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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL
CORPORATIONS ON SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES
IN COSTA RICA
by
Joshua Porter
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2014
Copyright 2014 Joshua Porter
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Acknowledgments
I thank my wife, Regan Porter, for supporting me through this process. She has
been nothing but understanding and willing take on the family responsibilities to ensure
that time was made for me to complete this project. I also thank my son, Luke Porter, for
his willingness to sit and work by my side. Many nights were spent reading and writing at
the same table. Additionally, I want to thank my biggest cheerleader, my daughter Cora,
for always encouraging me to keep writing and to stay positive.
Thank you to my team and members of the USC Orange County Cohort. I never
once felt that I could not complete this, or any task, as their support never wavered. I
would especially like to thank Brad Baker, Sherine Smith, and Kim Fricker for always
being there to listen and offer guidance. Each of them served as a role model and
inspiration for me to become a better person though this process. I have grown in
maturity and strength, which have allowed me opportunities to become a better
instructional leader.
Thank you to Dr. Greg Franklin, who helped guide me to the USC family. His
support and trust have allowed me not only to complete this program but also to have
opportunities to grow as a professional. His mentorship has offered me support in the
form of positive leaders who helped me to understand how I can be successful in my
duties at work and complete this program. Especially thank you to Dr. Grant Litfin, our
director of secondary education, for helping me to see this balance.
Thank you to my dissertation chair and professor, Dr. Michael Escalante, who has
been nothing but supportive. Even in times of stress, his methods of accountability were
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
supportive and encouraging. Each lesson taught, was life changing and a confidence
builder for us all. Without his guidance, our team would not have accomplished what we
did.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 12
Significance of the Study 12
Limitations of the Study 13
Delimitations of the Study 13
Assumptions of the Study 14
Definitions of Related Terms 14
Organization of the Study 16

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 18
History of Costa Rica 19
Background 20
Costa Rican School System 21
System of Government 22
Globalization 25
A Catalyst for Change 26
Globalization and Education 28
Impact of FDI and MNCs 29
Gaining FDIs in Costa Rica 29
The Impact of Intel and Other MNCs in Costa Rica 30
Twenty-First-Century Skills 35
Skills Needed for the Future 35
Framework for 21st-Century Learning 36
Wagner’s Framework for 21st-Century Skills 39
Leadership 40
The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader 41
Four Frames 44
Chapter Summary 48

Chapter 3: Methodology 50
Research Design 51
Research Team 53
Sample and Population 53
Summary of Exploratory Trip 54
Executives of MNCs 55
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
School Administrators 56
Instrumentation 56
Data Collection 59
Data Analysis 60
Ethical Considerations 62

Chapter 4: Results 63
Research Organization 64
Participants 66
Case Study Overview: Escuela Espana 67
Results for Research Question 1 68
Increase in MNCs 69
Positive Partnership Between Schools and MNCs 73
Summary Discussion for Question 1 75
Results for Research Question 2 75
Intel as a Partner 76
Use of Technology 79
Collaboration 83
Summary Discussion for Research Question 2 85
Results for Research Question 3 87
Shared Responsibility 88
Instructional Leadership 93
Summary Discussion for Research Question 3 98
Chapter Summary 98

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations 100
Summary of Findings 102
Research Question 1 102
Research Question 2 103
Research Question 3 105
Implications for Practice 108
Recommendations for Research 109
Conclusion

References 111
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 118
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 119
Appendix C: Political/ Policy Leader Interview Protocol 121
Appendix D: MNC Interview Protocol 124
Appendix E: School Leader Interview Protocol 127
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Teachers 130
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Tool 133
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
List of Tables
Table 1: The 21 Responsibilities of Leaders and Their Correlations
With Student Academic Achievement 43
Table 2: Summary of Invited Participants and Actual Participants 66
Table 3: Participant Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational
Corporations on Schools 70
Table 4: Participant Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational
Corporations on Schools 73
Table 5: Participant Responses Indicating Influence of Multinational
Corporations in Schools 77
Table 6: Survey Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning 80
Table 7: Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning 83
Table 8: Survey Responses Indicating 21st-Century Learning 85
Table 9: Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning 86
Table 10: Survey Responses Regarding Leadership 90
Table 11: Interview Responses Regarding Leadership 91
Table 12: Survey Responses on Leadership by School Site Leaders 94
Table 13: Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning 97
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Framework for 21st-century learning 38
Figure 2: Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model 45
Figure 3: Connection of guidelines for daily curricular action 79
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
Abstract
In a highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a
need to adapt to a global market and a country’s educational system can arguably be the
driving force behind economic development. Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the
past 30 years. In the past few decades, Costa Rica has seen investment by multinational
corporations (MNCs) and a shift in the education system’s responsibility to develop
students who are technically literate and possess 21st-century skills. The resulting growth
of technology as a major export has provided new direction and opportunity.
The Costa Rican school system continues to face the challenge to ensure that its
future workforce has the skillset to take on new job opportunities of the future. Despite
having 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there
remains a low secondary graduation rate and a low percentage of students pursuing
higher education.
In order to prepare students in Costa Rica to compete in a high-technology global
market, educational shifts to ensure future economic success may be required. To make
these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and the education system will
need to work together. This study describes the impact globalization and MNCs have had
on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools in Costa
Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Chapter 1
Introduction
The country of Costa Rica has changed over the past few decades as a result of
the presence of multinational corporations (MNCs; Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development [OECD], 2012). Once a country primarily based on an agri-
cultural economy, the growth of technology as a major export has given new direction
and opportunity to this small Central American nation. Companies such as Intel, Cisco,
and Microsoft have established a vested interest in Costa Rica as well as many other
countries to manufacture semiconductors and other technology-related hardware and
software products. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university
systems’ responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in students has become
increasingly more challenging (Monge-González &González-Alvarado, 2007;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica, originally established as a colony in the late 1500s, was one of the
first nations to make education free and obligatory in 1838 (Booth, 2008). During the
mid-1940s, a political shift occurred and a new constitution was adopted, thereby abol-
ishing the military and rules regulating the public and private enterprise (Booth, 2008).
During this time, social benefits increased, such as social security and public health. In
addition, the education system was funded at the national level with a higher share of the
gross domestic product (GDP) spent on education than most of the other Latin American
countries (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
For many countries, globalization has played a key role in determining the path of
change. Costa Rica has rapidly advanced and is providing a skilled labor force, espe-
cially in the technical industry. Schools in Costa Rica are meeting the demands of the
MNCs and helping to increase foreign direct investment (FDI) by establishing partner-
ships with MNCs. Intel, for example, has made direct contributions by donating over
$1.1 million worth of microprocessors to schools to modernize laboratories (World Bank
Group, MIGA, 2006). This investment is in addition to offering higher wage jobs and
promoting 21st-century learning in the classroom. These expectations and partnerships
have contributed to the system seen in Costa Rica today.
Many students worldwide lack the skills necessary to compete in a global econ-
omy (Rotherham & Willingham, 2009). Costa Rica, however, has made 21st-century
learning a priority. The Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education (El Ministerio de
Educación Pública de la República de Costa Rica; MEP) has made learning English as a
second language and technical skills a part of the curriculum. In addition, there is a
strong push for students to learn how to think and work together. This study was an
attempt to analyze the impact of globalization and MNCs on the school system in Costa
Rica, the implications for educational leaders, and how the students are prepared to work
in a global economy.
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s. Due to a developed education system and an increased cost of
living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
compete in an evolving global market. The resulting growth of technology as a major
export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central American country.
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility to
help students develop technical- and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become
increasingly more challenging. Despite having five national universities, 51 private uni-
versities, and a 95% literacy rate among its population, there remains a low secondary
graduation rate and pursuit of higher education in the country. As a result, there is a lack
of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in
Costa Rica.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand how globalization and MNCs have
impacted the secondary school system in Costa Rica, how the University of Costa Rica
(UCR) is preparing secondary school administrators to address the need for 21st-century
skills, and what these implications mean for educational leaders. This study identified
the role that school administrators have played in the development and implementation of
policy changes seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the study helped
to determine whether these initiatives are helping to increase the number of knowledge-
ready workers and whether the education system is building human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed collaboratively by the research
team to better understand the impact that globalization and MNCs have had on the edu-
cation system in Costa Rica:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
that have come about as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Significance of the Study
Globalization has often presented itself as a catalyst to change, including the
changes made in education. In Costa Rica, these changes have been made over a period
of time and appear to reflect the demands of a global economy. Wagner (2008) suggested
a need to develop 21st-century skills so as to adapt to the changes resulting from the
impact of globalization. Research suggests that globalization and MNCs have had a sig-
nificant influence on the development of 21st-century learning in schools. This study
was an attempt to identify that 21st-century skills that are being taught in schools, what
policies are implemented to support 21st-century learning, and what types of leaders are
needed to run the schools.
The findings in this study will impact all stakeholders, including political leaders
and educational policymakers, MNCs, and educational leaders in Costa Rica. Although
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
this study is not easily generalizable, it provides valuable insight on how countries
respond to global demands. In addition, identifies which 21st- century skills are most
emphasized in the classroom, along with a leadership profile of those who lead the
schools. The findings of this study may also provide insight on processes that schools
have used to implement 21st-century learning.
Limitations of the Study
Distance and time were significant limitations to this qualitative case study, espe-
cially due to its international setting and the limited travel time of 1 week. Due to pur-
poseful sampling, only schools that have received aid or support from Intel in Costa Rica
were used in this study. Another significant limitation of this study was a language
barrier. This researcher is not bilingual and required interpretation of all documents and
interviews. As a result, the researchers worked as a team to gather data for the study to
ensure that an interpreter was with them to help gather and interpret data.
Delimitations of the Study
This case study focused only on those schools that have partnered with Intel, as
they are reflective of schools that have been directly influenced by a MNC. To complete
this study in a timely manner, schools that are closer in proximity to San José were given
priority so that the research team could complete its research within a week’s time. The
study did not consider demographic data such as socioeconomic status or race and
focused on elementary schools
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
Assumptions of the Study
The following are assumptions made about this study:
1. Globalization and MNCs are impacting the educational system in Costa Rica.
2. There is a lack of knowledge-ready workers in Costa Rica.
3. Twenty-first-century skills are needed in order for the labor force in Costa
Rica to be successfully competitive in the knowledge-based global economy.
4. The interview, survey, and observation protocols provided the research team
with an accurate perception of the secondary schools partnered with Intel in Costa Rica.
5. The school site leaders are educational leaders at the site and have significant
influence regarding fostering change.
6. Employees of the schools who partner with Intel are aware of this partnership.
7. Responses from the interviews, surveys, and observations were valid.
8. Observations of the classroom reflect a typical day of learning.
9. A qualitative approach to this study is appropriate.
Definitions of Related Terms
The following terms are defined for application within the dissertation:
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE): This is a private, nonprofit,
and apolitical organization.
Foreign direct investment (FDI): FDI is a direct investment into production or
business by a company in another country, either by buying a company in the target
country or by expanding operations of an existing business in that country. Broadly
speaking, FDI includes mergers and acquisitions, building new facilities, and reinvesting
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
profits earned from overseas operations and intracompany loans. In a narrow sense, FDI
refers just to building new facilities
Globalization: This term refers to the economic, political, and societal forces
pushing 21st-century education toward greater international involvement that affects pro-
duction, consumption, and investment (Altbach, 2004; Spring, 2008).
Human capital: This term refers to the stock of competencies, knowledge, social
and personality attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor
so as to produce economic value. It is an aggregate economic view of the human being
acting within economies, which is an attempt to capture the social, biological, cultural,
and psychological aspects.
Knowledge-ready worker: This is a person employed to produce or analyze ideas
and information.
Ministry of Public Education (MEP): The Costa Rican MEP is a world leader in
providing quality and accessible education to the children in K–12 public education in the
country. Its mission is to promote the development and consolidation of an exceptional
education system that provides access to quality education to the entire population. Edu-
cation is centered on personal development and the promotion of a Costa Rican society
united through opportunity and social equality (MEP, 2007).
Multinational corporation (MNC): An MNC is an enterprise operating in several
countries but managed from one (home) country. Generally speaking, any company or
group that derives a quarter of its revenue from operations outside of its home country is
considered a MNC. A MNC is a large corporation that both produces and sells goods or
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
services in various countries and often has a social responsibility and commitment to help
improve the host country’s education system.
School leaders: Based on a definition of instructional leadership by Marzano et al.
(2005), a school site leader ensures that teachers have the necessary means to perform
their duties and supports them as an instructional resources.
Twenty-first-century skills: This term refers to the essential critical skills of the
knowledge-based global economy that include (a) critical thinking and problem solving,
(b) collaboration across networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability,
(d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f)
accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Study
The dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction
and overview of the study. Also included in the chapter are a statement of the problem,
the purpose of the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, and the
definition of key terms.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it relates to the impact of globali-
zation and MNCs on schools in Costa Rica. This chapter consists of five sections. The
first section, background, establishes the context for this study. In the second section,
globalization is defined and the theoretical framework established by Spring (2008) will
be discussed. The third section discusses in greater detail the effects of MNCs and FDIs
in countries such as Costa Rica and how these effects may have contributed to the
changes in the school system. The fourth section defines 21st-century skills, discusses the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
theoretical frameworks established by Wagner (2008), and provides an overview of the
framework for 21st-century learning. The fifth section provides an overview of leader-
ship qualities and styles. Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model is discussed and
key leadership traits are reviewed, using the framework of Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty (2005): the 21 responsibilities of the school leader. The final section of this
chapter provides a summary of the literature review and makes connections between the
frameworks and the purpose of this study.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study including research design,
sampling and population procedures, instrumentation, validity and reliability of the
instruments, the process for data collection and analysis, and ethical considerations.
Chapter 4 presents the research findings from the data collection. Also included
in the chapter is an analysis of the data with regard to each specific research question and
conceptual framework.
Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the study and includes implications for
future research.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
The country of Costa Rica has changed over the past few decades as a result of
the presence of MNCs (OECD, 2012). Once a country primarily based on an agricultural
economy, the growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and
opportunity to this small Central American nation. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica,
the school and university systems’ responsibility for developing 21st- century skills in
students has become increasingly more challenging (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Despite having five national universities, 51
private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there is still a significant dropout rate
(López, 1996; State of Nation Program, 2011). In fact, the Estado de la Educacion
Costarricense has indicated that only 31% of the Costa Rican population has a high
school diploma (Consejo National de Rectores [CONARE], 2012). Despite these
numbers, Costa Rica has been able to significantly increase FDIs and move toward a
global economy.
Consisting of five sections, this chapter discusses the effects of globalization and
MNC involvement on leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools
and universities in Costa Rica. The first section establishes the context for the proposed
study. In the second section, globalization is defined and the theoretical framework
established by Spring (2008) is discussed. The third section discusses in greater detail
the effects of MNCs and FDI in countries such as Costa Rica and how these effects may
have contributed to the changes in the school system. The fourth section defines 21st-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
century skills, discusses the theoretical frameworks established by Wagner (2008), and
provides an overview of the framework for 21st-century learning. The fifth section is an
overview of leadership qualities and styles. Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames
model is discussed and key leadership traits are reviewed using the framework of Mar-
zano et al. (2005): the 21 responsibilities of the school leader. The final section provides
a summary of the literature review and makes connections between the frameworks and
the purpose of this study.
History of Costa Rica
Understanding the background of Costa Rica and its school system will help to
establish a context for this study. This will be accomplished by reviewing literature and
government documentation. Historically, the political structures and changes that have
occurred over the past 100 years indicate that there have been many changes that may
have helped to influence the influx of MNCs and increased FDI. This section will help to
explain the school system so as to provide a context when exploring the effects that glob-
alization and MNCs have had on the education system in Costa Rica.
To understand how MNCs and globalization have influenced changes to the Costa
Rican school system, three areas are explored: background, the school system, and gov-
ernment. The section on background will review some of the historical events dating
back to the 19th century that led to the current structure that one would observe today.
The school system will also be reviewed to establish a context for the study. Govern-
mental structures will be discussed, as the school systems are funded at the national level
with more shares of the GDP spent on education than any other Latin American country
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
(World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). This is an important con-
nection to make, as this model would project an increase in GDP with greater spending
on education.
Background
This section will discuss the background of Costa Rica and highlight key events
that led to major changes. As a country that was established as a colony of Spain around
the same time as the neighboring Latin American countries developed colonies, it func-
tions very differently today. It has a highly ranked education system and a significant
amount of FDI from MNCs. A combination of events that led to these changes.
Costa Rica is a country in Central America that was first explored and colonized
by Europeans in the 1500s (CONARE, 2012). In 1838, Costa Rica established itself as
an independent nation under civilian rule until the mid-19th century (Booth, 2008). In
1869, Costa Rica was one of the first nations to make education free and obligatory
(Haglund, 2009). Funding for this policy came from great wealth made by coffee plan-
tations (Gudmundson, 1983). A significant change occurred in the early 1990s when
President Figueres advocated for computers in each of the nation’s 4,000 schools and
required English classes for all students. Since 1888, the literacy rate in Costa Rica has
risen from 20% to almost 90% (López, 1996; State of Nation Program, 2011).
Perhaps one of the most significant events that served as a catalyst for political
change was a new constitution. During the 1940s, Jose Figueres seized the presidency as
a pretext for a rebellion, and in 1949 the constitution was rewritten to establish the rules
and policies seen today. The most significant change was the abolishment of the military
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
(Booth, 2008). Written within the constitution were also principles and regulations of
private and public enterprises, the limited powers of the executive branch, and the
extended scope of parliament (López, 1996). Jose Figures Ferrer, the first president
under the new constitution in 1953, pledged to improve social security and public health
(Kantor, 1954). Another significant change was the Amendment of 1969 that banned
presidents from immediate reelection and legislatures from serving consecutive terms
(Echeverria, 2006). These are all significant political changes that influenced a more
democratic society.
These changes have helped Costa Rica become the country it is today. Subse-
quent to the establishment of a new constitution and an increase in social benefits, Costa
Rica has increased its GDP, literacy rates, and FDI. It has also made significant changes
to its school system to meet the needs of the MNCs and has prepared a skilled labor
force. The following section will discuss the school system in greater detail.
Costa Rican School System
To establish a context for this study, a clear breakdown of the school systems in
Costa Rica must be discussed. The primary and secondary school system in Costa Rica is
broken down into four distinct cycles: Cycle 1, elementary Grades 1–4; Cycle 2, ele-
mentary Grades 5 and 6; Cycle 3, Grades 7–9; and Cycle 4, Grades 10–12 (CONARE,
2012). Comprehensive exams are given to students at the sixth- and ninth- grade levels
to assess skills in math, social studies, science, and Spanish; English and civics are added
at the ninth grade. Students who are enrolled in 12th grade take a more extensive com-
prehensive exit exam that is also used as a college entrance assessment. There are
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
currently four state universities and more than 40 small private colleges offering degrees
in liberal arts, technology sciences, and professional studies.
Some of the criticisms regarding the education system in Costa Rica are based on
poor teacher attendance, poor record keeping, girls leaving school early to take care of
families, and the socioeconomic locations of schools. Of the students who take the High
School Exit Exam, on average only 68% pass all sections, with the weakest performance
in poor rural communities (State of Nation Program, 2011). The MEP has taken many
steps to address this low number. According to the CINDE, Department of Research
(2011), the Costa Rican system is ranked 22nd worldwide—above all neighboring Latin
American countries. This fact is important as the study explores the influence of MNCs
on the school systems.
In summary, the school system in Costa Rica is designed to provide students with
an opportunity for success. This situation is evidenced by the students who do graduate
from secondary education and move on to the university level. Given that compulsory
education laws require students to only attend sixth grade and below, this study examines
and observes schools at the primary level. In addition, changes made to support 21st-
century learning at the primary level must be identified to understand what methods
schools are using to prepare students for the secondary and higher education levels.
System of Government
The government system in Costa Rica has changed drastically over the past 100
years. Although still a democracy, Costa Rica has transitioned from a military-run state
to a state that no longer has a national army (Booth, 2008). As a result of these changes,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
Costa Rica now spends a significant portion of its GDP on social services, including a
Ministry of Public Education (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008).
This section will discuss the government structure and how policy is established for the
school system.
The Costa Rican system of government (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA],
2013) is broken down into three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judi-
cial. The executive branch is comprised of a president, two vice presidents, and a cabinet
(22 ministers, two of whom are vice presidents). The legislative branch is comprised of a
57-member assembly serving a 4-year term. The judicial branch is represented by the
Supreme Court comprised of 22 magistrates elected by the legislative branch serving an
8-year, renewable term. The tropical 51,000-square-mile country is broken up into seven
provinces, that divided into 81 cantons and subdivided into 421 districts. The current
population is approximately 4 million (CIA, 2013).
To understand how decisions are made regarding education, one has to look
closely at the MEP (2007), who is responsible for all educational policy, services, facili-
ties, and improvements for the education system. According to the World Bank and
Inter-American Development Bank (2008), Costa Rica spends a higher share of GDP on
education than most of the other Latin American countries. The Costa Rican MEP
receives 31% of the country’s budget. Of that 31%, almost 90% is allocated to salaries
and all schools funded at the national level (CINDE, Department of Research, 2011).
Although the education structure in Costa Rica may be the same as it was 50
years ago, the schools and curriculum have changed to meet the needs of the changing
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
economy; however, there are still some areas of low performance. According to the State
of Nation Program (2011), only 46.3% of the students eligible for high school are
enrolled. There also appears to be a limited amount of administrative resources to
support schools. Some recently proposed changes have been made to universalize high
schools, require high school graduation, and change the community belief that a ninth-
grade education is not satisfactory enough. In addition, the MEP intends to enhance the
academic programs and broaden technical skills of high school students. The goal of the
MEP is to close the gap between rural and urban areas (State of Nation Program, 2011).
When looking at an education system that is funded at the national level, it is
important to understand the educational policies. Two of the fundamental laws of educa-
tion in Costa Rica are expressed in the objectives of the state for education and academic
development. Within these objectives are fundamental principles designed to foster good
citizens, develop a complete human personality, form citizens for a democratic society,
and stimulate the development of human understanding (MEP, 2007). In addition to
these fundamentals, Costa Rica has developed national policies that are regulated and
enforced by the MEP to promote the development of 21st-century learning and skills
(CINDE, Department of Research, 2011).
High school education is an area where the government is attempting to make
significant change. The first step is to change the belief that a ninth-grade education is
not sufficient (State of Education Report, 2011). With an increase in technology and
GDP from the investments of new technology industries, the education system has
undergone significant changes (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Changes to the Costa Rican
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
education system have taken place at the policy level, targeting curriculum and funding
as overseen by the MEP (CONARE, 2012). One simple example is the expectation that
teachers will begin to utilize and teach students how to use software such as Microsoft
Office®.
Costa Rica has overcome a number of historical struggles and, in doing so, has
made many significant accomplishments with their education system. Many of the
changes seen in Costa Rica today may have been made possible as a result of the changes
that occurred when President José Figueres came into office. As this study is an attempt
to understand the impact of globalization on Costa Rica, it is important to determine
whether the push for change came from the outside or whether the country had been pre-
paring itself for the 60 years prior to the first major investments from high-tech MNCs in
the 1990s. With the influx of MNCs, Costa Rica has become more global and is rapidly
adapting to compete in a global economy.
Globalization
Globalization, defined by Altbach (2004), is the economic, political, and societal
forces pushing 21st-century education toward greater international involvement. This
influence, regardless of a specific definition, is a catalyst to many changes seen in many
countries throughout the world. Spring (2008) added to this definition, stating that glob-
alization has an effect on production, consumption, and investment. He also suggested
that the impact of globalization affects the education systems, requiring the development
of a skilled labor force ready to compete in a global economy. Spring further explained
the idea that world cultures are slowly integrating into one, specifically with regard to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
education. The Asia Society (2008) supported this perspective and articulated that indi-
viduals must be culturally aware and prepared with the technical skills required in a
global economy. This section will attempt to show the concept of globalization as a
change agent. In addition, it will review the impact that globalization has had on the edu-
cation system in Costa Rica. These changes have taken place directly or indirectly, based
on the needs of corporations looking to invest in the country. As a result of these influ-
ences, Spring (2008) suggested that as third-world education systems begin to change to
meet global demands, they will often begin to look similar to those of the Western world.
A Catalyst for Change
Countries such as Costa Rica are rapidly advancing in areas of education to meet
the demands of MNCs so as to bring manufacturing and development to their country.
Many of the resources needed to train teachers on how to develop 21st-century learning
comes from MNCs (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). Companies such as Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft have established a vested interest
in Costa Rica and many other countries to manufacture semiconductors and other
technology-related hardware and software products. MNCs are often interested in
countries such as Costa Rica to save money on taxes and labor. This factor is not without
a cost, however, as many of the corporations have spent a considerable amount of time
investing in infrastructure, policy changes, and education to bring them to those
countries. For example, as the demand increases for a more skilled labor market, the
education systems have had to adapt to produce a more skilled labor force. This demand
then creates a need for changes to both school and government policies.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
Changes and influences to the government policy and education systems are not
consistent among all countries that received FDI, with some perceiving the effects of
globalization as having a negative effect on culture. Bottery (2006) argued regarding the
need for a professional understanding of policy issues to create standards at a global
level. He further suggested a need for countries to meet the demands of a global econ-
omy. The Asia Society (2008) suggested the need for individuals to be culturally sensi-
tive, understanding of international trade, and tech savvy. Not all countries are the same,
and many lack the skilled labor force required to support the influx of the demands by
MNCs. This lack of skill sets can be seen in the United States as well. For example.
Wagner (2008) argued that students in the United States are behind many developed
countries in terms of graduation rates and that students are not prepared for the 21st
century. In countries such as Costa Rica, however, the dropout rate is approximately
48% before students reach the secondary level (Mange-González & González-Alvarado,
2007). In both countries, the need for graduates to be trained in 21st-century skills is
great, as both are competitors in a global economy.
In summary, globalization has played a key role in determining the path of change
for many countries. This influence often comes in the form of resource allocation, such as
resources provided to the education system. There is a significant need for countries such
as Costa Rica to supply a skilled labor force so as to gain FDIs or to maintain partner-
ships. To accomplish this goal, MNCs have developed partnerships with various coun-
tries and are contributing their money and expertise to help shape the education systems
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
Globalization and Education
Globalization has played a key role in shaping the educations systems in many
countries. Spring (2008) discussed four major theoretical perspectives on globalization
and education. The first is the perspective that all world cultures are slowly integrating
into one global culture, or the world cultural view. The second theory views the world as
having only two world systems that are unequal, or the world systems approach. The
third perceives globalization as means for the wealthy to benefit at the expense of poorer
nations, or a postcolonial analysis. Finally, the culturist theory expresses the existence of
differing ways to perceive the world. These perspectives support the need to better
prepare students to be ready with 21st-century skills as globalization changes the status
quo, regardless of the type of change.
It can be argued that the influences from MNCs have a negative effect on smaller
countries such as Costa Rica. Smith (2002) shared this perspective and articulated that
corporations are taking over education and threaten the autonomy of the education
system. Within Costa Rica, however, there is a significant increase in the number of edu-
cation programs for technical education, thus implying a greater demand for qualified
workers and students to fill the seats. Although the autonomy may be threatened, there is
significant evidence to support the need for change. To meet the demand of the MNCs,
countries are investing in their education systems to increase their human capital (Mange-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). For example, in Costa Rica there is an increased
demand for engineers and professors who are qualified to perform tasks such as research
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
and development. As a result, schools are adapting to better prepare students and tech-
nical schools have been created to meet the demand.
In summary, many of the education systems are impacted by the needs created by
globalization. These influences are often in the form of providing resources and/or set-
ting expectations to maintain partnerships (Ferreira, 2009; Larraín, López-Calva, &
Rodríguez-Clare, 2000). As a result, many of the changes made to the school systems
often mimic those of more modern nations that have established a clear connection
between globalization and education.
Impact of FDI and MNCs
MNCs and FDI play a significant role in the development of a country. Brewer
and McEwan (2010) defined FDI as a process to increase GDP. Many countries are
taking a proactive stance to acquire FDIs, and in many cases FDI in the technology field
is more profitable and has broader impact (Giuliani, 2008). This section will deal with
the impact that FDI has had on Costa Rica and how this impact has prompted rapid
change. The effects of MNCs such as Intel and how the demands for FDI in the technol-
ogy fields have had a direct impact on the school system will be discussed as well.
Gaining FDIs in Costa Rica
Many countries are in competition for FDIs. Solis (2011) discussed two types of
FDI. The first type is based on countries that take or encourage FDI to promote growth.
The second concerns countries that compete for FDIs, using incentives to gain their
investments. MNCs directly contribute to almost 30% of the world production, which
can be enticing to many smaller countries, which offer low tax rates and a willingness to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
change policies to meet the needs of the corporations. Solis further suggested that the
competition for FDI might influence a bidding war between countries, allowing for
MNCs to heavily influence the countries’ policies. For example, Solis pointed out that in
Costa Rica, the yearly presidential address to the nation almost always includes FDIs as a
means for progression, whereas in contrast, there is minimal reference to smaller or
domestic firms.
Costa Rica’s ability to acquire FDI may be as a result of many changes dating
back to the early 19th century. President Jose Figueres Ferrer, the first president under
the constitution, set a goal to transform Costa Rica into an industrial nation (Kantor,
1954). He pledged to improve social services and abolished the army (López, 1996). It
may be argued that as a result of these changes, Costa Rica was open to the influences of
globalization, with a desire to be a part of the industrialized world. With new technolo-
gies to handle finances, countries are almost borderless, as it has become easier to move
capital from one country to another (Torres, 2002). Today it may be difficult to avoid a
global economy, as companies such as Intel are willing to invest millions into countries
to increase production at lower costs with an increased profit margin, thus creating a
symbiotic relationship between the country and the MNCs that are investing in them.
The Impact of Intel and Other MNCs in Costa Rica
Intel was a significant catalyst to the rapid changes in Costa Rica’s economy and
education system. In 1996, Intel invested approximately $300 million in Costa Rica to
build a semiconductor and test plant. This investment directly impacted the economy,
FDIs, and trade growth (World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
[MIGA], 2006). Prior to this investment, various firms were already investing in Costa
Rica but the fact that they were not consistent or aligned with one another built a com-
petitive platform for foreign investors. In 2006 an article titled The Impact of Intel on
Costa Rica, written by the World Bank Group, MIGA, described the effects that Intel has
had on Costa Rica 9 years after the initial investment. This article also described how the
signaling effects were investments made by Intel that resulted in billions of dollars in
profit—an increase in FDI by more than 50 foreign corporations and policy changes
including many affecting the education system.
After the initial $300 million in 1996, Intel invested an additional $470 million
over the next 7 years. These investments have resulted in the opening of three plants that
directly employ over 2,900 workers (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). According to
the World Bank Group, MIGA (2006), profits from these factories exceeded $20 billion
dollars annually and impacted over 4,900 workers in Costa Rica. In 2005, Intel paid over
$44 million in base salaries, Social Security, and Workers Compensation insurance. It is
important to note, however, that the corporation did not pay state taxes for the first 8
years after the initial investment in Costa Rica. This factor is not significant in terms of
dollars but does highlight the influence that a corporation the size of Intel has and how it
can be a catalyst for change without a direct financial contribution.
Intel sought to influence five key areas: (a) increasing the number of higher edu-
cation technical graduates. (b) creation of technical certification programs, (c) a higher
quality technical curriculum, (d) development of language programs, and (e) increasing
the number of workers with high-level skills in construction and project management. To
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
accomplish these goals, Intel established specific requirements that were to be put into
place. For example, Intel required that there be improvements in technical education; as
a result, technical education programs were created. Educardo Sibaja, the Minister of
Science and Technology, shared the perspective that Intel had given Costa Rica the
needed push and the results were reflected in the new programs and number of graduates
from these programs (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). These programs included
changes in the educational system so as to be more effective and capable of producing
graduates ready with the 21st-century skills required to develop technologies and
software (Travica, 2002).
Intel employees were often better paid than those working in traditional agricul-
tural jobs. In many cases, the difference was approximately 50% better pay than tradi-
tional Costa Rican jobs (World Bank, MIGA, 2006). To secure a job of this caliber,
however, the labor force had to be qualified. Prior to Intel’s investment, there was a
shortfall of qualified labor—a problem that needed to be addressed (Mange-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). One of the most notable changes was the creation of a 1-year
technical certification program and a 1-year Associate of Arts degree designed to train
the labor force in the skills needed to succeed in the technical field. These programs
focused on semiconductor manufacturing. With the help of the Intel Corporation, a cur-
riculum was built relevant to the industrial needs (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). As
a result of these new programs, a new demand was created, as there were a limited
number of doctoral-level professors who could facilitate research and development at the
college level (Mange-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
Investments made by MNCs in Costa Rica first began with a significant degree of
reform in the Costa Rican education infrastructure (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006).
Between 1999 and 2003, a hands-on approach to learning was adopted and built into the
new curriculum. In addition, Intel donated over $1.1 million worth of microprocessors to
schools to modernize laboratories. As of 2006, Costa Rica had a goal to train over 9,000
primary and middle school teachers in the technical area and to train 2,000 high school
teachers to promote an interest in math and sciences. Much of the achievement in Costa
Rica is not as a result of one person or corporation, however. Although Intel was argu-
ably one of the most publicized influences that promoted change, it is the actual
achievements gained in the areas of technology that made the investments by companies
like Intel a success. These achievements have been demonstrated by the changes found in
Costa Rican policies (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). More importantly, there does
not appear to be any public opposition to these changes (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Intel was not the only MNC investing in Costa Rica. Microsoft, for example,
started its initial investment in 1995 and, as of 2007, had approximately 50 employees in
Costa Rica. This may appear to be a small direct investment; however, the indirect influ-
ence on education policy has been significant. Microsoft initiated a global initiative
called Partners in Learning, whereby it works with government agencies to help students
and teachers reach their maximum potential (Mange-González and González-Alvarado,
2007). This program allows for schools and teachers to apply for grants, receive donated
technologies, and purchase products at discounted rates. The arrangement made with the
Costa Rican MPE to combat the 48% secondary school dropout rate was to train 1,200
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
teachers and 75,000 students on how to use Microsoft Office® (Mange-González and
González-Alvarado, 2007). With a new market demand and training programs designed
to teach the skills required to be successful, students now have a purpose to go to school
beyond the ninth grade.
Hence, MNCs have significantly contributed to the changes made to the education
system in Costa Rica. These changes are in the form of FDI, policy changes, and cur-
riculum guidance. More importantly is the notion that these changes are significant and
shape the culture. As noted by Spring (2008), the education systems in a global economy
will be formed based on need and modeled after a worldly view.
The impact of FDI is significant. For example, Intel accounted for almost 6% of
the increased GDP in Costa Rica (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006) and, by 2006, ac-
counted for nearly 25% of the country’s exports (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Through
direct and indirect investments, policy changes, and curriculum guidance, it is easy to see
the symbiotic relationship between education and FDI. Not only is Costa Rica willing to
make the changes needed to provide a skilled labor force for FDI, but also, once invested,
the need for skilled labor increases over time. This is a contributing factor to the signal-
ing effect that occurred with Intel’s initial investment further increasing Costa Rica’s
GDP (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). These systematic changes have increased the
demand for a skilled labor force and are a driving force behind much of the education
system’s transition to increasing 21st-century learning. Blalock and Gertler (2005) and
Hall (2011) suggested that it is through FDI that many nations are able to grow.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
Twenty-First-Century Skills
To meet the demands of the labor market in countries such as Costa Rica, educa-
tion systems are changing to incorporate 21st-century learning. This section is broken
down into three parts. The first part describes the skills needed for the future in a global
economy. The second section discusses the model designed by the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills (2012) and how it is used within the school system to foster 21st-century
learning. The third section discusses Wagner’s (2008) framework for 21st-century
learning. The last part of this section summarizes 21st-century learning and how it
applies to this study.
Skills Needed for the Future
There are many skill sets taught in schools, such as mathematics, reading, writing,
science, and so on. How individuals think and what they do with the knowledge they
possess, however, have been instrumental in human progress. Rotherham and Willing-
ham (2009) noted that skills such as information literacy and global awareness are not
new—where schools in the United States are lacking is in teaching students how to think.
They further suggested that many schools in the United States place a greater emphasis
on memorization rather the process of problem solving or thinking. In fact, research
suggests that there is so much more new knowledge being created that how to solve a
problem is more important than knowing facts. Businesses are demanding these skills,
and schools in the United States are rapidly changing to address the needs of the 21st
century. Given that a connection has been established between globalization and educa-
tion, these changes would also apply to the schools in Costa Rica, as they also contribute
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
to a global economy. Prior to major FDI, Costa Rica did not have the labor force with the
skill set required for a global economy.
Luterbach and Brown (2011) articulated a need for students to learn technological
skills in addition to the knowledge currently being taught in schools today. They sug-
gested that by having technological skills, students will be more competitive beyond the
industrial era with respect to working in an assembly line. The authors also defined skills
that students need to be competitive in the 21st century. Students must be literate,
capable of using a computer and its components, be independent or self-directed problem
solvers, be social and ethical, and possess systematic thinking skills. When discussing
21st-century skills, it is also important to highlight needs based on a more global econ-
omy.
The economy in Costa Rica has significantly changed from being predominantly
agricultural based to an economy influenced by the technology industries (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). With the influx of MNCs, Costa Rican school
systems have changed with the intent to meet the demands of the new job market (OECD,
2012). This situation makes Costa Rica perhaps one of the best examples of a school
system that has had to adapt to meet the demands of the global economy.
Framework for 21st-Century Learning
This section introduces the conceptual frameworks used to describe 21st-century
learning. First, it describes the framework of Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012)
and how it helps to develop 21st-century learning in schools. The following section
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
describes Wagner’s (2008) essential skills needed in the 21st century, emphasizing tar-
geted areas of required skills to develop a qualified workforce.
One approach to developing a qualified workforce is to teach 21st-century learn-
ing and skills in schools. This need was supported by Bottery (2006), who suggested a
need for professional understanding of global policies and issues with respect to global-
ization. As part of this study, a standardized framework was used to define 21st-century
learning. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012) has developed a framework
designed to help schools better understand the skills that students need to learn and how
to implement them. This framework consists of four keys themes: (a) core subjects and
21st-century themes; (b) learning and innovation skills; (c) information, media, and tech-
nology skills; and (d) life and career skills.
This framework (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2012) suggests that
students need to master the 21st-century themes, also known as English, math, science,
history, and so on. The need for innovative skills is described as the development of
critical thinking, problem solving, and communication skills. The third theme is the
ability to use information, media, and technology to solve problems. An example of this
ability would be literacy in information, communication, and technology (ICT). The last
theme is based on life and career skills. These are the skills that help students navigate
complexities not taught in a knowledge-based system. A few examples of these skills
would be flexibility, initiative, leadership, and responsibility. Figure 1 demonstrates how
these themes work together.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38

Figure 1. Framework for 21st-century learning. Taken from Overview: Framework for
21st Century Learning, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2012, retrieved from
http://www.p21.org/overview/skills-framework
In order for schools to teach these skills, Partnership for 21st Century Skills
(2012) further suggested five critical support systems be put into place: (a) 21st-century
standards, (b) assessment of 21st-century skills, (c) 21st-century curriculum and instruc-
tion, (d) 21st-century professional development, and (e) 21st-century learning environ-
ments. These systems are designed to help schools develop curricula that incorporate
21st-century learning into the way that students are learning, rather than simply telling
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
them about the skills. These systems are broken down into targeted areas in which 21st-
century skills are to be incorporated. For example, not only should there be standards in
place, but assessments should incorporate and test student knowledge as well. In addi-
tion, professional development is needed to help those who lack the knowledge to incor-
porate these skills into the curriculum.
Wagner’s Framework for 21st-Century Skills
Schools in Costa Rica are changing, and a labor force is changing to meet the
market demands for the technology industry. With the influx of MNCs also comes the
influx of tourism, immigration, and a greater demand on social services (e.g., infrastruc-
ture, healthcare). As part of this study, it was important to learn whether the schools are
succeeding in meeting these demands. Wagner (2008) suggested that students in a global
economy need the following seven essential skills:
1. Critical Thinking: The ability to think rather than regurgitate knowledge.
2. Collaboration and Leadership: Technology has opened doors for virtual col-
laboration. Products can now be developed by teams from different regions of the
world.
3. Agility and Adaptability: The ability to solve problems and adapt to the
changes in a global economy.
4. Initiative and Entrepreneurialism: The skills needed to succeed are not limited
to what you have accomplished, but they have extended to what you can accom-
plish.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
5. Effective Oral and Written Communication: The ability to communicate with
others and understand what they are trying to convey.
6. Accessing and Analyzing Information: The ability to manage large amounts of
information.
7. Curiosity and Imagination: Asking questions that lead to a solution that is
effective and/or more efficient. (p. 14)
Wagner (2008) further articulated a need for change in the classroom to meet the
market demands. To teach students the 21st-century skills, there has to be an increased
amount of rigor in the curriculum and classroom learning expectations. Rigor, in this
case, is not defined by the volume of work; rather, its definition is based on an increase in
critical thinking required to find a solution.
As a result of the world transitioning to a global economy, an abundance of
information that is easy to access, and influential media, Wagner (2010) suggested a need
for the seven skills to be taught in schools. The extent to which these skills are taught in
schools is important, given that Costa Rica has moved to a more global economy. In
addition Costa Rica is beginning to meet the expectation of supplying a workforce trained
with 21st-century skills. It was also important to determine how these changes are being
implemented and what leadership traits are being used at the schools that have imple-
mented these changes successfully.
Leadership
School leaders are the bridge between why and how 21st-century learning takes
place. It can therefore be assumed that leadership is an essential component to the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
development of 21st-century skills. This section defines the characteristics of a leader
and review the model developed by Marzano et al. (2005) of 21 Responsibilities of the
School Leader. In addition, Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model was used to
describe how MNCs and globalization have affected school leadership in Costa Rica.
The need for truly effective leadership is great (Marzano et al., 2005). McEwan-
Adkins (2002) supported this claim and further suggested that principals are the key to
the success of schools and that through educational leadership, principals can be a
resource to guide schools toward success. In many studies, a principal’s leadership style
can often be the most significant contribution to effective school change (Drysdale,
Goode, & Gurr, 2009). In a different study, however, Lewis and Oh (2007) stated that
managerial skills were considered as being the most essential skill set for a leader to
have. With the increased demand for 21st-century skills, it was important to understand
how the role of a leader has changed and what successful leaders are doing to meet the
market demands.
The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader
The success of a school is largely based on the country’s perception of the educa-
tion system (Friedman, 2005). That being said, being a leader is often not enough to
guarantee success. Leaders can, however, take steps to make significant changes in
schools. The research has indicated that many residents of Costa Rica do not perceive a
high graduation rate as the most important accomplishment (Mange-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). This does not mean that the schools are failing but does
create adversity for school leaders to overcome when attempting to transition into 21st-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
century learning. This section reviews the 21 responsibilities of school leaders that have
demonstrated a strong correlation between leadership traits and student achievement.
Marzano et al. (2005) have compiled a list of the 21 responsibilities that school
leaders possess that correlate with student achievement. Table 1 summarizes a few traits,
such as communication, discipline, flexibility, monitoring and evaluating, outreach, and
situational awareness, which show a more significant correlation with student achieve-
ment than others.
Marzano et al. (2005) suggested that leaders not only possess these traits, but also
know when and where to use them. Within this framework, the trait most significantly
correlated with student achievement was situational awareness. Situational awareness is
defined as the ability to perceive what is going to happen and plan ahead. The authors
further suggested that leaders with this trait are often able to identify informal groups and
relationships among staff and use skills such as communication and flexibility to react in
an appropriate manner to the organization’s needs.
Disciplined leaders, as defined by Marzano et al. (2005), are those willing to take
steps to protect instructional time, such as preventing distractions for teachers. Distrac-
tions can be perceived as ranging from physical classroom interruptions to gossip from a
district initiative. As a result, successful leaders will advocate for all stakeholders and are
considered to have the ability to reach out. With the goal of the education system to help
students to develop a greater understanding of their homeland and to be aware of their
rights and fundamental freedoms, leaders must be mindful of the culture. Marzano et al.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
Table 1

The 21 Responsibilities of Leaders and Their Correlations With Student Academic

Achievement

Extent to which Number Number
Responsibilities the principal: Average 95% CI of studies of schools

Communication Established strong lines of
communication with and
among teachers and students
.23 .12 to .33 11 299
Discipline Protects teachers from issues
and influences that would
detract them from their
teaching time or focus
.27 .18 to .35 12 437
Flexibility Adapts his or her needs to
current situation and is com-
fortable with dissent
.28 .16 to .39 6 277
Monitoring/evalu-
ation
Monitors effectiveness of
school practices and their
impact on student learning
.27 .22 to .32 31 1,129
Outreach Is an advocate and spokes-
person for school to all
stakeholders
.27 .18 to .35 14 478
Situational aware-
ness
Is aware of the details and
undercurrents in the running
of the school and uses this
information to address cur-
rent and potential problems
.33 .11 to .51 5 91
Note. CI = confidence interval. Adapted from School Leadership That Works: From Research to
Results, by R. J. Marzano, T. Waters, & B. A. McNulty, 2005, Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
(2005) suggested that successful leaders are individuals with a sense of balance who
push for change.
Four Frames
Bolman and Deal (2011) described four frames that leaders use to reframe their
organizations. In many instances, organizations may fail because they are unable to
anticipate the consequences of their actions. The four frames concept helps to guide
leaders toward success. These frames are the following: structural, human resource,
political, and symbolic. Each area has its own unique challenges, yet the problems the
restructuring is intended to address may overlap between each frame (Figure 2).
When looking at changes in education, leadership is an essential area on which to
focus, as the changes in an organization often have the greatest impact at this level. In
many cases, restructuring an organization may be needed to implement a change.
Bolman and Deal (2011) articulated a need for restructuring when the intent is to shift the
environment, there is a significant change in technologies, or simply a shift in leadership
has occurred. They viewed restructuring change as a fresh start for those organizations
that are unwilling to change. These changes do not necessarily have to follow a specific
guide. They should, however, meet the intended needs of the organization.
Bolman and Deal (2011, pp. 359–360) described structural leaders as those who
(a) “do their homework”; (b) “rethink the relationship of structure, strategy, and envi-
ronment”; (c) “focus on implementation,” and (d) “experiment.”
A need to make significant human resource changes is, again, based on the
organizational needs. Bolman and Deal (2011) focused on six basic human resource
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
Frame Leader in: Leadership Process
Structural Social architect Analysis, design
Human Resource Catalyst, servant Support, empowerment
Political Advocate Advocacy, coalition building
Symbolic Prophet, poet Inspiration, framing experience
Figure 2. Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model. Adapted from
“Leadership and Management Effectiveness: A Multi-Frame, Multi-Sector Analysis,”
by L. G. Bolman, 1991, Human Resources Management, 30, 509–534.
strategies: build and implement a human resource strategy, hire the right people, keep
them, invest in them, empower them, and promote diversity. To fully implement this
change, organizations may need to look inward through surveys or self-evaluation.
Bolman and Deal (p. 142) described human resource leaders as those who (a) communi-
cate their strong beliefs in people,” (b) “are visible and accessible,” and “empower
others.”
Bolman and Deal (2011) acknowledged that individuals often feel that organiza-
tions should simply focus on the product and not the politics. In the real world, however,
politics play an integral role in funding. Bolman and Deal made the suggestion that given
the centralization of conflict within the organization due to political pressures, managers
must be responsible politicians. Managers in this role should possess the following skill
sets: agenda setting, mapping of the political terrain, networking, and negotiator.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
The political framework of an organization may be “unseen” by those who work
within the organization. Bolman and Deal (2011) used the failure of the space shuttle
Columbia as an example of what might happen when politics, past practice, and numbers
overturn the recommendations made by science. In this example, the launching of
Columbia appeared to be more important than taking the time for the weather to change
or reengineering a part. As a result, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
suffered the embarrassment of the shuttle exploding on national television. This failure
was due to an O-ring failure that was reported as a probable failure prior to the launch.
When looking at a situation in hindsight, things always appear clearer. In the case of the
space shuttle, the faulty O-ring was noticed prior to launch, but individuals at the bottom
of the political structure were not empowered to speak up beyond the recommendation.
In an effort to avoid catastrophe, a political leader needs to first understand others’
concerns and interests before they can assert influence. Bolman and Deal (pp. 364–366)
described political leaders as those who (a) “clarify what they want and what they can
get”; (b) “assess the distribution of power and interest”; (c) “build linkages to key stake-
holders”; and (d) persuade first, negotiate second, and coerce only if necessary.”
The symbolic aspect emphasizes a cultural change. Symbols are often in the form
of myths, visions, and values that the organization uses to promote its goals (Bolman &
Deal, 2011). The importance here is the determination of whether the organization has a
culture or is the culture. Cultures, regardless, are built over time and define the way that
organizations do things. Bolman and Deal used the four frames to interpret organiza-
tional processes. In the process of reorganizing an organization, structural roles and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
responsibilities have to be realigned. A balance between human needs and formal roles
has to be established. The symbolic frame describes a leader who maintains an image of
accountability and responsiveness. Bolman and Deal (pp. 318–319) described symbolic
leaders as those who (a) “lead by example,” (b) “frame experience,” (c) “communicate a
vision,” “tell stories,” and “respect and use history.”
Understanding the leadership frames by themselves is not enough. In order to
make effective change, leaders must understand which frames describe them the best and
then identify areas of needed growth. In some instances, a particular type of frame is
desired to fit a particular need. There may also be a need for leaders to address multiple
frames. For example, a leader may fit in the structural and political frames, but there is a
need to improve human resources. This need would indicate a need to change leadership
or to bring in someone who can fill the gap. To determine the need for or a match to a
frame, Bolman and Deal (2011) suggested asking the right questions.
1. Are individual commitments and motivation essential to success?
2. Is the technical quality of the decision important?
3. Are there high levels of ambiguity and uncertainty?
4. Are conflict and scare resources significant?
5. Are you working from the bottom up? (pp. 318–319)
Once these questions have been answered, a leader’s strengths can be identified
using the framework provided by Bolman and Deal (2011). Kythreotis, Pashiardis, and
Kyriakides (2010) have found links between school leadership and student achievement
to be difficult to establish. Nevertheless, Bolman and Deal stated that if proficiency is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
reached at all levels of the four frames, reframing can be accomplished and success can
be found.
School culture is another area of significant concern and can be particularly diffi-
cult to reframe, as culture is established over time and if often most important to the
organization (Kythreotis et al., 2010). Bolman and Deal (2011) discussed the use of
frames to identify one’s type of leadership style. A leader who fits into the structural
framework is a social architect who often succeeds in analysis and design. Leaders who
fit the human resource frame are catalysts and servants who succeed in areas where they
are in support roles. Leaders who are advocates fit into the political role. Those who are
inspirational become effective symbolic leaders. By understanding a leader’s frame, a
gap can be easily identified and then adjusted for.
Chapter Summary
Globalization has often presented itself as a catalyst to change, including changes
made to education. The type of change, however, is often a matter of choice, as dis-
cussed by Altbach and Knight (2007). As a result, many changes have been made over a
period of time to reflect the demands of a global economy in Costa Rica. To address
these demands, Wagner (2008) suggested a need to develop 21st-century skills so as to
adapt to the changes resulting from the impact of globalization. Globalization and MNCs
have a significant influence on which 21st-century skills should be taught, what policies
are implemented, and what types of leaders are needed to run the schools.
Research in this area has suggested that MNCs have had many positive impacts
on the countries in which they invest. Some researchers, however, have argued that this
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
influence removes the autonomy of the state (Spring, 2008) and may create an unhealthy
competition for FDIs (Solis, 2011). It is important to note, however, that many countries
are often forced into a global economy and must be ready (Torres, 2002). Nevertheless,
Costa Rica has experienced many policy changes; as a result, the education system is
rapidly changing at the primary, secondary, and higher education levels to teach 21st-
century skills.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of globalization and MNCs’
involvement on leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. As outlined above, there is a strong correlation between the
influences of globalization, the need for 21st-century learning, leadership, and the
changes made in the education system in Costa Rica. This case study first attempted to
identify the effects of globalization on the schools, as defined by Spring (2008). Then,
the framework established by Wagner (2006) was used to identify the areas where 21st-
century learning is taking place or is intended to take place. Finally, Bolman and Deal’s
(2011) four frames model was used to analyze and characterize leadership profiles. This
analysis provides insight to the approach that leaders must take to ensure that 21st-
century learning is occurring.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
This chapter articulates the research design, research team, participants, instru-
ments, and a plan for data collection. The purpose of this study is to understand what
impacts globalization and the involvement of MNCs have had on educational leadership
and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. In
addition, the study identifies the role that Costa Rican school leaders played in the
implementation of new policy changes seen in the constitution and the implications of
their involvement in producing a more knowledge-ready, purposeful education system
that builds the labor force in Costa Rica.
The University of Southern California (USC), in conjunction with various Costa
Rican schools, government officials, and representatives from MNCs in Costa Rica col-
laborated and participated in this study. This study attempted to address the following
questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has the educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
that came about as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
Research Design
This study used a qualitative research approach to answer the research questions.
When one moves beyond the judgment of what one sees and begins to examine the
effects using imperial data and careful analysis, one is conducting research (Patton,
2002). A qualitative researcher, as defined by Merriam (2009) attempts to research not
only what people are experiencing but also how they interpret these experiences. As
Merriam pointed out, it is important to choose a research design that fits one’s research
question(s).
There are many different types of qualitative research. For example, Creswell
(2009) suggested that there are many different approaches to qualitative research,
including narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study.
Each approach is unique to the research question(s) and should fit the views and comfort
of the researcher (Merriam, 2009). This study attempts to understand how the school
systems in Costa Rica have changed by using the researcher as the primary instrument of
data collection performing an inductive investigation and gathering rich description of
what is observed. Merriam (2009) defined this type of qualitative research as a case
study.
As suggested by Merriam (2009), an object of study must be identified so that the
research can better explain the “what” and hone in on targeted areas of study. The case
study focuses on gathering data from multiple educational sources, limited to schools in
Costa Rica that are influenced by MNCs. This one particular area creates a bounded
system of study—or to be more specific, defines the “what.”
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
Merriam (2009) defined three types of qualitative case studies: historical and
observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. This study approaches the
research from a multisite case study perspective. Merriam further explained this type of
study as the gathering and analyzing of data from multiple sites or cases. This study
gathers data from multiple sites and attempt to define common characteristics. Maxwell
(2013) suggested that a conceptual framework be used as a key part of the research
design to help identify commonalities. The research team approached the purpose of the
study using three frameworks: Bolman and Deal’s (2011) Reframing Organizations,
Spring’s (2008) “Research on Globalization and Education,” and Wagner’s (2010)
Global Achievement Gap.
The researchers on this project attempted to understand the influences of global-
ization and MNCs on schools and how these influences have affected school leadership.
Given that this research team was from a different country and had limited access and
time to student data, a qualitative case study approach was used as it allowed opportunity
for the unknown to be gathered. This factor is particularly important in this study, as the
school systems and methods of governance are not the same as those in the United States.
This chapter is divided into six sections. The first section discusses in detail the
research team and defines the roles and responsibilities of the members. The second
section describes the sample populations and explains how the participants were chosen.
The third section deals with the instrumentation that the team used to gather data. The
fourth and fifth sections describe the process of how the data were gathered and analyzed.
Within these sections, the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB) process is reviewed,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
noting the permissions required to conduct research on human subjects and in a different
country. A fourth framework by Maxwell (2013) is introduced in the fifth section to
provide guidance on how the data were analyzed.
Research Team
The lead researcher and supervisor of the study was Dr. Michael Escalante from
the USC Rossier School of Education. The team consists of 12 doctoral students from
USC. The team began meeting during the fall of 2012 and divided themselves into three
distinct groups, each of which was designated a focus area to study. Group 1 focused on
higher education; Group 2, secondary education (Grades 7–12); and Group 3, primary
education (Grades 1–6). Some of the key participants are key government officials who
are helping to guide the study and set up interviews with site leaders. These individuals
were an essential component in IRB approval process.
Population and Sample
This case study involved observations related to the impact of globalization and
MNCs on the schools and universities in Costa Rica. The sample population consisted of
government officials, site administrators from various schools that receive direct or
indirect aid from MNCs, and executives from MNCs in Costa Rica. After reviewing lit-
erature on the Costa Rican economy, the research team was led to Andrés Rodríguez-
Clare, a highly acclaimed economist at the University of California at Berkeley, who
introduced the team to many of the country’s leaders, including Miguel Angel Rodríguez,
president of Costa Rica from 1998 to 2002. During the month of March 2013, the Min-
ister of Education was sent an email requesting a meeting (Appendix A), and he agreed to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
meet with the research team and to participate in this study. As a result, an exploratory
team was created with representatives from each of the three teams to meet with some of
the country’s most powerful leaders on an exploratory trip conducted in early March,
2013 and subsequently provided the rest of the team with a summary of their trip. School
leaders at the primary and secondary levels were not included during this trip, as the
purpose was to identify which schools the team was going to visit. During the 3rd week
of June, 2013, the entire research team visited Costa Rica and interviewed the same pop-
ulation as the exploratory group, as well as school site leaders at the primary level who
receive benefits from Intel. These schools were identified using the data gathered on the
exploratory trip. On the return trip the researchers collected survey and observation data
from teachers and classrooms at the selected school sites.
Summary of Exploratory Trip
Two high-ranking government officials met with the exploratory research team to
discuss the case study and some of the issues faced by the Costa Rican educational
system, such as teacher training, lack of resources for particular schools, and the consid-
erable dropout rate at the high school level. These officials also provided insight into the
study’s research questions by highlighting the fact that MNCs decided to invest in Costa
Rica due to the strength of the education system in the country. Dr. Garnier, the Minister
of Education in Costa Rica, offered to serve as a link and provide access to school princi-
pals and other potential participants to be part of the study.
The exploratory research team also met with Isabel Roman, Director of Research
for the El Estado de la Nación (State of the Nation) report. Mrs. Roman gave the team a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
thorough explanation for how the Estado de la Educación, a separate report from El
Estado de la Nación, was designed and implemented. The purpose of the Estado de la
Educación is to provide an accurate portrayal of the state of the education system in
Costa Rica. In addition to providing a detailed explanation of how education is imple-
mented in Costa Rica, the report also highlights issues of access, equity, student reten-
tion, teacher preparation, and decaying of school facilities. Mrs. Roman was able to
provide statistical data on student enrollment and the distribution of schools throughout
the country.
Executives of MNCs
The exploratory research team also met with Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE.
Ms. Llobet served in a number of high-powered positions in Costa Rica before becoming
the Director of CINDE, which is a private, nonprofit, and apolitical organization. It was
founded in 1983 by prominent business people, supported by Costa Rica’s government
and financed by grants from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID).
During its 30 years, CINDE has attracted more than 200 companies to Costa Rica
including Intel, Proctor and Gamble, Baxter, St. Jude Medical, and Western Union.
The exploratory research team spoke to Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educa-
tional Programs at Intel Costa Rica. Mrs. Bialas provided an extensive overview of the
educational partnerships that Intel has with high schools and universities in the country.
She provided an overview of these partnerships as well as other initiatives that Intel has
implemented to promote science and technology in Costa Rica. Because she is from the
United States, Mrs. Bialas provided valuable insight to the Costa Rican education system
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
as she could make comparisons with U.S. schools. In addition, Mrs. Bialas offered to
share the names of the schools and individuals who help her carry out the academic initi-
atives on behalf of Intel.
School Administrators
The exploratory research team met with Dr. Chaves, Dean of the College of Edu-
cation at the UCR, and Dr. Vargas, director of the Education Research Institute (INIE).
The INIE is an academic unit of the College of Education at the UCR, dedicated to inter-
disciplinary and transdisciplinary research in the field of educational sciences. It aims to
improve the Costa Rican education system and collaborate and conduct research nation-
ally and internationally. These individuals shared the challenges faced by the education
system, such as high dropout rates at the secondary schools, and commented that teacher
preparation programs are divided into primary education, secondary education, and uni-
versity faculty education. Dr. Vargas explained that the Omar Dengo Foundation began
in the 1990s to support technology in the schools; however, the greatest impact has been
in urban centers and a few rural areas. She also noted that Intel provided much support
for the UCR. Both Dr. Chavez and Dr. Vargas have committed to providing the names of
school administrators who took part in the case study.
Instrumentation
The primary instrument used in this case study was the researcher. As defined by
Merriam (2009), the researcher must be able to quickly analyze, evaluate, and respond to
the process of data collection. The instrumentation protocols used by each researcher on
this team were interviews, a survey, and observations. The team began the discussion on
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
the instruments used for this study in November of 2012 and refined the questions after
the exploratory group returned from their trip in early March. The purpose of the inter-
views and surveys was to determine the amount of knowledge possessed by government
officials, representatives from MNCs, and school site leaders with regard to globalization.
The researchers also gathered information on the site leaders to understand their leader-
ship styles. All individuals were be asked to complete a consent form before participat-
ing in the study (Appendix B).
The research team interviewed political leaders and educational policymakers,
executives of MNCs, as well as school administrators and teachers, as the primary
method of data collection in this study. These interview protocols were submitted to the
USC IRB for approval. During the initial exploratory trip, the research team had the
opportunity to pilot questions that were used in the interview protocols. The exploratory
research team divided the responsibility of active note taking and questioning while the
respondents provided preliminary data that guided refining the questions. The interview
questions have been designed around the research questions for this study (Appendices C
through E).
The interview protocol consists of five key areas. In the first section, Questions
1–2 are designed to collect important demographic and personal information to provide
background on the individual being interviewed. In the second section six questions are
designed to gather information regarding the impact of globalization and the presence of
MNCs on schools and universities in Costa Rica. These questions were created using
Spring’s (2008) framework as a guide. In the third section, five questions are designed to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
identify which 21st-century skills, if any, are being taught in the schools. These questions
were created using Wagner’s (2010) framework. In the last section, six questions are
designed to identify leadership traits of school site leaders in Costa Rica. These ques-
tions were developed using Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frame model as a guide.
In addition to interviews, the research designed a survey protocol (Appendix F).
Survey data were collected from teachers to validate the interview responses from site
leaders. This survey protocol is similar to Section 3 of the interview protocol with the
exception that was given to the teachers who work at the sites where leaders were inter-
viewed. This protocol was designed to gather data on 21st-century learning in the class-
room. The survey was given to the teachers during the site visit and collected the same
day.
Observation data were gathered by the researchers on the participants’ behavior
and their environment (Appendix G). This observation protocol was used by the
researcher during school site visits where the impact of globalization and the role of
MNCs was studied. Creswell (2009) suggested using an observation protocol so that the
research team would be able to record information that might prove difficult for respond-
ents to discuss or did not come out as part of the interview. The observation protocol is
designed to gather information regarding 21st-century learning, as described by Wagner
(2010). This protocol includes a Likert scale along with a section to record additional
information.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
Data Collection
After the exploratory trip, the dissertation group was able to acquire a list of
available participants to interview, survey, and observe during June of 2013. During
April of 2013, the team completed the IRB process, thereby allowing the team to perform
an exempt study on human subjects in a country other than the United States. Partici-
pants were visited by the research team and interviews were conducted in person. The
names and locations remained confidential. Each interview was recorded with notes
taken, highlighting significant responses or areas where additional data were offered.
Each interview was transcribed and shared with other members of the research team.
Survey and observation data were collected from the school sites only, during
June 2013. The survey was administered and collected by the research team at the sites
where leaders were interviewed in June 2013. These data were coded and shared with
other members of the research team. Also in June 2013, observation data were collected
and recorded by the research team using the aforementioned protocols. Due to the col-
laborative nature of the study, data were shared to establish more depth to the data analy-
sis and findings.
The following points have been identified as good ethical practices by Creswell
(2009) and were followed during the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process:
1. Protecting the anonymity of individuals, roles and incidents in the case study.
2. Data shall be kept in safe location.
3. Issues of data ownership will be resolved prior to data collection.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
4. In order to provide an accurate account, the researchers and respondents will
debrief to check for accuracy of the data.
5. Anticipate repercussions of conducting the research on certain audiences and
not misuse results to the advantage of any one group. (pp. 91–92)
The research did not use language that is biased toward any one racial or ethnic group or
persons because of their gender or sexual orientation, age, or disability.
Data Analysis
A case study requires a detailed description of the setting and participating indi-
viduals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues (Creswell, 2009). Data
were analyzed collaboratively as well as individually. To analyze these data, Creswell’s
(2009, pp. 185–190) six-step model for data analysis was used as follows:
1. Organize and prepare data.
2. Read through data and identify general ideas.
3. Code the data for a detailed analysis. . . .
4. Categorize the data into themes for analysis and generate a description.
5. Describe how the themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative.
6. Interpret the data and provide a detailed interpretation of the lessons learned.
Creswell (2009) stated that interviews must be transcribed and data organized so
as to prepare for Step 2. The data gathered during the interviews in this study were
recorded and then transcribed. Not only do the protocols for the interview have each
question broken down into categories by type of participant, but the questions are also
tagged with which research question they address and which framework was used to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
analyze the data. Once the data were transcribed, the team collaboratively read through
all the data and began the discussion regarding what the participants said. This procedure
is in line with Creswell’s second step for data analysis.
The third step of Creswell’s (2009) model required the team to utilize a single
coding model. During this step, each bit of data was categorized and labeled with a term.
Creswell (pp. 186–187) further suggested that the research team must analyze the data so
as to address the following: (a) “codes on topics that are well known or expected,” (b)
“codes for new information that stand out,” (c) “codes for unusual information,” and (d)
“codes that address larger perspectives.”
It was important for the research team to decide whether or not to use predeter-
mined codes or to let them develop (Creswell, 2009). Once the coding has taken place,
Creswell (2009) suggested that a description of the setting, people, categories, or themes
should be generated. This study used the frameworks previously discussed to establish
the themes of globalization, 21st-century learning, and leadership.
The fifth step in analyzing the data was to determine how the themes were repre-
sented. Creswell (2009) noted that researchers will often use visuals, figures, or tables to
represent the data. The final step of this process was to interpret the data and provide
meaning. Creswell described this as the process of sharing what lessons were learned. In
order to check for the accuracy of the findings, Creswell (pp. 191–192) suggested eight
primary strategies: (a) “triangulating”; (b) “member checking”; (c) “using rich, thick
descriptions to provide a clear picture of the data”; (d) presenting negative or discrepant
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
information”; (e) spending a “prolonged amount of time in the field”; (f) using “peer
debriefing”; and (g) using an “external auditor.”
Ethical Considerations
All of the members of the dissertation group participated in the IRB’s application
process. The process entailed a completion of the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
(CITI), which is an online training program that offers various modules that individuals
can take to earn a certificate that ensures that they understand the ethical considerations
when doing research. The IRB constitutes a necessary function of the dissertation to
ensure that the process is completed with fidelity. It is also required to ensure that all
aspects of the research project are done without any harm to participants (physical,
mental, or otherwise) and that all ethical considerations are employed. All 12 members
of the group as well as research leader, Dr. Escalante, completed the IRB CITI.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
Chapter 4
Results
Costa Rica has changed significantly over the past few decades. An economy
once dominated by agriculture has changed into a diversified portfolio of foreign invest-
ment and manufacturing, consisting of technology and medical manufacturing, to name a
few. Companies such as Intel and Microsoft have invested millions into Costa Rica, with
significant contributions made to the education system. However, Rotherham and
Willingham (2009) suggested that, with an increase in global influence, many students
may lack the skills necessary to compete in a global economy. Therefore, it is important
to understand whether MNCs are contributing to the development of a qualified work-
force. Wagner (2008) suggested that it is necessary to prepare students with 21st-century
skills to prepare them for a global economy. This study was an attempt to identify how
MNCs have contributed to schools and to determine whether these influence have had a
positive impact. This study was also designed to determine whether 21st-century skills
are being taught and whether instructional leadership has changed as a result of the need
to develop these skills.
The aim of the study was to explore the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and univer-
sities in Costa Rica, guided by the three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influences of globalization and MNCs?
This chapter presents a discussion of the findings as they relate to the research
questions. First, the case study on Escuela Espana, outlined Chapter 3, is discussed; this
is followed by the finding as they relate to two other elementary schools. Second, find-
ings related to each research question are discussed, using data from the literature review,
interviews, survey, and observations. Findings related to Research Question 1 are pre-
sented in relation to Spring’s (2008) framework on globalization and education. Findings
related to Research Question 2 are presented by relating Wagner’s (2007) discussion on
21st-century learning. Findings related to Research Question 3 are presented using proto-
cols that the research team developed based on theory by Bolman and Deal (2011). The
chapter ends in a summary of the key findings related to the research questions.
Research Organization
This research was led by Dr. Michael Escalante and conducted by 12 doctoral
students from USC Rossier School of Education. The research team began to meet in fall
2012, and divided into three groups, each designated to focus on one area to study. Group
1 focused on higher education, Group 2 focused on schools at the secondary level, or
Cycles 3 and 4 (Grades 7–12), and Group 3 focused on schools at the primary level, or
Cycles 1 and 2 (Grades K–6). This dissertation focuses on results from the primary level.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
The sample population for this study consisted of government officials, site
administrators at schools that received direct aid from MNCs, and executives from MNCs
in Costa Rica. After reviewing the literature on the Costa Rican economy, the research
team was led to Andres Rodriguez-Clare, a frequently cited economist at the University
of California Berkley, who introduced the team to many of the country’s leaders, includ-
ing Miguel Angel Rodriguez, President of Costa Rica from 1998 to 2002. An exploratory
team was formed, with representatives from each of the three research teams, to meet
with some of the country’s most influential leaders on an exploratory trip conducted in
early March 2013.
School sites and administrators to participate in this study were selected by the
research team. Only public schools in Costa Rica who received aid from an MNC were
included in the study. Prior to conducting field research, the exploratory team verified
that partnerships between MNCs and schools in Costa Rica existed. It was the intent of
the researchers to verify the extent to which these relationships exist with an elementary
schools in Costa Rica. Also included in this study were data from two other elementary
school: Escuela Manuel del Pilar and Escuela Fidel Chavez Murrillo. Comprehensively
120 copies of the survey were provided to elementary teachers and 60 teachers
responded, including 15 responses from Escuela Espana. Thirty-two classroom observa-
tions were conducted at the three sites, 15 of which were conducted at Escuela Espana
(see Table 2).
Participants who were interviewed for the study were selected based on their con-
nection to the school system, established by the data received during the exploratory
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
Table 2

Summary of Invited Participants and Actual Participants

Factor Invited Participated

Number of survey responses 120 60
Number of survey responses from Escuela Espana 40 15
Number of observations 90 32
Number of observations at Escuela Espana 30 12

trip. All members of the team participated in the interviews, with the exception of the site
administrator at Escuela Espana. Only this researcher, with the assistance of an inter-
preter, conducted the interview with Rityard Miranda, Director of Escuela Espana.
Participants
Political leaders and educational policymakers were interviewed to gain insight
into their experiences as a result of the development and implementation of policy change
seen in major educational initiatives. In addition, it was important to understand the
political view of the possible impact that MNCs have had on the educational system in
Costa Rica. Two political leaders were interviewed: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister
of Education; and (b) Ms. Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE. Executives of MNCs
were interviewed to understand their experiences as corporate leaders in Costa Rica.
Understanding the corporate leaders’ role and influence in the educational system was
vital to address the three research questions. Four MNC leaders were interviewed:
(a) Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs at Intel Costa Rica; (b) Patricia
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
Chico, Former Director of Intel Teach Costa Rica; (c) Michelle Coffey, CRUSA; and (d)
Dr. Mariaeugia Bejanda, Research Director at the Omar Dengo Foundation. School
leaders were interviewed and surveyed to gain school site-level leaders’ understanding of
the possible impact of MNCs on their school sites. Three professors who lead the teacher
education program at UCR were included in this study to gain a perspective on how
teacher training may be affected by globalization: (a) Rutyard Miranda, Director of
Escuela Espana; (b) Dr. Allen Pacheco, Academic Coordinator at UCR; and (c) Dr. Maria
Camacho, Head Master at UCR. The focus of this dissertation study was on the elemen-
tary school level, with Escuela Espana as the targeted school.
Case Study Overview: Escuela Espana
The case study was conducted at Escuela Espana. Escuela Espana is located in the
eastern part of Belen in Costa Rica. It is one of three schools in the Belen area that were
identified by Mary Helen Bialas as having a direct partnership with Intel. The school of
approximately 965 students was described by Director Rutyard Miranda as a school of
both rich and poor students. When the research team visited the school, an assembly was
held for the National Science Fair, and Director Miranda spoke of a changing world and
how education has changed to be more global. During his interview, he spoke of “an
increase in globalization in education, where you see a lot of things changing, especially
with technology” (personal interview, June 26, 2013).
The school is located in the middle of a suburban neighborhood, not more than 2
miles from a neighboring elementary school. The school was built into a hill, with 8-foot
gates on the perimeter. Entrance to the campus is by permission only, and every visitor is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
required to sign in and show identification. Newer physical education facilities were
being constructed and classrooms appeared to be well maintained.
During the observations, all teachers appeared to be willing to participate, but
time was a limiting factor. Teachers who responded to the survey and participated in the
observations willingly opened their classrooms. This allowed the researcher to observe
both the instructional practices of the teacher and the physical environment of the school.
Students did not participate directly in the study.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The aim of this question was to determine whether there
is an increased presence of MNCs in Costa Rica and, if so, how these companies have
influenced changes in the education system. Globalization is the economic, political, and
societal force pushing 21st-century education toward greater international involvement
that affects production, consumption, and investment (Altbach, 2004; Spring, 2008). An
obvious effect of globalization is change. What is not so obvious are the various types of
changes and how these changes affect the education system. Spring (2008) suggested that
globalization affects education systems as there is an increased demand for a skilled labor
force. In order for this change to take place, however, there needs to be a catalyst. This
study sought to determine whether MNCs are in fact a catalyst for change. This section
discusses two themes that emerged from the data. First, there is a notable increase in
MNCs over the past few decades, which was seen in the literature review, survey
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
responses, and interview data. The second theme was the development of positive part-
nerships between MNCs and schools in Costa Rica.
Increase in MNCs
The first significant theme that emerged from these data was that the presence of
MNCs has increased in Costa Rica over the past few decades and that the MNCs are
influencing many changes in the education system. Partnerships between MNCs and the
government have helped to ensure that Costa Rica is not only adapting to needs of the
investing corporations but that MNCs are able to determine whether Costa Rica is a good
fit for their needs. CINDE, for example, was created to maintain a symbiotic relationship
between the government and MNCs.
The literature review clearly established that MNCs have invested in Costa Rica
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). Data
from the interviews and survey data indicated that influences of MNCs are seen at many
of the schools in Costa Rica. As noted by Ferreira (2009) and Larraín et al. (2000), these
influences may be in the form of resources and setting expectations. There has been an
increase in a qualified workforce in Costa Rica, as well as continued growth in a qualified
workforce in the areas of technology that may help to increase FDI (Gialiani, 2008).
Survey results indicated that the presence of MNCs has influenced schools at the
elementary level. Most significant was the emergence of a direct relationship between
MNCs and schools. Of the 60 responding participants, 36 indicated that they strongly
agreed or agreed that MNCs influenced educational decisions. At Escuela Espana, 8 of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
the 15 participants strongly agreed or agreed that MNCs influence educational decisions
(Table 3).
Table 3

Participant Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational Corporations on Schools

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Education decisions are influenced by multinational corporations.
Strongly Agree 12 3
Agree 24 5
Disagree 12 5
Strongly Disagree 3 0
Don’t Know 7 2

Although the survey data were split regarding educational decisions being influ-
enced by MNCs, the data suggest that some influence can be seen. In an effort to deter-
mine whether the presence noted in the survey data was merely a perception or fact, nine
interviews were conducted. These data also indicated that the influence of MNCs may be
acting as a catalyst to the changes described in the literature review. All participants indi-
cated that the number of MNCs has increased. Seven of the nine interviewees indicated
that the influx of MNC has been positive for Costa Rica. Gabrella Llobet, Director of
CINDE, said,
The foreign direct investment, particularly in the high-tech sector, has been
responsible for a lot of these changes to Costa Rica’s exporting industries. Some
data on exports of goods and services. They have grown at an average annual rate
of 9% in the last decade. As you can see in goods, we’re talking about 7.9% in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
services, even higher in the rank of the 7%. We’ll have some data specifically on
the services later on. Yes, the exports and imports of goods and services represent
81% of our GDP. This just shows also how we have been able to diversify the
type of product being 30 years or so. Basically, if we see 1985, we exported $1
billion and a high concentration in four different agro-products: banana, sugar,
coffee, and beef; 2012, 13% of banana, coffee, sugar, and beef. We continue
having great banana, great coffee but they now represent a smaller percentage of
our market. Yes, we’re very big on the electric and electronic industry, and the
chemicals, metalwork, etc. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Mary Helen Bialas agreed that there has been an increase in MNCs in Costa Rica
and that this increase is supported by the government. During the interview she indicated,
“There has been a lot of initiative on the part of the government to support this increase,
and the multinational say they become attracted.”
The existence of CINDE signals a strategic plan for the government not only to
maintain but to increase the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica, as their presence is sup-
porting economic growth. Dr. Mariaeugia Bejanda, Research Director from the Omar
Dengo foundation, shared her perspective on globalization and how MNCs have influ-
enced Costa Rica. She said that MNCs have significantly contributed to many of the
changes.
Since the ‘80s, Costa Rica has changed in economic model format, expectations
model quite a few small groups of item cultural item to be an economy that
exports, now much wider ranges of products and also more economy that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
identities more external investments, international investments. So, I think that the
economy has changed. When you talk about globalization, we can observe the
movement of the markets in Costa Rica by having a long history of public
monopolies and some economy and communications. Some of which are a basis
of half to private initiatives. Its main change, however, is that they have been a
part of the changes they are important in this new economy. (personal interview,
June 27, 2013)
Bejanda shared that she has seen policy changes “make it easier for them [MNCs] to
invest in the country to commonly establish themselves to the country” (personal inter-
view, June 27, 2013), but she did not know exactly whether or how this affects policies.
The influence from MNCs on educational polices can be seen in the education
sector as Dr. Leonardo Garnier pointed out the positive effects of globalization and
increased FDI:
We [Costa Rica] have to continue to transform our external economic sector, we
have to export different things, not just coffee and sugar, this is about protecting
international markets, we have to be actually competitive and international
investment can be very useful for this. So Costa Rica started to attract foreign
investment.
This theme is important, as the balance of the students looks more deeply into the
impact of MNCs on three elementary schools in Costa Rica. Not only was this theme
noted in the literature review, but survey and interview data indicated that the presence of
MNCs has increased and that they have influence on the education system in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
Positive Partnership Between Schools and MNCs
The second significant theme was the influence of MNCs on the schools in Costa
Rica, specifically Intel, and the positive effects that they have had on the schools. Part-
nerships between MNCs and schools continued to grow and direct relationships began to
form. Intel is an example of an MNC that has not only partnered with schools but has
created an internal position to facilitate these partnerships and build new programs.
Survey results indicated that partnerships between MNCs and elementary schools existed
at the elementary level. Although the data were not conclusive regarding the influence of
MNCs, 53 of the 60 participants indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that there
was positive impact from MNCs on their school (Table 4).
Table 4

Participant Responses Indicating the Influence of Multinational Corporations on Schools

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Intel has positively impacted your school site.
Strongly Agree 32 7
Agree 21 5
Disagree 5 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 1 1

Dr. Garnier, Minister of Education, indicated that globalization has had a signifi-
cant impact on what students perceive as a career. “Now, kids want to be engineers and
biologists”; as a result, education shifts to meet these demands. Although some may feel
that this has negatively impacted a culture, Dr. Garnier stated, “Although the percentage
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
of jobs in the agricultural sector has declined from 75% to 10%, the number of those
employed is the same” (personal interview, June 24, 2013). This would indicate that edu-
cation has changed to meet the needs of a growing population in Costa Rica.
Similarly, Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel Teach Costa Rica, shared,
“Intel Teach began in Costa Rica in the year 2000. It was a program sponsored by Intel
and the Omar Dengo foundation which gave teachers and students from every level an
opportunity to have access to technology” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). Rutyard
Miranda, the Director of Escuela Espana, said that “what you see is globalization in edu-
cation.”
Mary Helen Bialas is the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager
for Intel; she defined her job as “the liaison between Intel Costa Rica and Intel Corpora-
tion programs, that could be linked to support education in Costa Rica K–12 through
higher ed” (personal interview, June 25, 2013). This was supported in detail by Patricia
Escalante, a former director for Intel and a professor at UCR since 1991:
The schools of education [at UCR] are more open now also to the integration of
technology than 5, 6 years ago. I think the main reason is the participation of
international companies in our country and Intel was the first big one. Because
from that moment on, students and young professionals found out that it was not
enough to be an engineer or to be doctor or a lawyer or whatever. We need to
develop other skills and the more skills they had, the better opportunities they also
had. I think that has been one of the major effects. (personal interview, June 26,
2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
Rutyard Miranda, Director of Escuela Espana, indicated a strong desire to main-
tain these relationships, explaining that “globalization and multinational business have
helped us a lot due to the fact that there have been much cooperation and equipment
donations as the transnational machines you have seen” (personal interview, June 26,
2013). Given that the data indicated a strong presence of MNCs, the finding that these
relationships are perceived as positive is important.
Summary Discussion for Question 1
Participants clearly indicated a strong presence of MNCs in Costa Rica. Further-
more, the data strongly suggest a change in the education system influenced in part by
globalization. MNCs have positively influenced schools, specifically at the elementary
level. Some corporations such as Intel have made a more significant commitment to sup-
porting changes at the education level and have developed relationships with schools.
Rutyard Miranda acknowledged these relationships as a resource for the school. This
finding is significant, as it signifies a positive partnership. Overall, these data showed that
MNCs have had an overall positive impact on the education system.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Wagner (2008) suggested that
with a growing global economy there is an increased need for 21st-century skills. The
results related to Research Question 1 indicated that MNCs are partnering with schools in
Costa Rica. The aim of this section is to determine whether 21st-century learning is
taking place in the schools that have partnered with MNCs. Data related to Research
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
Question 2 revealed three significant themes. First Intel, an MNC, has partnered with all
three elementary schools observed in this study. Second, the school’s emphasis on 21st-
century learning is supported by Intel. Third, collaboration is the most prominent 21st-
century skill utilized in all three schools.
Intel as a Partner
Beginning in 1996, Intel invested significantly in Costa Rica, establishing new
manufacturing plants and a corporate office. According to the World Bank Group (2006),
this investment has directly influenced Costa Rica’s economy and trade growth. As pre-
viously discussed, these investments led to partnerships (Ferreira, 2009; Larraín et al.,
2000). As discussed by the World Bank Group MIGA (2006), Intel sought to increase the
number of workers with high-level skills. In an effort to accomplish this goal, Intel has
partnered with many schools in Costa Rica, including the three schools that were the
target of this study.
Findings indicate that not only a partnership but a strong relationship has been
established between the schools and Intel. As previously discussed, 53 of the 60 partici-
pants from the three schools responded that they strongly agreed or agreed that MNCs
have had a positive impact on their schools. At Escuela Espana, 12 of the 15 participants
indicated the same. When asked whether Intel had improved resources at the school site,
52 of the 60 participants strongly agreed or agreed, as did 11 of the 15 participants at
Escuela Espana. These survey results conclusively indicated that Intel was partnered with
all three elementary schools identified in this study (Table 5).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
Table 5
Participant Responses Indicating Influence of Multinational Corporations in Schools

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Intel has positively impacted your school site.
Strongly Agree 32 7
Agree 21 5
Disagree 5 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 1 1

Education decisions are influenced by multinational corporations.
Strongly Agree 31 7
Agree 21 4
Disagree 7 3
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 1 1

Analysis of the interview questions also indicated a strong relationship between
Intel and schools in Costa Rica. Rutyard Miranda stated, “The changes I have seen in
school resources due to Intel’s involvement are the skills and accomplishments students
are developing with the manipulation of technological equipment” (personal interview,
June 26, 2013). Patricia Chico shared that Intel’s partnerships is not limited to elementary
schools. The program Intel Teach for the Future “was a little bit different because they
wanted every teacher and student from every level and from all subjects to have the
opportunity to have access to technology” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). This was
supported by Dr. Allen Pacheco:
Intel has had some impact on our education system. They have provided comput-
ers to schools and to government entities, but not only are they providing the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
devices, but they have some impact on the training and on giving scholarships to
key students who might be instrumental for Intel by providing scholarship
competitions. I think they have a nice partnership with Omar Dengo and with
universities as well. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
Dr. Maria Camacho and Dr. Mariaeugia Bejanda discussed examples of Intel’s
support and stated that Intel is a significant sponsor of the National Science Fair that
takes place at all education levels every year. Dr. Mariaeugia Bejanda stated,
Intel has done a great job with its training program. I think that the number of
teachers that they have is about 30,000 teachers that have been trained so that’s
something that’s quite important. I think they have also done an incredible job
supporting the scientific fair. That’s another example of how they came to help
schools. It is something that they establish to help the schools. The scientific fairs
at the school’s level is a big deal. They saw that it was something worth doing, so
they have done a very good job improving that program. (personal interview,
June 27, 2013)
These findings are significant, as Intel has accounted for almost 6% of Costa
Rica’s GDP and 25% of the country’s exports in 2006 (Paus & Gallagher, 2008; World
Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). As noted by Spring (2008), education systems in global
economies are forced to change and relationships between schools and MNCs help to
ensure that a skilled labor is provided to meet the needs of the country.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
Use of Technology
Globalization changes the status quo. As a result, there is a significant need to
prepare students to be ready with 21st-century skills. Wagner (2008) suggested that seven
skills are essential for students to compete in a global economy. In order for these skills
to be met, the instructional practices of the teacher and classrooms must change. One of
the objectives of this case study was to inquire about the extent to which 21st-century
skills are being taught in Costa Rican schools, as MNCs and globalization are an essential
component to the current Costa Rica economy. Figure 3 shows the connection that this
research team made with the guidelines for daily curricular action.
Wagner (2008) Summary of Pre-K to 6th-Grade Classroom and
Curricular Goals (MEP, pp. 8-13)
Critical Thinking
Move away from memorization to building
knowledge so that students can interact with
physical, social, and logical Mathematical objects
Collaboration and Effective Oral
and Written Communication
Active participation by all involved students
working as co-workers
Agility and Adaptability
Reorganization of classrooms with environments
or work areas to support actions of teachers for
potential of learning
Initiative and Entrepreneurialism
and Access and Analyzing
Information
Bi-weekly computer science lesson; use of Basic
language “Micro World” and use of Internet to
facilitate connection to the rest of the world
Curiosity
Passes pragmatic and empirical education to a
creative and investigating education
Figure 3. Connection of guidelines for daily curricular action.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
Using Wagner’s theoretical framework, a survey was created to identify which
skills are being taught in the classroom. The data indicated a significant correlation
between what teachers reported to be taking place in the classroom and what Wagner
(2008) suggested as 21st-century learning. A significant finding was a clear use of tech-
nology in the classroom. As indicated in Table 6, 55 of the 60 participants indicated that
technology was used in the classroom. This finding is important due to the major empha-
sis for schools to ensure that computer science is imparted in two weekly lessons
(CONARE, 2012).
Table 6

Survey Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Technology is used in your classroom.
Strongly Agree 22 8
Agree 33 6
Disagree 2 0
Strongly Disagree 1 0
Don’t Know 1 0

At Escuela Espana, the use of technology was emphasized as important by
Rutyard Miranda:
Implementing and engaging the use of new technologies to prepare students so
that could be adapted and prepare themselves for other markets and new labor
life. Our school is preparing our students enforcing and making education more
active and critical so they could see the reality of the surrounding and sources
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
toward the 21st-century workforce education path. (personal interview, June 26,
2013)
Dr. Mariaeugia Bejanda from the Omar Dengo Foundation agreed that there has
been a change but noted that there is still much to be done.
The regular teachers in the primary schools are in charge of different subjects than
secondary schools. Teachers get an assessment and they have to do it every year
to make sure they’re doing their job but I’m not sure how solid those assessments
are and I don’t think they are assessing things like incorporating 21st-century
skills.
We carry the teacher training. We decide what is done in an educational
information to lessons per week in the schools that we have laboratories but we
started about out 20 years ago. We introduced one computer in the classroom and
various small schools so they have a chance to see. Also, two use ICTs in a class-
room setting outside the computer lab. The approach of the computer lab was to
invite the regular teacher to be there and to work together with the tech teacher to
give them help and to see how to use the ICTs to help the regular teacher work on
topics. So I think that the Omar Dengo Foundation . . . I think the impact on edu-
cation is at least to show that the possibilities that we could do something differ-
ent with the kids are not so sure that the impact that has been impacted on the
regular teachers but I think that at least the intention was to show that something
different could be done. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
In addition to the survey and interviews, an observation protocol was created to
collect data that could be compared to the findings from the survey and interviews. These
data varied based on the location of the observation and type of class observed. As stated
as a limitation of the study, the time of year may have influenced these findings, as these
data were collected during the last week of school before a 2-week break. The observa-
tions were focused on 21st-century learning, using Wagner’s (2007) framework, and the
data collected were measured using the same scale as the interview protocol.
The observations produced many significant findings. During the walkthrough,
28% of the observed classrooms showed some use of technology. Regarding access to
technology, 31% of the classrooms had at least one device for students to use as a word
processor or for research. At Escuela Espana, 33% of the observations indicated that
technology was being used and that students had some access (Table 7).
Although not every classroom at Escuela Espana had access to a computer on a
regular basis, the schools visited were supplied with computer labs and laptops donated
by either Intel or the Omar Dengo Foundation. At Escuela Espana, a computer lab dedi-
cated to developing English as a second language was under construction, adding to the
two computer labs that were already in place. This lab was being outfitted with newer
wireless technologies and upgraded computers. The researcher also observed a one-to-
one laptop classroom where students regularly used laptops to complete daily assign-
ments. During this observation period, the researcher observed students working with
partners and utilizing Microsoft
®
PowerPoint
®
to create a brief presentation on a writing
project that they had started earlier in the week. Data from the survey, interviews,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
Table 7

Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning

Escuela
All (n = 60) Espana (n = 15)

Survey item and response categories f Pos % Neg % f Pos % Neg %

Technology is used in the classroom. 28.1 71.9 33.3 66.7
Strongly Agree 6 3
Agree 3 1
Disagree 6 4
Strongly Disagree 17 4
Don’t Know 0 0

There is access to technology in the classroom. 31.2 68.8 33.3 66.7
Strongly Agree 6 3
Agree 4 1
Disagree 7 5
Strongly Disagree 15 3
Don’t Know 0 0

Note. Percentages of positive responses (Strongly Agree + Agree) and percentages of
negative responses (Disagree, Strongly Disagree, and Don’t Know).
and observations strongly indicated an emphasis on the use of technology in schools.
Although the technology was not seen in every classroom, all students had access to
technology.
Collaboration
The third finding that emerged from the data was the instructional practice of
collaboration. Collaboration skills are increasingly more important, as a global economy
requires individuals to work in teams. According to Wagner (2008) and the Partnership
for 21st Century Learning, a key 21st-century skill is the ability to express one’s view
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
clearly. The survey of teachers conducted at all three elementary schools indicated that
collaboration, among other 21st-century skills, took place on a daily basis. Of the 60 par-
ticipants, 55 agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. Regarding data relevant to
teacher training, 47 of the 60 participants reported an emphasis to teach 21st-century
skills, such as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. When asked whether
teacher curriculum reflected 21st-century learning, such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication, 45 of the 60 participants agreed or strongly agreed. Data from
Escuela Espana was proportionate to the overall data from all three schools. According to
these data, there is a strong indicator that 21st-century learning is taking place at all three
schools (Table 8).
When evaluating observational data pertaining to instructional practices, the
majority of the data indicated instruction was largely focused on collaboration, student
center instruction, and student engagement. During the classroom observations, 75% of
the classrooms demonstrated some level of collaboration. Students were working with a
partner or a peer, or desks were set up in a collaborative manner. It was also evident that
the students in 90% of the classrooms were engaged. At Escuela Espana, 75% of the
observations indicated that student-centered instruction was taking place (Table 9).
Given that collaboration is an essential skill, as suggested by Wagner (2008),
having a student-centered classroom fosters communication skills needed for this model
to be successful. These data clearly indicated that collaboration was taking place on a
regular basis. The students felt comfortable with their seats during instruction and
transitional phases. This finding not only supports the notion that 21st-century skills are
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
Table 8

Survey Responses Indicating 21st-Century Learning

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Collaboration amongst students tales place daily.
Strongly Agree 30 5
Agree 25 8
Disagree 5 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 0 0

Teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills
such as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication.
Strongly Agree 17 5
Agree 30 5
Disagree 7 2
Strongly Disagree 5 2
Don’t Know 1 1

Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication.
Strongly Agree 20 5
Agree 25 6
Disagree 14 4
Strongly Disagree 1 0
Don’t Know 0 0

being developed in schools but, more important, that this practice was observed
schoolwide. Unlike the use of technology, this practice is not limited by money; rather, it
requires the strength of a good leader backed by research and policy.
Summary Discussion for Research Question 2
Data from this study strongly suggested a positive relationship between Intel and
the three elementary schools in the study. The relationship between Escuela Espana and
Intel has fostered the desire to change instructional practices and promote 21st-century
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
Table 9

Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning

Escuela
All (n = 32) Espana (n = 12)

Survey item and response categories f Pos % Neg % f Pos % Neg %

Collaboration amongst students takes
place in the classroom. 75.0 25.0 91.7 8.3
Strongly Agree 4 2
Agree 20 9
Disagree 2 1
Strongly Disagree 5 0
Don’t Know 1 0

Students are engaged in the classroom. 90.6 8.4 100.0 0.0
Strongly Agree 4 2
Agree 20 9
Disagree 2 1
Strongly Disagree 5 0
Don’t Know 1 0

Student desks are setup in a
collaborative manner. 87.5 12.5 83.3 26.7
Strongly Agree 13 2
Agree 15 8
Disagree 2 2
Strongly Disagree 2 0
Don’t Know 0 0

Student-centered instruction is evident
in the classroom. 62.5 37.5 75.0 25.0
Strongly Agree 6 3
Agree 14 6
Disagree 8 3
Strongly Disagree 4 0
Don’t Know 0 0

Note. Percentages of positive responses (Strongly Agree + Agree) and percentages of
negative responses (Disagree, Strongly Disagree, and Don’t Know).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
learning. As Mary Helen pointed out, Intel’s relationship with schools “is more of a part-
nership, where we can work on things together” (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
Intel’s support of the schools extends beyond the support of their technical needs. With
programs such as Intel Teach, students are supported with new experiences and mentor-
ships programs that would not be available otherwise.
In support of this finding, it was evident in support that there is an emphasis on
21st-century learning. Survey, interview, and observation data indicated significant use of
technology as a resource in the classroom. Of the classrooms observed, 28% were using
technology during the observation. This, along with the 95% surveyed who indicated that
technology was used in their classroom, is a significant finding.
Data also showed evidence of student collaboration. This is significant as not only
did the teachers feel that this was part of their curriculum, but it was clearly evident in the
observational data. According to Wagner (2008) and the Partnership for 21st Century
Learning, a key 21st-century skill is the ability to express one’s view clearly.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been influenced
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? The
aim of this question was to determine whether educational leadership expectations and
practices had changed as a result of the influences previously discussed. The Ministry has
been working to “establish actions of improvement in pedagogic, methodological, evalu-
ative and administrative aspects and to guarantee the educational opportunities in equity
of conditions” (MEP, 2007, para. 2). As a result of this expectation, efforts have been
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
made to ensure that students have access to technology and computers in preparation for
the demands of the new work force. In addition to many curriculum changes and expec-
tations, the Ministry has noted the need to improve the quality of technical education in
various specialties and proper laboratories to complete this task (MEP, 2012). This
section reports two themes that emerged from the data: (a) a shared decision-making
process among all stakeholders, and (b) an emerging change in instructional leadership.
Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model was used to examine instructional
leadership. This model guides leaders toward successful change and has been applied to
education. Four frames are utilized: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic.
Each frame has unique challenges, yet the problems that restructuring are intended to
address may overlap frames. This framework has been applied to education, as significant
changes in technologies and leadership often lead to a need for restructuring.
Shared Responsibility
A significant finding in this study was an overall shared responsibility among all
stakeholders. Specifically, educational leaders in Costa Rica are changing to support the
need for 21st-century learning. The idea of shared responsibility is emphasized in all four
frames of leadership posited by Bolman and Deal (2008). The symbolic characteristics of
a leader highlight the connection between shared responsibility and fulfillment of rational
need. The political aspect is fulfilled by the notion that shared responsibility can lead to
partnerships among stakeholders. Shared leadership is fulfilled in the human resource
frame, as it leads to a focus on investing in people through education. Shared leadership
is identified in structural leaders as those who set goals and develop a plan to meet objec-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
tives set through their organization. Based on the literature review, an effective leader
must possess a clear vision and know how to get people moving toward the vision
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
A survey was developed using descriptors from Bolman and Deal’s four frames
model. When asked about accountability, 72% of the overall group and 87% from
Escuela Espana indicated that they were held accountable to implement 21st-century
skills. Similarly, 85% of the respondents agreed that school site leaders communicated
the goals and vision of the school to teachers and students. Rutyard Miranda stated that
the “vision and mission of Escuela Espana is to implement their new technologies sup-
porting institutional needs and objectives to a higher levels of education.” Survey results
for the site indicated that 87% of the participants agreed. When asked about the changes
in the focus of education and site leaders being active participants in that change, partici-
pants strongly agreed (Table 10).
Interview participants were asked a series of questions regarding site leadership.
Analysis of these data indicated a significant shift in leadership. Regarding whether lead-
ership has shifted due to the political influence of MNCs, 6 of the 9 responded yes. In
addition, data suggest that this change is emphasized around 21st-century learning. Eight
of the 9 participants indicated that the focus of education has changed and educational
leadership has changed due to the political influence of Intel. Six of the 8 participants
indicated that expectations for hiring and training teachers have changed (Table 11).
Rutyard Miranda confirmed that educational leadership has changed with the help
of globalization and that all are moving in a similar direction:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
Table 10

Survey Responses Regarding Leadership

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

Teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century
skills in the classroom.
Strongly Agree 18 3
Agree 25 10
Disagree 15 2
Strongly Disagree 1 0
Don’t Know 0 0

The focus of education has changed at your school site to
incorporate 21st-century learning.
Strongly Agree 19 4
Agree 35 9
Disagree 6 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 0 0

Educational decisions are influenced by multinational
corporations.
Strongly Agree 12 3
Agree 24 5
Disagree 12 5
Strongly Disagree 3 2
Don’t Know 7 0

School site leaders are active participants in the
implementation of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 18 3
Agree 33 9
Disagree 5 2
Strongly Disagree 2 1
Don’t Know 0 0

School site leaders communicate goals and the vision of the
school to teachers and students.
Strongly Agree 24 6
Agree 27 7
Disagree 6 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Don’t Know 0 0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
Table 11

Interview Responses Regarding Leadership

No
Question Yes No response

Is there accountability? 6 1 2
Has the focus of education changed at the school sites? 8 0 1
Has educational leadership changed due to the
political influence of Intel? 8 1 0
Have the expectations changed in the hiring and
training of teachers? 6 2 1

The educational leaders have kept themselves to high administrative level in order
to change the current 21st-century educational demand. For example, as a school
principal, I apply my innovative knowledge to changes that are giving according
to the moment and treatment of handling a very open participative leadership with
lots of communication with the educational teaching staff without getting off what
it’s already established. For example, I try to keep the established terms or linea-
ments that order the guidelines. But the administrative model about leadership has
been developing and that’s why I don’t think the way I used to do so. Besides
there are other pending necessities. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Dr. Garnier indicated that there has “been talk about constructivism for over 30
years” (personal interview, June 24, 2013) and predicted that partnerships with MNC,
such as Intel would provide the students with additional means to accomplish this goal.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
Patricia Escalante witnessed this evolution as she shared that 60% of the Intel Costa
Rican staff gives back to schools.
Over 2,200 Intel staff members are involved in the program, targeting skills based
volunteering so that every kid can be involved, we would go and mentor a child,
and judge science fairs or present at career day. All of these efforts were meant to
show students that there are options out there in the career world and make a per-
sonal connection with students. (personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Mary Helen Bialas stated, “The Minister has made more initiatives, but does not
think it was just because of his vision of how the world works and the economy. He
found partnerships with multinationals and companies that can support the effort” (per-
sonal interview, June 25, 2013). Michelle Coffey responded to concerns about a country
changing its policies to meet the needs of MNCs, as described by Smith (2002), who
articulated that corporations are taking over the education system. She responded,
“No one is a prophet in their own land.” Let me explain why I bring that up. If
Intel says, “This is what we need to do,” Intel is the prophet, they know better.
OK. So Estado de Nacion may have been saying it for 10 years, but it’s us telling
ourselves that we need to do something. . . . I definitely think Intel has had a very
significant and positive impact on the country. I think it’s our window to the
outside. Its support of science learning, its support of universal/local universities,
they set up labs in public universities. There’s huge criticism, so your training
people to work for a specific technology, for a specific company. I can get the
criticism, but that is something. So we need to be smarter than that and use that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
equipment for tomorrow’s technology and the day after tomorrow’s technology,
and if we find that that is limited, then let’s buy others, but this is something. This
is a starting point. OK, and that’s been a university position by the way. There’s
been some of a struggle, so we are going to use your equipment to train them for
you, for your technology, for today? As opposed to “My job is to train them for
the future, so they should be generalists.” There’s a little pushback on that, but I
think it is positive, for sure. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
When asked about school leadership, Patricia Escalante shared her perspective:
We all believe that education is the best way to become a better person, a better
society and but one thing is like giving access to all of the students of the country
to education. Another different thing is to give them access to good education and
I think that is one of the things that our leaders have always been careful about.
(personal interview, June 26, 2013)
The data indicated a shared vision among all stakeholders. More important, this
shared vision is helping students of all types and backgrounds. All students are now given
the opportunity to share their successes and experience new opportunities due to the
influence of MNCs, such as Intel.
Instructional Leadership
Another significant finding in the data was a significant shift in leadership styles.
According to Marzano et al. (2005), a change agent must be identified as a leader who is
willing to challenge and actively push the status quo, taking risks. An instructional leader
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
must be goal oriented and focus on students’ success. These data indicate a significant
shift toward instructional leadership.
The survey responses provided evidence that the instructional leadership is in the
process of change to incorporate 21st-century skills. Twelve of the 15 surveyed teachers
at Escuela Espana agreed or strongly agreed that the school site leaders are active partici-
pants in the implementation of 21st-century skills in the classroom. This was supported
when 52 of the 60 teachers surveyed at all three elementary school sites agreed or
strongly agreed that their school site leader is an active participant in the implementation
of 21st-century skills in the classroom (Table 12).
Table 12

Survey Responses on Leadership by School Site Leaders

All Escuela Espana
Survey item and response categories (n = 60) (n = 15)

School site leaders are active participants in the
implementation of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 18 3
Agree 33 9
Disagree 5 2
Strongly Disagree 2 1
Don’t Know 0 0

These same questions were asked of Dr. Leonardo Garnier, who responded as
follows:
One problem is people don’t take chances, they don’t take risk. So I wrote my
first circular letter to all the administrators called “Authority and Responsibility,”
basically saying that you are the director and you should run the schools. Be in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
charge. And this is very difficult because supervisors, pedagogy, everyone is
trying to tell the director of the high school what to do and then again the director
is telling the teachers in the same thing in the classroom teacher should be in
charge of the classroom. The wording I’ve used is that the Ministry should not be
run through controls, but through leadership. I do hope that at least one third will
change and if you have changed one third, that’s really good; but I don’t know if I
can be that optimistic. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Mary Helen Bialas was asked whether the focus on educational leadership has
changed at the school sites.
I think it’s in the process of change. Some schools where you will see that there’s
a definite knowledge and interest on the part of leadership and that there has to be
a change. They are not sure how to make that change it but they’re working on it.
We are still very much on a memorization-based curriculum, although there are
many initiatives from the Ministry of Education which are trying to create this
new process or change and bring some core-based learning and bring in project-
based learning and definitely bring in a lot of technology. . . . If teachers are going
to be able to provide those kind of skills and help their children develop, they
have to have leadership support, they have to have resources support, and they
have to have professional development. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
When observing the classroom at Escuela Espana, it was noted that all classrooms
showed one or more aspects of students using 21st-century skills. As previously dis-
cussed, most room environments and instructional practices promoted collaboration and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
small group discussion. All classrooms with access to technology were incorporating it
into their daily routine. This ranged from one student at one computer, to a 1:1 program.
Rutyard Miranda recognized the partnership established between Intel and
Escuela Espana as necessary and valuable. “Educational leaders have to keep themselves
to high administrative levels in order to change to the current 21st-century educational
demand” (personal interview, June 26, 2013). As a structural leader, Miranda recognized
the need to “apply his innovative knowledge to changes that are occurring according to
the moment and treatment of handling a very open participative leadership with lots of
communication with the educational teaching staff.”
The observation data did not clearly indicate that 21st-century learning was taking
place in all classrooms. Observational data indicated that 25% of the classrooms reflected
bilingual education, with only 50% indicating a curriculum reflective of 21st-century
skills and less than 25% with evidence of 21st-century learning posted in the classroom
(Table 13).
Given the context in which these data were collected, it is reasonable to expect a
lower number of classrooms to be emphasizing bilingual education at the primary level.
According to CONARE (2012), “Foreign language lessons are imparted per day, for a
total of five weekly lessons” (p. 11). During the observation period, two English classes
were observed, in addition to a new English lab. Although these data did not indicate use
of all of the 21st-century skills suggested in Wagner’s framework, a few areas were
observed in high frequency, such as collaboration. These observations are important, as
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
Table 13

Observation Responses Indicating the Presence of 21st-Century Learning

Escuela
All (n = 32) Espana (n = 12)

Survey item and response categories f Pos % Neg % f Pos % Neg %

Classroom reflects an emphasis on bilingual
education, specifically toward English. 25.0 75.0 25.0 75.0
Strongly Agree 5 2
Agree 3 1
Disagree 6 5
Strongly Disagree 18 4
Don’t Know 0 0

Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills. 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
Strongly Agree 3 0
Agree 13 6
Disagree 13 5
Strongly Disagree 3 0
Don’t Know 1 1

There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century skills. 25.0 75.0 16.7 83.3
Strongly Agree 2 0
Agree 6 2
Disagree 10 2
Strongly Disagree 13 8
Don’t Know 0 0

Note. Percentages of positive responses (Strongly Agree + Agree) and percentages of
negative responses (Disagree, Strongly Disagree, and Don’t Know).
interviews and survey data suggest that leadership has changed to incorporate 21st-
century learning into instructional practices at school sites.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
Summary Discussion for Research Question 3
The research was conclusive and these finding indicated a noticeable change in
leadership and what is emphasized as important to education. As defined by Bolman and
Deal (2008), an effective leader is well rounded and exhibits many characteristics. A key
characteristic is having a clear vision of the organization’s goals, as was the case with
Escuela Espana. Leaders in Costa Rica have a shared responsibility to support the
national goals and growing demands from increased FDI by MNCs. The political leaders
are responsible to the community that they serve. MNC leaders are responsible to main-
tain positive relationships with their host country and they have taken responsibility to
support schools so as to prepare students for the growing economy. Data from the litera-
ture review, survey, and interviews not only indicated a change in educational leadership,
but showed that the shift is geared toward 21st-century learning.
Chapter Summary
Data analysis included a review of literature, survey responses, interviews, and
observations. The data were analyzed and aligned with the research questions. Data
related to Research Question 1 produced two emergent themes. The first theme was an
increase in MNCs in Costa Rica. This increase has led Costa Rica into a more global
economy and increased the demand for more qualified workforce. The second theme was
the development of partnerships between schools and universities with MNCs. These
partnerships were clearly perceived as being positive. The data also suggest that these
partnerships have allowed MNCs to influence educational policy positively.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
Analysis of data related to Research Question 2 produced three emergent themes.
The first theme was that Intel has established a direct partnership with many schools and
universities in Costa Rica, ranging from direct contribution of technologies to educational
support. Evidence of a direct contribution to educational support was provided by Mary
Helen Bialas, the academic relations and education program manager for Intel, who
works closely with each of the three schools in this study. The second theme was the
influence of MNCs on the education system to teach 21st-century skills. Survey, inter-
view, and observation data suggested that an emphasis on the use of technology and
student collaboration was taking place at all three elementary schools. Although not all
students had access to technology on a regular basis, new computer labs were being built
and interview participants strongly emphasized this as a major contribution from MNCs.
Analysis of data related to Research Question 3 produced two themes. First, there
was evidence of a sense of shared leadership among all stakeholders: MNCs, political
leaders, and school site leaders. In addition to shared responsibility, interview participants
indicated that site leadership has changed to emphasis instructional leadership. All stake-
holders agreed that much of the change that has taken place was influenced, if not started,
by MNCs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
The education system in Costa Rica has changed due to an increase in globaliza-
tion, influenced by MNCs. As a result of this growth, new direction and opportunities are
available for Costa Ricans. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, there has been an
increased demand for a skilled work force possessing 21st-century skills, as suggested by
Spring (2008). Although many students lack these skills to compete worldwide, Costa
Rica has made 21st-century learning a priority in their education system. Not only has
21st-century learning become policy; MNCs have partnered with schools, increasing
technology and resources.
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the study, statement of the problem, and the
significance of the study. Chapter 2 provided a review of the literature as it relates to the
impact of globalization and MNCs on schools in Costa Rica. Chapter 2 consisted of five
sections. The first section, background, established the context for this study. In the
second section, globalization was defined and the theoretical framework established by
Spring (2008) was discussed. The third section discussed in detail the effects of MNCs
and FDI in countries such as Costa Rica and how these effects may have contributed to
changes in the school system. The fourth section defined 21st-century skills, discussed
the theoretical frameworks established by Spring (2008), and provided an overview of the
framework for 21st-century learning. The fifth section was an overview of leadership
qualities and styles. Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model was discussed and key
leadership traits were reviewed using the framework of Marzano et al. (2005): the 21
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
responsibilities of the school leader. The final section of the chapter provided a summary
of the literature review and made connections between the frameworks and the purpose
of this study.
Chapter 3 presented the methodology used in the study, including the research
design, sampling and population procedures, instrumentation, validity and reliability of
the instruments, the process for data collection and analysis, and ethical considerations.
Chapter 4 provided an overview of the case school, data analysis of Escuela Espana as it
relates to the other three elementary schools, and the findings revealed through the liter-
ature review, survey, interviews, and observations. Chapter 5 provides a summary of
Chapters 1 through 4 and provides recommendations for future research.
The purpose of the study was to explore the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities
in Costa Rica. A synopsis of the findings from the literature review, survey responses,
interviews, and classroom observations was presented. The data were aligned and
described through the frameworks on globalization and education (Spring, 2008), 21st-
century skills (Wagner, 2007), and reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Each
of the three frameworks was used as a reference to identify the problem and develop
research questions. This study sought to address three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
2. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Summary of Findings
A discussion and a summary of findings are presented in response to the three
research questions. Six research findings emerged from the data. Each of the findings is
be discussed in detail as it relates to the research questions.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The data collected via inter-
views and the survey were consistent with the literature review. There is an increased
presence of MNCs in Costa Rica and the data strongly suggest a change in the education
system, influenced in part by globalization. As indicated by the data, these changes are in
the form of direct partnerships established between MNCs and schools. These partner-
ships have been observed at all four cycles of public education and in higher education
institutions.
All nine interview participants indicated that the presence of MNCs has increased
in Costa Rica. Seven participants observed this increase as having an overall positive
effect. These findings were supported by the survey data from teachers at all three ele-
mentary schools, where 53 of the 60 participants stated that MNCs have positively influ-
enced their schools and 36 agreed that decisions made at the school site were influenced
by MNCs. The data for Escuela Espana were proportionate to that of the other three
schools (12 of 15 and 8 of 15, respectively). Although the perceived influence on the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
decision making at school sites from MNCs was lower, many of the changes seen with
regard to technology in schools were influenced, if not a result of, MNC support.
Data revealed that many MNCs are fostering this influence by creating programs
within their corporation to promote education. For example, Mary Helen Bialas is the
Director of Academic Relations and Education Program Manager for Intel. During her
interview and visit to Intel’s plant in Costa Rica, it was clear that education and promot-
ing 21st-century learning were priorities for the corporation.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs? This
question examined the extent to which MNCs influenced schools at the elementary level
in Costa Rica. Wagner (2008) suggested that, with a growing global economy, there is an
increased need to develop 21st-century skills. He highlighted seven essential skills that
were used to develop the research protocols used in this study. The research team drew
correlations between the national goals and objectives for education and Wagner’s (2008)
seven essential skills. It was the aim of this study to determine whether the presence of
MNCs can been seen in schools and whether there has been a shift in the development of
21st-century skills.
The most significant fining in this section was the presence of Intel on the
campus. The data showed an overall positive impact of this relationship on the school. At
all three schools, 53 of the 60 participants agreed that Intel has positively influenced the
school. This is important, as 52 of the 60 agreed that many of the decisions made at the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
school are influenced by MNCs. At Escuela Espana, the numbers were proportional.
During a site visit to Escuela Espana, a grade-level assembly was held to launch the
National Science Fair. Rutyard Miranda, Director of Escuela Espana, spoke of a changing
world and an increase in globalization. He also spoke of the personnel from Intel who
were visiting to judge the science fair. During his interview, Miranda expressed his
opinion that “the changes he has seen in school resources due to Intel’s involvement are
the skills and accomplishments students are developing with the manipulation of techno-
logical equipment” (personal interview, June 26, 2013).
When looking at the data as it relates to Wagner’s framework, two significant
findings emerged: (a) an increased use of technology, and (b) student collaboration. The
survey data from all three schools indicated that 55 of the 60 respondents reported that
technology was used in the classroom. Observation data indicated that only 28% of the
classrooms were using technology and only 31% had direct access. Although these
numbers are not high, Escuela Espana had an additional two computer labs that were
open to all teachers when available. A new computer lab designed to facilitate instruction
in English Language Development was under construction. This lab was being outfitted
with newer wireless technologies and upgraded computers. More important, all teachers
had access to these labs. It is important to note that many of the computers seen in these
computer labs and 1:1 classrooms had been donated by the Omar Dengo Foundation and
Intel.
The survey and observation data showed that student collaboration was taking
place on a regular basis. Survey results indicated that 55 of the 60 respondents agreed that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
student collaboration took place daily. At Escuela Espana, 13 of the 15 agreed. When
compared to the observational data, wherein 75% of the classrooms visited showed
student collaboration, significant levels of student collaboration were evident. Even more
significant, at Escuela Espana, collaboration was observed in 91% of the classrooms.
Significant in these data is that structural changes have been observed to increase
the development of 21st-century learning. What was not observed at a high rate was pro-
motion of higher-level thinking. In all three schools, only 59% demonstrated higher-level
thinking, with only 25% at Escuela Espana. However, it should be noted that one of the
limitations of this study was the time of visit, which may have impacted these findings
significantly.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Findings in the literature review and data from all three schools indicated a positive rela-
tionship between MNCs and the schools. The aim of this question was to determine
whether educational leadership has changed due to these relationships. The MEP has
created new policies to ensure progress toward improvements in pedagogical, methodo-
logical, evaluative, and administrative aspects of the education system. This research
team applied the theoretical framework established by Bolman and Deal (2011) to the
education systems in Costa Rica to develop the research protocols.
A significant finding in this study was the perception of a shared responsibility
among all stakeholders and assurance that the vision of all stakeholders was clearly
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
communicated. This is important, as shared decision making is present in all four frames
posited by Bolman and Deal (2011). Bolman and Deal also suggested that an effective
leader possesses a clear vision. This was evident in the data, as 85% of the respondents
agreed that there was a clear vision at all three schools and that the vision was clearly
communicated to all teachers. Also, 72% of those surveyed reported a sense of account-
ability. Data from the interviews also indicated a sense of accountability, wherein six of
the nine interviewees agreed that they were held accountable.
Another significant finding was the change in instructional leadership. Marzano et
al. (2005) described a change agent as one who is willing to challenge the status quo. Dr.
Garnier, Minister of Education, acknowledged that many school administers are not
willing to take risks. Therefore, he had directed his school administrators to exert leader-
ship in their schools, including taking risks and trying new things. Dr. Garnier is cogni-
zant of the fact that this is a difficult task and acknowledged that not everyone will
change. Data collected in this study, including observations at the school sites, suggested
a shift toward instructional leadership and a willingness to take risks with the support of
MNCs such as Intel.
Implications for Practice
This research inquiry validates the notion that partnerships between MNCs and
schools can result in positive changes that support the mission and vision of both the
school and government. Student achievement is measured in the United States and in
developing countries. For many developing countries, this measurement may be an indi-
cator as to whether they are able increase FDI, as the need for an educated work force
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
increases with increased investments from MNCs. These partnerships did not just happen
overnight, and the Country of Costa Rica has implemented many policies and procedures
to continue to increase the supply of a qualified workforce. Nonprofit organizations such
as CINDE help to grow and maintain FDI. Corporations such as Intel and Microsoft have
created positions within the companies to support education. Governments have created
policies to ensure that the curriculum is reflective of the needs of society. In Costa Rica,
the needs were clear. There was an increase in FDI, leading to an increased need for a
workforce that possessed 21st-century skills. In order for this change to take place, school
leadership had to shift from a management style to an educational leadership role. The
ability to make this shift was a result of a common goal shared by all stakeholders.
Countries such as the United States are not looking for an increase in FDI, as they
are heavily invested in other countries. However, many of the needs are the same. Many
school districts in the United States have established partnerships or shifted funding for
newer technologies to teach 21st-century skills. These partnership are not made with cor-
poration; rather some districts, such as Tustin Unified School District in California, have
partnered with the local community and passed a 30-year tax bond to increase revenue
toward 21st-century leaning, emphasizing the use of technology. While this not a corpo-
rate sponsorship, it serves much the same function. Many of the skills posited by Wagner
(2008) are more efficiently accomplished through technology, as it breaks down borders
and minimizes wait time. With this change comes the needs for site leaders to adjust and
guide the change. In many schools, much like Escuela Espana, structural changes must
occur, as the process of teaching and learning is changing. It was learned from this study
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
that a change in need or investment can be a catalyst to changes in instructional practices.
Costa Rica provides one example of how to utilize new resources to make significant,
positive changes in schools.
Recommendations for Research
The findings in this study strongly suggest that partnerships between MNCs and
schools can be beneficial. Changes observed in this study were limited to schools that
received support from Intel. However, many schools in Costa Rica have not benefited
directly from MNC contributions. Although there are polices and expectations in place,
the resources in rural schools are significantly less than those that were observed in this
study. To increase the validity and implications of this study, a comparative study
between schools supported by Intel and those not supported by Intel would be needed.
Schools such as Escuela Espana have what are considered to be transfer students
(students who do not live in the area). A comparison between the two types of schools
with students from similar demographic background would determine whether an
increase in technology has an overall greater impact on students’ achievement.
This study highlighted the need and observed the development of 21st-century
skills in school. During the visit to Escuela Espana, the only technologies observed were
computers and projects created by students for the national science fair. These projects
demonstrated the use of almost all seven characteristics of Wagner’s (2008) suggested
21st-century skills. Although not seen in the data in this study, these projects are evidence
that other 21st-century skills are being taught. It is also important to note that these fairs
are held nationally. Thus, it would be important to learn how these skills were taught and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 109
to what extent these projects are helping to motivate students and prepare them for a
global economy.
It is recommended to study the pedagogical practices used to foster lifelong
learning in the educational staff. As much of this study demonstrated a need for change, it
was evident that some of teachers had changed and others had not. The purpose of the
research would not be to determine what teachers are doing wrong, but rather to investi-
gate the specific leadership styles of site leaders who have fostered positive change. Data
gathered from this study would be helpful to develop a prescription for change for those
who do not possess the skills or have access to resources to make the change.
Conclusion
The Ministry of Education, school site leaders, and MCS such as Intel shared a
similar vision of Costa Rica. This shared vision helped to foster a change, while leaving
in place the autonomy of those who have committed a vested interest in the company. For
example, policy makers had a strong desire to make the country better, expecting
increased investment as a result of their hard work. MNCs had a vested interest to
increase the qualified workforce as they continued to grow in Costa Rica. Nonprofits
such CINDE have been created to foster business relationships between MNCs and Costa
Rica. In order to support this investment from an education standpoint, corporations such
as Intel have created positions within their organization to do outreach into the com-
munity and support the schools. This has led to partnerships in which schools receive aid
from Intel to foster 21st-century learning. This is directly in line with the vision of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
Ministry of Education. With each group working toward the same goal, much has been
accomplished. A small sample of these accomplishments was recorded in this study.
This study explored the impact of globalization and MNCs on educational leader-
ship and the development of 21st-century skills. The paths that stakeholders followed
were different, but all were aimed at the same goal, which allowed them to develop a
shared vision. By investing in human capital in Costa Rica, all stakeholders hope that this
impact will create a more qualified workforce. The students who are attending elemen-
tary schools such as Escuela Espana have benefited from the impact of globalization and
MNCs. Patricia Chico summed it up best:
The schools of education in Costa Rica are more open now to integrating new
technology than they were 5 or 6 years ago. Perhaps the main reason for this is the
participation of international companies, with Intel being the first big one. (per-
sonal interview, June 27, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
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IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and multi-
national corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is
asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and
multinational corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey and
interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence
possible to go over the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119

Appendix B

Recruitment/Consent Letter

Date ________________

Dear__________________________,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may
shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in
Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational
leadership and 21st-century skills.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
My name is Joshua Porter, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction
and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw
at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous
by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a
manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Joshua Porter and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in
a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
Appendix C
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universi-
ties that promote access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathe-
matics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124
Appendix D
MNC Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education
system in Costa Rica?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the
21st century?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathe-
matics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 127
Appendix E
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathe-
matics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
Appendix F

Survey Protocol for Teachers

Date: ____________________Location of Survey: ______________________

Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.

5

4

3

2

1
2. Collaboration among students takes
place daily.

5

4

3

2

1

3. Technology is not used in your class-
room.

5

4

3

2

1

4. Lessons promote higher level thinking.

5

4

3

2

1

5. Curriculum promotes 21st-century
skills.

5

4

3

2

1

6. There is access to technology in the
classrooms.

5

4

3

2

1

7. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.

5

4

3

2

1

8. Intel has not improved resources at
your school.

5

4

3

2

1

9. Students are college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.

5

4

3

2

1

10. Teachers are held accountable to
implement 21st-century skills in the class-
room.

5

4

3

2

1

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.

5

4

3

2

1

12. Educational decisions are not influ-
enced by multinational corporations.

5

4

3

2

1

13. School site leaders are active partici-
pants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.

5

4

3

2

1

14. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students.

5

4

3

2

1

15. Is there evidence of the following that
can be seen in your curriculum:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

16. Have the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

17. Has the Minister of Education sup-
ported the emphasis on:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

18. Do you receive adequate support to
teach the curricula in the following areas:

Science Yes No

Technology Yes No

Engineering Yes No

Mathematics Yes No

19. Do you believe that STEM education
is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
Yes No

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133
Appendix G

Classroom Observation Tool

Date: ____________________

Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically
toward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the class-
room.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a col-
laborative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137

Question Science

Tech-
nology
Engineering Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM being
taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yes No Yes No
Field Notes and Examples:

Other Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In a highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a need to adapt to a global market and a country’s educational system can arguably be the driving force behind economic development. Over the past few decades, Costa Rica has seen investment by multinational corporations (MNCs) and a shift in the education system’s responsibility to develop students who are technically literate and possess 21st‐century skills. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has provided new direction and opportunity. ❧ The Costa Rican school system faces many challenges, however, as the burden to ensure its future workforce has the skillset to take on new job opportunities of the future is great. Despite having 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remains a low secondary graduation rate and a low percentage of students pursuing higher education. ❧ In order to prepare students in Costa Rica to compete in a high‐technology global market, educational shifts to ensure future economic success may be required. To make these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and the education system will need to work together. This study describes the impact globalization and MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st‐century skills in schools in Costa Rica.

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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A case study on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the development of 21st-century skills and educational leadership

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the education system in Costa Rica and its implications for the implementation of 21st‐century skills and school leadership

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on education in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization, economics and educational policy on the development of 21st century skills and STEM education in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization, foreign direct investment, and multinational corporations on development of educational policy and 21st-century learning in the Costa Rican educational system

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How the University of Costa Rica is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands of multinational corporations for increased...

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The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization on the development of educational policy, 21st century learning, and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the educational system in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on higher education in Costa Rica and implications for educational leaders

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The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st-century skills and education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in Costa Rican schools

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the secondary school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders

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The impact of globalization, economics, and educational policy on the development of 21st century skills and STEM education in Costa Rica

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The effect of globalization and multinational corporations on primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica: implications for educational, political, and corporate leaders

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Expanding educational access and opportunities: the globalization and foreign direct investment of multinational corporations and their influence on STEM, project-based learning and the national ...

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The role of globalization; science, technology, engineering, and math education; project-based learning; and national science fair policy in creating 21st-century ready students in Costa Rica

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The impact of science, technology, engineering and math education on the development of a knowledge based economy in Costa Rica

Asset Metadata

Creator Porter, Joshua (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/02/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century learning,collaboration,Costa Rica,Education,elementary,Globalization,INTEL,OAI-PMH Harvest,Technology

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory A. (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email jporter@tustin.k12.ca.us

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-372090

Unique identifier UC11295319

Identifier etd-PorterJosh-2312.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-372090 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PorterJosh-2312.pdf

Dmrecord 372090

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Porter, Joshua

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA