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How effective professional development in differentiated instruction can save Hawaii's Catholic schools

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Content Running head: HOW EFFECTIVE PD CAN SAVE HAWAII’S CATHOLIC SCHOOLS 1

HOW EFFECTIVE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN DIFFERENTIATED
INSTRUCTION CAN SAVE HAWAII’S CATHOLIC SCHOOLS

by

Glenn Medeiros

_________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014

Copyright 2014 Glenn Medeiros

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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my ancestors, who left their families behind in the
Azores and Madeira Islands during the late 1800s to find a better life for their children and the
generations to follow on the sugar plantations of Hawaii thousands of miles away from home.
To my wife and children, who were patient and supportive when I could not make it to
every basketball game or birthday party.
To my mother and father, for instilling in me the courage and strength to pursue my
dreams.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, mahalo nui loa to my committee chair, Dr. Brandon Martinez, for building the
confidence I needed to write this dissertation by consistently providing me with the
encouragement and quality feedback I needed, and always responding promptly to my phone
calls and emails.
Secondly, I also want to thank both Dr. Darnell Cole and Dr. John Pascarella for their
undying support both as members of my committee and as the instructors of the courses that
prepared me for the writing of this dissertation.
To the members of my cohort: We supported each other in the passing of a mother and
son, in the thousands of hours of reading, writing, and sharing, and in the celebration of the birth
of a child. You will always be a part of my Trojan family.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter 1: Introduction 8
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 20
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 60
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis 69
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusions 92
References 114
Appendices 125
Appendix A: Subscale of MSLQ Survey Adjusted to Measure Self-Efficacy 125
for Differentiated Instruction
Appendix B: Teacher Interview Protocol 126

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Enrollment Numbers in Hawaii’s Catholic Schools from 2008 to 2013 10
Table 2. Average SAT Scores of Students in Hawaii’s Catholic Schools 11
Table 3. Malcolm Knowles’s Six Assumptions of Adult Learners 39
Table 4. The Assum ptions of Traditional Pedagogy and Andragogy 43
Table 5. Summary of Age and Years of Experience of the Teachers 70
Table 6. Summary of Gender of the Teachers 70
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of the Responses to the 8 Subscales of MSLQ Survey 72
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics Summary 76
Table 9. Paired Sam ples T-test of Mean Difference Between Pre- and Post-PD 78
Training Self-Efficacy Scores
Table 10. Correlation Results of Self-Efficacy with Age and Years of Experience 79
in Teaching
Table 11. Correlation Results of Self-Efficacy and Gender 80
Table 12. Background of Teachers Interviewed 82

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Ongoing assessment: A diagnostic continuum 22
Figure 2. A concept map for differentiating instruction 24
Figure 3. Guskey’s five levels of professional development evaluation 35
Figure 4. Andragogy in practice 41
Figure 5. Illustration of Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism 46
Figure 6. Self-efficacy theory components 48
Figure 7. The relationship between teacher outcome expectations, self-efficacy 51
as a teacher, and teacher action
Figure 8. Computer-assisted instruction in the classroom 56
Figure 9. Histograms of study variables 75

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Abstract
This study explored the idea that self-efficacy in teachers to provide differentiated instruction
can be strengthened through the use of effective professional development rooted in research-
based strategies. The research questions in this study were: (1) Is there a correlation between
participation in effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction? (2) What kind of professional development instruction do teachers perceive to be the
most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction? (3) Are teachers more
likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the use of computer-assisted
instruction? Eighty-eight elementary, middle school and high school teachers took part in this
study. The data were gathered through the use of a survey and a teacher interview protocol. The
results reveal that there is a correlation between participation in effective professional
development and self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, which reflects growth in self-
efficacy when effective professional development is given. A majority of the teachers in this
study also recognized that the most effective professional development strategies used to build
their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction included those found in the Theory of Andragogy
and other research-based models of professional development. Finally, teachers in this study
were found to believe that they were more likely to provide differentiated instruction to students
with the use of computer-assisted instruction. The results of this study can assist future research
concentrated on building self-efficacy in teachers to provide differentiated instruction. For the
purposes of this study, the data collected and analyzed will assist Hawaii’s Catholic schools in
meeting the needs of their academically-diverse population of students.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Problem and its Underlying Framework
This study examines an initiative by a Catholic school in Hawaii to increase the use of
differentiated instruction by its teachers, with the objective of meeting the needs of its
academically-diverse community of students and decreasing attrition numbers. With enrollment
decreasing in Hawaii’s Catholic schools for the last six years, by one to five-percent annually, it
is imperative that differentiated instruction is used by their teachers to eliminate that trend.
Hawaii’s Catholic schools have been in existence since 1846, and the 36 schools currently
educate approximately 25 percent of all students attending private school in Hawaii from pre-
kindergarten to the twelfth grade (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of
Honolulu, 2013).
Research confirms that there is a correlation between student achievement and the use of
differentiated instruction (Rivers & Sanders, 1996). In addition, effective use of differentiated
instruction with students is far more likely to occur when the professional development given is
of a high standard (Guskey, 2000). This study explores the extent to which effective professional
development, and the use of computer-assisted instruction, build self-efficacy in teachers to
deliver differentiated instruction.
Background of the Problem
On Friday, February 1, 2013, Dr. Mike Rockers, Superintendent of Hawaii Catholic
Schools, stated to teachers and administrators attending the Diocese of Honolulu’s Annual
Conference for Catholic Educators (ACCE) at Mamiya Theater of Saint Louis School, that:
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For six straight years our enrollment numbers have declined. If we are to continue to
survive and exist in these islands for the next century, we must be able to serve all our
students. To do this, we are obligated to utilize every resource at our disposal to develop
21st century educators who are capable of meeting the needs of all learners that walk
through our doors. (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu,
2013)
This point was reiterated by the second presenter at the ACCE convention, Father John
Thompson, who made it explicitly clear to both Catholic teachers and administrators attending:
“Catholic schools do not exist to simply serve the wealthy and academic elite. We must see the
image of Jesus in every student who enters our classrooms and know that we can help them all to
be successful” (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013).
Diversity in Hawaii’s Catholic schools existed long before they eventually became
educational institutions that primarily serve those who are wealthy and academically adept (The
Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Only twenty-five years ago, the average tuition in most
Catholic schools in Hawaii was approximately $200 a month (Roman Catholic Church in the
State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013). Today, annual tuition rates in many of Hawaii’s
Catholic schools are more than $1000 a month (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Both Dr.
Rockers and Father Thompson are acutely aware that the underlying issue behind the decrease in
enrollment of students attending Hawaii Catholic schools is more than just high tuition rates. The
pool of students in Hawaii who are both academically strong and come from wealthy families is
slowly dwindling, due to competition from other non-Catholic private schools. The remaining
students, who have parents who can afford to pay for their children to attend private school,
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come in with academic skill levels that range from weak to moderate (B. Sandobal, personal
communication, January 3, 2012).
According to the Offices of Catholic Schools in Hawaii, the number of students attending
Hawaii’s Catholic schools has declined each of the last six years (The Catholic Schools of
Hawaii, 2013). Between 2008 and 2013, four elementary Catholic schools in Hawaii closed due
to low enrollment numbers, and Catholic elementary schools are also hurting because two of
Hawaii’s largest Catholic high schools have now moved from being single-gender schools to
coeducational institutions (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Both Saint Francis High
School and Damien High School were founded as single-sex schools, before becoming
coeducational learning institutions within the last five years due to declining enrollment numbers
and the need to attract more students (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Because parents
who traditionally send their children to the twenty-one Catholic elementary schools in Hawaii
want their kids to be accepted at certain Catholic high schools, many move them into the six
Catholic middle and high school campuses much earlier now, leaving Catholic elementary
schools with fewer students, ultimately compromising their existence. With an average
enrollment of nearly 10,000 students in Hawaii’s Catholic schools, many of Hawaii’s families
are experiencing the domino effect caused by these changes. Table 1 outlines the decrease in
enrollment of Hawaii’s Catholic schools in the last six years.

Table 1
Enrollment Numbers in Hawaii ’s Catholic Schools from 2008 to 2013
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Students 11,249 10,827 10,328 10,108 9,794 9,324
Notes: HCS 2013 Student Enrollment Data
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As Hawaii’s Catholic schools scramble to survive by accepting students their teachers are
unaccustomed to teaching, or believe do not belong because their scores on entrance exams are
lower than those of students who applied in the past, the challenge put forth by Dr. Rockers to
“serve all students” will not come to fruition unless effective professional development exists to
build self-efficacy in Hawaii’s Catholic school teachers to provide differentiated instruction. To
accomplish the goal of providing effective professional development to teachers in differentiated
instruction based on research, the components of effective professional development must clearly
be defined (Willis, 2007). Secondly, the strategies used to deliver good professional developm ent
should incorporate the specific cognitive needs of the individuals being taught (Taylor & Kroth,
2009). Finally, teachers should also be given the resources to provide differentiated instruction
successfully with the purchase of computers, software and online programs (Harn, Lian-
Thompson, & Roberts, 2008).

Table 2
Average SAT Scores of Students in Hawaii ’s Catholic Schools
Years Math Writing Critical Thinking
2003-2005 625 615 618
2006-2008 610 603 605
2009-2011 597 590 596
2011-2012 588 585 587
Notes: HCS 2013 SAT Data

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Many of Hawaii’s Catholic school teachers are feeling frustrated. A great number of them
choose to work in a private school setting and accept less pay than their public school
counterparts because they hope to educate students who are academically proficient, without
needing to work to provide accommodations and interventions for struggling learners
(B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3, 2012). Private schools are not required by law
to provide a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) to their students (Lewis & Batts,
2005). In addition, many private school teachers desire employment in an environment where
their own children can attend the same schools where they teach, at no cost or at a reduced price.
Utilized as a strategy to retain teachers, most Catholic schools in Hawaii offer at least some type
of discount or remission of tuition for children of faculty members (Roman Catholic Church in
the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013).
The rise in the number of students accepted into Hawaii’s Catholic schools with
preexisting Individual Educational Plans, learning disabilities, and needing financial assistance,
is growing steadily (B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3, 2012). Once known for
their selectivity based on measurements of academic skill, reflected in standardized test scores,
Hawaii’s Catholic schools survive today by accepting students of varied academic levels (Roman
Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013). Catholic school educators
are leaving at high rates to teach at public schools where they face similar student populations,
but are paid significantly more (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of
Honolulu, 2013). Many educators that continue to teach in Catholic schools do so because they
are not certified to teach in public schools and have few alternatives. Furthermore, some Catholic
school teachers have left the teaching profession because they did not feel equipped with the
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knowledge and skills needed to successfully work with the new academically-diverse population
of students (B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3, 2012).
Parents of students who attend these Catholic schools pay large sums of money annually
for their children to be well educated in an environment built on Christian values of grace, hope,
faith, love, justice, joy, service, peace, and more. Unfortunately, when teachers in Catholic
schools ignore the needs of those who struggle academically, they do not model the Christian
values their schools espouse (Bryk & Lee, 1993). Students in Hawaii’s Catholic schools often
find themselves in classrooms where they are treated as if they do not belong. These students
deserve to receive an education that fits their needs, regardless of their academic abilities or
socio-economic status. Catholic school teachers must acquire the skills needed to successfully
teach students at various academic levels, through the use of differentiated instruction, or
Catholic schools in Hawaii will continue to close (Bryk & Lee, 1993).
Statement of the Problem
Catholic school teachers in Hawaii are faced with a more diverse student population,
which many are not trained to serve. For this reason, enrollment numbers are falling in Hawaii’s
Catholic schools, and the needs of students with dissimilar academic skills are not sufficiently
being met (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Building self-efficacy to differentiate
instruction in the classroom is essential in order for teachers to address the numerous cognitive
needs of their students with varied academic skills (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). Effective
professional development can empower teachers to provide their students with differentiated
instruction and improve student achievement (Nye, Konstanopoulos, & Hedges, 2004). Finally,
computer-assisted instruction can assist teachers in delivering differentiated instruction in the
classroom (Gulati, 2008). Unfortunately, there is no study available to determine if the
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combination of these strategies and theories is applicable to Hawaii’s Catholic schools and their
unique environment.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine one Catholic school’s attempt to increase the
use of differentiated instruction among its teachers to improve academic achievement for all
students. Research was done to locate and define the central components of differentiated
instruction. Teaching strategies specifically tailored for adults through the use of Knowles’s
Theory of Andragogy were utilized to create effective professional development (Figlio &
Kenny, 2005). In addition, Guskey’s Five Levels of Professional Development were used to
guide professional development sessions with teachers (Guskey, 2002). Furthermore, Bandura’s
Social Cognition Theory was employed to assess if self-efficacy grew in the teachers who were
provided with effective professional development (Bandura, 1997). Finally, a determination was
made as to what kind of software or online program should be used to help teachers build their
self-efficacy for providing differentiated instruction (Rybarczyk, 2007).
The three research questions in this study were:
 Is there a correlation between participation in effective professional development and
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction?
 What kind of professional development instruction do teachers perceive to be the
most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction?
 Are teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the
use of computer-assisted instruction?
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Importance of the Study
The results of this study will contribute to research focused on creating effective
professional development, and could directly impact the survival of Hawaii’s Catholic schools.
What makes this study unique is that the quality of professional development was measured in
part by each teacher’s self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction before and after taking
part in the study. By successfully providing effective professional development in differentiated
instruction through embedding strategies rooted in a thorough understanding of self-efficacy, the
Five Levels of Professional Development and the Theory of Andragogy, administrators in
Hawaii’s Catholic schools will have a plan of action to fight attrition that is tested in an
environment similar to their own (Bandura, 1997; Guskey, 2002; Rybarczyk, 2007). With that
information, Catholic schools in Hawaii can effectively serve the new population of diverse
learners in their schools, improve enrollment numbers, and continue to thrive in a competitive
landscape for private schools.
Methodology
This study consisted of a teacher survey, five professional development sessions, and
twenty individualized teacher interviews. Teachers were given both pre- and post-surveys
assessing their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, before the first professional
development session was given, and after the final one. Ninety-minute professional development
sessions were given to teachers during after-school hours, and during their own time with the use
of computer-assisted instruction from an online program called PD360. Specifically, PD360
provided teachers with information about differentiated instruction, and opportunities for them to
reflect, respond, and share what was learned after watching videos about the subject. Finally,
interviews were conducted individually with twenty teachers to determine what types of
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professional development were most effective in building their self-efficacy to provide
differentiated instruction, including computer-assisted instruction.
Assumptions
For the purposes of this study, it is assumed that teacher responses to surveys were honest
and accurate. Moreover, it is assumed that answers to interview questions are examples of what
each teacher believed should be stated, but do not necessarily describe accurately what he or she
thinks is true. Also, the facilitator of this study may assume that the professional development
given was effective due to the in-depth research done to define what effective professional
development is, and the proper methods to deliver it.
Limitations
Participation in this study was voluntary for all teachers, but the accuracy of answers
given in surveys cannot be guaranteed, due to those who simply chose to complete them at a
rapid pace. A much larger sample size would reveal a more accurate result, which is more likely
to be generalizable to other Catholic schools with similar, yet unique environments. Finally,
because of limitations in time, the results of this study were collected in the timespan of one
semester. This time limitation kept the researcher from determining if those teachers whose self-
efficacy for providing differentiated instruction grew actually used differentiated instruction in
their classroom effectively and consistently to improve student achievement.
Delimitations
This study was limited by the time and human resources needed to interview all of the
teachers who received effective professional development training in differentiated instruction.
Because of this, the number of interviews conducted represented a small sample of twenty
teachers involved in the study. Additionally, teachers who wanted to use computer-assisted
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instruction may not have done so because they did not have the self-efficacy needed in
technology to use PD360 consistently.
Definition of Terms
PD — Professional Development is “a systematic attempt to bring about change —
change in the classroom practices of teachers, change in their beliefs and attitudes, and change in
the learning outcomes of students” (Guskey, 1986, p. 5).
DI — Differentiated Instruction is a practice that grows out of certain values that are
important in the way we treat our students, design our curricula, establish rules, and talk about
learning. Those who use differentiated instruction believe in providing meaningful choice, teach
students to learn how to learn, vary assessments, work cooperatively among teachers and
students, and are open-minded (Benjamin, 2006).
TA — The Theory of Andragogy is sometimes referred to as a theory, method, or set of
assumptions. Knowles describes andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn”
(Knowles, 1984, p. 42). Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of
learning. First, adults need to know why they need to learn something. Secondly, adults need to
learn experientially. Third, adults approach learning as problem-solving. Finally, adults learn
best when the topic is of immediate value.
SCT — Social Cognitive Theory is centered on the idea that people are agents who have
control of their environment and behavior. Essentially, people learn by watching others. In
psychology, it explains personality in terms of how a person thinks about and responds to his or
her social environment.
SE — Self-Efficacy is a construct derived from Social Cognitive Theory, and is founded
on Bandura’s argument that agency, or people’s beliefs in their ability to exercise control over
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their own lives, is quintessentially human. When people believe that they have the ability to act,
and that their actions will produce the desired outcomes, they are motivated to act, and to act in
ways that are more likely to produce the desired outcomes than when they do not believe their
efforts will be successful (Bandura, 1997).
CAI — Computer Assisted Instruction is an interactive instructional technique whereby a
computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.
Typical CAI provides text or multimedia content, multiple-choice questions, problems,
immediate feedback, notes on incorrect responses, summarizes students’ performances, provides
exercises for practice, worksheets and tests (Liao, 1992).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is comprised of five chapters.
Chapter 1 provides an introduction, including the problem and its underlying framework;
the background of the problem; a statement of the problem; the purpose of the study; the
importance of the study; the study’s methodology, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations; a
definition of terms; and finally describes the organization of the remainder of the dissertation.
Chapter 2 consists of a literature review. It begins by describing what differentiated
instruction is and why it should be used in schools. Effective and ineffective professional
development is then defined through the lens of Thomas Guskey’s research and those of others.
The Theory of Andragogy is also studied through the work of Malcolm Knowles, and others who
continue his work. The research of Albert Bandura and his Social Cognition Theory is covered ,
with specific attention given to self-efficacy. Finally, the research available with regard to
computer-assisted instruction is shared.
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Chapter 3 describes the research methodology used in this mixed-method study, followed
by the three research questions. Research design, population and sample, instrumentation, data
collection and data analysis are all included.
Chapter 4 presents the results, and an analysis of the data collected in the study, followed
by the three research questions used, participant characteristics, the results of research questions
one, two, and three; and finally, a summary of the findings.
Chapter 5 starts with the conclusion of the study, which is followed by a summary of
findings and conclusions for the first, second, and third research questions. These are followed
by recommendations for Hawaii’s Catholic schools, implications for practice, recommendations
for future study, and a summary.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Public schools across the United States have made great strides in the last sixty years
toward providing equality for all students. From the Brown vs. The Board of Education ruling in
1954 that separate is not equal, to the Education for All Handicapped Children Act passed by
Congress in 1975 requiring a “free and appropriate public education” in a least restrictive setting,
the rights of American students attending public schools are supported by a wide array of federal
and state laws (Henderson, 2010). However, private elementary and high schools across America
continue to accept students with learning disabilities that are willing to pay the high cost of
tuition needed for them to attend. Unfortunately, private schools in the United States are not
required by law to provide students with learning disabilities with the academic assistance they
need to experience success in school (Hibel, Farkas, & Morgan, 2010). In turn, private schools
struggling to keep enrollment at an adequate level are faced with the problem of accepting
students with learning disabilities without their teachers having sufficient training and resources
to assist these students in reaching their full academic potential (Quigney, 2010). To combat this
issue, administrators in Hawaii’s Catholic schools should consider providing teachers with
effective professional development in differentiated instruction. However, what makes for
effective professional development? Also, what is the true definition of differentiated
instruction?
This chapter will describe what researchers have recently discovered with regard to what
differentiated instruction and effective professional development are, and why they are so
important in making it possible for students with or without learning disabilities to reach their
full academic potential in any educational setting (Anderson, 2007). This chapter will also
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include research-based motivational strategies that can be utilized in the training of teachers to
build their self-efficacy for providing differentiated instruction, including an understanding of
the Theory of Andragogy and an explanation of the benefits associated with the use of computer-
assisted instruction.
What is Differentiated Instruction?
According to Tobin (2008), “Differentiated instruction means that teachers create
different levels of expectations for task completion and emphasize the creation of environments
where all learning can become successful” (p. 160). Differentiated instruction addresses the
“how to” question for teachers, and calls upon them to be responsive learners by using reading
materials at various levels, and also utilizing literary centers with varied tasks designed to match
students’ readiness, interests and preferred modes of learning (Tomlinson, 2005). In
differentiated instruction, all learners focus on the same essential understandings, but are also
provided with multiple access routes to make sense of and demonstrate them (Anderson, 2007).
Providing differentiated instruction means a teacher is approaching the curriculum and her
students with a proactive and responsive disposition — an orientation to planning, decision-
making, curriculum selection and instructional flow that is flexible and opportunistic (Waldron
& McLeskey, 2001).
Research suggests that differentiated instruction is an approach that can benefit students
with a wide range of ability levels, as well as learning styles, and cultural and linguistic
backgrounds (Demos & Foshay, 2009). The four guiding principles of differentiated instruction
are: first, a focus on essential ideas and skills in content areas; second, differentiated instruction
is responsive to individual student differences; third, differentiated instruction integrates
assessment and instruction; finally, differentiated instruction embraces ongoing adjustment of
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content, process and products to meet individual needs (Logan, 2011). According to Tieso
(2005), “Assessment is another critical component of differentiated instruction” (p. 75). When
using differentiated instruction, assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and
improving student learning. It must be balanced and thorough. No one indicator should be used
as the sole mark of achievement. As seen in Figure 1, the primary role of both formative and
summative assessments is to inform planning for teaching and learning (Anderson, 2007).

Figure 1. Ongoing assessment: A diagnostic continuum
Retrieved from: http://learn.eastonsd.org/mod/page/view.php?id=8935

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The critical elements of differentiated instruction include choice, flexibility, ongoing
assessment, creativity in the teaching of content and the demonstration of knowledge through
varied products (Baumgartner, Lipowski, & Rush, 2003). Instead of varying learner objectives
and lowering performance expectations for some students, teachers may differentiate the content
by using texts, novels, or short stories at varying reading levels (Tieso, 2005). The objective
stays the same, but the content to achieve that goal differs (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Several
strategies can be used to integrate differentiated instruction in the classroom: flexible grouping,
student choice on a variety of tasks, increased self-selected reading time, and an assortment of
reading materials that assist in meeting the needs of all students (Tomlinson & Kalbfleisch,
1998). Other differentiated instruction strategies include the use of ongoing formative and
summative assessments, compacting, tiered assignments, independent study/contracts, learning
centers, interest centers, and interest groups (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Setting clear criteria for
the use of rubrics and contracts is another mainstay of differentiated instruction (Anderson,
2007). When using differentiated instruction, adjusting the curriculum does not mean changing
the curriculum (Tomlinson & Strickland, 2005). Tomlinson (2005) outlines a number of
principles that guide the practice of DI that can be inserted into any curriculum (p. 183):
1. The teacher focuses on the essentials;
2. The teacher attends to student differences;
3. Assessment and instruction are inseparable;
4. The teacher modifies content, process and products;
5. All students participate in respectful work;
6. The teacher and students collaborate in learning;
7. The teacher balances group and individual norms.
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Figure 2 is a differentiation flowchart that outlines how content, process, and product play vital
roles in the process of providing differentiated instruction.

Figure 2. A concept map for differentiating instruction
Retrieved from: http://edtech.wiki.hci.edu.sg/Differentiated+Instructions

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In summary, some believe that differentiated instruction is too large a collection of
principles and strategies to serve as a proper, narrowed focus for scholarly research (Wormeli,
2006). Asking for research on differentiated instruction is similar to asking for research on good
teaching. Because differentiated instruction involves many strategies used together
simultaneously, it is difficult to measure specifically what makes it effective (Lawrence-Brown,
2004). Differentiation is a mindset, not a set of recipes to follow (Benjamin, 2006). It is
responsive teaching from child to child where teachers adjust instruction accordingly, rather than
leaving them foundering (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Differentiated instruction focuses on four
major classroom elements — content, process, products, and learning environment — with the
goal of responding to variance among learners in the classroom to help all learners reach their
full potential (Demos & Foshay, 2009).
Why Differentiated Instruction?
Teachers in the United States are finding it more and more difficult to motivate students
to learn (Henderson, 2010). To accomplish that goal, students need to develop confidence that
teachers are teaching and evaluating for success, and are not simply there to catch them at what
they do not do well (Henderson, 2010). The primary purpose of evaluation is giving feedback
about what students do well, and how to improve upon their weaknesses (Logan, 2011).
Standards and learning outcomes are meant to inform and guide the curriculum, and not to “be”
the curriculum (Tomlinson & Strickland, 2005). Tomlinson (2005) argues that educational
approaches that ignore diversity in favor of standardization are unlikely to be successful in
meeting the needs of the full range of students. Evaluation practices need to be examined in light
of the effect they will have on academically diverse populations (Tomlinson & Strickland, 2005).
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Whole group instruction remains the dominant choice of teachers, regardless of the
profiles of students enrolled in their classes, and despite the ample research documenting the
benefits of collaborative groupings and small group instruction in which student voices are
privileged and learning is augmented (Rock, Gregg, Ellis, & Gable, 2008). The reauthorized
Individuals with Disabilities Act (LD OnLine, 2010) in the United States supports early
identification of students experiencing academic problems. This legislation allows for models of
Response to Intervention (RTI) as a method for identifying students who will profit from
differentiated and appropriate instruction in the classroom (Xu & Drame, 2008). It is expected
that differentiated instruction will reduce the overrepresentation of culturally- and linguistically-
diverse students in special education placements, and students experiencing difficulties because
of inadequate instruction (Xu & Drame, 2008). More and more research is beginning to emerge
within the field of education supporting the potential of differentiated instruction as a mean to
assist diverse learners in their acquisition of knowledge and skills, while also breaking down the
barriers that inhibit their unique abilities to successfully demonstrate their maximum potential as
learners (Baumgartner et al., 2003).
Differentiated instruction integrates what we know about constructivist learning theory,
learning styles, and brain development, with empirical research on influencing factors of learner
readiness, interest, and intelligence preferences toward students’ motivation, engagement, and
academic growth within schools (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). Ironically, differentiated instruction
also builds learner dexterity and self-advocacy so students can handle content that is not
differentiated for them (Anderson, 2007). In 1998, administrators found that a majority of
teachers in North Topsail School used only whole group instruction and taught to the average
students, despite the diversity of the student population (Lewis & Batts, 2005). After
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implementing differentiated instruction, a 79 percent proficiency level on state end-of-grade tests
under the ABCs of Public Education accountability program rose in five years to 94.8 percent
(Lewis & Batts, 2005). Assessment allowed teachers to follow students’ progress based on their
readiness. Since adopting differentiated instruction, teachers have seen continuous improvement
in student academic achievement across all racial and socioeconomic groups (Lewis & Batts,
2005). Those academically gifted also showed growth, those with exceptional needs showed the
most growth, and very few students were held back (Lewis & Batts, 2005).
E ffective Professional Development
Guskey (2000) defined effective professional development as “those processes and
activities designed to enhance the professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes of educators so
that they might, in turn, improve the learning of students” (p. 73). The ultimate goal of all
professional development is to improve practice in order to help all students achieve their full
potential (Guskey & Sparks, 1996). This goal must be the constant driving force for all educators
concerning professional development (Guskey, 2001). According to Guskey, professional
development can be divided into seven different categories.
The first category of professional development is Training (Guskey, 1997). Training
includes large group presentation and discussion, workshops and seminars that include theory,
modeling of skills, simulated practice, feedback, and workplace feedback (Guskey, 1997). This
is the most efficient and cost-effective form of professional development, but it leaves little time
for choice or individualization, and is least effective in helping participants reach their learning
outcomes (Guskey & Sparks, 1996).
The second category of professional development is Observation/Assessment (Guskey,
1997). This method is defined by observation by peers to provide feedback on teaching, which
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includes coaching and clinical supervision. It can focus on lesson plans, instructional practices
and class management. Observation and feedback should be followed by careful analysis,
explanation, and reflection, to lead to real improvement for both participants (Guskey & Sparks,
1996). This method takes a great deal of time and coordination, and observation must be
evaluated (Guskey, 1997). By requiring participants to both observe and assess each other, it is
more likely that learning will take place, because the learners themselves must be actively
engaged in the process (Guskey & Sparks, 1996).
The third professional development category is Involvement in the
Development/Improvement Process (Guskey & Sparks, 1996). This includes curriculum
committees, designing new programs to improve instruction, or problem solving (Guskey &
Sparks, 1996). This also allows committee members to gain in-depth knowledge of a specific
issue and work together, but typically only a small number of people are involved in the process
(Guskey, 2000).
These first three categories of professional development are found in most schools. The
last four categories of professional development are not as easy to find in most K-12 settings, but
are generally more effective in allowing participants to retain what is learned (Guskey & Sparks,
1996).
According to Guskey (2000), Study Groups are the fourth category of professional
development. This method involves the entire school staff in solving a common problem
(Guskey & Sparks, 1996). Members are placed in groups of 4 to 6, and continue for the year,
with each group focusing on a specific aspect of the problem (Guskey, 2001). Effective groups
are well organized and focused, and have sufficient time to complete their work (Guskey &
Sparks, 1996). If not carefully structured, groups can be dominated by one member without the
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involvement of others (Guskey, 2001). In turn, groups may become opinion-based instead of
fact-based (Guskey, 2001). Using study groups allows participants to reach their learning
outcomes by working cooperatively to assist and motivate each other.
The fifth category of effective professional development is Inquiry/Action Research
(Guskey & Sparks, 1996). This method is based on the belief that teachers are thoughtful,
inquiring, and inclined to solve problems and search for answers to pressing questions (Guskey
& Sparks, 1996). It usually involves six steps: selecting a problem, collecting information related
to the problem, studying professional research on the problem, determining possible actions to
achieve goals, taking action, and documenting results (Guskey & Sparks, 1996). This process
helps narrow the gap between practice and research, but it takes a great deal of time (Guskey,
1986).
The sixth category of professional development is Individually Guided Activities
(Guskey & Sparks, 1996). Teachers develop their own individual professional goals, and
activities that will achieve them. The process starts with identifying a need or interest, and
developing a plan to meet it; then performing learning activities; and finally assessing whether
learning has met the goals or interests stated (Guskey & Sparks, 1996). This method provides
choice, flexibility, and individualization, but goals must be challenging, worthwhile, and relate to
specific improvement in classroom practice (Guskey, 2000). When learning is relevant to
participants, the content and process becomes more meaningful to them. When meaningful
learning takes place, information is more likely to be saved in each participant’s long-term
memory (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010).
The last category of professional development is Mentoring (Guskey, 2000). This method
pairs an experienced educator with a less experienced educator. Time is spent developing
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professional goals, practices, and strategies, and reflecting on teaching and learning (Guskey,
2000). This method is highly individualized, and provides professional opportunities for both
individuals. Mentors must be skilled in ways of adult learning, and should also be combined with
other forms of professional development to broaden the experience (Guskey & Sparks, 1996).
Mentoring may be the most effective professional development strategy, because it involves
consistent amounts of feedback if done correctly (Guskey, 2000).
Desimone (2009) argues that the use of a common conceptual framework would elevate
the quality of professional development studies, and subsequently the general understanding of
how best to shape and implement teacher learning opportunities for the maximum benefit of both
teachers and students (p. 185). The federal government spends over $1.5 billion a year on
professional development for teachers, but understanding what makes professional development
effective is critical to the success or failure of many educational reforms (Cohen, Hill, &
Kennedy, 2002). In the past decade, educators have acknowledged a need for more empirically-
valid methods of studying professional development.
There is a core set of features of effective professional development based on empirical
evidence; these include content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective
participation (Lieberman, 2009). It is important to create effective professional development
opportunities for teachers with a focus on content, because students learn more when teachers are
familiar with the content they teach (Archibald, Coggshall, Croft, & Goe, 2011). Teachers must
be engaged in professional development, instead of being passive learners. To accomplish that
goal, an active learning environment must exist (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). By providing
coherence in professional development, learning is consistent with the beliefs of teachers and the
goals of the institutions they represent (Lieberman, 2009). Effective professional development
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spreads activities over time, involving twenty hours or more of contact time (Lieberman, 2009).
Finally, effective professional development based on empirical evidence includes collective
participation where teachers learn in groups (Lieberman, 2009). This proposed framework leads
to increased teacher knowledge, changes attitudes and beliefs about instruction, and improves
student learning (Desimone, 2009).
The U.S. Department of Education and the National Science Foundation (NSF) fund
studies aimed at measuring the impact of efforts to improve teacher quality on instruction and
student achievement (Penuel, Fishman, Gallagher, & Lawrence, 2007). According to these
studies, helping teachers with the initial configuration of the equipment and resources needed to
implement new strategies being learned can make all the difference (Archibald et al., 2011).
More depth, rather than breadth, is also beneficial. Also, the quality of professional development
training heightens when it is led by current classroom teachers who are trusted as resources for
meaningful guidance (Demos & Foshay, 2009). In addition, a large-scale study of professional
development conducted in California found that “site-based” curriculum development,
specifically focused on improving a school’s curriculum, is more effective than one built around
the learning of general pedagogical strategies (Cohen et al., 2002). Effective professional
development sessions should not be too short, and follow-up sessions with teachers must be
provided that allow for multiple cycles of presentation, assimilation, and reflection on new
knowledge (Lawrence-Brown, 2004). A mentoring approach is also suggested, in which teachers
support one another by creating a community of learners (Kopcha, 2010). When teachers have a
sense of ownership of, and choice in what they are learning, they are more likely to invest in
expanding their pedagogical practices (Polly & Hannafin, 2010).
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Barriers often standing in the way of effective professional development include the
challenge of allocating sufficient time for it to be properly executed, and acquiring the funds
needed to compensate teachers for their time (Guskey, 1986). To accomplish the objective of
providing more time for high-quality professional development, schools can modify weekly staff
meetings previously used for administrative business to provide effective professional
development during school hours (Penuel et al., 2007). This time can be built into teacher
contracts to eliminate the cost of paying teachers to meet during after-school hours (Archibald et
al., 2011). School schedules can be adapted to include collaborative planning and observation
time between teachers, to implement and assess what was taught, for at least a 32-hour
commitment of time per teacher (Guskey, 2001). Also, substitutes can be utilized to allow
teachers to meet together who are not able to do so during the normal school day, due to
scheduling limitations (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). Day-long meetings used to integrate new
pedagogical strategies across the curriculum allow teachers to collaborate, mentor and support
each other when implementing new teaching strategies learned at professional development
sessions (Hill, 2009).
The last component of effective professional development is evaluation. Effective
evaluations of professional development programs and systems are few and far between
(Archibald et al., 2011). This frustrates decision makers as they attempt to determine which
tools, approaches and programs to adopt to meet their specific goals (Archibald et al., 2011).
This discrepancy can be partially attributed to the fact that evaluating the impact of particular
professional learning activities on teacher practice or student learning can be difficult, time
consuming, and costly (Cohen et al., 2002). However, evaluating professional development is
important because it provides evidence of effectiveness and efficiency to decision makers and
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funders, whether they are foundations, tax payers or parents — in the form of tuition (Lieberman,
2009). Evaluation of professional development also helps administrators determine whether to
scale up or discontinue certain programs (Danielson, 2007). Moreover, assessment of
professional development programs also ensures that teachers’ investment of time was not and
will not be wasted. Evaluation of professional development helps trainers to find what teaching
strategies worked best. In turn, that knowledge is utilized to build stronger professional
development seminars in the future (Nye et al., 2004).
Several metric systems exist for measuring outcomes of professional development
activities. One three-step system of professional development evaluation is called the Logic
Model (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). The first step of the Logic Model system is called Process
Evaluation. Process evaluation focuses only on the first part of the Logic Model, examining how
the tool, approach, or program is implemented (Hill, 2009). The second step is Impact Evaluation
(Cogshall & Ott, 2010), which combines the components of a process evaluation with a
determination of whether, and to what extent, the tool, approach, or program results in the
desired short- and long-term outcomes (Figlio & Kenny, 2005). The third and final step in the
Logic Model of professional development assessment is a Cost-benefit/Cost-effectiveness
Analysis (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). Cost-benefit analysis estimates the extent to which a given
course of action yields benefits greater than the financial costs (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). Cost-
effectiveness analysis compares different courses of action to determine which is most effective
relative to its cost (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). In short, both analyses help decision makers identify
which tools, programs, or approaches are worth the investment of scarce resources.
According to Guskey’s Five Levels of Professional Development Evaluation, it is
imperative to properly evaluate professional development on an ongoing basis (Guskey, 2002).
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Guskey suggests there are five levels of professional development that should be consistently
evaluated. First, participant reaction is assessed to gauge reactions to the information presented,
and the level at which the basic human needs of those involved were met (Guskey, 2002). This is
usually done in the form of a questionnaire. The second level of professional development
evaluation involves the assessment of participants’ learning; specifically, the knowledge retained
by the participants involved (Guskey, 2001). This can be done through tests, simulations,
personal reflections, and demonstrations (Guskey, 2002). The third level of professional
development evaluation, according to Guskey, involves analyzing organizational support for
skills gained in staff development (Guskey, 2001). This can be measured with the use of minutes,
questionnaires, structured interviews or observations (Guskey, 2000). The fourth level of
professional development evaluation assesses participant use of knowledge and skills (Guskey,
2000). The purpose of this step is to determine whether participants are using what they learned
(Guskey, 2001). Questionnaires, structured interviews, oral or written reflections, examination of
journals or portfolios, and direct observation all assist in evaluating what teachers have learned
from professional development sessions (Guskey, 2001). The final level of professional
development evaluation assesses student-learning outcomes (Guskey, 2001). This can be done
through the collection of data from classroom grades, tests, and direct observations (Guskey,
1999). Figure 3 provides an overview of Guskey’s Five Levels of Professional Development
Evaluation.

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Figure 3. Guskey’s five levels of professional development evaluation
Retrieved from: http://edtech.wiki.hci.edu.sg/Differentiated+Instructions

Ineffective Professional Development
According to Hill (2009), “The professional development system for teachers is, by all
accounts, broken” (p. 472). Despite evidence that these programs can improve teacher
knowledge and practice, and student outcomes, they seldom reach teachers on a large scale (Hill,
2009). To use a shopping metaphor, these research-proven programs, which are offered by
university faculty or nationally-recognized providers, are “boutiques” serving a handful of
fortunate teachers, while leaving many more to shop at the WalMarts of the professional
development world. Although programs trumpet their success in monthly magazines, teachers
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apparently have little use for their learning experiences. Most teachers engage in only the
minimum professional development required by their state or district each year (Dunst & Raab,
2010). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), data showed that just
over half of the respondents to an NCES survey reported spending a day or less in professional
development over the previous year (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Only a
small minority reported attending four or more days within a year.
Most teachers state that professional development generally reinforces their existing
practices, while a minority report no effect at all (Archibald et al., 2011). In fact, too much
professional development can actually decrease instructional coherence (Curtis & Wurtzel,
2010). The problem is not that we lack promising programs, formats, or content; it is that most
professional development rarely reaches the typical teacher in a form that causes lasting change
in their behavior (Desimone, 2009). The challenge is to improve the quality and not the quantity
of professional development being offered (Danielson, 2007). Professional development
opportunities are typically generic models that support the idea that one size fits all. Selection
into these programs occurs almost randomly (Nye et al., 2004). Teachers should attend
conferences that assist them in areas where they have weaknesses. Unfortunately, too many
professional development activities are disconnected from teachers’ actual practice and school
improvement goals (Cohen et al., 2002).
Professional development conferences are rarely designed with attention to the needs of
adult learners (Lutrick & Szabo, 2012). In a survey conducted for the Teacher Commission in
2004, 42 percent of teachers indicated that professional development either leaves something to
be desired or is a waste of time (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). Only 18 percent said that the
professional learning activities offered by their district or school were significant in helping them
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become more effective teachers (Cogshall & Ott, 2010). Although calls for effective professional
development are perennial, there remains a shortage of such programs characterized by
coherence, active learning, sufficient duration, collective participation, a focus on content
knowledge, and reform rather than traditional approaches (Lieberman, 2009). A particular target
for criticism is the prevalence of single-shot, one-day workshops that often make teacher
professional development intellectually superficial, disconnected from deep issues of curriculum
and learning, fragmented, and non-cumulative (Butler, Lauscher, Jarvis-Selinger, &
Beckingham, 2004).
Andragogy
The first use of the term ‘andragogy’ was in 1833 by a German high school teacher
named Alexander Kapp, who used it to describe the educational theory of Plato, and simply saw
it primarily as a word that defines how adults learn (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). In the
1920s, adult education became a field of theorizing in Germany, led by German social scientist
Eugene Rosenstock, who received limited recognition for his work (Drakenwald & Merriam,
1982). Although by the 1950s adult education still was an unclear mixture of practice,
commitment, ideologies, reflections, and theories, the idea of andragogy soon began to spread
across Europe. In 1957, a German teacher named Franz Poggeler published a book called
Introduction into Andragogy: Basic Issues in Adult Education (Cross, 1981). His work soon
caught the attention of an American adult educator, Malcolm Knowles, who eventually
popularized the term andragogy in the United States as “the art and science of helping adults
learn” (Knowles, 1968). Knowles’s work is built upon two central themes: first, a conception of
learners as self-directed and autonomous; and second, a conception of the role of the teacher as a
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facilitator of learning rather than a presenter of content, emphasizing learner choice more than
expert control (Knowles, 1975).
The Theory of Andragogy is based on six assumptions about the characteristics of adult
learners (Knowles, 1980). First, adults are autonomous and self-directed. As a person matures,
their self-concept moves from dependency toward self-direction. Adults need to be free to direct
themselves. Their teachers must actively involve adults in the learning process, where they
become facilitators of learning (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). Second, maturity brings an
accumulating reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. Examples
of such experiences are work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education.
Adults desire to connect these experiences with new knowledge they learn (Davenport &
Davenport, 1985). Third, adults are goal-orientated. Adults enroll in a course to attain a specific
goal. For this reason, they must have clearly defined course descriptions containing goals and
outcomes (Knowles, 1980). Fourth, adults are relevancy-oriented. They must perceive a reason
for learning something. Theories and concepts will be best assimilated if they relate to familiar,
practical situations (Knowles, 1973). Fifth, adults are practical. They are attracted to lessons that
are focused on work-related issues, rather than abstract concepts. They may not be interested in
knowledge for its own sake. Instructors should encourage the need to know the abstract by
explaining its relevance to the job at hand (Knowles, 1984). Finally, adults have established
values, beliefs, and opinions. Like all students, adult learners should be encouraged to voice
opinions in the classroom and challenge the ideas of others in a debate moderated by the
instructor. Each person is entitled to their beliefs, values and lifestyles, yet not everyone in the
room will share these views; thus, respect for individual differences and choices is important,
especially for adults (Drakenwald & Merriam, 1982).
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Recently, an attempt has been made to further define and categorize the six assumptions
of andragogy with the objective of more accurately measuring them. As seen in Table 3, the six
assumptions of andragogy are: self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learn,
motivation to learn, and the need to know (Taylor & Kroth, 2009).

Table 3
Malcolm Knowles ’s Six Assumptions of Adult Learners
Assumption Description
1. Self-concept 1. As a person matures, his/her concept moves from one of being a dependent
personality towards one that is self-directed. Adults tend to resist situations in
which they feel that others are imposing their will on them.
2. Experience 2. As a person matures, he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that
becomes a resource for learning. Adults tend to come into adult education with a
vast amount of experiences compared to that of children. If those prior experiences
can be used, they become the richest resource available.
3. Readiness to
Learn
3. As a person matures, his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented to the
development task of his/her social roles. Readiness to learn is dependent on an
appreciation of the relevancy of the topic to the student.
4. Orientation to
Learn
4. As a person matures, his/her time perspective changes from on e of postponed
application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly, his/her
orientation towards learning shifts from one of subject -centeredness to one of
problem-centeredness. Adults are motivated to learn to the extent in which they
perceive that the knowledge in which they are requiring will help them perform a
task or solve a problem that t hey may be facing in real life.
5. Motivation to
Learn
5. Internal motivation is key as a person matures. Although adults feel the pressure
of external events, they are mostly driven by internal motivation and the desire for
self-esteem and goal attainment.
6. The Need to
Know
6. Adults need to know the reason for learning something. In adult learning, the
first task of the teacher is to help the learner become aware of the need to know.
When adults undertake learning something they deem valuable, they will invest a
considerable amount of resources to it.
Note: Adapted from Taylor, B., & Kroth, M. (2009). Andragogy’s transition into the future:
Meta-analysis of andragogy and its search for a measurable instrument. Journal of Adult
Education Association, 38(1), 1-11.

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To meet the needs of adult learners, instructors must not only have knowledge of their
particular subject or skill, they should also be successful practitioners of it (Taylor & Kroth,
2009). They must be enthusiastic about their subject and about teaching it to others. They also
must have an understanding of the differences in people. They should also have other traits of
personality — such as friendliness, humor, humility, and interest in people — that make for
effectiveness in leading adults (Knowles, 1980). They must be creative in thinking about
teaching methods, and should be willing to experiment with new ways to meet the changing
needs and interests of adults. They must be more concerned with the growth of the individual
than the presentation of facts (Knowles, 1984). Status in the community or occupation group,
and teaching experience, are desirable only when they are compatible with the characteristics of
successful practitioners described above (Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Conclusively, successful
practitioners should be intrigued with the notion that adults are different form children as
learners and express positive pleasure at the prospect of participating in the teaching of adults
(Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Figure 4, entitled Andragogy in Practice, provides a visual description
of Knowles’s Six Assumptions of Adult Learners as they relate to the goals and purposes of
learning, and individual and situational differences.

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Figure 4. Andragogy in practice
Retrieved from: http://eunisim.blogspot.com/2010/08/quality-matters-in-e-learning-6.html

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Critique of Andragogy
Like many enduring ideas, there has been much criticism of Malcolm Knowles and his
Theory of Andragogy. Many see the Theory of Andragogy more as a set of guiding principles
based on observations, than an official research-based theory that has been scientifically
measured and tested (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). It is very difficult to accurately measure
learning when the definition of what it means to learn is continually debated among experts in
the field of education (Jarvis, 1987). Effectiveness is largely determined by learner achievement,
which is often measured by tests and grades (Tennant, 1996). For Knowles, tests and grades are
anathema to the very idea of andragogy. This places researchers in a quagmire because the only
way to produce evidence of andragogy’s legitimacy is by measuring it (Caffarella, Holton, &
Swanson, 2007).
Another aspect of andragogy often questioned by those in the field of education is the
extent to which the assumptions made by Knowles about adult learners are characteristic of all
adult learners (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). Adult learners are not as homogenous as the
Theory of Andragogy implies (Jarvis, 1987). To provide a more complete set of principles about
adult learners, other cognitive, social and cultural differences should be considered (Davenport &
Davenport, 1985). Some feel that embedded within andragogy is an inherently biased view that
accepts an American, male, white, middle-class perspective, while ignoring others with different
backgrounds (Jarvis, 1987). Critics contend that the linear perspective of Knowles’s learning
contract emphasizes Western notions of rationality and analysis, and does not consider the
cultural imperatives and diversity in ways of knowing across cultures worldwide (Rachal, 2002).
This problem may be the consequence of trying to combine too many different types of learning
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into one model consisting of self-directed learning, critical reflection, experiential learning and
more, all residing beneath one large umbrella called the Theory of Andragogy (Tennant, 1996).
Another issue some educational experts have with the Theory of Andragogy is that they
see no major differences between the assumptions in pedagogy and those of andragogy
(Savicevic, 1991). Knowles originally intended for andragogy to be different from pedagogy,
because pedagogy at the time was extremely passive in its approach to teaching and learning
(Savicevic, 1991). Table 4 demonstrates some of these differences.

Table 4
The Assumptions of Traditional Pedagogy and Andragogy
Style of Learning Pedagogy Andragogy
The Learner Dependent. Teacher directs
what, when, how a subject is
learned and tests that it has
been learned.
Moves towards independence. Self-
directing. Teacher encourages and
nurtures this movement.
The Learner’s
Experience
Of little worth. Hence teaching
methods are didactic.
A rich resource for learning. Hence
teaching methods include
discussion, problem-solving, etc.
Readiness to Learn People learn what society
expects them to so that the
curriculum is standardized.
People learn what they need to
know, so that learning programs are
organized around life application.
Orientation to
Learning
Acquisition of subject matter.
Curriculum organized by
subjects.
Learning experiences should be
based around experiences, since
people are performance centered in
their learning.
Note: Jarvis, P. (1987). Malcom Knowles. In Twentieth century thinkers in adult education.
London, UK: Croom Helm.

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The argument can be made today that pedagogy and andragogy are very similar, and that
the assumptions of andragogy can apply to both adults and youth (Day & Baskett, 1982). Some
even argue that people like Knowles pioneered the way for the world of pedagogy to move away
from being a passive-based framework (Brookfield, 1984). After being presented with evidence
that adults do not always learn best with the principles of andragogy, and children do not always
learn best using methods found in pedagogy, Knowles eventually conceded that four of
andragogy’s six key assumptions apply equally to both adults and children (Knowles, 1984).
Thus, he explained that andragogy should now be thought of as learner-focused, and pedagogy
should be looked upon as teacher-directed (Savicevic, 1991).
Although andragogy may not be considered an official theory, its assumptions about
learning in general have been used successfully by educators for many years to assist in teaching
adults new knowledge (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). Those same principles can be utilized
when effective professional development is given to teachers in differentiated instruction. In
addition, it is possible that the foundational framework for learning that andragogy provides will
some day move beyond that of the adult learner to also consider social, political, and cultural
contexts (Knowles et al., 2005).
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory is based on the study of Social Learning originally started by
E. C. Tolman in the 1930s (Haggbloom & Warnick, 2002). He promoted the idea that cognition
is the driving force behind behavior. In 1941, N. E. Miller and J. Dollard launched Social
Learning Theory with the publication of a book called Social Learning and Imitation (Schunk,
2008). Miller and Dollard postulated that human behavior is motivated by internal drives, and
reinforced or extinguished though environmental reinforcement (Miller & Dollard, 1941).
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Although Social Learning theorists like Julian Rotter, Robert Sears, Walter Mischel, and Ronald
Akers did much to extend the work of Miller and Dollard, it was Albert Bandura’s famous study
of aggression in 1961 using Bobo dolls that led to the birth of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura,
Ross, & Ross, 1961).
Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll study, called “The Transmission of Aggression
Through Imitation of Aggressive Models,” assigned twenty-four children to one of three
conditions (Bandura et al., 1961). The experimental design included one group observing
aggressive adult models. A second group observed inhibited non-aggressive models, and subjects
in a control group were given no prior exposure to the behavior of adult models. Groups of
children were also divided by gender, and observed models of the same gender and opposite
gender (Bandura, 1977a). Subjects were then tested to see if they would display aggressive or
inhibited behavior in the absence of the models. The results clearly revealed that subjects
exposed to aggressive models reproduced a great deal of aggression, and that their mean scores
varied significantly from subjects in nonaggressive and control groups (Schunk, 2008). In
addition, imitation was influenced differently by gender, with boys showing more aggression
than girls when exposed to the male adult model (Bandura et al., 1961).
While Bandura’s research on Social Cognitive Theory began with a focus on aggression
and the power of modeling behavior, the theory is also based on the concept of Reciprocal
Determinism (Schunk, 2008). The reciprocal relationship between behavior, personal, and
environmental factors means that altering one area has an impact on each of the others (Schunk,
2008). Figure 5 provides a visual representation of this relationship, which Bandura refers to as
Triadic Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura, 2001).

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Figure 5. Illustration of Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Determinism
Retrieved from:
http//psu.edu/display/PSYCH484/7.+SelfEfficacy+and+Social+Cognitive+Theories

This relationship provides opportunities for the creation of strategies to target behavior.
Such strategies can focus on emotions, cognitive processes, increasing behavioral competencies,
or altering the environment. Prior to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, prevailing behavioral
thought focused primarily on environment, and did not acknowledge the effect an individual’s
own cognitive processes had on behavior, or the extent to which humans can alter their
environment (Miller, 2011). Bandura believes that individuals are both products and producers of
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their own environments and social systems. Social Cognitive Theory is centered on the idea that
people are agents, and have control of their environment and behavior. According to Bandura
(1977a),
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them as to what to do. Fortunately,
most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions
this coded information serves as a guide for action. (p. 153)
What is Self-E fficacy?
Self-efficacy is a key component of Social Cognitive Theory. Self-efficacy is a context-
specific assessment of our own competence to perform a specific task in a given area (Bandura,
1997). This differs from self-esteem, which comprises cognitive appraisals integrated across
various dimensions, which typically involve evaluations of self-worth (Bandura, 1982). Self-
efficacy reflects four areas of influence. Mastery Experience is the most influential factor. It
comes from engaging in an activity and then interpreting the results (Baron, 1988). Humans use
interpretation such as this to develop beliefs about their ability to accomplish similar tasks in the
future. A Mastery Experience has the ability to improve or diminish self-efficacy (Bandura,
1982). Mastery should include some level of difficulty, otherwise people are often discouraged
when immediate results do not occur.
The second influential factor in self-efficacy is the Vicarious Experience, which is
generally weaker than the Mastery Experience, but is important to those who have doubts about
their ability to change a behavior, or have limited experience trying to do so (Baron, 1988).
Modeling also plays an important role in the Vicarious Experience (Bandura, 1997). The third
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important factor of self-efficacy is Social Persuasion (Bandura, 1977b). Social Persuasion occurs
when people hear comments from others regarding their behavior and abilities (Mathisen &
Bronnick, 2009). This is another factor that influences our belief system. Unfortunately, human
nature is such that it is easier to have a detrimental influence with negative comments than it is to
have a positive influence with encouraging statements (Bandura, 1986). Finally, Physiological
States refer to both physical and emotional states of mind that ultimately affect self-efficacy
(Baron, 1988). Anxiety, stress, depression, good health and joy are all examples of this. Figure 6
is a visual representation of the four areas of influence within self-efficacy.

Figure 6. Self-efficacy theory components
Retrieved from: http//jcmc.indiana.edu

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There is a wealth of research that describes the role of self-efficacy specifically in
relation to educators. Teachers affect students’ actions and perceptions, and the self-efficacy of a
teacher is an influential predictor of how a teacher performs (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). What a
teacher believes about his ability is strongly associated with how he works, performs, and is
motivated (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs generate
stronger student achievement than teachers with lower self-efficacy. Teachers with high self-
efficacy measures are more likely to try new teaching ideas that involve risk, and require that
control is shared with students (Gecas, 1989). They are also more likely to use classroom
management techniques that support student autonomy (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011).
Teachers with strong self-efficacy attend more closely to the needs of lower ability students
(Karademas, 2006). Conversely, low self-efficacy teachers concentrate their efforts on upper
ability groups, giving less attention to lower ability students, whom the teachers view as potential
sources of disruption (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Teacher efficacy forms early during pre-service
experiences and the beginning years of teaching, and then remains relatively stable thereafter
(Goddard, 2002). The good news is that teacher beliefs are found to be malleable (Gibson &
Dembo, 1984). Increased teacher efficacy occurs when teachers accumulate experiences in
which they perceive themselves as professionally masterful, observe teachers like themselves
being successful, persuade each other that they can teach the new curriculum, and, finally,
engage in stress-reduction practices (Midgely, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989).
Figure 7 shows four types of self-efficacy for teachers, each of which is instrumental in
explaining how teachers teach and their willingness to persist even when the odds appear to be
stacked against them. Behavioral self-efficacy as a teacher is the self-belief in one’s capability as
a teacher to perform specific actions to deal with unpredictable teaching situations (Locke,
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Frederick, Lee, & Bobko, 1984). Cognitive self-efficacy as a teacher is the self-belief in one’s
capability as a teacher to exercise control over one’s thinking in specific teaching situations
(Midgely et al., 1989). Emotional self-efficacy as a teacher is the self-belief in one’s capability as
a teacher to exercise control over one’s emotions in specific teaching situations (Veenman,
1984). Cultural self-efficacy as a teacher is the self-belief in one’s capability as a teacher to
perform specific actions in culturally appropriate ways in specific situations (Weinstein, 1998).
These kinds of self-efficacy interact with each other. An effective teacher usually has a strong
belief in her capability to exercise control over her emotions, behavior, and thinking, and is
secure in her beliefs about her capacity to teach effectively in culturally appropriate ways
(Trentham, 1985). The purpose of teacher education is to assist student teachers in
understanding, explaining, and using self-efficacy to mediate what they know, can do, and how
they teach (Veenman, 1984).
There are several different influences on teacher self-efficacy. In Figure 7, five influential
terms in particular are shown, which are neither mutually exclusive nor independent. The first
term is performance accomplishment. Performance accomplishment is the most influential
source of self-efficacy information (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). Success perceived as
genuine builds a robust sense of self-efficacy (Zimmerman, 2000). On the other hand, failure
perceived as genuine undermines self-efficacy (Zimmerman, 2000). Thus, teacher education
programs should enable student teachers to realistically and constructively perceive and attribute
their successes and failures.

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Figure 7. The relationship between teacher outcome expectations, self-efficacy as a teacher, and
teacher action

Retrieved from: www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002390.htm

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The second influential term in Figure 7 is the vicarious experience. Modeling the
behavior of significant others can strengthen self-efficacy (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). While
vicarious experiences are usually weaker than direct experiences, they are further strengthened
by deliberate strategies that encourage the observer to self-reflect on their personal beliefs about
competence and capability in similar situations (Karademas, 2006). The impact of vicarious
experience depends on the observer’s perception of similarity with the model, the perceived
influential power of the model, and the similarity between the observed and new situations and
tasks (Goddard, 2002). Student teaching provides an interesting exemplar of vicarious
experience. If associate teachers are to be vicarious models for student teachers, then the
matching of student teacher with associate teachers deserves particular attention.
The third influential term is verbal persuasion. Verbal persuasion may strengthen student
teachers’ self-efficacy. Student teachers who are persuaded verbally that they possess the
capabilities to overcome specific difficulties are likely to mobilize greater effort and to persist
longer (Evers, Brouwers, & Tomic, 2010). However, verbal persuasion may be limited in its
power to promote enduring change when the learner does not believe in what is being said to her.
The fourth influential term in Figure 7 is emotional and physiological arousal. Emotional and
physiological arousal impairs or enhances self-efficacy beliefs, and thereby influences
subsequent performance (Zimmerman, 2000). Mood despondency, anxiety, and depression are
likely to have a negative effect on self-efficacy, in that the teacher is less likely to believe that
she can make a difference in challenging situations (Karademas, 2006). The last influential term
found in the red section of Figure 7 is imaginal-symbolization. Imaginal-symbolization occurs
when teachers visualize or imagine themselves performing in particular situations (Zimmerman,
2000). Imaginal-symbolization provides a source of information for teachers which affects their
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self-efficacy and thereby their performance (Evers et al., 2010). When used intentionally in
teacher education programs, it can serve as a potentially powerful way to enhance self-efficacy
(Ambrose et al., 2010).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory, as created by Bandura, continues to expand today through the
work of Bandura and other experts in the field of psychology. However, it is also important to
recognize that Social Cognitive Theory has both strengths and weaknesses. The strengths of
Social Cognitive Theory are that it contains reasonable, yet dynamic viewpoints, and applicable
concepts (Pajares, 2003). The theory is also easily universalized, has cross-disciplinary potential,
and is an evolving theory (Bandura, 2001). Social Cognitive Theory has a dynamic viewpoint,
because it focuses on complex interrelationships between various factors, such as people, the
environment, and their behavior, instead of isolating its view to one aspect of learning
(Mazziotta, Mummendey, & Wright, 2011). Concepts within Social Cognitive Theory, such as
self-efficacy and self-regulation, are applicable because they are relatively simple to discover,
learn and implement (Bandura, 1982). Social Cognitive Theory is also easily universalized
because it allows for cross-cultural analysis. It does not judge values or morality. It seeks to
identify how certain types of behavior are more acceptable in some situations and cultures than
others (Zimmerman, 2000). Social Cognitive Theory can be applied in a wide array of academic
sciences involving the study of behavior, the environment, and cognitive processes (Mathisen &
Bronnick, 2009). Lastly, Social Cognitive Theory continues to be an evolving theory, with a
variety of new theorists expanding on it with new information and experimentation.
Conversely, Social Cognitive Theory also has its weaknesses. It is loosely structured,
minimizes emotional responses, ignores biological differences and hormonal responses, neglects
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maturation and lifespan behavior changes, and ignores psychological problems that may arise in
individuals (Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002). Social Cognitive Theory is so broad that it is helpful
to focus on sub-categories like self-efficacy and self-regulation for specific and effective
strategies to be implemented. Social Cognitive Theory minimizes emotional responses largely
determined by genetic factors that are predetermined and have little relation to what people
observe (Schwarzer & Born, 1997). Much like emotions, Social Cognitive Theory ignores the
influence of hormones and their effect on the decision-making process (Glanz et al., 2002).
Social Cognitive Theory supporters assume that behavior is learned primarily by observation,
expectation, and reinforcement (Zimmerman, 2000). However, as people grow older, their
environment often stays the same while behavioral patterns in themselves change (Zhang &
Schwarzer, 1995). Lastly, the paradigm provided by Social Cognitive Theory supports the view
that anti-social behavior can be eliminated through reinforcement and self-efficacy training
(Etzioni, 1988). Nevertheless, psychological pathologies like schizophrenia are caused primarily
by neural defects or chemical imbalances in the brain. People with psychological disorders are
not always in control of their behavior (Gecas, 1989).
Computer-Assisted Instruction
Computer-assisted instruction can and should be used as a tool to provide differentiated
instruction (DeLay, 2010). Using technology in conjunction with differentiated instruction will
help to create 21st century learners (Haynes, 2010). Teachers must do all they can to
communicate effectively with students and provide them with a platform which enables them to
reciprocate. Students of the millennial generation are considered to be digital natives, exhibiting
an intuitive approach to digital interaction (Haynes, 2010). When this is excluded from the
curriculum, teachers fail to address this major avenue for student learning (Chariker, Naaz, &
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Pani, 2012). This means that the platform for communicating about new information must
include the language in which students feel most comfortable — in this case, the language of
computer technology. Some teachers do not fall into the millennial generation, and find
technology difficult to infuse into their teaching; however, that does not mean it should be
ignored as a useful tool that teachers can utilize to provide differentiated instruction (Watson &
Watson, 2011). The use of computers makes teachers far more effective in tracking both
formative and summative data used to differentiate instruction (Tomlinson, 2005).
With regard to students, several studies have articulated the benefits of using computer-
assisted instruction in the classroom. The first benefit is that computer-assisted instruction
personalizes information (Ambrose et al., 2010). Second, by animating objects on the screen,
teaching is more likely to engage students (Ambrose et al., 2010). Third, computer-assisted
instruction provides opportunities for students to practice skills that incorporate curiosity and
challenge (Watson & Watson, 2011). Fourth, computer-assisted instruction also provides
contextual factors that engage the learner — for example, unrealistic fantasy scenarios (Watson
& Watson, 2011). Finally, computer-assisted instruction provides choice to the learner (Ambrose
et al., 2010). Although these beneficial factors of computer-assisted instruction may seem only
useful when using it to teach children, adults also benefit from engaging lessons created through
the use of computer-assisted instruction.
Figure 8 identifies computer-assisted instruction as one of three computer-related
strategies used by teachers.

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Figure 8. Computer-assisted instruction in the classroom
Retrieved from: http://economics-etec511
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Although most of the research in relation to computer-assisted instruction focuses on
increasing student and not teacher learning, it is fair to assume that adults can also benefit from
its use (Gibson, Harris, & Colaric, 2008). The integration of computer-assisted instruction into
courses with adult learners is beneficial to them in many aspects (Kelly, 2006). The use of
technology with adults improves education attainment and skill acquisition (Diaz & Cartnal,
1999). It also reduces educational disparities created by race, income, and region (Gibson,
Harris, & Colaric, 2008). In addition, adults who use computer technology to learn, improve
their relationship between learning, assessment, and effectiveness (Gulati, 2008). The use of
computer-assisted instruction provides a relevant context for learning, accommodates
differences, and sustains learning (Rybarczyk, 2007). Finally, the use of computer-assisted
instruction provides greater access to learning opportunities, while empowering and motivating
adults to learn (Rybarczyk, 2007).
Conclusion
Research demonstrates that differentiated instruction is far more than just a collection of
good teaching practices (Tomlinson, 2005). The critical elements of differentiated instruction
include: providing learners with different levels of expectation for task completion; several
routes to achieve the same goal; the integration of ongoing assessment with instruction through
the use of formative and summative assessments; the demonstration of knowledge through
various products; and, most importantly, student choice (Logan, 2011). The terminology to
describe these differentiated instruction strategies may differ slightly, but most share the themes
mentioned above.
Effective professional development occurs when there is a focus on content (Leiberman,
2009). It also takes place when students are given the opportunity to actively learn (Desimone,
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2009). Effective professional development is also more likely to occur when common conceptual
frameworks are used to provide coherence of instruction (Cohen et al., 2002). Finally, effective
professional development involves collective participation. Not surprisingly, the components of
the Theory of Andragogy often coincide with good practices in delivering effective professional
development. By understanding that adult learners need to know why they are learning
something, learn experientially through problem solving, and learn best when subjects are of
immediate value, effective professional development can be shaped to meet the needs of adult
learners (Knowles, 1984).
There is a wealth of research that describes the role of self-efficacy specifically in
relation to educators. Teachers affect students’ actions and perceptions, and the self-efficacy of a
teacher is an influential predictor of how he or she performs (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). What a
teacher believes about his ability is strongly associated with how he works, performs, and is
motivated (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs generate
stronger student achievement than teachers with lower self-efficacy. Teachers with high self-
efficacy measures are more likely to try new teaching ideas that involve ris k and require that
control is shared with students (Gecas, 1989). They are also more likely to use classroom
management techniques that support student autonomy (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011).
Teachers with strong self-efficacy attend more closely to the needs of lower ability students
(Karademas, 2006).
Finally, several studies have articulated the benefits of using computer-assisted
instruction in the classroom. The first benefit is that computer-assisted instruction personalizes
information (Ambrose et al., 2010). Second, animating objects on a screen is more likely to
engage students (Ambrose et al., 2010). Third, computer-assisted instruction provides
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opportunities for students to practice skills that incorporate curiosity and challenge (Watson &
Watson, 2011). Fourth, computer-assisted instruction also provides contextual factors that
engage the learner — for example, unrealistic fantasy scenarios (Watson & Watson, 2011).
Finally, computer-assisted instruction provides choice to the learner (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Although these beneficial factors of computer-assisted instruction may seem only useful when
using it to teach children, adults also benefit from engaging lessons created through the use of
computer-assisted instruction.
The following chapter will describe the methodology used to address the research
questions. Questionnaires and interviews were used to describe the growth — or lack thereof —
in self-efficacy among teachers in two of Hawaii’s Catholic schools to provide differentiated
instruction to their students, once exposed to effective professional development utilizing the
principles of the Theory of Andragogy.

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study examined an initiative by a Catholic school in Hawaii to increase its teachers’
use of differentiated instruction. To accomplish this objective, research was compiled and
examined to determine if participation in effective professional development had any effects on
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Secondly, the research also defined what types of
professional development effectively increase teacher self-efficacy in the delivery of
differentiated instruction. In addition, computer-assisted instruction was afforded to teachers to
assess whether they were more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students than
teachers who did not utilize those same resources. Research confirms that there is a correlation
between student achievement and the use of differentiated instruction (Rivers & Sanders, 1996),
and effective use of differentiated instruction with students is highly affected by the quality of
professional development given (Guskey, 2000). This study investigated the extent to which
effective professional development and the use of computer-assisted instruction builds self-
efficacy in teachers to deliver differentiated instruction in their classrooms. This chapter
describes the research questions, research design, population and sample, instrumentation, and
procedures for data collection and analysis.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study were:
1. Is there a correlation between participation in effective professional development and
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction?
2. What kind of professional development instruction do teachers perceive to be the
most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiation instruction?
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3. Are teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the
use of computer-assisted instruction?
Research Design
The research methods used in this mixed methods research study (Creswell, 2009) were
both formative and summative in nature, and determined the degree to which self-efficacy to
deliver differentiated instruction increased with participation in effective professional
development. Data limitations made it difficult to find a cause and effect relationship between
effective professional development and an increase in self-efficacy to provide differentiated
instruction. Knowing that limitation beforehand, this case study was non-experimental, and
simply consisted of teacher interviews and the use of a survey (Creswell, 2009). The researcher
conducting this study used existing scales/instrumentation, along with original items, and
collected the data that was examined.
The first research question was addressed through the use of a MSLQ survey at the
beginning and end of the case study. The survey helped to identify the levels of self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction among teachers in this case study as a whole group, and as smaller
groups divided by age, years of experience teaching, and gender. Teachers in this study brought
with them a wide range of experiences with differentiated instruction. Their self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction as a single group was represented by a combined average or mean. A
paired sample t-test was used to determine the effect of professional development on self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction among teachers. The pre-test and post-test responses of the
teachers on the survey were compared to determine the possible influence of effective
professional development on self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. A comparative approach
was used to provide the researcher with the ability to compare two variables with one another in
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order to determine whether there was a relationship between the two (Cozby, 2007). By
measuring the difference between the mean for self-efficacy in differentiated instruction among
teachers at Holy Cross School at the beginning of the study, and at the end of the study, the
objective was to discover if the overall mean of self-efficacy in differentiated instruction would
grow after effective professional development in differentiated instruction was provided both in
person and online for a period of six months. In addition, separating the 88 teachers in this study
based on age, years of experience, and gender, provided more insight into how those variables
make a difference in teachers’ self-efficacy for differentiated instruction.
The second and third research questions were addressed through the use of a series of
interview questions created to determine the types of high-quality professional development
teachers perceived to be the most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction, including how the use of computer-assisted instruction made it more likely for
teachers to provide differentiated instruction. Most of the interview questions were purposefully
open-ended, in order to gain a deeper understanding of why certain types of high-quality
professional development were more effective in building the self-efficacy of teachers to provide
differentiated instruction. Open-ended interview questions were also used to determine why
computer-assisted instruction would make it more likely that teachers would provide
differentiated instruction to their students, compared to those teachers who did not use computer-
assisted instruction during their professional development training (Creswell, 2009). In addition,
a standardized protocol was developed to ensure that all teachers interviewed were asked the
same questions by an outside interviewer (Creswell, 2009).
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Population and Sample
The target population of this case study comprised approximately 823 teachers employed
in Hawaii’s Catholic schools. When finding a sample to study as part of a case study such as this,
it is beneficial that the sample embodies the characteristics of the larger group of which they are
a part (Creswell, 2009). The sample of teachers selected for this case study was based in part on
the premise that the 88 teachers of Holy Cross School fairly represent educators employed in all
Catholic schools in Hawaii.
Holy Cross School is a private non-profit Catholic coeducational institution located in the
eastern section of the city of Honolulu, in the state of Hawaii. This urban school is composed of
two campuses, and has been in existence for the last eighty-six years. The elementary and middle
school campus is approximately one quarter of a mile away from the high school campus.
Tuition at Holy Cross School is currently $14,230 dollars annually. There are 88 full-time
teachers working at Holy Cross School, with 42 teachers in the elementary and middle school,
and 38 working in the high school. The teacher population in the school is approximately 63%
Asian, 21% White, 12% Pacific Islander, and 6% other (Roman Catholic Church in the State of
Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013). Teaching experience ranges from less than a year to 40
years total, with approximately 36% of teachers with 0-10 years teaching experience, a little over
31% of teachers with 11-20 years teaching experience, and nearly 31% of teachers with 21-40
years teaching experience. About 61% of teachers are women, with almost 39% of them being
men (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013). With regard
to age, approximately 42% of teachers are twenty to forty years old, while nearly 47% of
teachers at Holy Cross School fall between the ages of forty-one and sixty. Nine teachers
between the ages of sixty-one and eighty years old make up the almost 10% of the remaining
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faculty. Finally, as with most Catholic schoolteachers in Hawaii, a majority of teachers at Holy
Cross School do not have degrees in education, with only 25 teachers holding an MA or BA in
Elementary or Secondary Education.
The sample size of 88 teachers at Holy Cross School was a non-random sample — this
was an example of convenience sampling, because the teachers in this sample population were
available to the researcher, who controls professional development training at the site and can
determine what the independent variables will be (Creswell, 2009). The 88 teachers at Holy
Cross School represent a non-random sample, which is not very large in relation to the
population it represents. However, the results of this case study may provide reason to research
further into the effects of effective professional development on teachers’ self-efficacy to provide
differentiated instruction. Finally, a pseudonym was used as the name of the school in this study
to protect the identity of those who took part in it.
Instrumentation
The survey protocol used in the case study is called the MSLQ (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia,
& McKeachie, 1993). A subscale of that survey, Expectancy Component: Self-Efficacy for
Learning and Performance, was adapted by the researcher to meet the specific needs of this case
study (Appendix A). The survey aimed to measure self-efficacy for delivering differentiated
instruction, so the original terminology found in the self-efficacy subscale of the MSLQ reflects
that content. For example, the first question in the Expectancy Component: Self-Efficacy for
Learning and Performance subscale of the MSLQ states, “I believe I will receive an excellent
grade in this class.” The newly adjusted question stated, “I believe I can meet the needs of
diverse learners in my classroom.” In addition, questions five and seven of the subscale were
reversed to keep participants from rushing, and rating each question on the Likert Scale using the
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same number. The survey addressed the first research question: finding if there is a correlation
between participation in effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction. The reliability of the survey prior to its adaptation to differentiated instruction was an
Alpha of .93.
The data for the self-efficacy scores for both pre-professional development training and
post-professional development training were the combined scores of the eight subscales of the
MSLQ. The combined score was the composite score for self-efficacy, obtained by summing the
responses of the eight questions. The composite score for the pre-professional development
training for each teacher measures the self-efficacy for differentiated instruction before the
professional development training. The composite score for the post-professional development
training for each teacher measures the self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after the
professional development training.
In addition, a Pearson’s correlation test was completed to determine if teachers with
fewer years of teaching experience had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction before
undergoing effective professional development training. Furthermore, an ANOVA test was
completed to determine if gender played a role in teachers’ self-efficacy for providing
differentiated instruction.
The second instrument used in the case study was an interview protocol developed by the
researcher. The interview protocol contained eight open-ended questions that addressed both the
second and third research questions in the case study, with the objective of gaining a deeper
understanding of the delivery methods of professional development that were most effective in
building self-efficacy for differentiated instruction in teachers (Creswell, 2009). Three of the
questions within the teacher interview protocol aimed to discover if teachers were more likely to
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provide differentiated instruction to students because they used computer-assisted instruction, in
addition to professional development given in person. For example, one question asked, “Are
you more likely to provide differentiated instruction in addition to professional development
provided to you in person? If yes, why? If no, why?” Finally, the last two questions of the survey
determined to what extent the teacher had successfully learned to differentiate instruction.
Data Collection
Data were collected in the form of surveys and interviews. First, a formative pre-
assessment was handed out to all 88 teachers of Holy Cross School who were participants in this
study, immediately upon their return to school for professional development training in late
August of 2013 (Appendix A). Teachers were asked to hand in hard copies of the survey before
leaving for their classrooms. In addition to this, a total of five personalized ninety-minute
professional development sessions took place, once a month, including all 88 teachers of Holy
Cross School. Moreover, computer-assisted instructional software called PD360 was used by the
participants of this study to view videos about differentiated instruction, reflect upon what was
learned, and apply that new knowledge in their classrooms. The amount of time spent watching
professional development videos about differentiated instruction, reflections about what was
learned, and reports on the application of those principles, were collected in digital form on-line
through PD360.
In December of 2013, the same assessment previously given on paper to all 88 teachers
of Holy Cross School who were participants in this study was provided once again, to be used as
a summative post-assessment (Appendix A). In addition to that, a sample of five teachers from
grades K-5, 6-8, 9-10, and 11-12, totaling 20 teachers out of the 88 teachers involved in the case
study were asked to answer questions found in the interview protocol (Appendix B). Those
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interviews were conducted individually by an outside interviewer, and consisted of thirty-minute
sessions per teacher, recorded digitally and transcribed at a later time. By January of 2014, all of
the data needed for this study were collected.
Data Analysis
The data collected in this case study were analyzed using a mixed methods approach. The
first research question, pertaining to participation in effective professional development and its
effects on self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, was addressed using a paired samples t-test.
The paired t-test determined the statistical significance of the mean paired differences between
the groups of pre- and post-test responses from the same survey. Significant differences between
the pre- and post-tests were rejected when the computed p-level was equal to or less than the
level of significance of 0.05. The means of the composite scores of the eight-item subscales of
self-efficacy attained on the MSLQ survey pre- and post-test scores were compared using the
paired sample t-test.
The second and third research questions, with regard to the types of professional
development teachers perceive to be the most effective in building their self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, including the use of computer-assisted instruction, were analyzed after
reviewing the data gathered from the interview protocol questions (Appendix B). This qualitative
approach to collecting data was used by the researcher to analyze the effectiveness of effective
professional development in differentiated instruction, through the lenses provided by the
theories implemented in the planning of the professional development sessions of this case study.
When effective professional development was given, answers to the interview protocol questions
reflected the principles found in the Theory of Andragogy, Social Cognitive Theory, and
Guskey’s components of effective professional development. In addition, the interview protocol
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questions also determined if the use of computer-assisted instruction ultimately led to teachers
feeling more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students. Finally, the answers to
the interview protocol questions differed based on the age, years of experience and gender of the
respondents involved, leading the researcher to identify relationships between growth in self-
efficacy to provide differentiated instruction to students based on those variables.

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The objective of this mixed methods study was first to determine if participation in
effective professional development has any significant influence on teachers’ self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction. This will help to determine if the initiative by the Catholic school in
this study to increase its teachers’ self-efficacy for use of differentiated instruction was
successful. The study also investigated the extent to which different types of professional
development strategies, including the use of computer-assisted instruction, are most effective in
building self-efficacy in teachers. This study was guided by the following research questions:
 Is there a correlation between participation in effective professional development and
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction?
 What kind of professional development instruction do teachers perceive to be the
most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiation instruction?
 Are teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the
use of computer-assisted instruction?
This chapter begins with a summary of the demographic information of the teachers in
this study. A descriptive statistical analysis was also conducted to summarize the quantitative
data from the survey responses in the MSLQ, to address the first research question, including a
test of normality, a paired sample t-test, a Pearson’s correlation test, and an ANOVA test, to
further address research question one. The chapter continues with the sharing of qualitative data
collected in the form of interviews in response to the second and third research questions.
Finally, this chapter ends with a summary of the findings from the study.

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Participant Characteristics
The sample in this study included 88 teachers from a Catholic school in Hawaii. Table 5
summarizes the ages and years of experience of the teachers, while Table 6 summarizes the
breakdown of genders among the 88 teachers. It can be seen that the mean age of the 88 teachers
was 41.93 years, and the age range among the 88 teachers was 23 to 72 years old. The mean
years of experience of the 88 teachers was 17.41 years, and the range of years of experience
among the 88 teachers was 1 to 40 years. In terms of gender breakdown, there was a significantly
higher number of female teachers, who comprised 54 out of the 88 (61.4%) participating
teachers; male teachers comprised only 34 (38.6%) of the teachers.

Table 5
Summary of Age and Years of Experience of the Teachers
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Age 88 23 72 41.93 11.88
Years of Experience 88 1 40 17.41 11.11

Table 6
Summary of Gender of the Teachers

N Percent
Female 54 61.4
Male 34 38.6
Total 88 100

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Results of Research Question One
The first research question asked if there is a correlation between effective professional
development and self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. This question was addressed through
an analysis of quantitative data collected from a survey protocol called the MSLQ (Pintrich et al.,
1993). A subscale of that survey, Expectancy Component: Self-Efficacy for Learning and
Performance, was adapted by the researcher to meet the specific needs of this case study
(Appendix A). The survey aimed to measure self-efficacy for delivering differentiated
instruction, so the terminology found in the self-efficacy subscale of the MSLQ reflects that
content. The MSLQ survey helped to identify the levels of self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction among teachers in this case study. By measuring the difference between the mean
self-efficacy in differentiated instruction among teachers at Holy Cross School at the beginning
of the study, and at the end of the study, the objective was to discover if the overall mean self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction increased after effective professional development in
differentiated instruction was provided, both in person and online, for a period of six months.
The descriptive statistics of the pre-professional development training and post-professional
development training scores specifically categorize the responses to each question in the MSLQ
survey. These descriptive statistics are summarized in Table 7.

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Table 7
Descriptive Statistics of the Responses to the 8 Subscales of MSLQ Survey

N Min Max Mean
Std.
Dev
1. I believe I can meet the diverse needs of students in
my classroom (Pre)
88 1 4 2.30 0.81
1. I believe I can meet the diverse needs of students in
my classroom (Post)
88 5 7 6.01 0.74
2. I’m certain I can understand the most difficult
reading materials related to meeting the needs of
diverse learners (Pre)
88 1 3 1.86 0.66
2. I’m certain I can understand the most difficult
reading materials related to meeting the needs of
diverse learners (Post)
88 4 7 5.63 0.70
3. I’m confident I can understand the basic concepts
associated with meeting the needs of diverse learners
(Pre)
88 1 3 2.03 0.67
3. I’m confident I can understand the basic concepts
associated with meeting the needs of diverse learners
(Post)
88 5 7 6.36 0.61
4. I can’t understand the most basic concepts associated
with meeting the needs of diverse learners as
presented by the instructor (Pre)
88 1 4 2.28 0.83
4. I can’t understand the most basic concepts associated
with meeting the needs of diverse learners as
presented by the instructor (Post)
88 5 7 6.49 0.53
5. I’m confident I can do an excellent job on
assignments and tests that assess my knowledge of
strategies associated with meeting the needs of
diverse learners (Pre)
88 1 2 1.40 0.49
5. I’m confident I can do an excellent job on
assignments and tests that assess my knowledge of
strategies associated with meeting the needs of
diverse learners (Post)
88 5 7 6.18 0.56

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Table 7, continued

N Min Max Mean
Std.
Dev
6. I expect to do well when learning about the needs of
diverse learners (Pre)
88 4 7 5.92 0.70
6. I expect to do well when learning about the needs of
diverse learners (Post)
88 6 7 6.81 0.40
7. I am uncertain that I can master the skill of meeting
the needs of diverse learners (Pre)
88 1 4 1.76 0.66
7. I am uncertain that I can master the skill of meeting
the needs of diverse learners (Post)
88 5 7 6.05 0.62
8. Considering the difficulty of teaching students at
various academic levels, the instructor, and my
skills, I think that I will do well in learning how to
differentiate instruction to meet the needs of diverse
learners (Pre)
88 1 4 2.13 0.76
8. Considering the difficulty of teaching students at
various academic levels, the instructor, and my
skills, I think that I will do well in learning how to
differentiate instruction to meet the needs of diverse
learners (Post)
88 5 7 6.25 0.53

The mean comparison showed that the post-professional development training scores for
each of the 8 items in the MSLQ were higher than the pre-professional development training
scores. This indicates that effective professional development resulted in teachers having higher
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Specifically, the higher scores indicated that the
statements were “very true” for the teachers in this study. Seven out of the 8 subscales in this
study had mean scores between the rating scales of 6 and 7, where 7 was the highest possible
score. These seven subscales include item no. 1, “I believe I can meet the diverse needs of
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students in my classroom” (M = 6.01); item no. 3, “I’m confident I can understand the basic
concepts associated with meeting the needs of diverse learners” (M = 6.36); item no. 4, “I can’t
understand the most basic concepts associated with meeting the needs of diverse learners as
presented by the instructor” (M = 6.49); item no. 5, “I’m confident I can do an excellent job on
assignments and tests that assess my knowledge of strategies associated with meeting the needs
of diverse learners” (M = 6.18); item no. 6, “I expect to do well when learning about the needs of
diverse learners” (M = 6.81); item no. 7, “I am uncertain that I can master the skill of meeting the
needs of diverse learners” (M = 6.05); and item no. 8, “Considering the difficulty of teaching
students at various academic levels, the instructor, and my skills, I think that I will do well in
learning how to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners” (M = 6.25).
Test for Normality
Prior to conducting a statistical analysis of the paired sample t-test to address research
question one, normality testing was conducted to ensure that the data for self-efficacy scores
were normally distributed. Parametric statistical tests such as a t-test require that data be
normally distributed. Histograms of the study self-efficacy scores were investigated (see
Figure 9).
The histograms for the pre- and post-professional development training self-efficacy
scores show that the spread of data form bell-shaped curves representing the curve of normality,
although the representations are not perfect bell-shaped curves. The bell-shaped curves of the
histograms show that the pre- and post-professional development training self-efficacy scores
were normally distributed. Thus, the paired sample t-test is valid, since the study variables
exhibited normal distribution. The data set did not violate the required assumption.

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Figure 9. Histograms of study variables

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Descriptive Statistics of Composite Scores for Self-E fficacy
The descriptive statistics of the composite scores for the pre- and post-professional
development training for self-efficacy were investigated. The composite scores were the summed
scores of the responses on the 8-item MSLQ questionnaire. The descriptive statistics are
summarized in Table 8. The mean comparison shows that the mean post-professional
development training self-efficacy scores (M = 49.77) were greater than the mean pre-
professional development training self-efficacy scores (M = 19.68). This shows that the teachers
had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after undergoing the effective professional
development training. The post-professional development training self-efficacy scores have
higher minimum (45) and maximum (54) values than the minimum (12) and maximum (29)
values of the pre-professional development training self-efficacy scores. However, this finding is
further investigated in the paired t-test to determine whether the mean difference is significant.

Table 8
Descriptive Statistics Summary
N Min Max Mean Std. Dev
Pre-PD training self-efficacy scores 88 12 29 19.68 4.02
Post-PD training self-efficacy scores 88 45 54 49.77 1.85

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Paired T-Test of Difference Results Between Pre- and Post-PD Training Self-E fficacy
Scores
A t-test was conducted to statistically compare the pre- and post-professional
development training self-efficacy composite scores of the teachers. Specifically, a paired t-test
statistical procedure was used to calculate the mean differences between the pre- and post-
training responses of the same subject. The paired t-test determined the statistical significance of
the mean paired differences between the two dependent groups of the pre- and post-training
responses of the MLSQ. A level of significance of 0.05 was used in the statistical testing.
The resulting statistics of the paired sample t-test are summarized in Table 9; they show a
statistically significant mean difference between the pre- and post-professional development
training self-efficacy composite scores of the teachers (t(87) = -72.27; p = 0.00). This is because
the p-value (sig.) of the t-test is less than the level of significance value of 0.05. The mean post-
professional development training self-efficacy score was significantly higher — by 30.09 —
than the pre-professional development training self-efficacy score. This also suggests that the
teachers in the study had significantly higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after
undergoing effective professional development training.
These results address research question one by showing that there is a correlation
between effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. This
implies that effective professional development resulted in a positive change in the self-efficacy
levels of the teachers.

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Table 9
Paired Samples T-test of Mean Difference Between Pre- and Post-PD Training Self-Efficacy
Scores
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference

Mean
Std.
Dev
Std. Error
Mean Lower Upper t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Pre-PD training
self-efficacy
scores – Post-
PD training
self-efficacy
scores
-30.09 3.91 0.42 -30.92 -29.26 -72.27 87 0.00

Correlation of Self-E fficacy with Age, Years of E xperience, and Gender
Additional tests were conducted to determine the effect of demographic variables of age,
years of teaching, and gender on the teachers’ self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction.
This analysis determined whether there were differences in growth of self-efficacy among all 88
participants based on age, years of experience, and gender.
First, a Pearson’s correlation test was conducted to determine the relationship of age and
years of experience to the teachers’ self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction. Pearson’s
correlation test was used since the data for age, years of experience, and self-efficacy scores
were continuous variables. A level of significance of 0.05 was used in the hypothesis testing — a
significant relationship exists once the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance
value. The Pearson’s correlation test also investigated the degree of the correlation (positive or
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negative) and the strength of the correlation. The analysis was conducted for both the pre-test
and post-test data. The results of the Pearson’s correlation test are summarized in Table 10.

Table 10
Correlation Results of Self-Efficacy with Age and Years of Experience in Teaching

Age Years of Experience
Pre-PD training self-efficacy scores Pearson Correlation -0.81* -0.79*

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.00 0.00

N 88 88
Post-PD training self-efficacy scores Pearson Correlation -0.29* -0.30*

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.01 0.00

N 88 88
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The results show that the pre-professional development self-efficacy scores were
significantly negatively related to age (r (88) = -0.81, p = 0.00) and years of experience in
teaching (r (88) = -0.79, p = 0.00). This suggests that the teachers with lower age and fewer
years of experience in teaching have higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction before
undergoing professional development training. On the other hand, the post-professional
development self-efficacy scores are also significantly negatively related to age (r (88) = -0.29,
p = 0.01) and years of experience in teaching (r (88) = -0.30, p = 0.00). This suggests that the
teachers with lower age and fewer years of teaching experience also have higher self-efficacy for
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differentiated instruction after undergoing professional development training. The self-efficacy
of the teachers varied as their ages and years of teaching experience differentiated.
Second, an ANOVA test was conducted to determine the relationship of the teachers’
gender to their self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction. ANOVA was used since the
data for gender — the independent variable — was a categorical variable, and self-efficacy
scores — the dependent variable — were continuous variables. A level of significance of 0.05
was used in the hypothesis testing — a significant relationship exists when the p-value is less
than or equal to the level of significance value. The analysis was conducted for both the pre-test
and post-test data. The results of the ANOVA test are summarized in Table 11.

Table 11
Correlation Results of Self-Efficacy and Gender

Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Pre-PD training self-efficacy
scores
Between Groups 12.55 1 12.55 0.78 0.38
Within Groups 1392.54 86 16.19
Total 1405.09 87
Post-PD training self-efficacy
scores
Between Groups 0.88 1 0.88 0.25 0.62
Within Groups 296.58 86 3.45
Total 297.46 87

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The results of the ANOVA test show that the pre-professional development self-efficacy
scores (F (1, 86) = 0.78, p = 0.38) and post-professional development self-efficacy scores (r (1,
86) = 0.25, p = 0.62) were not related to the teachers’ gender. This suggests that self-efficacy to
provide differentiated instruction is not significantly different as the gender of teachers vary.
Results of Research Question Two
The objective of the second research question was to determine the types of professional
development instruction that teachers perceive to be the most effective in building their self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction. Questions 1, 2, and 3 of the Teacher Interview Protocol
were developed to find the three most prominent answers from the twenty participants of this
study after being asked the questions below:
1. What three delivery methods of professional development were most effective in
building your confidence to meet the needs of diverse learners?
2. Why were each of those delivery methods effective in building your s elf-confidence
to meet the needs of diverse learners?
3. What could have been done differently to provide you more effective professional
development in differentiated instruction?
The answers to questions 1, 2 and 3 of the Teacher Interview Protocol were also divided
into three different categories, based on the years of experience, age, and gender of the teachers
who were questioned. Of those interviewed, five teachers had taught between 0 and 10 years, six
teachers had taught between 11 and 20 years, and nine teachers had taught between 21 and 40
years. The interviewees consisted of six teachers between 20 and 40 years old, nine teachers
from 41 to 60 years old, and five teachers from 61 to 80 years old. Finally, eight male teachers
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and 12 female teachers made up the 20 teachers who were interviewed independently, as seen in
Table 12.

Table 12
Background of Teachers Interviewed
Gender Male 8 (40%)
Female 12 (60%)
Years of Age 20-40 6 (30%)
41-60 9 (45%)
61-80 5 (25%)
Years of Experience 0-10 5 (25%)
11-20 6 (30%)
21-40 9 (45%)

The most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as expressed by the participants of this study, was the Active/
Experiential Learning that took place during the differentiated instruction training. One of the
five major components of effective professional development is Active Learning (Desimone,
2009). The Theory of Andragogy also supports this point of view, with Experiential Learning as
one of the four top teaching strategies used to reach adults (Knowles, 1980). In each of the five
90-minute professional development training sessions given to teachers after school, participants
actively took part in learning the concepts associated with providing differentiated instruction. In
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several interviews, teachers responded with appreciation for not having to receive professional
development through direct instruction only.
The second most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as explained by the participants of this study, was collective
participation, and the problem-solving questions teachers were challenged to respond to as
groups. Collective participation is another key component of effective professional development
(Demos & Foshay, 2009). In addition, the Theory of Andragogy puts forth the idea that adults
learn best when they work in teams to problem-solve (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). During
professional development training sessions both after school and on PD360, teachers were asked
to solve problems using differentiated instruction strategies, while working together in specific
department/grade level groupings. On PD360, teachers were asked to take part in online
reflections about discussions that had taken place during professional development training when
learning about differentiated instruction, or after watching a video on PD360 that covered the
topic of differentiated instruction.
The third most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as clarified by the participants of this study, was the attention given by
instructors to stay focused on the same content over a long period of time, with monthly intervals
of training lasting for six months. Effective professional development should include content
focus and last for an extended time (Lieberman, 2009). With regard to time spent on professional
development, past studies have shown that five to six follow-up sessions after an initial
professional development training session makes a significant difference in the information that
is retained and practiced by teachers who receive professional development (Guskey, 2002). As
for content focus, effective professional development did not stray from one topic to another
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during the six-month period in which this study took place. Teachers appreciated focusing solely
on differentiated instruction during the six months of effective professional development,
because this helped them to learn the topic of differentiated instruction more deeply by sharing
resources and participating in discussions specifically about differentiated instruction over a long
period of time.
Two themes were found among the answers given to the third question in the Teacher
Interview Protocol, which asked interviewees to provide ways in which the delivery method used
during the 90-minute professional development sessions could be improved. Because
professional development training sessions completed in person were done at the end of the
school day, several teachers suggested those same sessions could take place at different periods
of the day, when teachers are not exhausted after a long day of work. The second theme in the
answers provided by the participants of this study, to the third question of the Teacher Interview
Protocol, reflected the desire of participants to be trained in smaller groups. Although teachers
were grouped by department/grade level during afternoon professional development sessions, the
rooms used for professional development training were often packed with teachers, making it hot
and uncomfortable at times. Those who expressed this point of view stated that meeting in
smaller groups would also provide teachers more opportunity for their own unique opinions to be
shared.
When looking for patterns in the responses to the first three Teacher Interview Protocol
questions based on the three variables of years of experience, age and gender, answers compared
and contrasted between male and female teachers showed no recurring patterns. However, the
variables of years of experience and age did present two predominant themes.
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When answering the first three questions of the Teacher Interview Protocol, a
predominant theme was found in the answers given by the participants based on years of
teaching experience. Teachers with more years of teaching experience preferred professional
development delivery that consistently made connections with the reasons why the content being
learned was valuable to them. This frame of thought is supported by one of the four major tenets
of the Theory of Andragogy, where it is believed that adults learn best when the topic being
learned is of immediate value (Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Although this strategy was used at times
during the professional development sessions of this study, connecting what was being learned
with the importance of why it was being learned more often would have been advantageous for
those with more teaching experience.
When answering the first three questions of the Teacher Interview Protocol, another
predominant theme was found in the answers given by participants based on age. According to
the qualitative data collected in these interviews, several teachers expressed that, as they get
older, there is a greater need for them to understand how new learning fits into the rest of the
school’s curriculum. This point of view is supported by one of the major components of effective
professional development, Coherence to a Common Conceptual Framework (Cohen et al., 2002).
As mentioned in several interviews, seasoned teachers sometimes consider concepts like
differentiated instruction to be among many passing educational fads. Unless the instructor
successfully connects what is being learned to the goals and educational principles their school
follows, veteran teachers may simply go through the motions of learning without truly
internalizing what was taught.
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Results of Research Question Three
The objective of the third research question was to find if teachers are more likely to
provide differentiated instruction to their students with the use of computer-assisted instruction.
Questions 4, 5, and 6 of the Teacher Interview Protocol were developed to find the three most
prominent answers from the twenty participants of this study after being asked to respond to the
three questions below:
4. Are you more likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because you used
computer-assisted instruction in addition to the professional development in
differentiated instruction given to you in person?
5. Why are you more likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because you used
computer-assisted instruction in addition to the professional development in
differentiated instruction given to you in person?
6. Why are you not more likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because you used
computer-assisted instruction in addition to professional development in
differentiated instruction given to you in person?
Eighty percent of the 20 participants interviewed in this study answered Question 4 of the
Teacher Interview Protocol by stating that they were more likely to meet the needs of diverse
learners because they used computer-assisted instruction in addition to the professional
development on differentiated instruction given in person. Question 5 in the Teacher Interview
Protocol prompted participants to explain the reasons why computer-assisted instruction was
useful in building their self-efficacy for providing differentiated instruction. Prominent themes
about how computer-assisted instruction was helpful in building self-efficacy for providing
differentiated instruction became evident. As for the use of computer-assisted instruction making
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it unlikely for teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners, as stated in Question 6 of the
Teacher Interview Protocol, no prominent themes or patterns were found in the responses of the
participants — suggesting that the use of PD360 did not impede teachers from building their
self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction. This may be due to the fact that teachers in this
study who felt uncomfortable using computer-assisted instruction could still lean upon the
knowledge and skills learned in the five 90-minute sessions provided after school during the six-
month period of this study. However, a relationship was identified between the variables of age
and years of experience, and those who found the use of computer-assisted instruction helpful in
building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction.
From the answers to Question 5 of the Teacher Interview Protocol, three prominent
themes about how computer-assisted instruction was helpful in building self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction became apparent. First, 13 of the 20 participants in the interviews
believed that their use of computer-assisted instruction improved their ability to memorize what
was learned during the professional development sessions in differentiated instruction that were
offered once a month after school. This point of view is supported by research that puts forward
the idea that computer-assisted instruction can improve skill acquisition (Diaz & Cartnal, 1999).
Several participants of the study claimed that the mere ability to be able to stop, rewind, and
replay any portion of a video presentation on PD360 was incredibly helpful in helping them to
process the new information at a comfortable pace.
The second predominant theme found in the responses of the participants of this study
points to the idea that computer-assisted instruction helped in building their self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction because it generated another avenue for learning differentiated
instruction. Research also supports the notion that computer-assisted instruction creates more
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access to learning (Rybarczyk, 2007). Several participants in this study claimed that the use of
PD360 provided them with the opportunity to learn about differentiated instruction on their own
time. Whether one is most receptive to learning late at night or early each morning, computer-
assisted instruction gives the learner a choice as to when it is best for them to learn.
The third predominant theme found in the responses of the participants in this study
reveals that computer-assisted instruction assisted in building their self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction because it improved their understanding of how standards and assessments are closely
connected when providing differentiated instruction. Research on this topic supports the idea that
the relationship between learning, assessments and effectiveness is something that computer-
assisted instruction generally does well (Gibson et al., 2008). This may be due to the fact that
teams of seasoned educators are often used to create the lessons provided on computer-assisted
instruction programs like PD360. For that reason, many effective pedagogical concepts are
regularly embedded in the lessons on computer-assisted instruction software created for teachers
and students. Based on comments given by teachers in this study, most were able to identify that
the video lessons provided on PD360 made at least some use of sound pedagogical strategies.
Although none of the teachers interviewed answered Question 6 of the Teacher Interview
Protocol, stating they were not likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because they used
computer-assisted instruction in addition to the professional development given in person,
several teachers did express their frustrations with using computer-assisted instruction. The
results of those responses have been categorized by the variables of age and years of experience.
Four of the 20 teachers interviewed shared that their lack of confidence in using computer
technology made the use of computer-assisted instruction overwhelming and not helpful in
building their self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction. All four of these teachers were
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between the ages of 61 and 80 years old, and held significantly more than 21 years of experience
as teachers. These same teachers also expressed their need for interaction when learning new
concepts. Although videos on PD360 require teachers to answer reflective questions, unlike with
most computer-assisted instruction programs interaction between teachers and PD360 is limited.
Finally, five of the teachers interviewed felt that the videos on differentiated instruction available
on PD360 were not very engaging, and did not provide them with information they were not
already exposed to. Four of those teachers fell between the ages of 61 and 80 years old, and held
significantly more than 21 years of experience as teachers. However, two of the teachers
unimpressed with the videos they saw on PD360 ranged between 41 and 60 years old, and held
between 11 and 20 years of experience as teachers.
Summary of Findings
The first research question explored if there is a correlation between participation in
effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. The
quantitative data collected and analyzed with the use of a paired sample t-test show that the post-
professional development training self-efficacy of the teachers in the study was significantly
higher than their pre-professional development training self-efficacy. This means that the
teachers had significantly higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after undergoing
professional development training, based on the quantitative analysis completed as part of this
mixed methods study. In addition, the results of a Pearson’s correlation test suggest that teachers
with fewer years of teaching experience had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction
before undergoing effective professional development training. On the other hand, teachers with
lower age and fewer years of experience in teaching also had higher self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction after undergoing effective professional development training. The
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results of the ANOVA suggest that the self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction was not
significantly different based on gender.
The second research question identified the types of professional development teachers
perceive to be the most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. The
data for this research question were collected through the use of a Teacher Interview Protocol,
and the responses provided by a sample of 20 teachers who participated in this study. The
effective professional development given to all 88 teachers in this study involved five 60-minute
monthly meetings taking place after school over a period of six months. Several key components
of effective professional development were used, including an emphasis on delivery methods
that are content-focused, create active learning opportunities, utilize collective participation, last
for a prolonged period of time, and show a clear tie to common conceptual frameworks
previously adopted (Guskey, 2001). The qualitative data collected, based on the responses
received from the questions in the Teacher Interview Protocol used in this study, reveal that the
research shared in Chapter 2 and used during the professional development provided closely
matched what teachers interpreted as effective professional development.
The third research question helped to define why teachers are more likely to provide
differentiated instruction to their students with the use of computer-assisted instruction. The
qualitative data for this research question were collected through the use of a Teacher Interview
Protocol and the responses provided by a sample of 20 teachers who participated in this study. In
addition to the six months during which teachers in this study were provided with professional
development in face-to-face sessions taking place monthly after school, teachers were also given
training with and access to a computer-assisted instruction program called PD360. PD360 is an
online program that allows teachers to view and respond to various professional development
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videos on differentiated instruction and many other educational subjects. According to responses
collected based on Questions 3, 4, and 5 in the Teacher Interview Protocol used in this study, a
majority of the 20 teachers interviewed felt the use of computer-assisted instruction improved
their skill attainment, created more access to learning, and strengthened their understanding
about relationships between learning, assessment, and effectiveness (Gibson et al., 2008).
Although none of the teachers interviewed answered Question 6 of the Teacher Interview
Protocol by stating they were not likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because they used
computer-assisted instruction in addition to effective professional development given in person,
several teachers did express their frustrations with using computer-assisted instruction. The
reason stated was that their lack of experience using online programs like PD360, their need for
more two-way interaction, and their desire to watch videos on differentiated instruction that are
more engaging, led them to use PD360 on a very limited basis. For those individuals, the face-to-
face professional development sessions were vital in strengthening their self-efficacy for
providing differentiated instruction.
The three research questions in this dissertation were answered, based on both the
quantitative and qualitative data collected in response to the questions found in the survey and
interview protocols utilized in the study. Chapter 5 will provide an overview of the study
conclusions, additional findings from this study, the implications of those findings, and
recommendations for further practice and research.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The number of students attending Hawaii’s Catholic schools has declined each of the last
six years (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Dr. Mike Rockers, Superintendent of Hawaii’s
Catholic schools, recently stated to teachers and administrators of all six Catholic High Schools
in Hawaii that, “If we are to continue to survive in these islands for the next century, we must be
able to serve all our students” (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of
Honolulu, 2013). Once a haven for students who perform at high academic levels, Hawaii’s
Catholic schools are now serving a more academically-diverse student population, which
requires more individualized instruction (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013).
This study examined an initiative by a Catholic school in Hawaii to increase its teachers’
use of differentiated instruction. To accomplish this objective, research was compiled and
examined to determine if there is a correlation between effective professional development and
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, and to also define what types of effective professional
development increase teacher self-efficacy in the delivery of differentiated instruction.
Furthermore, computer-assisted instruction was also afforded to teachers — in the form of an
online program, PD360 — to assess whether they were more likely to build their self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction when utilizing it. The research questions used to address these
objectives were: (1) Is there a correlation between effective professional development and self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction? (2) What kind of professional development instruction do
teachers perceive to be the most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction? (3) Are teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students
with the use of computer-assisted instruction?
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Research confirms that there is a correlation between student achievement and the use of
differentiated instruction (Rivers & Sanders, 1996). In addition, effective use of differentiated
instruction with students is highly affected by the quality of professional development given
(Guskey, 2000). This study investigated the extent to which effective professional development
and the use of computer-assisted instruction built self-efficacy in Catholic school teachers in
Hawaii to deliver differentiated instruction. A mixed methods approach was used, which
collected both quantitative and qualitative data in response to a survey conducted at the
beginning and end of the study, and a teacher questionnaire. Eighty-eight teachers in all
completed both the MSLQ survey and provided the quantitative data needed to answer the first
research question. A smaller sample of 20 teachers were interviewed, to provide the qualitative
data used to answer the second and third research questions.
A brief summary of the findings for research questions one, two and three is as follows:
1. The first research question disclosed quantitative data showing that there was a
statistically significant mean difference between the pre- and post-professional
development training self-efficacy for providing differentiated instruction. This
implies that a positive change in self-efficacy levels can occur when effective
professional development is given to teachers who are learning to provide
differentiated instruction to their students. In particular, the gender of teachers did not
play a role in determining self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after being
provided with effective professional development. However, the variables of age and
years of experience resulted in higher self-efficacy scores in both pre- and post-tests.
2. Responses to the second research question revealed that respondents in this study
confirmed how components of effective professional development and the Theory of
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Andragogy were embedded in the most prominent delivery methods used to build
teachers’ self-efficacy for differentiated instruction.
3. The third research question produced responses revealing that computer-assisted
instruction assists teachers learning to provide differentiated instruction by
strengthening their skills due to pacing preferences, creating more choice and access
to learning, and improving the understanding of relationships between learning,
assessment, and effectiveness in teaching.
This chapter presents an analysis of the findings of this study, conclusions based on those
findings, including limitations, implications for practice and future research, and a summary.
Summary of Findings
This section will provide a brief summary of the findings from, and limitations of, the
three research questions in this dissertation, followed by a discussion of the interrelationship
between the research collected and the importance of those findings to this study.
Conclusions for the First Research Question
In response to the first research question, the data collected revealed that there was a
statistically significant mean difference between the pre- and post-professional development
training self-efficacy for providing differentiated instruction. This implies that a positive change
of self-efficacy levels can occur when effective professional development is given to teachers
who are learning to differentiate instruction. This finding is supported by an analysis of
quantitative data collected from a survey protocol called the MSLQ (Pintrich et al., 1993). A
subscale of that survey, the Expectancy Component: Self-Efficacy for Learning and
Performance, was adapted by the researcher to meet the specific needs of this case study
(Appendix A). The mean comparison showed that the post-professional development training
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scores were higher for each of the 8 items in the MSLQ than the pre-professional development
training scores. This indicates that effective professional development resulted in teachers having
higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Higher scores indicated that the statements
were very true for the teachers of this study.
The descriptive statistics of the composite scores for pre- and post-professional
development training self-efficacy were investigated. The mean comparison showed that the
mean post-professional development training self-efficacy score (M = 49.77) was greater than
the mean pre-professional development training self-efficacy score (M = 19.68). This showed
that teachers had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after undergoing effective
professional development training. The post-professional development training self-efficacy
scores had higher minimum (45) and maximum (54) values than the minimum (12) and
maximum (29) scores for pre-professional development training self-efficacy. The paired t-test
determined the statistical significance of the mean paired differences between the two dependent
groups of the pre- and post-training responses to the MLSQ.
The resulting statistics show a statistically significant mean difference between the pre-
and post-professional development training self-efficacy composite scores (t(87) = -72.27, p =
0.00). The mean post-professional development training self-efficacy score was significantly
higher — by 30.09 — than the pre-professional development training self-efficacy score. This
suggests that the teachers in the study had significantly higher self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction after undergoing effective professional development training.
The results of the Pearson’s correlation test suggest that teachers with fewer years of
teaching experience had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction before undergoing
effective professional development training. Furthermore, teachers lower in age and with fewer
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years of experience in teaching also had higher self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after
undergoing effective professional development training. The results of the ANOVA suggest that
self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction was not significantly different based on gender.
The results of this study address research question one by showing that there is a
correlation between effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction. This implies that the professional development resulted in a positive change in self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction. The results also reveal that younger teachers, and teachers
with less teaching experience, are more likely to have higher levels of self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction before and after effective professional development is given.
Limitations of this study in relation to the first research question include the relatively
small sample size that was used as part of the quantitative analysis of the relationship between
effective professional development and self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Secondly, the
setting in which this study took place may not be generalizable to other Catholic schools in
Hawaii, because Holy Cross School has a much greater wealth of resources than other Catholic
schools in Hawaii looking to provide professional development for their teachers in
differentiated instruction.
A great quantity of psychological research describes the role of self-efficacy in relation to
educators. The self-efficacy of a teacher can be used as an indicator of how he performs (Gibson
& Dembo, 1984). What a teacher believes about his ability is strongly associated with how he
works, performs, and is motivated (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Teachers with high self-
efficacy beliefs generate stronger student achievement than teachers with lower teacher efficacy.
Teachers with high self-efficacy measures are more likely to try new teaching ideas that involve
risk and require that control is shared with students (Gecas, 1989). Teachers with strong self-
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efficacy attend more closely to the needs of students with weaker skills (Cochran-Smith & Lytle,
1999). Conversely, teachers with low self-efficacy concentrate their efforts on high-performing
groups, giving less attention to students with weaker skills, whom the teachers sometimes view
as potential sources of interruption (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Increased teacher efficacy occurs
when teachers accumulate experiences in which they perceive themselves as professionally
masterful, observe teachers like themselves being successful, persuade each other that they can
teach the new curriculum, and, finally, engage in stress-reduction practices (Midgely et al.,
1989).
If the data supporting the growth of self-efficacy in teachers at Holy Cross School can be
used as an indicator of how they perform in the future, the results of this study suggest that Holy
Cross teachers will begin implementing differentiated instruction strategies in their classrooms
and start establishing stronger relationships with parents and students (Gibson & Dembo, 1984).
Since overall progress was made in how teachers at Holy Cross School view their ability to
effectively use differentiated instruction, they should be more motivated to utilize it in their
classrooms (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Although students at Holy Cross School represent a
wide range of academic skills, teachers whose self-efficacy for differentiated instruction is
stronger will not see lower achieving students in the same negative light they may have done
previously (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Finally, the focus on the use of group leaders and
collaborative activities embedded in both the effective professional development provided in
person, and using PD360, should help Holy Cross teachers to confidently continue using
differentiated instruction in the future (Midgely et al., 1989).
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Conclusions for the Second Research Question
In response to the second research question, the respondents in this study confirmed how
many of the major components of effective professional development, and the Theory of
Andragogy, were embedded in the most prominent delivery methods that helped teachers build
their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction during the professional development sessions,
which lasted for approximately six months at Holy Cross School. These findings are supported
by the qualitative data collected in response to Questions 1, 2, and 3 of the Teacher Interview
Protocol that was given to 20 Holy Cross School teachers. These 20 teachers were interviewed
individually, and their data placed into four different categories: one including the entire group
of 20 teachers, and others grouped by age, gender, and years of teaching experience. The
research on strategies used to deliver effective professional development, and the components of
the Theory of Andragogy, became evident in the answers to the questions participants of this
study gave when asked what kinds of professional development instruction they perceived to be
most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction.
The most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as expressed by the participants of this study, was the Active/
Experiential Learning that took place during the differentiated instruction training. One of the
five major components of effective differentiated instruction is Active Learning (Desimone,
2009). The Theory of Andragogy also supports this point of view, with experiential learning as
one of the four top teaching strategies used to reach adults (Knowles, 1980).
The second most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as explained by the participants of this study, was the use of collective
participation, and the problem-solving questions teachers were challenged to respond to as
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groups. Collective participation is another key component of effective professional development
(Demos & Foshay, 2009). In addition, the Theory of Andragogy puts forth the idea that adults
learn best when they work in teams to problem-solve (Davenport & Davenport, 1985).
The third most prominent delivery method successfully used to build self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction, as clarified by the participants of this study, was the focus by
instructors on the same content over a long period of time, with monthly intervals of training
lasting for six months. Effective professional development should include content focus and last
for an extended duration of time (Lieberman, 2009). With regard to time spent on professional
development, past studies have shown that allowing for five to six follow-up sessions after an
initial professional development training session makes a significant difference in the
information that is retained and practiced by teachers who receive professional development
(Guskey, 2002).
Dominant themes based on age and years of experience were also found in the answers
given by participants to the first three questions of the Teacher Interview Protocol, concerning
the delivery methods found to be most effective in building self-confidence to meet the needs of
diverse learners. According to the qualitative data collected in interviews, several teachers
expressed that as they get older, there is more need for them to understand how new learning fits
into the rest of the school’s curriculum. This point of view is supported by one of the major
components of effective professional development, Coherence to a Common Conceptual
Framework (Cohen et al., 2002). Another dominant theme was found in the answers given by the
participants based on years of teaching experience. Generally, teachers with more teaching
experience preferred professional development delivery that consistently made connections with
the reasons why the content was being learned (Knowles, 1980).
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Limitations of this study in relation to the second research question include the relatively
small sample size that was used as part of the qualitative analysis of the types of professional
development instruction teachers perceive to be the most effective in building their self-efficacy
for differentiated instruction. Also, the setting in which this study took place may not be
generalizable to other Catholic schools in Hawaii; Holy Cross School has a much greater wealth
of resources available to it than other Catholic schools looking to provide effective professional
development for their teachers in differentiated instruction. Furthermore, Questions 7 and 8 in
the Teacher Interview Protocol provided answers as to how well teachers learned how to
differentiate instruction; however, the answers collected from those questions did not directly
address the second research question, which was more focused on the growth of self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction.
The results collected from the second research question are important because they point
toward a strong relationship between the components of effective professional development and
the Theory of Andragogy, and building self-efficacy in teachers for differentiated instruction.
The responses given by Holy Cross School teachers at times seemed to support this idea, when
comments made by participants when describing which delivery methods strengthened their self-
efficacy for differentiated instruction used verbiage shared by both conceptual frameworks. For
example, the same participant who shared that the professional development focused solely on
differentiated instruction was helpful, also mentioned that she learns best when the topic is of
immediate value to her (Lieberman, 2009; Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Assuming that Holy Cross
School is moving toward making differentiated instruction an integral part of its curriculum, she
believed it was important for her to learn the strategies associated with differentiated instruction.
In a second example, another participant in the study appreciated the Active Learning aspect of
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professional development training, while also stating that he learns through experience
(Desimone, 2009; Knowles, 1980). In all, these findings suggest that Holy Cross School now has
a model of professional development that can work to build self-efficacy in its teachers for
differentiated instruction.
Conclusions for the Third Research Question
The data collected in response to the third research question reflect previous research
supporting the notion that computer-assisted instruction assists learners by strengthening their
skills, creating more access to learning, and improving the understanding of relationships
between learning, assessment, and effectiveness in teaching. These findings are supported by the
qualitative data collected in response to Questions 4, 5, and 6 of the Teacher Interview Protocol
that was given to 20 Holy Cross School teachers. These 20 teachers were interviewed
individually and their data placed into four different categories: one including the entire group of
20 teachers, and others grouped by age, gender, and years of teaching experience.
Research substantiates the first finding that computer-assisted instruction assists learners
by strengthening their skills. This notion is supported by research that puts forward the idea that
computer-assisted instruction can improve skill acquisition (Diaz & Cartnal, 1999). Several
participants interviewed in this study preferred learning about differentiated instruction using the
PD360 system, as opposed to the face-to-face sessions, because they could control the pacing of
what was being taught. Videos about differentiated instruction could be paused at any time and
notes taken at a pace comfortable to the teacher. Some teachers commented on how they could
rewind the material and repeat what was said whenever a new concept did not connect with them
the first time around. By being able to control the pacing of the content being taught, teachers
believed their skills were further strengthened.
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The second finding in relation to the third research question of this study points to the
idea that computer-assisted instruction generates another avenue for learning differentiated
instruction. Previous research also supports the notion that computer-assisted instruction creates
more access to learning (Rybarczyk, 2007). Many teachers interviewed expressed that face-to-
face professional development taking place after school is effective, but energy levels are often
low after an entire day of teaching. Many teachers believed that PD360 provided them with the
choice of learning about differentiated instruction when they were in the best state of mind to do
so. A few participants felt most comfortable learning about differentiated instruction late in the
evening. Others woke up very early in the morning to watch videos and begin sharing viewpoints
about what was learned in online discussion groups.
The third finding in relation to the third research question of this study reveals that
computer-assisted instruction makes teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to
their students, because it improves their understanding of how standards and assessments are
closely connected. Research on this topic supports the idea that the relationship between
learning, assessment and effectiveness is something that computer-assisted instruction helps
teachers to understand more clearly (Gibson et al., 2008). For example, a few teachers in this
study mentioned that after using PD360 they had a much clearer idea of how differentiated
instruction can assist them in reaching the goals and standards set by the school. Like many
computer-assisted instructional programs, PD360 provides charts and dropdown menus that
allow teachers to easily identify how a particular strategy can help them reach specific goals.
Placing all of this information in relation to differentiated instruction on one platform as sisted
teachers in this study to make better connections to what they were learning.
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The results of this study related to the third research question are significant, because
they help to validate the idea that the use of computer-assisted instruction at Holy Cross School
as a professional development tool will make it more likely that teachers there will provide
differentiated instruction to their students. In addition, the successful use of computer-assisted
instruction at Holy Cross School can help to justify the annual cost associated with bringing it to
Catholic schools in Hawaii, including the immense cost of software, online programs similar to
PD360, and the professional development training to use these products/services. Although Holy
Cross School has the resources needed to purchase these products and services on a yearly basis,
leaders of the school can utilize the results of this study to eliminate any hesitation towards
investing money in computer-assisted instruction to assist teachers in learning to provide
differentiated instruction.
Limitations of this study in relation to the third research question include the relatively
small sample size that was used as part of the qualitative analysis to determine if teachers are
more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the use of computer-
assisted instruction. Also, the setting in which this study took place may not be generalizable to
other Catholic schools in Hawaii, because Holy Cross School has a much greater wealth of
resources available to it than other Catholic schools looking to provide computer-assisted
instruction for their students and teachers. Furthermore, Questions 7 and 8 in the Teacher
Interview Protocol provided answers as to how well teachers learned how to differentiate
instruction; however, the answers collected from those questions did not directly address the
third research question, focused on finding if teachers are more likely to provide differentiated
instruction to their students with the use of computer-assisted instruction.
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Recommendations for Hawaii ’s Catholic Schools
Enrollment in Hawaii’s Catholic schools continues to decrease annually by between one
and five percent (The Catholic Schools of Hawaii, 2013). Waiting to implement the changes
needed to meet the needs of diverse learners attending these institutions of learning may result in
more of Hawaii’s Catholic schools closing in the near future. Although it is possible that change
may occur from the bottom up, it is more likely that the adjustments needed for Hawaii’s
Catholic schools to move in the right direction should come primarily from the administrative
level. This view is based on the idea that the changes needed for Hawaii’s Catholic schools to
meet the needs of their constituents will require a serious investment of time and money — two
areas in which administrators are the primary controllers. The findings of this study, based on
research in the field of education and confirmed by the responses of a sample of 88 teachers from
Holy Cross School, provide a roadmap that other Catholic school administrators can utilize to
better meet the needs of students, teachers and even parents in all of Hawaii’s Catholic schools.
For Hawaii’s Catholic schools to meet the needs of their academically-diverse population
of students, administrators must first invest money into providing effective professional
development to teachers in differentiated instruction. To accomplish that goal, administrators
should have a strong understanding of how the components of effective professional
development and the Theory of Andragogy work together in harmony to build self-efficacy in
teachers to provide differentiated instruction. In the case of Holy Cross School, allocating 20 to
40 thousand dollars a year to pay for professional development is relatively easy to do. For other
Catholic schools with much lower tuition rates and financial reserves, investing even five
thousand dollars towards professional development is a significant challenge. For Holy Cross
and other smaller Catholic schools, Title II funds are awarded each year through the Department
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of Education here in Hawaii, simply based on enrollment numbers. Money from the Title II grant
can be used each school year to pay for the professional development of teachers in
differentiated instruction. These funds can also be utilized to provide professional development
for teachers in other areas of need.
The second strategy administrators can use to meet the needs of academically-diverse
students in their Catholic schools is to invest the time and funds required to strengthen how
assessments are used, and to fully understand how they are connected to each other from one
grade level to the next. Effective ongoing use of assessments is one of the major tenets of
differentiated instruction (Logan, 2011). Unfortunately, this is one area where Hawaii’s Catholic
schools are particularly weak as a whole (B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3,
2012). Most teachers in Hawaii’s Catholic schools minimally use educational standards to
determine what skills are being taught. They may refer to standards outlined in a textbook
occasionally, but there is very little use or mention of standards when writing lesson plans or
working on curricula (B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3, 2012). In addition,
summative assessments like the Terra Nova exam at the elementary and middle school levels ,
and the Stamford Achievement Test at the high school level, are not tied to formative
assessments given throughout the school year. If Hawaii’s Catholic schools adopt the use of
Common Core standards, and invest in tools that provide ongoing assessment throughout the
school year directly tied to those standards, a clear scope and sequence within each school’s
curriculum will exist and differentiated instruction can thrive.
Based on the results of this study, the third strategy that can be used by administrators to
meet the needs of diverse learners in Hawaii’s Catholic schools is to purchase computer-assisted
instruction in the form of software or online programs that help provide teachers with
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professional development and lessons directly aligned with Common Core standards. Such
computer-assisted instructional resources can also play a vital role in providing the ongoing
formative assessments needed for teachers to accurately and easily track student success and
failure throughout each school year, towards reaching Common Core standards (Gulati, 2008).
Furthermore, certain computer-assisted instructional resources can assist teachers in finding each
student’s Zone of Proximal Development and creating lessons specifically tied to Common Core
standards that embed that intervention (Vygotsky, 1978). Both students and teachers benefit from
this, because it is more likely that students will experience success when working in their Zone
of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978). The computer-assisted instruction used to create
these interventions will also model for teachers how to effectively differentiate instruction by
creating lessons tied to Common Core standards that are custom-made for each student.
The fourth strategy that can be used by administrators to meet the diverse academic needs
of students in Hawaii’s Catholic schools is to develop Professional Learning Communities. As
communicated in the research shared in this study, the Theory of Andragogy puts forth the
notion that adults learn best when they problem-solve (Jarvis, 1987). In addition, one of the
major components of effective professional development involves the use of collective
participation (Demos & Foshay, 2009). Teachers can be provided with professional
development, clearly-defined standards and assessments, and new technology and software to
provide computer-assisted instruction; however, teachers also need the time to analyze as teams
of professionals the data collected from these resources, in order to determine future decisions
made as teachers, departments, grade levels, and as a school (Anderson, 2007). The creation of
data teams consisting of teachers that meet on a consistent basis creates an environment where
formative assessments become data-driven tools that teachers use to both adjust instruction to the
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needs of their students, and learn as groups what strategies are most effective in teaching
students to learn.
The final recommended strategy administrators of Hawaii’s Catholic schools can use to
meet the diverse academic needs of their students is to allocate funds each year to create the
position of Curriculum Director at each school. One of the greatest challenges administrators
face is the overabundance of tasks they are responsible for completing which have very little to
do with developing teachers or improving a school’s curriculum (B. Sandobal, personal
communication, January 3, 2012). For grants to be written, effective professional development
sessions to be developed, professional learning communities to be created and monitored, it is
vital for schools to have someone who is specifically dedicated to developing strong teachers and
guiding the process in which the school’s curriculum takes form. Most Catholic school
administrators are understaffed and underpaid, leaving them with little time to concentrate on
professional development. It is each school’s curriculum that usually suffers, leading to teachers
whose skills are underdeveloped and students who in turn do not receive the type of assistance
they desperately need (B. Sandobal, personal communication, January 3, 2012).
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study can specifically assist teachers, administrators and software
developers to successfully implement differentiated instruction in schools here in Hawaii, and
possibly elsewhere, utilizing the research-based components needed to provide effective
professional development, build self-efficacy in teachers to provide differentiated instruction
using strategies provided in the Theory of Andragogy, and develop computer-assisted
instructional software that meets the diverse needs of both teachers and students. Because the
sample size of 88 teachers used in this study is small, and the setting unique, it is difficult to
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make the assumption that the information gathered in this study is generalizable to all teachers,
administrators, schools, or any other fields of study. However, the strategies suggested in this
study are based on research about self-efficacy that has been tested in various environments, with
much larger samples of participants. With that in mind, implications for practice based on the
results of this study are worth paying attention to.
The first implication for practice based on the findings of this study relates to informing
teachers about how to successfully implement differentiated instruction as professionals in the
field of education. Many teachers are reluctant to provide differentiated instruction for their
students because they do not believe it is possible for instructors to successfully meet the needs
of every individual student in their classroom on a daily basis (Logan, 2011). However, teachers
afraid to learn and use differentiated instruction in their classrooms can look to the results of this
study to find that their self-efficacy to provide differentiated instruction can be strengthened with
the use of effective professional development.
The second implication for practice rooted in the results of this study informs
administrators and other leaders in the field of education about the various research-based
strategies available to them when making the choice to train teachers to provide differentiated
instruction in their classrooms. By identifying the components of effective professional
development shared in this study, administrators can safely implement those same approaches
when developing their own professional development opportunities, knowing that they have
worked at Holy Cross School, to build self-efficacy in their teachers to provide differentiated
instruction.
The third and final implication for practice rooted in the results of this study informs
developers of computer-assisted instructional software and products in the field of education to
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utilize the same research-based strategies used when creating effective professional development
to develop computer-assisted instructional software for both teachers and students. Although the
computer-assisted instructional program PD360 did help 80% of the 20 teachers interviewed to
build their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, the program generally asks teachers to
view videos on differentiated instruction — or any other topic — and reflect on what was learned
either individually or in groups. Although the power of reflection as a learning tool is highly
documented in educational research, it would be advantageous for these programs to be even
more interactive by creating lessons that allow each teacher to work in his or her Zone of
Proximal Development, where they are assisted by being introduced to new content and skills in
a range where success is attainable yet still challenging to them (Liao, 1992). Today, many
companies that create computer-assisted instructional software build their programs with the
objective of providing an interactive experience for students, where lessons are given and
assessed at specific levels of learning and each is challenged within a range of difficulty where
success is attainable. Creating new computer-assisted instructional programs to achieve that goal
for teachers would not only help them learn more, it would also model for them how
differentiated instruction works (Rybarczyk, 2007).
Recommendations for Future Study
This study found no correlation between growth in teachers’ self-efficacy to learn and
implement differentiated instruction, and greater academic success with the students they
eventually worked with in their classrooms. The assumption is that by providing differentiated
instruction to students from teachers whose self-efficacy for utilizing differentiated instruction is
high, it will be more likely that students with diverse academic skills will experience more
academic success than they would without the use of differentiated instruction; however, there
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are many other variables in play that can cause students to not perform well in school, including
physical or psychological challenges that would make learning difficult for students even if
differentiated instruction is provided (Zimmerman, 2000). With more time and resources, the
next step needed to build upon the research completed in this study is to identify whether or not
differentiated instruction given to students by teachers with high self-efficacy for differentiated
instruction would actually lead to higher academic achievement.
Another recommendation for future research based on the results accumulated in this
study would be for investigation of strengthening self-efficacy in teachers who fear the use of
technology that might assist them in providing differentiated instruction for their students. One
of the major obstacles teachers face in providing differentiated instruction is the large amount of
time needed to create, proctor and evaluate both formative and summative assessments for every
student in class using traditional methods of assessment that do not require the use of computer-
assisted instruction (Benjamin, 2006). Many computer-assisted software or online programs can
reach those same objectives in a fraction of that time (Liao, 1992). Nevertheless, teachers’ self-
efficacy for computer use must be high enough for them to even attempt using computer-assisted
instructional software or online programs. Instead, it is likely that those same teachers with weak
self-efficacy for computer use will continue to attempt to meet the needs of diverse learners
without the use of the computers, and give up on providing differentiated instruction for their
students because doing so is too time consuming (Anderson, 2007). If future research can
provide effective strategies to build self-efficacy in teachers to use computers, the chances of
differentiated instruction being implemented with the use of computer-assisted instruction in
classrooms would be far higher.

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Summary
Enrollment in Hawaii’s Catholic schools continues to fall, by between 1 and 5% each
school year (Roman Catholic Church in the State of Hawaii: Diocese of Honolulu, 2013). Some
believe this is occurring because Hawaii’s Catholic schools are not successfully meeting the
needs of students with diverse academic abilities (B. Sandobal, personal communication,
January 3, 2012). Assuming that teachers in Hawaii’s Catholic schools can meet the needs of
their student population with the use of differentiated instruction, this study was developed to
determine if there is a correlation between participation in effective professional development by
teachers, and their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, using a small sample of teachers
from Holy Cross School to represent all of Hawaii’s Catholic schools. An even smaller sample of
teachers in this study were asked to provide the specific strategies they perceived to build their
self-efficacy for differentiated instruction after receiving effective professional development. By
identifying these research-based approaches, Catholic schools are more likely to duplicate the
methods used in this study to build self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Finally, the same
samples of twenty teachers were also asked if the use of computer-assisted instruction made
them more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students. The results of this study
justify the need for resources to be allocated to the purchase of computer-assisted instruction to
help teachers with differentiated instruction. If the results of this study are accurate, based on the
qualitative and quantitative data obtained from the survey and interviews, the groundwork for a
plan of change in Hawaii’s Catholic schools could be laid, so that they can start on a road to
recovery that saves Hawaii’s Catholic schools from slowly disappearing from the educational
landscape in Hawaii because they were not able to meet the needs of their constituents.
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The results of this study reveal that there is a correlation between effective professional
development and teachers’ self-efficacy for differentiated instruction. Self-efficacy for
differentiated instruction was strengthened in most teachers who experienced effective
professional development. The variable of gender made little difference in increasing or
decreasing the growth of self-efficacy in teachers for differentiated instruction. However,
younger teachers, and those with less teaching experience, did tend to have higher overall scores
and show the most growth in self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, when compared to older
teachers and those with more teaching experience. These differences in growth of self-efficacy in
differentiated instruction based on the variables of age and years of experience may indicate that
the more teaching experience instructors have, and the older they are, the less open they will be
to learning about differentiated instruction.
With regard to the types of professional development instruction teachers perceive to be
the most effective in building their self-efficacy for differentiated instruction, the results of this
study confirm that when professional development is content-focused, involves active learning,
is coherent, lasts over a long period of time, and includes collective participation, self-efficacy
for differentiated instruction grows (Anderson, 2007). Furthermore, when professional
development instructors understand, according to the Theory of Andragogy, that adult learners
need to know why they are learning something, that what being learned should be of immediate
value, and that learning through experience and problem-solving is vital, self-efficacy in teachers
is more likely to grow (Knowles, 1984).
Finally, this study was also developed to determine if teachers are more likely to provide
differentiated instruction with the use of computer-assisted instruction. Of the 20 teachers who
answered this question through the use of teacher interviews, 80% believed that computer-
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assisted instruction did make it more likely that they would provide differentiated instruction.
Whether learning-differentiated instruction through the use of computer-assisted instruction
provided more flexibility to view the videos on differentiated instruction and respond to them
when they were ready, or whether the pacing of what was being learned was better controlled
through the use of the program PD360, the use of computer-assisted instruction did make most
teachers feel as if they were more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students.
Acquiring computer technology, software and online programs to make computer-assisted
instruction available to teachers involves a significant investment (Wormeli, 2006). According to
the results of this study, the allocation of funds by schools to purchase computers, computer
software and online programs to provide effective professional development with the use of
computer-assisted instruction is worth the investment.
Whether or not Hawaii’s Catholic schools will continue to exist in the future, the right
choice for their administrators today is to take the necessary first steps to meet the academic
needs of all students and utilize research-based strategies that lead to their success.

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APPENDIX A
SUBSCALE OF MSLQ SURVEY ADJUSTED TO MEASURE SELF-EFFICACY FOR
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
(PINTRICH, SMITH, GARCIA, & MCKEACHIE, 1993)

(Not True of Me) (Very True of Me)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. I believe I can meet the diverse needs of students in my classroom. (Item 5)
2. I’m certain I can understand the most difficult reading materials related to meeting the
needs of diverse learners. (Item 6)
3. I’m confident I can understand the basic concepts associated with meeting the needs of
diverse learners. (Item 12)
4. I can’t understand the most complex material about meeting the needs of diverse learners
as presented by the instructor. (Item 15 Reversed)
5. I’m confident I can do an excellent job on assignments and tests that assess my
knowledge of the strategies associated with meeting the needs of diverse learners.
(Item 20)
6. I expect to do well when learning about how to meet the needs of diverse learners
(Item 21)
7. I am uncertain that I can master the skill of meeting the needs of diverse learners (Item 29
Reversed)
8. Considering the difficulty of teaching students at various academic levels, the instructor,
and my skills, I think that I will do well in learning how to differentiate instruction to
meet the needs of diverse learners. (Item 31)
HOW EFFECTIVE PD CAN SAVE HAWAII’S CATHOLIC SCHOOLS

126
APPENDIX B
TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Case Study in Providing PD for DI to Build SE in Teachers at Holy Cross School
Teacher Interview Protocol

Developed by Glenn Medeiros
University of Southern California

1. What three delivery methods of professional development were most effective in building
your confidence to meet the needs of diverse learners?
a. Why were each of those delivery methods effective in building your self-
confidence to meet the needs of diverse learners?
2. What could have been done differently to provide you with more effective professional
development in differentiated instruction?
3. Are you more likely to meet the needs of diverse learners because you used computer-
assisted instruction in addition to professional development in differentiated instruction
given to you in person?
a. If yes, why?
b. If no, why?
4. What are the major components of a differentiated classroom?
5. Provide three examples of how you will provide your students with differentiated
instruction within the subject you teach most?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explored the idea that self‐efficacy in teachers to provide differentiated instruction can be strengthened through the use of effective professional development rooted in research‐based strategies. The research questions in this study were: (1) Is there a correlation between participation in effective professional development and self‐efficacy for differentiated instruction? (2) What kind of professional development instruction do teachers perceive to be the most effective in building their self‐efficacy for differentiated instruction? (3) Are teachers more likely to provide differentiated instruction to their students with the use of computer‐assisted instruction? Eighty‐eight elementary, middle school and high school teachers took part in this study. The data were gathered through the use of a survey and a teacher interview protocol. The results reveal that there is a correlation between participation in effective professional development and self‐efficacy for differentiated instruction, which reflects growth in self‐efficacy when effective professional development is given. A majority of the teachers in this study also recognized that the most effective professional development strategies used to build their self‐efficacy for differentiated instruction included those found in the Theory of Andragogy and other research‐based models of professional development. Finally, teachers in this study were found to believe that they were more likely to provide differentiated instruction to students with the use of computer‐assisted instruction. The results of this study can assist future research concentrated on building self‐efficacy in teachers to provide differentiated instruction. For the purposes of this study, the data collected and analyzed will assist Hawaii’s Catholic schools in meeting the needs of their academically‐diverse population of students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Medeiros, Glenn (author)

Core Title How effective professional development in differentiated instruction can save Hawaii's Catholic schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/17/2014

Defense Date 03/17/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag andragogy,computer-assisted instruction,differentiated instruction,Education,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,self-efficacy

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Martinez, Brandon (committee chair), Cole, Darnell G. (committee member), Pascarella, John, III (committee member)

Creator Email glenn.medeiros@maryknollschool.org,glennmedeiros@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-380392

Unique identifier UC11295929

Identifier etd-MedeirosGl-2371.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-380392 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MedeirosGl-2371.pdf

Dmrecord 380392

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Medeiros, Glenn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA