at the UCR. Since 1999, Proctor & Gamble
GBS has employed more than 1,300 people, most with a university degree (Jenkins,
2005).
According to Jenkins (2005), there are some lessons to be learned about EPZs.
The first lesson is that EPZs can be an effective policy instrument in diversification of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
industry. In 1989 coffee, banana, sugar, and beef exports accounted for almost 40% of
total exports; by 2001 this proportion had decreased to just 15%. EPZ exports were at 8%
in 1989 and increased to 47% in 2001. Second, EPZs have been an important policy
instrument for attracting FDI. In spite of incentives, firms tend to establish themselves in
better-developed areas where they have access to better infrastructure. Third, EPZ firms
tend to hire younger and uneducated women; this is especially true in the garment and
electronic industries. Fourth, textile and electronics firms are less likely to create a link
with the domestic economy; these do not create backwards linkage (Jenkins, 2005). The
promotion of service EPZ firms is more lucrative and beneficial for Costa Rica, as they
tend to buy more from domestic markets and hire educated workers, thereby creating
backwards linkage.
MNCs and Support for Education
Intel has been supporting education in Costa Rica since its initial investment in
1998. According to the International Trade Administration (2007), 18,000 teachers have
benefited from Intel’s training programs. The company makes an estimated $700,000
yearly investment in education in Costa Rica, with a $6.5 million investment to date. Intel
Educar Para el Futuro is one of Intel’s most noteworthy programs. Working in
conjunction with the MEP and the Omar Dengo Foundation, the program trains primary
and secondary teachers to make effective use of technology in the classroom (Monge-
González & González Alvarado, 2007). This program also includes the donation of
computers labs. Intel Computer Clubhouse provides teenagers in troubled areas a safe
place to learn and express their creativity through technology. Salvemos Nuestro Plantea
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
has the goal of educating fifth graders of the importance of environmental protection and
preservation (International Trade Administration, 2007).
Microsoft has supported Costa Rica’s economic development for more than a
decade (International Trade Administration, 2007). Their purpose is to promote
technology and close the digital divide. The Unlimited Potential Program provides
community technology centers for the public. The Partners in Learning program works
with the MEP and the Omar Dengo Foundation to provide software at a low cost and
provides support and training in information technology certification for teachers and
students. Microsoft has even ventured into investing in higher education with the
establishment of the Innovation Center at the ITCR (International Trade Administration,
2007). From these data, it is apparent that MNCs such as Intel and Microsoft understand
the importance of giving back to the community and contributing to the education
system. Collaboration by government, corporations, and educational leaders is essential
to build connections between the education system and the needs of MNCs. The
implementation of 21st-century skills is essential to the development of workers who are
college and career ready.
Twenty-First Century Skills in Costa Rica
Globalization has led to a more interconnected world in which a certain skill set is
necessary to participate in the global economy (Zhao, 2013). Currently, MNCs outsource
jobs to countries where there are human capital and a lower cost of labor. Human capital
is achieved via the education system and a knowledge-ready workforce is achieved via
the implementation of 21st-century skills. According to Assessment and Teaching of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
Twenty-First Century Skills (ATCS; 2013), “Learning to collaborate with others and
connect though technology are essential skills in a knowledge-based economy” (para. 1).
Twenty-first-century skills are crucial for the continual development of MNCs in Costa
Rica. ATCS describes 21st-century skills for Costa Rica in terms of the following
categories: (a) ways of thinking: creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, decision-
making and learning; (b) ways of working: communication and collaboration; (c) tools
for working: information and communications technology (ICT) and information literacy;
and (d) skills for living in the world: citizenship, life and career, and personal and social
responsibility. These skills are not only academic but also technological, personal, and
social. The aim is to develop global citizens who are capable of adapting to change.
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills framework (2009) describes student
outcomes and supports four main areas: (a) core subjects and 21st-century themes, (b) life
and career skills, (c) learning and innovation skills, and (d) information, media, and
technology skills. Mastery in the core subjects of English, reading or language arts, world
languages, arts, mathematics, economics, science, geography, history, government, and
civics is an essential component of the framework (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2009). In addition to core subjects and 21st-century themes, a set of interdisciplinary
themes is incorporated: global awareness; financial, economic, business, and
entrepreneurial literacy; civic literacy; health literacy; and environmental literacy
(Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). Similar to ATCS, the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills (2009) explained, “The skills, knowledge, and expertise students must
master to succeed in work and life” (p. 1). These skills include critical thinking, problem
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
solving, communication, and collaboration. The aim to equip every student with the skills
necessary to be college and/or career ready is a worldwide effort. Figure 2 displays each
component of the P21 Framework in an interconnected manner.

Figure 2. Twenty-first-century student outcomes and support systems. Source: A
Framework for 21st-Century Learning, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009,
retrieved from www.p21.org
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills for the 21st Century
“In order to earn a decent wage in today’s economy, most students will need at
least some postsecondary education” (Wagner, 2008, p. 2). Learning the basics of how
to read and write are simply not enough. Costa Rica’s literacy rate is 96%; however,
learning how to read and write occurs in primary school. The literacy rate does not
portray an accurate picture of the percentage of students who finish secondary school and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
move on to a tertiary education; these numbers are low. Wagner (2008) proposed seven
survival skills that students need to work, learn, and be productive citizens in a
knowledge-based economy.
Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills can be applied to the education systems in
Costa Rica. The first survival skill is critical thinking and problem solving. Learning how
to ask good questions is an essential component of being successful in the new global
knowledge economy. It is also significant in being an active participant in democracy.
MNCs, such as Cisco, have emphasized the importance of critical thinking and problem
solving as competencies needed to work for such companies. Costa Rica’s curriculum is
outdated and there is a need for training teachers in technology-based professional
development (Wagner, 2008). These are two ways that the country could begin to put a
greater emphasis on this survival skill.
The second survival skill is collaboration across networks and leading by
influence (Wagner, 2008). Communication and collaboration today are much different
from previous decades. Now companies can work on projects via teleconferences;
employees need not be in the same state or country. Technology has allowed greater
access and opportunity for people to collaborate. Cisco recognizes collaboration as an
essential skill in its employees. Being able to work with people across networks,
boundaries, and cultures has become an increasingly important qualification for
employees of MNCs (Cisco, 2011). The consideration of culture is an important
component of this survival skill. Wagner (2008) explained that the skills that are needed
to be successful in a global economy and those needed to keep a democracy safe and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
alive are interconnected. MNCs in Costa Rica require workers who are not only critical
thinkers and problems solvers but who can also understand and respect differences in
order to collaborate effectively and productively. The work environment is shifting from
one based on hierarchy and authority to one that is team based.
The third survival skill is agility and adaptability (Wagner, 2008). Workers must
be able to adapt to the changing nature of jobs in the global knowledge economy. In order
for workers to maintain their jobs, they must learn to be lifelong learners who can adjust
to changes in their company. Job descriptions are constantly changing due to new data
that assess the strengths and weaknesses of a business. If something is not working, it
must be changed; hence, there is a need for flexibility and adaptability on the part of
today’s work force. The INA trains Costa Ricans in technical/vocational careers but it is
important to note that these careers, especially in the field of technology, can change,
making it important to emphasize dealing with new and rapid change (CINDE, 2011).
The fourth survival skill is initiative and entrepreneurialism (Wagner, 2008).
Taking initiative and being proactive are valued skills in the global knowledge economy.
Workers who are self-starters and who seek opportunities for improving the job are
highly valued. Wagner (2008) explained that the most effective way to lead is by
example and influence rather than by giving orders. Being creative and learning from
mistakes is part of taking initiative. Costa Rican MNCs need knowledge workers who are
able to apply these skills.
The fifth survival skill is effective oral and written communication (Wagner,
2008). Many college students and people going into the workplace lack effective
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
communication skills; thus, it is important to teach students about this skill early in their
education. The capability to state one’s thoughts clearly and to communicate among
cultures is connected to the second cited skill and to professional success. Ineffective
communication skills (oral, written, and/or presentation) are the major deficit facing
businesses today. The problem in Costa Rica is that 60% of students do not graduate from
high school, which means that there are fewer people in the workforce with effective
written and oral communication skills (State of the Nation Program, 2011). This poses a
problem for MNCs that are in need of these skills.
The sixth survival skill is accessing and analyzing information (Wagner, 2008).
There is an infinite amount of information and the most successful workers are those who
can synthesize and present these data to discover the strengthens and needs of a company.
Being able to recognize reliable and unreliable sources of information is important,
especially because it is so easy to access large amounts of information via the Internet.
Wagner’s (2008) seventh survival skill is curiosity and imagination. How can this
be taught? One solution for Costa Rica is expansion of technical/vocational schools, since
students can explore their interests there.
These seven survival skills are the “new basic skills” that Wagner (2008)
compared to the Three R’s (reading, writing and arithmetic) of previous generations. The
world has changed due to globalization, which leads to a greater economic connection
among countries. This change must be reflected in the teaching practices of education
systems around the world. Schools must change with the times and adapt their curricula
to teach the skills that are needed to be successful in a global knowledge economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
According to Funkhouser (1997), the level of education affects the rate of return
on education. In his study of the changes in the returns to education in Costa Rica,
Funkhouser found a positive relationship between the measures of demand for education
and a negative relationship between the measures of supply for education.
Psacharopoulos (1994) discussed the profitability of investment in education on a global
scale. The author found that developing countries invest heavily in primary education.
Another finding was that investment in academic secondary curriculum was better than
investment in technical/vocational schools. Costa Rica has invested heavily in academic
secondary schools, compared to investment in technical/vocational schools; however,
high school graduation rates have not increased. A recommendation from the State of
Education report is that the country should invest more in technical/vocational schools
because students on this track have lower dropout rates overall. Which is best for
increasing the educational return of Costa Rica? Regardless of the track, 21st-century
skills can be the main focus in applying curriculum in the high schools (Wagner, 2008).
Silva (2009) explained the importance of measuring what students know and what
they are able to do in terms of assessing 21st-century skills. Currently, 4 of every 10
students in Costa Rica earn a high school diploma (State of the Nation Program, 2011),
chiefly due to the examinations that students must pass to receive a diploma. These
examinations are so difficult that many students drop out before they have to take them or
simply give up. Students are not being tested on 21st-century skills; instead, they are
being tested on the content of subject areas. Silva (2009) suggested that “new
technologies are making it easier to measure individual student mastery of twenty-first
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
century skills” (p. 633). Assessing 21st-century skills by using advanced technologies
would be a very difficult reform to enact, given the political struggle between the two
dominant political parties. Also, the country is already facing challenges with the timely
collection of educational data. The implementation of 21st-century skills is the
responsibility of the educational leaders of the country.
Leadership in Education
Northouse (2010) defined leadership as “a process whereby an individual
influence a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 3). The author argued that
leadership is a highly valued commodity that involves influence. Marzano et al. (2005)
addressed the question “to what extent does leadership play a role in whether a school is
effective or ineffective?” in their book School Leadership That Works. Leadership is
paramount to the success of a school. Important factors include a school’s clear mission
and goals, the overall school climate, attitudes of teachers, classroom practices of
teachers, the organization, the curriculum and instruction, and students’ opportunities to
learn. The authors concluded that school leadership has a significant effect on student
achievement. So far, research on Costa Rica’s education system places a strong emphasis
on policy and economics. However, little is known about the school sites and how
principals are dealing with fiscal change.
Bolman and Deal (2008) offered four distinct frames for analyzing and reframing
organizations: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. These four lenses offer
a way to study the effectiveness of the leadership within an organization. The educational
and political leadership within Costa Rica has set up structures and policies to allow for
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
improvement of the educational system to meet the needs of MNCs. Such policies
include incorporation of 21st-century skills. Educating Costa Rican children to be college
or career ready is the responsibility and duty of both government and the MNCs that hope
to benefit from the results.
The structural frame is defined by the structure of the organization. Bolman and
Deal (2008) explained that, for an organization to perform well, clear goals, relationships
among the staff, and sufficient direction must be established. The authors stressed the
importance of allocating responsibilities across levels and job roles in an organization.
The Costa Rican bureaucracy is very complex and not linear. There is a breakdown in
terms of job responsibilities; the State of the Education Report (State of the Nation
Program, 2011) noted that some people are on the government’s payroll but do not
actually show up to do the work for which they are paid. Clear goals, responsibility of
roles, and relationships are vital to organizational performance. Costa Rica has an action
plan for providing education for all. This plan explains the educational goals for the
country and the role and responsibility of the MEP. However, there seems to be a
breakdown in passing on the information to the school sites. Finding the right people for
the right job is an essential component of this organizational frame. Globalization has
also led to restructuring companies, changing the roles and responsibilities, reallocation
of work (division of tasks) and applications (procedures, routines, protocols) of that work
(differentiation vs. integration). Currently, the Costa Rican government takes an average
of 18 months (State of the Education Report, 2011) to pass reform policy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
The human resource frame focuses on interaction between people and their
organization, that is, what the organization can do for the worker and what the worker
can do for the organization. It is also based on Maslow’s hierarchical needs
(physiological, safety, social/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization). People want to
work for an organization in which they feel respected, have autonomy to be creative, and
have opportunities to advance in their careers. This frame is connected to Wagner’s
(2008) survival skill of taking initiative and doing things to improve the job. An educated
work force in Costa Rica is needed so that MNCs can hire skilled workers who exhibit
mastery of 21st-century skills that are needed to adapt and be flexible in an ever-changing
world economy. Hiring highly motivated and skilled people is part of this leadership
frame and applies not only to MNCs but also to school sites.
According to Darling-Hammond (2006), quality instruction is a significant part of
learning. Therefore, quality teachers are directly linked to student outcomes. Human
resource leaders know what type of people are needed to make an organization, such as a
government agency or school site, perform well. Hiring the right people is an essential
element of this frame, as are rewarding employees, promoting staff from within,
protecting the jobs of employees, and sharing in the success of the organization.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the political frame is connected to the idea
of power. Building relationships and networking to gain power are of utmost importance
in this frame. The authors described politics as the decision-making process used for the
allocation of resources in an organization where individual interest and limited resources
are present. Public education in Costa Rica relies on allocation of public money. The
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
Costa Rican Constitution makes education free and obligatory and stipulates that a
percentage of the country’s GDP be allocated to schools. Currently, 6% of Costa Rica’s
GDP is distributed to the education system; however, this does not guarantee that all
schools have equal access to that public money. A major issue is the poor infrastructure
of schools, mainly in rural areas. Many schools could benefit from extra money to make
repairs to leaking roofs and inadequate bathroom facilities. Bolman and Deal (2008)
explained that constant bargaining, negotiation, coercion, and compromise are part of the
political frame. This is where school leaders must use their political power to ensure that
funds are allocated for the essential needs of their school sites.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the symbolic frame is based on
organizational culture. Culture is built over time and refers to the beliefs, values, and
customs of an organization. Understanding the mission and vision of the educational
system in Costa Rica will allow this dissertation group to analyze the culture of the
educational leadership and its effectiveness. Inspirational and motivational leaders fall
within this frame. Great school leaders are needed to deal with the challenges of a
changing global knowledge economy.
Summary of the Literature Review
Costa Rica’s commitment to democracy, education, and economic policies that
promote FDI has made it an attractive country for investment by MNCs. The fiscal crisis
of the 1980s allowed Costa Rica to move away from the agricultural and garment
industries and venture toward technological sectors. The high literacy rates as a result of
the education system have been sufficient in the past; however, times are changing, as are
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
the demands of a global market. MNCs require knowledge-ready workers equipped with
skills for the 21st century. It is the job of governmental, corporate, and educational
leaders to communicate and collaborate to work toward improvement of the education
system in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
Chapter 3
Methodology
This chapter presents the research design, research team, participants,
instrumentation, and plan for data collection and data analysis. The purpose of this study
was to determine how MNCs have affected the education system in Costa Rica and the
implications of the presence of the MNCS on school leadership and implementation of
21st-century skills in schools and universities. The country’s commitment to education
has attracted many MNCs to invest in the country; however, the education system must
continue to change to meet the needs of those corporations (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica must now place an emphasis on increasing traditional and technical high
school coverage and “universities that guarantee a steady stream of technicians and
professional in the areas where the country has a competitive advantage” (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001, p. 321). The presence of MNCs has resulted in a need for more workers who
are equipped with 21st-century skills, able to participate in Costa Rica’s knowledge-
based economy.
This case study represents collaboration between the University of Southern
California (USC) and numerous Costa Rican political leaders, MNC directors, and
educational leaders. The following research questions shaped the purpose of the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Research Design
A qualitative research approach was utilized to address the research questions.
Merriam (2009) defined qualitative research as an attempt to study not only what people
are experiencing but also how they interpret these experiences. Merriam noted the
importance of choosing a research design that fits the research questions. Creswell (2009)
explained that a qualitative approach is merited when a phenomenon is to be understood
and when little research has been done on the topic. Limited research has been done on
the impact of MNCs on the education system in Costa Rica. Merriam (2009) stated that
the key characteristics to understanding qualitative research are “the focus is on process,
understand, and meaning; the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and
analysis; the process is inductive, and the product is richly descriptive” (p. 14). This
study was designed to gather qualitative data from Costa Rican political leaders, MNC
directors, and educational leaders about the impact of MNCs in order to address the
research questions. A qualitative approach was the best research design for this study
because the team had limited access and time to gather data in Costa Rica.
There are several types of qualitative research. For example, Creswell (2009)
articulates approaches to qualitative research: ethnography, grounded theory, case
studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research. A case study was defined as
a strategy of inquiry that seeks to explore a topic in depth. Merriam (2009) suggested that
a case study is characterized by a bounded system, defined as “a single entity, a unit
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
around which there are boundaries” (p. 40). It is the unit of analysis, not the topic of
investigation, that makes research proper for a case study. The topic at hand for the
current study was characterized by the bounded system because the team will gather data
from leaders who influence policy, MNCs, and education in Costa Rica. The impact of
globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica’s education system and the implications of these
phenomena on 21st-century skills and school leadership were researched as a qualitative
case study.
Merriam (2009) defined three types of qualitative case studies: historical and
observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. The focus of this case study was
on schools in Costa Rica that are influenced by MNCs. Data were gathered from multiple
sites and common themes were identified. Maxwell (2013) suggested that a major
component of research design is the use of a conceptual framework to identify common
themes. The research team approached the purpose of this study using three frameworks:
Spring’s (2008) research on globalization and education, Wagner’s (2008) seven survival
skills for the 21st century, and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four leadership frames.
This chapter is divided into six sections. The first section discusses the roles and
responsibilities of the members of the research team. The second section defines how the
participants were chosen for the sample population. The third section focuses on the types
of instrumentation to be used to gather data. The fourth section describes the process of
collection of data. The fifth section explains the process for analyzing the data;
Creswell’s (2009) six-step approach will be the framework for data analysis. The sixth
section discusses the ethical considerations of the study. Within this section, the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
Institutional Review Board (IRB) process is reviewed, explaining the process of granting
permission to conduct research on human subjects in another country. The chapter
concludes with a summary of the chapter.
Research Team
This study is part of a larger inquiry on the impact of globalization and MNCs in
Costa Rica conducted by USC doctoral students. The research team was led by Dr.
Michael Escalante from the USC Rossier School of Education. Twelve doctoral students
formed this thematic dissertation group; they began meeting in fall 2012. The group
investigated the literature related to globalization, MNCs, education, 21st-century skills
and leadership, and how these relate to Costa Rica. Members of this cohort were divided
into three groups; one group conducted research at the elementary school level (Grades
1–6), one group did research in secondary schools (Grades 7–12), and one group
completed research at various universities. This dissertation is part of the secondary
school group that conducted research in Costa Rica. While the meetings varied by
discussion point, some included participation by persons who provided insight about
Costa Rica, leading to focused research questions and providing guidance on the structure
and organization of the study. The major challenge to conducting a study in a foreign
country is access. To address this challenge, an exploratory group of four members of this
team and Dr. Escalante visited Costa Rica from March 2 to March 6, 2013, to meet with
potential participants and arrange interviews.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
Sample and Population
Costa Rica is home to more than 200 of the largest high-tech MNCs worldwide
(Embajada de Costa Rica Beijing, Republica Popular China, 2011). In terms of human
resources and workforce, the country has a young and talented bilingual population.
According to the Costa Rican Embassy of Beijing, over 95% of MNC employees are
hired locally. Since 1870, the government has shown a strong commitment to education
and the creation of a public education system that is free and obligatory (CINDE, 2011).
Therefore, the sample population will be drawn from these resources.
The sample population consisted of political, corporate, and educational leaders in
Costa Rica. Dr. Michael Escalante and the thematic dissertation group chose the sample
population. Purposeful sampling was used, as the exploratory group established
connections needed to gain access to these individuals (Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). The process for making contact with pertinent individuals
for this study was done via email, contact letters, telephone conversations, and face-to-
face meetings. The First Letter to the Minister of Public Education (Appendix A) was
used to make contact with the Minister of Public Education. During the planning trip in
March 2013, the exploratory team met with Costa Rican political, corporate, and
educational leaders. Meetings with the former President of the Costa Rica, the Minister of
Public Education, the Dean of the College of Education and the Director of Educational
Research at the UCR, the director of CINDE, the Intel Director of Educational Programs,
the Director of the Free Trade zone Business Association, and the Director of CRUSA
(Costa Rica-United States of America) took place during the 4-day trip.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
The selection of participants for the June 2013 data collection trip was based on
availability of the established contacts and referrals from the contacts mentioned above,
creating a snowball, chain, or network sampling (Merriam, 2009). The team interviewed
more than a dozen individuals, but for the purposes of this dissertation, the responses
from the following interviews were used: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Public
Education; (b) Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE; (c) Mary Helen Bialas, Intel
Academic Relations and Education Programs Manager; (d) Patricia Chico, Intel External
Communications; (e) Wagner Alfaro, Director of Liceo Bilingue de Belen (LBB); and (f)
Milka Yataco, Subdirector of LBB.
All of the schools that were utilized in the study to conduct research had ties to
Intel. The school that was used to gather data for this dissertation was LBB. This
secondary school provides education for students in Cycle 3, Grades 7–11. It is a public,
urban, community school located in the province of Heredia. Currently it is the only high
school in the canton of Belen; however, a new technical school will be opening in the
next academic school year. LBB was once an academic secondary school but changed to
become a bilingual school. The current director, Mr. Wagner Alfaro, was an instrumental
part of obtaining permission to change the focus of the school. Every student is required
to learn English as a second language. About one third of the 65 faculty members are
English teachers. The student population is 1,209.
Due to the limited research timeline of 5 days, data collection in Costa Rica
consisted of a systematic approach. Some interviews, especially those pertaining to
political and corporate leaders, were conducted by the entire research team, while a few
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
members completed other interviews. Each research member interviewed the leaders at
the assigned school site. Observations and surveys were done at the individual school
sites. The survey was given to teachers during the school site visits and collected during
this time period as well. The Recruitment/Consent Letter (Appendix B) was used to gain
consent for the research that was conducted with the participants at the various school
sites.
Instrumentation
The instruments used to gather data for this study were a survey (Appendix C),
interviews, and observations. Conversations regarding these three sources of
instrumentation began in spring 2013. The dissertation group created protocols for each
instrument based on the research questions, literature review, and the three theoretical
frameworks. Maxwell (2013) explained that triangulation is the collection of
“information from a diverse range of individuals and settings” (p. 128). The dissertation
group collected data via interviews with political leaders (Appendix D), corporate leaders
(Appendix E), and educational leaders (Appendix F), as well as via a survey and
observations conducted at the individual school sites assigned to each research member.
Using three groups for interviews and three sources of data collection lessened the risk of
bias (Maxwell, 2013) in the findings for this study.
Frameworks
The three theoretical frameworks that were used in this study were related to
globalization, 21st-century skills, and leadership: (a) Spring’s (2008) four theoretical
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perspectives concerning globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills for the
21st century, and (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four leadership frames.
Spring (2008) explained four viewpoints for defining globalization: world culture,
world systems, postcolonialism, and culturalism. Research Question 1, regarding results
of globalization and the presence of MNCs seen in Costa Rica, was linked to this
framework. Asking interview questions based on this research question gave the
dissertation group insight as to how leaders viewed the impact of globalization on their
country. The dissertation group wanted to know whether globalization and the presence
of MNCs had influenced the socioeconomic, political, and cultural aspects of the country.
Research Question 1 was the overarching question that set the context for Research
Question 2, which was related to 21st-century skills and the education system in Costa
Rica, and Research Question 3, which was connected to educational leadership in
schools. Spring was used to determine whether key individuals view globalization and
the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica from a world culture, world systems, postcolonialist,
or culturalist perspective.
Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills for the 21st century are critical thinking and
problem solving, collaboration across networks and leading with influence, agility and
adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication,
accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination. The dissertation
group wanted to know whether MNCs have influenced the Costa Rican educational
system to implement 21st-century skills. In other words, were schools using 21st-century
skills to prepare students to be college and career ready? Wagner’s (2008) framework
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was used to determine whether globalization and MNCs have influenced implementation
of 21st-century skills in schools in Costa Rica.
In Reframing Organizations, Bolman and Deal (2008) discussed four leadership
frames: the structural frame, the human resources frame, the political frame, and the
symbolic frame. The dissertation group wanted to discover how educational leaders have
responded to the need for a knowledge-based economy. The four frames were used to
determine the impact of globalization, MNCs, and policy on educational leadership
styles. These three frameworks served as the foundation for the case study.
Survey
A self-administered survey should be clearly written so respondents can
comprehend the directions and answer the survey questions with ease. Pilot tests can be
used to determine how long it will take a respondent to complete the survey and can help
the researcher to improve the response rate by eliminating unclear questions (Fink, 2013).
The dissertation group created the Survey Protocol for Teachers (Appendix C) using
Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills framework and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
leadership frames. Using this protocol allowed the research team to collect data on the
implementation of 21st-century skills and school leadership. The teacher survey was
created using a Likert-type scale to determine the level of agreement with each item
based on the experience of the teachers at schools that receive support from Intel. Closed-
ended survey questions were created with the possible responses of strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree, and don’t know. The Survey Protocol was randomly
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
administered to teachers at LBB during the 2-day school visit, which took place on June
26 and 28.
Interviews
According to Merriam (2009), “Interviewing is necessary when we cannot
observe behavior, feelings, or how people interpret the world around them” (p. 88). The
dissertation group conducted semistructured interviews to determine the impact of
globalization and MNCs on the Costa Rican society, schools and universities, and
educational leadership. Semistructured questioning allowed the researchers flexibility and
the opportunity to probe the interviewees to capture points of view. The Political/Policy
Leader Interview Protocol (Appendix D), the MNC Interview Protocol (Appendix E), and
the School Leader Interview Protocol (Appendix F) were used to conduct personal
interviews with political, corporate, and school site leaders.
Patton’s (2002) interview guide for creating meaningful questions was used as a
foundation to construct the interview protocol. The six types of questions included in his
guide are (a) experience and behavior questions, (b) opinion and value questions,
(c) feeling questions, (d) knowledge questions, (e) sensory questions, and
(f) background/demographic questions. The research team piloted the open-ended
interview protocol to gain insight on how to improve the questions. Some questions were
revised and/or clarified and others were eliminated (Merriam, 2009).
Observations
According to Merriam (2009), observation is an essential research method for
collecting qualitative data. Observation allowed the researchers “to record behavior as it
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
is happening” (p. 119). Twelve schools that receive support from Intel were chosen as
sites for application of the Classroom Observation Tool (Appendix G). By visiting
classrooms, the dissertation group observed firsthand the extent to which 21st-century
skills were being used. The observation tool was created by using the purpose of the
study, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills theoretical framework, Bolman and Deal’s
(2008) form leadership frames, the statement of the problem, and the research questions
(Merriam, 2009). The observation tool was created using a Likert-type scale to determine
the level of agreement with each item based on what will be observed. The questions
included in the observation tool are aligned with the survey protocol. This tool also
included a section for the researchers to incorporate field notes, such as verbal
descriptions, direct quotations, and the observer’s comments (Merriam, 2009). Because
the researcher has beliefs and opinions, the classroom observation may be subject to bias
(Merriam, 2009).
Data Collection
This dissertation group accessed people of interest to the study because of the
contact efforts made by the 12 participating students. The exploratory group that visited
Costa Rica in March 2013 solidified the contacts for the rest of the students. Dr.
Escalante and the four research team members who traveled on this exploratory planning
trip met with former and current politicians, as well as directors of universities,
businesses, and promotion organizations in Costa Rica. The trip allowed the group to set
up data collection efforts for the June 2013 excursion to the country.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
The students developed the survey, interview, and observation protocols during
the thematic dissertation meetings. While in Costa Rica, the group interviewed political
leaders, corporate leaders, and education leaders, using semistructured interviews that
were based on a predetermined set of questions (Merriam, 2009). The reason for
choosing to conduct a survey, interviews, and observations was to strengthen the
collection of research data. Using various sources of data is essential for the researcher to
determine whether the results gathered are triangulated. The triangulation of data allowed
the research team to increase the validity of the research findings by decreasing the risk
of bias (Maxwell, 2013). These data were used to address the research questions and to
create the opportunity to draw conclusions at the end of the study.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was done on collective and individual levels. Survey questions were
precoded and aligned to both the research questions and the theoretical frameworks. Each
member of the secondary school was in charge of conducting interviews, the survey, and
observations at his or her assigned school site. The group then compiled the results in a
shared file to organize the data. According to Creswell (2009), “Qualitative validity
means that the researcher checks for accuracy of the finding by employing certain
procedures” (p. 191). The validity strategies were triangulation and member checking.
Data analysis theory utilized in the study was derived from Creswell’s (2009) six-
step approach. Step 1 was to “organize and prepare the data for analysis” (p. 185). After
conducting interviews with political, corporate, and educational leaders, the team
recorded field notes and transcribed the interviews. The interviews that were conducted
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
in Spanish were translated to English. Another important piece for Step 1 was to sort
through the raw data gathered from classroom observations and type the field notes for
this source of data. The data from the survey protocol were collected and compiled into
one source. Step 2 included reading through all of the data from the survey, personal
interviews, and observation protocols. Step 3 was a “detailed analysis with a coding
process” (p. 186). The research team used coding to identify the potential patterns and
trends that allowed for classification of themes in Chapter 4. Step 5 was based on the use
of a narrative approach to deliver the findings of the data analysis. Step 6 required the
interpretation of the data findings. The description of the findings and analysis of data
was done using Spring’s (2008) globalization framework, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century
skills framework, and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework. The use of the
three frameworks for analysis allowed the research team to relate the findings to the
research questions.
Ethical Considerations
The 12 members of the dissertation group participated in the IRB application
process. The process required each member to complete the Collaborative IRB Training
Initiative (CITI). The CITI is an online training program that offers a variety of modules
relating to ethical considerations when doing research. After completion of the CITI, the
research team worked together to submit the application and instrumentation protocols to
the USC IRB in April 2013. This was done to adhere to the Ethical Principals and
Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research” in accordance with federal
regulations, state laws, and local and university policies. Interview questions were created
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
using Spring’s (2008) globalization framework, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills
framework, and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework; Survey and
observation protocols were created using Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills framework
and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework.
Chapter Summary
This chapter described the research methodologies guided the research for the
case study conducted in Costa Rica by the 12 USC doctoral students. This chapter also
described the process that involved the research design model, the sample population, the
instrumentation, the data collection, and the data analysis process. The design of the
study allowed the team to determine the impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in
Costa Rica and their educational leaders. This chapter explained the creation of the
survey, individual interview questions, and observation protocols, as well as the
collaboration by group members to understand the research that will be done in Costa
Rica. Collaboration was key in developing the methodology for the study; however, each
member of the team also worked individually on this chapter. The chapter provides a
connection between the review of the literature, the three frameworks, and the research
questions.
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Chapter 4
Results
Currently, the global market requires students to be prepared with 21st-century
skills that will allow them to be competitive. Globalization is a phenomenon that has
been of particular interest to the world of education for the past couple of decades. Costa
Rica is a small Central American nation that has seen many economic, social, and
political changes due to the impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs. Many
elements were put into place before MNCs decided to invest in Cost Rica. The country’s
stable government and commitment to education have given it a good status in the world.
Despite the advances made in Costa Rica, the country lags in terms of creating
knowledge-ready workers who will be prepared to meet the growing needs of MNCs.
This chapter reports results of analysis of qualitative data collected individually
and collectively by a group of 12 research students from USC. For the purpose of this
dissertation study, literature was reviewed, interviews were conducted and transcribed,
surveys were distributed and inventoried, and observations were analyzed to triangulate
the data. Collectively, 15 interviews, 171 surveys, and 75 observations were conducted.
Each researcher conducted interviews at specific school sites in Costa Rica. However, all
of the students traveled in small groups, with one bilingual person in each paired team.
The findings presented in this chapter are based on interviews conducted with two
political, two corporate, and two school site leaders, along with the survey and
observations data results from LBB. Data collected from the various sources were coded
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and analyzed to identify common themes. The chapter concludes with a summary of the
significant findings of the study in response to the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Cost Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been affect directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of globalization and MNCs
on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study was designed to determine how globalization and
MNCs affect educational policy decisions and to identify how school leadership plays a
role in the process of policy change and implementation in the four-tiered school and
university system in Costa Rica. The study was designed to determine whether these
initiatives are improving the human capital needs of MNCs and producing larger numbers
of knowledge-ready workers to sustain Costa Rica’s thriving economy. The findings are
analyzed using three frameworks: Defining Globalization (Spring, 2008), Reframing
Organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), and Wagner’s 7 Survival Skills for the 21st
Century (Wagner, 2008).
Participants
The research team examined three elementary schools, four secondary schools,
and two universities, all located close to the capital city, San Jose. Intel provided the team
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a list of schools with which the MNC has partnerships. The schools were selected from
this list; hence, the team used purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002). Interviews with
political, corporate, and school site leaders were conducted, as well as teacher surveys
and classroom observations. The surveys were given to teachers and collected during the
2-day school site visit that took place on June 26 and 28, 2013.
Surveyed Participants
The surveys were distributed on Wednesday, June 26, 2013, to 25 teachers at
LBB in the province of Heredia, about 30 minutes from downtown San Jose, Costa Rica.
Upon arriving at the school, the Director (principal) informed my partner and I that he
would not be at the school site for the day and so introduced us to the academic
coordinator, Xinia. Xinia gave us a tour of the school and introduced us to several
teachers; these were the teachers who completed the survey. Most surveys were collected
on the 1st day and the remaining surveys were collected on the 2nd day. Sixteen teachers
from LBB completed the survey protocol for this study and eight classrooms were
observed (see Table 2).
Table 2

Summary of Participants for Surveys and Observations

Factor Total

Number of surveys distributed at Liceo Bilingue de Belen 25
Number of responses from Liceo Bilingue de Belen 16
Number of observations at Liceo Bilingue de Belen 8

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Interviewed Participants
More than 15 interviews were conducted by the team as a whole; however, only
six are reported in this dissertation: two interviews from political leaders, corporate
(MNC) leaders, and school site leaders. Real names and locations will be used to present
the themes and findings relevant to the research questions: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier,
Minister of Education; (b) Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE; (c) Mary Helen Bialas,
Intel Academic Relations and Education Programs Manager; (d) Patricia Chico, Intel
External Communications; (e) Wagner Alfaro, Director of LBB; and (f) Milka Yataco,
Subdirector of LBB.
Dr. Leonardo Garnier was the most significant person interviewed for this study,
as he is the Minister of Education for the nation of Costa Rica. He is an economist by
training; he is serving his second 4-year term as Minister. This is the first time a minister
has served a second term. Dr. Garnier came to office in 2006 and has been in office for 7
years. He is in charge of preschool, primary, and secondary education. He commented,
“Nothing is secret when you are in politics,” and then proceeded to answer our interview
questions.
Gabriela Llobet is the director of CINDE, the Investment Promotion Agency in
Costa Rica that is charged with attracting FDI for the country. She is a lawyer by
profession; she practiced law many years ago. Her responsibilities at CINDE are related
to international trade and investment. Her interview provided a context and background
of where Costa Rica stands and what its investment promotion policies are. This relates
to MNCs in Costa Rica, as CINDE promotes high-technology investment in the country.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
Mary Helen Bialis is the Academic Relations and Education Programs Manager
for Intel. She is the liaison between Intel Costa Rica and Intel Corporation programs that
are linked to support education in Costa Rica. Ms. Bialis has been with Intel for 16 years.
Previous to that, she worked for 10 years with the U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID) as an education project manager. Previous to that, she worked for
10 years as a Peace Corps program manager for education and community.
Patricia Chico has worked at Intel for 12 years. At first she handled the
volunteering program, which grew from nothing to 60% of the employee population
volunteering in the local community. This equates to more than 1,000 volunteers, or 6 of
every 10 Intel workers. Her job was to target skills-based volunteering to mentor children
at local schools via Intel’s career day or to have these individuals serve as judges for the
national science fair held at every school in Costa Rica. Then she expanded her role to
community relations, where she spent 10 years. In this position she was charged with
handling all relationships with the directors of schools and the municipality. She
emphasized that her role was to link the community to Intel: “Every neighbor that wants
to talk to us. For us it is very important to have one face, one name.” She was the face of
Intel in the community. In December 2012, she left volunteering and now specializes in
external communications for Intel Costa Rica and the region.
Wagner Alfaro is the director of LBB. He has been in this position for 12 years.
He was instrumental in converting the secondary school from an academic school to a
bilingual school.
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Milka Yataco is the subdirector at LBB. She began this position during this
academic year but has been in education for more than 16 years. She was previously the
director of a local high school.
Observed Participants
We visited the school on the final week of classes before summer break; therefore
many of the teachers were reluctant to let us observe their classrooms. They commented
that the observations might not be valuable to the study because the school year was
coming to a close and not much was being done in class. Eight classrooms were
observed: two science classes, two mathematics classes, and four English classes.
Results for Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Cost Rica? The world has become more interconnected, especially in
economic terms. Costa Rica has seen a shift in its economic development since the 1980s
(Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Analysis of data related to Research Question 1 revealed three
prominent themes related to Spring’s (2008) definitions of globalization. The aim was to
discover how MNCs have influenced the nation of Costa Rica as a whole. This research
question is closely linked to Spring’s (2008) postcolonial definition of globalization.
First, economic development has been focused on attracting FDI, which leads
Intel’s investment in the country. Second, Costa Rica has seen an improvement in schools
due in large part to collaboration by the MEP, MNCs, and schools, as well as the shift in
curriculum that this collaboration has created. Third, better living conditions have
resulted from globalization and the presence of MNCs via better job opportunities
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
provided by the technology industry and the creation of new types of jobs for highly
skilled workers. These themes are related to Spring’s (2008) explanation of globalization
from a postcolonialist perspective because “education is viewed as an economic
investment assigned to produce better workers to serve multinational corporations”
(p. 335). Costa Rican government officials and corporate leaders have worked together to
shift the focus of the education system to develop a knowledge-based work force that will
meet the needs of MNCs. In return, this collaboration has benefited the Costa Rican
public by providing more job opportunities.
Economic Development
Analysis of data from interviews conducted with political, corporate, and school
site leaders identified attracting FDI and sourcing Intel as a leader among other MNCs as
significant factors in Costa Rica’s economic development. Intel was the first large-scale
investment for the country and thus set the stage for further FDI. Six questions focusing
on globalization and the impact of MNCs were discussed in the six interviews used for
the purpose of addressing this research question. These questions focused on the
economic, cultural, and political impacts of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica.
Interview data showed that a shift in the economic development in Costa Rica
was aimed at attracting FDI and establishing FTZs for that purpose. During his interview,
the Minister of Education agreed: “Starting in the late 70s, early 80s, we changed
strategies. . . . Costa Rica started attracting foreign investment.” The Minister explained
the impact of globalization in the country: “For one thing, it is true in our country, you
cannot make your decisions without taking into account what is going on in the global
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
economy.” The Director of Costa Rica’s investment promotion agency, CINDE, echoed
the Minister’s words: “Costa Rica’s model as a small economy has been to open up the
world. One element of that is attracting foreign direct investment, exporting to the world
good and services of high quality.” Even at the school site level, leaders stated that FDI
has been significant in the development of Costa Rica. The director of LBB stated, “Lots
of changes have occurred in Costa Rica, starting with trade agreements and the pressure
from FTZ. We are not talking about economic growth but about economic development.”
The interviews indicated that Intel has been an influential leader in the country,
especially in establishing a benchmark for other MNCs. Intel’s community relations
director Patricia Chico pointed out that Costa Ricans talk about before and after Intel in
terms of economic opportunities, safety regulations, and community outreach. “They will
talk about before and after Intel because we set the standards and share it with the
community. Intel has been like the tour visit for any company that wants to be based in
Costa Rica.” The Intel Education Programs Manager, Mary Helen Bialas, reinforced the
idea that Intel had much to do with the economic investment by MNCs after her company
had invested in the country: “Actually, Intel was one of the companies that attracts other
companies. With Intel here, we became the example to others and we were perhaps in the
right place.” Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE, also expressed the idea of Intel’s
influence: “Obviously, having Intel here, having companies like Baxter here, at that
moment in time, they were the models, the references.” These MNCs are models for
other MNCs to follow because of their involvement with the community.
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School Improvement
In addition to economic development, Costa Rica has seen improvement in
schools since the arrival of MNCs. This idea is supported by the collaboration between
MNCs and the MEP and a shift in education/curriculum. Interview questions 1 through 6
in the “Globalization” section of the protocol allowed the researchers to understand the
improvements made to the education system in Costa Rica.
MNCs, such as Intel, have collaborated with the Costa Rican education system.
Gabriela Llobet discussed the collaboration between MNCs and schools to promote and
improve technological fields:
When Intel first came to Costa Rica, back in 1997, we’re talking of the university
level. The number of engineering graduates was x. Ten years later, it was five x or
six x, in the different engineering fields. Obviously, very much focused on
electronic, electro mechanic.
This shift to engineering was influenced by MNCs and was explained by Ms. Llobet:
Definitely, these types of companies or industries have been able to impact and
have been able to work. Have a great collaboration with our educational system.
Particular, I would say in the three areas: at the university level, at the technical
level, and yes, at the primary education sectors to be able to join forces on the one
hand, try to address in these different levels, what would be the needs of them as
an industry.
Working with schools is of major focus for MNCs such as Intel. Ms. Bialis
explained how Intel continues to work with schools:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
One of the direct impacts is we’re working on . . . from K through 12 and higher
ed and having a big emphasis on K through 12 and to support the learning of 21st-
century skills. Twenty-first-century skills are basically that students be prepared
to be successful in any career in the future, in the knowledge economy, and in the
globalized economy. That has a direct relation to a lot of our materials, a lot of
our preparation, and it’s working with schools to develop those skills.
Another way that Intel has worked with the MEP to effect educational change is
via the Science Fair. Ms. Chico stated:
The Science Fair, for example, when we came to Costa Rica, was 0.03% of the
students who participated in science fairs. And we need engineers; we need
thinkers. It was through partnerships with the Ministry of Education, the Science
and Technology, the University of Costa Rica, which is where the Science Fair is
based. . . . So now, every school in the country has a scientific fair. . . . [Intel has
discovered that they are] having to use our strengths as a company to create more
impact when we interact with organizations especially schools because education
is our main focus.
The country has also seen a shift in education and curriculum. The Minister of
Public Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, explained that a shift in labor market due to
globalization has led to a shift in education.
Basically, two thirds of Costa Rica works in the service sector. So this is a service
economy. And that means a lot for preparation because you have to prepare kids
for a variety of different things. So yes, your educational system starts moving in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
one direction and then your idea of the world changes and your labor market
changes, liberal professions which were very common in the past such as doctors
and lawyers. . . . Now more kids want to be engineers and biologists, science-
oriented jobs and service-oriented jobs.
Ms. Chico explained the significance of Intel working with schools to change the
curriculum:
When we came in the schools, we went to them and said, “Hey, we want to
reinforce the curriculum.” We’re very interested in science, technology,
engineering, and math. So why don’t we start, you know, doing some
engineering’s in the classroom?
The Subdirector of the LBB, Milka Yataco, discussed the shift in educational
focus at her school site:
English is basic for opening doors for our students. This is why our school
became a bilingual school, to meet the needs of MNCs and provide qualified
workers able to speak English. Our country has had to focus on technological
education to meet the needs of MNCs.
MNCs have allowed for educational change in curriculum due to the economic
opportunities provided to the Costa Rican community. School improvement has occurred
because of the collaboration between MNCs and the education system. This improvement
has been seen in the shift toward the implementation of 21st-century skills and the
emphasis on the national science fair. Education is seen as an economic investment that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
will lead to development of a knowledge-based work force ready to meet the needs of
MNCS.
Better Living
According to Spring (2008), “Discourse about the knowledge economy focus on
the necessity of educing students with skills for the global workforce” (p. 337); these
include the use of technology and the application of 21st-century skills. Preparing
students to meet the demands of the global economy is another example of Spring’s
(2008) postcolonial perspective on globalization. Globalization and the presence of
MNCs have created new types of jobs that have resulted in better living situations for
many Costa Ricans. Dr. Garnier stated:
Right now, people in Costa Rica live better than they lived 20 years ago. The poor
are less poor than they were 20 years ago. The standards of living are better, if
you look at indicators like life expectancy, birth, GDP average, education,
different things.
Mr. Alfaro recognized that new types of jobs are demanded of society: “In the
1920’s, 75% of the workforce had jobs directly related to agriculture. Now it’s less than
10%.” Mrs. Yataco commented that these new economic demands require schools to
“prepare students to speak English to take advantage of new jobs being created.” These
two educational leaders are aware of the changes that have occurred in their country.
They understand that their role as leaders is to contribute to the development of
knowledge-ready workers equipped with the skills needed to meet the needs of MNCs.
This preparation affords students greater job opportunities.
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More job opportunities are now being provided for higher-level skilled workers.
Ms. Bialis explained that Intel and other MNCs have opened doors to higher-level
workforce opportunities. “Definitely, we’ve brought in higher-paid workforce
opportunities at the technical level and the operation level as well as at the engineering
level.” Ms. Llobet explained that high-technology jobs pay more, and this is what CINDE
tries to attract. “We have selected specific types of sectors, what we call strategic sectors.
The idea is to be able to provide quality jobs to our people. That’s why we focus on these
high-tech sectors.” Mr. Wagner agreed that MNCs are “generating new types of jobs,
with new demands for employment.” Ms. Yataco said that a focus on technology has
provided better job opportunities: “Multinationals intervene directly in the economy of a
country. Nations need to change to offer the services needed by MNCs.” Patricia Chico
emphasized that, in Costa Rica, “The workforce is more prepared.” The Minister of
Public Education stated, “We tried to attract international investments that could pay
higher wages in more sophisticated sectors.” All of these opportunities have been made
possible by a government committed to the betterment of its people, providing them with
better economic opportunities.
Summary
The results related to Research Question 1 revealed that Intel has had a positive
impact on the country of Costa Rica. The MNC has effected change in the education
system in Costa Rica, which has in turn created a ripple effect, setting the tone and
example for other MNCs. Globalization definitely changed Costa Rica, but it was the
collaboration between the government and CINDE that allowed for high-technology FDI
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by MNCs such as Intel. The willingness of the Costa Rican government to work with
MNCs to create economic and educational policies that have led to better living
conditions is the most influential results related to Research Question 1. This
demonstrates the ability of Costa Rican politicians to work with MNCs to create a
positive change for the country, both educationally and economically; in other words,
globalization and MNCs have changed the political, educational, and economic scope in
Costa Rica.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Twenty-first century skills are
the major educational push in most countries around the world. Wagner (2008) stated that
the global achievement gap is “fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and
technological changes” (p. 9). His seven survival skills for the 21st-century are critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurialism, oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination. Interview questions 1 through 5 in the
Twenty-First Century Skills section of the interview protocol, teacher survey questions 1
through 9, and observation questions 1 through 10 were used to collect data to address
this research question. The question was aimed at discovering how MNCs have
influenced educational policy around the development of 21st-century skills. The three
themes that arose from the data collected for this research question were a focus on
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English and technology in schools, human and capital resources for education being
provided by Intel, and 21st-century skills in the classroom.
Focus on English and Technology in Schools
Analysis of data from the three data instruments identified that a shift in education
has been made due to the technology demands made by the economy because of the
presence of MNCs. The use of technology is significant in the development of
knowledge-ready workers who are able to perform two of Wagner’s (2008) seven
survival skills for the 21st century: critical thinking and problem solving and accessing
and analyzing information. The survey (Appendix C) asked participating teachers
whether “technology is used in your classroom.” Survey data indicated that 14 of the 16
teachers used technology in their classrooms. The Minister of Public Education pointed
out, “We use a lot of tech, but we know this is not about technology, it’s about
education.” The Minister considered technology to be a vehicle for education and has
made it a goal of the MEP to bring technology to every school. Mary Helen Bialas of
Intel echoed this goal: “There are many initiatives from the Ministry of Education to try
to create new process or change . . . to bring in project-based learning and definitely bring
in technology.” A major partner of the MEP is the Omar Dengo Foundation. Mr. Alfaro
reported that, “in technology, there has been a strong push by the Omar Dengo
Foundation” to place computer labs in every school in Costa Rica. Data collected from
classroom observations indicated that technology was being used in the classrooms as a
result of this demand by society and the economy. Observation data showed that
technology was being used in four of the eight observed classrooms. (It is important to
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note that the observations were conducted 3 days before summer vacation.) Economic
demands made by globalization and MNCs have pushed the focus of education toward a
focus on technology in order to produce skilled workers.
English as a second language was made prominent when the MEP pushed out its
“Costa Rica Multilingue” initiative, which requires all schools to offer English classes
(MEP, 2002). Learning and applying English at schools helps students to develop oral
and written communication skills in a second language and will prepare them to enter the
knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. Gabriela Llobet of CINDE reiterated the
efforts of the Minister of Public Education:
In the English language, for example, he has doing a lot to be able to have a
bilingual work force. We need that for these companies. At the primary level, he
has done a lot specifically. That involves the English teachers.
Ms. Chico explained that the Minister of Public Education has established English
language learning as a significant part of the education system in Costa Rica:
[The Minister] mandated that English be taught at first grade, from first grade up
because then it was only in high schools. They had to do a lot of policy around it,
to do teacher training, and improve the teacher.
School leaders recognized the importance of learning English, which led to
changes in the focus of schools. Director Alfaro stated:
In 2003 we made efforts to become a bilingual school. And in 2004 we started
working with the curriculum of English Schools. Why? For two reasons. One, we
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felt the need for young people to get out of their 10th year with two basic tools:
technology and English.
According to the observation data collected from the classrooms at, four of the
eight classrooms reflected an emphasis on bilingual education. The teachers in these
classrooms taught in English and students responded in English. However, this was
because these were actual English classes. The other four classes that were observed were
not specifically English classes: two were mathematics classes and two were science
classes. Increased access to and use of technology in schools allows teachers to create
lessons focusing on critical thinking and problem solving by integrating a significant
component of the knowledge-based economy. English in schools allows students to
develop oral and written communication skills in a second language. Both technology
and English use in schools have contributed to the improvement of schools in Costa Rica.
Human and Capital Resources for Education
Collaboration is another one of Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills for the 21st
century. Intel has done an excellent job in exhibiting this skill as it has set the example of
“collaboration across networks and leading by influence” (Wagner, 2008, p. 215). Results
related to Research Question 2 showed that an Intel partnership with the MEP has been a
positive indicator of social responsibility. Results from survey data showed that 10 of the
16 responding teachers agreed that Intel has positively impacted LBB. The interviewees
also spoke to the positive partnership that Intel has established with the education system
in Costa Rica. Mary Helen Bialis explained how Intel has contributed to the expansion of
the national science fair: “We looked at how to expand science fairs and more kids to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
participate in them and actually made the nationals. Kids were coming in from around the
nation and not just from San Jose.” She described the impact of Intel in the country: “You
have not 30 schools participating, we have 3,000 districts, you have half a million kids
around the country participating in the process.” Intel’s efforts did not stop at the science
fair. She explained, “We started working with the ministry to create another fair, which is
The National Engineering Fair.”
Patricia Chico discussed the impact of Intel in the national science fair:
When we came to Costa Rica, 0.03% of the students participated in science fairs.
And we need engineers, we need thinkers, and we said, “How can a country boost
from the early stage the capacity of think outside of the box and using the 21st-
century skills, cooperation, and problem solving and so on?
Intel has a great sense of social responsibility to the Country of Costa Rica. Their
focus on improving the education system so that in turn these students can be knowledge-
ready workers and earn a better living by working for one of the MNCs is commendable.
Director Wagner stated, “Intel is one of the companies in the area that has
demonstrated greater social responsibility.” Gabriela Llobet of CINDE echoed Intel’s
drive for social responsibility:
Building and being able to work together with Intel to improve the curricula, and
to be able to really launch these specific engineering fields. Being able to do a
little bit more on vocational orientation, so that kids would start getting excited
about studying engineering was quite good and obviously, was a great
complement to work, we, as a country while seeking.
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Mrs. Llobet explained the importance of Intel’s collaboration with the education system
to improve school curriculum and provide more opportunities in engineering and
vocational training. Intel is not only a socially responsible corporation; it is also setting a
collaborative model for others to follow. This MNC is leading by example.
Intel’s efforts make the company a socially responsible MNC, as described by Mr.
Alfaro: “Intel has demonstrated commitment. For example, they have always been
willing to participate in projects where technology becomes a tool of the teaching.” Intel
cares about the preparation of students in Costa Rica because both sides can benefit from
the development of knowledge-ready workers. Intel has also provided human resources to
schools via their volunteer program and career fairs, as well as capital resources in the
donation of technological items to schools.
Intel has afforded human resources to schools through their volunteering program,
career fair, and field trips. Gabriela Llobet stated:
Intel is a clear example. They’re a great example in many aspects. One, they have
resources. When I say the resources, they have Mary Helen. Three resources. Full
time, dedicated to being that point of contact with the educational system. You
won’t find that in any other companies.”
Ms. Bialas described Intel’s efforts in the development of 21st-century skills:
One of the direct impacts is we’re working on . . . from K through 12 and higher
ed and having a big emphasis on K through 12 and how to support the learning of
the 21st-century skills. Twenty-first-century skills are basically that students be
prepared to be successful in any career in the future, in the knowledge economy,
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and in the globalized economy. That has a direct relation to a lot of our materials,
a lot of our preparation, and it’s working with schools to develop those skills,
definitely there.
Intel has created a culture of volunteering and giving back to the community. The
company encourages its workers to go to local schools and talk about their careers in
technology. Mary Helen Bialas stated:
Volunteers witness, talk to kids about being an engineer or talk to them about
recycling and the fact that someone from outside, from not in the school, but
somebody from the community comes in. It’s really an exciting initiative for the
kids.
Patricia Chico also explained how the human resources provided by Intel are put
to use:
We’re targeting skills-based volunteering. So every kid can paint a wall and
sometimes we do, but our target is to go and mentor a child to do judging in
science fairs or give even a career day like having one person from finance, one
from HR, and three different engineering, talking to kids.
Director Alfaro described Intel’s Volunteer Program, called Volunteers for Career
Fair:
Intel has had a significant impact because they develop volunteering opportunities
for their employees. Some engineers at Intel volunteer to come to our school and
give support and advice to children in math fields or they come for our day of
training. That day, 12 to 15 Intel officials from different branches talk to the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
students and say, “I studied electrical engineering because of this, this, and this,
and this is what I do at Intel.” [The school] has benefited greatly from the human
resources provided to the school by Intel, but Intel does more than provide
mentors for schools.
The human resources that Intel has provided for schools via their Volunteer Program and
access to the Intel premises for school field trips show that the MNC displays the use of
collaboration with schools for the benefit of students.
Intel has influenced education in terms of the capital resources provided and
distributed to the schools. Survey data indicated that Intel has improved resources at the
school site as 11 of 16 teachers responded positively to this question. According to Mr.
Alfaro, “To date, they [Intel] have given us a full laboratory. Then they also gave us a
semi-laboratory for teaching English. Overall, they have given us much equipment for the
training and teaching students.” The director said that Intel has donated 40 to 45 laptop
computers to the school for use in science and mathematics classes. His overall
conclusion was that Intel “has had a presence and a significant impact” at the school. The
subdirector of the school, Milka Yataco, also described resources that have been provided
by Intel. She reported that Intel set up the school’s networking several years ago and that
the company recently came in to update the routers for wireless Internet. Ms. Yataco
echoed what Mr. Alfaro mentioned: “Intel has donated a computer lab and laptops.”
Wagner (2008) stated, “In both school life and daily life, you contribute to the overall
effort of group. You work well with diverse individuals and in a variety of situations,
using effective communication skills” (p. 245). Intel has contributed to the overall
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improvement of Costa Rica’s economy via changes in the education system by
collaborating with political and educational leaders. This school is just one of the schools
that receives resources from Intel for the development of 21st-century skills and,
ultimately, knowledge-ready workers.
Twenty-First-Century Skills in the Classroom
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) is working with the Costa Rican
government to adapt the Assessment and Teaching of 21st-Century Skills project
(atc21s.org). These are critical skills for every student to posses in order to join a
knowledge-ready workforce. Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills framework is used to
describe this theme. The Costa Rican Education System has seen changes in curriculum
and the implementation of 21st-century skills as a result of globalization and the presence
of MNCs.
Changes in curriculum have been made to several subject areas in Costa Rican
schools. Analysis of teacher surveys indicated that 14 of 16 responding teachers agreed
that the curriculum at the observed school reflects 21st-century skills. The push for the
use of 21st-century skills is now prominent because of efforts by the MEP. Dr. Garnier
stated, “In this second term we could say we can now look into math curriculum,
Spanish, science, so we’ve been working in those areas, very much the same idea.” The
MEP has begun to push schools to incorporate project-based learning because its
implementation involves the use of all of Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills for the
21st century. Dr. Garnier described the importance of collaboration and problem solving
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as “a nice change in the curriculum, based around projects done through collaboration
with students, collective problem solving.”
Mary Helen Bialas explained the significance of project-based learning and the
initiatives being made by the MEP: “There are many initiatives from the Ministry of
Education to try to create a new process or change and bring in same core base learning
and to bring in project-based learning a lot and definitely bring in technology.” These
changes to the curriculum were made to develop students who are equipped with the tools
to be successful in a knowledge-ready workforce.
Data collected by classroom observation also showed changes in instruction
shifting toward the use of 21st-century skills based on the curriculum changes that have
been made by the MEP. Instruction in seven of the eight observed classrooms reflected
21st-century skills, such as critical thinking, collaboration, and/or communication.
Student-centered instruction was evident in six of the eight classrooms. Students in all
eight classrooms were clearly engaged in what was being taught. This demonstrates that
critical thinking, collaboration, and communication are focus skills that are being taught
and practiced in the classrooms.
The implementation of 21st-century skills at the target school was evident based
on the data collected via surveys and observations. Analysis of survey responses
indicated that 14 of the 16 teachers agreed that collaboration by students takes place daily
in their classrooms. This was supported by observation results that showed that six of the
eight classrooms showed collaboration by students. According to survey results, all 16
teachers plan lessons that promote higher-level thinking. The lessons observed in six of
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the eight classrooms promoted higher-level thinking. The data from classroom
observations also support the presence of collaboration, as all eight classrooms were set
up in a collaborative manner. Both the surveys and observations showed evidence to
confirm implementation of 21st-century skills at the target school, which is a result of
globalization and the presence of MNCs.
Summary
The push for implementation of 21st-century skills is the most influential finding
related to this research question. The focus on English, technology, and 21st-century
skills is apparent not only at the school site level but also in the goals and objectives of
the MEP. Changes in curriculum have occurred to align subject area content and skills
with 21st-century skills. The push for 21st-century skills is also evident in Intel’s
partnership with schools. The MNC provides human and capital resources that aid
schools in implementation of these skills in order to produce knowledge-ready workers.
Intel sees itself as a leader in setting the stage for social responsibility, both educationally
and socially. The MNC understands the importance of contributing to the education
system in Costa Rica as this investment will benefit the economy of the country as a
whole.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Questions 3 asked, How has educational leadership been affect directly
by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of effective leadership include the structural
frame, the political frame, the human resource frame, and the symbolic frame. This
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framework provides a lens by which to analyze the data collected to address this research
question. Analysis of the data suggested two emerging themes: shared responsibility for
implementation of 21st-century skills and changes in the focus of schools to meet the
needs of MNCs.
Shared Responsibility for Implementation of 21st-Century Skills
Educational leaders are focusing on the implementation of 21st-century skills in
Costa Rican schools in order to prepare students for a knowledge-based economy. Shared
responsibility is a major component of the emphasis on 21st-century skills by educational
leaders and can be explained using Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership frames. The
structural frame places importance on the shared responsibility between educational
leaders and the direction in which they guide the staff based on clear goals and direction.
The human resource frame focuses on interaction between people and their organization,
that is, what the organization can do for the worker and what the worker can do for the
organization. In this case, the human resource frame is exhibited in the relationship
between school leadership and the teachers at this particular school site. The political
frame supports the idea of partnerships in this shared responsibility among leaders in
Costa Rica. Data from the survey and interviews suggest that both teachers and the
school administration are accountable for the implementation of 21st-century skills.
When asked whether “teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in
the classroom,” 11 of 16 teachers agreed with the statement. The same results were found
for the item “school site leaders are active participants in the implementation of 21st-
century skills.” Survey data reflect the shared responsibility between teachers and
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administrators in the education of students at the target school. This shared responsibility
falls within the structural frame because the director, Mr. Wagner Alfaro, has provided
goals directions for his teachers. He also operates from the human resource frame
because he works with his team to ensure that all are responsible for implementation of
21st-century skills at the target school.
The interviews confirmed the shared responsibility of teachers and administration
in ensuring that 21st-century skills are implemented in the classroom. When asked, “Do
you think it’s the teachers responsibility alone [to implement 21st century skills]?”
Patricia Chico responded, “Alone? No. It’s part of the responsibility but not alone.” It is
not up to the teacher alone to implement 21st-century skills because teachers need
leadership to support them in these efforts. Mary Helen Bialas explained:
If the teachers are going to be able to provide those kind of skills and help their
children develop, they have to have leadership support, they have to have the
resources report, and they have to have the professional development. . . . It has to
be integrated and they need the curriculum or they need me to be able to have
those processes evaluated and the goals to work towards stuff. It can’t fall on the
teacher. The teacher has to give in to it, but they have to have all that structure to
support them.
The importance of leadership was confirmed in the responses to the question
about the implementation of 21st-century skills. Director Alfaro stated that the teachers
are responsible in the classroom but that administration is responsible at the school site
level. “In the classroom, the teacher [is responsible]. But in the institution, it is up to us.
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A director is not only an administrator or formal resource manager but also a curriculum
administrator.” Leaders must set the structures to support teachers in implementation of
21st-century skills, and they must communicate the educational goals of the school.
Leaders have the responsibility of communicating educational goals to teachers,
parents, students, and the public in general. According to the responses to the teacher
survey, 9 out the 16 teachers agreed that school site leaders communicate the goals and
the vision of the school to teachers and students. Mr. Wagner Alfaro operates from a
structural leadership frame because he communicates the goals of the target school with
his students and staff.
The Minister of Public Education agreed that it is important to communicate with
directors, teachers, and students. “I use a lot of email, Facebook, Twitter, which is very
nice because then you can keep in touch with a lot of people: students, teachers,
principals.” He reported that he uses social media to reach a larger audience in just a
matter of seconds.
It would be impossible to get them in real life maybe once a year. And it’s really
nice when they write, “That's what I wanted to do a long time ago and now
you’ve allowed us to do that!” I do get a lot of feedback like that and that's nice
because it’s not true that you’re going to change education.
Communication about the goals of an organization is key, and both the Minister of
Education and the Director of the target school understand this important component of
effective leadership.
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Changes in the Focus of Schools to Meet the Needs of MNCs
Globalization and the presence of MNCs have affected educational leadership,
especially in the area of school focus. The political frame is present in the changes made
by educational leaders because of the partnerships established with MNCs. An example
of this is the shift that the target school experienced in 2004 because of a courageous
leader who decided that a shift in the educational focus of the school was needed. The
school had been an academic secondary school but was changed to a bilingual secondary
school because of the leadership efforts of Mr. Alfaro.
The teachers at the school were asked whether the focus of education had changed
at the school site to incorporate 21st-century learning; 14 of 16 agreed that the focus had
changed. Switching the focus of the school was not an easy task; it took much effort, as
described by Mr. Alfaro:
In 2003, we made efforts to become a bilingual school. And from 2004, we
started working with the curriculum of English schools. Why? For two reasons.
One, we felt the need for young people to leave the 10th year with two basic
tools: technology and English. This was going to allow them, regardless of what
they wanted to do, to have a better social mobility in the competitive job market.
If they want to study at the university after secondary school, they can do it; if
they want to enter the workforce, they already have two tools by which to defend
themselves.
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This transition from an academically focused school to a bilingual school was echoed in
the conversations with the subdirector and in various informal conversations with
teachers at the school.
The MEP has been the driving force in the implementation of educational changes
in Costa Rica. The organization has worked with political leaders and corporate leaders to
develop and establish changes that will enhance the educational direction of schools in
the country for the purpose of creating a knowledge-ready workforce that can meet the
needs of MNCs. Responses to the teacher survey indicated that 12 of 16 teachers agreed
with the statement, “Educational decisions are influenced by MNCs.” These educational
decisions are made at the MEP. MNCs in Costa Rica are mainly technology and service
based. According to Dr. Garnier, the MEP has made changes to the mathematics
curriculum; it has aimed to provide technology in all schools to ensure that English
classes start in elementary school and continue throughout high school. It has invested
heavily in preschool programs. All of these efforts have come because of the demand for
knowledge-ready workers.
Summary
Shared accountability for the implementation of 21st-century skills is the main
finding related to this research question. Shared accountability has led to changes in
curriculum at the national level and changes in the focus of schools, as is evident at the
target school. This finding is evident in the way that administrators, both at the school
site and MEP level, deal with their roles educational leaders.
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Dr. Garnier operates within all four of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frames. He is
political in the way that he works with the Costa Rican government and other
organizations that influence the social, economic, and educational systems of the country.
He displays the human resource frame in the way he deals with principals and
administrators, helping them and pushing them toward making their own decisions about
their respective school sites. Dr. Garnier understands that it is everyone’s responsibility in
the school system to implement 21st-century skills and that everyone, from teachers and
administrators to the MEP, should be held accountable for this implementation.
Mr. Alfaro operates within the political, human resource, and organizational
frames of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework. He is political in the way he deals with
the MEP. Specifically, he showed application of this frame when he petitioned to change
the focus of the target school from an academic school to a bilingual school. In terms of
human resources, he delegates responsibilities to his staff. Organizationally, he
understands that everyone is accountable for the implementation of school policy,
including 21st-century skills.
Knowledge of a shared accountability for the implementation of 21st-century
skills at all levels of the educational system is evident in the data collected via the survey,
the interviews, and the classroom observations. These educational leaders realize that the
success of the education systems benefits the country as a whole.
Chapter Summary
Data from a survey, interviews, and observations produced themes that addressed
the three research questions posed by the USC research team. The data aligned to three
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frameworks: Defining Globalization (Spring, 2008), Reframing Organizations (Bolman
& Deal, 2008), and Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills for the 21st Century (Wagner, 2008).
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 1 produced three themes: (a)
economic development focused on FDI, (b) school improvement, and (c) better living
conditions for the people of Costa Rica. The finding for this research question was that
Intel has made a positive impact in the climate of change within Costa Rica. Economic
and educational changes have lead to better living conditions for the people of Costa Rica
because more opportunities are available due to these changes.
Analysis of data related to Research Question 2 produced three themes: (a) a
focus on English and technology in schools, (b) human and capital resources for
education, and (c) 21st-century skills in the classroom. The finding was that the push for
implementation of 21st-century skills is evident at the political, corporate, and
educational levels.
Analysis of data related to Research Question 3 produced two themes: (a) shared
responsibility for implementation of 21st-century skills, and (b) changes in the focus of
schools to meet the needs of MNCs. The finding for this research question is that there is
a shared accountability for educational changes in the country that are influenced by
leaders at various levels of the education system.
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Chapter 5
Conclusion
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
presence of MNCs. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school system’s
responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in students has become increasingly
more challenging. Schools receive resources from MNCs; specifically, examples of
Intel’s contribution to the education system in Costa Rica were described in this
dissertation. Despite five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 96% literacy
rate, there remains a lack of knowledge-ready workers in the country. The problem is that
6 of every 10 students who begin primary school do not graduate from secondary school,
and few students who earn a diploma move on to a university (State of the Nation
Program, 2011). Throughout the study, it was evident that MNCs such as Intel have
positively affected the schools in Costa Rica. However, the presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica also has implications for educational leaders to cultivate 21st-century skills in
students to meet the needs of the developing knowledge-based economy. The country has
failed to prepare its labor force for the future demands of MNCs; “Costa Rica today
exhibits shortages of critical skills and these shortages are promote to interrupt the
catching up of the country with developed countries” (Monge-Naranjo, 2007, p. 1). For
this reason, it is the responsibility of committed political, corporate, and educational
leaders to make needed changes to provide Costa Rica’s youth the opportunity to
participate in the global knowledge-based economy.
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This dissertation was divided into 5 Chapters. Chapter 1 provided an introduction,
overview of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, three research
questions, the significance of the study, and definitions of key terms. Chapter 2 presented
a detailed review of the literature pertaining to globalization and education, the history of
Costa Rica, education in Costa Rica, MNCs, 21st-century skills in Costa Rica, and
leadership in Costa Rica. Chapter 3 described the methodological approach for this study,
including the research design, research team, sample and population, instrumentation
(survey, interviews, and observations) for data collection, data analysis, and ethical
considerations. Chapter 4 addressed the results based on the analysis of data, with
emphasis on addressing the research questions; overall, eight themes and three findings
were identified in the collected data. Chapter 5 summarizes the results, discusses
implications of the findings, and makes recommendations for further research.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools
and universities in Costa Rica. The study helped the researchers to determine how
globalization and MNCs affect educational policy decisions. In addition, the study
identified how school leadership plays a role in the process of policy change and the
implementation of 21st-century skills. The study also determined whether these
initiatives are improving the human capital needs of MNCs and producing larger numbers
of knowledge-ready workers to sustain Costa Rica’s thriving economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
Research Questions
Three research questions guided the research team in gaining understanding of the
impact of globalization and MNCs on the education system in Costa Rica and the
implications of this impact on the implementation of 21st-century skills and school
leadership.
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Cost Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Three theoretical frameworks were used throughout the study: (a) Spring’s (2008)
four theoretical perspectives concerning globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) seven
survival skills for the 21st century, and (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four leadership
frames. These frameworks were chosen to aid in the process of addressing the research
questions.
Summary of Themes
Data analysis revealed eight emergent themes: (a) attracting FDI and sourcing
Intel as a leader among other MNCs are significant factors in Costa Rica’s economic
development; (b) the collaboration between MNCs and the MEP and a shift in
education/curriculum, which has led to school improvement in Costa Rica; (c)
globalization and the presence of MNCs, which have created new types of jobs that have
resulted in better living situations for many Costa Ricans; (d) a shift in education to focus
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
on English and technology in schools; (e) the Intel partnership with the MEP as a positive
indicator of social responsibility, with Intel providing human and capital resources in
education; (f) changes in the Costa Rican education system, including changes in
curriculum and implementation of 21st-century skills as a result of globalization and the
presence of MNCs; (g) shared responsibility for the implementation of 21st-century
skills; and (h) globalization and the effect of MNCs on educational leadership, especially
in the area of school focus
Discussion of Findings Related to Each Research Question
Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Cost Rica? The data analysis identified three emergent themes: (a)
Attracting FDI and sourcing Intel as a leader among other MNCs has been a significant
factor in Costa Rica’s economic development, (b) the collaboration between MNCs and
the MEP and a shift in education/curriculum have led to school improvement in Costa
Rica, and (c) globalization and the presence of MNCs have created new types of jobs that
have resulted in better living situations for many Costa Ricans. Political, corporate, and
school leaders agreed that Costa Rica has seen a rapid increase in the number of MNCs in
the country, established to stimulate the economy. According to Rodriguez-Clare (2001),
by December 1999 Intel had invested $390, employing more than 2,200 people with
higher wages than in the manufacturing sector. In 1999 Intel accounted for more than
60% of the total growth experienced that year, as well as almost 40% of total exports
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel has been an influential component, contributing to both
political and educational changes in Costa Rica.
The aim of Research Question 1 was to discover how MNCs have influenced the
nation of Costa Rica as a whole. First, economic development has been focused on
attracting FDI, which lead to Intel’s investment in the country. The Minister of
Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, stated, “Starting in the late 70s, early 80s, we changed
strategies. . . . Costa Rica started attracting foreign investment.” He explained the impact
of globalization in Costa Rica: “For one thing, it is true in our country, you cannot make
your decisions without taking into account what is going on in the global economy.”
Second, Costa Rica has seen an improvement in schools due in large part to
collaboration by the MEP, MNCs, and schools, as well as the shift in curriculum that this
collaboration has created. Working with schools is of major focus for MNCs such as
Intel. Ms. Bialis explained how Intel continues to work with schools:
One of the direct impacts is we’re working on . . . from K through 12 and higher
ed and having a big emphasis on K through 12 and to support the learning of 21st-
century skills. Twenty-first-century skills are basically that students be prepared
to be successful in any career in the future, in the knowledge economy, and in the
globalized economy. That has a direct relation to a lot of our materials, a lot of
our preparation, and it’s working with schools to develop those skills.
Third, better living conditions have resulted from globalization and the presence
of MNCs via better job opportunities provided by the technology industry and the
creation of new types of jobs for highly skilled workers. Mr. Alfaro recognized that new
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133
types of jobs are demanded in society: “In the 1920’s, 75% of the workforce had jobs
directly related to agriculture. Now it’s less than 10%.” Mrs. Yataco commented that
these new economic demands require schools to “prepare students to speak English to
take advantage of new jobs being created.”
These themes are related to Spring’s (2008) explanation of globalization from a
postcolonial perspective because “education is viewed as an economic investment
assigned to produce better workers to serve multinational corporations” (p. 335). Intel,
along with other MNCs, has had a positive impact on Costa Rica. The increase in MNCs
in Costa Rica has created a need for educational change in terms of what students know
and what they are able to do with the knowledge and skills that they learn. This change is
a push for the implementation of 21st-century skills.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Data from this research
question identified three themes: (a) a focus on English and technology in schools, (b)
Intel providing human and capital resources for schools in Costa Rica, and (c) changes in
curriculum and the implementation of 21st-century skills as a result of globalization and
the presence of MNCs.
The implementation of Twenty-first century skills is the major educational push
in most countries around the world. Wagner (2008) stated that the global achievement
gap is “fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and technological changes” (p.
9). The human and capital resources provided to the schools with which Intel works
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134
support the focus on English and technology, as well as the changes in curriculum and the
implementation of 21st-century skills.
The aim of Research Question 2 was to discover how MNCs have influenced the
education system. First, the focus on English and technology in schools is a push by the
Ministry of Education to develop knowledge-ready workers who can meet the needs of
MNCs. The Minister considered technology to be a vehicle for education and has made it
a goal of the MEP to bring technology to every school. Mary Helen Bialas of Intel
echoed this goal: “There are many initiatives from the Ministry of Education to try to
create new process or change . . . to bring in project-based learning and definitely bring in
technology.” English as a second language was made prominent when the MEP launched
its “Costa Rica Multilingue” initiative, which requires all schools to offer English classes
(MEP, 2002). Gabriela Llobet of CINDE reiterated the efforts of the Minister of Public
Education:
In the English language, for example, he has doing a lot to be able to have a
bilingual work force. We need that for these companies. At the primary level, he
has done a lot specifically. That involves the English teachers.
Second, Intel has provided human and capital resources to its partner schools,
which is a positive indicator of social responsibility. Intel has offered human resources to
schools through its volunteering program, career fair, and field trips. Gabriela Llobet
stated,
Intel is a clear example. They’re a great example in many aspects. One, they have
resources. When I say the resources, they have Mary Helen. Three resources. Full
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
time, dedicated to being that point of contact with the educational system. You
won’t find that in any other companies.
Intel has influenced education in terms of the capital resources provided and distributed
to the schools. Survey data indicated that Intel has improved resources at the school site,
as 11 of 16 teachers responded positively to this question. According to Mr. Alfaro, “To
date, they [Intel] have given us a full laboratory. Then they also gave us a semi-
laboratory for teaching English. Overall, they have given us much equipment for the
training and teaching students.”
Third, the Costa Rican education system has seen changes in curriculum and the
implementation of 21st-century skills as a result of globalization and the presence of
MNCs. Analysis of teacher surveys indicated that 14 of 16 responding teachers agreed
that the curriculum at LBB reflects 21st-century skills. The push for the use of 21st-
century skills is now prominent because of efforts by the MEP. Dr. Garnier stated, “In
this second term we could say we can now look into math curriculum, Spanish, science,
so we’ve been working in those areas, very much the same idea.” He described the
importance of collaboration and problem solving as “a nice change in the curriculum,
based around projects done through collaboration with students, collective problem
solving.” Data collected via classroom observation also showed changes in instruction
shifting toward the use of 21st-century skills based on the curriculum changes that have
been made by the MEP. Instruction in seven of the eight observed classrooms reflected
21st-century skills, such as critical thinking, collaboration, and/or communication.
Student-centered instruction was evident in six of the eight classrooms. Students in all
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136
eight classrooms were clearly engaged in what was being taught. This demonstrates that
21st-century

skills are being taught and practiced in the classrooms.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been affect directly
by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Data analysis for this research question revealed two emergent themes: (a) shared
responsibility for the implementation of 21st-century skills, and (b) changes in the focus
of schools to meet the needs of MNCs. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of
effective leadership were utilized in the research conducted to address this question: the
structural frame, the political frame, the human resource frame, and the symbolic frame.
First, shared responsibility for implementation of 21st-century skills was evident
at LBB. Data from the survey and interviews suggest that both teachers and the school
administration are accountable for implementation of 21st-century skills. When asked
whether “teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in the
classroom,” 11 of 16 teachers agreed. The same results were found for the item “school
site leaders are active participants in the implementation of 21st-century skills.” Survey
data reflect shared responsibility between teachers and administrators in the education of
students at the target school. The structural frame places importance on the shared
responsibility between educational leaders and the direction in which they guide their
staff based on clear goals and directions. Mr. Alfaro has cultivated a culture of
responsibility and accountability at all levels of the school site.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137
Second, changes have been made in the focus of schools to meet the needs of
MNCs. An example of this is the shift that the target school experienced in 2004 because
of a courageous leader who decided that a shift in the educational focus of the school was
needed. The school had been an academic secondary school but was changed to a
bilingual secondary school because of leadership efforts by Mr. Alfaro. The MEP has
been the driving force in the implementation of educational changes in Costa Rica. The
organization has worked with political leaders and corporate leaders to develop and
establish changes that will enhance the educational direction of schools in the country for
the purpose of creating a knowledge-ready workforce that can meet the needs of MNCs.
Summary of Findings
From the emergent themes based on the three research questions, three findings
emerged: (a) Intel has had a positive impact on Costa Rica, (b) there is a push for
implementation of 21st-century skills in education system in Costa Rica, and (c) there is a
shared responsibility for implementation of 21st-century skills. Economic change in
Costa Rica has lead to changes in policy. These changes were ensured by collaboration
between MNCs and political leaders to shift the focus of education. This shift included
changes in curriculum and a focus on English and technology in schools. Collaboration
by the MEP, CINDE, Intel, and various schools has resulted in a positive change for
Costa Rica’s education systems and economy. These key players have acknowledged a
shared responsibility for implementation of changes that have led to development of more
knowledge-ready workers. Although MNCs have had a positive impact on the country’s
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 138
education and economy, more must be done if Costa Rica’s youth are to continue to be
competitive in a global market.
Implications for Practice
The research shows that the partnerships among political, corporate, and school
leaders is beneficial to improving the socioeconomic conditions of the country. For Costa
Rica, these partnerships have enabled the country to attract MNCs and improve the
education system in order to produce knowledge-ready workers. Costa Rica’s leaders
understand the importance of collaboration in the political, economic, and educational
arenas. Leadership is a significant driving force in school success, which affects the type
of workers that MNCs hire. Therefore, partnerships with MNCs are beneficial to
students.
Each entity contributes to the success of Costa Rica. Political leaders have the
responsibility to develop policies that will provide better opportunities for the citizens of
Costa Rica to achieve a higher quality of life. Corporate leaders have the responsibility to
ensure that they contribute not only to the economy but also to the educational
improvement of the country, as this in turn benefits MNCs. Educational leaders have the
responsibility to support implementation of 21st-century skills to meet the needs of
MNCs. These three entities have clearly worked together in Costa Rica, which is why
improvements have been made in the country.
The implications for other countries are significant, as Costa Rica can be seen as
an example of improvement and continued success. The socioeconomic conditions in
Costa Rica continue to change for the better. There is still work to be done but the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 139
partnerships among political, corporate, and school leaders are commendable. The Costa
Rican education system is a good example for other countries that are trying to improve
their educational and socioeconomic conditions, particularly in Latin America. The
partnerships among the three entities have created opportunities for students to learn
English and to develop skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) areas. These opportunities have been a crucial component of Costa Rica’s
continued development of knowledge-ready workers.
Recommendations for Research
This study validates the claim that partnerships by political, corporate and school
leaders are beneficial to the country’s education and economic systems. The impact of
MNCs on schools in Costa Rica has been and continues to be a significant factor in the
improvement of the educational and economic systems in the country. These
improvements have implications on school leadership, the implementation of 21st-
century skills, and student learning outcomes.
First, further research is needed in STEM areas. Many technical high schools have
opened in Costa Rica since the push to attract FDI, with the purpose of developing a
knowledge-ready workforce. It would be interesting to investigate the connection that
these schools have with MNCs in terms of partnerships and job opportunities for
graduates. It would also be helpful to measure the dropout rate in these schools and
compare it to that of academic or bilingual schools. In this manner, gaps can be
identified, reasons for those gaps can be determined, and possible solutions can be
developed to close the drop out rate.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 140
Second, political, corporate, and educational leaders mentioned the significance of
the national science fair and noted that this program has grown in the past decade.
Research on the science fair and the impact of MNCs on the program could identify this
shift toward STEM education and creating a knowledge-ready economy.
Third, schools that have partnerships with MNCs other than Intel should be
studied to determine the larger-scale impact of MNCs on the Costa Rican education
system. The current study was delimited to schools that receive resources from Intel. It
would be beneficial to learn how other MNCs have used their resources to help the
education system shift to a knowledge-based economy.
Fourth, the target school in the current study has a partnership with Intel. The
director stated that he was very grateful to receive technological resources because it
provided his students with the access they need to develop critical skills. This indicates
that access to technology is key in developing the 21st-century skills that MNCs require.
However, not all schools receive help from MNCs. Studying schools that do not have
partnerships with MNCs could identify areas of need for these schools and determine
how educational leaders respond to those needs to produce positive learning outcomes.
Fifth, more research is needed to focus on the Cycle 4, where students tend to
drop out, to determine the potential impact of MNCs on at-risk students. A large
percentage of students drop out in the seventh grade, at transition from Cycle 3 to Cycle
4. Educational leaders are well aware of this problem, but research is needed to determine
why this occurs and what can be done to reduce the high dropout rate in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 141
Conclusion
According to the interview, survey, and observation data, globalization and
MNCs have made a positive impact on the education system in Costa Rica. Political
(MEP), corporate (Intel) and school (Director of LBB) leaders are working toward
creating a knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. The partnership that Intel has with
the targeted schools has benefited both parties. Intel has shown social responsibility in
aiding in the improvement of the education system by providing both human and capital
resources; in return, the schools have been better able to produce more knowledge-ready
workers. However, more work must be done in the area of school dropout rates. In order
to improve the dropout rate, secondary education must be obligatory. Primary education
has been free and obligatory in Costa Rica since 1870 (CINDE, 2011). However the law
does not mandate that students attend secondary school; this is still optional. Leaders
must develop policies that will lower the dropout rate if they are to continue in their
pursuit of creating a knowledge-based economy.
Risk and leadership go hand in hand. The director of LBB took a risk and
displayed his leadership abilities when he sponsored the process of shifting the focus of
LBB from an academic school to a bilingual school. The Minister of Education stated,
“Risk was tough to put into the curriculum because Costa Rica is one of those countries
that has a lot of difficulties thinking in terms of a risk society.” However, courageous
individuals are taking risks to change policies that affect students and create positive
educational outcomes that benefit both the Costa Rican society and the MNCs. Although
66% of the Costa Rican population perceives that the education system has improved in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 142
the past couple of years, leaders must continue to collaborate so this improvement can
reach new heights.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 143
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Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education

Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and multi-
national corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is
asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of
globalization and multinational corporations?

2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study, we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey and
interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly.
We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence
possible to go over the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 150

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 151
Appendix B
Recruitment/Consent Letter

Date

Dear ,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed in
this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may
shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in
Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational
leadership and 21st-century skills.

My name is Xxx Xxx, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction and
guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw
at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous
by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a
manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact Xxx Xxx or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Xxx Xxx and Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in
a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 152
Appendix C
Survey Protocol for Teachers

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.

4

3

2

1

0
2. Collaboration among students takes
place daily.

4

3

2

1

0

3. You have been trained to integrate
technology into your instruction.

4

3

2

1

0

4. Technology is used by students in your
classroom at least weekly.

4

3

2

1

0

5. Lessons promote higher-level thinking.

4

3

2

1

0

6. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills
such as critical thinking, collaboration,
and communication.

4

3

2

1

0

7. There is access to technology in the
classroom.

4

3

2

1

0

8. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.

4

3

2

1

0

9. Intel has improved resources at your
school site.

4

3

2

1

0

10. Students are provided the opportunity
to be college and/or career ready with
21st-century skills.

4

3

2

1

0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 153

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. Teachers are encouraged to implement
21st-century skills in the classroom.

4

3

2

1

0

12. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.

4

3

2

1

0

13. Educational decisions are influenced
by multinational corporations.

4

3

2

1

0

14. School site leaders are active partici-
pants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.

4

3

2

1

0

15. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students.

4

3

2

1

0

16. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to site leaders.

4

3

2

1

0

17. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to teachers.

4

3

2

1

0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 154
Appendix D
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 155
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and
universities that promote access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 156
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 157
Appendix E
MNC Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education
system in Costa Rica?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 158

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the
21st century?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 159
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 160
Appendix F
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 161
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 162
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 163
Appendix G
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ______________________

Location of Observer: Observer:
Date: ______________________

Location of Observer: Observer:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically
toward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

2. Collaboration by students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 164

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

4. Lessons promote higher-level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 165

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

8. Students are engaged in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 166

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

9. Students desks are set up in a
collaborative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

10. Student-centered instruction is evident
in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The world has become more economically interconnected and education is significantly linked to the global economy. Costa Rica went through changes in economic development in the 1980s that set the stage for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the 1990s. The county once relied on agricultural exports, but the political leadership decided that the direction of the country should move toward attracting FDI. Since the 1990s, Costa Rica has seen major investments by multinational corporations (MNCs) because of the country’s commitment to education. The Ministry of Education (MEP) has made changes in the school system to prepare students with technology skills and 21st‐century skills, as this will impact the country’s knowledge‐ready work force. However, the Costa Rican school system faces challenges in ensuring that all students finish secondary school and are equipped with the skills needed to work for MNCs. ❧ Shifts in the focus of education have been made in the county, but more work is needed if Costa Rica is to keep up with the needs of MNCs and continue to develop its knowledge‐based economy. Changes in the economy unequivocally mean changes in the education system

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Preparing students for the future - 21st century skills

Asset Metadata

Creator Mendoza, Alejandra Maria (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the education system in Costa Rica and its implications for the implementation of 21st‐century skills and school leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/03/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Costa Rica,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,school leadership

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Britz, Jan (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email alejandra.maria.mendoza@gmail.com,ammacias@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-374217

Unique identifier UC11296023

Identifier etd-MendozaAle-2321.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-374217 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MendozaAle-2321.pdf

Dmrecord 374217

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Mendoza, Alejandra Maria

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA