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Are U.S. colleges being “oversold” to today’s students? A look at the realities of public relations in undergraduate higher education
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Are U.S. colleges being “oversold” to today’s students? A look at the realities of public relations in undergraduate higher education
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Yamauchi 1 Are U.S. Colleges Being “Oversold” to Today’s Students? A Look at the Realities of Public Relations in Undergraduate Higher Education by Erin A. Yamauchi A White Paper Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS) MAY 2014 Copyright 2014 Erin A. Yamauchi Yamauchi 2 Table of Contents Preface ............................................................................................................................................5 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................7 The Debate ................................................................................................................................................7 The Terminology ......................................................................................................................................8 Research ..........................................................................................................................................9 Chapter 1: What is the “Higher Education Bubble”? ..............................................................10 History of Higher Education .................................................................................................................10 Higher Education Marketing ................................................................................................................11 The Higher Education Bubble ..............................................................................................................13 Chapter 2: The Higher Education Landscape – Audiences, Perceptions & Enrollment ......14 Key Audiences ........................................................................................................................................14 Influential Individuals ..........................................................................................................................15 Social & Economic Context .................................................................................................................15 Audience Perceptions .............................................................................................................................16 Necessity of Higher Education ............................................................................................................16 Alternative Pathways ...........................................................................................................................17 Beyond the Classroom .........................................................................................................................18 Enrollment ..............................................................................................................................................19 Chapter 3: What Communications are Audiences Attending to? ...........................................20 Communication Consumption Habits ..................................................................................................20 Messaging ................................................................................................................................................22 Content Analysis ..................................................................................................................................22 Recruitment Materials ..........................................................................................................................24 Entertainment Media ............................................................................................................................26 Chapter 4: Return on Investment (ROI) – What is Expected? ...............................................27 Purpose of Higher Education ................................................................................................................27 Expected ROI .........................................................................................................................................29 Earning Potential & Employment Opportunities .................................................................................29 Networking & Affiliations ...................................................................................................................30 Chapter 5: Escalating Tuition & Student Loans ......................................................................31 Tuition Cost ............................................................................................................................................31 Salaries & Amenities ...........................................................................................................................34 Financial Aid ..........................................................................................................................................35 Student Loans .........................................................................................................................................36 Defaulting .............................................................................................................................................38 Loaning Institutions & the Federal Government ................................................................................39 The Burden of Debt ................................................................................................................................40 Financial Advising or a Lack Thereof ..................................................................................................41 Understanding Loans ...........................................................................................................................41 Savings .................................................................................................................................................41 Student and Parent Responsibilities .....................................................................................................42 Chapter 6: Return on Investment (ROI) – Are Expectations Being Met? .............................43 ROI: Admissions Process ......................................................................................................................43 ROI: Graduation Rates .........................................................................................................................43 Yamauchi 3 ROI: Audience Perceptions/Expectations ............................................................................................45 Alumni .................................................................................................................................................46 Current Students ...................................................................................................................................47 Parents ..................................................................................................................................................47 Higher Education Leadership ...............................................................................................................47 American Public ...................................................................................................................................48 ROI: Economic Value ............................................................................................................................49 Human Capital .....................................................................................................................................49 K-12 Education ...............................................................................................................................49 Higher Education ............................................................................................................................50 Education & Experience .................................................................................................................53 Signaling/Screening Device .................................................................................................................54 Credentialing ...................................................................................................................................54 Employment Opportunity & Job Growth .......................................................................................55 Not All Bad News ...........................................................................................................................56 Major Selection ...............................................................................................................................58 Networking/Socialization Device ........................................................................................................59 ROI: The Intangibles .............................................................................................................................60 Democratic Citizenry ...........................................................................................................................60 Economic Growth ................................................................................................................................61 Social Mobility .....................................................................................................................................61 Admissions Inequities .....................................................................................................................62 Financial Inequities .........................................................................................................................62 Degree Attainment & Levels of Satisfaction Inequities .................................................................63 Chapter 7: The Power of Advising .............................................................................................64 A Lack of Advisement ............................................................................................................................64 Advisers Stretched Thin ........................................................................................................................65 Current Efforts .......................................................................................................................................66 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................66 Epilogue ........................................................................................................................................69 Bursting the Bubble ...............................................................................................................................69 Primer ...........................................................................................................................................70 List of Exhibits Exhibit A Higher Education Bubble Infographic .....................................................................14 Exhibit B New York Times Degrees of Debt Graphic ..............................................................37 Exhibit C Undergraduate Student Debt By Institution Type ..................................................38 Exhibit D College Completion ....................................................................................................45 Exhibit E Time Use on an Average Weekday for Full-Time University/College Students ...52 Exhibit F Thirty Occupations Projected to Have the Largest Growth, 2010-2020 ...............56 Yamauchi 4 List of Appendices Appendix A-1 Content Analysis .................................................................................................78 Appendix A-2 Content Analysis Bibliography ..........................................................................96 Appendix B Interview Transcript with Dr. Laura Castaneda ..............................................108 Appendix C Review of Entertainment Media Related to Higher Education .......................111 Appendix D Full Primer ............................................................................................................113 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................127 Yamauchi 5 Preface I was sold on college long before I even applied. My parents are degree-holders, and were firm believers in education as a gateway to the “American Dream.” They were steadfast in their pursuit to sacrifice for me, and college was a given. I attended a small private high school where students were told that a degree was essential for getting a good job, but were given little information or guidance about where to attend. Academic reputation was important, but scrutinizing curriculum or course offerings was hardly a priority. My major selection was more-or-less at random. I spent more time agonizing over weather, proximity to family and dormitory situations. Decisions were based solely on information from admissions recruiters and school websites. And if it serves as an indication of how seriously I took the process, I immediately eliminated a school and their generous scholarship package because they sent a VHS tape and not a DVD. Instead, I chose the most expensive institution offering the smallest financial aid package. My parents did not bat an eye and began piecing together the $40,000 in annual tuition. I took out modest loans. My parents paid some by refinancing our house twice and the rest came from merit-based aid. No one explained, and I did not ask, how I would eventually cover a $30,000 loan. The assumption was that my degree would land me a great job and I would be set. In my junior year, however, I decided I did not want to pursue a career in my major or minor fields, but with graduation approaching felt I had little time or money to explore other options so I reluctantly completed the programs. Following graduation I held a series of unsatisfactory jobs that rarely paid enough to cover the basic cost of living. These were positions where a bachelor's degree (in any field) was required, but not necessary to complete the work. I learned specific skills I needed on the job, and honestly did not find much professional use for the material I learned in college. In addition to other expenses, monthly loan repayments became a struggle, and I resented having to pay for an education that had not helped secure a higher salary. Then I was unemployed for six months and the panic really set in. I wondered briefly where I had gone wrong. I was not qualified to do much more than administrative tasks, and even those positions called for graduate-level certification. A bachelor’s degree was the minimum. Yamauchi 6 Fortunately, by the good word of a former classmate and not my B.A. pedigree, I was hired by the University of Southern California (USC). It was through this position that I was able to realize new dimensions of returns on investment (ROI) from my undergraduate education. For instance, networking connections had helped me secure the position in the first place. I also began to exercise and appreciate the intangible skills I had learned such as professional etiquette, effective communication and critical thinking. I saw valuable returns on my education that I was not able to see before; returns beyond a paycheck. However, after four years at USC I hit a plateau and decided to return to school once more. Despite tuition assistance programs and a recent promotion, I am currently doubling my student debt while continuing to repay undergraduate loans. And I consider myself one of the lucky ones. Peers with degrees from Loyola Marymount University (LMU), Pitzer College and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) have had to move back in with parents as they face unmanageable debt and dead-end jobs. I entered college with an air of naiveté, completely unprepared to make decisions that would affect the rest of my life. Like most other 17-year-olds, I viewed higher education through rose-colored glasses and maintained misguided optimism about the ROI from my degree. Schools, counselors and recruitment materials promoted great jobs and high salaries. So I took out the loans, dutifully went to classes and followed every instruction I was given, but the reality of being a degree-holder was not quite as propitious as it had been marketed. Upon graduation, I had my degree but not a clue as to what I should do with it. The job market was brutal, and the thousands of dollars in loans I had so easily taken out soon became overwhelming. For a long time, I felt cheated, like I had been duped. Even now with a stable job and an appreciation for the intangible value of my education, I still wonder if it was worth it. In the last year, the tables have turned and I am now an undergraduate academic adviser, facing students that sit where I once did. I have a responsibility to help them successfully navigate their undergraduate experience and prepare for professional careers. Lately however, I am not sure what to tell them. I have always been a big proponent of going to school and getting the degree, but after having been Yamauchi 7 through the system I now have my reservations. Ironically, I began my own college education at the same time that the current debate over its value began to gain traction. As a student and staff member, I have spent the better part of the last decade learning the ins and outs of the higher education system, and have become a strong advocate for academia. However, I have also spent the last several years inundated with print, broadcast and online media stories and anecdotal evidence that threaten the very fabric of my decisions and goals. I have had to face some difficult questions and realize tough realities. The following is an honest assessment of my time spent in higher education both academically and professionally. Along the way, I’ve devised an understanding of what comprises the ROI for college-bound students and how college/university public relations professionals ought to be positioning and selling it. Introduction The Debate “I wouldn’t advise making a four-year commitment to eventually land an $8.00/hour job. Skip college. Read Wikipedia for free instead.” - Jarod Kintz, author, Emails from a Madman. Kintz's quips are comedic and cynical, but there is also the sting of underlying truth and relevancy given the current debate: Is higher education being oversold to students? In the current debate, there seems to be a full spectrum of opinions. At one end there are those of the mindset that "college is for everyone," represented by opinion leaders like Margaret Spellings, former U.S. Secretary of Education under the second Bush Administration; Arne Duncan, current U.S. Secretary of Education; and Michael Lomax, president and CEO of the United Negro College Fund (UNCF). (Miller Center) These higher education supporters also include business and industry leaders (i.e., testing services, education materials retailers, college presidents and faculty), advocates for minority groups, the Gates Foundation, President Barack Obama, the federal government, high school college counselors and private consultants/counselors. The tone of supporter messaging is urgent, and provides students and parents with a compelling Yamauchi 8 call-to-action. Audiences receive persuasive messages from a number of different influencers. Education lobbyists such as the Citizens’ League assert that, "education for all is now indisputably the cornerstone of our economy and good citizenship.” Similarly, Anthony Carnevale with the Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce claims, "research shows that individuals with college degrees now make 84 percent more over their lifetimes than those with high school diplomas.” President Obama's goal is another frequented expression: "by 2020, America will once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world.” These messages appeal to existing anxieties about higher education decisions, and portray a degree as students’ “golden ticket.” At the other end of the spectrum there are those who believe that "college is a luxury, and not a necessity for everyone.” Proponents of this mindset include leaders like George Leef, director of research, John Williams Pope Center for Higher Education; Ellis Washington, law professor and former staff editor, Michigan Law Review; Richard Vedder, director, Center of College Affordability and Productivity; and Peter Thiel, co-founder, PayPal and founder, Thiel Fellowship. Critics of higher education include education research organizations such as the Brookings Institute and the Center for College and Affordability, advocates and members of the Occupy Debt movement as well as dissatisfied or former students, particularly those that are un- or underemployed. These groups challenge the proliferation of "college for all" messaging. Like supporters, critics also appeal to audience anxieties about higher education decisions, but call on students and parents to question rather than revere institutions. Vedder reminds us that, "college was not necessary before and it is not necessary now.” And Washington proposes that, "colleges have a monopoly on society, convincing everyone that a degree is required.” These individuals suggest that higher education institutions inflate employment and salary ROI statistics, and assert that a degree is only “necessary” today because of current hiring practices and audiences’ perceptions of success. (Zumeta, et al.) The Terminology “Overselling” can be defined two ways. The first is “to sell too much or too many.” The second is “to make excessive claims for” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2013). Yamauchi 9 This thesis examines the “selling” of higher education in both contexts. Research focused on the communications, perceptions and realities of the U.S. higher education system: who are the key target audiences for higher education institutions? How are institutions marketing themselves? What are internal and external audiences’ current perceptions of higher education? Do enrollment patterns confirm behaviors consistent with these perceptions? Where are target audiences getting their information, and what messages are they receiving? What are the important factors influencing target audiences? What kind of ROI do audiences expect from investments in higher education? Most importantly, how well are institutions delivering on these expectations? 1 Research Primary and secondary research was conducted to inform this thesis. The author began with a general review of secondary sources related to higher education communications and marketing. Research sources included: education, financial and general news outlets; college and university websites; admission and financial aid counseling websites and publications; education research books and primers; education and finance blogs; education foundation publications; as well as data from the U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Census Bureau and U.S. Department of Labor. Statistical data including enrollment, retention and graduation rates; media and communication consumption; and survey data from various audiences (e.g. prospective students, current students, graduate students, parents, higher education leadership, employers and American voters) also was reviewed. Although this thesis focuses on the current (2010-13) higher education debate, historical sources were also referenced to provide context for the issue. Secondary research then informed primary research efforts. A content analysis was performed to assess dominant messaging in higher education communications across a variety of outlets including: broadcast, print, online and social media. Analysis of 105 sources focused on popular message content including: “increased earning potential,” “employment opportunities,” “intangible skills,” “ROI 1 For the purpose of this paper, the term "higher education" refers to any postsecondary education beyond high school. Some of the secondary research cited use "higher education" and "college" interchangeably to refer to education beyond high school. Yamauchi 10 guaranteed,” “high tuition costs” and “increasing student loan debt.” *For full Content Analysis, please see Appendix A-1. To provide internal insight on communication about the higher education system, primary research also included an interview with Dr. Laura Castaneda, Professor of Professional Practice and Associate Director of the Annenberg School of Journalism at USC. *For full transcript of interview, please see Appendix B. Chapter 1: What is the “higher education bubble?” History of Higher Education The oldest institution of higher education in the U.S. is Harvard University, founded in 1636. At the time of its inception, a college education was seldom viewed as essential, but rather was considered more of a luxury catering to the rich and the clergy (Leef). During the 1700’s, formal postsecondary schooling was not initially equated with a way to get ahead in life, and job training was primarily conducted through apprenticeships (Reynolds). This began to change dramatically after the Second World War. Since the 1940’s, the higher education market has maintained exponential growth by transforming itself to accommodate the social context it exists within, and portraying degrees as increasingly important attainments. Following WWII, The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the G.I. Bill, was enacted to provide returning soldiers with the option of enrolling in college (Clark). Approximately 2.2 million GI’s (primarily men) took advantage of this opportunity, and institutions rapidly expanded to accommodate the enrollment influx. At this time colleges also began shifting their focus away from strict liberal arts programs towards more professional and managerial preparation to accommodate the changing workforce (Arum & Roska 13). Institutional growth and enrollment spikes continued throughout the 1950's and 1960's, fueled by deferments from the Vietnam War (Reynolds) and the sheer volume of Baby Boomers reaching college age. Access to this booming market was further expanded by the 1965 Higher Education Opportunity Act, which increased federal money to universities for scholarships and low- interest loans to students (Stanfield). Finally, in 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments was Yamauchi 11 ratified, providing protection against gender discrimination in higher education. This bill was instrumental in granting women greater access to postsecondary institutions, and in 2012 female college graduates (37%) ages 25-29 outpaced their male counterparts (30%) (U.S. Department of Education). During the 1980's, an economic recession and simultaneous fixation on consumerism gave birth to today's higher education marketing practices. Fear of decreasing enrollments during this period drove schools' obsession with recruitment activities (Buchman). Colleges and universities began exercising completely unrestrained marketing and higher education became the business of "selling an experience, an affiliation and a product that can be manufactured, packaged, and bought” (Leef). In fact, there is now an entire field dedicated to the recruitment of new students called enrollment management (Clark) that stems directly from this shift. Higher Education Marketing Research indicates that marketing in higher education has become a burgeoning phenomenon, (Litten) with colleges investing tremendous resources on marketing efforts to students. Spending has increased 100 percent since 2001, from $321,900 per year to approximately $800,000 per year at midsize universities (Lipman Hearne). In the marketing game, however, not all institutions are created equal, and disproportionate allocations have left many schools behind. The average business' marketing budget runs between four and 12 percent of the organization's revenue. In higher education, spending can range anywhere from 0.5 percent of revenues at smaller institutions to 40 percent of revenues at for-profit schools. Later in this paper, research will demonstrate how this uneven allocation of marketing funds has produced a system where students are aggressively competing for admissions to a small number of well-known schools, while other institutions offering the same quality instruction are overlooked (Schurenberg). Higher education institutions are also partnering with marketing firms, and a shocking number of agencies focus solely on selling these schools. Some examples include Elliance (clients: Drexel University, Pepperdine University), MindPowerInc. (clients: Mount Holyoak, University of Missouri), Edwardsco (clients: Duke University, Massachusettes Institute of Technology) and many others. Yamauchi 12 Additionally, schools are increasingly diversifying their communication platforms. The 2012 Cunet Marketing Benchmark Report found that 84 percent of respondents from public, private, two- and four-year schools agree that traditional marketing methods alone are no longer sufficient to meet their enrollment goals. Institutions are maintaining spending on traditional methods (e.g., brochures, college fairs and print advertisements), while also increasing budgets for digital marketing (e.g., email, target display ads and social media). Forty-nine percent of respondents have increased spending on social media and 32 percent on mobile marketing. (Gauthier) These expensive and pervasive strategies have created a potent and unrestricted marketing environment. Today, the U.S. Department of Education has begun tightening the reigns on higher education communication. The Higher Education Opportunity Act now includes restrictions on false or erroneous statements, but until recently there have been few regulations governing the content of higher education promotions. Additionally, there is a lack of comprehensive or definitive measures of educational ROI with which to hold schools accountable. Aside from the sporadic accreditation procedure, there are limited audits to ensure that students are getting their money's worth. Education institutions operate under the protection of audience members' general sense of goodwill towards academia, and in general schools have not been subject to the same levels of scrutiny or transparency as other sectors such as business or finance. (Pokrass) In this benevolent environment, higher education marketing efforts have been fruitful. Students and parents have effectively been sold on this "one way to win paradigm," believing college is the only way to succeed. Dr. Castaneda indicates that students feel the need to attend "certain" schools and end up in "massive debt" to do so. These families watch other students and parents willing to take out substantial loans to pay for higher education and feel compelled to do the same. They are comforted by the notion that whatever the cost, college will be worth it. Aided by cheap and readily available credit lent to unqualified buyers, this convention has become a dangerous economic issue. (Reynolds) The controversy over the value of higher education is not a new one, or one unique to the U.S. In fact, the original debate began in 1976 with a stirring speech on education reform from former U.K. Prime Yamauchi 13 Minister James Callaghan (Eustice). Arguments have come full circle in the last 40 years, and today audiences are once again becoming vocal about their dissatisfaction with the current higher education system, not only in the U.S., but also in Canada (Bennett) and a number of European countries (Melin). Backed by general concerns about the recovering economy and job market, critics have reignited old questions and doubts about the American higher education system. The Higher Education Bubble The higher education debate has reached new heights. Education and financial researchers are calling it the “higher education bubble,” and it has been likened to and is speculated to outpace the housing bubble of 2006-2012 (Davies). As Reynolds explains it, "bubbles form when too many people expect values to go up forever. Bubbles burst when there are no longer enough excessively optimistic and ignorant buyers to fuel them" (1). Essentially, investors realize they have paid too much for too little. Are students realizing that they have spent too much on tuition compared to the ROI they are receiving from their higher education degrees and experiences? Yamauchi 14 Exhibit A: Higher Education Bubble Infographic Source: Education News. “The Higher Education Bubble.” Education News. 2012. Web. 17 July 2013 <http://www.educationnews.org/higher-education-bubble/>. Whether it’s online, in print or via broadcast, it is hard to ignore current attention being paid to the higher education bubble. Forbes magazine, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and YouTube have all featured extensive coverage of the issue. Forbes has run a series of articles featuring headlines such as, The Scary Economics of Higher Education or After Housing and the Stock Market, Is Higher Education the Next Bubble to Burst? PBS teamed up with the Miller Center of the University of Virginia to host a formal debate and Q&A session with opinion leaders Spellings, Lomax, Vedder and Leef. And films such as The College Conspiracy Full Documentary and The Higher Education Bubble have reached over 50,000 and 70,000 YouTube viewers respectively. Whether the bubble bursts or not, the concept serves as an icon representing those disillusioned and disgruntled with the current higher education system. Chapter 2: The Higher Education Landscape - Audiences, Perceptions & Enrollment Key Audiences To identify the recipients of higher education marketing messages, the author began this thesis Yamauchi 15 with an exploration of target audiences. Concurrent with recent changes in the nation's overall population, higher education student demographics today are notably different from previous generations. Forty-four percent of 18-25-year-olds in the U.S. today are non-white, and minority student enrollment has been growing, particularly among Hispanic populations (Miller Center). The number of female matriculates is also increasing, especially within lower-income homes where women are more likely to pursue higher education (Hacker & Dreifus 182). However, the most recent and considerable change is the increase in "nontraditional students." Presently, only 27 percent of undergraduates represent the "traditional student" or a recent high school graduate enrolled full-time. Today, more than three in ten undergraduates are 25 years or older. An increasing number of students are also delaying initial entry into higher education and/or taking courses part-time. And fewer students are adhering to the traditional college schedule by taking a year off, attending multiple institutions and/or using distance learning (Long). To appropriately market their ROI, institutions need to first understand the needs and goals of these dynamic student populations. School marketers should carefully segment their target audiences to ensure those receiving their messages are the students who will reap the greatest benefits from their specific educational offerings. Influential Individuals Also, students are not alone in their deliberations about higher education. There are several influential groups that actively participate in the process. A survey of 1,000 high school seniors reported that parents, followed by peers and then high school counselors are the most influential individuals in their decisions about higher education. However, the study also revealed that for first-generation college- bound students, parents are typically less involved and less influential. Instead, high school counselors and advisers are significantly more important for this particular group of students. (Hart Research Associates) Social & Economic Context In addition to these influential individuals there are other important factors that affect students’ postsecondary decisions. Given the historical impact of social and economic conditions on higher Yamauchi 16 education, the recent recession and job market crisis also play influential roles in the context of the current debate. Survey data confirms that audiences perceive it’s harder today for young people to find jobs than it was for their parents' generation (Pew Research Center, College Graduation). Unemployment rates seem to agree, reaching 10.2 percent in 2009, an all-time high for the last three decades (Goodman). In 2010, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics also reported that the number of jobs requiring a college degree totaled 28.6 million, while employable college graduates totaled 41.7 million. Additionally, salaries are not what they used to be. Earnings have declined over the past decade for families at all income distribution levels, with the largest declines in the lowest 20 percent (Vedder, et al., Why Are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?). Naturally, such drastic economic downturns and employment instability have affected students’ decisions about higher education. In a 2012 survey by the Higher Education Research Institute of UCLA, 66 percent of students reported that the current economic climate is significantly impacting their college choice. At the same time, the effects of a dwindling economy and suffering job market must also be considered when evaluating the performance of higher education institutions. As schools should not market guaranteed employment and earnings, students should not expect ROI to be automatic. No market is immune to economic downfall or job market shortages. As research cited later will show, the influence of today’s social and economic context has only served to bolster higher education marketing messages. Audiences are fearful and seek any form of guarantee in this tumultuous climate. Economic hardship and a scarcity of jobs have created a prime environment for schools to capitalize on marketing the “necessity” of their degrees. And schools are doing just that. Audience Perceptions Necessity of Higher Education Perceptions of U.S. higher education among identified target audiences were examined to determine whether or not higher education marketing tactics and messages have been effective. Despite critics’ best efforts, it seems that an opportunity remains for postsecondary intuitions, as numerous studies Yamauchi 17 report evidence that higher education is still largely valued in this country. In a 2011 survey of 1,400 Americans conducted by the Pew Research Center, 74 percent of respondents agreed that, "in order to get ahead in life, a college education is required.” The same study also reported that a majority or participants (71% without a college degree and 82% with a degree) believe that a college education is not only "extremely important" for success, but has become “as important as a high school diploma.” Higher education marketing also appears to have resonated with valuable parent, alumni and American voter audiences. Sixty-two percent of respondents indicated that, "getting a college education is absolutely necessary for their children," and 77 percent believe it will be the "best thing for my child" (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). A more recent survey conducted by the Lumina Foundation in 2012 found that 91 percent of college alumni and 84 percent of American voters share this favorable view of colleges and universities. And even those without college degrees would feel better if they had it. Forty-one percent of respondents without a certificate or degree beyond high school "agree" that they would feel more secure about their job if they had it. Sixty-four percent of respondents "strongly agree" that they would feel more secure in their financial future with a certificate or degree. Institutions can apparently rest easy. The use of terms like “required” and “success” suggest that marketing dollars have been well spent. It is clear that Americans have been sold on higher education. But have they been oversold? Alternative Pathways Despite generally positive perceptions of higher education, enthusiasm may be waning as an increasing number of students turn to nontraditional programs. While most Americans indicated that an education beyond high school is important or necessary, traditional four-year colleges and universities are no longer students’ only pathway. "Education and the delivery method of education are changing," explains Dr. Castaneda. Higher education is no longer a one-size-fits-all market, and while the term "higher education" has traditionally been synonymous with colleges and universities, it now refers to a bevy of postsecondary options. Yamauchi 18 Dr. Castaneda confirms that education beyond high school “does not necessarily need to be college.” The market has expanded creating new conduits to a degree. New partnerships have been forged between secondary and postsecondary institutions so students can earn concurrent high school and college credit. Community colleges or career/technical schools also provide students with a quicker and more affordable pathway to specific certificates or degrees. Additionally, online programs and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC’s) are becoming increasingly popular, with almost 20 percent of all higher education delivered via the Internet. A number of these programs are even sponsored by or affiliated with leading four-year institutions such as Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and USC. Online education offers students a number of benefits including lower tuition costs, convenience and wider availability of quality faculty. Finally, for-profit institutions are gaining traction and dramatically increasing enrollment despite their expensive price tags. (Buchman; Pew Research Center, The Rise of College Student Borrowing) Beyond the Classroom Secondary research also demonstrates that audience focus may be shifting not only away from colleges and universities, but the classroom setting altogether, and forgoing enrollment in higher education is becoming an increasingly viable option. The Pew Research Center found that 48 percent of youth ages 18-34 years old are intentionally deciding not to obtain a postsecondary education. Respondents provided several reasons for not enrolling including to support a family, preference to work and earn an income, tuition is not affordable and further education is not necessary for their career path. Education is becoming less of a priority compared to more pressing issues students face today. For some youth, the long-term, pricey investment required for higher education is not feasible or does not seem worth the payoff. Likewise, there are also growing opinions in favor of skills beyond the classroom. The Lumina Foundation reported that 83 percent of survey respondents believe students should be able to receive college credit for knowledge and skills acquired outside of school, and 75 percent indicated they would be more likely to enroll in a certificate or degree program if they could receive credit for things they already Yamauchi 19 know. Other research findings indicate that audiences may also place a higher premium on character traits than on a degree. The Pew Research Center survey concluded that skills such as good work ethic, knowing how to get along with people and work skills learned on the job are becoming more important than a college education. Overall, despite the recent negative coverage related to higher education, audiences maintain a relatively positive view of U.S. schools. At the same time however, it is clear that audiences are also beginning to heavily scrutinize the type and quality of postsecondary options available. Enrollment Research related to enrollment trends and statistics was reviewed to determine whether audience behaviors match their perceptions. Secondary research illustrates congruency between enrollment rates and audiences' positive perceptions about higher education. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reported that enrollment has been increasing exponentially since 1990. Between 1990 and 2000 enrollment at degree-granting institutions alone grew by 11 percent. From 2000 to 2010, enrollment increased by 37 percent. Fluctuations in enrollment seem to correlate with marketing efforts and expenditures. While most institutions saw increases in the last decade, some faired better than others. As was previously noted, for- profit institutions have the highest budget allocations for marketing. These institutions were rewarded for their efforts and expense as enrollments for their schools were up across the board. Public and private, two- and four-year for-profit programs all saw their numbers increase dramatically during this time period. Four-year public and private colleges and universities saw similar growth. In addition to greater marketing allocations, later evidence will also show that four-year institutions are disproportionately more prevalent in higher education marketing than two-year schools, which may explain their enrollment gains. In contrast, two-year programs were a wash. Two-year private schools were the only institutions to show a decline in enrollment. And while two-year public schools saw the same increases as four-year and for- profit institutions, this growth is inconsistent with spending on marketing efforts. (National Center of Yamauchi 20 Education Statistics) Further exploration of external factors explains the incongruity between enrollment and marketing for two-year public schools. Like any other market, higher education is impacted by the economy. Unlike other markets, higher education enrollment often runs in a countercyclical manner. In an economic downturn, individuals often pursue further education to improve their earning or employment potential. Schools offering shorter degree programs at lower prices stand to gain from these conditions; as was demonstrated by the 40 percent spike in enrollment that community colleges saw immediately following the 2008 recession. (Pew Research Center, Higher Achievements) Marketing strategies cannot be solely credited for the upward trends institutions are experiencing. In addition to economic sensitivities, research has also demonstrated that population growth and a larger base of high school graduates contributed to these rising enrollment statistics (Pew Research Center, Higher Achievements). However, as the economy recovers and student populations change, it is unclear whether institutions can continue to count on a steady influx of enrollees. For instance, in 2011, 41 percent of all higher education institutions actually saw their enrollment rates fall. Some speculate that this decline marks the bursting of the higher education bubble (Dan). Chapter 3: What communications are audiences attending to? What messages are they receiving? Communication Consumption Habits To assess the sources of information about higher education available to audiences, the author reviewed several studies conducted on audience communication consumption habits. Today's youth are more connected than previous generations (Davis, et al.) and higher education institutions are leveraging this connectivity to sell their schools and programs. Institutions are aggressively infiltrating the communication platforms students frequent, but as marketing allocations and enrollment numbers indicate, some schools are selling themselves better than others. Across social media, website content and formal recruitment materials, higher education marketing appears to be heavily skewed in favor of four-year institutions compared to other programs. The Pew Research Center's 2012 Demographics of Social Media Users study reported that 83 Yamauchi 21 percent of 18-29 year olds use social media, with 67 percent active on Facebook and 16 percent on Twitter. Another study by Zinch, a college counseling website, confirmed that 75 percent of high school students use Facebook at least once a day. Furthermore, approximately two-thirds of high school students indicated that they use social media to research colleges, and one-third use social media to decide where to enroll (Tisley). Not surprisingly, of U.S. News & World Report's top 100 schools, a majority of which are four- year programs, 92 of them are active on one or more social media platforms. Ninety-one schools use Facebook, 88 are on Twitter and 79 utilize YouTube to connect with prospective and current students (Jaschik). A national sample of 456 four-year colleges and universities found similar results, as 100 percent of respondents reported using some form of social media, including 98 percent that are active on Facebook and 84 percent on Twitter. By comparison, the Community College Survey of Student Engagement found that community colleges almost never connect with students via social media. While, two-year programs have recently begun increasing their participation on social media sites, four-year schools have had almost exclusive marketing privileges on these platforms (Davis, et al.). There are similar biases in communication via mobile devices. Studies show that 25 percent of youth ages 12-17 are "cell mostly" Internet users, and 74 percent of teens say they access the Internet on cell phones, tablets and mobile devices at least "occasionally" (Pew Research Center, Teens & Technology 2013). Further research indicates that 52 percent of students are using a mobile devices to access college websites. Four-year institutions have also capitalized on this consumption trend, and more than one-third of these colleges and universities now have mobile-optimized websites. In contrast, only seven percent of two-year schools reported having a site enhanced for mobile devices, thereby decreasing the chances of students engaging with their brands (Noel-Levitz). Website analysis also found similar evidence of marketing advantages for four-year schools. Students report their preferred method of researching higher education options is through search engines such as Google, Bing or Yahoo. However, a study by the Parthenon Group revealed that four- year schools disproportionately participate in search engine optimization compared to two-year Yamauchi 22 institutions. A majority of four-year schools (two-thirds of four-year public, and three-fourths of four-year private institutions) are currently using web analytics tools (e.g. Google Analytics) to track and hone the effectiveness of their SEO strategies. Comparatively, only one-quarter of two-year public schools reported using similar methods. (Noel-Levitz) Whether it’s due to a lack of social media engagement or search engine/mobile optimization, differences in communication availability and access are limiting the reach and potentially hurting the brand image of two-year programs. Inaccessible or unavailable online content is particularly problematic as a majority of students consider institution websites and social media sites to be the most influential sources of information after campus visits. Four-year schools are dominating online marketing, providing audiences a skewed perspective of the higher education marketplace. (Hoyt & Brown) Surveys confirm this second-tier standing for two-year schools. The Pew Research Center found that a majority of parents feel their children will attend a four-year institution (Is College Worth It?), and the Lumina Foundation revealed lower levels of confidence in education quality at community colleges. While 27 percent of Americans "strongly agree" and 47 percent "agree" that traditional colleges and universities offer a high quality education, views on community colleges were less positive, as only 19 percent "strongly agree" and 35 percent "agree" that these institutions offer a high quality education (Lumina Foundation). Given current communication practices, it is clear that two-year school enrollment rates will not be buoyed by the recession for very much longer. Messaging Similar to schools’ digital marketing methods, formal recruitment materials and related communications also provide a skewed picture of the college experience. Content Analysis Primary research included a content analysis of the information available to prospective students and families during their higher education search. Analysis reviewed a wide variety of available media outlets, paying particular attention to online communications: television and radio broadcast; college counseling/advising websites; education research journal articles; education foundation/association Yamauchi 23 publications; financial aid counseling/advising websites; government publications and websites; education, financial, and general news articles; education and financial blogs; and YouTube sites. *For a full listing of sources reviewed for content analysis, please see Appendix A-2. Content analysis revealed that messaging across as well as within various media outlets is highly inconsistent. While certain key messages were more pronounced than others, information generally reflected the polarity of the current debate, with higher education supporters promoting increased earnings and employment potential, while critics emphasize high tuition costs, increased student debt and a lack of guaranteed ROI. For prospective students lacking previous experience or knowledge, this contradictory and incomplete information can prove to be misleading and counterproductive. Across all media outlets, messages related to increasing tuition costs (35%) were most frequently cited. Avi Dan, contributor to Forbes magazine cautions that, “colleges are slowly pricing themselves out of existence.” Peter Thiel comments that, “costs have escalated by 300 percent since 1980.” And dramatic statements such as “universities charging $50,000 per year has increased 25-fold in the last three years” are frequently cited (Colombo). These tuition-related messages were followed closely by frequent promotions of higher education as a way to increase earning potential (30%) and generate employment opportunities (32%). The U.S. Department of Education blog guarantees that, “Americans who have a bachelors degree will earn roughly one million dollars more over their lifetime than high school graduates.” The American Council on Education (ACE) reinforces government claims, expressing that, “college educated workers are fairing much better in just about every aspect of the job market.” Finally the Hamilton Project of the Brookings Institute promises, “more education opens the gateway to better, higher-paying jobs.” Conversely, analysis also revealed that frequent references are made to the dramatic increase of student loan debt (29%) and the belief that ROI from a college education is no longer a guarantee (26%). For example, Education Sector states, “college loan default rates have nearly doubled in recent years.” And the New York Times’ Business section has dedicated substantial coverage to the issue, featuring comments like, “the amount of debt that students have at graduation has increased at a vast majority of Yamauchi 24 colleges and universities in the United States,” and “we have more than $1 trillion in outstanding student loans in this country.” Findings among media outlet type were not surprising. As expected, college counseling/advising sources promote increased earnings and employment opportunities more frequently than other sources, with minimal reference to high tuition costs and no mention of the student debt crisis. Coverage from television/radio broadcasting, education news, financial news, as well as education blogs focus predominantly on increasing tuition costs and growing student loan debt. Given the emotionality and economic relevance of the issue, it is understandable why these messages are highlighted by news sources. Finally, YouTube videos and Facebook content uploaded by schools (private, public and for- profit) peddle employment opportunities as the main benefit of their institutions. Content analysis findings resonate with primary and secondary research. The most highly propagated messages about earnings and employment correlate with current and prospective student concerns about financial aid, economic climate and job security. The lack of communication about tuition costs and loans from counseling/advising outlets closely relates to secondary findings about the insufficient financial advisement available to students. The absence of this information also corresponds with students’ misjudgment about the reality of educational loans. The analysis on a whole helps illustrate the need for more widely available information as well as stronger academic and financial advising. Recruitment Materials Secondary content analyses of websites and viewbooks revealed the same subjective messaging and insufficient advising discovered in primary content analysis related to online recruitment methods. The author reviewed three different sources. The first was a 2009 study conducted by research faculty at Ohio State University of 24 public, independent and online school website homepages (Stein, et al.). The second was from 2011 by a University of Iowa PhD student and looked at website pages for 12 colleges and universities (Saichaie). The third was a 2008 review of 48 college and university viewbooks sponsored by the University of Pennsylvania (Hartley & Morphew). Yamauchi 25 There were several common themes in recruitment messaging. First, all of the studies demonstrated a lack of communication targeting nontraditional students. Analyses found few references, images or messages for any population beyond the traditional 18-22 year old high school graduate. Stein, et al. also found that school websites disregarded critical information for this population, including messages related to work-school balance or the mid-career benefits of a degree. As previously noted, nontraditional students are a rapidly growing population and schools are missing valuable opportunities to reach and engage with this cohort. An absence of communication directed at these populations also implies that schools are marketing educational options not tailored to fit the needs or goals of these types of students. Second, analyses confirmed primary research findings that higher education is marketed as an integral part of students' professional and economic futures. Hartley and Morphew found that over half of the viewbooks analyzed underscored the economic benefits of a degree. Their study highlighted schools' claims such as, "plum job and financial freedom" and "we deliver top quality education that meets the needs of the market." Saichaie's findings confirmed these endorsements stating that, "higher education is promoted as a training ground for skill acquisition in which the product of education is a worker, ready to serve." He quotes website content from prominent schools such as Stanford to support his assertions, "(Stanford) has served as an incubator for industry giants like Google, Yahoo, Netflix, the Gap and Charles Schwab." Third, despite higher education's steadfast promotion of workforce training and career preparation, studies found that very few schools actually emphasize academic rigor and none provide information on how a degree will yield such benefits. According to Stein, et al., sites lacked important indicators that would help learners make decisions about institutions with regards to his/her particular interests. Their study found that although almost 40 percent of schools actively promoted career prospects, there was generally a substantial lack of information on the benefits of a degree or how program curriculum connects to earning and employment potential. Saichaie drew similar conclusions observing that most sites focused more on the non-academic Yamauchi 26 aspects of school such as personal relationships and social activities. Hartley and Morphew also noted that institutions are "downplaying the rigors of academic life." Their analyses demonstrated that while academic programs were frequently listed in viewbooks, half of them contained no images of students studying. Like Saichaie, they observed disproportionately more photos of students engaged in co- curricular activities such as clubs, athletics or student organizations. One school even touted the expression, "good times this way!" Additionally, each study documented several significant gaps in higher education recruitment communications. First, Stein, et al. found that website sections dedicated to financial aid lacked critical information. Financial aid sites typically emphasized affordability, but did not provide specific tuition cost information. The study showed that students receive misleading messages such as, "willing to work with anyone to find the means,” or "87 percent of students receive financial aid." What audiences are not told is that "finding the means" or "financial aid" often includes the strain of substantial educational loans. Subsequently, little to no information was provided on the successful management of student borrowing. Second, Hartley and Morphew noted that only half of viewbooks contained student or alumni testimonials. Institutions are not capitalizing on the marketing power of their graduates. The most powerful tool for schools and many businesses is word-of-mouth communications (Borsuk), and many institutions fail to document and publicize feedback or exit interview data from graduating students. More importantly institutions are not effectively using this data as evidence that they deliver a quality education or satisfactory ROI. Overall, institution website pages and viewbooks are not providing sufficient information to meet students' decision-making needs. More specifically, they are not communicating messages that are related to or address previously mentioned student concerns. Instead they appear to be selling good times and economic opportunities for an affordable price, with little reference to academics or information on how schools actually create individual or societal benefits. Entertainment Media Beyond the influence of news media, social media and recruitment materials, students are also Yamauchi 27 subjected to an array of higher education portrayals in popular media. A qualitative review of popular films and television shows revealed that today’s entertainment media provides little guidance or constructive insights to help students with their decisions about higher education. Collegiate life has been a popular backdrop in movies and T.V. shows for decades. And since the 1980's, entertainment media has made a mockery of the American college experience at both two- and four-year schools, emphasizing everything but academia. From peer relationships and athletics to money, partying and even vampire slaying, film and television have depicted college as a recreational rather than scholastic experience. *For a full listing of films and television shows reviewed, see Appendix C. Similar to school websites and viewbooks, these film and T.V. sources provide few references to academics, financial aid, or the realities of establishing a career. Instead they reinforce institutions’ marketing messages related to socialization and co-curricular activities. Multiple communication outlets seem to be telling students the same thing: pay an affordable tuition, have fun for a few years, get the degree and when you graduate, the job and salary you want will be waiting. Chapter 4: Return on Investment (ROI) - What is expected? While it’s apparent that students are receiving partial information and biased perspectives, the author reviewed further survey data to assess the actual impact these communications are having on audience expectations. Purpose of Higher Education Identifying the ROI that audiences expect from higher education institutions is vital in determining whether or not schools are overselling themselves. Review of expectations began by assessing the perceived purpose of higher education among various audience groups. Findings indicate that across target audiences, there are generally two schools of thought. Forty-eight percent say the main purpose of higher education should be to help the individual grow personally and intellectually, while the other half believes schools should teach specific skills and knowledge that can be used in the workplace (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Dr. Castaneda reports a similar divergence, indicating that while she believes that the main Yamauchi 28 purpose of higher education is to “help create an educated, informed society with critical thinking skills as well as job/career skills,” she does not believe her colleagues feel as strongly about workforce preparation. Survey data of college presidents confirms Dr. Castaneda’s observations, and corresponds to general audience perceptions. The Pew Research Center found that 50 percent of respondents said the purpose of college is “to promote intellectual and personal growth,” while the other half indicated that the purpose is “to provide knowledge and training for the working world.” (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?) Content analyses from both websites and viewbooks correlate with these divisions in audience perceptions about the purpose of higher education. Websites contained messages related to ROI in the form of “intellectual, personal and career opportunities” (Stein, et al.). Similarly, half of viewbooks promoted “human growth,” while the other half emphasized pure economic benefits including “financial freedom” and “meeting market needs” (Hartley & Morphew). Survey responses from alumni also parallel this dichotomy, as college graduates (56%) placed greater importance on individual growth compared to non-graduates (31%). Conversely, non-graduates (55%) placed more emphasis on work-related skills and knowledge than graduates (26%). In addition, alumni also reported several other important roles of higher education: teaching students to think critically (31%) and preparing them to solve problems (17%). (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?; Corrigan) Finally, employers echo graduates’ sentiments, as a majority (80%) believe that regardless of major selection, every student should pursue comprehensive knowledge in the liberal arts and sciences, and should work to acquire field-specific knowledge as well as a broad range of skills (Hart Research Associates). This divide in opinion across a number of audience groups suggests a demand large enough to accommodate a market composed of various types of postsecondary options and emphases. However, when the question is asked a different way, the primary ROI expected of any higher education institution becomes evident. The Lumina survey established that 76 percent of graduates ranked “making more Yamauchi 29 money” as a top reason for attending school. Ninety-seven percent of respondents believe that having an education beyond high school is “important” or “very important” to a person’s financial security. And 90 percent of respondents said that getting a job and earning more money are at least “somewhat important reasons” for postsecondary education. Furthermore, respondents said that getting a good job (67%) and earning more money (65%) are “very important” reasons for attending higher education. (Lumina Foundation) There appears to be a conflict between audience perceptions of the purpose of higher education and the ROI they actually expect schools to deliver. There also seems to be disconnection between the ROI that institutions are marketing and the ROI that internal and external audiences expect. These incongruities could be contributing to the purported overselling of higher education. Schools may be trying to increase enrollments by marketing one type of ROI, but delivering another, or by delivering one type of ROI to a student seeking another. Institutions may either have to serve dual purposes, or more carefully market the ROI specific to their institutions. Expected ROI Higher education marketing messages, along with social and economic pressures, have played significant roles in shaping students’ expectations. Regardless of whether they expect intellectual and personal growth or work-related skill sets, it is clear that students ultimately want whatever they learn in postsecondary education to increase their earning potential. According to survey and interview data, students also seek networking and employment opportunities as means to achieving higher income. Earning Potential & Employment Opportunities Current students prioritize ROI from higher education similarly to other audiences, also indicating that earning potential and career prospects are the predominant reasons for enrolling at postsecondary institutions (Leef). In 2012, a study by the Higher Education Research Institute of UCLA found that 87.9 percent of students (up from 85.9 percent in 2011) ranked “to get a better job” as the top reason for attending higher education. Likewise, a survey of 1,175 high school seniors by WiseChoice, a college counseling service, found similar results with 80 percent of respondents emphasizing “better job Yamauchi 30 opportunities” and “to earn more” as their top reasons for pursuing further education (de Vise). This has been the case since 2006. Prior to 2006, the top reason students reported was, “to learn about things that interest me.” The author’s own experiences in undergraduate student advising coincide with results from survey analyses. Students today are overwhelming preoccupied with career advancement and income potential. Many have already tracked themselves into graduate and professional degree programs firmly believing these degrees are the only pipelines into higher paying positions. Networking and Affiliations As a conduit to greater earning and employment potential, networking opportunities and affiliations with brand name schools are also becoming increasingly important to students. Audiences today are surrounded by comparison tools such as Yelp!, Consumer Digest and Rate My Professor. They have become accustomed to filtering their decisions through the sieve of numerical rating scales, and school selections are no different. Students are assigning increasing importance to school rankings such as U.S. News & World Report's Best Schools. In fact, when an individual consults a Google “ranking” or “rate,” the first page of listed sites are all related to school and professor rating systems. U.S. News & World Report is the second entry. Students are being persuaded to place a “premium on brand name as a guarantor of quality” (Hacker & Dreifus 126). And according to a recent study for the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU), 45 percent of parents and 32 percent of students give strong consideration to brand name and prestige of an institution during the application process. The same study also found that cost becomes less of a priority when brand name is a factor. Given that school marketing ties brand name institutions to increased earnings and opportunities, why shouldn't they? (Vedder, et al., Why are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?) As Dr. Castaneda recognizes there is an increasing emphasis on "who you know" rather than "what you know," and on building connections to get ahead. Today, a diploma from an Ivy League or well-known university can present an affiliation and networking opportunity for which students are prepared to pay top dollar, regardless of the actual academic value or financial consequences. As Vedder Yamauchi 31 notes, there will always be a segment of the population willing and able to pay for elite diplomas. (Hacker & Dreifus 72) There are, however, a few problems with these rankings. As with other types of higher education marketing tools, these ratings can be misleading. First, data collected by U.S. News & World Report are self-reported, and some colleges and universities find ways to intentionally inflate their standings. Second, similar to websites and viewbooks, these reports also provide incomplete information. They do not provide alumni feedback or student satisfaction data, nor do they include a full listing of higher education institutions. Rankings exclude: schools that do not use SAT/ACT in their admissions requirements; those with a total enrollment of less than 2,000; those with a large population of nontraditional students; or, for-profit institutions. These exclusions reinforce the biased representation of higher education options noted earlier in other recruitment methods. Bridget Long with the Hamilton Project pointedly asks, “are institutions advising students to pursue an education that is a good fit for their needs and goals, or are they herding students towards big brand names?” The author’s own experiences confirm that for students, an affiliation with a big name school such as USC is considered part of the tuition they pay; akin to buying name brand clothing. At the same time, students should be cautious. Decisions about higher education are not like consumption goods, and should not be based solely on rankings to the exclusion of other important factors such as affordability and other ROI. Chapter 5: Escalating Tuition & Student Loans With students flocking to their doors, elite, and even lesser known schools, have realized that they can afford to charge a premium for their degrees (U.S. Department of Education). Tuition costs have reached epic proportions, and while students retain lofty expectations of higher education institutions, these demands seem entirely reasonable given the tremendous monetary outlay for their education. Tuition Cost Due to the recession and job market crisis, audiences are entering higher education with a predisposition towards price-sensitivity. And despite the fact that 76 percent of alumni feel their school Yamauchi 32 charged a fair price, escalating tuition costs are only serving to increase current students' uncertainties about higher education. While a substantial 93 percent of Americans believe that cost should not bar students' access to education (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?), Dr. Castaneda notes, "college costs have soared and interest rates on loans have doubled." Tuition costs have become the gaudy centerpiece of the higher education debate. And both internal and external audiences have been made keenly aware of these rising prices. For instance, the Higher Education Opportunity Act now requires schools to publish tuition prices directly to their website so costs are made more apparent to audiences (U.S. Department of Education). In addition, news, blog and social media outlets have dedicated considerable coverage to these escalating costs. In 2011, the Pew Research Center announced that the amount families now pay for higher education has tripled since the 1980's, a tenfold increase that now accounts for 50 percent of the median family income (Is College Worth It?). EducationNews.org highlights the fact that tuition has “skyrocketed 439 percent,” far outpacing the rate of inflation. And headlines from various national circulations read, A Generation Hobbled by the Soaring Cost of College (Martin & Lehren) and Going Broke From College Tuition (Flavelle). The largest tuition increases have occurred at four-year institutions, both public and private (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?), and for-profit tuitions are not far behind, averaging $15,172 for tuition in the 2012-13 academic year, more than public two- and four-year schools charged (College Board, Average Published Undergraduate Charges). Given that these institutions also have the largest investments and the greatest presence in higher education marketing, it makes sense that they could then turn around and charge the highest fees. Businesses are understandably concerned about their bottom lines and a higher education institution is just that, a business (Arum & Roska125). However, businesses must also accommodate customers' ability to pay, and it appears unlikely that American families can maintain pace with such exponential tuition increases. Student surveys demonstrate that messaging about increasing costs have not gone unheeded, and 43 percent of students said they are more carefully considering the cost when Yamauchi 33 weighing their enrollment options. Another study reported similar findings, where 11.9 percent of respondents indicated having "major concerns" about financing their education and 55.5 percent said they have "some concerns" about tuition costs. (Higher Education Research Institute of UCLA) As a result, employment during school has become an increasingly important priority for students, and unfortunately many of them are spending more time working than studying. Fifty-five percent of students indicate they will likely seek employment during their undergraduate tenure to help pay for college, and thirty-nine percent of freshmen already work more than 16 hours per week. Black and Hispanic students typically spend more time working than White students, as do students at public institutions compared to those attending private schools. (Nonis, et al.; Arum & Roska 85) Trepidations about education prices cross age and socioeconomic boundaries. Understandably, first-generation students tend to have greater anxieties about tuition (Hart Research Associates), but now even students of higher SES are worried as well. Likewise, students over the age of 24 are less likely to choose a school with higher tuition (Domino, et al.), demonstrating more cost-conscious behavior than their younger counterparts. Since this older student population is growing, schools will soon face a market of more discerning consumers. More problematic, however, is the finding that these concerns even supersede academics. Students are choosing not to purchase required course materials due to expense, and report that their financial concerns actually interfere with academic performance. Should students’ concerns about the cost of their education overshadow actual learning? (National Survey of Student Engagement) Broader surveys by the Pew Research Center echo student anxieties, revealing that 75 percent of Americans no longer feel college is affordable for most U.S. families. Seventy-one percent also say it is harder for youth today to pay for college than it was for their parents’ generation. The numbers of respondents agreeing with these statements has been steadily increasing with time. (College Graduation; Is College Worth It?) Moreover, internal groups are just as concerned about cost. Fifty-seven percent of college presidents agree with external audiences, with 65 percent of two-year leaders, 53 percent of four-year Yamauchi 34 leaders and 58 percent of for-profit leaders saying that tuition costs are no longer reasonable (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). In addition, Moody’s Investor Service, a credit rating service, projects a negative outlook on the higher education market for 2013. They emphasize that schools will undoubtedly need to lower their cost structures in order to survive. Internal and external groups seem to agree that prices are too high, and yet as previously cited research demonstrates, students continue to receive messages about its affordability and minimal information about true costs. Salaries & Amenities The media and select opinion leaders continue to aggravate the situation, fueling the tuition fire with allegations that these tremendous increases are attributable to superfluous expenditures, namely salaries and amenities. Compensation for school presidents, faculty and administrative personnel are currently under intense scrutiny, and have been portrayed as inflated almost to the point of ridiculousness. Hacker and Dreifus comment, “between 1992 and 2008 salaries of college presidents have doubled” (119), and go on to describe faculty tenure as a “significant drain” on higher education funds (132). Similarly, the California Public Policy Institute exclaims, “the reason our university system is going broke is because our teachers in higher education have become the most extravagantly compensated, pampered class of workers.” College presidents are no longer considered the institutional figureheads or rainmakers seeking alumni donations. They are now expected to operate the institution as a business, assessing “customer” satisfaction, monitoring employee retention and honing other managerial skills that were previously only prized in Fortune 500 C-suites. In addition, Hacker and Dreifus question rapid increases in the number of school personnel employed to service students. “Since 1976, the ratio of bureaucrats to students (in higher education) has nearly doubled” (118). Avi Dan draws a compelling comparison, reporting that spending on administrative salaries per student has increased 66 percent while instructional spending only rose by 39 percent. Higher education administration tries to explain away these added expenses by attributing them to stricter federal regulations requiring school administration to be increasingly involved in students’ lives. But Hacker and Dreifus raise argument again, referring to institutions that are successfully serving Yamauchi 35 their students with one-third of the positions others have (30). Greater attention is also being paid to seemingly excessive expenditures on amenities and facilities. Colombo looks at several examples including: UC Berkeley’s $321 million football stadium, Ohio State’s $243.8 million in construction projects, and Michigan University’s new $226 million athletic facility. Authors Arum and Roska believe that schools are using these amenities to attract and compete for students (17). It does not appear to be an entirely effective strategy when audiences are desperately seeking explanations and to lay blame for rapidly increasing costs. The current price structure for higher education is an unsustainable model, and some students have begun to question whether these services and amenities are eclipsing the true purpose of school. These individuals are deliberately making decisions to forgo at least some of these conveniences. A survey on student housing for example, found that on-campus requests have continued to decline in recent years, dropping from 79.3 percent in 2011 to 76.1 percent in 2012 (Higher Education Research Institute of UCLA). Additionally, student backlash has actually forced a number of schools to issue tuition freezes in the past year. Students survey responses indicate they are acutely aware of the mounting costs of higher education, and their decisions are now trending towards frugality (Marcus). Financial Aid As tuition prices have grown, so has the marketplace for financial aid. While cost of education is of great concern to students, financial aid awards appear to be of even greater concern. This trend illustrates that students are increasingly aware that they are not paying full sticker price for school, and more importantly it demonstrates a much greater reliance on financial aid. (U.S. Department of Treasury) The U.S. Departments of Treasury and Education confirm that most students are not paying full tuition price for their education, and that financial aid is readily available in some form or another. For the 2012-13 academic year, the average in-state tuition at a public, four-year institution was $8,666, but the average net price to students was $2,910. Similarly, the average tuition for a private, nonprofit, four-year school was published at $29,060, but net price was $13,870. Other research estimates that approximately only one-third of students pay full sticker price, and over the past five years, the average published price Yamauchi 36 of tuition increased 27 percent while the average net price only increased by 18 percent (College Board). Some schools also reported distributing aid to as many as 90 percent of their students (Glater & Finder). Student Loans While these numbers may seem promising, for many students, affordability and widespread financial aid has taken the form of educational loans. Public and private loaning institutions have recognized this precipitously expanding market, and have capitalized on students in need. Cheap credit has become widely available, allowing unqualified borrowers to take out sizable loans. Unfortunately, these loans have come at an even higher price than tuition itself. As institutions try to best each other by raising costs and simultaneously increasing financial aid discounts, they are actually keeping tuition rates “artificially low.” Students believe they are getting a deal when they are not, and taxpayers have to bear the brunt of the difference (Leef). Dr. Castaneda observes that students and families will borrow “obscene amounts of money” to make expensive institutions “affordable,” and she is not alone in her concerns. Just as the media helped heighten awareness of increasing tuition costs, it also pointed a glaring spotlight at the student loan crisis. Countless studies and financial publications have closely documented the educational borrowing trends in this country. Their statistics are startling. Since 1999 student loans have grown an alarming 511 percent, and crossed the $1 trillion mark in 2011 (Colombo). American Student Assistance (ASA), a nonprofit loan advising organization, estimates that the percentage of borrowers is now close to 60 percent, and College Conspiracy, a National Inflation Association documentary on the student loan crisis also reports that, “the number of graduates in debt has increased 27 percent in the last five years.” Half of students at both public and private, nonprofit institutions are taking out loans to cover some portion of their undergraduate tuition costs (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). And for-profit institutions are not fairing any better with one-third of students taking out unsubsidized loans, one-quarter borrowing subsidized loans and 12 percent using PLUS (private) loans (College Board). In addition, education loans now comprise five percent of all outstanding debt in the household sector, outpacing the credit card, home and auto loan debts for the nation (Education News). But perhaps one of the most compelling messages is Yamauchi 37 that, “the number of student loan debtors is now equivalent to the number of college degree-holders” (Reynolds 14). Exhibit B: New York Times Degrees of Debt – Student Debt at Colleges and Universities Across the Nation Map Graphic Source: “Student Debt at Colleges and Universities Across the Nation.” The New York Times: Business Day. 12 May 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/05/13/business/student- debt-at-colleges-and-universities.html>. Extensive and dramatic coverage has turned this issue into a national phenomenon. The New York Times, for instance, created a spotlight series on student loans in 2012 featuring a slew of articles, graphics and emotional anecdotes. As part of the series, an interactive map was also created, illustrating average loan debt amounts throughout the country. At the same time, the YouTube video entitled, Scholarslip features a student standing on a college campus, silently holding up a sign that reads, “Student loan debt grows $3,000 per second.” Furthermore, Moody’s Investor Service cautions that student loan defaults are even compromising accreditation statuses. Reports like these continue to fuel speculations about the higher education bubble. Yamauchi 38 Defaulting The issue is not just that larger proportions of students are taking out loans, but also the considerable amount they are borrowing and their subsequent inability to make repayments. The most recent data available indicates that in 2010-11, the average loan amount for a student attending a four- year institution was approximately $23,000. Also, about 45 percent of those earning associate’s degrees owe about $12,000 (FinAid). Exhibit C: Undergraduate Student Debt By Institution Type Source: FinAid.org. "Student Loans." FinAid.org. 2011. Web. 8 Aug. 2013 <http://www.finaid.org/loans/>. These debt figures are markedly higher at for-profit institutions where 53 percent of students borrowed $30,500 or more (Baum and Steele). Additionally, these calculations do not include private loan amounts, which would substantially increase total borrowing estimates. Inside Higher Ed also reports that 0.5 percent of students take out more than $100,000 in loans. Consequently, the New York Federal Reserve Bank approximates that in 2012 there were 37 million student borrowers with outstanding loans, with two out of every five borrowers (41%) delinquent on repayments (American Student Assistance). Likewise, the Hamilton Project estimates that approximately one-third of borrowers face debts that surpass the eight percent threshold that financial aid researchers consider to be a “red flag” of concern. And survey data shows that two-thirds of bank managers are “seriously concerned” about the current debt crisis (Colombo). Their anxiety seems Yamauchi 39 warranted, as student loan default rates have reached 8.8 percent at public and private, nonprofit schools, and an alarming 25 percent in the for-profit sector (Colombo). These troubling trends persist despite aforementioned audience concerns. Such dramatic debt statistics only reiterate the lengths students are willing to go to for a degree, and more importantly the lack of understanding they have about the realities of higher education costs. Loaning Institutions & the Federal Government As the student debt crisis continues to grow, audiences and the media are eager to hold someone accountable. Particular attention has been given to major education loan company Sallie Mae. Their tagline reads, “Champion for higher education,” but shouldn’t they be champions for students? Rather than helping borrowers strategically finance their educations, they instead appear to be contributing to misinformation and the promotion of debt. The lending institution has been criticized for failing to provide sufficient information and guidance to students regarding the various types and amounts of loans. (Nelson) For example, the number of undergraduates carrying private loans has recently increased, and yet private loans are considered financially riskier than federal loans as they do not come with the same protections (e.g. loan forgiveness, income-based repayment, etc.). Sallie Mae has been chastised for failing to help students differentiate between these types of loans. And while many try to discourage borrowing, Sallie Mae actually reported a 20 percent increase in new loans in 2012, a 29% up from 2011. The federal government has also been implicated as a catalyst for student debt. The President and the U.S. Department of Education have repeatedly communicated the sentiment that higher education should be affordable for all students. However, their means for making schools accessible has created catastrophic consequences for students, financial institutions and taxpayers. While half of the $185 billion awarded in aid in the 2012-13 academic year came from federal sources (College Board), the number of students defaulting on federal loans had already grown from seven percent in 2008 to nine percent in 2011. At for-profit institutions this number was 12 percent (Long). The New York Times also reported that only 38 percent of debtors are repaying these federal loans, compared to 46 percent just five years ago. Yamauchi 40 For-profit federal loans are again of greater concern with only a 36 percent repayment rate, and some schools have even seen lows of nine or 10 percent (Siegel). Additionally, federal spending on higher education cost taxpayers approximately $30 billion a year (Colombo). Given recent federal budget deficits and state cutbacks to education, audiences are questioning whether all of this government support has only contributed to the instability of the higher education model. Increasing spending and lending seems to have created greater financial problems rather than solutions for higher education. It has also been proposed that public spending on higher education is actually negatively correlated with economic growth for society (Leef; Miller Center). A reduction of federal loans may force institutions to lower tuition costs, as fewer students will be able to afford tuition without this aid. (Pew Research Institute, Is College Worth It?; Corrigan) The Burden of Debt Higher education is marketed as a way to progress forward; instead students are finding it difficult to enjoy the fruits of their academic labor. Forty-eight percent report that loans have made it harder to pay bills, 25 percent say loans are delaying the purchase of a home and 24 percent indicate that loans have had a definite impact on their career selection (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Negative coverage of the student loan crisis is undermining audience confidence in higher education and loaning institutions. Resounding focus on debt is counterproductive to the model of success that schools are selling. It has only bred distrust and spurred the establishment of groups like Occupy Debt, a branch of the original Occupy Movement on Wall Street. This group has pushed to keep the issue at the forefront of discussions, and have captured audiences’ attentions with a 300,000 signature petition, indignant website posts and a persistent presence. The tenacity of their lobbying efforts seems to be working, and the government actually appears to be listening. The student debt issue is far from resolved, but President Obama and the U.S. Department of Education have recently begun taking strides to rectify the situation. The President issued loan forgiveness and income-based repayment plans in 2011, easing the burden of repayment for students (Nelson). And both the President and Secretary Duncan have committed to reducing federal Yamauchi 41 subsidization of higher education and allocate more funding for grants and scholarships (Brenchley). While these efforts are a start, the author does not believe legislative action will correct the entirety of the problem. For instance, as of 2012 only 700,000 borrowers were enrolled in the President’s income-based repayment program, while the U.S. Department of Education estimates that the program should be servicing 1.6 million students (American Student Assistance). Policy change is necessary, however informing audiences and advising students to make smart financial decisions is paramount, and in this area both schools and the government seem to be failing. Financial Advising Or A Lack Thereof Understanding Loans These debt statistics suggest that students do not truly understand the realities of taking out an educational loan. For example, in 2012, 65 percent of borrowers expressed surprise or misunderstanding related to their loans, and one-third of graduates indicated that they should have pursued other financial options such as scholarships or grants (American Student Assistance). In addition, Arum and Roska note that some students are borrowing not just to pay for tuition, but also to support a specific lifestyle during their undergraduate tenure. They believe that, “educational debt is becoming a vehicle for consumption and not just investment” (86). The nonchalance and illiteracy that students display in borrowing seems to imply that they do not fully grasp the permanence of these loans. Student loans cannot be expunged in bankruptcy and accumulation of delinquent fees can ruin students’ credit (Ellis), but the exponential rate with which individuals are borrowing seems to demonstrate little consideration to these weighty consequences. Savings As audiences continue to retaliate against the instability of the U.S. financial aid structure and lobby for changes, recent studies show that stronger communication and further information about education savings plans may relieve some of this tension. Most parents (94%) believe higher education is a necessary investment, however only one-third of them have actual plans to pay for school. Sallie Mae’s How America Saves for College 2013 report also found that only 27 percent of American families are Yamauchi 42 saving, and of those who are, more than half are not using the advisable 529 Plan. Among parents’ top reasons for not saving were beliefs that their child would receive financial aid or uncertainty about which option to use (Sallie Mae). As noted earlier, parents are becoming an increasingly important target audience for schools and, yet, like students, they are not receiving adequate information or proper advising to ensure they are making informed decisions about their children’s education. This scenario is compounded by a severe lack of accurate, widespread information and good advising. The combination of messages about readily available credit, affordability and ROI paint a rosy picture for audiences. Unfortunately primary research reveals that there are fewer messages advising against loans than there are promoting them, and audience behavior reflects this trend. Students and parents demonstrate a willingness to borrow, but seem to lack firm understanding of their finance options or the burden of repayment. In their zeal to market and sell their programs, schools have become lax about communicating the financial ramifications that come with enrollment in higher education. (Arum & Roska 84) A telling comparison by Educationnews.org reviewed the financial aid advising processes from two similar schools, Simmons College and Holy Cross College. Simmons has a published tuition price of $48,800, while Holy Cross charges $50,942. However, the average student loan debt at Simmons is $42,000, while students at Holy Cross average $17,000. The difference is that Holy Cross advises against taking loans while Simmons maintains a neutral stance. This example paints a powerful picture of the impact that advising and thorough communication can have. Student and Parent Responsibilities Although institutions are culpable of misinformation and poor communications, blame for the student debt crisis cannot reside solely with them. While schools need to increase the availability and publicity of good information, students and parents also have a responsibility to be engaged and informed consumers of higher education. Audiences cannot express concern about costs without doing some of the legwork to learn about their financial options. Though they are not well publicized, the U.S. Department Yamauchi 43 of Education website does contain financial aid guidelines, net calculators and tuition charts. U.S. News & World likewise provides a detailed list of money-saving college tips. Increasing awareness of tools like these would provide students with critical information, and would ease some of the communication burden for schools and their advisers. Chapter 6: Return on Investment (ROI) - Are expectations being met? Tuition is skyrocketing and loans are debilitating, and few would argue the contrary, but the question again: is it worth it? What are students receiving in return for their substantial monetary investments? The following section looks at ROI on a higher education degree in terms of admission and graduation rates, audience satisfaction and economic arguments. ROI: Admissions Processes Students’ ROI depends on enrollment at schools that are a good fit for their individual needs and goals. Unfortunately, there is a tremendous amount of uncertainty and lack of knowledge about selection and admission processes. Postsecondary options are not well defined and marketing efforts represent only a partial view of the marketplace. Money Magazine featured a full-length article on the Agony of College Admissions, and there is an increasing perception among students that the “admissions process is an erratic game of chance” (McDonough). Students may be right as admissions counselor Brad Quin of Lafyette College claims that, of 11 candidates he may review, eight or so are interchangeable, and sometimes differences among applicants is not definitive enough to make a decision, so selections are made on a hunch (Schurenberg). This hardly seems an appropriate method of determining whether or not an institution is a good fit for a student, especially given the lack of guidance, advising and accurate information available about higher education options. ROI: Graduation Rates The ROI on a higher education degree depends heavily on a timely graduation; the longer students stay the more expensive their degree becomes. Unfortunately, students are not completing their degree programs at the same voracious rate with which they are enrolling. One study identified 66 different enrollment strategies employed by higher education institutions, but not one of them Yamauchi 44 demonstrated proven positive impact on retention and/or graduation rates. Could this be due to misinformation? (Clark) Students are entering college with dangerous misconceptions about the realities of graduation. In 2012, 84.3 percent of first-year students believed they would graduate in four years (Higher Education Research Institute of UCLA). However, Arum and Roska found that, "only 34 percent of undergraduate students complete a bachelor's degree in four years, 64 percent finish in six years" (54). Community colleges do not appear to be doing any better with estimates that half of their students do not graduate or transfer within six years (Koebler). It is not surprising that students are confused and misjudge their degree completion time. Secondary research related to higher education retention and graduation rates can be misleading and are inconsistent at best. For instance, in 2012 the NCES reported that 58 percent of first-time, full-time students completed their bachelor's degree in six-years. These rates vary by type of institution. The six- year graduation rate at private nonprofit schools was 65 percent, compared to 56 percent for public institutions and 28 percent at private for-profit schools. The ACE argues that NCES’ data is incomplete as it excludes transfer and part-time students. The ACE reports more optimistic figures: the six-year graduation rate for first-time students as 73 percent, compared to 60 percent at public institutions and 35 percent at for-profit schools. Then what becomes of the others, those who do not graduate? The Chronicle of Higher Education posted an infographic on their website containing some startling statistics about students who do not graduate. According to their research, in 2009 2.1 million students did not officially graduate and 1.2 million students are unaccounted for altogether. The U.S. Department does not track or monitor graduation statistics for students that transfer institutions before graduation or students attending part- time. Any way you work the numbers; the previously referenced 84 percent of students who believe they will graduate in four years is completely unrealistic. Yamauchi 45 Exhibit D: College Completion Source: "College Completion." Chronicle of Higher Education. N.d. Web. 8 Aug. 2013 <http://collegecompletion.chronicle.com/>. Messaging about graduation rates also includes statistics that neither further the goals of higher education nor strengthen audience confidence. According to the Pew Research Center, 57 percent of 25- 29 year olds have completed "some college" (Higher Achievements). However, "some college" produces tuition costs to be paid, but does not produce a degree or its assumed benefits. Also, those who leave school before graduation typically struggle more with the repayment of loans (Nelson). If that is not alarming enough, college dropouts cost U.S. taxpayers approximately $12 billion annually (Snell). Based on the available data, it would seem that schools neglect to inform students about their average time for degree completion, apparently because they are not keeping an accurate count. Given the cost of each additional year of school and the delay of entry into the workforce, time to completion is a critical factor in higher education decision-making. Students enter institutions expecting to get out in two or four years as advertised. A six-year degree is certainly not part of the sales pitch. Audiences and institutions alike require accurate and comprehensive information about retention and graduation rates if the higher education system is to work, and if students are to conduct an accurate cost-benefit analysis of their options. ROI: Audience Perceptions/Expectations Admission and graduation rates are quantitative indicators of ROI, but assessment of true returns also depends on qualitative outcome measures. The author reviewed data from surveys of several Yamauchi 46 audience groups to determine how alumni, students, parents, the American public and higher education leaders feel about the ROI on a postsecondary degree. Alumni Individual schools may post alumni testimonials and profiles, but review of research found few comprehensive sources of alumni satisfaction data that would be useful in multi-school comparisons. While further longitudinal data is required and numbers are not comprehensive, it does seem that graduates of higher education are actually more satisfied with their experiences than the media portrays them to be. Eighty-six percent of alumni say college has been a good investment for them, although those earning $50,000 or more annually and those who pursued graduate education were more likely to perceive higher education as worthwhile compared to those earning less than $50,000. Likewise, a majority (82%) of graduates say they are “very satisfied” (50%) or “somewhat satisfied” (32%) with their college education, compared to 15 percent who are “somewhat dissatisfied” or “very dissatisfied.” (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?) In addition, graduates feel their college education was helpful in “preparing them for a job or career” (55%), and “increasing knowledge and helping them grow intellectually” (74%) (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Similarly, the Lumina Foundation found that 89 percent of respondents believed their education were “worth the time and money spent,” and 85 percent of alumni believe their undergraduate education “prepared them for their current job.” In terms of overall satisfaction, surveys also found that alumni (80%) are more likely to be satisfied with their financial and professional situations than non-degree-holders (67%). This feedback supports beliefs about the dual purposes of higher education previously cited, and demonstrates that despite students’ preoccupation with what the author deems “entitlement to employment” (decent salary for a career in or near their chosen field), most alumni do see value in both intellectual or personal growth and workforce preparation. At the same time, the data also suggests that higher education is not delivering on its heavily marketed employment ROI as well as 45 percent of graduates expect. Yamauchi 47 Current Students Like alumni, current students are also optimistic about their college educations. Despite fervent criticisms of higher education, 84 percent think that college will be a good investment, compared to 14 percent who say they are not sure, and two percent who believe it will not be a good investment. (Lumina Foundation) Parents A sample of parents from 25 four-year universities found that respondents are also generally satisfied with the education their children are receiving (Noel-Levitz). While these responses are not necessarily indicative of all parents’ opinions, positive perceptions by this influential audience are an asset to higher education institutions. Higher Education Leadership College presidents are understandably more positive than all other audience groups about the perceived benefits from higher education. More than 75 percent of presidents feel that students receive “excellent” (17%) or “good” (59%) value for their investment. When discussing the future of higher education, however, college presidents display a greater divergence in opinions. While the majority of respondents (60%) believe that higher education is "headed in the right direction," a significant minority (38%) disagreed. All types of institutions were represented among those who felt higher education is headed in the wrong direction: 35 percent of respondents were from private four-year schools, 33 percent from public four-year schools and 30 percent from two-year schools. (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?) Primary and secondary research also revealed less favorable internal views of President Obama's 2020 education challenge. Dr. Castaneda regards the President's goal as "not realistic or helpful," and sixty-four percent of college presidents share in her opinion, believing the goal is "unlikely" (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Although school leadership seems to be confident about the performance of current institutions, there are significant misgivings about the future of higher education and a divergence of opinions on its goals. Yamauchi 48 American Public Despite other groups’ positivity towards higher education, broader audiences remain apprehensive of its purported benefits. Forty percent of Americans believe students receive “excellent” (5%) or “good” (35%) value for the cost, while 57 percent believe students receive only “fair” (42%) or “poor” (15%) value. And although 85 percent of alumni said that their educations have prepared them for a career, they showed similar skepticism as broader audiences when speaking about the ROI for other students. Only 61 percent of graduates felt colleges in general are adequately preparing students for the workforce. It is ironic that most Americans believe higher education is necessary, yet many remain divided on the quality of education available in this country. This dichotomy can likely, at least in part, be attributed to the increasingly negative coverage of higher education. (Lumina Foundation) On the whole, audiences appear more satisfied than not with the current ROI from higher education. While the previously cited Pew Research Center survey found that institutions could be doing a better job preparing students for the workforce, schools are generally perceived as having fulfilled both purposes of higher education: to promote intellectual/personal growth, and to prepare students for the professional careers. At the same time, it is important to note that survey data does not include students who did not graduate and those that are unaccounted for by the U.S. Department of Education. These individuals may represent a population of dissatisfied consumers. With the support of higher education critics and the attention of the media, this vocal minority has been building momentum and many are jumping on the bandwagon. Research indicates that critics' communications are becoming as powerful as higher education marketing. Their growing influence is demonstrated by the lower levels of confidence displayed by the American public, college leadership and even some graduates. Additionally, the 2011 ACE Ask the Alumni survey revealed that 20 percent of graduates of degree-granting institutions would not attend the same school again. Respondents listed several reasons including: academic experience was not fulfilling (30%), degree has not helped as much as they thought it would (21%) and cost of school was too high (19%). These are the very same ideas being perpetuated by Yamauchi 49 critics. Schools should also consider that regardless of greater financial satisfaction levels among graduates (80%), a majority of non-degree-holders (67%) also express satisfaction, demonstrating that perceptions of success are possible without higher education (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). ROI: Economic Value Beyond graduation rates and audience perceptions, the author also reviewed data related to three different sets of marketed higher education deliverables. According to Reynolds, higher education has three basic economic arguments: creating human capital (intellectual and personal growth), acting as a signaling/screening device (workforce preparation) and acting as a networking or socialization device (affiliation) (Reynolds 5). These three arguments correspond with previously discussed audience perceptions/expectations of higher education. Human Capital The argument that higher education creates human capital posits that, “schooling imparts skills that enhance labor productivity, develops critical thinking skills and improves learning capacity.” (Reynolds 5) 1. K-12 Education Analysis of K-12 education is another thesis unto itself, but discussions of higher education cannot be divorced from references to the compulsory schooling that precedes it. Unfortunately both supporters and critics agree that the quality of both compulsory and postsecondary education in the U.S. requires drastic improvements. Fifty-eight percent of college presidents feel that high schools are doing a worse job of preparing students for higher education compared to a decade ago (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). And supporters such as Spellings say that K-12 instruction is not sufficiently preparing students for postsecondary learning, commenting that, “we are now using a college degree to certify skills that should have been learned in high school.” S. Eason Balch, president of the National Association of Scholars agrees asserting that, “we don’t so much have higher education as we have longer education.” Yamauchi 50 Lack of preparation begets remediation, an increasingly problematic issue for higher education institutions (Miller Center). Studies show that the U.S. spends more than any other country on K-12 education, and yet each year, schools allocate $3 billion for the remedial education of 1.7 million students in higher education. The distribution of students in need of remediation is heavily concentrated in the two-year programs. Over 50 percent of students entering community colleges require remedial courses. Of greater concern is that of this 50 percent, only one in 10 will ever earn a degree. At four-year schools, the number of these students that earn a degree is less than one-third (Snell). It appears that admitting students in need of remediation is setting them up to forgo much of the ROI higher education claims to provide. For these students who do not graduate, their education does seem to have been oversold. There is also the related issue of higher education institutions luring disinterested, unmotivated or unqualified students to their campuses. Critics argue that while postsecondary training is important, not all students will benefit from the frequently endorsed four-year education (Leef). Previously cited retention and graduation statistics seem to agree. In spite of this evidence, one survey found that 57.2 percent of the lowest achieving high school students reported their teachers and counselors recommended they go to college (Leef). These students may benefit from some other type of postsecondary training, but investing years and thousands of dollars and for a degree they are not inclined, nor prepared to pursue is setting them up for failure, or at least disappointment. 2. Higher Education Regrettably research demonstrates that the quality of higher education in the U.S. is only marginally better than its K-12 programs. To build human capital institutions need curricular standards that “develop creative thinking and improves students’ learning capacity” (Reynolds 6). Yet, in a study by the American Council of Trustees and Alumni (ACTA), a ranking analysis based on general education requirements found that of 1,070 schools, only 21 percent earned an “A”, while 61 percent earned a “C” or lower. The study revealed that 89 percent of schools only have four or fewer general education requirements: composition, U.S. government/history, economics, literature, college-level math, science and intermediate-level foreign language. Yamauchi 51 Arum and Roska express, “we need to reassess the quality of the education we are selling to our students” (121). They go on to cite numerous examples, “50 percent of seniors have not written a 20-page paper, one-third of seniors have not taken courses that requires the synthesis or organization of ideas, and 40 percent have not taken courses on the application or analysis of theories.” They also report that students today are also tuned out of current events with only 24 percent reporting that they read some news source, and 34 percent of students reporting that they receive no news at all (132-33). This deterioration in education quality has been cited since Callaghan’s 1976 speech. He addressed many of the same issues being debated today stating, “There is little wrong with the range and diversity of courses, but is there sufficient thoroughness and depth in those required in after life to make a living?” While students should be held accountable for their own academic performances, schools have a responsibility to provide a challenging and demanding education. However, research demonstrates that academic rigor is a diminishing priority. Scholarly publications, administrative committees, and sabbaticals have taken precedence over teaching (Hacker & Dreifus 94). Faculty are incentivized to perform these responsibilities. They achieve patents, monetary compensation, reputation and personal fulfillment from these other activities, whereas teaching offers few if any of these benefits (Greenstone & Looney). Instead adjunct professors, part-time professors, graduate students and teaching assistants are brought in to do much of the undergraduate instruction (Hacker & Dreifus 47). In 1975, this group represented 43 percent of college and university faculties, but as of 2010, they represent more than 70 percent of teaching forces (Hacker & Dreifus 49). While these instructors are reportedly more enthusiastic and engaged than their full-time counterparts, students’ tuition dollars are paying for instruction from experienced faculty that are advertised in course catalogues and departmental websites; not part-time stand-ins (Arum & Roska 75). Given faculty members’ lack of emphasis on teaching, it is of little wonder that students today seem as preoccupied with non-academic endeavors as their instructors. Fifty-two percent of college presidents believe students are studying less than they did a decade ago (Pew Research Center, Is College Yamauchi 52 Worth It?), and Leef alleges that students “just want the degree for as little effort as possible.” Faculty seem to agree, underestimating the amount of time students actually spend on coursework (National Survey of Student Engagement). And self-reported statistics on student time confirm these perceptions. The general rule of thumb is that students will spend approximately two to three hours a week preparing for class (e.g. studying, reading, etc.) for every one credit hour of in-class time. However, 41 percent of students reported that they spend less than 10 hours preparing for class, which breaks down to one hour of studying per week, per unit, less than half the recommended time (Nonis, et al.). Other studies found that students only spend an average of 12 hours per week studying, and that 37 percent are actually spending less than five hours per week (Arum & Roska 69). Exhibit E: Time Use on An Average Weekday for Full-Time University & College Students Educational activities (3.3 hours) Leisure and sports (3.7 hours) Eating and drinking (1.0 hour) Traveling (1.5 hours) Other (2.4 hours) NOTE: Data include individuals, ages 15 to 49, who were enrolled full time at a university or college. Data include non-holiday weekdays and are averages for 2007-11. Working and related activities (2.9 hours) Sleeping (8.5 hours) Time use on an average weekday for full-time university and college students Grooming (0.7 hour) SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey Total = 24.0 hours Source: United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Time Use on an Average Weekday for Full-Time University and College Students. 2012. 17 July 2013 Breaking down students’ daily activities, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that they spend more time on leisure and sports than they do on studying, followed closely by employment. Based on these figures, it is easy to see why 50 percent of students report that they do not feel their higher education has helped with the development of study skills (Lumina Foundation). Higher education appears to be increasingly focused on socialization and leisure, but at the expense of academics. These Yamauchi 53 findings unfortunately confirm content analyses conclusions about the lack of emphasis on academic rigor, and align with what colleges seem to be selling – a “good time.” 3. Education & Experience Besides curricular and pedagogical improvements, debaters also agree that we need a higher education system that is more responsive to job market demands (Miller Center). Contrary to alumni satisfaction data, there has been recent evidence that business leaders are not entirely satisfied with undergraduate preparation for the workforce. In the 2013 Employer Survey conducted by the AACU, more than 40 percent of employers indicate that there is room for improvement in the professional training of undergraduate students. Additionally, more than three-quarters of employers today say they want higher education institutions to place more emphasis on student development in five key areas: “critical thinking, complex problem-solving, written and oral communication and applied knowledge in real-world settings.” They also emphasize that these lessons are more important than students’ major selection (Hart Research Associates). From an internal perspective, Dr. Castaneda agrees that schools could be doing a better job of preparing students for the workforce. These comments are a concern given that employment opportunities and workforce preparation are prominent messages in higher education marketing. Critics have used this data to build the argument that job-related skills are learned on the job, and that colleges and universities should not be charging tuition to impart skills students could learn through employment (Arum & Roska 143). Vedder views this dilemma as, “a disconnect between the training we give students and labor market needs.” According to Dr. Castaneda and like-minded employers, this disconnect could be real- world experiences. The 2010 Employer Survey by the AACU illustrated employers’ preferences for internships, employment or volunteer experiences in addition to education. Likewise, the 2013 Employer Survey reported that businesses are increasingly looking to partner with colleges and universities to provide students with internship and employment opportunities. Yet, it is the author’s experience that: 1. Undergraduate coursework typically offers few opportunities for hands-on application of theories learned Yamauchi 54 in the classroom, and 2. Internship and employment opportunities are predominantly reserved for graduate level students. The author’s content analysis also confirms that higher education marketing infrequently include messaging emphasizing the importance of real-world experiences (9%). Overall, opinions on the human capital ROI from higher education are a draw. Alumni appear content with what they have learned, but employers and faculty believe improvements could be made. At the same time, data on remediation, academic rigor as well as student and faculty time indicate that these deliverables leave something to be desired. Signaling/Screening Device Higher education acts as a signaling/screening device by “certifying worker competence” (Reynolds 5). 1. Credentialing Supporters of higher education assert that we cannot have an overeducated nation, and 2011 Pew Research Center survey data indicated that most Americans agree with this perspective. Critics, however, maintain that the U.S. is not facing an issue of overeducating, but rather over-credentialing (Miller Center). Vedder argues that “education is not immune to the law of diminishing returns,” pointing to evidence of graduate un- and underemployment. Others worry that higher education is outpacing the job market, creating a supply of graduates greater than employment demands (Leef). Research on labor statistics provides evidence of this market oversaturation. One study reported that only half of recent graduates are working in positions that require a degree (PBS Newshour). Another found that 37 percent of degree-holders are in jobs requiring a high school diploma or less, and an additional 11 percent are in positions requiring more than a high school diploma, but less than a bachelor’s degree (Vedder, et al., Why are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?). These statistics include 320,000 waiters/waitresses and 80,000 bartenders, which hardly seem appropriate for a degree-holder (Colombo). Unfortunately, the author’s experience demonstrates that these positions are available and often times pay more than entry- level positions requiring a degree. Higher education critics believe that current hiring practices and employers’ increased reliance on Yamauchi 55 a degree as a screening/signaling device sits at the root of this issue. The hiring process can be a drain on resources and time, but higher education degrees are being used as a shortcut. Vedder argues that, employers today increasingly use a college degree to certify basic employability. They ride on the coattails of the college admissions screening processes, then use the credential to signal or flag applicants who can more-or-less show up on time, do as they are told and commit to a given set of responsibilities. Ushering students into higher education has created a large pool of credentialed applicants, and employers feel that there is no need to look beyond this population. Unfortunately, these practices are decreasing the number of jobs available for non-degree- holders, who still have the capabilities to hold such positions. For instance, jobs that at one time required a high school diploma, such as a postal service delivery person, now require a credential (Vedder, et al., Why Are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?). One company refuses to even entertain applicants without a degree, and it is probable that others maintain similar practices (Rampell). Given the apparent inadequacies in K-12 education, employers cannot necessarily be blamed for their methods. But this certification process is ineffective for both degree- and non-degree-holders, and is ultimately placing higher value on higher education than may be warranted. Critics also argue that these hiring approaches can lead to “credential inflation.” As each level of education becomes overpopulated with graduates, students must seek higher and higher education in order to advance. The author’s decision to return to graduate school after several years in the workforce is evidence of this phenomenon. It appears that there is a collaborative monopoly being created by institutions of higher education and employers. Schools appear to be using expensive degrees as an entry fee into the job market. (Leef; Miller Center) 2. Employment Opportunity & Job Growth The job market that eager graduates are entering, however, is not exactly an auspicious one even for degree-holders. It is projected that from 2010 to 2020, only seven of the 30 fastest-growing occupations in the U.S. will require postsecondary education, and of those seven only four will require a bachelor’s degree or more (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). Yamauchi 56 Exhibit F: Thirty Occupations Projected to Have the Largest Growth, 2010-2020 Source: United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Projections: Earnings and Unemployment Rates by Educational Attainment. 2013. 17 July 2013 <http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm>. The U.S. Department of Labor confirms that the greatest job growth will be in work that does not require a college degree. Likewise, the number of bachelor’s degree-holders is expected to rise by 31 percent in the next several years, but the number of jobs requiring bachelor’s degrees is only expected to increase by 14 percent (Vedder, et al., Why Are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?). In addition, this year’s National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) survey found that hiring managers only intend to hire an additional two percent of new graduates in 2013, down 13 percent from their initial projections in the fall of 2012. 3. Not All Bad News At the same time, not all employment and earning statistics present such a bleak outlook for graduates. Other U.S. Census data is actually quite promising for degree-holders. A comparison of the 2012 and 2013 unemployment rates, demonstrates consistently better job security than high school Yamauchi 57 graduates. The rate of unemployment increased substantially more for those with an associate’s degree (from 7.7% to 8.8%) or those with a high school diploma (8.3% to 11%) compared to those with a bachelor’s degree (4.5% to 4.6%). Similar positive trends for degree-holders are found in analyses of longitudinal earnings. U.S. Census data indicate that, on average, degree-holders earn more over the course of their lifetimes than non degree-holders, though the difference in income varies depending on the source. One study found that degree-holders earn approximately $550,000 to $650,000 more per year than non-degree-holders (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Other sources more frequently estimate the gap at an even $1 million (Miller Center, Colombo). Greenstone and Looney support the income advantages of a degree, reporting that those with a high school diploma make up 39 percent of those making between $20,000 and $30,000 per year, but only 8 percent of those making over $100,000. But, degree-holders account for 18 percent of those making $20,000 to $30,000 a year, and approximately 75 percent of those making of $100,000. More significantly, audiences are keenly aware of this earnings gap. Survey data shows that respondents estimate an approximate $20,000 difference in annual income (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). U.S. Census data from 2013 corroborates survey responses, reporting that the average annual earnings for someone with a high school diploma is $26,699, while the average for someone with an associate’s degree is $32,321, and $48,309 for someone with their bachelor’s. While these statistics lend strength to supporters’ arguments about the benefits of higher education, there are two caveats to these figures. First, critics pose the correlation is not causation argument. They believe that higher education may positively correlate with increased employment and earnings, but is not necessarily the sole or primary cause. Critics propose that an individual’s attributes cannot be divorced from their successes, and suggest the possibility that these students may have succeeded even without higher education (Zumeta, et al.). Perhaps these attributes are also factors in determining which students can successfully navigate the complex higher education system and which ones drop out or end up in crippling debt. Yamauchi 58 The second caveat is that the statistical data on employment and earnings benefits may represent the realities for the overall population of college graduates, but may not be reflective of the current circumstances for recent graduates. For instance, the use of “average” earnings can be misleading as numbers may be inflated due to the inclusion of older degree-holders whose careers have advanced since graduation decades ago (Doyne). The Economic Policy Institute published a report in 2012 titled Labor Market for Young Graduates Looks Grim. According to their research, the unemployment rate for younger graduates is twice as high as older alumni (9.3% compared to 4.7%). They also report that wages declined more than five percent from 2000 to 2011. In addition, students graduating into a recession can expect to earn less over the next 10-15 years than if they entered the workforce when jobs were plentiful. For instance, EducationNews.org reports that in 2009, 81 percent of students had no job upon graduation, and 45% of graduates were earning less than $15,000 annually two years after graduation. ROI is not just about having a job, but rather one equivalent to or greater than the investment made in the education required to obtain the job. The author would also add current hiring practices as a third caveat. Employment rates may look more promising for degree-holders due to the aforementioned screening/signaling methods, and not necessarily because of institutions' ability to adequately prepare students for the workforce. 4. Major Selection As the number of jobs requiring a degree decreases, students interested in pursuing higher education to enhance their employability should logically pursue fields where their degree will yield the greatest benefits. Statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau reveal, and the aforementioned table confirms, that STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) careers currently have greater earning potential than other courses of study. On average, individuals in computer ($75,105) and engineering ($74,900) fields earn more than those in social sciences ($61,484), business ($59,027) and education ($47,310) (U.S. Census Bureau). Based on previously cited labor statistics, these majors also have some of the greatest growth potential. While various external sources promote the economic strength of these STEM fields, it appears Yamauchi 59 that students are not being counseled by academic advisers to take advantage of these majors. Salary.com posted the 8 College Degrees with the Worst ROI and 8 College Degrees That Will Earn Your Money Back. The Wall Street Journal (Weber) and Forbes magazine (Smith) followed suit posting their own lists. STEM field careers were found in the top ten of all three lists. However, analysis of school data, demonstrates that enrollment in these math and science majors has been flat for the past 25 years (Tabbarok). Data from the NCES confirms, showing an increasing trend towards enrollment in business and the social science fields instead. Students are not entering fields that will produce the results they are seeking. While some of this may be attributable to an unwillingness to enter fields of such rigor, given the lack of information available on admissions or financial aid, perhaps students are also not being appropriately advised on the ROI from specific fields. It appears that despite reports of overall increased earnings and employability for degree-holders, recent graduates may not be fairing as well as supporters would have audiences believe. Institutions are promoting ROI statistics that may not apply to current youth, and failing to better advise students about career fields with the greatest benefits. While students continue to take supporters’ word about the ROI from higher education, it seems a closer look at recent trends is required to get an accurate picture of students’ actual prospects today. Networking/Socialization Device The argument that higher education is a networking or socialization device stems from the belief that affiliations with an elite or reputable institution will yield personal and professional benefits, greater than those from less widely known brands (Reynolds 5). As different majors yield different levels of ROI, so do different institutions. Primary and secondary research suggests that people with connections have professional and personal advantages unavailable to those without these relationships. This evidence validates students’ expectations of networking relationships as part of their undergraduate ROI. One research study reveals that graduates of elite schools have a better career trajectory than those from mid- or lower-tier schools. Data on mid-career salaries shows that those at prestigious private institutions have a higher average annual salary of Yamauchi 60 $104,597, compared to those at state flagship schools averaging $87,274 and those at other state institutions averaging $67,063. (Vedder, et al., Why are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?) However, not all evidence is so supportive of these name brand schools. Previous sections discussed students’ pursuit of choice institutions, but these elite diplomas may not be worth top dollar for much longer. For example, Princeton University’s website claims three separate times that its education, “prepares students for leadership roles.” Yet, according to national tests of leadership, only 2.8 percent of alumni qualify (Hacker & Dreifus 72-74). Moreover, Princeton charges an annual tuition of $40,170, totaling $160,680 for four years. Delivering marketed benefits for only three percent of a class paying more than $160,000 each for their education supports the notion that some students may be overvaluing prestige and brand names. Furthermore, students should also note that AACU’s employer survey found that business leaders ranked “attendance at preferred schools” as one of the least important qualifications in an applicant. While attendance at well-known or top ranked schools may still provide some advantages, the payoff may no longer be quite as significant as audiences believe. ROI: The Intangibles Democratic Citizenry Individual economic arguments aside, the author further explored supporters’ claims about the peripheral benefits of the “college experience.” Supporters suggest that degree-holders are more likely to vote, volunteer, be insured, actively engage in the democratic process and use fewer government resources than non-degree-holders (Miller Center). Lomax expresses that, “(higher education) will not only be good for us economically, but in a democracy we want a vibrant electorate, a vibrant populace that believes in engagement. The more educational opportunity students have, the more vibrant our nation and our democracy will be.” Despite supporters’ claims, this subset of ROI is not well marketed to students. Research shows that viewbooks and communication from and about higher education contain few references to building a democratic society (Hartley & Morphew). Secondary research also confirms that graduates and school Yamauchi 61 leaders do not feel higher education has focused on these qualities. Only 27 percent of college presidents agree that an important purpose of college is to “prepare students to be responsible citizens” (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?), and a small minority (11%) of alumni report that responsible citizenship was an important role for schools (Lumina Foundation). Economic Growth Similar discrepancies were found regarding higher education’s contribution to the country’s economic growth. While a small majority of college presidents (52%) may believe that contributing to the nation’s economic development is a “very important” purpose of higher education, only nine percent indicate that higher education today is doing an “excellent” job of meeting today’s economic needs. Sixty-seven percent reported the system is doing a “fair” job and 23 percent indicated it is doing a “poor” job. In addition, only six percent of alumni felt economic development was a focal point during their academic tenure. This illustrates a disconnect in the marketed benefits of higher education and what is actually being delivered. (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?; American Council on Education) It is also ironic that higher education promotes earning and employment opportunities, when enrollment in higher education is actually hindering the progression of the American workforce. By delaying students’ entry into the workforce as Baby Boomers begin to exit, higher education is actually causing a gap in the number of available trained employees, saddling the nation with supporting these and other nonworking populations (e.g. elderly, disabled, etc.) (Vedder, et al., From Wall Street to Wal-Mart). Social Mobility Another point of contention for supporters is that higher education affords students the opportunity to climb the social ladder. The U.S Department of Treasury and the U.S. Department of Education report that, “economic returns on higher education remains high and continues to provide a pathway for individual economic mobility.” Similarly, Spellings and likeminded supporters claim that, “a college degree is the best way to move from poverty to the middle class and beyond.” Secretary Duncan also perpetuates this sentiment stating, “In America, education is still the great equalizer.” Secondary research demonstrates that these may be hollow promises. Yamauchi 62 1. Admissions Inequities How much truth is there in these statements? From admissions to graduate satisfaction, disadvantaged students seem to trail their more privileged counterparts. Even before they enter higher education, students are starting off on unequal ground. Arum and Roska found that fewer than 50 percent of first-generation students are academically qualified for higher education, compared to 80 percent of non first-generation students (43). Also, high SES students typically apply to 10 higher education institutions; while on average low-SES students only apply to two or three. Applications for first- generation students also tend to be greatly influenced by limited financial resources or meager knowledge of academic opportunities beyond their local communities (McDonough). Critics also point to evidence indicating that affluent students have a significant edge in the admissions process. Privileged students are leveraging their socioeconomic advantages to hire private counselors and enroll in test preparation courses. Approximately 20 percent of high school seniors are able to participate in these application-enhancing activities, increasing their standings in admissions (Sloane). Consequently, studies also show that those of more affluent SES backgrounds are admitted in higher numbers to elite institutions, perpetuating the current SES status quo rather than offering upward mobility. (McDonough) 2. Financial Inequities The financial aid process reveals evidence of similar discrimination. Research has shown that financial aid is marketed as a pathway to making higher education affordable, especially for low-income students. However, the system appears to be doing more than harm than good for this population. On average, first-generation students are covering 24 percent of education costs with loans, compared to only 16 percent for students with degree-holding parents (Arum & Roska 85). In addition, an astonishing 95 percent of students at for-profit institutions are borrowing to pay for school, which is hugely problematic as a large proportion of for-profit enrollees are minority females of lower-incomes, who are often times independent of their parents and may even have dependents of their own (Pew Research Center, The Rise of College Student Borrowings). Yamauchi 63 Other sources claim that privileged students may also be receiving more merit-based aid than middle- or lower-income students as an incentive to attract enrollees who may not even need the money (Holland). Conversely, some students that are eligible for financial aid are unaware of these awards, and are not taking advantage of these valuable economic opportunities (Arum & Roska 87). 3. Degree Attainment & Levels of Satisfaction Inequities Given these challenges, it is consistent that enrollment and completion rates for minority students still trail those of White students. Research shows that 65 percent of Hispanic students are not enrolled in higher education, compared to 47 percent of Blacks and 45 percent of Whites (National Center for Education Statistics). Likewise, Spellings cites that Hispanics currently only have an 11-12 percent chance of getting a bachelor’s degree by age 29 (Miller Center), and Arum & Roska report that college completion rates among first-time, low-income, minority students are only 40 percent for Black students and 46 percent for Hispanic students (39). The disparities do not end there. When surveyed, White students (53%) are also more likely to express satisfaction with their higher education experience than Black students (42%) or Hispanic students (42%) (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). This has led some critics to question whether colleges and universities are actually serving to replicate class distinctions and maintain SES status quo (Arum & Roska 37). Ironically, despite the potentially negative of impact of a degree on social mobility, minority parents still place a greater emphasis on the importance of education compared to White parents. Survey results found that Hispanic parents are more likely to assign the highest importance to a degree, followed by Black and then White parents. Sixty-five percent of Hispanic and 47 percent of Black parents believe a college education is the most important factor in success. Equally, 66 percent of White parents compared to 32 percent of Hispanic parents agree that there are still ways to succeed in America without a college education. The value placed on higher education is paradoxically greatest among those that traditionally have the lowest rates of participation. Given the dramatic and well-publicized statistics on the earnings gap between degree-holders and non-degree-holders, it’s easy to understand the priority that minority and Yamauchi 64 disadvantaged families place on higher education. However, these individuals may be placing too much stock in a system that is not currently designed to help them attain their goals. Chapter 7: The Power of Advising When the author examined higher education communications, one question came to mind: what are the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) guidelines on providing accurate and comprehensive information to investors? Shouldn’t students and parents be afforded the same information given the substantial outlay for a postsecondary education? While statistics show that some students have been able to successfully navigate the complicated higher education system and attain the ROI that schools are marketing, research has demonstrated a general lack of understanding about higher education options and benefits (Long). A study found that 94 percent of higher education shoppers do not know what school they want to attend when they begin their search. In addition, 83 percent of these students are beginning their search with “non-branded terms,” meaning that higher education parameters have not been defined prior to their search. Compounding these issues is audiences’ overreliance on incomplete and misleading rankings such as U.S. News & World Report. This tabula rasa combined with the overwhelming, and at times contradictory, marketing of higher education institutions makes students particularly vulnerable to influence during a stressful period of their lives. (Hofmann) A Lack of Advisement Arum and Roska express that students are not given concrete information about the best options for their individual situations (54-55). Isabel Sawhill, budget expert with the Brookings Institute, agrees that there is insufficient good information provided to students and parents about the various types of higher education institutions. Primary and secondary content analyses also support these claims, and even supporters of higher education express that students need further information to know that they are being put on a track to something useful (Miller Center). Patricia McDonough of Ohio State University states that, “the higher education selection and admissions process has become commoditized.” Information about schools or about enrollment and Yamauchi 65 financial aid processes has become a valuable commodity on which few students seem to have a firm grasp. With the current onslaught of higher education marketing and information, students need to be savvy consumers and shrewd decision-makers, but schools also have a responsibility to provide guidance and critical information. The need for individualized information and communications tailored to each student’s needs and goals is dire. Students require well-trained advisers that are knowledgeable and experienced. Institutions are just not providing this level of guidance, and students and parents are ultimately unprepared to make these high-stakes decisions. Advisers Stretched Thin The average high school counselor to student ratio is 1:740, which hardly allows for personalized attention (McDonough). Student surveys reveal that opinions are also mixed about the quality of their high school counseling. About half of students praised their counselors for their assistance, while the other half criticized them (Hart Research Associates). As was previously mentioned, those with the economic capability are currently able to pay for this type of expert guidance through the higher education system. Time magazine estimates that including college visits, private counselors, coaching expenses and application fees, some parents will spend upwards of $3,000 just on their child's application process alone (McDonough). However, even with this expenditure, reviews of private advisers and consultants are mixed. Student satisfaction with private services has ranged from “extremely helpful” to “overbearing.” There is also substantial concern that these services are not subject to a federal or state licensing or certification process (Sloane). Even paying for higher education advising is no guarantee of sufficient guidance. These findings are a concern because students, particularly the first-generation population that may have less support or fewer resources available at home, rely heavily on advisers. In 2011, first- generation students (9.9%) indicated that they are almost twice as likely as non first-generation students (5.1%) to specify that advising was a “very important” factor in their decisions about school (Pew Research Center, Is College Worth It?). Another source reveals that 37 percent of first-generation students Yamauchi 66 say advisers are “extremely” or “very” influential during their enrollment process, and 19 percent say their adviser was the “most important” influence (Hart Research Associates). Current Efforts The task of advising an increasing numbers of students has become too overwhelming for current advising personnel. Higher education communications can provide better information to ease the burden on advisers and prepare students with a more solid foundation of knowledge. Efforts can also be made to improve advisers’ training so they are better equipped to handle the unique populations and needs of students interested in higher education today. (Rehm) The chronic need for accurate information and appropriate advising has caught policymakers’ attention. Recent changes in federal regulations for higher education institutions demonstrate that increased attention is being paid to this fundamental issue. While updates to the Higher Education Opportunity Act still do not include requirements for posting retention and graduation rates, new additions do stipulate that school websites must include a net price calculator and emphasize stricter penalties for misrepresentation, defined as "false, erroneous or misleading statements related to education programs, financial charges and the employability of graduates." (U.S. Department of Education) In addition, the U.S. Department of Education, the National Survey of Student Engagement, the College Board, College Navigator and The National Student Clearinghouse all provide useful information on school selection, enrollment processes and financial aid. However, none of these sites represents completely comprehensive information, and given the vast higher education marketing landscape, PR about these tools is limited. The author believes that collaborative efforts among these entities are required to provide students with accurate and complete information in a centralized, highly visible location. Providing better guidance and sources of information for students and their families would help decrease misguided higher education investments, foster smarter decisions and make better use of higher education and government resources (Long). Conclusion Are students being oversold on higher education? The answer to the original question posited at Yamauchi 67 the start of this thesis is not as black-and-white as it first appeared. The longevity of the debate can be taken one of two ways. Supporters would likely claim that despite decades of criticism, colleges and universities are still going strong, reinforcing the necessity of these institutions and their degree programs. At the same time, critics would likely argue that recurring debates are an indication that higher education reform is crucial. The author is inclined to agree with the latter. Based on aforementioned research findings, is it the author's conclusion that yes, some students, a significant number, are being oversold on higher education. According to statistical analyses and anecdotal evidence, too many students have been led to overvalue the marketed ROI from certain types of postsecondary schooling. Families are spending thousands of dollars on tuition each year. Institutions are investing hundreds of thousands in marketing. And yet the system is hemorrhaging money and students are defaulting on their educational loans. Higher education is not working for everyone. This is not to say that higher education is without its benefits. For some students who can intelligently traverse the convoluted system, a degree may still be the best "bang for their buck." Specific pedigree is also still required for many fields including health care, engineering, education and finance. Additionally, compelling alumni data coupled with the author' first-hand experience provides evidence that graduates are mostly satisfied with the ROI from their education, and due to the infrastructure of American hiring, are more employable than those without a degree. Finally, current students, parents and even a majority of those not enrolled in postsecondary programs remain optimistic about the necessity of higher education and its deliverables. While the aforementioned may show that higher education does not fully deserve the firestorm of negative coverage it has recently incurred, it also cannot continue to be sold as the panacea for economic and social struggle. The author argues that perceptions are positive and enrollment is up because audiences are drinking the proverbial Kool-Aid. Students continue to enroll and alumni satisfaction is expressed because audiences do not know an alternative pathway to success. In the author's own experience, satisfaction is also expressed in an effort to avoid the sting of buyer's remorse and to justify an expensive purchase that has left the consumer in significant debt. Yamauchi 68 As many students are learning, higher education has no money-back guarantees. The system itself is not designed to guide students to success; it is designed to increase enrollment. Unfortunately this has resulted in a greater number of students entering schools with little to no information, causing a domino effect of poor decision-making and costly consequences. Institutions are investing substantial resources into marketing strategies that aggressively persuade audiences with highly influential messaging. The concern is that messages are biased or incomplete, and that marketing dollars are being spent to oversell too many students on too much education or too much of the wrong type of education. The greatest failing in higher education appears to be its communications. First, some higher education institutions are being sold more than others, creating a skewed perspective of the marketplace and the options available to students. Marketing allocations and enrollment increases demonstrate that top-ranked, four-year and for-profit schools are disproportionately marketed compared to alternative programs. Four-year and top-ranked schools dominate online marketing, but are not delivering the same ROI they once did, nor are they proving to be the most appropriate investment for all students. Likewise, for-profit institutions have had some of the largest marketing budgets and sizable enrollment increases in recent years, but they also have the greatest student debt figures and the lowest completion rates. Promotion of these schools should be tempered by equal attention to two-year programs in order to give students a holistic perspective of their postsecondary options. Second, tuition rates are astronomical, but a more significant part of the problem is the lack of appropriate financial advising. Financial aid marketing messages often claim affordability, but mislead by omission or misinformation. Ultimately these communications do not assist audiences in making informed decisions. Audiences are not provided adequate guidance on savings plans or finance options, and most students display an alarming lack of awareness about the severity of educational loans. Third, available communications also fail to allow students to effectively compare the ROI from various types of education. From admissions to graduation, messaging is not tailored to address audience concerns or questions. Institutions completely disregard communications targeting increasing minority, first-generation and nontraditional student populations. In addition, graduation, employment and earnings Yamauchi 69 data are confusing and scattered. Messaging brazenly promotes stories of success with little transparency about the challenges and realities of higher education. Institutions often directly or indirectly equate a postsecondary degree with employment potential and economic prospects, but it is the author’s perception that students are not given an accurate picture of fields with the greatest ROI, how education will help secure earnings and employment or how much tuition their degree is really worth. The author’s higher education experience has been difficult, uncertain and at times extremely frustrating. ROI is not guaranteed, and the value of a postsecondary degree varies widely depending upon a whole host of factors that are not disclosed to audiences. Students are vehemently pursued by school recruiters, tempted by false promises, but are then left to fend for themselves once tuition has been paid. Graduation brings panic and insecurity instead of optimism and excitement. These are the realities of higher education that are glossed over or neglected entirely as schools scramble to oversell themselves. Even as she completes graduate school, the author remains skeptical of the returns on her education, the sting of buyer’s remorse still looming. However, since she is gainfully employed and has not defaulted on her loans, by society’s standards the author has achieved the successes that are being sold to students. Sadly though, research demonstrates that the author is part of the minority. For an increasing number of students, attainment of this minimum ROI is not the case. The author agrees that education and training beyond high school are prerequisites for personal and professional advancement, but not the way institutions are currently marketing and delivering it, and not for the debilitating cost. Epilogue Bursting the Bubble If student expectations are not being met, they will stop buying. While there may be a significant portion of alumni who have no qualms about their education, the populations that are dissatisfied remain outspoken and persistent, potentially influencing prospective students. Tuition freezes in Arizona, California, Florida, Oklahoma, Maine and a dozen other states are evidence of this (Marcus). As audience members realize they have been oversold, the higher education landscape will undergo significant changes. Dr. Castaneda has already expressed her growing awareness of this Yamauchi 70 imminent reform to the postsecondary field. She hopes it will become more affordable and that new careers will begin to emerge. If the bubble bursts, new methods of screening and certifying employees will begin to emerge (Vedder, et al., Why are Recent College Graduates Underemployed?). The National Inflation Association (NIA) has a more dismal outlook, estimating that by the year 2020, 20 percent of 4,168 two- and four-year colleges and universities will file for bankruptcy and close their doors. Ironically, this is the same timeframe President Obama has given the nation to achieve top educational attainment. Primer The higher education system in America is far from perfect, but at present, it is the only one we have. We do not need to scrap the system; we need to make it work better for a greater number of students. Institutions of higher education are spending thousands on marketing their respective programs, but little on communication to address the current debate. Secondary research and new federal regulations demonstrate increased external pressures related to the overselling of higher education. Critics are vocal, their communications are aggressive and schools need to respond. At the same time survey research shows that a majority of audience members maintain a sense of goodwill toward institutions of higher education. Most parents still have hopes of their child obtaining some kind of education beyond high school. School should heed the concerns of dissatisfied and skeptical audiences, but should also take advantage of this opportunity to make sector-wide improvements. Audiences will better receive these changes if they are internally driven rather than externally forced. The following primer provides some communication strategies and tactics to ensure more effective and honest methods of promoting higher education (note, the terms “marketing” and “public relations” are used interchangeably in this primer, as higher education officials to whom this is aimed do not understand the nuances between the two practices): Clarify Terminology. Issue: The term “higher education” can no longer be synonymous with “college.” It needs to be redefined for audiences to include all postsecondary education options: two- and four-year schools, MOOC’s and Yamauchi 71 related online offerings, vocational programs and for-profit institutions. - Marketing messages should communicate the importance of training or education beyond high school, but should not confine students to a specific institution or degree program. - All higher education options should be well defined with unbiased information so students can make informed decisions based upon their individual needs and goals. - Stigmas associated with degrees from community colleges, online schools or vocational training programs needs to be overcome and, eventually, eliminated. ! PR campaigns should be developed to promote these institutions, and communicate the need for individuals holding these credentials. Be Sensitive to Social Context. Issue: The higher education market is not exempt from the current social climate. Pressures from the economy and job market influence decisions that students and their families make about higher education. - Institutions need to ensure that marketing messages acknowledge audiences’ concerns about the economy and job market, without preying on these anxieties and vulnerabilities. ! PR campaigns should be created to help address and ease audience concerns (i.e. financial planning panels, lectures from job market analysts, etc.). Be Sensitive to Cultural Context. Issue: America is becoming an increasingly diverse nation, and student populations reflect this trend. Higher education communication strategies should accommodate the differences in cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds of students. - Marketing needs to address various types of students, particularly minority, low-income, first- generation and nontraditional populations. - Institutions need to improve on-campus cultural sensitivities/activities and not simply focus on language and/or assimilation training. The occasional ethnic “cultural fair” will no longer cut it. Target Your Audiences. Issue: Students enjoy one-on-one individualized recruitment and admissions advising. Since this can be a Yamauchi 72 costly approach, schools and programs need to identify, understand and specifically target their key audiences. - More definitive research is needed about key target populations. ! Individual institutions need to research and carefully identify target audiences. They need to know which types of students will benefit from their specific educational offerings (i.e. career-oriented, experience-oriented, network-oriented, cost-conscious, prestige-oriented, etc.). ! PR messaging should be tailored to address target audience members’ goals, concerns and the factors affecting their higher education decision-making process. ! Schools should tailor communications to audiences that their institutions can successfully serve (as compared to the spray-and-pray methods used presently). - Research is also needed to track and monitor the efficacy of advising materials. ! Satisfaction surveys and focus groups with students, parents and high school counselors should be conducted to identify areas of improvement. Increase Reach and Accessibility. Issue: Students’ communication consumption habits today are very different than previous generations’. Higher education marketing is reaching a wide audience, but tactics could be improved to make information more widely accessible to key target audiences. - Communication strategies should be based on a multichannel approach. Tactics should be focused on, but not limited to, online and social media outlets to help to ensure audience reach. - All institutions, but particularly two-year programs, should consider applications and sites that are more mobile-device friendly. - For those recruiting or working with lower-income populations, go “old school.” Offer recruitment and advising services via traditional outlets and face-to-face presentations. Research has demonstrated that these students have less readily available access to online resources. - The U.S. Department of Education and several other national agencies provide a multitude of Yamauchi 73 valuable resources, from financial aid guidelines to college search resources. This helpful information should be more widely promoted by all institutions. ! PR campaigns should be developed to build great audience awareness of these resources. Increase Transparency. Issue: Audiences require and deserve a free flow of accurate information about higher education. Consumers across industries and sectors are becoming increasingly informed and in most instances demand full disclosure. Target audiences for higher education markets are no different. - Schools and programs need to be more transparent about true tuition costs and fees. Information should be readily available and easy to understand. ! Schools and programs need to be more transparent about financial aid awards and loan amounts for their students. - Schools and programs must also be more transparent about how tuition dollars are being spent. ! Schools should create and publicize communication materials that demonstrate investment of funds into academic programs and educational initiatives. ! It may also serve institutions well to increase communications with audiences about efficient financial management strategies and cost-saving activities. - Higher education institutions need to become more transparent about their real returns on investment and actual time to degree completion. ! Institutions need to identify the purpose they fulfill (intellectual/personal growth, workforce preparation or both) and market the corresponding ROI accurately. ! Graduate data needs to be presented more proactively and more prominently. Higher education institutions can utilize graduates’ feedback as an outcome measure and simultaneous recruitment tool. ! Schools should create systems that gather exit interview and satisfaction survey data on each student. ! Schools should also create systems that gather salary and professional employment data Yamauchi 74 from graduates. ! Data from graduates should be well publicized across a variety of channels among audiences. - PR materials related to school selection, admissions, financial aid and degree completion should be comprehensive, easy to understand and widely accessible. Schools, professional associations and the federal government should collaborate to build national databases. Increase Communications About Advising & Support. Issue: Students require guidance throughout their undergraduate tenure. The student adviser is in a unique position to form mutually beneficial relationships with audience members. Advisers can serve as ambassadors that build and sustain communication channels with prospective and current students. - Institutions need to proactively highlight advising offices as valuable resources and on-going sources of support and guidance for students. - Internal communications to advising personnel need to be tailored to provide support and reinforce the importance of their role in student success. - Internal and external advising training programs should be widely promoted amongst advising faculty and staff. - Tools, informational materials and a list of internal advising protocols should be part of a handbook distributed to all advisers. Issue: Students and their parents need help recognizing the realities of tuition and associated costs and education loans. - Building audience awareness and knowledge about costs and financial aid will require PR campaigns of greater breadth and depth. - Communication about tuition costs and financial aid options should be more comprehensive and visible to audiences. - Each school should create a central hub with consistent and up-to-date communications about scholarship and grant opportunities. Yamauchi 75 - Campaigns should provide honest messaging about the burden of loans. - All involved parties should encourage students and parents to begin saving for higher education earlier. Issue: Students and their parents need help recognizing the realities of the ROI on higher education. Schools should stop equating a degree with success, and marketing messages should clarify the role that a degree plays in students’ personal and professional success. - Messaging should focus on portraying the degree as a tool to help students achieve success, not an automatic ticket to a high-paying job. - Schools should provide more comprehensive communications about major and career selection. Information should include degree requirements, course plans, salaries, job profiles and alumni data. - Schools should provide more comprehensive communications about earnings and employment potential. Information should be representative of current job market opportunities. - The intangible gains such as critical thinking proficiencies, communication skills, and relationship building abilities should be emphasized as valuable professional tools. - Messaging should refocus on academics and promote higher education as more than a credentialing process. - Institutions should create a communication hub to market major-specific opportunities such as: scholarly activities, internships, volunteer positions and employment. Issue: Parents are becoming an increasingly important audience in the graduate school decision, and they have significant influence over their children's postsecondary decisions. - Create more comprehensive and comprehendible informational materials for parents, particularly for those of first-generation students. Increase Communication About Change & Improvements. Issue: Leaders on both sides of the higher education debate agree that they quality of U.S. higher Yamauchi 76 education can be improved. Critics are going to great lengths to provide statistical and anecdotal evidence on the failure of the higher education system. They are methodically discrediting all aspects of higher education institutions, presenting a dismal picture that increases audiences' anxiety and doubt. - The current spotlight on higher education has created an opportunity to create PR campaigns promoting a sector-wide commitment to excellence and proficiency in U.S. higher education. - Higher education institutions, professional associations and supporters need to create messaging that challenges critics, providing further evidence-based measures of success. - Higher education institutions and professional associations have an opportunity to take leadership on communications about improvement to curricular revisions, national academic standards, faculty development, and new policies related to financial aid and higher education funding. ! Communication efforts between institutions, education policymakers and U.S. Department of Education leadership should represent a unified front in support of student achievement. ! Discussions about education policy and/or practice should be transparent so that audiences understand and buy-in to any changes. - Institutions and associations also have an opportunity to take leadership in communicating and partnering with K-12 schools to ensure that high school students are better prepared for higher education. ! Efforts related to streamlining K-12 and postsecondary requirements or transition processes should be communicated clearly to audiences. Utilize In-House Resources. Issue: Current communications about higher education portray faculty as uninterested in teaching, and uninvolved in students’ lives. - Institutions should maintain consistent and genuine two-way engagement with faculty and instructors. They can be the school or program’s strongest PR tool. ! Schools should work with faculty instructors to become brand advocates. Yamauchi 77 ! Faculty should be provided with more opportunities to be visible and engage directly with prospective and current students. ! Internal communication to faculty and instructors should reinforce the importance of teaching. Utilize External Partnerships. Issue: Higher education is a highly segmented marketplace where institutions and associations operate in silos. Communication efforts are currently decentralized creating a confusing deluge of incomplete and misleading information that only serves to confuse audiences. - Form stronger, collaborative partnerships with K-12 educators and administrators. ! Build communication pipelines with secondary schools to better advise and guide students through the higher education decision-making and admissions processes. - Establish relationships with businesses, professional associations and hiring managers. ! Create discussion forums related to improvements in workforce preparation and credentialing methods. ! Community colleges and vocational schools in particular need to ensure the certificates they are awarding their students are given sufficient consideration during the hiring process. - Create communication pipelines and discussion forums with higher education policymakers. ! Create national campaigns demonstrating collaboration among internal and external audiences to improve the U.S. higher education system. - Institutions should also seek to partner with media entities, as these outlets already reach a wide population of students and parent. ! These relationships should be leveraged to gain audience support for constructive improvements in policy and/or practice. They should also be used to promote transparency and available resources. *For full primer document, please see Appendix D. Yamauchi 78 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY ER CCA ER ER B EF EB ER GN FN CCA FN KEY PHRASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you 1 1 you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one 1 1 few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college 1 1 education is required 1 education is crucial 1 education is necessary 1 1 1 college will help you succeed 1 1 1 college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment 1 benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college 1 financial aid is available 1 Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 1 increased earning potential 1 1 1 employment opportunities 1 1 employment stability college education is key to social mobility 1 expertise and knowledge 1 job market requires college education 1 1 networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) 1 better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) 1 advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) Yamauchi 79 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 choose a major in field with economic and employment potential 1 1 1 1 get an education and real-world experience 1 1 1 there are things you cannot learn in college 1 1 the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation 1 ROI not guaranteed 1 1 college graduates are having a hard time finding employment 1 1 college delays entrance to workforce 1 high tuition costs/college is expensive 1 1 1 1 1 tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures 1 college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives 1 1 many people have college degree - does it set you apart? 1 student loans increasing (debt is a burden) 1 student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 1 Yamauchi 80 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) FN EN FN EB EB B EB G EN EN FB EF 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 81 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 82 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) EF GN EB EN EB EB EB GN CCA EFA EF EF 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 83 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 84 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) FN CCA B G G G B B FN B B B 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 85 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 86 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) YT YT YT YT GN YT GN EFA FN EFA EFA EN 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 87 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 88 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) G G G EFA EN EF CCA CCA EN EFA CCA EN 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 89 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 90 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) CCA EFA CCA GN EF GN GN B GN CCA CCA CCA 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 91 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 92 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) B CCA CCA CCA YT YT YT YT YT YT YT YT 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 93 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Yamauchi 94 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 MEDIA CATEGORY KEY PHRASE college is "one of the most important decisions" you will make for your life college is not your only option - decide whether college is right for you you might be able to succeed without college degree, but you should still get one few people have regrets about going to college speak to college counselor prepare in high school some college is still a positive recommend going to college education is required education is crucial education is necessary college will help you succeed college education provides security in future college is worthwhile long-term investment benefits of college outweigh the costs college is within your reach you can afford college financial aid is available Obama's 90% graduation rate by 2020 increased earning potential employment opportunities employment stability college education is key to social mobility expertise and knowledge job market requires college education networking opportunities benefits of "college experience" (general knowledge, maturity, personal growth, personal pride, diversity, life skills) better quality of life (benefits, healthier, happier) happier families (future generations more likely to go to college also) advancement of society (democratic citizenry, volunteering, voting) advancement of society (economic, decrease in public services) EB CCA ER EB B/EFA EF B FN EB 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 TOTALS Percentage 1 1 6 6% 1 1 1 15 14% 6 6% 1 1% 3 3% 1 3 3% 1 1% 1 13 12% 5 5% 1 1 18 17% 1 11 10% 1 7 7% 1 1 13 12% 1 1 1 1 17 16% 1 4 4% 7 7% 1 1 1 10 10% 1 1 12 11% 1 5 5% 1 1 1 1 1 32 30% 1 1 1 1 34 32% 1 1 1 14 13% 1 7 7% 1 11 10% 1 1 20 19% 1 6 6% 1 1 1 21 20% 1 17 16% 6 6% 1 8 8% 1 1 1 6 6% Yamauchi 95 CONTENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX A-1 1 KEY PHRASE choose a major in field with economic and employment potential get an education and real-world experience there are things you cannot learn in college the correlation between a college education and earning/employment ROI is not causation ROI not guaranteed college graduates are having a hard time finding employment college delays entrance to workforce high tuition costs/college is expensive tuition increasing due to excessive expenditures college not only option: public, private, 2- year, community, technical, trade or online alternatives many people have college degree - does it set you apart? student loans increasing (debt is a burden) student loan debt cannot be expunged in bankruptcy carefully consider the amount and the type of loans (don’t take out loans unless you have to) commissions to be made on student loans current job market does not require as many degree-holders as is promoted 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 TOTALS Percentage 1 1 9 9% 1 10 10% 1 7 7% 1 1 9 9% 1 1 1 1 1 1 26 25% 1 17 16% 9 9% 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 37 35% 1 7 7% 1 1 1 19 18% 1 1 5 5% 1 1 1 1 29 28% 1 11 10% 2 2% 2 2% 1 4 4% Yamauchi 96 Appendix A-2 Content Analysis – Bibliography 1. Pew Research Center. “College Graduation: Weighing the Cost and the Payoff.” 17 May 2012. 17 June 2013 <http://www.pewresearch.org/2012/05/17/college-graduation-weighing-the- cost-and-the-payoff/>. 2. College Board. (2012). Trends in College Pricing. Retrieved from http://trends.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/college-pricing-2012-full-report- 121203.pdf. 3. Fry, Richard and Kim Parker. (2012). Record Shares Young Adults Have Finished Both High School and College. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/11/05/record- shares-of-young-adults-have-finished-both-high-school-and-college/. 4. Pew Research Center. “Higher Achievements: US High School and College Completion Rates Continue to Climb.” 5 Nov. 2012. 17 June 2013 <http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/11/05/us-high-school-and-college-completion- rates-continue-to-climb/>. 5. “Education and the Economy – Debate Series.” Lumina Foundation & Miller Center of University of Virgina. Public Broadcasting Service. n.d. Television. 6. The Hamilton Project. “Education is the Key to Better Jobs.” Brookings Institute. 14 Sept. 2012. Web. 15 Apr. 2013. <http://www.hamiltonproject.org/papers/education_is_the_key_to_better_jobs/>. 7. California College San Diego. “The Great Debate: Education vs. Experience.” [Web log comment]. Retrieved from < http://www.cc-sd.edu/blog/the-great-debate-education-vs- experience>. 8. "Public Attitudes on Higher Education - A Trend Analysis, 1993 to 2003." Public Attitudes on Higher Education - A Trend Analysis. n.p., 2004. Web. 15 Apr. 2013. <http://www.highereducation.org/reports/pubatt/necessary.shtml>. Yamauchi 97 9. French, Laura. "Is College Necessary for Success? Two Schools of Thought." Healthcare Careers. n.p., 10 June 2004. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.startribune.com/jobs/healthcare/11436391.html>. 10. Huhman, Heather. “Education vs. Experience: Reconsider Your Priorities.” Business Insider. n.p., 29 Sept. 2011. Web. 2 Apr. 2013. <http://www.businessinsider.com/education-vs-experience-reconsider-your-priorities- 2011-9>. 11. Baldwin, William. "The Scary Economics of Higher Education." Forbes. 15 Jan. 2013. Web. 18 June 2013 <http://www.forbes.com/sites/baldwin/2013/01/15/the-scary-economics-of- higher-education/>. 12. Dan, Avi. “After Housing and the Stock Market, Is Higher Education the Next Bubble to Burst?” Forbes. 1 Jan. 2013. Web. 18 June 2013 <http://www.forbes.com/sites/avidan/2013/01/01/after-housing-and-the-stock-market-is- higher-education-the-next-bubble-to-burst/>. 13. Marr, Joseph and Howard Horton. “Will Higher Education Be the Next Bubble to Burst?” The Chronicle of Higher Education. N.p., 22 May, 2009. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://chronicle.com/article/Will-Higher-Education-Be-the/44400>. 14. Global Credit Research and Moody’s Investor Service. (2013). Moody’s: 2013 Outlook for Entire US Higher Education Sector Changed to Negative. Retrieved from https://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-2013-outlook-for-entire-US-Higher- Education-sector-changed--PR_263866. 15. “Is College Necessary For Success?” [Web log comment]. University & College Blog. Retrieved from <http://www.universitiesandcolleges.org/blog/is-college-necessary/>. 16. Doyne, Shannon. “How Necessary is a College Education?” [Web log comment]. The Learning Network. New York Times. Retrieved from <http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/30/how-necessary-is-a-college-education/>. Yamauchi 98 17. “Is a College Diploma Worth the Soaring Student Debt?” Public Broadcasting Service. 27 May 2011. Television. 18. Washington, Ellis. “Is a College Degree Required for Success?” [Web log comment]. Retrieved from <http://www.wnd.com/2007/10/43886/>. 19. Vedder, Richard. “The Cost of Higher Education: Harry Stille’s Data.” Innovations. The Chronicle of Higher Education. 7 Aug. 2012. Web. 18 June 2013 <http://chronicle.com/blogs/innovations/author/rvedder>. 20. Education News. “The Higher Education Bubble.” Education News. 2012. Web. 17 July 2013 <http://www.educationnews.org/higher-education-bubble/>. 21. Colombo, Jesse. “The College Bubble.” [Web log comment]. Retrieved from <http://www.thebubblebubble.com/college-bubble/>. 22. The American Council of Trustees and Alumni. (n.d.). What Will They Learn: Colleges and Universities Flunk When It Comes to Strong General Education Requirements. Retrieved from http://www.whatwilltheylearn.com/public/pdfs/WWTL_PressRelease.pdf. 23. Glater, Jonathan and Alan Finder. “In Tuition Game, Popularity Rises with Price.” New York Times. 12 Dec. 2012. Web. 18 July 2013 <http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/education/12tuition.html?pagewanted=all>. 24. Caldwell, Tanya. “Student Debt Collectors Are Incentivized to Violate Federal Laws Bloomberg Reports.” 27 Mar. 2012. Web. 15 Apr. 2013. <http://thechoice.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/27/student-debt-collectors-are-incentivized- to-violate-federal-aid-laws-bloomberg-reports/>. 25. “How Serious is the Higher Education Crisis in US?” Education News. 20 Mar. 2013. Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.educationnews.org/higher-education/how-serious-is-the- higher-education-crisis-in-us/>. 26. Occupy Student Debt Campaign. Occupy Student Debt Campaign, 2013. Web. 18 June 2013 <http://www.occupystudentdebtcampaign.org/>. Yamauchi 99 27. The Project on Student Debt. “Fact Sheet: Risky Private Student Lending on the Rise Again.” 22 Dec. 2011. Web. 2. Apr 2013. <http://projectonstudentdebt.org/files/pub/Private_Student_Lending_on_the_Rise.pdf>. 28. The Project on Student Debt. “Quick Facts About Student Debt.” Jan. 2010. Web. 2 Apr. 2013. <http://projectonstudentdebt.org/files/File/Debt_Facts_and_Sources.pdf>. 29. College Week Live. “Counselors.” N.d., Web. 3 Apr. 2013. <http://www.collegeweeklive.com/en_CA/Blank1Col/Counselor>. 30. Sallie Mae. (2013). How America Saves for College 2013. Retrieved from https://www.salliemae.com/assets/core/how-America- Saves/HowAmericaSaves_Report2013.pdf. 31. Lumina Foundation. (2013). America’s Call For Higher Education Redesign. Retrieved from http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/Americas_Call_for_Higher_Education_R edesign.pdf. 32. Corrigan, Melanie. (2011). Ask the Alumni: The Results of a National Alumni Survey. Retrieved from http://www.acenet.edu/the-presidency/columns-and-features/Pages/Ask-the- Alumni-The-Results-of-a-National-Alumni-Survey.aspx. 33. Stanfield, Rochelle. “Overselling College.” National Journal. 29 (1997): 653-56. 34. Dugan, Dawn. "8 College Degrees with the Worst ROI." Salary.com n.d. Web. 12 July 2013 <http://www.salary.com/8-college-degrees-with-the-worst-return-on-investment/>. 35. Dugan, Dawn. "8 College Degrees That Will Earn Your Money Back." Salary.com n.d. Web. 12 July 2013 <http://www.salary.com/8-college-degrees-that-will-earn-your-money-back/>. 36. Making Headlines Since the ‘70s: Is College Worth It? All Things Considered. National Public Radio. 18 June 2011. Radio. 37. Federal Student Aid. “Why Go To College?” 2013. Web. 6 June 2013. <http://visual.ly/why-go-college>. 38. Ceja, Alexandra. “Summer Melt.” Weblog post. Ed.gov Blog. U.S. Department of Yamauchi 100 Education, 17 Jul. 2013. Web. 17 Jul. 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2013/07/summer- melt/>. 39. Brenchley, Cameron. "Obama in State of the Union: “America Is Back”." [Web log comment]. EDgov Blog. U.S. Department of Education, 25 Jan. 2012. Web. 17 July 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2012/01/america_is_back/>. 40. Brenchley, Cameron. "Arne on Cost of College and Pell Grants." [Web log comment]. EDgov Blog. U.S. Department of Education, 30 Aug. 2012. Web. 17 July 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2012/08/arne-on-cost-of-college-and-pell-grants/>. 41. Donohue, Kelsey. “Finding the Right College For You – Tools & Resources from ED.” Weblog post. EDgov Blog. U.S. Department of Education, 30, Apr. 2013. Web. 17 Jul. 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2013/04/finding-the-right-college-for-you-tools- resources-from-ed/>. 42. “Is There a For-Profit Education Bubble?” Narr. Robert Siegel. All Things Considered. National Public Radio. KCRW, Los Angeles. 17 Aug. 2010. 43. Chew, Cassie. “Academic Leaders Debate Whether U.S. Higher Education is Broken.” Diverse Issues in Higher Education. 29 Apr. 2010. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://diverseeducation.com/article/13744/>. 44. Ellis, Blake. “Student Loan Default Rates Jump.” CNNMoney. 3 Oct. 2012. Web. 17 Jul. 2013. <http://money.cnn.com/2012/09/28/pf/college/student-loan-defaults/index.html>. 45. “Dropping Out: Is College Worth the Cost?” CBS News. CBS. 20 May 2012. Television. 46. Bollinger on Labor, Education, Affirmative Action: Video. Perf. Lee Bollinger. Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 30 May 2013. Web. 18 July 2013. < <http://www.bloomberg.com/video/bollinger-on-labor-education-affirmative-action- lLwcjPV1TA2MwbJVO7LXNg.html>. 47. HIGHER EDUCATION TODAY - Student Debt. Perf. Deanne Loonin, Steven Roy Yamauchi 101 Goodman. YouTube. University of Columbia, 15 Feb. 2012. Web. 15 July 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0G9poT5NDI4>. 48. Saint Josephs College of Maine.mpg. YouTube. YouTube, 24 Mar. 2010. Web. 15 July 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOq5GG6u7_c>. 49. Indiana Tech 2. YouTube. YouTube, 11 Jan. 2010. Web. 15 July 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUZWtMaSVcU>. 50. Valencia Community College 1.mov. YouTube. YouTube, 05 Dec. 2009. Web. 15 July 2013. < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvRwf2OD94Y>. 51. UCLA 4.mov. YouTube. YouTube, 10 Dec. 2009. Web. 15 July 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pgiqE7N6C_E>. 52. The Higher Education Bubble. By Glenn Reynolds. YouTube. YouTube, 27 June 2012. Web. 17 July 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZAwBN2Q8L14>. 53. “Student Debt at Colleges and Universities Across the Nation.” The New York Times: Business Day. 12 May 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/05/13/business/student-debt-at-colleges-and- universities.html>. 54. Martin, Andrew and Andrew Lehren. “A Generation Hobbled by the Soaring Cost of College.” The New York Times. 12 May 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/business/student-loans-weighing-down-a- generation-with-heavy-debt.html?pagewanted=all>. 55. Gillen, Andrew. “In Debt and In the Dark: It’s Time for Better Information on Student Loan Defaults.” Education Sector. 28 Jul. 2013. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.educationsector.org/publications/debt-and-dark-it%E2%80%99s-time- better-information-student-loan-defaults>. 56. McElroy, Ken. “The Next Bubble: Student Loan Debt Now Outranks Credit Card Debt.” Yamauchi 102 Weblog post. 31 May 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.richdad.com/Resources/Rich-Dad-Financial-Education-Blog/May- 2012/The-Next-Bubble-Student-loan-debt-now-outranks-cre.aspx>. 57. National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators. “Be a Smart Consumer.” n.d., Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.nasfaa.org/students/be_a_smart_consumer.aspx>. 58. College Financial Advisors. “Five Tips to Help High School Seniors Catch Up On the College Rush.” CollegeFinancialAidAdvisors.com. n.d., Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://collegefinancialaidadvisors.com/five-tips-to-help-high-school-seniors-catch-up- on-the-college-rush>. 59. Mayfield, Julie and Lindsey Mayfield. “10 Ways to Save on College.” U.S. News & World Report. 30 Aug. 2011. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/paying-for-college/slideshows/10- ways-to-save-on-college>. 60. United States Department of Education, Press Office. "Education Department Releases Latest College Cost Data to Help Families Make Informed Decisions.” Weblog post. EDgov Blog. U.S. Department of Education, 25 Jan. 2012. Web. 17 July 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/education-department-releases-latest-college- cost-data-help-families-make-inform>. 61. USA.gov. “Financing Your Education.” USA.gov. n.d., Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.usa.gov/topics/education-training/education/higher/financing.shtml>. 62. Brenchley, Cameron. “Keeping College Within Your Reach.” Weblog post. EDgov Blog. 13 Jan. 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2012/01/keeping-college- within-reach/>. 63. Brenchley, Cameron. “In America, Education is Still the Great Equalizer.” Weblog post. EDgov Blog. 12 Dec. 2012. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2011/12/in- america-education-is-still-the-great-equalizer/>. Yamauchi 103 64. White, John. “Rural Recruits: College and Careers Available.” Weblog post. EDgov Blog. 11 Dec. 2011. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.ed.gov/blog/2011/10/rural-recruits- college-and-careers-available/>. 65. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. “What We Do: Postsecondary Success Strategy Overview.” n.d., Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/US- Program/Postsecondary-Success>. 66. Merisotis, Jamie. “The Urgency of Now: Beyond Fisher.” Huff Post. 16 Jul. 2013. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jamie-merisotis/the-urgency-of-now- beyond_b_3605025.html>. 67. Event: 2013 Brookings Blum Roundtable: The Private Sector in the New Global Development Agenda. Should Everyone Go to College? The Brookings Institution, n.d. Web. 18 July 2013. < <http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2013/05/08-should- everyone-go-to-college-owen-sawhill>. 68. Duncan, Julie. "10 Reasons to Go to College | EHow." EHow. Demand Media, 28 July 2009. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.ehow.com/way_5234574_10-reasons-go- college.html>. 69. "5 Reasons Your Child Should Go to College." GreatSchools. n.p., n.d. Web. 04 Aug. 2013. <http://www.greatschools.org/college-prep/3077-cb-extras-1-2- HaveCollegeTalkNow.gs>. 70. Stansbury, Meris. "Five Reasons to Go to College (Besides Career Advancement)." Weblog post. Fluency21 Committed Sardine Blog. n.p., n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://fluency21.com/blog/2011/10/15/five-reasons-to-go-to-college-besides-career- advancement/>. 71. "10 Reasons to Go to College | College Financial Aid Advisors." College Financial Aid Advisors. n.p., 2013. Web. 0414 June 2013. <http://collegefinancialaidadvisors.com/10- reasons-to-go-to-college>. Yamauchi 104 72. "Why Go ?" YouCanGo! College Board, n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://youcango.collegeboard.org/why-go>. 73. "Why U.S. News Ranks Colleges and Universities." US News. U.S. News & World Report, 11 Sept. 2012. Web. 0414 June 2013. <http://www.usnews.com/education/best- colleges/articles/2012/09/11/why-us-news-ranks-colleges-and-universities-2>. 74. "Why Go to College?" College Planning. ACT Student, n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.actstudent.org/college/>. 75. Scholarships.com “Why Go To College?” Scholarships.com. n.d. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.scholarships.com/resources/college-prep/preparing-for-college/why-go-to- college/>. 76. "Why Go to College?" College Tidbits. n.p., 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://collegetidbits.com/wordpress/2012/11/20/why-go-to-college/>. 77. Strauss, Valerie. “Why Everyone Shouldn’t Go to College?” The Washington Post. 6 Dec. 2012 Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer- sheet/wp/2012/12/06/why-everyone-shouldnt-go-to-college/>. 78. Owen, Stephanie, and Isabel Sawhill. "Event: 2013 Brookings Blum Roundtable: The Private Sector in the New Global Development Agenda." The Brookings Institution. n.p., 8 May 2013. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2013/05/08-should-everyone-go-to-college- owen-sawhill>. 79. Rampell, Catherine. “It Takes a B.A. to Find a Job as a File Clerk.” The New York Times. 19 Feb. 2013. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/20/business/college-degree-required-by-increasing- number-of- companies.html?pagewanted=all&gwh=E831DD7CAE0CB63A57404839D0AC4C05>. 80. Fuller, Elizabeth. “Top 10 Benefits of a College Degree.” The Christian Science Monitor. Yamauchi 105 CSMonitor.com. 28 Dec. 2013. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.csmonitor.com/Business/2010/1028/Top-10-benefits-of-a-college- degree/Better-prepared-kids>. 81. “Who Benefits From College and Why?” Narr. Diane Rehm. The Diane Rehm Show. National Public Radio. WAMU, Ocean City. 8 May 2013. 82. Perez-Pena, Richard. “Benefits of College Degree in Recession are Outlined.” The New York Times. 9 Jan. 2013 Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/10/education/study-shows-college-degrees-value- during-economic-downturn.html?gwh=899C18EF204DB81484D6DFC99451FE4D>. 83. "The Real Benefits of a College Degree." RightFitDegreescom RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.rightfitdegrees.com/campus-degrees/the-real-benefits-of-a- college-degree/>. 84. Lucier, Kelci. "6 Financial Benefits of a College Degree." About.com College Life. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://collegelife.about.com/od/academiclife/a/6FinancialBenefitsOfACollegeDegree.ht m>. 85. Lucier, Kelci. "10 Reasons to Get a College Degree." About.com College Life. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://collegelife.about.com/od/academiclife/a/10ReasonstoGetADegree.htm>. 86. Hanford, Emily. "The Value of a College Degree." The Value of a College Degree. Americanradioworks.publicradio.org, n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/tomorrows-college/dropouts/value- of-college-degree.html>. 87. "College Planning and Admissions - College and University Search | MyCollegeOptions Yamauchi 106 Home." College Planning and Admissions - College and University Search | MyCollegeOptions Home. n.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <https://www.mycollegeoptions.org/>. 88. "Why College?" DREAM Partnership. n.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://dreampartnership.org/why-college-professional/>. 89. "Why Go to College? 40 Reasons to Go to College." Accredited Online Schools, Online Degrees, Education Courses, Universities and Colleges. GetDegrees.com, n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.getdegrees.com/edecisions/40-reasons-to-go-to-college/>. 90. Should People Even Go To College? Dir. Townsquare. YouTube. YouTube, 28 Mar. 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Z3XlwAT-Fs>. 91. The College Conspiracy Full Documentary. YouTube. SubscriptionFree TV, 23 Feb. 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kC_RYgkkmcM>. 92. Scholarslip: A Documentary about the Student Debt Crisis. YouTube. JAT Productions, 30 Dec. 2012. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFY-PgPA-Uk>. 93. "You Need an Education In Order to Make Good Money." YouTube. KnowHow2Go, 29 Aug. 2008. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J2ZdRZiZDw8>. 94. "College.gov: I'm Going!" YouTube. College.gov, 24 Mar. 2010. Web. 3 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esi-pm32RjY>. 95. "College Students Share Reasons For Going to College." YouTube. MCOTeam, 10 Dec. 2008. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ycDZIh-c2p4>. 96. "Why College?" YouTube. OregonGEARUP, 16 Oct. 2012. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-N6nru0nThg>. 97. Five Ways Ed Pays: Having a College Degree Means a Richer Life in Every Way!YouTube. College Board, 28 Nov. 2011. Web. 14 June 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=spNDLD2KRuA>. 98. "How to Choose the Right College for You." Why Go to College? University of North Yamauchi 107 Texas, n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://www.unt.edu/pais/howtochoose/why.htm>. 99. "Should I Go to College? – Is University Right for You?" Should I Go to College RSS. n.p., n.d. Web. 17 June 2013. <http://shouldigotocollege.com/>. 100. "Understand the National Picture." American National Research Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 June 2013. <http://americangraduate.org/learn/research-center.html>. 101. Waters, Audrey. "Don't Go Back to School... or Do | Inside Higher Ed." Don't Go Back to School... or Do | Inside Higher Ed. Inside Higher Ed, 16 Apr. 2013. Web. 18 July 2013. <http://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/hack-higher-education/dont-go-back- school-or-do>. 102. Lumina’s College Attainment Report for the Nation Featured on C-SPAN’s Washington Journal | Lumina Foundation. Perf. Dewayne Matthews. Lumina Foundation. n.p., 3 July 2013. Web. 19 July 2013. <http://www.luminafoundation.org/newsroom/2013- 07-03.html>. 103. Ashburn, Elyse. "The Higher Education Bubble: Rhetoric vs. Reality." The Higher Education Bubble: Rhetoric vs. Reality. American Council on Education, 2011. Web. 18 July 2013. <http://www.acenet.edu/the-presidency/columns-and- features/Pages/The-Higher-Education-Bubble-Rhetoric-vs--Reality.aspx>. 104. “Higher Education: Not What It Used to Be.” The Economist. The Economist. 1 Dec. 2012. Web. 19 Jul. 2013. <http://www.economist.com/news/united- states/21567373-american-universities-represent-declining-value-money-their-students- not-what-it>. 105. Wang, Maria, et. al. “The Parent Loan Trap.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. 4 Oct. 2012. Web. 19 Jul. 2013. <http://chronicle.com/article/The-Parent- Plus-Trap/134844>. Yamauchi 108 Appendix B Interviewer: Erin Yamauchi Interviewee: Laura Castaneda, Professor of Professional Practice, Associate Director, Annenberg School of Journalism, University of Southern California Date of Interview: July 19, 2013 Location: Los Angeles, Email Interview Transcript Erin Yamauchi: Question: How frequently and in what capacity do you directly interact with undergraduate students? (daily, weekly, monthly basis?) Laura Castaneda: Answer: Monthly if you mean one-on-one or group interactions. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In your professional opinion, what is the purpose/most important role of a college education in the lives of today's students? Laura Castaneda: Answer: To help create an educated, informed society with critical thinking skills as well as job/career skills. Erin Yamauchi: Question: What do most of your colleagues (administration) believe is the purpose/most important role of a college education? Laura Castaneda: Answer: To create an educated, informed society with critical thinking skills. Erin Yamauchi: Question: Do you believe that faculty hold the same views as the administration on the purpose/most important role of a college education? If not, how do faculty views differ? Laura Castaneda: Answer: I believe they are similar, for the most part. Erin Yamauchi: Question: How familiar are you with the "higher education bubble"? What are your thoughts/opinions on the issue? Laura Castaneda: Answer: The idea of a “higher ed bubble” could be a reality. College costs have soared, interests rates for loans recently doubled, and students and their parents are going into massive debt – and still not able to find employment. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In your opinion, is a college education being "oversold" to students and parents? Laura Castaneda: Answer: I don’t think the idea of college is being “oversold” to students. Tons of research shows that lifetime earnings are significantly higher for students with college degrees than for students without college degrees. What is being oversold, however, is the idea that students have to attend “certain” colleges in order to reach their goals. That is incorrect. Other studies show that creative, hard- working students will success whether they attend a state college or an Ivy League School. There may be a slight initial advantage for minorities who attend Ivy League Schools, however. Erin Yamauchi: Question: Would you recommend a college education for all students? Why or Why not? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Not necessarily. It really depends on what a student thinks he or she may want to do. If they are uncertain, taking a gap year and working or traveling could be a good way to figure Yamauchi 109 this out. For students who are not lucky enough to be able to take a gap year, attending a community college or the school they can most easily afford may be a better idea. They can always transfer later on if they choose to do so. Erin Yamauchi: Question: If not, what other alternative paths to college would you recommend? Why? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Would-be chefs should go to culinary school, for example. With the rise of MOOCs and online education, students may be able to cobble together enough “education” and, along with real world experience, be marketable enough to get a good job. Erin Yamauchi: Question: How affordable is the average college education for students and their families today? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Not sure in general. But there will always be a group of families that will be able to afford any tuition. Another group will mortgage their homes to allow their children to attend their dream schools. And another tier will send their children to the closest and most affordable place they can. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In your opinion, what are the primary benefits/ROI of a college education? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Students grow on a very personal level. They make lots of lifelong contacts. They learn about the world and different types of communities. They also learn skills that can be applied in the real world or in grad school. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In your experience, what benefits/ROI do undergraduate students expect to gain from their college education? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Contacts. In the long-run, higher salaries compared to earning just a high school diploma. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In your experience, what benefits/ROI do undergraduate parents expect their children to gain from their college experience? Laura Castaneda: Answer: I’m guessing that most parents want their children to be able to have the same standard of living – or better – than they have. Of course, this can’t happen with the massive amounts of student loan debt that students/parents are taking on. Erin Yamauchi: Question: Are these expectations reasonable? Why or Why not? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Not as easily as before, thanks to the recession. However, education and the delivery method of education is changing. It may become more affordable. In addition, I believe that many new types of careers will blossom in the next decade or two. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In general, how well are colleges/universities delivering these benefits/ROI to students? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Schools could do a better job of preparing students for the working world. And of course, schools could do a better job of keeping costs down. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In general, do you believe the benefits/ROI from a college education are worth students' time, effort and monetary investments at USC? At other colleges/universities? Yamauchi 110 Laura Castaneda: Answer: Yes, but it depends on the amount of debt a person goes into. It may not be worth the investment to go into massive debt to attend USC if you want to be a teacher. However, it may we worth the investment to attend Cal State LA if you want to be a teacher. Erin Yamauchi: Question: In general, do you think that students and parents believe the benefits/ROI are worth their investments at USC? At other colleges/universities? Laura Castaneda: Answer: I would assume so if they are shelling out the dough. Erin Yamauchi: Question: What are your thoughts/opinions on President Obama's goal that by 2020 the United States will have the highest share of adults with a college degree or certificate of any country in the world? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Not sure how realistic or helpful this is. There is nothing wrong with vocational training. Plumbers earn more than most journalist, for instance. And plumbers are needed, with our without a college degree. Erin Yamauchi: Question: How likely do you think it is that we will achieve this goal? Laura Castaneda: Answer: Unlikely. Higher ed is too expensive. And our K-12 system is doing a lousy job of preparing students for college. Erin Yamauchi: Question: How important is it that we achieve this goal? Laura Castaneda: Answer: I think it’s more important for people to have some sort of higher education or training. It doesn’t necessarily have to be a college degree. Erin Yamauchi: Question: Please share any final thoughts or comments. Laura Castaneda: Answer: It’s hard to comment on higher ed without addressing the gaps in our K-12 system. Yamauchi 111 Appendix C Review of Entertainment Media Related to Higher Education Films Accepted. Dir. Steve Pink. Perf. Justin Long, Blake Lively, Anthony Heald, and Lewis Black. Shady Acres Entertainment, 2006. American Pie: Beta House. Dir. Andrew Waller. Perf. John White, Steve Talley, Christopher McDonald, and Eugene Levy. Universal Pictures, 2001. Dead Man on Campus. Dir. Alan Cohn. Perf. Mark-Paul Gosselaar and Tom Evertt Scott. MTV Films, 1998. How High. Dir. Jesse Dylan. Perf. Method Man, Redman, Obba Babatunde, and Mike Epps. Universal Pictures, 2001. Legally Blonde. Dir. Robert Luketic. Perf. Resse Witherspoon, Luke Wilson, Selma Blair, Matthew Davis, Victor Garber, and Jennifer Coolidge. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 2001. Loser. Dir. Amy Heckerling. Perf. Jason Biggs, Mena Suvari, and Greg Kinnear. Columbia Pictures, 2000. National Lampoon’s Animal House. Dir. John Landis. Perf. John Belushi, Tim Matheson, John Vernon, Verna Bloom, Thomas Hulce, and Donald Sutherland. Universal Pictures, 1978. Old School. Dir. Todd Phillips. Perf. Luke Wilson, Will Ferrell, Vince Vaughn, and Jeremy Piven. DreamWorks Pictures, 2003. Revenge of the Nerds. Dir. Jeff Kanew. Perf. Robert Carradine, Anthony Edwards, Timothy Busfield, and Curtis Armstrong. 20 th Century Fox, 1984. Road Trip. Dir. Todd Phillips. Perf. Breckin Meyer, Seann William Scott, Amy Smart, and Paulo Constanzo. DreamWorks Pictures, 2000. Rodney Dangerfield – Back to School. Dir. Alan Metter. Perf. Rodney Dangerfield, Sally Kellerman, Burt Young, Keith Gordon, and Adrienne Barbeau. Orion Picture,1986. Rudy. Dir. David Anspaugh. Perf. Sean Astin, Jon Favreau, Ned Beatty, and Charles S. Dutton. Yamauchi 112 TriStar Pictures,1993. Slackers. Dir. Dewey Nicks. Perf. Jason Schwartzman, Devon Sawa, Jason Segel, and Michael Maronna. Screen Gems, 2002. Van Wilder. Dir. Wait Becker. Perf. Ryan Reynolds, Tara Reid, Kal Penn, and Tim Matheson. Lionsgate Films, 2002. Waiting. Dir. Rob McKittrick. Perf. Ryan Reynolds, Anna Faris, Justin Long, Kaitlin Doubleday, Luis Guzman, and Chi McBride. Lionsgate Films, 2005. Television Shows Buffy the Vampire Slayer. By, Joss Whedon. The WB Television Network, 1997-2003. Community. By, Dan Harmon. NBC, 2009-present. Felicity. By, J.J. Abrams, Matt Reves. The WB Television Network, 1998-2002. Gilmore Girls. By, Amy Sherman. Warner Brothers, 2000-2007. Greek. By, Patrick Sean Smith. ABC Family, 2007-present. MTV’s Undergrads. By, Pete Williams. MTV2, 2001-present. Yamauchi 113 Appendix D Higher Education Institution Primer The higher education system in America is far from perfect, but at present, it is the only one we have. We do not need to scrap the system; we need to make it work better for a greater number of students. Institutions of higher education are spending thousands on marketing their respective programs, but little on communication to address the current debate. Secondary research and new federal regulations demonstrate increased external pressures related to the overselling of higher education. Critics are vocal, their communications are aggressive and schools need to respond. At the same time survey research shows that a majority of audience members maintain a sense of goodwill toward institutions of higher education. Most parents still have hopes of their child obtaining some kind of education beyond high school. School should heed the concerns of dissatisfied and skeptical audiences, but should also take advantage of this opportunity to make sector-wide improvements. Audiences will better receive these changes if they are internally driven rather than externally forced. The following primer provides some communication strategies and tactics to ensure more effective and honest methods of promoting higher education (note, the terms “marketing” and “public relations” are used interchangeably in this primer, as higher education officials to whom this is aimed do not understand the nuances between the two practices): Clarify Terminology. Issue: The term “higher education” can no longer be synonymous with “college.” It needs to be redefined for audiences to include all postsecondary education options: two- and four-year schools, MOOC’s and related online offerings, vocational programs and for-profit institutions. - Marketing messages should communicate the importance of training or education beyond high school, but should not confine students to a specific institution or degree program. - All higher education options should be well defined with unbiased information so students can make informed decisions based upon their individual needs and goals. - Stigmas associated with degrees from community colleges, online schools or vocational training Yamauchi 114 programs needs to be overcome and, eventually, eliminated. ! PR campaigns should be developed to promote these institutions, and communicate the need for individuals holding these credentials. Be Sensitive to Social Context. Issue: The higher education market is not exempt from the current social climate. Pressures from the economy and job market influence decisions that students and their families make about higher education. - Institutions need to ensure that marketing messages acknowledge audiences’ concerns about the economy and job market, without preying on these anxieties and vulnerabilities. ! PR campaigns should be created to help address and ease audience concerns (i.e. financial planning panels, lectures from job market analysts, etc.). Be Sensitive to Cultural Context. Issue: America is becoming an increasingly diverse nation, and student populations reflect this trend. Higher education communication strategies should accommodate the differences in cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds of students. - Marketing needs to address various types of students, particularly minority, low-income, first- generation and nontraditional populations. - Institutions need to improve on-campus cultural sensitivities/activities and not simply focus on language and/or assimilation training. The occasional ethnic “cultural fair” will no longer cut it. Target Your Audiences. Issue: Students enjoy one-on-one individualized recruitment and admissions advising. Since this can be a costly approach, schools and programs need to identify, understand and specifically target their key audiences. - More definitive research is needed about key target populations. ! Individual institutions need to research and carefully identify target audiences. They need to know which types of students will benefit from their specific educational offerings (i.e. career-oriented, experience-oriented, network-oriented, cost-conscious, prestige-oriented, Yamauchi 115 etc.). ! PR messaging should be tailored to address target audience members’ goals, concerns and the factors affecting their higher education decision-making process. ! Schools should tailor communications to audiences that their institutions can successfully serve (as compared to the spray-and-pray methods used presently). - Research is also needed to track and monitor the efficacy of advising materials. ! Satisfaction surveys and focus groups with students, parents and high school counselors should be conducted to identify areas of improvement. Increase Reach and Accessibility. Issue: Students’ communication consumption habits today are very different than previous generations’. Higher education marketing is reaching a wide audience, but tactics could be improved to make information more widely accessible to key target audiences. - Communication strategies should be based on a multichannel approach. Tactics should be focused on, but not limited to, online and social media outlets to help to ensure audience reach. - All institutions, but particularly two-year programs, should consider applications and sites that are more mobile-device friendly. - For those recruiting or working with lower-income populations, go “old school.” Offer recruitment and advising services via traditional outlets and face-to-face presentations. Research has demonstrated that these students have less readily available access to online resources. - The U.S. Department of Education and several other national agencies provide a multitude of valuable resources, from financial aid guidelines to college search resources. This helpful information should be more widely promoted by all institutions. ! PR campaigns should be developed to build great audience awareness of these resources. Increase Transparency. Issue: Audiences require and deserve a free flow of accurate information about higher education. Consumers across industries and sectors are becoming increasingly informed and in most instances Yamauchi 116 demand full disclosure. Target audiences for higher education markets are no different. - Schools and programs need to be more transparent about true tuition costs and fees. Information should be readily available and easy to understand. ! Schools and programs need to be more transparent about financial aid awards and loan amounts for their students. - Schools and programs must also be more transparent about how tuition dollars are being spent. ! Schools should create and publicize communication materials that demonstrate investment of funds into academic programs and educational initiatives. ! It may also serve institutions well to increase communications with audiences about efficient financial management strategies and cost-saving activities. - Higher education institutions need to become more transparent about their real returns on investment and actual time to degree completion. ! Institutions need to identify the purpose they fulfill (intellectual/personal growth, workforce preparation or both) and market the corresponding ROI accurately. ! Graduate data needs to be presented more proactively and more prominently. Higher education institutions can utilize graduates’ feedback as an outcome measure and simultaneous recruitment tool. ! Schools should create systems that gather exit interview and satisfaction survey data on each student. ! Schools should also create systems that gather salary and professional employment data from graduates. ! Data from graduates should be well publicized across a variety of channels among audiences. - PR materials related to school selection, admissions, financial aid and degree completion should be comprehensive, easy to understand and widely accessible. Schools, professional associations and the federal government should collaborate to build national databases. Yamauchi 117 Increase Communications About Advising & Support. Issue: Students require guidance throughout their undergraduate tenure. The student adviser is in a unique position to form mutually beneficial relationships with audience members. Advisers can serve as ambassadors that build and sustain communication channels with prospective and current students. - Institutions need to proactively highlight advising offices as valuable resources and on-going sources of support and guidance for students. - Internal communications to advising personnel need to be tailored to provide support and reinforce the importance of their role in student success. - Internal and external advising training programs should be widely promoted amongst advising faculty and staff. - Tools, informational materials and a list of internal advising protocols should be part of a handbook distributed to all advisers. Issue: Students and their parents need help recognizing the realities of tuition and associated costs and education loans. - Building audience awareness and knowledge about costs and financial aid will require PR campaigns of greater breadth and depth. - Communication about tuition costs and financial aid options should be more comprehensive and visible to audiences. - Each school should create a central hub with consistent and up-to-date communications about scholarship and grant opportunities. - Campaigns should provide honest messaging about the burden of loans. - All involved parties should encourage students and parents to begin saving for higher education earlier. Issue: Students and their parents need help recognizing the realities of the ROI on higher education. Schools should stop equating a degree with success, and marketing messages should clarify the role that a degree plays in students’ personal and professional success. Yamauchi 118 - Messaging should focus on portraying the degree as a tool to help students achieve success, not an automatic ticket to a high-paying job. - Schools should provide more comprehensive communications about major and career selection. Information should include degree requirements, course plans, salaries, job profiles and alumni data. - Schools should provide more comprehensive communications about earnings and employment potential. Information should be representative of current job market opportunities. - The intangible gains such as critical thinking proficiencies, communication skills, and relationship building abilities should be emphasized as valuable professional tools. - Messaging should refocus on academics and promote higher education as more than a credentialing process. - Institutions should create a communication hub to market major-specific opportunities such as: scholarly activities, internships, volunteer positions and employment. Issue: Parents are becoming an increasingly important audience in the graduate school decision, and they have significant influence over their children's postsecondary decisions. - Create more comprehensive and comprehendible informational materials for parents, particularly for those of first-generation students. Increase Communication About Change & Improvements. Issue: Leaders on both sides of the higher education debate agree that they quality of U.S. higher education can be improved. Critics are going to great lengths to provide statistical and anecdotal evidence on the failure of the higher education system. They are methodically discrediting all aspects of higher education institutions, presenting a dismal picture that increases audiences' anxiety and doubt. - The current spotlight on higher education has created an opportunity to create PR campaigns promoting a sector-wide commitment to excellence and proficiency in U.S. higher education. - Higher education institutions, professional associations and supporters need to create messaging Yamauchi 119 that challenges critics, providing further evidence-based measures of success. - Higher education institutions and professional associations have an opportunity to take leadership on communications about improvement to curricular revisions, national academic standards, faculty development, and new policies related to financial aid and higher education funding. ! Communication efforts between institutions, education policymakers and U.S. Department of Education leadership should represent a unified front in support of student achievement. ! Discussions about education policy and/or practice should be transparent so that audiences understand and buy-in to any changes. - Institutions and associations also have an opportunity to take leadership in communicating and partnering with K-12 schools to ensure that high school students are better prepared for higher education. ! Efforts related to streamlining K-12 and postsecondary requirements or transition processes should be communicated clearly to audiences. Utilize In-House Resources. Issue: Current communications about higher education portray faculty as uninterested in teaching, and uninvolved in students’ lives. - Institutions should maintain consistent and genuine two-way engagement with faculty and instructors. They can be the school or program’s strongest PR tool. ! Schools should work with faculty instructors to become brand advocates. ! Faculty should be provided with more opportunities to be visible and engage directly with prospective and current students. ! Internal communication to faculty and instructors should reinforce the importance of teaching. Utilize External Partnerships. Issue: Higher education is a highly segmented marketplace where institutions and associations operate in Yamauchi 120 silos. Communication efforts are currently decentralized creating a confusing deluge of incomplete and misleading information that only serves to confuse audiences. - Form stronger, collaborative partnerships with K-12 educators and administrators. ! Build communication pipelines with secondary schools to better advise and guide students through the higher education decision-making and admissions processes. - Establish relationships with businesses, professional associations and hiring managers. ! Create discussion forums related to improvements in workforce preparation and credentialing methods. ! Community colleges and vocational schools in particular need to ensure the certificates they are awarding their students are given sufficient consideration during the hiring process. - Create communication pipelines and discussion forums with higher education policymakers. ! Create national campaigns demonstrating collaboration among internal and external audiences to improve the U.S. higher education system. - Institutions should also seek to partner with media entities, as these outlets already reach a wide population of students and parent. ! These relationships should be leveraged to gain audience support for constructive improvements in policy and/or practice. They should also be used to promote transparency and available resources. Students & Parents Higher Education Primer A solid return on an educational investment is not a given. Consumers of higher education need to arm themselves with good resources, strong advocates and judicious decision-making skills. These helpful hints get down to the nitty-gritty of navigating the complexities of the higher education marketplace. Is higher education for you? Yamauchi 121 - First, spend some time thinking about your professional and life goals? What are your interests? What do you enjoy? What do you excel at? - Determine whether higher education is appropriate given these goals. Higher education refers to any training or education beyond high school. There are a number of options, so review each one carefully. ! Colleges and Universities • Community/Junior/Technical Colleges are primarily public, two-year institutions. These schools are the best option for students seeking timely degree completion and/or job- or career-specific skills. Graduates are typically awarded a certificate of completion or associate’s degree. • Universities are primarily four-year institutions that can be public or private. These schools typically provide undergraduate and graduate studies. Universities are the best schools for students who can finance (out-of-pocket or via financial aid) higher tuition rates and are seeking a four-year degree. Graduates are typically awarded a bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree. ! Specialized Schools • Liberal Arts Schools offer undergraduate courses of study focused on the liberal arts and sciences. These institutions are the best fit for students seeking a broad range of knowledge and for those pursuing majors in the liberal arts. Graduates are typically awarded a bachelor of arts degree. • Art or Design Schools offer undergraduate courses of study focused on the visual, performing or design arts. They are the best option for students seeking career-specific training in the arts. Graduates are typically awarded a bachelor of arts degree. • Religious Schools offer undergraduate courses of study from a religiously affiliated institution, and may include theological general education requirements. These schools Yamauchi 122 are best for students seeking a religious learning community or a career related to theological studies. Graduates are typically awarded a bachelor of arts degree. • Historically Black Colleges & Universities are institutions serving undergraduate and graduate Black/African American students. These institutions are the best fit for students seeking a cultural learning community. Graduates are typically awarded a bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree. - Massive Open Online Courses are single courses (not degree programs) offered via the Internet, structured for large-scale participation. These courses are typically offered as an elective within a traditional accredited institution, or as part of an online degree program. - Vocational/Trade/Career Schools teach skills to perform a specific job. These schools are the best option for students seeking careers that require skills-specific certification. Graduates are typically awarded a certificate of completion or license to work. *All aforementioned schools are nonprofit institutions that abide by regulations set forth by their respective accrediting bodies. - Online Schools/Programs are certificate or degree programs offered strictly via the Internet. These are the best option for students balancing work and academics or seeking cost-conscious educational options. Graduates are typically awarded an associate’s degree or certificate of completion. A bachelor of arts degree may be awarded if the online program is affiliated with an accredited institution. - For-profit Schools are schools operated by private, profit-seeking businesses. These schools can be one-, two- or four-year programs. The focus of these institutions is similar to that of a technical school, offering career-specific training and certification. For-profit schools are not accredited institutions. Graduates are typically awarded an associate’s degree or a bachelor of arts degree. Yamauchi 123 Don’t make assumptions. - Higher education will likely be helpful in your professional and personal pursuits; however, having a degree does not automatically guarantee a particular job, salary or lifestyle. The skill sets and relationships you procure during your undergraduate career will offer significant professional benefits, but they are only tools, you still need to do the legwork. - Do not assume that every student graduates on time. Time to degree completion varies by individual student and hinges upon a number of factors (i.e. course requirements, course availability, academic performance, etc.) Plan ahead for timely completion of your coursework and graduation requirements. Do your homework. Subject: Academic and Professional Options. - Be an engaged and informed consumer about higher education. For each institution you are thinking of applying to: ! Review total tuition costs and associated fees. Be sure to factor in books, supplies, housing, transportation and other basic living costs. ! Review retention and graduation rates. Determine that the institution is successfully graduating students. ! Review average time to degree completion. Determine that students are graduating in a reasonable amount of time. ! If they are available, review alumni or graduate feedback and satisfaction survey data. Determine whether students were satisfied with their overall educational experience. - Reach out to people. Communicate not just with recruiters and admissions personnel, but also with alumni, faculty and current students. - Do not be swayed by prestige or brand name. Diligently research every school regardless of its reputation. - Plan a campus visit whenever possible. Yamauchi 124 - Be an engaged and informed consumer about career opportunities. For each possible career path you are interested in: ! Meet with professionals in the career areas you are interested in. Determine what their majors were and how well their education has served them. Determine academic, licensing or certification requirements including program duration for each career you are interested in pursuing. ! Meet with students and faculty in the major departments you are considering. Find out what the coursework and requirements are like. ! Communicate with academic advisors and the registrar’s office to determine your course plan, and ensure that you will be able to complete your degree requirements in a reasonable amount of time. ! Review financial information on the job market and career prospects. Determine the salary range, benefits and potential drawbacks of each field you are interested in. - Meet regularly with academic and financial aid advisors. Come to meetings prepared with questions and suggestions about course plans, academic activities and financial plans. Start saving. - Higher education is expensive. Tuition, books, enrollment, health and transportation fees can add up. Start saving early. ! Consult with financial aid advisors and education finance specialists. Determine the best options for saving given your particular financial circumstances. ! Start putting away as much or as little as you can. ! If parents are paying for part of your higher education, they should begin a 529 Savings Plan, which comes with added tax benefits. ! Visit the Savingforcollege.com website for further information and tips: http://www.savingforcollege.com/intro_to_529s/what-is-a-529-plan.php. Avoid borrowing. Yamauchi 125 - Educational loans are just that, for education. There is financial aid available out there, but make careful decisions about your financial aid award package. ! Exhaust all scholarship and grant options first. Start early and apply for every award possible, regardless of the amount. A number of $500 or $1,000 scholarships could add up to a semester’s worth of tuition. ! Communicate with high school counselors and financial aid counselors at your institution to find out about scholarship opportunities. ! Join sites like Fastweb.com (www.fastweb.com) and other scholarship listings. - Exhaust all employment and work-study options. On-campus jobs typically accommodate student class schedules, and earnings can often be directly credited towards tuition and fees. Other positions such as Resident Advisors can completely cover related costs such as housing. These positions can also be added to a resume and can help build workforce skills. ! Depending on your institution’s location, there may also be off-campus employment opportunities within the surrounding communities that cater to students. ! Having said that, do not overwork yourself. Being a full-time student is a full-time job, and academics and employment need to be carefully balanced. Do your homework. Subject: Financial Aid. - Do not take out loans for non-educational purposes. These are not lifestyle loans and should only be spent on direct academic costs. - Communicate with financial aid counselors to determine whether you are eligible for federally- or state-funded grants. - Communicate with financial aid counselors to determine whether you are eligible for need-based loans. - Visit the U.S. Department of Education Federal Student Aid website for further information on federally funded aid: http://www.studentaid.gov/. Use the information you find here to guide questions about your individualized aid package. Yamauchi 126 - Before signing a promissory note (commitment required for taking out a loan), do some basic math and research. ! Determine exactly how much aid you will need. Financial aid counselors should be able to provide you with this information. Visit the College Affordability and Transparency Center for further calculation resources: http://collegecost.gov/. ! Familiarize yourself with the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). It is the lifeblood of your education financial plans and required each academic year you apply for aid. Visit the U.S. Department of Education FAFSA website for further information: http://www.fafsa.ed.gov/. ! Learn more about the various types of educational loans available to you. Determine stipulations related to interest rates and payment schedules. Visit the Sallie Mae website for further information on your loan options: https://www.salliemae.com/student-loans/. Visit the U.S. Department of Education Student Loans, Forgiveness page for further information on the benefits of federal loans: http://www.ed.gov/fund/grants-college.html. - Be sure you are able to make payments on any loans taken out. 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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Research indicates that marketing in higher education has become a burgeoning phenomenon (Litten), with colleges investing tremendous resources on marketing efforts to students. Spending has increased 100 percent since 2001, from $321,900 per year to approximately $800,000 per year at midsize universities (Lipman Hearne). Institutions are maintaining spending on traditional methods (e.g., brochures, college fairs and print advertisements), while also increasing budgets for digital marketing (e.g., email, target display ads and social media). ❧ Education institutions operate under the protection of audience members' general sense of goodwill towards academia, and in general schools' marketing and communications have not been subject to the same levels of scrutiny or transparency as other sectors such as business or finance (Pokrass). In this benevolent environment, higher education marketing efforts have been fruitful. Students and parents have effectively been sold on this ""one way to win paradigm,"" believing college is the only way to succeed. They are comforted by the notion that whatever the cost, college will be worth it. Aided by cheap and readily available credit lent to unqualified buyers, this convention has become a dangerous economic issue (Reynolds). ❧ The controversy over the value of higher education is not a new one, or one unique to the U.S. Arguments have come full circle in the last 40 years, and today audiences are once again becoming vocal about their dissatisfaction with the current higher education system, not only in the U.S., but also in Canada and a number of European countries. Backed by general concerns about the recovering economy and job market, critics have reignited old questions and doubts about the American higher education system. ❧ Controversy has reached new heights and this phenomenon has been dubbed the ""higher education bubble."" It has been likened to and is speculated to outpace the housing bubble of 2006-2012 (Davies). As Reynolds explains it, ""bubbles form when too many people expect values to go up forever. Bubbles burst when there are no longer enough excessively optimistic and ignorant buyers to fuel them"" (1). Essentially, investors realize they have paid too much for too little. Are students realizing that they have spent too much on tuition compared to the ROI they are receiving from their higher education degrees and experiences? This white paper explores the many facets of the higher education debate, addressing the overarching question: have students been oversold on higher education?
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Yamauchi, Erin Aiko
(author)
Core Title
Are U.S. colleges being “oversold” to today’s students? A look at the realities of public relations in undergraduate higher education
School
Annenberg School for Communication
Degree
Master of Arts
Degree Program
Strategic Public Relations
Publication Date
02/18/2014
Defense Date
02/10/2014
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Education,Higher education,higher education bubble,OAI-PMH Harvest,overselling college,Public Relations
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higher education bubble
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