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The perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes' academic performance

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The perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes' academic performance

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Content Running head: IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 1

THE PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON STUDENT-ATHLETES’
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
by

Jennifer Amran

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2013

Copyright 2013 Jennifer Amran

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful for all of the individuals that have supported me during this process. I
would like to thank Dean Gallagher for this opportunity as well as the support from Pat Haden
and Dr. Donna Heinel. Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia, co-chair, Dr. Rudy
Castruita, and committee member, Dr. Robert Rueda for serving as my committee. I am
exceptionally grateful for the help and support from Drs. Jennifer Castro, Katie Moulton, and
RF.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………….............. 2
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………..... 5
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….. 6
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY………………………………………... 7
Background……………………………………………………………………….... 8
Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………….. 9
Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………….. 9
Research Questions……………………………………………………………….... 10
Importance of the Study………………………………………………………….... 11
Limitations and Delimitations…………………………………………………….... 12
Organization of Study……………………………………………………………… 12
DEFINITION OF TERMS………………………………………………………………… 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………….. 14
Non-Cognitive Variables…………………………………………………………... 14
Coaches and Student-Athletes…………………………………………………….. 16
Academic Motivation…………………………………………………………….... 20
Student Characteristics…………………………………………………………….. 21
Social Cognitive Theory………………………………………………………….... 23
Attributional Theory……………………………………………………………….. 23
Expectancy-Value Theory…………………………………………………………. 24
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………. 25
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………….... 27
Design Summary………………………………………………………………….... 27
Participants and Setting……………………………………………………………. 27
Instrumentation and Protocols……………………………………………………... 28
Data Collection Protocols………………………………………………………….. 29
Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………. 29
Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………………... 30
Summary………………………………………………………………………….... 31
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS…………………………………………………………………. 32
Demographic Data…………………………………………………………………. 33
Research Question One: What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their………
coaches regarding their academic performance?
34
Being a team on and off the field………………………………………….. 34
Coaches as a parental figure……………………………………………….. 36
Eligibility and Academics………………………………………………….. 39
Research Question Two: How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches……. 42
influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or
behavior?

Meetings with coaches……………………………………………………... 42
Transferrable Skills……………………………………………………….... 45
Summary and Discussion of Findings……………………………………………... 47
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS………… 50
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………... 51
Research Question One: What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their 51
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 4

coaches regarding their academic performance?
Research Question Two: How do student-athletes perceive that their……..
coaches influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their
academic work or behavior?
52
Implications………………………………………………………………………… 54
Theory Implications………………………………………………………... 54
Practical Implications………………………………………………………………. 55
Limitations…………………………………………………………………………. 56
Recommendations for Future Research……………………………………………. 57
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………. 58
References…………………………………………………………………………………... 59
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………................ 74
Appendix A: Interview Protocol……………………………………………………. 74
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter…………………………………………………… 76

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 5

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Demographics……………………………………………………………... 33
Table 2: Student-Athlete Academic Beliefs………………………………………... 34

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 6

Abstract
There is a dearth of literature on the coach and student-athlete relationship within the academic
realm. Various research reports that the relationship between athletes and coaches is important
and can influence the athletes’ athletic performance. However, the effects of this relationship on
the student-athletes’ academic performance has been scarcely studied. This study examined the
perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes’ academic performance by interviewing
20 scholarship, upper-division student-athletes at a Division I institution. The inductive method
of qualitative data analysis was used to analyze the results. Three theories were applied to this
study to understand the impact coaches have on student-athletes’ academic performance. The
three theories are the 1) social cognitive theory 2) expectancy-value theory 3) attributional
theory. Two research questions were addressed in this study 1) What are the student-athletes’
perceptions of their coaches regarding their academic performance? 2) How do student-athletes
perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work
or behavior? The findings indicate that student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches influence
their academic performance. Implications for practice highlight the importance of the student-
athlete and coach relationship and how this relationship can affect the student-athlete academic
experience.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 7

CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Historically, intercollegiate athletics primary purpose has been to support institutions’
educational missions (Flowers, 2009). Currently, there are roughly 453,347 student-athletes in
23 different sports at more than 1,000 institutions participating in National Collegiate Athletic
Association (NCAA) sports (NCAA Sports, 2012). The NCAA is the governing body of
intercollegiate athletics whose mission is aligned with the educational purpose of universities in
that its main goals are to retain and graduate student-athletes (NCAA, 2006; Scogin, 2007).
The NCAA specifically measures student-athletes’ retention and graduation rates through
the Academic Progress Rates (APR; NCAA, 2012). The NCAA uses the institutions’ APR
scores to hold universities accountable by penalizing schools with low APR. A component of
the APR is student-athlete academic eligibility which can include Grade Point Average (GPA),
passing a certain amount of units each semester and year, and meeting percentage-toward-degree
benchmarks. These academic requirements are intended to guide student-athletes to earning
their degree in a six-year time frame. Graduation rates are important because they are regarded
as a measurement of scholarly achievement.
Intercollegiate athletics has multiple benefits for various parties involved. Universities
benefit generously from athletics through several avenues such as donations, recruitment, an
increase in graduation rates, university exposure, and the development of the university’s brand
(Flowers, 2009; Haden, 2001; Suggs, 2009; Taha, 2011; Weaver, 2011). The student-athletes
benefit from participating in intercollegiate athletics as well. Institutions recruit elite student-
athletes who otherwise may not have been college-bound and provide these students with an
opportunity to access higher education and to earn a college degree (Espenshade, Chung, &
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 8

Walling, 2004). In the workforce, students who do not have college degrees usually struggle to
compete with others who do have degrees and tend to earn a lower salary then those who have a
college degree (Becker, 2008). Students who earn a college degree are highly valuable when
they enter the workforce, thus increasing their income earnings (Taha, 2011). In particular,
student-athletes are targeted by employers because they have learned to work cohesively with
others and develop a strong work ethic (Taha, 2011). In addition, other benefits for student-
athletes include maintaining good grades, promoting academic achievement (Snyder & Spreitzer,
1990), empowering student-athletes to develop confidence and interpersonal skills (Hanks &
Eckland, 1976) as well as an increase in moral development (Gwendolyn & Baffourm, 2002).
Background of the Problem
During the course of a student-athlete’s collegiate career, they are exposed to developing
significant relationships with institutional agents, such as coaches. These collegiate relationships
are an integral part of a student-athlete’s development as their coaches undertake the role of the
parent (Harris, 1993; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). Relationships with coaches are important as
they can assist student-athletes with adjusting to their collegiate tenure and succeeding
academically (Adler & Adler, 1985; Martin, Harrison, & Bukstein, 2010). Adjustment to college
can be perceived as an indicator of whether a student is academically successful in college and
eventually graduates (Eitzen & Sage, 1997; Sedlacek, 1989). The perceived importance of the
coach’s role, specifically on student-athletes’ academic performance, has been scarcely studied
(Melendez, 2006). There are a myriad of factors that are important aspects of a student’s
collegiate experience that may have an influence on their academic performance (Kaczmarek,
Matlock, & Franco, 1990). These range from finances to mental and physical health
(Kazzmarek, Matlock, & Franco, 1990). In addition to the common regular student experiences,
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 9

student-athletes are in a subculture of academia that requires an additional set of collegiate
demands (Comeaux, 2010). Student-athletes’ schedules usually consist of attending practice,
team meetings, academic appointments, injury rehabilitation, workouts, and missing school to
travel for competition (Fearon, Barnard-Brak, Robinson, & Harris, 2011). These athletic
demands are governed mostly by their coaches in the form of dictating their schedules with
athletic related activities such as practice, team meetings, and competition (Comeaux, 2010).
These mandates restrict student-athletes’ involvement with the regular student community and,
inadvertently other institutional agents (Comeaux, 2010).
This form of isolation places a stronger value on the coach and student-athlete
relationship during the student-athlete’s collegiate career. Since student-athletes have only a
small amount of time outside the demands of their sport, their experiences with other
institutional agents during their collegiate years are mostly centered on their athletic identity and,
therefore adversely impact their academics. In particular, student-athletes have difficulties
identifying with faculty, especially if the student-athlete is African-American and the faculty is
White (Comeaux & Harrison, 2007). Student-athletes have trouble approaching their professors
and feel isolated because of this. In contrast, student-athletes already have a pre-existing
relationship with their coaches since they are usually on the team for the majority of their
collegiate career versus interacting with a faculty member for one semester.
Since student-athletes’ athletic demands encompass a large part of their collegiate
experience, their athletic identities tend to overlook their academic identities (Beamon & Bell,
2006). This identity development highlight the importance of the coach’s role in the student-
athletes’ academic performance as they have the power to incorporate academics into the
student-athletes’ athletic experience. When student-athletes’ athletic identity is primarily
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 10

emphasized during their socialization in college, their academic performance decline (Beamon &
Bell, 2006). Furthermore, if the student-athletes struggle with other key relationships in their
life, such as their families, the relationship with their coaches becomes increasingly important.
For instance, if student-athletes feel that their families are focusing mainly on their athletic
identity their academics suffer (Beamon, 2010). In addition to the student-athletes’ families,
student-athletes feel as though the media and society glorify their athletic identity but do not
place the same emphasis on their academics (Beamon, 2010). These perceptions emphasize the
importance of the coaches’ academic role with the student-athletes.
Statement of the Problem
The goal in this study is to investigate the perceived importance athletic coaches have on
student-athletes’ academic performance. By comprehending the student-athletes’ perceptions,
coaches can benefit from this knowledge and their relationships with their student-athletes in the
academic realm (Comeaux, 2010). Furthermore, this information may be utilized in student-
athlete academic support programs to assist in the academic success of the student-athlete
(Comeaux, 2010).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore student-athlete perceptions have of their coaches
regarding their academic performances and whether these perceptions are an important factor in
student-athletes’ academic performances. The research questions are below:
1. What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches regarding their academic
performance?
2. How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence,
and effort in academic their work or behavior?
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 11

It is hypothesized that coaches behaviors and actions perceived by a student-athlete is

salient to a student-athlete’s academic performance. There are three frameworks used in this
study. The social cognitive theory is the over-arching theory whereas the expectancy-value and
attributional theory are extensions of the social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory
examines how individuals develop beliefs through interactions in their environment such as
interactions with their coaches (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Weiner’s (1986) causal
model of attribution is used as it assists with exploring whether student-athletes attribute their
academic performances to their coaches’ behaviors and actions regarding academics. This
model is categorized into three areas 1) locus 2) stability 3) control. The locus of control can be
internal or external and whether a student attributes outcomes to one of these two causes. Lastly,
the expectancy-value theory is drawn upon as it integrates how student’s experiences influence
their expectations and values which then become factors in whether they choose to persist,
engage, and achieve in school (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Importance of the Study

This study is significant because it contributes to the body of literature on the student-
athlete and coach dynamic in the academic realm. Furthermore, this study aims to add to
highlight the factors that are important in increasing student-athlete graduation rates and welfare
as the majority of research on student-athletes focuses on adverse factors and scarcely explore
the relationships between athletics and academic performance (Hildenbrand, Sanders, Leslie-
Toogood, & Benton, 2009; Martin, 2009). This study will assist coaches in being cognizant of
how important their actions are to their student-athletes.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 12

Limitations and Delimitations
The delimitations of this study is that this study is the geographic region as this study
taking place in the state of California as well as the number of limited student-athletes. One of
the limitations of this study is the small sample of student-athletes of self-reporting data from
one institution. Furthermore, due to the small sample, this study’s generalizability is limited.
Organization of Study
This study is divided up by five chapters. The first chapter consists of an overview of the
study, followed by the statement of the problem, purpose, research questions, importance, and
limitations. The second chapter is a review of the literature. The literature review examines
non-cognitive variables, the coach and student-athlete relationship, academic motivation, student
characteristics, and these three theories 1) attributional theory 2) social cognitive theory 3)
expectancy-value theory. The methodology is discussed in chapter three. The data gathered is
reviewed in chapter four. Lastly, chapter five discusses the findings, implications for practice,
and recommendations.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Student-athlete: A student-athlete is a current undergraduate student at a Division I institution in
California who is listed on a team’s roster. The team roster can be found on the Athletic
Department website as it is public information.
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA): The NCAA is the governing organization of
intercollegiate athletics.
Coach: A coach is a full-time staff member in the institution’s Athletic Department who
designated a coach by the Athletic Department and on the Athletic Department website. This
can include assistant and associate coaches.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 13

Non-cognitive variables: A non-cognitive variable is another way of examining student
performance that does not use standardized scores such as GPA. It encompasses a holistic
approach to examining student academic performance.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 14

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Researchers have identified various factors that may be of importance to student-athletes’
academic performance. This literature review provides an in-depth understanding of the various
variables that assist in explaining the unique complexities student-athletes face during their
intercollegiate academic career. The review of the literature reveals paucity regarding student-
athletes’ and coaches’ relationship in the academic realm. In order to grasp a comprehensive
understanding of this dynamic, the literature review presents the multiple factors that have been
empirically studied to explain the importance of the coach and student-athlete academic
relationship as well as reveal a wide gap in the literature. The gap in the literature exposes that
numerous factors have been researched surrounding student-athletes and coaches but does not
directly examine the topic. Therefore, the literature review is divided up into five sections 1)
Non-cognitive variables related to understanding student-athlete academic performance 2)
Student characteristics 3) The coach and student-athlete relationship 4) Academic motivation 5)
Theories.
Non-Cognitive Variables
Sedlacek (2004) uses non-cognitive variables to explain factors as an alternative method
of understanding student academic performance. Sedlacek (2004) refers to such factors as
student affective, motivation, and adjustment as non-cognitive variables. Originally, Tracey and
Sedlacek (1984) developed the Non-Cognitive Questionnaire (NCQ) that encompasses eight
dimensions. The most relevant dimensions to this literature review are students possessing a
realistic perception of self-appraisal as well as employing a strong support system (Tracey &
Sedlacek, 1984).
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 15

Sedlacek (1989) reiterated that these variables, realistic self-appraisal and possessing a
strong support system significantly correlated to academic success in minority students.
Sedlacek and Brooks (1976) described realistic self-appraisal as students possessing the ability to
understanding their thinking process thus, accurately assessing their weaknesses and strengths in
learning. Students who scored high in this dimension possessed the ability to incorporate
feedback that can result in improving their future academic performances (Sedlacek, 1998).
Students take into account feedback from individuals they trust, developing this trust in
individuals is important to the students, as this trust is the foundation to developing their self-
perceptions (Amorose, 2003). Furthermore, students’ academic self-concepts can be shaped by
individuals whom they perceive as trustworthy and can assist in their academic success if they
perceive that the trusted individuals believe in their academic achievement (Paris & Winograd,
1999; Tracey & Sedlacek, 1984).
Tracey and Sedlacek (1984, 1989) defined a strong support system as an individual
recognizing when they need assistance and obtaining help such as in the form of encouragement.
Bandura (1997) found that encouragement can improve an individual’s self-concept. The
researchers Sedlacek and Adams-Gaston (1992) asserted that when a student has support systems
available it is positively correlated with student-athletes’ Grade Point Average (GPA). In
another study by Boyer and Sedlacek (1988), the researchers claimed that an available, solid
support system predicted GPA’s for up to a student’s eighth semester.
Wigfield and Eccles (1992, 2000) found that when a student had a strong support
foundation this can guide the students to understand the cost in the form of working hard toward
a goal, as well as the attainment and utility value of earning a college degree. When the student-
athletes understand the value of obtaining a degree, they will be more willing to spend more time
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 16

on academics and studying (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). It has been
reported that more quality time spent on academics, such as effective learning strategies and a
study routine can have a positive impact on academic performance (Gaston-Gayles & Hu, 2009;
Michaels & Miethe, 1989; Simons, VanRheenen, & Covington, 1999). According to Husman
and Lens (1999), if students are aware of the value of receiving an education, the students will be
able to understand how important each class is to achieving progress toward their degree. This
guidance is important, especially for freshman students as they may not yet understand how
important it is to pass difficult classes and complete their degree (Sedlacek & Brooks, 1976).
This is significant to student-athletes, as the researchers Sowa and Gressard (1983) posited that
student-athletes’ participation in intercollegiate sports may hinder their ability to plan for their
academics outside of athletics, especially if their athletic identity is their dominant identity
(Petitpas & Champagne, 1988).
Coaches and Student-Athletes
When coaches provide athletes with advice, it supports the athlete in reaching a set
objective (Magill, 2001). Wilson and Stephens (2007) examined student-athletes and their
persistence in their sport, which was influenced by whether their coaches had significant
expectations of them, and provided inconsiderable negative suggestions. Those student-athletes,
who perceived that their coaches had great expectations of them and gave minor criticism, were
more inclined to persevere (Wilson & Stephens, 2007). The student-athletes in this study
reported being cognizant of the environment the coaches provided and felt that the coaches could
have an influence over the team environment and student-athletes (Wilson & Stephens, 2007).
Jowett and Clark-Carter (2006) narrowed the coach and student-athlete relationship to the three
Cs. The three Cs are closeness, co-orientation, and complementarity (Jowett & Clark-Carter,
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 17

2006). Closeness is described as the mutual feelings the coach and student-athlete have for one
another. Co-orientation is comprised of similar beliefs and goals. Complementarity examines
the balance and cooperation between the coach and the student-athlete. This study echoes prior
researchers’ findings that the student-athletes’ performance can be influenced by how the
student-athlete perceive their coaches’ behaviors and actions or, according to the authors, are
interdependent of one another (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Clark-Carter, 2006).
Research has also found, amongst other variables, that advice and support provided to the
student-athletes from the coaches has a positive impact on the student-athlete and coach
relationship, while the absence of these qualities can have a negative influence (Rhind & Jowett,
2010). This study in particular researched the traits, such as support and advice, needed in order
to maintain a quality student-athlete and coach relationship (Rhind & Jowett, 2010). In regards
to how close student-athletes and coaches are to each other, Pozwardowski, Barrott, and
Henschen (2003), through a qualitative analysis, described that the student-athlete and coach
relationship can be positive despite the degree of intensity of the relationship. In this study, even
though certain student-athletes experienced limited contact to certain coaches, that small amount
of time was still perceived as important to the student-athletes and was positive if the student-
athletes perceived that their coach cared (Pozwardowski, Barrott, & Henschen, 2003).
Jackson, Knapp, and Bauchamp (2009) examined perceptions that student-athletes had of
themselves, their coaches, and how they thought their coaches perceived them. The researchers
asserted that, when athletes perceived that their coaches believed in them, the student-athletes’
perceptions of their self-efficacy increased (Jackson, Knapp, & Bauchamp, 2009). The athletes
reported that their perceptions of their self-efficacy increased when the coach provided
encouragement (Jackson, Knapp, & Bauchamp, 2009). Inversely, the researchers claimed that
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 18

when the coaches did not provide encouragement, the student-athletes’ self-efficacy decreased
(Jackson, Knapp, & Bauchamp, 2009). In studies by Shields, Gardner, and Bostro (1997), as
well as Westre and Weiss (1991), the researchers found a significant relationship between the
coaches’ perceived behavior and the effect this perception had on completing a task. Armstrong
(2001) posited that coaches who are deemed successful exhibit concern for their student-athletes
within and outside the sport arena. Coaches’ behaviors in a team setting can also impact athletes.
Gill (2000) asserted that, when coaches have their teams participate in activities such as team
building and going out of their way to familiarize themselves with each player, these events
positively influence athletes.
In a discriminant analysis performed by Lang, Dunham, and Alphert (1988), the
researchers found that, when a coach disciplines a student-athlete regarding his or her academics,
this was one variable of significance in predicting academic performance. Inversely, when
student-athletes felt that their coaches only focused on athletics, neglecting academics, their
educational focus diminished (Barbalias, 2004). The importance of student-athlete perceptions
of their coaches was asserted by Smith, Smoll, and Hunt (1977). The authors found that the
impact coaches had on their student-athletes was determined by how the student-athletes
interpreted the coaches’ behaviors, as the student-athletes may be more aware of the coaches’
behaviors than the coaches (Smith, Smoll, & Hunt, 1977; Smoll & Smith, 1981). Furthermore,
Smoll and Smith (1981) found that student-athletes’ interpretations of coaches’ actions were
aligned with trained observers who were observing the same behaviors, thus suggesting that
student-athletes’ perceptions are more likely to be more precise then the coaches’ own
interpretations.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 19

An intercollegiate coach’s role extends beyond their sport. A coach can be one of the
most influential figures in a student-athlete’s collegiate career (Dosil & Gonzalez-Oya, 2008;
Petrie & Russell, 1995). Coaches and athletes have a multi-dimensional relationship that
consists of traits similar to friendships and work and marital relationships (Jowett & Ntoumanis,
2004; Jowett & Timson-Katchis, 2005). Research asserts that a coach can be more influential
than a student-athlete’s parent (Jowett & Cramer, 2010). Even though the NCAA mandates that
student-athletes are only supposed to be in 20 hours per week of athletic-related activities
(Watson, 2006), student-athletes have reported that, with the combination of formal and informal
athletic requirements, they can spend over 40 hours a week devoting time to their athletic
engagements (Wolverton, 2008). Consequently, student-athletes encounter extra developmental
challenges in college than their regular student counterparts face (Watson, 2006). Watson (2006)
found that, due to the student-athletes’ demanding schedules, they do not have the time to reach
out to resources outside of athletics and, by default, turn to their coach who they are spending the
most time with, for support. A study performed by Etzel, Ferrante, and Pinkney (1991) also
support this claim that student-athletes’ time is limited with regard to reaching out to services
outside of athletics. It has been asserted that the athletic subculture is a dominating influence on
student-athletes that debase education (Pascarella, Truckernmiller, Nora, Terenzini, Edison, &
Hagdorn, 1999).
If important figures in a student-athlete’s life do not show concern for the student-
athlete’s academics, student-athletes may struggle academically (Broadhead, 1992; Petrie &
Russell, 1995; Sedlacek & Adams-Gaston, 1992; Young & Sowa, 1992). For student-athletes
whose sport competes solely during one semester, their academic performance declined during
that semester (Maloney & McCormick, 1993; Scott, Paskus, Miranda, Petr, & McCardle 2008).
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 20

Since coaches dictate who plays in their sport or how much playing time a student-athlete is
allocated in a game, student-athletes will satisfy their coaches in the athletics realm over their
academics (Adler & Adler, 1991; Simons, Van Rheenen, & Covington, 1999).
Academic Motivation
Motivation can be defined as the process a student engages in an activity or toward a goal
either mentally or physically (Hollembeack & Amorose, 2005; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece,
2008). Specifically, academic motivation has been defined by the quantity of time and energy
directed toward completing academic tasks (Carbonaro, 2005). The research on motivation is
formed by multiple theories founded on empirical studies and addresses inquiries such as
whether a student knows what motivates him or her, also known as metacognition, or how
motivation can be altered (Pintrich, 2003). Motivation theories are connected through a common
lens, the social cognitive perspective, in that individuals’ actions are a product of their
environment and beliefs (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008).
In regards to student-athlete academic motivation, the author Gaston-Gayles defines
academic motivation as the amount of energy students exert in their academic performance
(2002). In a study by Gaston-Gayles (2004), the author reported a considerable correlation
between academic motivation and academic success. Carbonaro (2005) supports this claim, as
the author found a positive correlation in student-athletes in regards to academic performance
and effort, suggesting that the more effort student-athletes applied to their academics the more
they understood the material. In a study by Snyder (1996), an inverse relationship was found
between academic and athletic motivation, in that those student-athletes who were focused on
competing at the professional level were less likely to be academically motivated to graduate and
study for exams. It has been reported that motivation can be influenced by external factors such
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 21

as rewards and internal factors such as self-regulation (Pintrich, 2003). This is important for this
study because it reflects how students can be influenced by a combination of factors such as their
own decisions or by an extrinsic award.
Student Characteristics
Research has found that student characteristics can have an impact on academic
achievement (McKown & Weinstein, 2002). These types of characteristics range from gender
and sex to race/ethnicity. Furthermore, research has addressed how institutional agents such as
teachers can differ in their expectations of students with varying characteristics (McKown &
Weinstein, 2002). These types of institutional agents may adjust their treatment of their students
based off of the student’s gender, sex, and race/ethnicity. For example, teachers may have lower
expectations of females when it comes to learning math (McKown & Weinstein, 2002).
McKown and Weinstein (2002) examined the relationship between teachers’ expectations of
their students in the beginning of the school year and the end of year academic accomplishment
amongst 561 students in the 1
st
, 3
rd
, and 5
th
grades. The authors stated that students’ responses to
teachers’ behavior towards them becomes more important as they get older because students
mature emotionally and it is easier for the students to assess their teachers’ beliefs of themselves
thus, affecting their learning (McKown & Weinstein, 2002).
Data has revealed that male student-athletes who participated in football and basketball
had the largest differences in their educational success as a college athlete when compared to the
rest of the student-athlete population (Pascarella, Truckernmiller,Nora, Terenzini, Edison, &
Hagdorn, 1999). This quantitative study found that football and men’s basketball players had the
lowest reading and writing skills then other male student-athletes from different sports and the
non-athlete population (Pascarella, Truckernmiller,Nora, Terenzini, Edison, & Hagdorn, 1999).
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 22

Furthermore, the study also found that male student-athletes not participating in football and
basketball, had science and writing skills not significantly different from males who were not
student-athletes (Pascarella, Truckernmiller, Nora, Terenzini, Edison, & Hagdorn, 1999). What
may contribute to this disparity is the stereotype of male student-athletes as being academically
deficient, in particular African American males (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007).
Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, and Jensen surveyed 361 student-athletes from a Division I institution
and found that student-athletes who identify mostly as an athlete and are afraid of failing were
less likely to be academically motivated (2007). Student-athletes represent their university
through their sport and are engulfed in their sport identity at the expense of their academic
identity because society has perceived the student’s athletic identity as more valuable than their
academic side in particular, in sports known as revenue sports which usually consists of football
and men’s basketball (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007). This in return may cause a
student-athlete to be academically undeveloped and thus, develop poor academic habits such as
procrastinating and turning in assignments late that then can continue to lead to earning poor
grades (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007). The research on African American male
student-athletes has mainly focused on their negative academic experiences and approach
African American male student-athletes from a deficit thinking perspective (Martin & Harris,
2006). In a study by Martin and Harris (2006), the researchers specifically interviewed 27 highly
academically achieving African American male student-athletes from four Division I institutions.
These student-athletes’ beliefs of being successful was to earn good grades in addition to being a
competitive athlete. They reported facing stereotypical challenges of an African American male
student-athlete, in that individuals were surprised to find out they were good students.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 23

Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory takes into account how individual’s beliefs, perceptions,
behaviors, and the environment are related (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). The individual
processes situations in their environment and how interpreting these perceptions influence their
behavior (Bandura, 1997). The environment can range from multiple factors such as their
coaches or influential individuals in a person’s life. This theory takes into account the cyclical
nature of how an individual beliefs and perceptions are impacted by past behaviors and their
environment. Furthermore, the social cognitive theory provides an explanation of how
communication can affect behaviors and ultimate influence whether a student can change their
behavior (Bandura, 2001).
Attributional Theory
Attributional theory focuses on individual perceptions for the causes of success and
failure (Weiner, 1985). Weiner developed the attributional theory based on Heider’s research on
attributions and performance (1958). Weiner (1985) and Weiner, Frieze, Kukla, Reed, Rest, and
Rosenbaum (1971), focused on three factors 1) locus of control 2) stability 3) controllability.
Locus of control is divided up by external and internal. An individual’s perception is what
determines their beliefs regarding the reasons why outcomes occur (Martinko & Thomson,
1998). For those under the category of internal locus of control, they attribute successes and
failures to their own exertion and skill. In contrast, those with an external locus of control
attribute their achievements or failures to the behaviors or actions of others or a situation. An
example of a situational factor would be fate or an arduous task (Weiner, Frieze, Kukla, Reed,
Rest, and Rosenbaum, 1971). Weiner posits that individuals justify results by examining past
strategies and search for reasons why something occurred (1985). Based on an individual past
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 24

experiences, people use these assessments to intepret new experiences. Stability examines
factors that can or cannot change over time (Weiner, Frieze, Kukla, Reed, Rest, and Rosenbaum
1971; Weiner 1979, 1985). The third factor, controllability, examines causal factors individuals
can and cannot control. However, out of these three factors discussed, the locus of control has
been the most empirically studied factor (Bean & Eaton, 2000).
Research has found that those with an internal locus of control are more successful in
their academic performance versus students who have an external locus of control (Volkmer &
Feather, 1991). According to Bean and Eaton (2000), students who possess an external locus of
control will not be as likely to be motivated, as they interpret the cause of their poor academic
performance as out of their control. Furthermore, Wiener (1996) asserts that students with an
external locus of control will most likely lack the motivation to try to alter their academic
performance.
Expectancy-Value Theory
The expectancy-value theory is based on common principles found in motivational
theories in that students who believe they will succeed will most likely be more driven to exert
more effort in an academic task as well as be more persistent (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pintrich,
2003). The expectancy-value theory combines expectancies and values. Expectancies can be
described as what an individual anticipates that their behaviors will either lead to failure or
success (Wigfield, 1994). Whereas value refers to what a person is more inclined to be
interested in or to set goals toward. Student’s motivation can be influenced by their beliefs and
within these perceptions, an individual actively choses to persist and employ a certain amount of
effort on a task such as studying or reading. Engagement has been utilized to determine if a
student will put forth effort into an academic task, whether the task is of importance to them and,
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 25

ultimately seek out practices that can assist in their learning (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris,
2004; Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2007). Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004), report
engagement as a meta-construct that can be defined through three areas 1) Behavioral 2)
Emotional 3) Cognitive. Behavioral engagement is defined in through areas 1) Following rules
2) Effort exerted in learning a task 3) Involvement in extracurricular activities. Emotional
engagement consists of students emotional reactions while they are in class. This can be
boredom or happiness. Cognitive engagement is the student’s self-regulation while learning.
Conclusion
The research on non-cognitive variables is substantial in regards to the non-student-
athlete population. This is a significant gap in the literature because non-cognitive variables
assist in understanding student academic behaviors (Sedlacek, 2004) and research specifically
addressing the student-athlete population is scarce. Students who are aware of their learning
behaviors are more likely to self-regulate their learning successfully, though this research has
been done on the non-student-athlete population (Sedlacek & Brooks, 1976). This study assists
to fill the gap in student-athlete academic research. The research on student-athlete non-
cognitive factors that can influence their academic performance is outdated. Subsequently, a
review of the literature revealed that there are gaps in explaining student-athletes’ academic
success (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011), in particular, the relationship with student-athletes and
coaches in the academic realm.
Studies regarding the coaches’ relationship with athletes in relation to their athletic
performance are more prevalent and current (Magill, 2001; Wilson & Stephens, 2007). Research
on academic motivation regarding the student-athlete population is limited however, the
literature that has been done, reported on those student-athletes who were more focused on
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 26

competing at the professional level were less likely to be academically motivated (Synyder,
1996). This may be due to findings on student-athletes who have experienced stereotypes while
in college and are not seen as academically proficient (Martin & Harris, 2006; Simons,
Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007).
The umbrella theory used in this review is social cognitive theory that takes into account
how an individual reacts to their environment which in return may influence their behavior
(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Since the student-athlete population is a unique sub-
population of the intercollegiate student body, the attributional and expectancy-value theory are
used in this study to contribute to the understanding of the student-athlete population. The
student-athlete population is a distinctive population, as discussed in the body of literature, but
the factors that may impact their collegiate academic performance are not as thoroughly
explained through empirical studies. Furthermore, there is a dearth of research on various
colleges and conferences, as each conference possesses a different level of competition that may
impact how a student-athlete performs academically. There is also a gap in examining the
different cultures within the student-athlete population, as each team and coach dynamic varies.
In summary, this study assists in understanding the factors that influence student-athletes’
academic success, specifically the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coach regarding their
academic performance.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 27

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This section discusses the methodological design employed for this study (Moore, 2012;
Sterr, 2011). A summary of the study’s research design is reviewed. Next, the participants and
setting are discussed, as well as the instrumentation and protocols, data collection and analysis.
Lastly, the ethical considerations are also examined.
Design Summary
This is a qualitative study that examined student-athletes’ responses regarding their
academic performances and their perceptions of their coaches. Qualitative data was then
gathered through interviewing student-athletes in Southern California. The interviews were face
to face, open-ended interviews (Patton, 2002) that examined the coaches influence regarding
student-athletes’ choice, persistence, and effort in their academic performance.
Participants and Setting
Patton (2002) suggested using a small sample size, and establishing research questions
and design. The sample size was established at 20 interviewees. The unit of analysis is Division
I athletic scholarship student-athletes at an institution in California who were identified as
juniors and seniors by their academic advisor (Patton, 2002). Junior and seniors were
specifically chosen as they have had prior experience with their coaches and academics as an
intercollegiate athlete and would most likely be able to provide more in-depth responses.
Permission was granted by the Senior Associate Athletic Director to access the student-athletes
for this study at a Division I institution. Only student-athletes who were 18 years of age were
allowed to volunteer for this study. Convenience sampling was employed, as student-athletes
that volunteered to participate in the study responded to an email. The interview questions were
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 28

created from the research questions and the review of the literature. Furthermore, the interview
questions were comprised of clear language, various types of questions that address student-
athletes’ perceptions of their coaches and whether these perceptions influence their choice,
persistence, and effort in their academic studies, and lastly, the questions were field tested by
educational administrators such as a professor with experience in qualitative research (Creswell,
2008). Furthermore, former student-athletes reviewed the questions to insure that the questions
are understandable. From these interactions, questions were added at the beginning of the
interview that helped to begin the conversations with the student-athletes. Student-athletes were
offered a $10.00 gift certificate for a meal as compensation for those participants who
volunteered to be interviewed. Since only student-athletes were used for this study, approval to
offer compensation to participants was granted through the Athletic Compliance Department
under NCAA Bylaw 16.11.1.11.2. The interviews provided the researcher with information-rich
data that were aligned with the research questions and area of research (Patton, 2002). An
interview was used because it allows the participants to provide their beliefs and perceptions
regarding their coaches, which is an approach aligned with the many qualitative approaches,
such as grounded theory (Creswell, 2008; Patton 2002). Follow up questions, when needed,
were asked during the interviews.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The questions used for the interview were field tested by athletic administrators and
former student-athletes, contained simple and clear language, and various forms of questions
(Creswell, 2008; see Appendix A). The interview questions were formed from what was
presented in the literature and aligned with the research questions. For example, the social
cognitive theory was the overarching framework for this study as the questions addressed the
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 29

student-athletes’ beliefs, cognitions, perceptions, and behaviors in relation to their environment,
as in this case their coaches (Bandura, 1997). Based on Creswell (2008) and Patton (2002), the
30 minute interview created an environment where the interviewer and interviewee were able to
concentrate on the data that was being collected during the interview. Included in the interview
questions were follow up questions that probed for more information. It was necessary for the
researcher to build rapport with the participant and provided an environment that created
neutrality during the interview (Patton, 2002). To start off the interview, the student-athletes
were asked to share about themselves and what it is like to be a college student-athlete. Next, the
student-athlete was asked about their academic experiences in college. These questions helped
to ease into the rest of the interview questions.
Data Collection Protocols
A letter asking if the student-athletes would like to volunteer for the study was sent via
email to participants. For those that expressed interest in participating in the interview, they
were asked to provide their contact number for a follow up phone call to set up the interview date
and time. During the call, the purpose and content of the study was reiterated. The participants
were asked for an on-campus location they felt the most comfortable conducting the interview.
The participants consented to recording the interview and a digital recorder was used with a
microphone for sound quality and accurate transcription followed by coding and analysis. This
allowed for the researcher to be fully attentive during the interview and concentrate on
employing follow up or probing questions during the interview (Creswell, 2008; Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
The qualitative data was analyzed from transcripts using the inductive method, as
Creswell’s (2008) six steps were employed 1) Organize data 2) Review data 3) Analyze data 4)
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 30

Code data 5) Discern themes 6) Interpret meanings from data. These steps helped to provide a
broad explanation that can describe student-athletes’ perceptions (Creswell, 2008). Prior to
entering the analysis period, I examined my beliefs regarding any opinions I had from working
with student-athletes. This process is known as epoche and is described as when a researcher
removes any types of opinions they have and examine data from a clean perspective (Patton,
2002). This process was particular important because I work in the Athletic Department for
seven years as Assistant Director of Student Services. Under this position, I handle athletic aid
and athletic aid agreements. Due to my experience in the Athletic Department, it was extremely
important when conducting the analyses to remove any beliefs or assumptions I had regarding
the student-athletes and coaches. The qualitative software, ATLAS.ti 7 was used to assist in
organizing themes when coding the data. Each transcript was uploaded in the software and
codes were assigned to each theme. The software created family trees that organized the
analysis. Five categories emerged from the data analysis.
Ethical Considerations
Approval from the University of Southern California’s (USC’s) Institutional Review
Board (IRB) was granted. Participants’ identity in this study was kept anonymous and
completely voluntary. Participants were apprised of the objective of the study as well as its
content. Transcripts and recordings from the interviews were only viewed by the researcher,
transcription company, and dissertation committee. Participants in the interviews were given
pseudonyms when conducting the interviews.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 31

Summary
This chapter discussed the mixed methodological design used for this study. The
participants and setting were described as well as the data collection and protocols. Furthermore,
the data analysis was provided. Lastly, considerations regarding ethics were discussed.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 32

CHAPTER 4
THE FINDINGS
This chapter discusses the findings collected in regards to the research questions.
Furthermore, the demographics of the participants are outlined. The purpose of this study was to
address two research questions 1)What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches
regarding their academic performance? 2) How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches
influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or behavior? There were
five themes that emerged from the analysis 1) Being a team on and off the field 2) Coaches as a
parental figure 3) Eligibility and academics 4) Meetings with coaches 5) Transferrable skills.
The relevance of this study is to understand the student-athletes’ perceptions of their
coaches and how these perceptions can benefit student-athletes’ academic performance
(Comeaux, 2010). The intent was to bring awareness to coaches’ behavior toward student-
athletes’ academic performance and support the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) in their accountability systems such as Academic Progress Rate (APR) and
implementing rewards and/or penalties to coaches based on graduation rates, academic
eligibility, and retention. Graduation rates are important because they are considered a mark of
academic achievement as students are more likely to acquire better paying jobs and earn a higher
income (Taha, 2011).
Qualitative data was gathered through interviews. This chapter provides the
demographics, common themes found from the analyzed data in relation to the research
questions, and a summary and discussion of the student-athletes’ experiences.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 33

Demographic Data
This study consisted of 20 upperclassman student-athletes. The age range of the 20
participants was 19 to 24 years. There were 11 males whose ages ranged from 19 to 23 and nine
females with ages ranging from 21 to 24. There were nine African-Americans, two Asians, one
Native-American, and eight Caucasian participants. Of the eight Caucasian student-athletes, five
of them were international student-athletes and these five were all female. International student-
athletes’ experiences tend to differ from domestic students even though they both report their
race as White. The international student-athlete ages ranged from 22 to 24 years. The
remaining three Caucasian student-athletes ages ranged from 20 to 21; two of them were female
and one was male. The student-athlete who was Native-American was the youngest participant
at 19 years-of-age and was male. Of the nine African-Americans who participated in this study,
seven were male and two were female. Their age range was from 20 to 23 years. Nineteen of
the participants were on 100% athletic scholarship and one of them was on a partial scholarship.
The sports of the participants were not revealed because it is considered identifying information,
in particular of the coaches. A summary of the demographics is presented in Table 1.
Furthermore, Table 2 provides an average of the student-athlete responses to questions inquiring
how successful, competent, interested, and value they feel about their academic experiences
(Patton, 2002).
Table 1
Demographics
Age
Range
Scholarship
Status
Ethnicity
Full Partial African
American
Caucasian Asian
American
Native
American
International
Male
N=11
19-23 11 0 7 1 2 1 0
Female
N=9
21-24 8 1 2 2 0 0 5
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 34

Table 2
Student-Athlete Academic Beliefs
Survey Item Mean Score* Standard Deviation N
How successful do you feel
you are in your academics
in college?
7.1 1.374 20
How competent do you feel
regarding your academic
performance?
7.45 1.745 20
How interested are you
regarding your academics
in college?
8.1 1.868 20
How much do you value
success in academics?
8.25 1.512 20
*Scored on a 10-point Likert scale, 1 is the lowest and 10 is the highest.

Research Question One: What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches
regarding their academic performance?
Three themes emerged from the interviews regarding how student-athletes perceive their
coaches. The three themes are 1) Being a team on and off the field 2) Coaches as a parental
figure 3) Eligibility and academics. The themes overlapped and connected with one another to
provide an overall story of how student-athletes perceive their coaches.
Being a team on and off the field. The student-athletes perceived the coaches’
behavior regarding their academics as important to them and their teammates. These responses
came from both high-achieving student-athletes and from student-athletes who struggled with
their academics. When asked if the coaches had an impact on their academics, several
participants felt that the coaches did impact their academic performance. There were multiple
reasons given for this. One reason was because the student-athletes felt that academics were
important to them and appreciated the time away from practice or team activities to focus on
school. These types of messages the student-athletes received from their coaches were important
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 35

because their coaches were important figures in the sport in which they were competing. Thus, if
they saw someone who they highly respected extend this type of support beyond their sport, the
student-athletes respected other areas just as much.
The participants felt that their coaches had a similar impact on them just as much in
athletics as in academics. This belief stemmed from knowing that their coaches were supportive
of them doing well as a team athletically and academically. “He was always there for us. . .If for
some reason you were doing bad at school, then we could easily go and talk to him and he
would, for example, tell us to [practice] once a day instead of twice a day and spend some more
time on studying. . .His office was always open. . .” The student-athletes perceived that their
coaches created an open door policy that allowed for them to discuss not only their sport with
their coach but also their academics. Their coaches viewed their academic performance as an
important component in the overall experience as a student-athlete.
The student-athletes also observed how their coaches adjusted to their teammates varying
academic levels and how their coaches helped to motivate their teammates to study. As one
student-athlete asserted, “I believe that my teammates, many of them actually studied more
because of our coach.” Even though the student-athletes reported being highly motivated to
study regardless of their coaches’ behavior, they still found it important that their coach was
accommodating and showed that he or she cared about the other student-athletes who may have
struggled academically. One participant reported, “I saw that my teammates, they would go to
the library more often because they said, ‘[my coach] told me to go to the library and study.’
That’s why they did, so I think it had some impact.” They found this quality important because
they were there to support each other. If they perceived that the coach showed concern for their
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 36

teammates that struggled, they interpreted this as a sign that their coach cared and established a
team environment even if it is not directly associated with their sport activities.
One student-athlete reported how their coach wanted their team to have the highest Grade
Point Average (GPA) of all the sport teams, “his goal was for us . . . to have the highest GPA
among all the teams. Sometimes we did, sometimes we didn’t, but he always emphasized it. . .
that we should have a high GPA and get only A’s in our classes. And whenever something was
going on, we had a lot of meetings regarding academics and when people were doing wrong, he
would talk to us and he was trying to make sure that everyone was passing our classes, not only
passing but having good grades, so he really cared. I don’t think I’ve had a coach before who
would care about academics as much as [my coach] did.” This student-athlete spoke highly of
her coach regarding the team’s academic culture. The participant felt that her coach instilled
high academic standards for their entire team.
The social cognitive theory contributed to this analysis in that it reiterated the coaches’
behaviors the student-athletes observed. In the social cognitive theory, the majority of learning
occurs through observation, and, for instance, the student-athletes were able to express that their
coach was concerned for not only themselves, but for their teammates as well. The attributional
theory contributed to this analysis in that the students attributed their grades to the time they
spent studying. In regards to the expectancy-theory, the student-athletes expected their coaches
to reinforce academics and the importance of academics. This in turn influenced their academic
beliefs about their coaches and the value that is associated with doing well in school.
Coaches as a parental figure. A handful of the student-athletes reported that the
coaches acted as a parental figure throughout their college career. The coaches advocated for
them and their academic beliefs were similar to that of their parents. As a result, they looked up
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 37

to their coaches as a role model. The student-athletes stated that one of the reasons as to why
they looked up to their coach is because their coach is successful and they wanted to be
successful like them. One student stated “coach got his degree and he’s in the [sport] business,
like I’m going to go ahead and get my degree and keep doing my thing so I can, you know what
I’m saying, be just as wealthy.” In addition, coaches were individuals that the student-athletes
spent a large amount of time with during their collegiate career.
Because I mean I’ve been with these [coaches] for four or five years and I mean they’re
basically all I really know now. And their opinions and what they think about
me will get me ahead to any other things that I want to do. And their say so is a
really big deal. Now I’m not saying I just want to be good so they can say good
things about me. I want to really do good things so it can just flow off their
tongue, ‘Yeah he’s a great guy,’ or, ‘He’s awesome,’ ‘He’s this, he’s that,’ but
based off what I’m doing. And I guess it takes growing up to like really know
that or to really see that.
The student-athletes interviewed reported that their coaches are the reason why they are
at their current institutions. They understand that if it was not for their sport and their coach,
they would not have been given the opportunity to be at the school they are currently attending.
One student-athlete stated that when they were being recruited to play at their current school, the
coach visited their home, emphasizing the importance of the student-athlete and coach
relationship. They perceived that their coach believed in them enough to play for them and this
belief remained with them throughout the student-athlete's collegiate career. This type of belief
was prevalent for the international student-athletes as well. They felt that their relationship with
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 38

their coach was important because they knew that the reason why they came to the United States
was because of their coach.
One of the reasons the student-athletes saw the coaches as a parent figure was because
the coaches discussed with them the skills they need to learn during school in order to be
successful after college.
He talks a lot about life after school, like taking care of your money, knowing who to
trust, just beneficial life skills after college. So yeah, he taught us about a
paycheck, a real paycheck in the [league]. He told us where all the taxes are
coming from. And then told us where the best place to get a house is or a place is.
That’s about it. Teaching some cool life skills that I really like.
An example of a life skill the coaches addressed with the student-athlete was time
management and the struggles with managing athletics with academics. The student-athletes
were told repeatedly by their coaches to manage their time because their time was limited.
Furthermore, the importance of managing time was reiterated because the coaches presented
time management as skills needed in life. The student-athletes did not want to disappoint their
coaches and since the student-athletes had busy schedules, they understood that it was important
to spend their free time wisely and to use that time to study. A few of the student-athletes
considered the coach to be one of the most important figures currently in their life. They felt like
“if somebody [knew] them and how [they] operate, it would be [their] coach.” The coach was
someone the student-athletes could go to for advice and encouragement. They had a good
relationship with their coach as they felt they could go to their coach at any time for help. They
depended on that security and someone believing in them to succeed.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 39

This finding reiterated the social cognitive theory. It confirmed that while the student-
athletes observed their coaches behaviors during the meetings with the student-athletes and the
actions that they perceived as caring, the student-athletes developed the perception that the
coaches resembled that of a parent. Through the expectancy-value theory, the student-athletes
expected this type of behavior from the coaches and the coaches did consistently exhibit this
behavior to the student-athletes. This allowed for the student-athletes to value their interactions
and expect this type of behavior from the coaches.
Eligibility and academics. The majority of the student-athletes found their coaches
accommodating to their academic schedule and said that if they needed more time to study, they
would be able to talk to their coach about it and the coach would adjust their practice schedule to
accommodate them. "They want to make sure that [we] stay eligible. So they stay on us about
keeping our grades up and doing well in class." The student-athletes reported hearing eligibility
being mentioned to them as a formality because they are supposed to be educated regarding their
academic eligibility requirements by their coaches in team meetings, though even during these
lectures, their coaches informed them of the importance of earning a degree and being a student.
One student explained it clearly.
The more important thing is to get a degree, that’s what they brought us here for anyway,
not just to—I mean, represent the University and the school, so they want us to
show that we’re not just athletes, we’re student athletes. The student always
comes before the athlete, so they want us to get a degree.
The emphasis was to do well in school and all other important matters will follow.
Like if you get good grades, you won’t have to worry about balancing. If the focus is to
do well in school, then. . . your sport will come. I think that’s the incentive. Like
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 40

okay, if you continue to get good grades then you’ll [play]. If you don’t get good
grades, you’re not going to [play].
A student-athlete mentioned how their coach had a graduate degree and the student-athlete
formed the belief that obtaining a master's degree was valuable as well. He felt that this message
pushed him a little more to do better in school. Student-athletes exhibited awareness of the
coaches' behaviors regarding their academics, especially how they perceived that their coaches
addressed the topics of academics with them. One student-athlete found that it is important
that their coach sporadically addressed their academics because they knew if the coach discussed
it with them excessively then they would become desensitized to the message. One student
reflected on his experiences as a freshmen, when he struggled academically.
I didn’t really get so much good grades. But then when I had these one-on one talks with
my coaches and all that kind of stuff, it led me to believe that, like these guys
aren’t just there to get their paycheck. These guys are here to have us be greater
men besides being good in [our sport] and the aspect of school. . . Our coaches are
trying to make us like I don’t know—trying to achieve greatness. And I feel like
they’ll do anything in their power to try to help us succeed.
There was one student-athlete who perceived only certain coaches to emphasize
academics.
She would say, ‘Make sure you’re on time to class like you’re on time to practice. Make
sure you give all your attention …’ Basically, the same thing you give to your
sport is the same thing you should be giving to your class. The same attention
you put into the [sport], that focus, that drive, that hunger, it should be the
same when you go to class, but like I said, all coaches don’t push that.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 41

She felt there was a mixed message from her coaches which eventually influenced her
decisions on whether to study. “We have [multiple coaches]. . . , so we have one coach telling
you about, “Okay. This is really important and everybody else is just like, “Girl, just do what you
can.” It’s like, “Well, I might as well do what I can,” because only one person is telling me that it
counts and everybody’s saying it doesn’t count. So maybe it doesn’t count.” This student-athlete
felt that coaches should meet prior to meeting the student-athletes to insure that they are all on
the same page regarding academics and how it is addressed with their student-athletes.
The student-athletes found it important that their coach showed that they cared about them
and their academic performance. They mentioned that even subtle comments from a coach, such
as “good job” or a quick phone call, made a difference on how they perceived whether they cared
about them or not, and this was important to them because it showed that the coaches were
genuinely interested in their academics. The student-athletes understood the importance of
academics and found it important that the coach shared similar qualities. The participants
felt that it was important to know that graduating was important to their coach. Their coaches
reminded them that they cannot be an athlete forever and need a degree to get a job. A few of
the student-athletes would hear their coaches say over and over that “school comes first,” and
their sport second.
The student-athletes learned from their coaches about the importance of doing well in school
and gained this knowledge from their interactions with their coaches. The social cognitive
theory contributed to this analysis of student-athletes beliefs because it mirrors the behaviors the
student-athletes learned from the interactions with their coaches. Furthermore, the
coaches reiterated to the student-athletes that working hard and studying would most likely lead
to acquiring good grades. This echoes the attributional theory in that the student-athletes were
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 42

aware of that their success and failures in school can be attributed by their decisions and actions
regarding their academics.
Three themes emerged in relation to research question one. They are 1) Being a team on and
off the field 2) Coaches as a parental figure 3) Eligibility and academics. These themes provided
the student-athletes’ stories regarding how they perceive their coaches and their relationships
with their coaches.
Research Question Two: How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches influence
their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or behavior?
Student-athletes reported that interactions with their coaches had influenced their
academic choices, effort, and persistence. These interactions impacted whether the student-
athletes choose to study or show up to class. It influenced whether they decided to exert more
effort into their studies such as doing the readings and paying attention in class. These
interactions also influenced whether the student-athletes persisted in difficult classes and decided
to stay in school. Two themes emerged that provided a portrait of the student-athletes’
experiences. The two themes are 1) Meetings with coaches 2) Transferrable skills.
Meetings with coaches. The student-athletes were aware that their coach had the most
up to date academic information and understood that they could not lie or choose to make bad
academic decisions because their coaches would find out. Their coaches would call them into
weekly or monthly meetings to discuss their academics. Sometimes, if the student-athletes were
in academic trouble, it would be brought up in a meeting with multiple coaches. The student-
athletes found these meetings to be intimidating and wanted to avoid them altogether. This, in
turn, influenced their future academic choices and performance. The student-athletes understood
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 43

that their coaches highly valued academics because they took the time to meet with them and
address any academic concerns.
The coaches take the student-athletes’ academics seriously as reflected in their
knowledge of the student-athlete’s academic progress. The student-athletes are encouraged
when they do well, and are even rewarded through team meetings where they sometimes receive
a certificate for their academic achievements. When the student-athletes would meet with their
coaches, academics were the first thing they reviewed. The student-athletes perceived this to be
important because these interactions played a role in deciding whether to do academic work or to
do something not related to academics. One student-athlete stated that “because my coach, who
is important to me, cares about my academics, I’m going to put more effort into it.”
Furthermore, the student-athlete did not want to let his coach and the team down by not doing
well academically. They found it important to stay “connected” with their coach regarding their
academics because they knew if they avoided their coach, then their coach would suspect the
students were not fulfilling their academic duties.
One student-athlete said that her coach would sometimes show up to her class to check to
see if she was there. This participant found this to influence her decisions on not missing future
classes. Her coach would also meet with her regularly about her academics to encourage her,
and she felt that these meetings and his words of encouragement were influential. When she
would decide on how much time she would put into her academics, her coaches’ words were
constantly in the “back of [her] mind”. She described a time when she informed her coach that
she was really struggling, academically, and her coach sent her home from practice “to go study”
and told her “you need to get it together, you need to focus on school.” She reported,
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 44

I listened to them and they’re telling me, ‘oh, you need to go to class, you need to do
well, you need to put more time into your studies.’ It helped and like now, even
now when I’m going to class and I’m doing an assignment, I put in more effort
than I did before. . .He cared. . .he can’t do the work for me. He can’t take a test
for me, so just putting those thoughts in my mind is going to affect me even once
I leave here. . .
One of the participants reported how the coaches’ words affected his academic decisions.
“When a coach talks to you one-on-one, I mean, that conversation sticks in your head and
whenever you may feel like not doing homework and going out partying, something’s going to
ring in the back of your head and say, ‘Gosh, I need to not go out and I need to really stay
indoors and knock out this assignment.” The meetings with the coaches, especially the formal
meetings had an impact on the student. One student described it as a “war zone” but their
coaches reiterated that they were there to help them and insure they succeed. They described the
meetings as being intense and felt that it influenced their future academic decisions because they
did not want to get “hammered anymore.” The meetings were an “eye opener” as it enabled
them to place more time and effort in their academics as well as to persevere through their
academic difficulty. There were also formal acknowledgements of the student-athletes who did
well academically. “We have an honor roll within our team that comes out every fall semester,
every spring semester. Coach, he'll call a team meeting and guys that have a 3.0 and above, he’ll
have them stand up and acknowledge them for their hard work in the classroom.”
A few of the student-athletes, who considered themselves good students and stayed out of
trouble, witnessed their teammates receive verbal punishment regarding their academics and felt
this was a motivator to continue to do well in their academics. They were praised during team
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 45

and one-on-one meetings for performing well academically. They even received a plaque
recognizing their academic achievement, as well as a letter was sent to their parents about their
academic accomplishments. A few of the student-athletes acknowledge certain coaches on staff
that took the time to continually address academics with them. One example provided was of a
coach that took “time out of his day to do—he takes a lot of time out of his day on a daily basis
to make sure that people are on top of their academics.”
The expectancy-value theory was an important part of this analysis as it aligns with the
student-athletes’ experiences with their coaches. They knew if they did not perform well
academically then they expected to have these one-on-one meetings with their coaches. The
students knew the magnitude of these meetings and thus, to insure they did not have to
experience those types of meetings again they adjusted their future academic actions.
Transferrable skills. A common theme throughout the interviews was the transferrable
skills developed from the student-athletes’ sport participation to their academic performance.
This was reiterated by the coaches through meetings. For example, the students commented on
how their coaches highlighted being an elite athlete and the same work ethic should be applied to
their academics. Through meetings with their coaches, they formed beliefs that academics
should be taken just as seriously as their sport. Furthermore, these meetings and interactions
were important as they influenced the student-athletes’ decisions on how much time they spent
on their academics.
In addition during these interactions with their coaches, the student-athletes cared what
their coaches thought of their behavior and understood that their decisions in academics, such as
whether to study or get good grades, had an influence on their relationship. For example, a
student-athlete mentioned that his coaches talk to scouts about them and was aware that their
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 46

behavior outside of their sport was important and this type of understanding impacted his
academic decisions. This is important because scouts are an important factor in determining
what type of professional contracts student-athletes obtain after their collegiate career. As one
student-athlete stated,
They’re the people that are going to tell the . . . scouts. . . like how you react to certain
things, how are you being like with others, how are you able to function in the
heat of the battle . . . I definitely think your coaches are almost like the people
who watch over you all the time. So I feel like they’re the ones that get to know
you best. And then when the scouts come in, they ask you how is this guy? I
would probably say 90% of the time it’s like the coach’s perspective rather than
players giving their gist of like how [student-athletes] act.
The student-athletes viewed their coaches as experts in the field because they believed
that their coaches are one of the main factors in insuring that the student-athlete is taken to the
“next level,” such as playing professionally. They understood that their performance in
academics also impacted how they perform athletically. One student-athlete asserted “I don’t
want someone to, especially my coach, to perceive me as, like, irresponsible or someone who
doesn’t care about academics because you know you’re here for two reasons and you’re here to
[play] and you’re here for academics.”
Even student-athletes that were academically motivated found their relationship with
their coach important to their academics because it emphasized that the student-athlete and coach
shared similar academic values. The coaches reinforced the academic choices the student-
athletes were making and it was important to the student-athlete that the coach’s values were
aligned with their academic values.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 47

The student-athletes’ interactions with their coaches were pertinent to the student-athletes
being persistent in their academics. They felt like it kept them on top of the academics. Student-
athletes mentioned consequences that were associated with not adhering to the established
academic standards, such as not showing up to class or a tutorial session. Some of the student-
athletes were required to run early in the morning if they missed a class or a tutorial session. For
the majority of the student-athletes interviewed, they asserted how their coach would be on their
case if they were not doing what they were supposed to academically and it would affect them in
their sport. For most of them, they did not want to feel that they were disappointing their coach
or giving them another reason to be “on their case.” The student-athletes felt that this influenced
their decisions and the amount of effort they placed on their academics because they knew if they
did not go to class or do well in school, then their coach would address it with them. The
student-athletes wanted to do their best to avoid these types of interactions with their coaches so
they made sure to put in the effort they needed in their academics. In addition, this type of
feedback assisted the student-athlete when they felt like slacking off from school because the
student-athletes decided to study instead of participating in social activities.
The expectancy-value theory was apparent in the student-athletes’ experiences with their
coaches. Due to their familiarity with their coaches, the decisions the student-athletes made were
formed from their coaches’ behaviors. The student-athletes expected their coaches to be
disappointed if they missed class, thus the student-athlete adjust their academic behaviors to
prevent that from happening.
Summary and Discussion of Findings
This chapter presented an overview of the data gathered from interviews about student-
athletes’ relationships with their coaches in the academic setting. Their responses were divided
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 48

up by the two research questions 1) What are the student-athletes perceptions of their coaches
regarding their academic performance? 2) How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches
influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or behavior? However, the
themes and responses overlapped and were connected. The student-athletes’ stories provided
rare insight into their experiences with their coaches and how these experiences affect their
academics.
A total of five themes emerged from the data. The themes were divided up by research
questions. In the first research question, what are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their
coaches regarding their academic performance? Three themes emerged 1) Student-athletes are a
team on and off the field 2) Parent figure 3) Eligibility and academics. Student-athletes reported
feeling supportive of their teammates in the sport setting as well as the academic setting. They
felt this type of environment was established by their coaches who they looked up to as a
parental figure in college. They felt that their coaches repeatedly discussed the importance of
their academics and eligibility. In regards to the second research question, how do student-
athletes perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their
academic work or behavior? Two themes emerged 1) Meetings with coaches 2) Transferrable
skills. The student-athletes’ meetings with their coaches influenced their perceptions of their
coaches because the meetings implied that their coaches cared about how they did academically.
During these interactions, the student-athletes learned that the skills they develop in their sport
were important in their academics as well. These five themes provided a story that the student-
athletes portrayed as a supporting and influential component of the collegiate experience,
especially in regards to their academic performance.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 49

The next chapter, chapter five, will summarize the key findings and the implications for
practice. Furthermore, the limitations of the study will be discussed as well as the
recommendations for future research. An overall review of the study will be provided.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 50

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
During the course of their collegiate career, student-athletes develop significant
relationships with institutional agents, namely their coaches. There are athletic demands
imposed on student athletes from coaches, such as managing schedules, practice, team meetings,
and competitions (Comeaux, 2010). These mandates restrict student-athletes’ involvement with
the regular student community and inadvertently, other institutional agents, such as professors
(Comeaux, 2010). Relationships with coaches are important, as they can assist student-athletes
with adjusting to the campus environment and succeeding academically (Adler & Adler, 1985;
Martin, Harrison, & Bukstein, 2010). Adjustment to college is an indicator of academic success
in college and graduation (Eitzen & Sage, 1997; Sedlacek, 1989). The student-athlete’s and
coach’s relationship is an important one, and research has shown that their relationship can assist
student-athletes with succeeding academically (Adler & Adler, 1985: Martin, Harrison, &
Bukstein, 2010). However, studies that examine the athlete-coach academic relationship are
scarce (Melendez, 2006). The purpose of this study was to understand the student-athletes’
perceptions of their coaches, and how these perceptions can benefit their own academic
performance (Comeaux, 2010). The research questions addressed in this study were 1) What are
the student-atheltes’ perceptions of their coaches regarding their academic performance? 2) How
do student-athletes perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence, and effort in
academic work or behavior?
Qualitative methods were used in this study to understand student-athletes’ experiences.
Data was gathered by interviewing 20 scholarship upperclassmen student-athletes at an urban
Division I college in Southern California. Only upperclassmen scholarship student-athletes were
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 51

chosen for this study, since upperclassmen were most likely able to provide rich data due to more
years experienced in college (Patton, 2002).
Discussion
Research question one: What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches
regarding their academic performance?
In this study, student-athletes reported looking up to their coaches as someone who
resembled a parental figure, a phenomenon found in prior studies (Harris, 1993; Jowett &
Cockerill, 2003). These beliefs were formed based on their interactions with their coaches in
team and individual meetings, as well as other everyday interactions. As addressed in social
cognitive theory, an individual’s perceptions can be influenced by their environment and, in turn,
influence their future behavior (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). These types of interactions
added to our understanding of the importance student-athletes give to their coaches, not only in
the athletic realm, but within the student-athletes’ academic performance as well. This was
evidenced by the fact that the coaches constantly addressed the student-athletes’ academic
eligibility with them during their team and individual meetings. Since the coaches dictated the
student-athletes’ practice schedule, they had the power to allow student-athletes to leave practice
to study. This finding is an important distinction in the literature, as it highlights the magnitude
of influence coaches have over the student-athletes, especially outside of their athletic
environment. Furthermore, it provides a different perspective of how the coaches’ behavior
within the athletic setting can impact a student-athletes’ academic performance. In particular,
the finding brought to light how important it is to address a student-athlete through a holistic
perspective versus only seeing them as an athlete.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 52

Another important finding in this study pertains to coaches’ treatment of student athletes’
teams as a whole. The coaches not only addressed the student-athletes themselves, such as in
one-on-one meetings, but addressed the team as a whole in regards to their academics. These
findings suggest student-athletes are keenly aware of their coaches’ behaviors and actions toward
their team, and suggests that how coaches interact with the student-athletes’ teammates is just as
important as how they interact on an individual level with student-athletes. This finding
connects to existing research and parallels the importance of the environment that coaches create
for student-athletes (Wilson & Stephens, 2007). This is a positive finding in that the coaches can
contribute to the student-athletes’ experiences in a constructive way. Furthermore, this study
builds on prior research that has examined the relationships with coaches and student-athletes
and how these relationships are interdependent of one another (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett
& Clark-Carter, 2006). Thus, this study provides a new perspective of the student-athlete and
coach relationship under the academic realm. The findings from this study mirrored prior
research and reflected the three C’s (Jowett & Clark-Carter, 2006). The three Cs are closeness,
co-orientation, and complementarity (Jowett & Clark-Carter, 2006).
Research question two: How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches
influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or behavior?
During the team and individual meetings with coaches, it was found that, since the
coaches knew up-to-date information regarding the student-athletes’ academics, this knowledge
influenced the student-athletes’ academic choices and effort. This is a unique finding, as it
provides insight into how the coaches’ actions can influence a student-athletes’ academic
decisions. Furthermore, this study fulfills a gap in the literature, in that it reveals the positive
influences coaches have over student-athletes’ academic choices, persistence, and effort. The
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 53

current study showed that, because some of the student-athletes feared having one-on-one
meetings with their coaches, this, in return, influenced their future academic decisions. These
meetings contributed to influencing the student-athletes’ academic decisions in a positive way
because it motivated them to focus on completing academic tasks. In other words, the coaches’
interactions with student-athletes impacted students’ judgment when deciding to spend time on
class work or to do something non-academically related. Furthermore, this study found that the
coaches’ meetings provided an accessible line of communication between the student-athlete and
the coach, which in turn allowed for the student-athlete to take the initiative to speak to their
coach regarding their academics. This is a unique finding not present in the current body of
literature. This study contributes to our understanding of the importance of the student-athlete
and coach relationship in decision-making processes on the part of the student. This finding also
contradicts the literature, as the student-athletes reacted to criticism from coaches in a positive
way by spending more time studying (Wilson & Stephens, 2007).
Building on past research, the student-athletes reported spending the majority of their
time with their team and doing athletic-related activities. In turn, they had to manage their spare
time well, which was constantly reiterated by their coaches (Watson, 2006). This finding was
important, as it highlighted how coaches communicated to the student-athletes about the
importance of balancing their schedules during college and how these skills are important later
on in life. Furthermore, the coaches stressed the value of attaining a degree and its importance,
especially after they are done playing their sport. This supports the expectancy-value theory
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Pintrich, 2003). The student-athletes believed going to class and
studying were important to them, and this was reiterated by the coach, which then increased the
students’ engagement in their academic tasks. By spending time on their academics, the students
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 54

understood they were more likely to get good grades. Inversely, the student-athletes understood
if they did not go to class or study, they would most likely not do well in school, and the coaches
would receive negative reports about the students. These outcomes would then influence the
student-athletes’ expectancies for doing well in school and increase their value of school. This
would then impact the student-athletes’ engagement, thus creating a cycle shaped from
expectancies and outcomes.
Implications
Theory implications. It was important to examine the student-athlete responses through
different perspectives. For this study, three theories were used as lenses to understand the
findings. The three theories were 1) attributional theory 2) social cognitive theory 3)
expectancy-value theory. These theories relate to the current study because they help provide
insight into the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches. The three theories inform the
analysis of the data by providing direction in predicting the student-athletes’ perceptions of their
interactions and experiences with their coaches. Furthermore, the theories informed the
interview questions.
Attributional theory takes into consideration to what the student-athletes attributed their
failures and successes (Bean & Eaton, 2000; Weiner, 1985). This study indicated that the
student-athletes were motivated to do well in school, and attributed their failures and successes
to how much time they spent on their studies. However, they did understand that since their
coaches had a large amount of control over their schedules, in order for them to be academically
successful, they had to communicate to their coaches if they needed more time to study. Thus,
they attributed having more time to study as an indicator of whether they will be academically
successful.
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 55

In regards to social cognitive theory, the impact of the environment the coaches provided
for the student-athletes was a factor in shaping their perceptions. The coaches conducted
meetings which addressed the student-athletes’ academics. From these meetings, the student-
athletes observed the coaches’ actions toward the student-athletes’ academic progress.
Furthermore, the student-athletes observed the everyday interactions with their coaches. The
student-athletes noticed that during these interactions their coaches would address their well-
being as well as their academic progress. In return, the student-athletes’ perceptions of their
coaches influenced their academic effort and decisions.
The expectancy-value theory was well suited for this study because it outlined the
cyclical nature of the behaviors caused by the student-athletes’ interactions with their coaches.
The findings supported that the coaches’ actions toward their student-athletes’ academic
behavior emphasized the value of a college degree. Coaches’ actions predicted the student-
athletes’ reactions to their coaches’ behavior. However, the findings suggested that using the
expectancy-value theory alone is not sufficient to explain the student-athletes’ experiences. The
expectancy-value theory does not specifically address what the student-athletes attribute to their
successes and failures like the attributional theory does. In addition, the social cognitive theory
takes into consideration the collegiate environment the student-athletes encounter while in
college, in particular, the specific demands the subculture student-athletes face in college.
Practical implications. The findings from this study inform the practices of coaches,
student-athletes, and administrators, and highlight the importance of the coach and student-
athlete relationship. The findings provide awareness to the coaches and administrators about how
the importance of the coaches’ actions and behaviors can contribute to the student-athletes’
overall collegiate experience and increase graduation rates. This implies that administrators
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 56

should reiterate the importance of the coach and student-athlete relationship. In addition, it will
allow opportunities for coaches and student-athletes to build their relationship, such as
participating in teambuilding activities. Practical implications for coaches include continuing to
remain involved in their student-athletes’ academic progress by meeting with the student-athletes
as well as addressing their academic progress with them. The practical implication for the
student-athletes is to insure they choose coaches whom they feel support their academic goals
and with whom they can identify. Lastly, a comprehensive study of all institutional agents, as
well as the student-athletes, should be conducted and presented to the NCAA. The NCAA may
use this data to improve their academic accountability systems such as the APR. Also, this type
of recommended research can be used to improve penalties or rewards for institutions that are
satisfactorily reaching certain student-athlete graduation rates.
Limitations
There are multiple limitations in this study. One limitation is that the data is based off of
the premise that the participants answered the interview questions honestly. If they were not
honest in their responses, then that may have impacted the data. Also, there may have been
biases to how the student-athletes reacted to the researcher interviewing them. The reason being
is because the researcher was an employee in the Athletic Department and the student-athletes
may felt that they would have to sensor their responses regarding their coaches’ behavior.
Another limitation, is that due to time constraints of the study, the student-athletes were
interviewed once, and these interviews may have reflected the student-athletes’ mood during the
time of the interview, or their current academic standing in their classes. In addition, student-
athletes have exposure to the media and have experience with providing diplomatic responses to
questions, thus multiple interviews would help to perhaps disarm the student-athletes from their
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 57

traditionally response. Since there was a gap in literature regarding the student-athlete and coach
relationship in the academic realm, this study served as a starting point to spawn new studies.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study addresses a gap in the literature and thus, exposes the potential for a variety of
future studies. One recommendation is to examine student-athletes from different conferences to
see if there are varying trends amongst conferences. Conferences usually consist of institutions
from various states and certain levels of competition. Some conferences are more competitive
than others, and usually are recruiting from the same population of student-athletes. Another
future recommendation for future research is to include different sports. Each team has its own
culture, and narrowing a study to one team could help to provide more insight into a specific
population
Future research should also look at coaches and their experiences with student-athletes,
specifically the academic side of intercollegiate athletics. Studies on coaches would help to
understand the relationship from the coaches’ perspectives rather than just providing an account
from the student-athletes’ perspective. Studies could take into account both the coaches’ and
student-athletes’ perspectives, which may further illustrate issues related to student-athletes’
overall academic experience and well-being. Furthermore, it is recommended that the coaches’
interest and concern regarding the student-athletes’ academics are assessed. As reported in this
study, coaches’ beliefs and behaviors have an impact on the student-athletes’ academics.
In addition, sport administrators’ perceptions of academics should be the focus of future
research. Sport administrators supervise the coaches and have an important influence, since
sport administrators assist in creating contracts and decide if coaches are to remain hired at their
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 58

institutions. In addition, sport administrators are in contact with the student-athletes and may be
seen as an influential figure for the team.
Conclusion
The objective in this study is to explore the perceived importance athletic coaches have
on student-athletes’ academic performance. The research questions are below:
1. What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches regarding their academic
performance?
2. How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence,
and effort in academic work or behavior?
By learning about student-athletes’ perceptions, coaches can benefit from this knowledge
and their relationships with their student-athletes in the academic realm (Comeaux, 2010).
Furthermore, this information may be utilized in student-athlete academic support programs to
assist in the academic success of the student-athlete (Comeaux, 2010). This study addresses a
large gap in the literature pertaining to intercollegiate athletics. The data collected in this study
included multiple perspectives from the student-athletes, and the findings provide a foundation
for a new area of research in intercollegiate athletics. In general, this study shows that the coach
and student-athlete relationship in the academic realm is a very important part of the student-
athlete experience.

IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 59

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IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 74

APPENDIX A:
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
1. To begin the interview, please tell me about yourself.
[PROBE]
[FOLLOW UP]: What is your race/ethnicity?
[FOLLOW UP]: What sport do you play?
2. Please tell me what it is like to be a college student-athlete.
[PROBE]
3. Please tell me about your academic experiences in college.
[FOLLOW UP]: How would you define academic performance?
[FOLLOW UP]: On a scale of 1-10, how successful do you feel you are in your
academics in college? [PROBE]
[FOLLOW UP]: On a scale of 1-10, how competent do you feel regarding your academic
performance? [PROBE]
[FOLLOW UP]: On a scale of 1-10, how interested are you regarding your academics in
college? [PROBE]
4. On a scale of 1-10, how much do you value success in academics?
[FOLLOW UP]: How is or is it not important to you?
[FOLLOW UP]: Do you want to attain academic success?
[FOLLOW UP]: Do you feel it can be too costly to be successful?
[FOLLOW UP]: Are you interested in academics?
[FOLLOW UP]: What role do coaches play in these expectancies and values?
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 75

5. How do you think your coach defines academic success or performance?
[FOLLOW UP]: What interactions or behaviors with your coaches have led you to
perceive this definition?
6. What is the role of your coach regarding your academics?
[FOLLOW UP]: What do you think your coach thinks about you academic performance?
[FOLLOW UP]: What actions does your coach display that give you this impression
regarding your academic performance?
[FOLLOW UP]: How is this shown or implied?
[FOLLOW UP]: Please provide specific examples.
[FOLLOW UP]: Do you feel these perceptions are important to your academic
performance? [PROBE]
[FOLLOW UP]: If so, please tell me how they are important to your academic
performance? [PROBE]
[FOLLOW UP]: In what ways, do you find these behaviors or interactions to encouraging
to your academic performance?
7. Please tell me how these perceptions are important to deciding how much time you spend
on your academics?
8. Please tell me how the relationship with your coach is important to your academic
performance.
[FOLLOW UP]: Do you value your academics more or less from observing your
coaches’ behavior in regards to your academic performance? [PROBE]
9. Please tell me how your coaches’ reactions to your academic results such as grades
and/or GPA may be important to you. [PROBE]
IMPORTANCE COACHES HAVE ON ATHLETES’ ACADEMICS 76

10. Is there anything regarding your coaches’ behavior and/or actions that you think benefits
your academic performance? [PROBE]
11. Have your interactions with your coaches regarding your academic performance
influenced your desire to persevere in your academics?
[FOLLOW UP]: If so, in what ways?
[FOLLOW UP]: If not, why?
12. What advice would you give your coach regarding their behavior that you would think
benefit your academic performance? [PROBE}
[FOLLOW UP]: Is there anything that you would change regarding your interactions
with your coach and your academic performance?
13. Is there any other information you would like to share in regards to how you perceive
your coaches’ behavior and your academic performance?

APPENDIX B:
RECRUITMENT LETTER

Abstract (if available)

Abstract There is a dearth of literature on the coach and student-athlete relationship within the academic realm. Various research reports that the relationship between athletes and coaches is important and can influence the athletes’ athletic performance. However, the effects of this relationship on the student-athletes’ academic performance has been scarcely studied. This study examined the perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes’ academic performance by interviewing 20 scholarship, upper-division student-athletes at a Division I institution. The inductive method of qualitative data analysis was used to analyze the results. Three theories were applied to this study to understand the impact coaches have on student-athletes’ academic performance. The three theories are the 1) social cognitive theory 2) expectancy-value theory 3) attributional theory. Two research questions were addressed in this study 1) What are the student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches regarding their academic performance? 2) How do student-athletes perceive that their coaches influence their choice, persistence, and effort in their academic work or behavior? The findings indicate that student-athletes’ perceptions of their coaches influence their academic performance. Implications for practice highlight the importance of the student-athlete and coach relationship and how this relationship can affect the student-athlete academic experience.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Amran, Jennifer Marie (author)

Core Title The perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes' academic performance

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/19/2013

Defense Date 10/08/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Athletes,coaches,intercollegiate athletics,OAI-PMH Harvest,student-athletes

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Rueda, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email amran@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-347503

Unique identifier UC11296498

Identifier etd-AmranJenni-2159.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-347503 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AmranJenni-2159.pdf

Dmrecord 347503

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Amran, Jennifer Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA