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The missing voice: graduate students' perceptions of the school counseling profession

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The missing voice: graduate students' perceptions of the school counseling profession

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Content Running head: GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 1
THE MISSING VOICE: GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE SCHOOL
COUNSELING PROFESSION
by
Delores A. Curry
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Delores A. Curry
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 2
Acknowledgements
In Him I live, move, and have my being. I can do all things through Christ that
strengthens me. By His grace and mercy, I am Dr. Delores A. Curry. I would like to thank all of
the people who have stood by me over the years throughout my educational journey. I always
say that God has truly blessed me with an awesome support system and, no matter what I have
gone through or which accomplishment I tackled, each and every one of you has always been
there.
I would like to thank my Chair, Dr. Alan Green, for believing in me and taking me on as
his student. It is through your guidance and support that I have achieved my goal. A special
thanks to Dr. Linda Fischer, my task master. You have been a true blessing in my life. Your
time, words of encouragement, and discipline when needed helped me to maintain the course. I
am truly grateful and, because of you, I reached the finish line. I would like to thank my
committee members, Dr. Baca and Dr. Searchwell. Thank you Dr. Rocke DeMark for ensuring
that all my paperwork was in order.
To the most wonderful parents in the whole wide world, Floyd and Helen Curry. You
have instilled in me the values and qualities that make me the woman I am today. Thank you for
loving me unconditionally. I love you both. To my sister and bothers, Sandra, Floyd, Ted, Larry
and Tyrone. I love you all. In loving memory of my brother Tyrone, this is shared with you. A
special thanks to my sister for your support. To my nieces(Tecelia, Adora, and Makesha) and
nephews(Breon, Larry, and Kawame), you know your part, and I appreciate you all. To my
pastor and first lady Dr. Robert and Mrs. Mary Fairley, who are like parents to me, thank you for
the treating me as if I were one of your own and believing in me. To my best friend, Dorothy,
thank you for being there all these years. We are done. Thank you to all my friends and those I
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 3
consider extended family; you know who you are. I am truly blessed, and I am finally done. To
God be the glory. Thank you.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 4
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 18
Significance of the Study 19
Definitions and Terms 20
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Perceptions of School Counselor Practices 22
School Administrators 23
Public Policy 32
The Roles and Functions of School Counselors 37
Table 1 Use of Time 43
Theoretical Framework 44
Well-Being 44
Social Capital 46
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Study Design 51
Sample and Population 51
Instrumentation 54
Data Collection 56
Data Analysis 56
Chapter Four: Results 58
Participants 60
Results Research Question One 61
Discussion Research Question One 68
Results Research Question Two 69
Discussion Research Question Two 74
Results Research Question Three 75
Discussion Research Question Three 80
Results Research Question Four 81
Discussion Research Question Four 87
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings 88
Summary of Findings 91
Implications for Practice 97
Recommendations for Research 97
Conclusion 98
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 5
References 99
Appendices
Appendix A 106
Appendix B 107
Appendix C 112
Appendix D 115
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 6
Abstract
This study applied social capital theory by Stanton-Salazar (2011) and well-being theory
by Prilleltensky,(2012). Stanton-Salazar explored individual relationships with institutional
agents providing access to social capital and the influence on educational and career aspirations.
Prilleltensky explored overall well-being in life through the successful culmination of objective
and subjective needs. The purpose of this study was to explore the roles and functions of school
counselors by examining the perceptions of graduate school counseling students' educational
experiences with school counselors during high school and the impact on their undergraduate
and graduate school years. A qualitative study was conducted based on the I COPPE survey and
interviews. Findings from this study indicate that Professional School Counselors do not address
the career aspirations and social emotional needs of high school students. Due to time
constraints, proactive comprehensive school counseling programs are not provided for students.
Professional School Counselors are not well versed in the roles and functions as stipulated by the
American School Counselor Association (ASCA). Positive educational experiences can have
lifelong implications that serve to empower individuals and create opportunities for change. This
study examined student voices in improving the practices for school counselors in the education.
Professional School Counselors should align the ASCA requirements to individual job
descriptions; activate social capital on behalf of students through collaboration with community
agencies and school personnel; and integrate social media into support for students with an
engaging comprehensive school counseling program which includes academic, career, and social
emotional development.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Professional School Counselors are vital catalyst within today’s educational system.
School Counselors are highly trained professionals that work fervently to assist students in three
critical domains of development: academic, career, and personal/social(social emotional).
School counselors work collaboratively with teachers and school administrators to improve
student’s scholastic success. They diligently seek to identify barriers which impede learning
thereby enhancing student’s academic potential. Several research studies conducted have
indicated that there is a positive correlation between school counseling programs and academic
achievement. This correlation is demonstrated in the following areas: decreasing student
disciplinary problems (Carrell & Carrell, 2006), raising academic achievement (Lapan, Gysbers,
& Sun, 1997), violence and dropout prevention (Stanard, 2003), career development (Lapan,
Tucker, Kim, & Kosciulek, 2003), and in pursuing postsecondary educational endeavors
(Student Poll, 2000). School counselors are essential to student achievement and are an integral
constituent in the school’s total educational program, yet there is a rising concern amongst
Professional School Counselors that their positions and programs are on the verge of becoming
extinct.
As of the 2008 recession, the nation’s economic crisis continues to take a toll on the
educational system, school districts are forced to make critical decisions regarding the reduction
and elimination of educational personnel and programs. These decisions have a tremendous
impact on all educators within the educational system, especially school counselors that estimate
approximately 133,280 positions within the United States at the elementary and secondary levels
(United States Department of Labor, 2011). Amongst all educational professionals, School
Counselors tend to be one group that is leading the minimization list (Vail, 2005). As school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 8
counseling positions are reduced in numbers and programs eliminated, students are being
deprived of counseling services that are beneficial to their academic achievement and
development. With limited counseling services available, students are forced to seek other
entities for their educational, career, personal/social, and postsecondary support and guidance.
Depending upon the available resources within educational institutions many students go without
school counseling services completely. This results in students missing out on services from
individuals that are uniquely trained to provide services to students in a holistic manner.
Professional School Counselors are trained to address the whole student and are able to
contribute to their overall well-being. School counseling services are essential to student
achievement and are vital within the educational sector. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain
the viability of Professional School Counselors within educational institutions to support student
learning and academic achievement. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the prevalent need
for school counselors within the educational system, to establish a better understanding of the
roles and functions of school counselors, and to examine how school counselors as a source of
social capital and well-being have a profound impact on the development and academic
achievement of all students.
Background of the Problem
Within the state of California, school districts are making budget cut decisions that are
having a tremendous impact on the profession of school counselors. In February 2011, San Juan
Unified School District Board of Education voted to reduce the budget by $7.2 million thereby
eliminating half of school counseling positions (Unhold, 2011). In March 2011, Fontana Unified
School District Board of Education voted 4-1 to eliminate 68 counselor positions, eliminating the
entire school counseling program, in order to cut their budget by $2 million (Steinberg, 2011).
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 9
Oakland Unified School District is another school district that experienced a reduction in school
counseling positions in July 2011 when the Principal at Skyline High School decided to
eliminate school counseling positions to cut his school budget by 12% (Murphy, 2011). In
anticipation of further budget cuts for the fall of 2012, Chino Valley Unified Board of Education
approved a two year $19.6 million budget reduction putting 30 counselor positions up for
elimination (Tasci, 2012). The aforementioned school districts listed are just a few examples
which illustrate how budget cuts are having a profound impact on the school counseling
profession as school districts attempt to defray educational costs. Consequently, several school
districts have reduced the number of school counseling positions from the primary to secondary
levels thereby limiting the counseling services offered within schools or eliminating school
counseling programs entirely. Budget cuts are a major reality for school districts and as a result,
Professional School Counselors are faced with the possibility of minimization or elimination. It
is evident that the school counseling profession is vulnerable to educational cuts but what makes
this feasible?
All students within the educational system are in need of comprehensive school
counseling services. In the educational system all students are faced with obstacles that impact
their academic achievement, personal/social growth, and career development. Through the
support and guidance of a Professional School Counselor, many students are able to overcome
such obstacles, increase their academic ability, and develop into contributing members of society
(Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997). Although school counselors are integral to the educational
system, their perceived reputation precedes them and with the evident discrepancies within the
practices and services of school counselors, the profession remains vulnerable when it comes to
budget cuts and eliminations. In educational institutions today, school counselors tend to be the
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 10
one group of educators that have the most difficulty in documenting their effectiveness and
contributions to student performance and academic achievement (College Board, 2009). School
counselors’ accountability practices are sparse or nonexistent and their organizational structure is
spontaneous. Therefore, being in an arena where accountability is mandatory and effectiveness
is essential, it is crucial for the Professional School Counselor to make changes within the
profession to illustrate their importance within the field of education that provides
comprehensive support for the student.
School Counselors’ practices are inconsistent throughout the profession or educational
system which makes role ambiguity rampant and creates perplexity among stakeholders and
decision makers. School counseling programs throughout the United States tend to have their
own distinctiveness due to the lack of uniformity within the profession and the roles and
functions varying from state to state, district to district, and school to school. Apparent role
ambiguity leads to the misconceptions of the practices of school counselors and increases the
need for clarity to demonstrate the importance of the profession within the educational sector.
Contributions to the role ambiguity within the profession can be attributed to school
administrators who exert authority over school counseling programs(Rye & Sparks, 1999).
With lack of knowledge surrounding school counseling services, many school administrators
define and assign school counselor positions and programs based upon their experience or
perceptions of what they believe school counselors should do. This makes the perceptions of
school counseling programs crucial to the vitality of the profession.
Perception of school counselors by school administrators are incongruent with the actual
practices of school counselors and continue to vary throughout the educational system (College
Board, 2011). School Administrators tend to have one view of the roles and functions of school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 11
counselors and establish expectations and duties based upon that view, while school counselors
operate under a different perspective. The limited view of school administrators may not allow
a comprehensive program for students. The lack of lucidity within the school counseling
profession makes it difficult for school district personnel to determine the value and
effectiveness of the profession and see how school counselors are an integral constituent of the
total school’s educational program. As a result, when it comes to making the decision of
retaining a teacher as opposed to a school counselor position, the teacher prevails. This leads to
the vulnerability of the school counseling profession during harsh economic times.
Along with role ambiguity and perceptions, school counselor’s accountability practices
also contribute to the professions endangerment. For school counselors to remain as a viable
entity within the educational system, it is an utter necessity to illustrate how school counseling
programs impact student outcomes. Answering the question “How are students different as a
result of school counseling programs” is critical to the profession’s sustainability and exhibits
accountability (ASCA, 2005). There is a lack of consistent accountability practices among
school counseling professionals. School counselor accountability practices are not common
throughout the profession. These practices are conducted on an individual, school district, or site
basis. Although studies have been conducted illustrating that school counselors do perform
accountability measures of their services and programs (Fairchild & Zins, 1986; Fairchild, 1990;
Perera-Diltz & Mason, 2010), full participation is not a mandated practice allowing some
professionals to opt out. Educational reform plays a vital role in developing public policy which
dictates the roles and responsibilities educators assume in enhancing student achievement and
creating accountability mandates for demonstrating results (Stone & Dahir, 2006).
Accountability needs to include comprehensive support for all students. Yet for several decades,
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 12
school counselor practices have not aligned with the educational reform process, leaving their
roles to be interpreted by school administrators and accountability mandates nonexistent. Until
school counselors are consistent in utilizing accountability practices and evaluative measures to
determine the effectiveness of counseling services and programs, the profession will continue to
be subjected to public scrutiny and remain vulnerable to reduction or elimination. Therefore, in
order for Professional School Counselors to reduce vulnerability of possible elimination, it is
imperative for the profession to provide effective comprehensive programs and contribute to
student achievement.
For several years, School Counselors have undergone professional scrutiny. Numerous
studies have been conducted that illustrate the lack of clarity and inconsistencies within the
school counseling profession. Some of these concerns fall under the perceptions of the practices
of school counselors, program accountability, and organizational structure. The organizational
structure of school counseling program activities is a major concern within the profession
(Clemons, Carey, & Harrington, 2010). Several researchers highlight the importance of
organizing school counseling program activities but variation within the structure remains. There
is no consistency within the structure of school counseling program and for the most part the
organizational structure within the educational setting is nonexistent. By creating an
organizational structure and implementing school counseling program activities within the
schools total educational programs, school counselors are able to enhance student outcomes and
establish legitimacy within the profession. The organization structure of school counseling
serves as the foundation to the programs. In an attempt to provide solidarity among the school
counseling profession, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) published the ASCA
National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs as a framework for school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 13
counseling programs to model after (ASCA, 2005). Although the model is encouraged and
available, thus far many school counselors have not implemented the model within their
programs, districts, or school sites (Sink, 2009).
Education reform is critical within the public sector; it dictates the educational system
and holds professionals accountable. For several years, school counselors have been misaligned
compared to other educators within the educational reform process thereby providing them no
voice in the process and creating an avenue for external entities to interpret and assign roles and
functions that may not be congruent with the recommended school counseling activities. This
makes it difficult for school counselors to provide comprehensive support to all students. The
21
st
Century brings more technological advancement and globalization to the educational system.
School counselors are faced with a diverse student population which according to the Partnership
for the 21
st
Century Skills (2009), should be skilled in critical thinking, problem solving,
communication, and collaboration to be successful in today’s society. These factors places large
demands on the educational system and require school counselors to be contributing constituents
to the overall demands of student success.
Over the years, the literature has delineated several concerns that exist within the school
counseling profession to be addressed and as time progresses they become more evident. Several
studies conducted over the years have inferred recommendations and perspectives to be
addressed by both school counselors and school administrators to enhance the profession of
school counseling (College Board, 2011a, 2009b, in press-a; Gysbers 2010; Myrick, 2003). Over
a century of existence, with all of the external entities that have had a voice within the school
counseling profession, there continues to be a strong disconnection within the school counselors'
practices, training, and the educational system. School Counselors continue to strive for a
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 14
reputable professional identity within the educational sector to no avail. Yet the prevalent
national need that once existed for school counselors within the educational system continues to
exist today.
Statement of the Problem
In the past few years, school districts have been required to reduce costs from their
educational budget due to the economic conditions of the United States. This has warranted
school district personnel to defray educational cost from their budget. In an attempt to cut cost,
many school districts have utilized school counseling personnel and programs as a means to
accomplish this task. School counseling is critical to the comprehensive support of all students.
In order to combat the educational and personal demands that student face within the educational
system, effective school counselors are necessary. Therefore qualified school counselors and
comprehensive school counseling programs within all educational institutions are essential to
positive student outcomes. The recommended student to counselor ratio is 250:1, which
establishes a manageable caseload for all school counselors. This allows school counselors the
ability to adequately address the needs and demands of students within the educational setting.
For many years the school counselors have been scrutinized for their lack of
accountability and ability to document their effectiveness within the educational system. While
evidence exists regarding the perceptions and effectiveness of school counseling programs from
the position of school administrators and school counselors, there is limited research from the
student’s perspective. Students are the driving force within the educational sector, yet their
voices are barely heard. In 2009, Public Agenda conducted a survey for the Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation entitled “Can I Get a Little Advice Here?”, which provided confirmation from
the students viewpoint that the demands on school counselors and their caseloads make it
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 15
impossible to effectively address the needs of students to be served. This survey was conducted
with young adults ages 20 through 30 and alleges that the public schools guidance system is
failing students and is in need of a change. Although the survey depicts school counseling
services as “inadequate”, the results are not pristine.
There exists a strong disconnection between the roles and functions of school counselors’
practices and the expectations of their practices by school administrators (College Board, 2009;
Leuwerke, Walker, & Shi, 2009; Amatea, 2005; and Kirchner & Setchfield, 2005). In 1997, the
American School Counselor Association (ASCA) published the Sharing the Vision: The national
standards for school counseling programs, which delineates the skills and knowledge that
student should obtain and be able to illustrate as a result of participating in a comprehensive
school counseling program. This publication provided school counselors with the ability to
identify and prioritize the services rendered within their programs. Along with the ASCA
National Standards came the ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling
Programs, published in 2003 to provide a foundation for school counseling programs to model
after as well as a guide to “inappropriate (non-counseling) activities and appropriate (counseling) responsibilities” (p. 57). Even though this landmark documents serve as a framework and
foundation for school counseling programs, there are few programs that can attest to fully
complying with them. Although the practices of school counselors yield discrepancies within
their roles and functions, it is evident throughout the educational system that their roles and
functions continue to be inconsistent, ambiguous, and are not clearly defined (Gysbers, 2010).
Therefore, within the educational setting, the roles and functions of school counselors are
determined by school administrators, the leader of the school, who exerts hegemony over the
profession and base descriptions on their own experience or perceptions of what the roles and
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 16
functions should be (Rye & Sparks, 1999; Pierson 1965). Though educational programs should
be based on students’ needs, there is scarce number of school counseling programs utilizing
accountability practices to conduct needs assessments to gain students insight to determine the
services provided and needed (Myrick, 2003).
Accountability practices of school counselors are scarce throughout the profession.
Fairchild and Zins (1986), Fairchild (1993), and Perera-Diltz and Mason (2010) conducted
national studies on the accountability practices of school counselors. Each study concluded that
at least 50% of school counselors utilize some form of accountability measures within their
programs. Nonetheless, it remains evident that accountability practices of school counselors are
not mandated and obstacles continue to emerge in documenting the effectiveness and impact of
school counseling programs on student achievement (Myrick, 2003; Sink, 2009). What becomes
important about accountability is to ensure that it includes all aspects of student support.
Education reform plays a vital role within the educational system. Throughout the
literature, school counselors have been absent within the educational reform process for several
decades (Gysber, 2010; College Board, 2009; Stone & Dahir, 2006; House & Martin, 2006). As
educational policies and legislation govern the educational system, the lack of school counselor
representation has resulted in policies and legislation being developed without the inclusion or
mention of the profession. Consequently, the detailed prescription of directions and guidelines
that are provided for educators through the reform process has resulted in the direction and
guidelines for the school counseling profession to be inferred or interpreted by others. As a
result, this omission has created a dire need for school counselors to have a voice and
representation within education reform. Failure to comply with this need will continue to
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 17
provide an avenue for public interest groups to speak for school counselors or overlook them
within the educational reform process which can have a negative impact on the profession.
The organizational structure within the school counseling profession is either limited or
non-existence within the educational sector. As school administrators tend to serve as the main
supervisors of school counselor, many lack the conception regarding the roles and functions of
the profession, thereby resulting in school counselor’s self autonomy(Rye & Sparks, 1999). In
2003, the American School Counselor Association published The ASCA National Model: A
Framework for School Counseling Programs as a means to provide a framework for school
counseling programs to model after. This framework provides school counselors with an
organizational structure to model programs after, a mechanism for school administrators to
utilize in supervising school counselors, and resources to maintain and monitor an effective
school counseling program that is conductive to student learning and achievement. As this
framework has been available since 2003, to date there are still several school counselors and
school districts that have not implemented the model within their district and site counseling
programs.
Numerous shortcomings within the profession prohibit school counselors from
establishing an effective professional identity within the educational sector(Paisley & Borders,
1995). School counselors have tussled for years with the ability to document and illustrate their
contributions in providing comprehensive support to students. In view of that, as the educational
system continues to struggle with the economic crisis, the school counseling profession is in dire
need of changes. Consequently, in order for the profession to make needed changes and increase
the likelihood of sustainable school counseling programs, the profession must listen to the voices
of the students which is the once entity that has been limited or nonexistent for several decades.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 18
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide the missing voice of the student in defining the
roles and functions of school counselors through and examination of the perceptions of graduate
school counseling students' educational experiences with school counseling during their
secondary, undergraduate, and graduate school years. This study explored graduate student's
perceptions of their current educational preparation and training experiences in identifying the
existing and proposed roles of school counselors in addressing the needs and aspirations of
students through school counseling programs. This study utilized the following research
questions as a means to guide the research:
1. What is the perception of the school counseling profession held by school counseling
graduate students?
2. What role do school counselors currently play in the needs, academic aspirations, and
psychosocial development of students at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate
levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students?
3. How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to the roles and functions of
Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and academic aspirations of
today's students?
4. How does the existing roles and training of school counselors align with the needs of
today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors?
What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's
needs?
The two theoretical frameworks utilized for this study were the well-being theory by
Prilleltensky(2012) and social capital by Stanton-Salazar (2011). Prilleltensky(2011)
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 19
defines well-being as a positive state of affairs, brought about by the simultaneous and
balanced satisfaction of diverse objective and subjective needs of individuals, relationships,
organizations, and communities. Prilleltensky explores an individual's overall satisfaction
with life through a culmination of the following six levels of well-being: Interpersonal,
Community, Occupational, Physical, Psychological, and Economic. Through the six levels
of well-being the objective (material and physical) and subjective (emotional and
psychological) needs of an individual are defined. Stanton-Salazar (2011) defines social
capital as resources and key forms of social support embedded in one's network or
associations, and accessible through direct or indirect ties with institutional agents. Stanton-
Salazar explores how individuals through relationships with institutional agents obtain access
to vital social capital which can significantly influence one's educational and career
aspirations.
Significance of the Study
The roles and functions of Professional School Counselors have been a major concern
of the school counseling profession for several decades. In an attempt to provide clarity to
the roles and defuse the ambiguity that exists, several entities have chimed in on what they
believe the roles and functions of school counselors should be. This study provides insight in
understanding the roles and functions of school counselors from the students' perspectives.
By examining the students voice in this study, school counselors will be able to articulate the
roles and functions that are needed to provide a comprehensive school counseling program to
clearly address the needs and academic aspirations of all students. The results of this study
will add to the knowledge base of school counselors. Both school administrators and
interested stakeholders will have a clear understanding of what roles and functions of school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 20
counselors students state that are beneficial to their academic, career, and personal social
development. The school counseling profession will be able to execute their roles and
functions more effectively in addressing the needs and aspirations of the students that they
serve. This study will provide insight from a student's perspective which is the population
that school counselors serve. This study will assist in demonstrating the effectiveness of
school counselors in the educational system.
Definitions and Terms
Institutional Agents- is an individual who occupies one or more hierarchical positions of
relatively high-status and authority (Stanton-Salazar, 2011) Professional School Counselor- are certified/licensed educators employed in primary and
secondary educational institutions. They have a master’s degree in school counseling and meet
the states licensure/certification requirements for which they are employed in. They are qualified
to embark upon the academic, personal/social, and career development needs of all students.
They enhance student success by designing, implementing, and evaluating a comprehensive
school counseling program within the school setting(ASCA, 2009).
Roles and Functions- are the direct and indirect services that are provided to students by school
counselors. These roles and functions center on the academic, career, and personal/social
development of all students through an execution of comprehensive school counseling program
(ASCA, 2012).
Social Capital- consists of resources and key forms of social support that is embedded in an
individual's networks and associations. These resources are accessible through direct or indirect
ties with institutional agents (Stanton-Salazar, 2010).
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 21
Well-Being- is defined as a positive state of affairs, brought about by the simultaneous and
balanced satisfaction of diverse objective and subjective needs of individuals, relationships,
organizations, and communities (Prilleltensky, 2012).
Organization of the Study
This study will be organized into five chapters including an appendixes and bibliography.
Chapter One provided an overview of the underlying problems which exists within the context of
the study. This chapter will explain the significance of the problem and need for the study.
Chapter Two will review the current literature pertaining to the proposed phenomena of this
study. Chapter Three will present the methodology for the study. It will discuss the data
collection process and the instruments that will be utilized during this study. Results of the study
are presented in Chapter Four. Finally, the discussion of findings and recommendations for
practice and research are articulated in Chapter 5. This study will conclude with a bibliography
and appendixes.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 22
Chapter Two: Literature Review
"One Vision One Voice" is the motto of the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA) created for the school counseling profession. This motto signifies a sense of uniformity
within the unity and cohesiveness throughout the operation and practices of school counselors.
Although considered ideal, the school counseling profession is far from operating and practicing
under one vision and one voice. This motto of the American School Counselor Association
(ASCA) reflects the direction of the profession of school counseling. This motto exemplifies the
ideal situation of unity and cohesiveness by which school counseling programs should evolve
and operate. The motto is promoted throughout the profession and school counselors are
encouraged to align their practices accordingly. Although this motto says there should be one
voice and one vision for the profession, this does not hold true for the profession as a whole. For
several decades there have been a number of inconsistencies within the roles and functions of the
school counseling profession.
This literature review will highlight critical areas which influence the school counseling
profession. First, this section will review the perceptions of the practices of school counselors by
school counselors and school administrators. Secondly, a review of public policy will be
conducted to portray what policies govern school counselors and the impact it has on the school
counseling profession. Lastly, this section will conclude with a review of the roles and functions
of school counselors.
Perceptions of School Counselor Practices
Perceptions regarding school counselor practices provide insights into the roles and
functions of the school counseling profession. For decades, the roles and functions of school
counselors have been influenced by the beliefs of others of what school counselors should be
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 23
doing or by the need that is most prevalent at the time within the school setting. As a result, this
approach has caused massive confusion within the educational sector regarding the roles and
functions of school counselors. In an attempt to solidify the school counseling profession, ASCA
has developed guiding documents for developing and managing the school counseling profession
(ASCA, 2012). The ASCA National Model of 2005 is the pervasive guiding document which
serves as a model for developing and managing school counseling programs. Within this
document the ASCA Model illustrates the appropriate and inappropriate school counseling
activities and suggested roles and functions that school counselors and counseling programs
should perform. The ASCA National Model consists of four components; foundation, delivery
system, accountability, and management systems. Although ASCA have provided a guide for
school counseling programs to follow, many schools are not utilizing or aligning their programs
to the recommended model and many school administrators do not have a full understanding of
this document. Therefore, the perceptions from school administrators and that of practicing
school counselors in the school setting serve to provide a foundation to understanding the
predominate challenges in the field.
School Administrators
School administrators exert control over the existence and effectiveness of school
counseling positions and programs. Several studies have been conducted on the perceptions of
school principals as it pertains to school counseling programs, indicating that school
administrators rely on their perceptions as a means for managing and evaluating school
counseling programs due to lack of formalize training (Gysbers, 2001; Leuwerke, Walker, & Shi,
2009; Leuwerke, Bruinkool, & Lane, 2008). School administrators tend to be the most
influential factor in determining the roles and functions of school counselors. With school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 24
counselors primary work location being in the schools, it is the school administrator who is
accountable for the implementation and effectiveness of school counseling programs, which
includes defining the roles and functions school counselors perform (Rye & Sparks, 1999). This
responsibility places urgency on school administrators to be knowledgeable of the school
counseling profession and the roles they are trained to perform. Yet, many school administrators
lack formalized training in school counseling. Therefore, their perceptions give them the most
formative information regarding school counselors. Due to the lack of formalized training that
school administrators receive regarding school counseling, they are forced to interpret for
themselves the roles and functions of school counselors and their programs assume within the
school site. School administrators acquire perceptions based on what they know, experience,
and learn(Rye & Sparks, 1999). Therefore, if one does not receive formal training, then their
perceptions, good or bad, can have a profound negative or positive impact on the effectiveness
and existence of school counseling programs. As the chief leader within the school, school
administrators have the power to determine if the school program remains intact within a school
site or terminated due to lack of effectiveness. School administrators tend to develop tasks for
school counselors that are not aligned with the ASCA Standards (Kirchner & Setchfield, 2005).
The perceptions of school administrators have a profound impact on the school counseling
profession in several areas which includes the management of school counseling programs, the
resources that are allotted to sustain school counseling program and services, the services that are
provided to students by school counselors, and the maintenance of school counseling
professionals.
Leuwerke, Walker, and Shi (2009) conducted a study to examine the differences of
school administrator perceptions regarding the school counselors’ roles and time devoted to the
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 25
delivery of school counseling programs when administrators were provided different types of
information regarding the school counseling profession. In this study, school administrators
were assessed to determine the amount of exposure received regarding the ASCA National
Model and their perceptions on three components of the school counseling profession. These
three components consisted of appropriate and inappropriate counseling activities, time
allocations of school counselors, and the practices of school counselors. The results of this study
were divided up into the three sections of exposure for school administrators: ASCA National
Model, time allocations, and appropriate and inappropriate activities of school counselors. This
study found that over half of the school principals (51.3%) reported having no exposure to the
ASCA National Model, with (44.8%) reporting some to little exposure, and (3.6%) having a
great deal or extensive exposure of to the ASCA National Model. Of the respondents that
indicated that they had some exposure to the model, over half reported that they became
familiarize with the model through discussions with professional school counselors. While other
report having obtained knowledge through the forms of conferences, meetings, continuing
education, and pre-services trainings. Leuwerke, Walker, and Shi illustrate that the majority of
school administrators do not receive formalized training regarding the school counseling
profession; instead they gain their knowledge through discussions with school counselors.
After determining the extent of principals’ knowledge regarding the ASCA National
Model, Leuwerke, Walker, and Shi (2009) then proceeded to examine school principals’
perceptions of school counselors’ time allocations. They found that school principals with
information regarding the ASCA National Model impacted the perceptions regarding time
allocations in the delivery mechanisms such as curriculum, systems support, and responsive
services. School Principals that learned about the model suggested that school counselors should
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 26
allocate more time to system support activities. The time allocations amounts were determined
across grade levels. They suggested that school counselors devote at least 30% of their time to
the delivery of guidance and approximately 14% in system support. This held to be true with the
perceptions held by school principals exposed to the model as well. The recommended
allocations by school principals were greatly influenced by the information that was received.
School principals reported that appropriate school counseling activities were more beneficial to
the schools mission than those activities that were deemed as inappropriate. As for the time
allocations category, there were no significant difference between the school principals response
regardless of the information presented or the perceptions held regarding inappropriate and
appropriate tasks.
Leuwerke, Walker, and Shi(2009) highlight that school administrators’ perceptions are
impacted by information that they receive regarding the school counseling profession. It is
evident throughout this study that school administrators do not receive formalized training
regarding school counseling programs and much of the information learned is retrieved from
conferences, meetings, pre-service trainings, and through discussions held with school
counselors themselves. This study indicates that it is imperative for school counselors to have a
positive and supportive relationship with school principals for school counseling programs to be
successful. In order for school counselors and counseling programs to be successful, school
counselors must maintain a positive and supportive relationship with their principals (College
Board, 2009; Leuwerke, Walker, & Shi, 2009).
Similarly, Bardhoshi and Duncan (2009) conducted a study to investigate the perceptions
of school principals regarding the role of school counselors in a largely rural Midwestern state.
As demonstrated, school counselors in rural areas face unique challenges due to logistics as
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 27
opposed to school counselors in other geographic locations. In rural areas, school counselors
tend to be the only mental health professional serving in the district. Therefore, the perceptions
held by school principals tend to be based on the multiple roles that school counselors perform.
This study compared the perceptions of 538 K-12 school principals. School principals were
asked to complete a 2006 Rural School Counselor Role Survey online that was based on the
professional standards of service delivery identified by ASCA as well as the appropriate and
inappropriate school counselor tasks. Included within this survey were the four ASCA National
Model service delivery categories: Guidance Curriculum, Individual Student Planning,
Responsive Services, and System Support.
Bardhoshi and Duncan (2009) found that school principals identified Responsive
Services as highly important tasks to be performed by school counselors with 93% of the
respondents ranking crisis intervention as the number one tasks within this category. Among the
four categories surveyed after Responsive services being listed as number one, Guidance
Curriculum came in second, with System Support Services coming in third, and Individual
Student Planning ranking last. Results indicated that school administrators find responsive
services to be important tasks among school counselors with crisis counseling being the most
prevalent. Among the other categories surveyed in the study, school administrators selected the
following tasks of primary importance: School guidance curriculum – 92% ranked peer
relationships, coping strategies, and effective social skills; Systems supports – 84% ranked
consultation, collaboration, and teaming; Individual Student Planning – 79% ranked education
on understanding of self, including strengths and weakness. Overall the following five tasks of
school counselors were considered to be of importance to school administrators: crisis
counseling; peer relationships, coping strategies and effective social skills; individual
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 28
counseling; assisting the school principal with identifying and resolving student issues, needs,
and problems; and consultation, collaboration, and teaming. Although school administrators
demonstrate that they agree with many of the appropriate tasks recommended by ASCA, there is
still a need for school administrators to receive training and education on the roles and functions
of school counselors. Along with the training and education of school administrators, it is also
imperative for school counselors to have an understanding of the tasks school administrators
deem as important in providing a comprehensive school counseling program to students.
Dodson (2009) conducted a study comparing the school administrators perceptions of the
high school counselors roles in counseling programs that had receive Recognized ASCA Model
Program (RAMP) distinction to similar schools with counseling programs that had not received
the distinction. This study was conducted in 2006 among the 10 schools in throughout the
United States that had received RAMP distinction and 20 similar school within the Rocky
Mountain (no school in this geographic locations had RAMP distinction at the time of the study).
There were a total of 60 school administrators that had responded to the questionnaire within the
study (19 from a RAMP school site and 41 from a non-RAMP school sites). This study found
that the perceptions of RAMP administrators preferred school counselors to be in the classrooms
delivering guidance curriculum than that of the school administrators from the non-RAMP
schools. RAMP school administrators also perceived school counselors to perform the following
functions: counsel students with disciplinary problems, collaborate with teachers regarding the
management of study hall, and interpret student records. All of the administrators within this
study perceived that school counselors work were categorized in the three recommended domain
areas: academic, career, and personal social with all students. As a result of this study, non-
RAMP counseling programs were encouraged to do two things: 1) deliver guidance curriculum
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 29
to all students through classroom guidance lessons to better align the programs to the ASCA
National Model; and 2) apply for the RAMP distinctions. Dodge highlights that both
administrators from RAMP and Non RAMP School counseling programs share similar
perceptions regarding the roles and functions of school counselors. These findings demonstrate
that school counseling programs maybe performing the same duties within the school site but
have not taken the steps to apply for recognition.
A study conducted by Chata and Loesch (2007) investigated how future school principals
viewed the roles of professional school counselors as it pertains to the responsibilities listed in
the ASCA National Model. This study consisted of 244 school principals in training enrolled in
educational administration programs at member institutions of the University Council for
Educational Administration. All respondents were able to distinguish between the appropriate
and inappropriate activities of school counselors. The results of this study found that Principals
in training found the recommended appropriate school counseling activities more favorable than
those considered to be inappropriate. Principals in training were also found the role of school
counselors to be based on the actual recommended appropriate school counseling activities as
opposed to gender or own personal characteristics and experiences. The results of this study
indicates that there is hope that with exposure to the school counseling profession that school
administrators will evaluation and school counseling programs based on their actual performance
of their roles and functions instead of their perceptions.
A study conducted by Kirchner and Setchfield (2005) surveyed school administrators and
school counselors regarding the school counselors role. This study resulted in 65 respondents
(23 counselors and 42 administrators) that were enrolled in the Education 603 Leadership and
School Transformation course at the University of Puget Sound. The course that the respondents
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 30
were enrolled in provided an orientation of both the school counselors and school administrator
roles. This finding of this study resulted in school counselors and school administrators in
agreement regarding the functions of school counselors that were considered as congruent with
the recommended appropriate school counselor’s role but disagreed among the roles that tend to
be considered inappropriate school counselors roles. Within the survey, school administrators
tend to agree more with the inappropriate roles than school counselors. Another result of this
study was that school administrators that had scarce resources tended to rely on “real life”
experiences instead of the training they had received in their course. The choice of inappropriate
school counseling roles tend to be generated more at the secondary level then in primary level.
This study indicates that although many school principals lack knowledge of the school
counselors role, the demands of the work setting can also contribute to the perceptions of school
administrators and provide and explanation as the why school administrators tend to choose
inappropriate school counselors roles as opposed to appropriate ones. It is important to note that
this study was conducted during the same year that the ASCA National Model was developed.
Amatea and Clark (2005) conducted a qualitative study utilizing the grounded theory to
assess the perceptions regarding the role of school counselors. This study consisted of 26 school
administrators employed in public elementary, middle, and high schools. The findings of this
study resulted in four distinctively different preferences for the role of school counselors. The
four roles consisted of the following: 1) the innovative school leader, 2) the collaborative case
consultant, 3) the responsive direct service provided, and 4) the administrative team player.
Within the preferred roles by school administrators the innovative school leader was preferred
more by elementary school administrators. The responsive direct services provider prevalent
more with middle and high school administrators. The administrative team player tended to be
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 31
more of a preference with middle school administrators. This study indicates how school
administrators and school counselor can work collaborative to assist students in obtaining
optimal learning and development. This study also alludes to the implication for the
development of school counseling programs and some of the skills that school administrators
value as important within the school counseling profession.
All of these studies examined the perceptions held by school administrators regarding the
roles of school counselors. Each study examined the perceptions of school administrators and
school counselors’ pre and post the ASCA National Model. Each study has confirmed that the
role ambiguity that exists amongst the school counseling profession can be contributed to the
lack of exposure that school administrators have regarding the school counseling profession. Due
to the lack of exposure to the school counseling profession it has been difficult for school
administrators to assign appropriate roles and functions to school counselors. As found within
these studies, when school administrators gain knowledge regarding the school counseling
profession, they are more prone to assign the recommended appropriate roles and functions to
school counselors. Although school administrators then to lack knowledge of the school
counseling profession, they tend to rely on their perceptions gained from experience or the real
demands of the work setting to assign and define the roles and functions of school counselors.
While school administrators lack formal training regarding the school counseling profession,
they rely on school counselors to provide them with the necessary information regarding the
school counseling profession and what it is that school counselors actually do. It is imperative for
school counselor and school administrator to establish a working relationship that is conducive
and assists in the effectiveness and viability of school counseling positions and programs.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 32
Public Policy
Educational reform is critical within the learning and teaching process in the educational
system within the United States. Throughout history, all educational institutions are charged with
providing quality education and developing citizens that have the ability to compete both on an
international and national level. Through educational reform movements the federal government
is able to seek school improvement, review current practices, and develop legislation, policies,
and regulations that govern the educational sector (Gysbers & Henderson, 2012; Stone & Dahir,
2006). As a predominate force, educational reform has a profound impact on the roles and
responsibilities of all educators, which includes school counselors. Through legislation and
public policy the educational system is prescribed guidelines and responsibilities that must be
adhered to when operating within the educational system. Yet, throughout the literature, the
school counseling profession has not been a focal point within the educational reform process for
several decades (Gysbers, 2010; College Board, 2009; Stone & Dahir, 2006). This lack of
inclusion has caused the school counseling profession to evaluate their identity and transform
practices to align with the current educational reform movement. Although school counselors
are not directly included within the educational reform movements, they are still required to
adhere to the policies and legislation that governs the educational system and demonstrate their
effectiveness in enhancing student academic achievement.
Education reform has guided and shaped the school counseling profession for years.
Through legislation and public policy the school counseling profession emerged and continues to
evolve. There are several educational reform movements that exist within the United States and
although they all have a profound impact on the school counseling profession, this review will
highlight the reforms that have had a significant impact on the development of the school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 33
counseling profession and the guiding documents that direct the profession. Within public
policy, there are three critical points to address regarding the profession of school counselors.
First, the demonstrated need through public policy for the development of the school counseling
profession. Second, how public policy has formed the practices of school counselors. Finally, the
guiding documents and regulations resulting from public policy which dictates the practices and
directions of the school counseling profession.
While the school counseling profession initially emerged as a result of the industrial
revolution of the early 1900s, it was not until the launching of the Sputnik in 1957 that created a
national epidemic of school counselors within the educational setting. This launch caught the
American public by surprise and generated concerns regarding America’s ability to compete both
nationally and internationally in fields of math, science, and technology. America had to rethink
the education of students which elicited the immediate attention of the federal government, and
created the need for public education reform at all levels (Jolly, 2009). As a result the National
Defense Education Act of 1958 was instituted and led to the rise of the school counseling
profession.
The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) provided a national need for school
counselors throughout the educational system and detailed specific guidelines by which school
counselors were to operate. As a result of this legislation, the roles and functions of school
counselors were clearly defined. The NDEA facilitated the training of school counselors and an
increase in the number of school counseling personnel within the educational sector. The
purpose of the NDEA was to encourage "the fullest development of the mental resources and
technical skills of young men and women" (Gysbers, 2010, p. 248). This was to be
accomplished through the infusion of school counselors in schools to identify and encourage
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 34
students to pursue careers in math, science, and technology. During this time, school counselors
were considered vital to the educational system. Training institutes were developed to provide
school counselors with the necessary skills and training to be effective within the educational
setting in addressing the needs of the students and public concerns. As a result of the
development of the NDEA Counseling and Guidance institutes, the number of full time
equivalent counselors in secondary schools increased from 12,000 to nearly 30,000(Pierson,
1965).
In conjunction with the creation of the school counseling profession, legislation and
public policy has been the creation of the guiding documents of the school counseling
profession. The American School Counselor Association created three documents that serve as
guidelines and models for the school counseling profession. These documents are as follows:
The National Standards for School Counseling Programs(1997); The ASCA National Model: A
Framework for School Counseling Programs (2003); and The School Counselor Competencies
(2008).
The National Standards for School Counseling Programs served to establish the
competencies, goals, and expectations of what all students should know and be able to do as a
result of participating in a comprehensive school counseling program. The focus of these
standards is on the academic, career, and personal/social development of the students (ASCA,
1997). In response to the national standards movement and Educate America 2000 Act the
national professional organization for school counselors, ASCA, saw this as a prime opportunity
to establish a connection between the school counseling profession and the educational reform
agenda. The American School Counselor Association brought forth the idea of developing
national standards for the school counseling profession to the state and national leadership of
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 35
school counselors, as a result, in 1995 a study was conducted to assess the attitudes of state and
national school counselor leaders towards creating national standards for school counselors
(Dahir, 2004). The purpose of this study was to examine the attitudes of school counselors
regarding the development of national standards for school counselors, to clarify the purpose that
the standards would serve for the profession, and identify the program components that school
counselors believed would be addressed in the national standards. This study was conducted in
three phases of administration, the ASCA governing board members, the ASCA state school
counseling leaders, and ASCA membership. All participants at each phase of this study
represented the following levels: elementary, middle/junior high, and high school counselors. As
a result of the 1994 discussion with the ASCA leadership a brief questionnaire was sent to the
leadership (27 board members) to seek the direction of the national standards for school
counseling. This questionnaire resulted in an 81% return rate and yielded the following six
categories of what national standards for the school counseling profession would establish:
1. Create a framework for national model for school counseling programs;
2. Establish school counseling as an integral component of the academic mission of the
educational system;
3. Encourage equitable access to school counseling services for all students provided by
a credentialed school counselor;
4. Identify the key components of a developmental school counseling model program;
5. Identify the knowledge and skills that all students should acquire as a result of the
school counseling program; and
6. Ensure that school counseling programs are comprehensive in design and delivered in
a systematic fashion for all students.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 36
Phase two of this study was then distributed in April 1995 to the state school counseling
leaders in the ASCA annual delegate assembly as a pilot survey. This portion of the study
yielded a 51% return rate and reduced the survey questions from 92 to 77. Phase three of this
study was conducted in September 1995 with the distribution of the survey to 2,000 school
counselors in the k-12 setting and a total of 1,127 ASCA members responded. The results of this
survey showed overwhelming support for the development of the national standards by 82% of
the school counselors that responded. The responding school counselors also indicated by 67.7%
that the standards be based on practices as opposed to theory. As a result of public policy and
the support by school counselors, ASCA developed the national standards for school counseling
programs. According to Dahir (2004), the implementation of the national standards would serve
in the following ways: provided the mechanism for school counseling to be accepted as a
legitimate component of the educational system; establish similar goals, expectations, support
systems, and experiences for all students as a result of their participation in school counseling
programs; and help to define the vision and goals for the school counseling in the 21st century.
The School Counselor Competencies (2008) outlines the skills, knowledge, and abilities
that school counselors should possess in meeting the demands of K-12 students. The intent is to
equip school counselors with the necessary competencies to establish, maintain, and enhance a
comprehensive school counseling program that is focused on the academic achievement, career
planning, and personal/social development for students. The competencies centered on the
following components of school counseling programs: foundation, management, delivery, and
accountability. All of these components are aligned with the ASCA National Model for school
counseling programs and serve as the competencies that school counselors.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 37
As educational reforms continue to shape education, policy is the guiding force that
school counselors adhere to and generated change at the national, state, and local levels. While
the federal government and the American School Counselor Association serve as the national
components for the school counseling profession in providing guidance and direction, school
counselors still have to contend with the local and state levels.
The Roles and Functions of School Counselors
What do school counselors do? This long adage question has haunted the school
counseling profession for several years. Even after being in existence for over a century, many
people continue to wonder what school counselors do. School counselors perform various duties
and functions within the educational setting, yet the duties performed are not universal
throughout the profession. There are several entities that contribute to the roles and functions of
school counselors; school administrators, districts, local, state, and national legislation and
policies, and outside interest groups. Depending upon who has the loudest voice or strongest
need determines the roles and functions assumed at any given school site.
The American School Counselor Association represents school counselors nationally and
provides guiding documents as the national standards, the national model, and school counselor
competencies that assist in establishing and defining the roles and functions of school counselors.
Therefore, many school counselors have yet to align the school counseling programs with these
documents. Due to this common practice amongst the profession, school counselors tend to
perform duties that are required by the school districts and school sites as opposed to the
recommended ASCA school counseling activities (ASCA, 2011). This continued practice by
school counselors has created role ambiguity and confusion throughout the profession.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 38
The role and functions of school counselors can be traced in history to the 1900s when
the Progressive Movement was prevalent due to the conditions of the Industrial Revolutions
which pave the way for vocational guidance in the schools. During this era, vocational guidance
was provided to students by school administrators and teachers as part of their additional
educational duties(College Board, 2011; Gysbers, 2010). Within this era the roles and functions
of school counselors as vocational guidance was seen as ancillary services as opposed to a
profession. The origins of school counseling began over a century ago during the height of the
progressive movement with vocational counseling. During the 1920s vocational education,
career and occupational counselors began to emerge on school campuses and teachers were
appointed to carry out these duties. In the 1930s the focus on counseling services began to focus
on personal and social issues. During the 1960s school counseling programs began to take on
new meaning. In 1962, Gilbert Wrenn, author of The Counselor in a Changing World, began the
emphasis of developmental counseling programs. The first inception of developmental guidance
in counseling literature is credited to writing Robert Mathewson in 1949. School guidance is
described by Mathewson as “a process that should move with the individual student in a
developmental sequence up to the age of maturity” (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). Although school
counseling programs became developmental in nature, the appropriate title of counselors became
“Guidance Counselors.”
As the counseling profession sought to enhance its identity, the role and function of
guidance counselors became clearly established with regulatory definitions in many states. For
example,(Stone & Clark, 2001). With quality monitoring of school counseling programs, the
profession continued to seek professional legitimization.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 39
During the 1980s the term guidance began an identity concern for the school counseling
profession due to its imprecise meaning and usage. According to Webster’s Dictionary,
guidance is advice or counseling, esp. for students on educational or vocational matters,
direction, and something that guides. Within the educational setting guidance was perceived as
an advisory activity that provided information to large and small groups by educators, not just
counselors. As a result of the term guidance being utilized, many authors belied this led to the
identity confusion of counseling. Hoyt(1989) conducted a survey of 100 state and national
leaders and found that professional association leadership preferred for the practitioners to be
called school counselors as opposed to guidance counselors. The findings of this survey
supported the position of the national association, which emphasizes the role of the school
counselor as an integral component of the educational system.
During the era of accountability, the school counseling profession recognized the need to
develop a comprehensive and systematic approach to school counseling programs(Sink, 2009).
By the end of the 1970s, many states had developed some type of model for school counseling
programs. Although many laws, regulations, and legislation take into account the existence and
roles of school counseling programs, the extent to which each state may require school
counseling (educational counseling) may vary.
According to the California Education Code section 49600 (a), educational counseling is
defined in Chapter 10 as “a specialized service provided by a school counselor possessing a valid
credential with specialization in pupil personnel services who is assigned specific times to
directly counsel pupils”. Therefore, under this code, school districts are permitted to provide a
comprehensive educational counseling program to assist pupils within their district. Once a
counseling program has been established, it is imperative for guidelines to be set in order to
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 40
maintain the effectiveness of the program and its benefits to the students. Counseling school
students entails many things; therefore, to ensure that all students receive the same adequate
services, key components of the counseling program have been identified. Section 49600 (b) indicates the two essential components of counseling programs are but not limited to academic
counseling and career and vocational counseling. As a result of these components and the
assurances that students are adequately serviced, the following specific duties are described and
outlined below.
Academic counseling:
1. Establishment and implementation with parental involvement of pupil’s
immediate and long range educational plans.
2. Optimizing progress towards achievement of proficiency standards.
3. Completion of the required curriculum in accordance with the pupil’s needs
abilities, interests, and aptitudes.
4. Academic planning for access and success in higher education programs
including advisement on courses needed for admission to public colleges and
universities, standardized admissions tests, and financial aid.
Career and Vocational counseling:
1. Planning for the future.
2. Becoming aware of their career potential.
3. Developing realistic perceptions of work.
4. Relating to the work world.
These components should be consistent within all primary and secondary schools within the
State of California.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 41
As the counseling profession continues to strive forward, the American School
Counselors Association governing board in 1997 adopted a new definition of school counseling
and the National Standards for School Counseling Programs were created as an attempt to define
the role of school counselors. The ASCA National Standards for school counseling programs
provided the following definition for school counseling:
Counseling is a process of helping people by assisting them in making
decisions and changing behavior. School counselors work with all students, school staff,
families, and members of the community as an integral part of the education program.
School counseling programs promote school success through a focus on academic
achievement, prevention and intervention activities, advocacy, and social/emotional and
career development. (Campbell & Dahir, 1997, p. 8) In 1997, the American School Counselor Association adopted the National Standards for School
Counseling Programs, which provided the counseling programs with standards that demonstrated
student competencies during an era where education focus on content standards and results. The
1997, National Standards for School Counseling Programs are aligned with the components
described in the California Education Code and added another area. The three components of the
National Standards are academic development, career development, and personal/social
development. Each standard focuses on the students achieved development once they have
completed participation in a school counseling program. The following components of the
standards were designed by the National Standards for School Counseling Programs(1997):
Academic Development
Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge, and skills that contribute to
effective learning in school and across the life span.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 42
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to
school from a wide range of substantial postsecondary options including college.
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship of academics to the world of work,
and to life at home and in the community.
Career Development
Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to
knowledge of self and to make informed career decision.
Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career success and
satisfaction.
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities,
education and training, and the world of work.
Personal/Social Development
Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge, and interpersonal skills to
help them understand and respect self and others.
Standard B: Students will make decisions, set goals, and take necessary action to achieve
goals.
Standard C: Students will understand safety and survival skills.
The California Education Code and the National Standards provides the necessary components
of school counseling programs. The California Education Code focuses on counseling programs
from the standpoint of what school counselor duties should be performed, and the National
Standards focuses on the students’ developmental competencies as a result of participating in a
comprehensive school counseling program. The California Educational Code provides the
necessary legal capacity for education counseling programs because it allows them to exist on
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 43
the campus of educational institutions and provides the guidelines for program existence. The
National Standards serve as the content for student development as a result of participating in a
comprehensive school counseling program.
In 1997, the American School Counselor Association developed the National Standards
for school counseling programs that identified the "appropriate and inappropriate" tasks for
school counselors. These tasks are illustrated in the chart below.
Table 1
Use of Time
USE OF TIME: APPROPRIATE AND INAPPROPRIATE SCHOOL COUNSELING ACTIVITIES
Appropriate Activities for School
Counselors
Inappropriate Activities for School Counselors
 Individual student academic planning
 Interpreting cognitive, aptitude and
achievement test
 Providing counseling to students who
are tardy or absent.
 Providing counseling to students who
have disciplinary problems
 Providing counseling to students as to
appropriate school dress
 Collaborating with teachers to present
school counseling core curriculum
lessons
 Analyzing grade-point averages in
relationship to achievement
 Interpreting student records
 Providing teachers with suggestions for
effective classroom management.
 Ensuring student records are maintained
as per state and federal regulations
 Helping the school principal identify
and resolve student issues, needs and
problems
 Providing individual and small-group
counseling services to students.
 Coordinating paperwork and data entry of all new
students
 Coordinating cognitive, aptitude and achievement
testing programs.
 Signing excuses for students who are tardy or
absent
 Performing disciplinary actions or assigning
discipline consequences
 Sending students home who are not appropriate
dressed
 Teaching classes when teachers are absent
 Performing disciplinary actions or assigning
discipline consequences
 Sending students home who are not appropriately
dressed
 Teaching classes when teachers are absent
computing grade-point averages
 Maintaining student records
 Supervising classroom or common areas
 Keeping clerical records
 Assisting with duties in the principal's office
 Providing therapy or long-term counseling in
schools to address psychological disorders
 Coordinating school wide individual educational
plans, student study teams and school attendance
review boards.
 Serving as a data entry clerk.
ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs, American School
Counselor Association (2012, p. 45).
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 44
Whereas these criteria exist for the profession, many school counselors find themselves
performing more roles in the inappropriate roles activities category as opposed to the appropriate
roles category.
Theoretical Framework
In order to thoroughly understand the roles and functions of Professional School
Counselors and their impact on the needs and academic aspirations of high school students,
Well-Being by Prilleltensky(2013) and Social Capital by Stanton Salazar(2010) will be utilized
as the two theoretical frameworks for this study. Well-being and social capital are two
theoretical frameworks that accent each other in determining ones perception of their overall
satisfaction with their educational and life experiences. Runyan et al. (1998) conducted a study
and found that social capital and well-being can have an impact on one's life as early as
childhood. This linkage is visible through the social capital that children receive from the social
connections and affiliations that are obtained by their parents. Stanton-Salazar and Spina (2005) conducted a study and illustrated how adolescence exposure to social capital can have positive
impacts on ones well-being. By having access to viable means of social capital, adolescence are
able to shield shelter and foster resiliency which can contribute to positive development and an
overall satisfaction with one's well-being (Stanton-Salazar & Spina, 2005).
Well-Being
Well-being is critical in the overall individual development of any person and entails
having meaning in one's life. According to Webster's dictionary, well-being is defined as a "state
of being happy, healthy, and prosperous." Within the United States, there are two philosophical
research positions when it comes to well-being. These two philosophical positions are defined
by Sheu and Lent (2009) as hedonic well-being (subjective happiness) and eudemonic well-being
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 45
(meaning, purpose, and the actualization of human potential). In conjunction with these views,
positive well-being is seen as a basic level of satisfaction of multiple factors (personal, relational,
and collective domains) derived from the "synergistic interaction." Well-being can be seen as
developmental process that one goes through in life that can be both positive and negative impact
on one's life. While well-being is comprised of various components, the development of an
instrument with the ability to measure well-being through a multidimensional construct has been
nonexistent. Researchers have utilized several instruments to measure various aspects of well-
being but none have had the capabilities of measuring well-being overall through a
multidimensional construct until the development of the Interpersonal, Community,
Occupational, Physical, Psychological, and Economic (ICOPPE) scale of well-being by
Prilleltensky(2013).
Prilleltensky (2012) defines well-being as a positive state of affairs, brought about by the
simultaneous and balanced satisfaction of diverse objective and subjective needs of individuals,
relationships, organizations, and communities. Positive well-being is exemplified when the
objective(material and physical) and subjective (emotional and psychological) needs of an
individual is fulfilled. These objective and subjective needs of an individual is categorized into
six domains: economic, physical, occupational, psychological, community, and interpersonal.
According to Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky(2006), well-being is a combination of personal,
organizational, and community influential factors. There are five S’s which make up the
components of well-being: site, sign, source, strategy, and synergy. The first S stands for site
which indicates where well-being takes place. A site can be a person, organization, or a
community. The second S represents a sign that illustrates whether or not well-being is taking
place. A personal sign of well-being represents having control over one's life. For organization it
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 46
is where decisions are made that impact a person's life, and for community a sign would be a
good school and safe environment. The third S is source which can be derived from a variety of
sources. Examples are as follow: self-esteem would be personal, clear roles would represent the
organization, and community would represent cohesion, belonging, and equality. The fourth S is
strategies. Strategies promote a plan of action for each site. The final S stands for synergy
which is an understanding and combination of sources and strategies which demonstrate the
benefits of cohesion of all three sites.
In an attempt to assess all sources, the Interpersonal, Community, Occupational, Physical,
Psychological, and Economic (ICOPPE) scale of well-being was developed to measure the
perceptions of well-being at critical areas of one's life. Therefore, this theoretical framework was
utilized in the constructs of this study in assessing one's perception of their well-being with their
overall satisfaction with school counselors and their educational experiences during their high
school education and its impact on their undergraduate, and graduate education. Improvements
of well-being focus on people strengths, preventing problems, empowering individuals, and
community change. Empowerment gives people a sense of control, which can be a tool for social
change and personal meaning at the same time. All of these factors contribute to the overall
well-being of an individual's life. By assessing the overall satisfaction of an individual's
educational preparation during high school and its impact on undergraduate and graduate
education provides an outlook into the roles and functions of Professional School Counselors.
Social Capital
Everyone has obtained, contributed, and or experienced some form of social capital
throughout the developmental process of life. Social capital has served for some individuals as a
means of support and resources utilized to accomplish many life activities. Social capital
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 47
originated through the work of Pierre Bourdieu and James Coleman. Bourdieu(1986) highlighted the interactions of three sources of social capital(economic, cultural, and symbolic),
while Coleman(1988) discussed three forms of social capital: a) level of trust, b) information
channels, and c) norms and sanctions that promote the common good over self-interest (Dika &
Singh, 2002). Dika and Singh (2002) illustrates the two definitions as defined by Bourdieu as
"the aggregate of actual or potential resources linked to possession of a durable network of
essentially institutionalized relationship of mutual acquaintance and recognition. Whereas
Coleman's definition of social capital is as follow:
"constitutes a particular kind of resources available to an actor. Social capital is
defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities,
with two elements in common: they all consists of some aspect of social
structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors - whether persons or
corporate actors -within the structure." (Dika & Singh, 2002, p.33; Coleman,
1988, p. S98).
While social capital has yielded different meanings and concepts by many
scholars, each one has contributed to the theoretical framework's formation. Stanton-
Salazar (2011) defines social capital as consisting of resources and key forms of social
support embedded in one's network or associations and accessible through direct and
indirect ties with institutional agents. Institutional agents are defined as "individuals
who occupies one or more hierarchical positions of relatively high-status and authority
either within a society or an institution" (Stanton-Salazar & Spina, 2005). Stanton-
Salazar (2001) suggests that institutional agents have the ability to connect individuals
with networks and resources or to assist them in navigating through the system in
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 48
accomplishing their educational development and endeavors. It is through the assistance
of institutional agents that individuals are able to gain access to resources and networks
that were not normally have access to.
Stanton-Salazar provide a depiction of the micro-levels of the roles of institutional
agents (See chart Appendix A). A direct support role is that of advisor. An advisor can
serve in three capacities as follows: to assist in gathering information, navigate
challenges and solutions together, and enhance decision making abilities. Other
characteristics include that of an advocate, resource agent, knowledge agent, or
networking coach (Stanton-Salazar (2011). School counselors serve in these capacities as
well.
Stanton-Salazar (2011) highlights three additional roles, which include integrative
support, system developer, and networking support. The component of integrative supports
which includes coordinating participation in venues or networks is an inherent element to the
functions of a school counselor. As an institutional agent which provides system linkage and
networking support, most applicable are those actions as a Bridging Agent or Institutional Broker
and can connect students to those resources or individuals. As a coordinator in this capacity may
align with the notion of wellbeing presented above.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 49
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter on methodology describes the design, sample and population,
instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis of this study. Professional School Counselors
(PSC) are on the verge of becoming dispensable. The 2007 economic recession in the United
States has caused unforeseen budget cuts within the educational sector forcing school districts to
find ways to reduce cost and save money. In doing this many school administrators sought to
save money by reducing or eliminating school counselors and counseling services. The school
counseling profession has become an easy option for proposed cuts due to the professions lack of
demonstrated effectiveness with student achievement as well as the role confusion and ambiguity
that exists. Many school administrators and educators do not have a clear understanding
regarding the roles and functions of school counselors. Therefore, when the decisions need to be
made regarding budget cuts and eliminating a teacher as opposed to a school counselor, the
school counselors tends to get the vote unanimously. While several studies have been conducted
regarding accountability and the roles and functions of school counselors, role ambiguity and
confusion continues to plague the school counseling profession(Sink, 2009; Young &
Kaffenberger, 2011). School administrators continue to lack a clear definition and understanding
of what school counselors do, thereby causing school counseling programs to be implemented
base on misguided perceptions and needs that maybe outside of the school counselor appropriate
activities and functions. The roles and functions of the school counseling profession have been
outlined by the American School Counselor Association(Patterson, 1967). However, within the
school counseling profession there is a strong disconnection between what roles and functions
school counselors perform, the training school counselors receive at the graduate level, and the
policies and practices which govern public education. Several studies have been conducted in an
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 50
attempt to enhance the identity of the profession and clarify the roles and functions of school
counselors(Amatea & Clark, 2005; College Board, 2009; College Board, 2011). Nonetheless,
the role confusion and ambiguity, mixed perceptions, and the lack of concrete polices for school
counselors all contribute to the dispensability of Professional School Counselors and the training
received.
The purpose of this study was to provide the missing voice of the student in defining the
roles and functions of school counselors through an examination of the perceptions of graduate
school counseling students' educational experiences with school counselors during their high
school years and its impact on their undergraduate, and graduate education. This study explored
the graduate student’s perceptions of their current educational preparation and training
experience in identifying the existing and proposed roles of school counselors in addressing the
needs and fulfilling the aspirations of students through school counseling programs. This study
seeks to answer the following four research questions:
1. What is the perception of the school counseling profession held by school counseling
graduate students?
2. What role do school counselors currently play in the needs, academic aspirations, and
psychosocial development of students at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate
levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students?
3. How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to the roles and functions of
Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and academic aspirations of
today's students?
4. How does the existing roles and training of school counselors align with the needs of
today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 51
What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's
needs?
Study Design
This study utilized a qualitative case study method design. According to Creswell and
Piano Clark (2007), a qualitative study seeks to learn participants' views regarding a particular
phenomenon. Qualitative research is generated from open ended information through interviews
that allows the participant to provide their own answers to research questions. By conducting a
qualitative study the participant voices are able to be heard. A case study is an examination of a
system, individuals, organizations, or a case through a comprehensive in-depth analysis of data
to provide a holistic picture of the live experiences of the participants being studied (Creswell,
1998). Case studies are utilized in a variety of real life research situations. Case study research
provides the ability to capture a holistic and distinctiveness of real life situations (Yin, 2009).
This provides a meaningful and holistic approach and contributes to the knowledge of a
phenomena, individuals, organizations, groups, and politics. Within case studies, data is
collected through multiple sources. Yin (1998) suggests six types of sources: documentation,
archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observations, and physical artifacts.
For this study, data was collected through interviews and surveys. This case study has provided
in-depth knowledge of how school counselors have contributed to the needs and academic
aspirations of school counseling graduate students' at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate
levels.
Sample and Population
The purpose of this study is to focus on how the students' needs and academic aspirations
are met through the roles and functions of school counselors in the K-12 setting from the school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 52
counseling graduate students real life experiences with school counselors during their high
school years and its impact during their undergraduate and graduate education. The predominate
sample for this study included 12 graduate students in the field of school counseling attending a
research one university in Southern California. The graduate students were enrolled in the final
practicum phase within their school counseling program. Students enrolled in the practicum
phase of school counseling programs have completed the majority if not all of their course work
and are currently completing their fieldwork within the school setting at the primary and
secondary levels. The fieldwork component of school counseling programs allows potential
school counselors to receive hands on experience in working with student in the K-12 setting.
They are able to see firsthand knowledge of how the roles and functions of school counselors
contribute to meeting the needs and academic aspirations of the K-12 student under the
supervision of a practicing Professional School Counselor. All 20 graduate students asked to
complete a survey. From this group 10 students participated in the individual interviews.
According to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing(retrieved from
website June 2013) there are 44 approved colleges and universities school counseling programs
in California with approximately 22 approved programs located in Southern California. Due to
the confidentiality of the selected participants, the exact name and location of the university will
not be revealed. The demographics of the university where the school counseling programs
exists is located in Southern California among a diverse student population of approximately
25,000 students or more. Graduate school counseling students that participated in this study
were selected based on their current enrollment in the University's school counseling programs
final practicum course.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 53
In California, any individual seeking a career as a Professional School Counselor must
obtain a Pupil Personnel Services(PPS) Credential in School Counseling. The PPS Credential is
a specialized credential for the school counseling profession that can be obtained separately or in
conjunction with a master’s degree from an accredited university. According to the State of
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC), a PPS Credential authorizes a
Professional School Counselor to perform the following duties in a K-12 educational setting: 1) Develop, plan, implement, and evaluate a school counseling and guidance program that includes
academic, career, personal, and social development; 2) Advocate for the high academic
achievement and social development of all students; 3) Provide school wide prevention and
intervention strategies and counseling services; 4) Provide consultation, training, and staff
development to teachers and parents regarding students’ needs; and 5) Supervise a district-
approved advisory program as described in California Education Code, Section
49600.
All school counseling program in the state of California provides individuals seeking to
prepare for a career in the school counseling profession the necessary skill needed to obtain their
PPS Credential. Within the selected university's program individuals are prepared to seek career
opportunities in academic counseling and advising. The program focuses on providing support
and services for diverse student populations, taking into consideration student specific individual
needs. The program can be completed either fulltime or part time. There are five components to
the program which include counseling, student affairs, research methods, field experience, and
thesis. The field experience provides student with hands on experience within the career as well
as the opportunity to evaluate and reflect on their professional practice. Upon completion, all
students will obtain the proper credentials to be able to seek employment in institutions from the
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 54
primary to the postsecondary levels. Students can also seek employment in non-profit and
outreach organizations.
Instrumentation
This study was conducted utilizing multiple instruments in response to the research
questions for data collection . Data was collected in the form of a surveys and interviews from
the selected participants. These instruments were administered in two phases.
First, the survey was sent to participants online via email to participants to obtain
demographic information and assess the well-being of participant experiences with school
counselors during their secondary, undergraduate, and graduate years, as well as their familiarity
of the ASCA National Model(See Appendix B). The survey consisted of two parts. Part one
includes a modification of the Interpersonal, Community, Occupational, Physical, Psychological,
and Economic (I COPPE) Scale of Well-Being. The I COPPE scale was developed by
Prilleltensky 2013 to measure the perceptions of well-being at the critical areas in one's life
represented by the six domains through a 21 scale items with three items listed under each
domain area. For the purposes of this study the I COPPE scale was modified to substitute
occupational well-being with educational well- being since the focus of this study is on graduate
students perceptions regarding their educational endeavors. Therefore, the acronym for I COPPE
was changed to I CEPPE (See Appendix B). In order to develop a holistic perspective of this
study, the I CEPPE/ASCA National Model Survey was administered. The well-being
component of this survey (part I) consisted of a Likert scale comprised of 28 scaled items with
four items listed under each domain to illustrate the perceptions of school counseling graduate
student experiences with school counselors during their high school years and the impact it had
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 55
on their undergraduate and graduate educational experiences. Each domain's definition was
adopted from the I COPPE scale except for the substitution of the educational domain.
Prilleltensky(2013) provided six domains of relevant to well-being which has been
modified for education as follows: 1. Interpersonal well-being represents the satisfaction of the
quality of relationships with important individuals (school counselors); 2. Community well-being
determines the level of satisfaction with one's community; 3. Education well-being is the state of
satisfaction with one's educational experiences; 4. Physical well-being is the overall satisfaction
of one's health and wellness; 5. Psychological well-being is the level of satisfaction with one's
emotional life; and 6. Economic well-being is the level of satisfaction with one's finances. These
serve as a means to capture an individual's sense of well-being related to their educational
experience. Part two of the survey was designed to capture the perceptions of graduate level
student on the roles and functions of Professional School Counselors as recommended by the
ASCA National Model.
Secondly, once all surveys were completed, reviewed, and analyzed, interviews were
conducted of selected participants to obtain more detailed information. The interviews provided
in depth knowledge of the graduate students' personal experiences regarding their past and
current understanding of the role and functions of school counselors(See Appendix C).
The I CEPPE /ASCA National Model survey provided insight into specific experiences
which influenced the graduate student academic, career, and social emotional development.
Additionally, the interviews explored current issues related to roles and functions of school
counselors through training and practices. These instruments focused on three levels of the
school counseling graduate student experiences: secondary, undergraduate, and graduate. These
instruments assisted in providing an examination of the school counseling graduate students'
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 56
perceptions of how the roles and functions of school counselors contribute to the needs and
academic aspirations of high school students.
Data Collection
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained through the University of
Southern California in July 2013. Post IRB approval, the selected university's school counseling
program professor was contacted to identify the graduate students that were currently enrolled in
their final fieldwork school counseling course. Data collection for this study was collected
through both surveys and interviews.
The data collection process began by contacting the school faculty to obtain permission
to disseminate the surveys to the participants. After permission was granted by the university
faculty, IRB approval was granted, and the participant information gathered, the administration
of the surveys began. The surveys were distributed and collected through an online tool called
Qualtrics in August of 2013. Once the survey were completed by the school counseling graduate
students, the results were analyzed selected students were invited to participate in interview
process. The last phase of the data collection process for this study consisted of student
interviews of the participants. The interviews were conducted on the campus of the selected
university of the students in their practicum course of their school counseling program at the end
of August and beginning of September 2013. There were ten students interviewed. Each
interview lasted approximately 40 minutes and tape recorded. All interviews were transcribed
for accuracy and analysis purposes. In order to maintain confidentiality and privacy, the
universities policies and guidelines were followed.
Data Analysis
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 57
Data analysis for this study was conducted by utilizing Creswell's (2009) six steps to data
analysis. Utilizing this approach provided a thorough review of the data and added validity to the
study. In step one, the data was organized and prepared for analysis by the researcher. All notes,
survey results, and taped recordings of all interviews were gathered and organized. All notes
were typed and all interviews were transcribed. Once the data had been organized, all data was
reviewed to obtain a general consensus of the data and correlate meaning to the findings to
complete step two. The inquiry explored the influence of school counselors on high school,
undergraduate and graduate level student experience.
Using Creswell’s(2009) approach, after reviewing all data, in step three the coding
process began and a detailed analysis of the collected data was conducted. The coding process
was utilized to categorize and establish critical themes in response to each research questions.
Once the data was coded, descriptions for the themes resulting from the data of the study were
generated. After the overall descriptions of the themes were identified through the data, the
process began to identify how the results would be discussed within the findings of the study.
As suggested by Creswell(2009), all data was interpreted to identify themes and the
information that had been learned as a result of the study. As a result of the data analysis, an
interpretation and meaning of the study findings was developed. This analysis provided insights
into graduate students' perceptions of how the roles and functions of school counselors contribute
to the needs and academic aspirations of high school students.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 58
Chapter Four: Results
School districts are forced to make critical decisions regarding the reduction and
elimination of educational personnel and programs due to the nation’s economic crisis.
Decisions regarding resources have a tremendous impact on the educational system, especially
school counselors. While counselors play an important role in the school system, they tend to be
a group that is often cut (Vail, 2005). School counselors provide services which are beneficial to
student academic, career, and personal/social development. When student counseling services
are limited, students are forced to seek other entities for their educational, career, personal/social,
and postsecondary support and guidance. In some cases students have no school counseling
services available. School counseling services can have a positive impact on student
achievement and are vital to school success. The maintenance and viability of Professional
School Counselors within the educational setting is essential to support student learning and
academic achievement.
School Counselors are qualified professionals which support students in three critical
domains of development: academic, career, and personal/social. They work in collaboration with
teachers and school administrators to improve student achievement. Additionally, they assist in
the identification and navigation of challenges which impede learning. These efforts facilitate
and enhance the ability for students to reach their academic learning potential (Lapan, Gysbers,
& Sun, 1997; Stanard, 2003). Currently, there are concerns among Professional School
Counselors that their positions and programs are on the verge of becoming extinct and future
employment.
The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of school counselors within the
educational system, to establish a better understanding of the roles and functions of school
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 59
counselors, and to examine perceptions of school counselors as a source of social capital and
well-being in their own lives as well as those students they will serve. The research questions
explored in the study were as follows:
1. What is the perception of the school counseling profession held by school counseling
graduate students?
2. What role do school counselors currently play in the needs, academic aspirations, and
psychosocial development of students at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate
levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students?
3. How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to the roles and functions of
Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and academic aspirations of
today's students?
4. How does the existing roles and training of school counselors align with the needs of
today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors?
What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's
needs?
Two theoretical frameworks were utilized for this study the well-being theory by
Prilleltensky(2012) and social capital by Stanton-Salazar (2011). Prilleltensky(2011) defined
well-being as a positive state of affairs, brought about by the simultaneous and balanced
satisfaction of diverse objective and subjective needs of individuals, relationships, organizations,
and communities. Six levels of well-being were identified to explore an individual's overall
satisfaction with life: Interpersonal, Community, Occupational, Physical, Psychological, and
Economic. Providing the opportunity to draw insights into the objective (material and physical) and subjective (emotional and psychological) needs of an individual. Stanton-Salazar (2011)
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 60
defined roles of institutional agents using social capital as resources and key forms of social
support embedded in one's network or associations, and accessible through direct or indirect
support. Stanton-Salazar posits individuals can significantly influence one's educational and
career aspirations through relationships with institutional agents and obtain access to social
capital.
This chapter will provide a summation of the results of this study. The findings that were
generated though the literature review and the collection of data will be discussed. For this
study, data was collected through a review of literature, surveys, and a group interviews. Both
the survey and group interviews were administered to the school counseling graduate students at
a research one university in Southern California. Each returned survey was analyzed and the
group interviews were conducted and transcribed. All data collected for this study was coded
and analyzed for common themes and patterns. This chapter will begin with a full demographic
description of the study participants. A detailed analysis of the study results will be provided
and discussed within this chapter through an illustration of the research questions. Once the
findings from the data have been discussed, this chapter will conclude an overall synopsis of the
significant findings of this study. The purpose of this study was to provide the missing voice of
the student in defining the roles and function of school counselors through an examination of the
perceptions of school counseling graduate students' educational experiences with school
counselors during their high school years and its impact on their undergraduate and graduate
education.
Participants
There were 12 participants in the study which completed both the survey and in person
interviews. The description which follows pulls from the survey and interview session to
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 61
provide details on the demographics of this group. Most of the participants (9) were ages 22 to
25. All participants were under the age of 40. There were 7 women and 5 men which reflects a
fairly even representation of gender. Most participants were either Asian Pacific Islander (4) or
Hispanic (4), with 1 African American and 3 Whites. All participants were enrolled in the school
counseling program practicum graduate level course work. Of the 12 participants, 4 indicated
that they attended high school outside the state of California and 6 self-identified as first
generation college students.
In order to maintain confidentiality, pseudonyms were utilized for all participants. Any
resemblance to an individual or institution is coincidental. Therefore, the individual participants
in this case study will be referred to as: Angie, Dorothy, Leslie, Tyrone, Larry, Tracy, Mary,
Ted, Robert, Floyd, Helen, and Sandra.
Results Research Question One
Research question one asked: What is the perception of the school counseling profession
held by school counseling graduate students? The aim of the question was to explore the school
counseling graduate students perceived perceptions of the school counseling profession. All
study participants addressed this question through both the survey and interview questions. The
analysis of the data from the survey questions and interviews conducted identified three
prominent themes that relate to the perceptions of the school counseling profession held by
school counseling graduate students. First, graduate student experiences with counselors
increased overtime. Second, students felt empowered to make a difference in the lives of others
in the capacity as a Professional School Counselor. Third, while the school experiences were
strong with a solid foundation, there were concerns about future employment and job security.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 62
Counselor experience increased over time. As the graduate students progressed in
their educational journey, their level of satisfaction with school counselors increased during their
graduate training and perceived future as a Professional School Counselor.
From the Well-Being Questionnaire, question number 10 asked: When it comes to your
educational experience, on which level of satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your undergraduate years, c) during your graduate training years, d) do
you think you will stand as a Professional School Counselor? Overall for this question all
respondents reported that they were satisfied and very satisfied with their overall educational
experience at all levels with 11 out of the 12 reporting satisfied and very satisfied during their
graduate years and providing a beneficial educational experience to others as a Professional
School Counselor. From the ASCA Questionnaire, question number 20 asked: During your high
school experiences did you receive academic advisement and planning from a school counselor?
Of the 12 participants 8 responded yes but some indicated that they had both a high school
counselor and a career counselor or a counselor/advisor that was provided through a program or
class that was offered at their high school.
These results are encouraging as they demonstrate that as the participants progressed
within their educational pursuits and training their overall experiences with school counselors
were positive. School counselors may not have had the most impact on the educational
experiences of students; this could be attributed to access and support from their college
counselor or through an academic advisor that was provided through a school program. Peers
were influential and supportive to this educational experience because they were either in the
same programs or had previous experience that allowed them to assist the participants in
navigating through their educational process. This peer support was evident in the interviews
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 63
when 10 of the 12 participants responded that they turned to their peers when they had questions
regarding their educational and career endeavors. When poor relationships existed with
counselors, students turned to their peers. When necessary the student went to counselors for
schedule changes and more frequent contact didn't occur until later in their high school careers.
The majority of the contact with their counselors took place during their senior year and focused
on meeting graduation requirements and college preparation. The type of contact that
participants received from the school counselor was contingent upon the structure of the school
counseling program that was in place at their high school.
Several of the participants indicated that their interaction with their school counselor was
mainly for schedule changes, to determine if they were on track for graduation, and some
reported that their college and career advisement services were provided through the Career
Counselors and/or Academic Program Advisors. They were essential in supporting a strong
educational experience for many students. Here is what Ted had say about his experience with
his school counselor, "In terms of high school graduation, I met with my counselor every
summer before the year began to go over the classes with him and have been going over grad
checks to make sure I was on track for graduation”. Tyrone stated that "I didn't really speak with
my counselor that much. It was just to make sure my classes were right and of course at the end
of my senior year to get my transcripts and the college book and after that we hardly ever spoke
again”. Larry highlighted, "My counselor was effective for the academics because she was
always there to tell us to take the best classes or whatever and the career was through the college
and career counselor. The counselor assisted with the classes and the college career counselor
helped me to apply to college and all that”.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 64
Peers were a great source of support and influence to the participants they were either
going through the process simultaneously with the participants or were in an upper grade with
prior experience. Tyrone also indicated that he sought out his friends assistance with his
educational endeavors stating, "My counselor was supposed to be helping me but she would say
you're supposed to be taking these courses, you're supposed to be doing this to be successful in
college, but I tuned her out because I just think it didn't feel like our personalities didn't match
and she was overbearing to me”. He highlights the importance of his friends, “So I mostly went
to my friends because we were kind of taking the same classes together and we were all AP and
honor students. I looked to them to see what they were doing, so if they're doing it, I guess that's
normal, I guess that's what I should be doing too". Leslie indicated that she also sought out her
peers for assistance when she states, "I just got advice on classes from the counselor, but I also
took on myself to take AP classes and just asked people outside. I had older friends that have
gone through the college process and I asked them what classes they took".
For many students the majority of the contact with their counselors took place during
their senior year. Half of the participants recalled their first meeting with their school counselor
during the junior or senior year but some indicated that they had brief encounters for scheduling
purposes prior to their senior year. Here is what Tyrone had to say, "I only remember meeting
my counselor once. I actually went to two different schools in the 10th grade. I met my 9th
grade counselor that year but at my second school, I don't remember meeting my counselor. I
remember my counselor enrolling me to get my first classes, but after that I don't remember ever
meeting with her until 12th grade”.
Empowered to make a difference. Graduate students felt empowered to make a
difference in the lives of others in the capacity of a Professional School Counselor. They felt
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 65
confident in their abilities to build strong relationships as school counselors recognized the
importance of building a strong relationship with students to maximize support and assistance.
From the Well-Being Questionnaire, question number 7 asked: When it comes to the best
possible experience with your school counselor, on which level of satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your undergraduate years, c) during your graduate
training years, d) do you think you will stand as a Professional School Counselor? Of the
participants, 10 of 12 indicated rated themselves as very satisfied with their experience with their
school counselor. And 11 out of 12 rated themselves satisfied and very satisfied with their
ability to help others and the ability to provide a positive experience with students in high school
as a Professional School Counselor.
From the Well-Being Questionnaire, question number 8 asked: When it comes to
relationships with school counselors in your life, on which level of satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your undergraduate years, c) during your graduate
training years, d) do you think you will stand as a Professional School Counselor? Of the
participants, 10 out of 12 rated themselves as satisfied and very satisfied with their relationships
with their school counselor during their graduate training years. And 11 out of 12 rated
themselves as satisfied and very satisfied with their ability to be able to develop a relationship
with their students as professional school counselors.
These results reflect the importance of the participant confidence in utilizing their
educational experiences and training in being able to assist others with their educational
endeavors. The results also reveal that while the participants relationship during high school
were not as satisfying as they were during their graduate training years and future as a
Professional School Counselor, it was during their high school years were they felt they were
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 66
empowered to begin obtaining the necessary skills to assist others in educational pursuits. Some
of the participants viewed that their limited or lack of relationships with their school counselor
during their high school experience, forced them to become self advocates.
From the interviews were indicators of how graduate students felt empowered advocate
for themselves and obtain the skills to make a difference in the lives of others in the capacity of a
Professional School Counselors. Here is what Dorothy had to say, “I will say that advisement
planning or the lack of it made me more independent, and made me more proactive once I got to
college. So that every quarter I made an appointment to meet with my advisor to ask her if I was
on track, what classes I was taking, and made sure that I was going to graduate in four years so it
just, so it made me to be more proactive." Leslie also indicated that she became more proactive
during her undergraduate years by stating, "Likewise, just a lot more proactive when I went to
college. I just saw my advisor to make appointment at least every quarter if not more, especially
to find out more about career and stuff because I had no idea that I was in an undeclared program
at first so I got into psychology, met with the psych advisor in terms of my career”.
They articulated confidence in their own abilities and the importance to build strong
relationships with students as school counselors to maximize support and assistance. Here is an
example of what Tracy had to say, "Just having a passion for the kind of work that I’m going to
do and still wanting to make a significant and positive change in certain individual’s lives and
even being okay with just changing one person, helping them for the better, I am passionate
about it and I am hopeful."
Concerns regarding employment. Educational experiences were strong however
concerns regarding employment surfaced. The concern seemed to reflect the inconsistent
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 67
alignment of initiatives of NCLB to the needed support of students in high school. There are
necessary support mechanisms required beyond just making good grades.
From the Well-Being Questionnaire, question number 10 asked: When it comes to your
educational experience, on which level of satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your undergraduate years, c) during your graduate training years, d) do
you think you will stand as a Professional School Counselor? Overall for this question all
respondents reported that they were very satisfied with their overall educational experience at all
levels with 11 out of the 12 reporting satisfied and very satisfied during their graduate years and
establishing a solid foundation for the future. From the ASCA Questionnaire, question number
16 asked: Did your high school education prepare you for postsecondary education? Of the
participants, 9 of 12 indicated that high school prepared them for future education. These results
reflect a strong foundational education and preparation for the future.
While students expressed a strong educational background and preparation for the future,
they expressed concerns regarding employment, which were revealed from the interviews.
Indicators regarding concerns about employment showed up in two important ways. First,
through the interviews, the participants felt that they were prepared to become Professional
School Counselors but were hesitant about securing a position. Second, the participants stated
their concerns with the difference in training for those becoming school counselors and those that
individuals in training to become social workers. The employment concerns were illustrated in
through the interviews by statements by Angie, Ted, and Helen. Angie indicated that she is not
confident about getting a job as a school counselor when she states, "I am not optimistic about
the day after graduation and having a job but I do know that when I do get a job I’m going to be
great at it. I know this is what I love to do and I wake up every day, like, I can’t wait to go do
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 68
what I like to do”. Ted also states, "I’ll be optimistic if she retires… no, I know this is what I
want to do regardless if I have a job or not, I enjoy working with students regardless of the age…
now I’ve worked with elementary, middle and high school students so I like all three levels. It’s
kind of confused me now in terms of which level I want to work with because I do enjoy certain
aspects of all three so I’d be happy to accept any position at any level".
Helen expressed her concern about actually being prepared for a school counseling
position when she states:
I work with MSW interns from a university at my site and in their program they’re
getting the MSW, the PPS, and the child welfare and attendance added on. When I asked
about that for my school, I was told to take the online course at another university which
you didn’t come into until after you graduate, so here they are coming with a complete
package and they get paid for their internship as they get work studying, while we can’t,
but it’s a complete disadvantage and it makes me livid, I feel that when we go out looking
for a job the MSW interns are three steps ahead of us.
Discussion Research Question One
The perceptions of school counseling graduates student participants of this study tend to
have an overall positive perception of the school counseling profession. Although the role of the
school counselor many not have been clearly articulated during their high school years and
varied in the institutions, the participants undergraduate and graduate educational experience has
provided a lens to better understand the roles and functions of Professional School Counselors.
While the participants may have had limited encounters with high school counselors, the
prescribed roles and functions were provided through other counselors, programs, or classes
were the student still obtained the services to provide and overall positive educational
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 69
experience. Many participants reported that their involvement within college bound programs,
Honors and AP course provided them with the necessary information to pursue their educational
goals and navigate through the undergraduate and graduate process for themselves. Several of
the participants felt that their lack of relationship with their high school counselor contributed to
the lack of or limited contact they had during their high school years.
The results illustrate that there continues to be a lack of consistency of the roles and
functions of school counselors within the educational sector. The results also revealed that
through the educational experience that the participants received in high school, the participants
felt empowered to make a difference in the lives of other and were able to advocate for
themselves throughout their own educational pursuits. While these findings are positive, there
was a concern by the participants of their ability to find employment as a Professional School
Counselors once they complete their programs.
Results Research Question Two
Research question two asked: What role do school counselors play in the needs,
academic aspirations, and psychosocial development of students at the secondary, undergraduate,
and graduate levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students? The aim
of the question was to explore the role of school counselors in addressing the whole student. The
whole student would include academic, career, and social emotional development. All study
participants addressed this question through both the survey and interview questions. The
analysis of the data from the survey questions and interviews conducted identified two prominent
themes. First, the Professional School Counselor played an important role in meeting the
academic needs of the students. The support they received was perceived as helpful in meeting
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 70
their academic goals. Second, while the academic support was very high, there was little or no
support regarding career aspirations and social emotional needs.
High academic support. Students received a high level of academic support from
Professional School Counselors. The support received emerged in both the Well-Being Survey
results and the ASCA National Model Survey results. As presented above in response to
Research Question One, Questions 7, 8, and 10 of the Well-Being Survey clearly reflected a
positive education experience with counselors and reflects a high level of support. This same
high level of support was revealed in the role of the Professional School Counselor in the ASCA
National Model Survey results.
From the ASCA National Model Survey, question number 14 asked: During your high
school educational years, did you receive academic services? Overall for this question most
respondents, 9 of the 12, reported that they had received academic support from a Professional
School Counselor. This is in keeping with ASCA national standards. From the ASCA
Questionnaire, question number 15 asked: Were the academic services that you received helpful?
Of the participants, 9 of 12 indicated the support received from the Professional School
Counselor was helpful. This is in keeping with both the Well-Being and ASCA requirements.
From the ASCA National Model Survey, question number 20 asked: During your high school
experiences did you receive academic advisement and planning from a school counselor?
Of the respondents, 8 of the 12, reported that they had received academic advisement and
planning from a Professional School Counselor. Overall these results reflect the important role
Professional School Counselor play in the academic success of students.
From the interviews, students voiced the important role the Professional School
Counselor played in their academic success and endeavors. Angie responded how her high
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 71
school counselor assisted her academically as she states, "My high school counselor, she was
very good at the whole admission process of getting into it and giving me realistic expectations
about what to expect in terms of course work and the rigors and that kind of a thing. There was a
lot of career and major exploration on the part of the counselor. And I already knew going into
undergrad that I wanted to do something in the field of education. I just had to narrow that down,
they helped on that regard." Angie also reports that her counselor assisted her with her
academic endeavors as she says, "I initially met my school counselor when she came into the
classroom meditation on college application process, and it was really structured. They were
really involved with us and that's how it started. My sophomore junior year and then junior and
senior year I saw her also for my social and emotional things." Larry also reports the academic
assistance that he received from his high school counselors as demonstrated by his statement,
"The way that they did counseling at my high school. They had two counselors per grade level
and they stuck with you for four years so you got to know them really well. I mainly saw them
for academic purposes”. Further he highlights, “I really didn’t see them for social or emotional
but they were there for that if we needed to see them for those services. Pretty much I saw them
regarding classes, academics and then towards the end of junior year and the beginning of senior
year regarding college as well."
The overall consensus of the study participants reported that they received academic
services during high school, but indicated that these services were not provided by their high
school counselor. During the interviews the participants reported that their academic services
were provided by individuals such as a college counselor, a community member, other school
staff and educational programs. The statements below illustrate who outside of the high school
counselor contributed to the academic services that the student received.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 72
Tyrone indicated that his academic support was through the church when he states, "at
my church, my high school pastor also worked fulltime as a high school teacher at a different
school. He ran the Avid Program at that particular school and was the one that guided me
through the whole college application process and how to write a teaching essay for the college
application”. Tyrone explained, “He also kind of mentored me through that period between high
school and undergraduate and I mean like where it’s going to be like socially and where it’s
going to be different from high school and all that kind of stuff and even then it was still kind of
overwhelming when I first started." Mary also received academic support outside of her high
school which is indicated when she states, "I had a lot of internships even in high school and I
did a lot of summer programs. In the summer programs I felt like I got more individual attention
and I even did a pre-college program for theater at Carnegie Mellon University. They had
people who talked to us. I also did an internship during my senior year at a professional theater,
so a lot of them helped me not only to sort of talk about what I wanted to do career wise, just
talking to adults who were already working who were willing to talk to me. But then, I think I
was sub directed as far as like knowing when to apply to colleges and knowing what I need to do
to apply to them. I wish I’d had more advice because I think I would have gotten into more
things if I had known what they were looking for." Tracy explains that her academic support
was provided by her AP English teacher as she states, "My AP English teacher, I had him twice
because one was for language and one was for literature, so I had him both junior and senior
year. And a lot of what he was doing in that class was to prepare us for college”. She highlights,
“So a lot of the material that he had was not high school level, it was more undergrad level. He
was the one who opened the door to all the seniors and had them submit their personal statement
and he would be the one to go over it would give us tips and things like that. So I think he was
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 73
the one that helped me more than my counselor did but not to the extent that he was the first
person I thought about. You know it’s just I feel like there wasn’t really a prominent figure in
general."
Low support for career aspirations and social emotional. While students expressed
that they received a high level of academic support from Professional School Counselors,
surprisingly they received little or no support regarding career aspirations and social emotional
support. From the ASCA National Model Survey, question number 18 asked: Did you high
school counselor assist you with your career aspirations? Overall for this question most
respondents, 9 of the 12, reported that they had not received counseling or support related to
career aspirations from a Professional School Counselor. From the ASCA National Model
Survey, question number 19 asked: Did you high school counselor assist you with your social
emotional needs? Again, for this question most respondents, 10 of the 12, reported that they had
not received counseling or support related to social emotional needs from a Professional School
Counselor. This is contrary to guidelines established by ASCA, specifically by not address all
the domains of the national standards. The ASCA National Standards suggest that the three
components that should be address with all students participating in a school counseling program
should be academic, career, and personal social development. By school counselors not
addressing all three domains, the student is not being provided an opportunity to acquire the
attitudes, knowledge and skills to develop in that area or they seek assistance from someone
other than a Professional School Counselor. The Well-Being Model suggests in order for an
individual to be completely satisfied with their overall well-being all of their needs must be met
and balanced. By an individual not receiving assistance with their social emotional development
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 74
can lead to dissatisfaction with one's well-being and may impact the satisfaction of well-being in
other areas of life.
Students experience numerous challenges beyond the academic arena. They can
experience concerns for their future occupations as well as personal and family challenges. The
Professional School Counselor is charged to meet those needs as well. However, the experience
of these students demonstrate shortfall in this area. Larry indicated that his counselor helped
with academics but career and social emotional support was lacking when he says, "The
counselor was there for academics. She was not really there for career aspirations. I don’t know
who I would have gone to if I needed some sort of social emotional need." Tracy also indicated
that her high school counselor assisted her with her academics but not her career aspirations.
This is displayed when she says, "The high school counselor helped me graduate but then once I
got to college, it was just a whole another level of smart and I had to adjust to still be able to get
good grades. It was just definitely more competitive in undergrad”. She noted, “ In terms of
career aspirations the high school counselor didn’t really help me. I wouldn’t say the school
counselors didn’t really help me graduate or anything like that. The only way that they provided
assistance would be maybe to recommend certain AP classes and that sort of stuff in terms of
like scheduling and keeping me on track. That’s it."
Discussion Research Question Two
That students received a high level of academic support from professional school
counselors was a significant finding from the analysis of the data. Students acknowledged and
discussed the role of the Professional School Counselor. An important note is that when the
Professional School Counselor was not as active other school related officials or important
individuals in the lives of students filled this void. Using their knowledge and skills or personal
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 75
experience to provide support to student. Most alarming was the limited support for both career
aspirations and social emotional support. As some students had indicated that support was often
in their senior year, the academic requirements were a priority. That the Professional School
Counselor does not address career aspirations and social emotional needs earlier in the high
school experience may allow for students to fall out of successful academic tracks that could lead
to important career opportunities for students. Further, that important challenges both personal
and family that interfere with academic success are not addressed early in the school experience.
One must consider if the correct pathway is identified early to meet the career aspirations of
students. This is contrary to both the Well-Being Model and ASCA requirements which
indicated that social emotional development is a key essential to an individual's overall academic
success and well-being. By individuals not having their social emotional development needs
addressed, it can have a negative impact on the academic and career development that one
pursues.
Results Research Question Three
Research Question Three asked: How can social capital and well-being theory contribute
to the roles and functions of Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and
academic aspirations of today's students? The aim of this question was to explore the ways in
which occurrences or factors related to social capital and well-being align and inform the roles
and functions of Professional School Counselors. Specifically in addressing the needs and
academic aspirations of students. From the work of Stanton-Salazar (2001) institutional agents
have the ability to facilitate connections with networks and resources for others. They can assist
students in the navigation of the system when in pursuit of their educational development and
endeavors. The assistance of institutional agents provides the student with the opportunity to
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 76
gain access to resources and networks. Prilleltensky(2006) suggests well-being is a combination
of personal, organizational, and community influential factors. There are five components of
well-being: site, sign, source, strategy, and synergy. A site can be a person, organization, or a
community. A sign is that well-being is taking place. The source can be derived from a variety
of sources such as those that represent cohesion, belonging, and equality. Strategies promote a
plan of action for each site. Synergy which is an understanding and combination of sources and
strategies which demonstrate the benefits of cohesion. Both social capital and well-being
emerged in important ways relevant to the roles of Professional School Counselors.
Social Capital. There are two ways in which the analysis of data reflected social capital
regarding Institutional Agents. The first was revealed by the way in which Institutional Agents
facilitated access to critical resources in academic and personal success. Dorothy stated, "I
would say the resources that I had were outside the school as far as, church and my mom’s friend
that helped me a lot with college stuff. She is a principal knew a lot about that kind of stuff so
she was just very helpful with academics stuff and even social and emotional stuff. She was
someone to talk to about how I felt about going to college and all that kind of stuff, because my
mom didn’t really know”. Dorothy noted, “My mom's friend really initiated being that resource
for me, because I babysat her kids so she always talked to me about stuff and asked me about
stuff so she was really helpful." Larry indicated how his resources were his friends. He shares,
"So I guess a resource were my friends in high school. They were kind of my support system
then. So once I got to college I didn’t really think about it but I guess it just happened. I
genuinely looked forward to having a support system and they have been a really good network
and resource. Through them they would tell me to take this class or this class”. He points out,
"We had a thing called a nac berry and that was basically our test bank and stuff. Because of
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 77
them, they made the grad school application that much easier and the whole GRE’s even easier”.
Larry highlights, “The year before I had two bros that applied to Stanford and they got into
Stanford and they just like passed on the GRE books to me and I didn’t really have to pay for it.
And then they emailed me like all their stuff, like this is my personal statement, this and that. So
yeah they really helped me in applying." Ted also stated, "The resources at the high school that I
work at, they have a wide variety of resources. They have the library opened during lunch.
They have after school tutoring. The counselors actually have lists of IB and AP students, for
one on one tutoring so for students significantly struggling they can come in and have their own
counselor or GLC, grade level coordinator is what they call them, to set them up with that IB
student that can actually tutor him”. Ted emphasized, “So in that regard they actually have a lot
of different resources. They divide up the responsibilities. There’s actually 8 counselors at the
high school that I work at so it’s two per grade level. They stick with the students all four years
so they get to know those students really well and then as far as big events throughout the year
like the PSAT or college fair, each kind of pairing of counselors tackles one big event throughout
the year so they don’t have to have everything on their plate which is nice, but unfortunately not
every school is like that so."
Second, social capital regarding Institutional Agents emerged in the activation of
resources on behalf of students for both academic and personal needs. Robert recaps his
experience as he says, "My personal issues was all based upon my family and my background. I
pretty much had a very strong support system in my friends. So that was the one thing that really
helped me. It's cliché to say that, that was my rock but that essentially it was because once your
family is gone and you can’t see the light at the end of the tunnel in terms of career aspirations
and you know you see this little system around you were your friends”. He noted, “They all
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 78
have their families and they’re applying for colleges. Without any of those things that I saw as
being known as not having them, the one thing that really helped me out was truly just having
my friends to be close to." Helen also stated how resources were activated as she states, "What
the school counselor did was referred some of the girls to sign up for this afterschool program
that talked about your self-esteem and stuff like that in workshops and not just about academics.
I feel he brought this group on campus and was starting to reach out”. Helen highlighted, “More
outside agencies and parent involvement would be great. It really just takes a couple of people or
one other school counselor to bring it up and have them go in there. The services were free for
the girls and it was after school so it didn’t really impact they’re education."
Well-being. Regarding Well-Being the role of the counselors from the participation of
students in select programs offered a number of benefits. Improvements to well-being draw on
individual strengths, addressing problems and empowering individuals. Empowerment gives
individuals a sense of control or confidence which can facilitate social change and provide
personal meaning as well. Participation in programs at a personal level represented control over
one’s life. The school as an organization provided programs where decisions influenced a
person's life. Programs helped to address both academic and personal needs.
The academic needs were clearly met by the guidance and advise provided by
Professional School Counselors and others. In the select programs, interactions with peers
provided opportunities to enhance their self-esteem. Coupled, these two experiences
marginalized the impact of challenges or problems these students faced and empowered them as
well. The empowerment was evident in increased confidence or control in one’s life and the
potential to affect change in the lives of others. The students indicated they were confident they
would be able to meet the needs of students in their capacity as a Professional School Counselor.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 79
Tyrone highlights how he handled his challenges as he states, "I guess there wasn’t any
major crisis. I guess moving to San Diego for 9
th
grade and then moving back to LA for 10
th
grade was kind of, it was a big deal because like in 8
th
grade like I had all my friends and we
were supposed to go to high school together but my parents were like nope, we’re going to San
Diego”. He emphasized, “I didn’t live with my parents in San Diego, I lived with somebody
else. Then when I came back, it was hard because I had made friends there in San Diego but
now I had to come back to LA and I had to make new friends at a different high school because I
had been out for a year. I couldn’t go to the high school that I wanted to go to in the first place
for whatever reason”. He further relays, “So, it was hard a little bit at first but then yeah, like I
said, I kind of just dealt with it but I made new friends at school. The high school counselor, she
was there. And I feel like she should have asked……but no."
Larry discusses how his peers provided support in helping him navigate through his
challenges as he stated, "I don’t think I experienced any major crisis or personal matter….but my
friends did keep me out of trouble because I had friends that were in honor classes. But I also had
other friends that I grew up with that were more like, I guess, the gangsters”. He related, “So I
would walk home with my elementary school friends which just roamed the streets or whatever
but then the whole day I would be with my smart friends, I guess I would call them. So
eventually, they were there for me, so I just hung out with my smart friends more because most
of my other friends started to drop me out and they weren’t there at the high school anymore”.
Larry explains, “So I just ended up hanging out during lunch with my smart friends and staying
away from my other friends. And even my other friends, they would do drugs or whatever, and
they would say don’t do it, you’re on the right path. So they helped me out there too."
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 80
Tracy illustrates how her experiences empowered her to make changes as she states,
"During my senior year, my friend and I got into a really bad car accident; it was really life or
death. I didn’t seek my counselor. I was in a program called Bridge, it’s a class on our campus.
There was 7th through 12th grade all on the same campus. So it was kind of like a mentor
program where the high school students were linked with the 7
th
or 8
th
graders”. He emphasized,
“That was like the purpose of the group but it also served as a peer support group kind of thing.
Having that group and that teacher as someone I could talk to that was the help I sought out after
that happened”. Tracy explains, “Then in terms of helping me with my academic and my future
endeavors, just that entire experience and having that support led me to like choose better friends
and things like that”.
Angie recalls," I went to the school counselor because I had a complete breakdown over
everything going on in my life at that time. I had my mom who was a single parent with full
custody whom didn't let me see my dad. I just found out recently as this entire time I lived with
an undiagnosed mental illness and I didn't realized that because it was just what I was raised
with”. She recollects, “So it was really difficult dealing with that at home. And I had a lot of
death in the family. A lot of people was just so happened to be dying at that time and DCMS
invest was involved because I was suicidal”. She highlights, “The counselor referred me to the
school psychologist but he was pretty unavailable. He was helpful when he was available but I
was going back and forth between the two."
Discussion Research Question Three
There are two important findings relevant to research question three regarding the
influence of social capital and well-being theory on the roles and functions of Professional
School Counselors. First, that the Professional School Counselor should be engaged with
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 81
students earlier regarding social emotional and career aspirations. The academic needs are met
at a much higher level. Second, that Professional School Counselors interface with program
counselors during the school year in order to engage with students in a more efficient and
effective manner. One-on-one sessions would not be replaced but would not be necessary as
often if they avail themselves to students in select program venues. Students would then have a
better understanding of the breadth of services a Professional School Counselor can provide as
well as enhance access. The positive impact both from a social capital and well-being lens is
clear from the evidence provided. They serve as a reminder the role of the Professional School
Counselor goes beyond that of academic success.
Results Research Question Four
Research Question Four asked: How does the existing roles and training of school
counselors align with the needs of today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and
psychosocial endeavors? What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in
meeting the student's needs? The aim of Research Question Four was to assess the alignment of
current roles and training to the needs of today’s students. From the reflections of graduate
students on their past experiences and insights into the roles of the Professional School
Counselor a number of shortfalls were identified. In some cases not all their needs were met or
addressed by a Professional School Counselor. However, the graduate students did have
confidence in their abilities to support and empower students. Here their insights are shared as
they prepare to support students as a Professional School Counselor. Challenges were identified
with the current environment for the Professional School Counselor. First, all students were
aware of the ASCA Model, most interesting was the clarity in the identification of challenges to
their work. Second, there were two observations regarding the alignment to student academic
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 82
aspirations and psychosocial endeavors. Finally, the integration of social media emerged as
recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's needs.
ASCA Model awareness. From the ASCA Questionnaire, question number 27 asked:
Are you familiar with the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model? All
12 participants responded yes, however, there was no clear indication that they were versed in
the specifics of the model. Here is what Ted said, "To be honest I really don’t remember all of
the intricacies of it, it’s been a while. I know the basics like everyone said but whether or not
they’re being implemented into the schools, I hope so”. He highlights, “I remember when we
did the assignment it was in bits and pieces, but not fully. I don’t know if it’s just due to time
constraints or lack of funding or just not wanting to do it. I don’t know, but yeah it’s a problem."
Most interesting was the identification of challenges to their work. First, the high
caseloads as indicated by Ted when he states, "When I interned last semester. Just the caseloads
that the counselors had, there were significant disconnects with the students. There were only 4
counselors there. I think they generally have 5 but still each counselor had 500/600 students”.
He further relayed, “There is only one counselor that I worked with who kind of had a decent
system down where he’d come in early, get a lot of work done, so he could meet with students,
but most of the counselors were just kind of stacks of papers, programming schedules, students
come in and they’re half paying attention unless there was a crisis going on”. He emphasized,
“all the counselors were overwhelmed in terms of the caseloads, paperwork, and everything.
Students would come in, there’s was plenty of room to provide assistance. They just didn’t have
the resources to assist each student. It’s kind of….unless circumstances were dismal, they can’t
really help you."
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 83
Ted states, "One thing that I’ve noticed is that in the classes where there are all these
different things that counselors should be doing and they’re not doing right now. But when we
get out there and observing, they don’t have time. I think that’s the biggest mismatch.” He noted,
“I think it’s not that they don’t want to do these things is just that physically they don’t have time
in their day to get everything accomplished as well as meet with all the students that they need to
meet. It’s just crazy and I’m concerned for myself going in the future that I want to input all
these things that I’m learning but I’m afraid that the time factor is the biggest thing that’s kind of
difficult for them."
Second, funding limitations were an important factor. Sandra identified funding as an
issue as she states, "I think it has to do with funding. If there were more counselors at each
school then they would essentially have the ASCA case that they recommend we would actually
be able to do everything. But now you just got to prioritize and it puts them in a position where I
feel that to people, counselors almost come off as if their bad counselors just because they can’t
do it."
Angie states, "it’s not like a mismatch between the training of the school counselors and
their practice, it’s that they want to do everything, but there’s just not enough time and funding at
the end of the day so then they have to pick and choose, especially with the high ratios. That’s
why I think interns end up doing a lot.” She emphasized, “I know in my experience all the
interns get the group counseling, but other than that it’s not that their training is disconnected
from their practice, it’s just that there’s not enough time in the day."
Third, dealing with disciplinary issues was a distraction. Tyrone demonstrates how
discipline issues are a barrier as he states, "What we’ve been learning in class was that
counselors aren’t disciplinarians or shouldn’t be but then at the school I work at they don’t have
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 84
a dean, so the counselors are the ones that take care of the discipline issues. So when there is a
day when all the students decided to act up, the counselor's office gets packed with almost 20
kids, disrupting their class.” He further stated, “These are all things like I think that teachers
should be able to handle on their own but because they’re so fed up with it, they just send them
to the counselor’s office. So there was a lot of that and it really sucked.” He emphasized, “There
were some kids that we were consistently speaking with about social emotional and academic
stuff but then they come in with behavior issue, something that they did wrong and we would
have to scold them, then we had built up all this rapport and I don’t want to scold them too hard
to have all fall through. Then at the same time they need to know what they were doing was
wrong. So it was really fine balance and a tight rope to walk."
Larry also discusses discipline, "I remember last year they told us a lot that we were not
supposed to be the disciplinarians and I had this interview for a counseling intern or school
counseling intern and when they asked, okay so what would you do if….something about being a
disciplinarian.” He highlights, “I would just send him to the principal because I’m not supposed
to discipline. Then once I said, I thought I was saying the right thing because we had just talked
about that the day before in class. I thought I did good but then there I was looking at them and I
thought alright, I’m not getting this job. It was okay because that job was only paying $13 an
hour and I got the one that paid way more. So it worked out. But now that’s almost all I do."
Alignment with student academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors.
Professional School Counselors are reactive and collaboration between available resources
emerged as important regarding the alignment to student academic aspirations and psychosocial
endeavors. Tyrone shares, "I’m actually doing my intern through the same school that I
graduated from. I feel there’s a lot more social emotional resources that are available to students
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 85
at the school because I remember was none when I was in school. It was just the counselors and
the coordinators and then the teachers and that was it.” She continued, “But now we have
different groups coming in like ShareCare or something like that. Now we have our own
psychologist and then there’s four different groups that come in every day and they do group
therapy, individual therapy and they meet. So I feel the counselors utilize what they have within
the school but then they also reach out into the community.” Additionally, she indicated, “I know
there is a mentorship program using the fathers of individual students to mentor other students.
They just try and make a plan with whatever they can within the community and bring it back to
the school for the students."
Professional School Counselors spend more time reacting to incidents as they occur the
ability to provide comprehensive support is limited. Instead of developing a proactive program
for students in a compressive approach. Tyrone addresses this point as he states, "I think that
what I see as missing at the schools is collaboration between the different staff and the different
people that exist within the school. I think Sandra mentioned that there’s a lot of parents at the
schools and these parents are standing either as being trouble makers, by the majority of
administrators, but if you’re able to do a paradigm shift in terms of their mentality.” He
highlights, “you’ll know that parents have a lot of human capital to contribute and if properly
trained they can be a great asset to any school. It’s just a matter of how you train them and how
you utilize them. I think it all comes down to the administration of the school, they don’t know
how to administer their schedule or their faculty in terms of something that I have seen as
working. I didn’t see that at my school.” He notes, “I’ve seen it at some schools where I’ve
worked, where programs like college summit have been implemented and because they’ve been
implemented correctly, they’ve actually been very fruitful. I’ve seen the same program, the
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 86
same organization, college summit, not being implemented and it basically just being a waste of
time, and it all comes down to how you can coordinate it and implement it. It’s the same
curriculum same training on the staff, but its implementation."
The emphasis was on providing access to additional resources for students. More
collaboration is needed between Professional School Counselors and other support personnel.
This is addressed by Ted as he states, "I think that academic aspirations and socio-emotional are
so highly connected nowadays because there’s such an emphasis on going to college and that if
you don’t go to this college then you’re not making it and even then there’s so much pressure
from parents nowadays, as opposed to like 20 years ago that it’s necessary for us to talk to
students and make them aware that it’s ok if they don’t go to Harvard.” Specifically he notes,
“There are so many other schools that don’t let the name kind of be the factor for that, let me see,
what else was in the question? Yeah, I think you just need someone to kind of let them know that
it’s ok to de-stress and not have to have so much pressure on themselves and just be doing the
best they can because it’s so competitive right now that I think their aspirations are so high, but
then that kind of takes a toll on them socially and emotionally as well.”
Roles of school counselors in meeting the student's needs. Regarding the
recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's needs the integration of social
media and the implementation of comprehensive support emerged from the data. Here is what
Tyrone had to say, “I think what’s important now even more so than in years past is being
socially relevant and being kind of cool with the kids because there is so much social media,
Twitter, Facebook and all of that stuff.” He continued, “There is so much different kinds of
entertainment that they’re exposed to. Sometimes like that’s the only way we can kind of relate
to them. I guess that just all falls on relationship building but I definitely think because even a
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 87
lot of school issues arise through social media and if we’re not aware of that then how like can
we address it?"
Discussion Research Question Four
Surprising was the modest awareness of ASCA Model requirements. Graduate students
were aware that ASCA had specific guidelines for Professional School Counselors but could not
articulate any specific requirement which applied to their daily activities. With the limited
resources, high case loads, and other distractions such as disciplinary problems, one would
speculate Professional School Counselors would be clear in understanding their roles and
responsibilities to provide comprehensive support to students and improve their efficiency and
effectiveness. Professional School Counselors were inundated with incidents on a daily basis.
They spent more time reacting to incidents as they occurred which impacted their ability to
provide or develop comprehensive support. In order to provide comprehensive support and
access to additional resources for students, more collaboration is needed between Professional
School Counselors and other support personnel. The current focus of Professional School
Counselors does not address the needs of students. A noteworthy recommendation to address
the needs of students was to integrate the use of social media into the skill set of Professional
School Counselors.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 88
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings
Budget cut decisions are having an impact on the profession of school counselors in the
state of California. In 2011, one School District Board of Education reduced the budget by $7.2
million eliminating half of school counseling positions (Unhold, 2011). Another, in order to cut
their budget by $2 million, voted 4-1 to remove 68 counselor positions, which resulted in the
elimination of the entire school counseling program (Steinberg, 2011). Similarly, several school
districts reduced the number of school counseling positions from the primary to secondary levels
thereby limiting the counseling services offered within schools or eliminating school counseling
programs entirely. These and others are just a few examples which demonstrate how budget cuts
are having a profound impact on the school counseling profession. The school counseling
profession is vulnerable to educational cuts and the implications to student success are unknown.
In the education setting all students face challenges which influence their academic
achievement, career, and personal/social growth and development. Professional School
Counselor support provides many students with the resources to overcome such obstacles,
increase their academic ability, and develop into contributing members of society (Lapan,
Gysbers, & Sun, 1997). Behind the scenes, school counselors are often the group of educators
that have the most difficulty in documenting their contributions to student performance and
academic achievement (College Board, 2009). Therefore, being in an arena where accountability
is mandatory and effectiveness is essential, it is crucial for school counselors to make changes
within the profession to illustrate their importance within the field of education.
The perception of school counselors by school administrators vary throughout the
educational system (College Board, 2011). School Administrators generally operate from one
view of the roles and functions of school counselors while school counselors operate under a
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 89
different perspective. Therefore the value and effectiveness of the profession as an integral part
of the education setting is skewed. When the decision to retain a teacher or a school counselor
position is presented often school counselors are most vulnerable during difficult economic
times. To illustrate how school counseling programs impact student outcomes is necessary in
order for school counselors to remain a viable entity within the education setting (ASCA, 2005).
School counselor practices have not aligned with the educational reform process, leaving their
roles to be interpreted by school administrators. The school counselor profession will be
subjected to public scrutiny and vulnerable to reduction until school counselors are consistent in
utilizing accountability practices and measures to illustrate the effectiveness of counseling
services and programs.
In 1997, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) highlighted the skills and
knowledge that student should obtain and be able to illustrate as a result of participating in a
comprehensive school counseling program. ASCA provided school counselors with the ability to
identify the key services provided within their programs. A major concern is that throughout the
educational system their roles and functions continue to be inconsistent, ambiguous, and not
clearly defined (Gysbers, 2010). While programs should be based on students’ needs, only a
small number of school counseling programs utilize accountability practices or needs
assessments to determine needed services (Myrick, 2003). Capturing the needs and voice of
students is fundamental to an effective school counselor program.
The purpose of this study was to give voice of the student to identify and understand the roles
and functions of school counselors through the examination graduate school counseling student
perceptions of their educational experiences with school counseling during their secondary,
undergraduate, and graduate school years. Further to understand graduate student perceptions of
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 90
their current educational preparation and training experiences. As well as the identification of
existing and proposed roles of school counselors in addressing the needs and aspirations of these
students through school counseling programs. The following research questions guided this
study:
1. What is the perception of the school counseling profession held by school counseling
graduate students?
2. What role do school counselors currently play in the needs, academic aspirations, and
psychosocial development of students at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate
levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students?
3. How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to the roles and functions of
Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and academic aspirations of
today's students?
4. How does the existing roles and training of school counselors align with the needs of
today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors?
What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's
needs?
The two theoretical frameworks utilized as a lens for the analysis of this study were well-
being by Prilleltensky(2012) and social capital by Stanton-Salazar (2011). Prilleltensky(2011) described well-being as a positive state of affairs for individuals, through simultaneous and
balanced satisfaction of diverse objective and subjective needs, relationships, organizations, and
communities. Prilleltensky suggests an individual's overall satisfaction with life is attained
through a culmination of the following six levels of well-being: Interpersonal, Community,
Occupational, Physical, Psychological, and Economic. Both objective (material and physical)
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 91
and subjective (emotional and psychological) needs of an individual are explored through these
six levels. Stanton-Salazar (2011) asserts social capital as the resources and key forms of social
support embedded in one's network or associations, which are accessible through direct or
indirect ties with institutional agents. Stanton-Salazar posits individuals through relationships
with institutional agents can obtain access to vital social capital which can significantly enhance
student educational and career aspirations.
A qualitative study was conducted, using survey and interview data to capture school
counseling graduate student perceptions of the roles and functions of school counselors as it
pertains to the needs and academic aspirations of today's youth. This chapter provides a
discussion of the findings that emerged from the results presented in Chapter 4, implications for
practice, recommendations for research and conclusions.
Summary of Findings
A number of significant findings emerged from the results of this study presented in the
discussion that follows. Two findings emerged in response to Research Question One: the
perceived level of satisfaction increased of school counselors over time and counselors felt
empowered to work successfully in the field and create opportunities for change. There was one
important finding regarding Research Question Two. Professional School Counselors contributed
significantly to the academic needs of the students, but fell short when addressing career
aspirations and social emotional needs. Two important findings emerged in response to
Research Question Three, which revealed access to critical institutional agents were individuals
other than a Professional School Counselor activated resources for academic and personal
success. Finally, two findings emerged in response to Research Question Four that focus on the
roles and responsibilities of the Professional School Counselor in meeting the needs of students.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 92
The students need comprehensive support and more collaboration needed with the school
culture.
Research Question One. What is the perception of the school counseling profession held
by school counseling graduate students? The first finding of this study revealed through both the
survey and interviews found that the school counseling graduate students perceived their level of
satisfaction with their experience with school counselors was positive as it increased over time.
This finding indicated that as the participants advanced within their educational pursuits and
training, they gained a better understanding of the roles and functions of Professional School
Counselors. The participants reported that through preparation to become school counselors,
they were able to recognize what was lacking within their own educational experiences, identify
how it aligns and connects with school counseling programs, and determine how they will be
able to contribute to the profession. Secondly, positive educational experiences can have
lifelong implications that serve to empower individuals and create opportunities for change.
From the positive educational experiences the participants received in high school, the
participants felt empowered to make a difference in the lives of others and were able to advocate
for themselves throughout their own educational pursuits. This reflects the work of Prilleltensky
(2012) which asserts the achievement of positive well-being as ones needs are fulfilled. As the
school counselor graduate students progressed within their academic and career aspirations, their
overall well-being increased and their needs were fulfilled. Reflective of interactive support as
posited by Stanton-Salazar (2011), students were guided through social situations in a positive
way resulting in empowerment and opportunities for change. Reflecting direct support, the
advisor can assist in gathering information so that students can assess problems and solutions in
a collaborative way facilitating effective decision-making. This empowers students to take
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 93
ownership in their educational and personal endeavors. This demonstrates the influence of
organization where decision-making takes place which impacts and individuals life
(Prilleltensky, 2012). One important indicator that emerged in response to research question one
indicated that participants were very concerned about being able to obtain employment as
Professional School Counselors once they completed their training.
Research Question Two. What role do school counselors currently play in the needs,
academic aspirations, and psychosocial development of students at the secondary,
undergraduate and graduate levels? Do these roles align with the needs and aspirations of the
students? The finding indicated that Professional School Counselors contributed highly in
meeting the academic needs of the students, but fell short when it came to addressing career
aspirations and social emotional needs. Several of the participants reported seeing a school
counselor to ensure they were on track for graduation and taking the right courses but not
regarding career aspirations and social emotional needs. The participants indicated that due to
limited time with the school counselor, their career aspirations and social emotional needs were
not effectively address if at all. By the Professional School Counselor not addressing career
aspirations and social emotional needs in the high school experience, students may fall out of
successful academic tracks that could lead to important career opportunities for students. This
can lead to an imbalance in the students overall positive well-being. While Professional School
Counselors are qualified to address the whole student with their academic, career, and
personal/social development, the participants indicated that only one of their academic
developmental needs were met at a much higher level. Several participants indicated support for
their career and individuals other than a school counselor provided social emotional needs.
Contrary to Prilleltensky(2011), Professional School Counselors did not address the career and
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 94
social emotional needs of the students; therefore, optimal well-being was not achieved for
students. Professional School Counselors could interface with school program advisors during
the school year in order to engage with students in a more efficient and effective manner to
increase awareness of social emotional needs and career aspirations. This reflects the work of
Stanton-Salazar(2011), as a cultural guide, Professional School Counselors would assess
problems and provide solutions in a collaborative manner, which goes beyond just addressing the
academic needs.
Research Question Three. How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to
the roles and functions of Professional School Counselors and in addressing the needs and
academic aspirations of today's students? The two findings revealed that access to critical
resources in academic and personal success were facilitated by institutional agents that were
individuals other than a Professional School Counselor. Regarding the first finding, several
participants stated that they were involved in college bound or other school programs and took
advance placement courses in high school that connected them to resources that assisted in their
academic, career aspirations, and social emotional needs. Some participants even indicated that
they received support through community resources as well. All participants reported that they
received academic support from their school counselor but had to seek other individuals to
provide the support needed relevant to their career and social emotional concerns. By having
access to the institutional agents, resources were activated on behalf of the student for their
academic, career, and social emotional needs. Two participants indicated that with the lack of
support within their career aspirations and social emotional needs, they sought careers that were
not truly interested in and had to seek assistance or navigate for themselves a more satisfying
option. Regarding the second finding, teachers, other school staff, family members, friends, and
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 95
community members represented institutional agents for the participants. By obtaining the
necessary resources through institutional agents, all participants were able to address their needs,
which contributed to their overall positive well-being. Through the work of Stanton-Salazar
(2011), Professional School Counselors serve as Institutional Brokers by introducing students to
institutional agents to assist in addressing their career and social emotional needs. Prilleltensky
(2012) asserts positive well-being is achieved when material and physical as well as emotional
and psychological needs are fulfilled. What becomes important is going beyond the
identification of challenges and achieving a level of well-being is taking place. The sources of
support can come from a variety of individuals.
Research Question Four. How does the existing roles and training of school counselors
align with the needs of today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial
endeavors? An interesting observation resulting from this study revealed that Professional
School Counselors are not well versed in the roles and functions as stipulated by the American
School Counselor Association. Surprising was the modest awareness of ASCA National Model
requirements. One would venture Professional School Counselors would be clear in
understanding their roles and responsibilities to provide comprehensive support to students due
to the limited resources, high caseload, and other distractions such as disciplinary problems.
There continues to be a lack of consistency of the roles and functions of school counselors within
the educational sector. A part of being and effective institutional agent is that you know the
system reflecting direct support as a knowledge agent(Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Another
component is that you also serve as a system developer, because if you do not know what the
requirements are under ASCA, how can one effectively serve as an institutional broker to gain
the resources that would improve your efficiency and effectiveness. The first finding is that
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 96
Professional School Counselors were unable to develop a proactive comprehensive school
counseling program for all students due to time constraints. Students received guidance in how to
network with specific instructional agents. While ASCA suggest that providing students with a
proactive comprehensive school counseling programs is beneficial to the overall development of
the students, there is a lack of the program implementation within the schools. Most interesting
was that the Professional School Counselors could identify barriers to providing the needed
support. The need for comprehensive support was identified as essential to addressing student
needs. Regarding system linkage and networking support, as a coordinator student needs were
assessed, appropriate resources were identified, access provided, and most important the student
utilized the resource (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). This provides students with positive well-being by
having their objective and subjective needs fulfilled. Specially, this demonstrated a strategy that
provided a plan of action for the student (Prilleltensky, 2012).
The second finding revealed that today's students need a more holistic practitioner. A
practitioner to address the academic, career, and personal/social development of the student. The
participants indicated that they are missing an individual to help them coordinate resources and
navigate through their academic, career aspirations, and social emotional needs. More
collaboration is necessary to access additional resources and provide comprehensive support.
The necessity for collaboration reflects that aspect of an institutional agent as a networking
coach.
One important recommendation that emerged was the importance of using social media
to communicate the resources available to students from Professional School Counselors. As
well as providing training to develop this skill set. This would improve the efficiency and
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 97
effectiveness of Professional School Counselors in providing an engaging comprehensive school
counseling program for students.
Implications for Practice
Utilizing the findings from this study relevant to improving practice for school counselors
in the education setting, there are number implications for practice. First, Professional School
Counselors if given the opportunity to perform the roles and functions that they were trained to
do in addressing the needs of the whole student, they will be seen as beneficial to the educational
system. Second, Professional School Counselors should know the ASCA requirements and
apply them to individual job descriptions. Third, Collaboration between Professional School
Counselors with outside agencies and other school personnel is necessary. Third, participation in
key school programs and the integration of social media will enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of Professional School Counselors in supporting students with an engaging
comprehensive school counseling program that includes academic, career, and social emotional
development.
Recommendations for Research
This study explored graduate student's perceptions of their current educational
preparation and training experiences in identifying the existing and proposed roles of school
counselors in addressing the needs and aspirations of students through school counseling
programs. In order to further this research, there are two recommendations. First, this study
should be replicated on a larger scale. The perceptions of school counseling graduate students
should be explored from multiple universities. Second, expand this study to include perceptions
from other educators to include administrators and staff. Administrators could provide insights
into resource challenges and roles and responsibilities which influence efficiency and
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 98
effectiveness. This would help identify inconsistencies and recommendation from ASCA and
what leadership is asking professional school counselors to do. To identify what influences
leadership decision making concerning expectations for Professional School Counselors.
Conclusion
This continued research of Professional School Counselors is important in order to
understand the impact on student success and to understand their roles and functions.
Professional School Counselor can facilitate students with their academic, career, and
personal/social development. By understanding the roles and functions, Professional School
Counselors will be able perform the services they were trained to do and provide a
comprehensive school counseling programs that is beneficial to the whole student.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 99
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GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 106
Appendix A
Micro-Level Roles of Institutional Agents within The Social Network Framework
Stanton-Salazar (2011, p. 1081)
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 107
Appendix B
Well-Being I CEPPE / ASCA Model Survey
Part I -Well-Being Survey
Participant Demographic Information
Name:
Age:
Gender:
Ethnicity:
Current Occupation:
In High School, were you considered a first generation student?: Yes or No
Directions: In the questions below, satisfaction is measured on a 5 point Likert scale. For this
scale, the highest level of satisfaction is represented by "Very Satisfied" and the lowest level of
satisfaction is represented by "Very Dissatisfied". Please select your level of satisfaction that
best corresponds with each questions listed below:
1=Very Dissatisfied, 2=Dissatisfied, 3=Neutral, 4=Satisfied, 5=Very Satisfied
Overall Well-Being (OV_WB): positive state of affairs, as perceived by individual respondents.
When it comes to the best possible experience with your school counselor on which
level of satisfaction,
OV_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
OV_WB_PAST: did you stand during preparation for your undergraduate
years?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 108
OV_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate
training years?
OV_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Profession School
Counselor?
Interpersonal Well-Being (IN_WB): satisfaction with the quality of relationships with people.
When it comes to the relationships with school counselors in your life, on which level
of satisfaction,
IN_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
IN_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
IN_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
IN_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
Counselor?
Community Well-Being (CO_WB): satisfaction with one’s community in which they live.
When it comes to the community where you live, on which level of satisfaction,
CO_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
CO_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
CO_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
CO_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
Counselor?
Educational Well-Being (ED_WB): satisfaction with one’s educational experiences.
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 109
When it comes to your educational experiences(high school, undergraduate,
graduate, and training for professional career), on which level of satisfaction,
ED_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
ED_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
ED_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
ED_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
Counselor?
Physical Well-Being (PH_WB): state of satisfaction with one’s overall health and wellness.
When it comes to your physical health and wellness, on which level of satisfaction,
PH_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
PH_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
PH_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
PH_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
Counselor?
Psychological Well-Being (PS_WB): satisfaction with one’s emotional life.
When it comes to your emotional and psychological well-being, on which level of
satisfaction,
PS_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
PS_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
PS_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
PS_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 110
Counselor?
Economic Well-Being (EC_WB): satisfaction with one’s financial situation.
When it comes to your economic situation, on which level of satisfaction,
EC_WB_PAST: did you stand during high school?
EC_WB_PAST: did you stand during your undergraduate years?
EC_WB_PRESENT: do you think you stand now during your graduate years?
EC_WB_FUTURE: do you think you will stand as a Professional School
Counselor?
Note. PA=Past; PR = Present; FU = Future.
Part II - Questions related to the ASCA National Model
14. During your high school educational years, did you receive academic services? Yes or No
15. Were the academic services that you received helpful? Yes or No
16. Did your high school education prepare you for postsecondary education? Yes or No
17. Did your high school counselor assist you with your academic endeavors? Yes or No
18. Did your high school counselor assist you with your career aspirations? Yes or No
19. Did your high school counselor assist you with your social emotional needs? Yes or No
20. During your high school experiences did you receive academic advisement and planning
from a school counselor? Yes or No
21. If you answered no to question 20, who provided you with academic advisement and
planning?
22. During your high school experiences did you receive career advisement and planning from a
school counselor? Yes or No
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 111
23. If you answered no to question 22, who provided you with career advisement and planning?
24. During your high school experiences did you receive assistance with any major crisis or
personal matters which influenced your academic endeavors from a school counselor?
Yes or No
25. Were there any other resources or networks in high school which assisted you with your
academic planning and advisement? Yes or No
26. If you answered no to question 25, what resources or networks assisted you with your
academic planning and advisement in high school?
27. Are you familiar with the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National
Model? Yes or No
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 112
Appendix C
School Counselor Graduate Interviews
1. Based on your high school experience, what was your perception of school counselors
and the school counseling program offered at your school? If you did not have a school
counselor, who did you seek assistance from regarding your educational and personal
needs?
2. How did your high school education prepare you for high school graduation, your
undergraduate and graduate educational experiences, and your career aspirations? How
did the School Counselor(s) contribute to your preparation? If a School Counselor did not
assist in this process, what individual during your high school experience had the most
impact on your high school preparation? What assistance did this individual provide you
with?
3. How effective was your school counselor or school counseling program during high
school in preparing you for your academic, career, and social emotional development
during your undergraduate, graduate, and training experience?
4. Explain the assistance and support that you received from the school counseling program
at your school high school? How was the assistance that you received beneficial to your
endeavors after high school?
5. Reflecting on your high school experiences, how did your high school counselor assist
you with your academic endeavors, career aspirations, and social emotional /
psychosocial needs? Identify any academic and social emotional needs you experienced
during high school?
6. During your high school educational years, what type of academic services did you
receive? Were these services provided by a school counselor? If not, who provided the
services? What was the title of the person? What was the duration of the services
provided?
7. During your high school experience, what type of academic planning and advisement did
you receive from a school counselor? If the school counselor did not provide this service
for you, how was the service provided? Who did you seek for assistance? Who was this
person? What was their job title? How did this person exactly provide you with academic
planning and advisement?
8. How did the academic advisement and planning that you received in high school, prepare
you for your post secondary experience? What impact did this experience have on your
undergraduate and graduate experience?
9. During your high school experience, what type of career planning and advisement did
you receive from a school counselor? If the school counselor did not provide this service
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 113
for you, how was the service provided? Who did you seek for assistance? Who was the
person? What was their job title? How did this person exactly provide you with career
planning and advisement?
10. How did the career advisement and planning that you received in high school, prepare
you for your post secondary experience? What impact did this experience have on your
undergraduate and graduate experience?
11. Did you experience any major crisis or personal matters that impacted your academic and
future endeavors during high school? If so, who did you seek for assistance? Who was
this person? What was their job title? How did this person assist you with your social
emotional matters?
12. How did the assistance that you received with your social emotional matters impact your
undergraduate and graduate experience?
13. Did you have a unique experience which transformed your educational goals and
aspirations?
14. What resources/networks did you have in high school that assisted you with your
academic, career, and social emotional development? Were these resources/networks
provided by a school counselor? If not provided by a school counselor, how did you
obtain the resources/networks during high school? Did you initiate the
resources/networks yourself or did someone else provide them for you? If you did not
initiate the resources who or what program provided these services?
15. What resources/networks in high school assisted you with your academic planning and
advisement, your career planning and advisement, and your social emotional matters?
16. Based on your high school experience, what was the impact of the resources/networks
that you received on your undergraduate and graduate educational experiences?
17. Are there any factors that contributed to the lack of resources/networks being provided by
the school counselor?
18. What disconnects have you observed as an intern with the practices and training of school
counselors? What observable mismatches have you experienced between your
preparation and student needs?
19. What roles and functions would you say are essential to the practice of school counselors
in meeting high school student needs with their academic, career, and social emotional
endeavors?
20. As a school counseling graduate student, what roles and functions do you perceive as
necessary to meet the academic aspirations and social emotional needs of today's
students?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 114
21. In relationship to your training and experience in the field as an intern, is there anything
missing in the roles and functions of school counselors? Is there a discrepancy between
your training, experience, and the needs of the students?
22. Through your graduate training and experience as an intern, what resources/networks do
you see being utilized in the practices of school counselors? Are there any
resources/networks that are not utilized that you would recommend based on your high
school experience in assisting today's students?
23. How familiar are you with the ASCA National Model? Have you received training in the
Model? If yes, how comfortable are you in articulating the model requirements?
24. How does the training and experience that you have receive align with the recommended
practices of the ASCA National Model? Are these recommended practices being utilized
within the schools to assist students with their academic endeavors, career aspirations ,
and social emotional development? If the alignment does not exist, what discrepancies
have you observed?
25. What led to your decision to pursue a career in school counseling?
26. Do you have any teaching or any other educational experience? If you answered yes,
please describe your experiences.
27. The survey indicated that all participants project having a positive future as a
Professional School Counselor. What would you say contributes to your future
predictions?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 115
Appendix D
Research Questions/Interview Protocol Grid
Research Question #1
What is the perception of the school counseling profession held by school counseling
graduate students?
Part I - Well-Being Survey Questions
1. When it comes to the best possible experience with your school counselor, on which
level of satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your
undergraduate years, c) during your graduate training years, d) do you think you will
stand as a Professional School Counselor?
2. When it comes to relationships with school counselors in your life, on which level of
satisfaction did you stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your
undergraduate years, c) during your graduate training years, d) do you think you will
stand as a Professional School Counselor?
4. When it comes to your educational experience, on which level of satisfaction did you
stand a) during high school, b) during preparation for your undergraduate years, c) during your graduate training years, d) do you think you will stand as a Professional
School Counselor?
Part II - ASCA National Model Survey Questions
3. Did your high school education prepare you for postsecondary education?
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Q1.Based on your high school experience, what was your perception of school
counselors and the school counseling program offered at your school? If you did not
have a school counselor, who did you seek assistance from regarding your educational
and personal needs?
Q3. Explain the assistance and support that you received from the school counseling
program at your school high school? How was the assistance that you received
beneficial to the your endeavors after high school?
Q17. Are there any factors that contributed to the lack resources/networks being
provided by the school counselor?
Q21. In relationship to your training and experience in the field as an intern, is there
anything missing in the roles and functions of school counselors? Is there a discrepancy
between your training, experience, and the needs of the students?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 116
Research Question #2
What role do school counselors play in the needs, academic aspirations, and psychosocial
development of students at the secondary, undergraduate, and graduate levels? Do these
roles align with the needs and aspirations of the students?
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Q2. How did your high school education prepare you for high school graduation, your
undergraduate and graduate educational experiences, and your career aspirations?
How did the School Counselor(s) contribute to your preparation? If a School Counselor
did not assist in this process, what individual during your high school experience had
the most impact on your high school preparation? What assistance did this individual
provide you with?
Q5. Reflecting on your high school experiences, how did your high school counselor
assist you with your academic endeavors, career aspirations, and social emotional /
psychosocial needs? Identify any academic and social emotional needs you
experienced during high school?
Q6. During your high school educational years, what type of academic services did you
receive? Were these services provided by a school counselor? If not, who provided the
services? What was the title of the person? What was the duration of the services
provided?
Q7. During your high school experience, what type of academic planning and
advisement did you receive from a school counselor? If the school counselor did not
provide this service for you, how was the service provided? Who did you seek for
assistance? Who was this person? What was their job title? How did this person exactly
provide you with academic planning and advisement?
Q8. How did the academic advisement and planning that you received in high school,
prepare you for your post secondary experience? What impact did this experience have
on your undergraduate and graduate experience?
Q9. During your high school experience, what type of career planning and advisement
did you receive from a school counselor? If the school counselor did not provide this
service for you, how was the service provided? Who did you seek for assistance? Who
was this person? What was their job title? How did this person exactly provide you
with career planning and advisement?
Q10. How did the career advisement and planning that you received in high school,
prepare you for your post secondary experience? What impact did this experience have
on your undergraduate and graduate experience?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 117
Q11. Did you experience any major crisis or personal matters that impacted your
academic and future endeavors during high school? If so, who did you seek for
assistance? Who was this person? What was their job title? How did this person do to
assist you with your social emotional matters?
Q12. How did the assistance that you received with your social emotional matters
impact your undergraduate and graduate experience?
Q13. Did you have a unique experience which transformed your educational goals
and aspirations?
Research Question #3
How can social capital and well-being theory contribute to the roles and functions of
Professional School Counselors in addressing the needs and academic aspirations of
today's students?
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Q11. Did you experience any major crisis or personal matters that impacted your
academic and future endeavors during high school? If so, who did you seek for
assistance? Who was this person? What was their job title? How did this person do to
assist you with your social emotional matters?
Q14. What resources/networks did you have in high school that assisted you with your
academic, career, and social emotional development? Were these resources/networks
provided by a school counselor? If not provided by a school counselor, how did you
obtain the resources/networks during high school? Did you initiate the
resources/networks yourself or did someone else provide them for you? If you did not
initiate the resources who or what program provided these services?
Q15.What resources/networks in high school assisted you with your academic planning
and advisement, your career planning and advisement, and your social emotional
matters?
Q16.Based on your high school experience, what was the impact of the
resources/networks that you received on your undergraduate and graduate educational
experiences?
Q17. Are there any factors that contributed to the lack resources/networks being
provided by the school counselor?
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 118
Q22. Through your graduate training and experience as an intern, what
resources/networks do you see being utilized in the practices of school counselors?
Are there any resources/networks that are not utilized that you would recommend
based on your high school experience in assisting today's students?
Research Question #4
How does the existing roles and training of school counselors align with the needs of
today's students in meeting their academic aspirations and psychosocial endeavors?
What are the future recommended roles of school counselors in meeting the student's
needs?
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Q6. During your high school educational years, what type of academic services did you
receive? Were these services provided by a school counselor? If not, who provided the
services? What was the title of the person? What was the duration of the services
provided?
Q18. What disconnects have you observed as an intern with the practices and training
of school counselors? What observable mismatches have you experienced between
your preparation and student needs?
Q19. What roles and functions would you say are essential to the practice of school
counselors in meeting high school student needs with their academic, career, and social
emotional endeavors?
Q20. As a school counseling graduate student, what roles and functions do you
perceive as necessary to meet the academic aspirations and social emotional needs of
today's students?
Q21. In relationship to your training and experience in the field as an intern, is there
anything missing in the roles and functions of school counselors? Is there a discrepancy
between your training, experience, and the needs of the students?
Q22. Through your graduate training and experience as an intern, what
resources/networks do you see being utilized in the practices of school counselors?
Are there any resources/networks that are not utilized that you would recommend
based on your high school experience in assisting today's students?
Q23. How familiar are you with the ASCA National Model? Have you received
training in the Model? If yes, how comfortable are you in articulating the model
GRADUATE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS 119
requirements?
Q24. How does the training and experience that you have receive align with the
recommended practices of the ASCA National Model? Are these recommended
practices being utilize within the schools to assist students with their academic
endeavors, career aspirations , and social emotional development? If the alignment
does not exist, what discrepancies have you observed?
Q27. The survey indicated that all participants project having a positive future as a
Professional School Counselor. What would you say contributes to your future
predictions?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied social capital theory by Stanton-Salazar (2011) and well-being theory by Prilleltensky, (2012). Stanton-Salazar explored individual relationships with institutional agents providing access to social capital and the influence on educational and career aspirations. Prilleltensky explored overall well-being in life through the successful culmination of objective and subjective needs. The purpose of this study was to explore the roles and functions of school counselors by examining the perceptions of graduate school counseling students' educational experiences with school counselors during high school and the impact on their undergraduate and graduate school years. A qualitative study was conducted based on the I COPPE survey and interviews. Findings from this study indicate that Professional School Counselors do not address the career aspirations and social emotional needs of high school students. Due to time constraints, proactive comprehensive school counseling programs are not provided for students. Professional School Counselors are not well versed in the roles and functions as stipulated by the American School Counselor Association (ASCA). Positive educational experiences can have lifelong implications that serve to empower individuals and create opportunities for change. This study examined student voices in improving the practices for school counselors in the education. Professional School Counselors should align the ASCA requirements to individual job descriptions

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Asset Metadata

Creator Curry, Delores A. (author)

Core Title The missing voice: graduate students' perceptions of the school counseling profession

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/19/2013

Defense Date 10/14/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag graduate students' perceptions,OAI-PMH Harvest,School Counseling,school counseling graduate students,school counseling profession

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan Gilford (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee member), Searchwell, Vithrel (committee member)

Creator Email dcurry@usc.edu,Klassydac@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-347826

Unique identifier UC11296300

Identifier etd-CurryDelor-2163.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-347826 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CurryDelor-2163.pdf

Dmrecord 347826

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Curry, Delores A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA