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A case study on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the development of 21st-century skills and educational leadership

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A case study on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the development of 21st-century skills and educational leadership

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Content Running head: CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1

A CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL
CORPORATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF 21ST CENTURY SKILLS AND
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

by

Elizabeth Bernal

_____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2014

Copyright 2014 Elizabeth Bernal

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Hilda Bernal, and the struggle and sacrifice of all the
Latina mothers who raise strong and independent women. Thank you for driving me to any and
all public libraries in Los Angeles any time I needed a book for a school assignment. Your life
would have been much easier if the Internet had been as accessible then as it is now.

Le dedico esta disertación a mi mama, Hilda Bernal, y a la lucha y sacrificio de todas las madres
Latinas quienes han criado mujeres fuertes y independientes. Gracias por conducirme a toda y
cualquier biblioteca publica en Los Angeles cada vez que necesitaba algún libro para una tarea
escolar. Tu vida hubiera sido mucho mas facíl si en ese entonces el Internet hubiera sido tan
accesible como lo es hoy.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my appreciation for the many people who made this study
possible. First and foremost, I would like to thank the people of Costa Rica for opening their
doors, minds, and hearts. Without them this endeavor would have been considerably less
exciting and enjoyable. Next, I would like to thank my friends and family for their support
throughout this process. Thanks for helping me decide which university to give my money to, for
listening to me complain, for offering to bring me supplies when I retreated into writing mode
for entire weekends here and there, and for understanding when I could not make dinner
invitations or birthday celebrations because they conflicted with homework or classes. Lastly,
thanks to USC professors and peers for going though this process with me. Yes, I purposely
omitted individual names for fear of inadvertently missing someone.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Chapter 3: Methodology 59
Chapter 4: Research Findings 79
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 115
References 127
Appendices 141
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister Of Education 143
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 144
Appendix C: Survey Protocol for Teachers 145
Appendix D: Focus Group Interview Protocol for School Site Leaders 148
Appendix E: Government and Policy Leaders Interview Protocol 150
Appendix F: Corporate Leader Interview Protocol 152
Appendix G: School Leader Interview Protocol 154
Appendix H: Classroom Observation Tool 156

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Costa Rican Educational Cycles 35
Table 2. Cognitive Competencies, Clusters, and 21st Century Skills 43
Table 3. Wagner’s 21st Century Skills 45
Table 4. Alignment between Tony Wagner’s 21st Century Skills and ATC21S 48
Table 5. Marzano, McNulty, and Waters (2005) 21 Leadership Responsibilities 52
for Leaders
Table 6. Relationship Between Research Questions and Purpose of Study 60
Table 7. Data Collection Triangulation Matrix 74
Table 8. Leader Interviewees 82
Table 9. Survey Question: The Focus of Education Has Changed to Incorporate 92
21st Century Skills
Table 10. Survey Question 1: Teacher Training Has Changed to Promote 21st 92
Century Skills
Table 11. Survey Question: Curriculum Reflects 21st Century Skills Such As 93
Critical Thinking, Collaboration, and Communication
Table 12. Observation Data: The Classroom Instruction Reflects an Emphasis on 96
Bilingual Education Specifically Toward English
Table 13. Responses to Survey Question: Technology is Used in the Classroom 98
Table 14. Responses to Survey Question: There is Access to Technology in the 99
Classroom
Table 15. Responses to Survey Question: Collaboration Amongst Students Takes 101
Place Daily
Table 16. Observation Data: Collaboration Amongst Students Takes Place in the 102
Classroom
Table 17. Description of Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Approach 103

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Abstract
In the highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a need to adapt
to a global market. Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the last 30 years. Once a country that
relied on agricultural exports, Costa Rica is now heavily influenced by high-tech foreign direct
investment. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and
opportunity to Costa Rica, but it has also presented new challenges to its educational system. In
the past few decades, the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education has charged the educational
system with educating students that are technically literate and possess 21st century skills.
Furthermore, multinational corporations have invested money and resources at all levels of the
educational system in order to better develop students who are prepared for a global economy.
Costa Rican schools and their leaders are facing pressure to ensure their students are prepared to
be productive citizens by ensuring they have the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a
labor market that demands a new set of skills, which most educational systems around the world
are not providing their students. Despite having five national universities, 51 private universities,
and a 95% literacy rate amongst its population, there remains a low secondary graduation rate, a
low percentage of students pursuing higher education, and even fewer who are pursuing higher
education in science or technology. In order to prepare Costa Rican students to be competitive in
a high-tech global market, educational shifts are needed to ensure students possess twenty-first
century skills. To make these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and education
all need to play an active role. This case study uses Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory to
understand what impact globalization and multi-national corporations have had on educational
leadership, and it investigates to what extent government policy and investment by multinational
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corporations have impacted the development of 21st century skills, as defined by Tony Wagner
(2010), in Costa Rican students.

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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The idea globalization has a significant impact on education is not a new concept. As
early as the 1970s, the education philosopher, Brameld (1970), advocated that schools focus on
global education due to the growing interconnectedness of nations. Brameld (1970) called for the
educational system to focus on a community of nations, arguing that in an interdependent world,
economic, political, and social problems had to be addressed on a world scale. Forty years ago,
perhaps it was difficult for the average person to conceptualize the interconnectedness to which
Brameld (1970) alluded. Presently, however, this interconnectedness is more obvious to
everyone at some minimal level. The more astute might be able to explain how political unrest
between two factions in a particular world location ultimately affects the price of gas in the
United States and consequently the profits for the tourism industry in Mexico. Others might
conceptualize globalization as the outsourcing of jobs (Friedman, 2005). Still others’ idea of
globalization might be being able to consume Coca-Cola in every continent (Foster, 2008).
Either way, very few can escape the presence of globalization.
During the last few decades, technological advances have compounded the effects of
globalization by interconnecting the world in an unprecedented manner (Friedman, 2005).
Friedman (2005) refers to this phenomenon as the “flattening” of the world, and concludes
technology is a key factor in this transformation since it has expedited globalization’s eradication
of geographical borders and the creation of a global culture. This interconnectedness affects and
spans across the political, social, and economic arenas (Spring, 2008).
Globalization has transformed the global economy into one that is knowledge-based, in
which innovative ideas and technical expertise hold the keys to competitiveness (Ashton, Brown,
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& Lauder, 2008). In a knowledge-based economy there is greater dependence on knowledge,
information and high skill levels, such as problem solving and critical thinking (Organization of
Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2005). This shift, in turn, has required a
rethinking of education’s purpose, content, pedagogy, and assessment in order to meet new
marketplace demands (Carnoy, 1999).
There is general consensus amongst scholars on the need for educational systems around
the world to change in order to address demands of globalization on the workforce (Lipman,
2003). However, current research has no consensus on what students should learn or how
educational systems should change in order to be globally competitive in the new economy,
given the many divergent lists of essential skills (Hilton & Pellegrino, 2012). Nonetheless,
globalization is a ubiquitous force that all educational systems must respond to or risk not
adequately preparing their students to be competitive in this new knowledge-based global
economy (Friedman, 2005; Wagner, 2010).
In order to be competitive and successful in the new global economy there are certain
21st century skills students must develop (Wagner, 2010). The ability to access, evaluate, and
apply information is one such skill (CINDE, 2005a). According to Friedman (2005) this shift has
resulted from recent technological advances. Technology now allows information to be gathered
or constructed in one location and shared and studied within seconds with people around the
globe (Friedman, 2005). Further, according to Jukes and McCain (2002), the amount of new
technical information is growing faster, doubling every 72 hours. It is no longer possible to
memorize all current and relevant information. Thus, accessing, evaluating, and applying
information makes simple memorization of information an obsolete skill despite its popularity in
traditional educational systems (CINDE, 2005a).
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Another change in the workforce is people’s ability to work with others from all over the
world through teleconferencing, e-mail, Internet and telephones. A single company is able to
have employees in different hemispheres collaborate on a common project without ever being in
the same room. These characteristics alone demand individuals in the workforce have knowledge
and skills that are vastly different than those held by previous generations of workers (Friedman,
2005). These examples highlight the need for workers to be able to collaborate with diverse
groups of individuals, speak more than one language, and have excellent oral and written
communication skills (Wagner, 2010).
In response to these and other changes brought about by globalization, many educational
systems across the globe have committed to educating their youth for the 21st century (Moore,
2009). There are different ways to define 21st century skills, but for the purpose of this study
Wagner’s (2010) definition will be used. Following are the seven skills Wagner (2010) identifies
as essential for preparing students to be productive global citizens:
• Critical thinking and problem solving;
• Collaboration and leading by influence;
• Agility and adaptability;
• Initiative and entrepreneurialism;
• Effective oral and written communication;
• Accessing and analyzing information;
• Curiosity and imagination.
The Costa Rican educational system is not exempt from the impact of globalization and
changing workforce demands. There is abundant literature that indicates the advent of multi-
national corporations (MNCs) resulting from globalization has played a significant role in recent
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changes to the Costa Rican educational system (CINDE, 2005b; Monge-Naranjo, 2007;
Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007). Once, Costa Rica’s economy was primarily based on
agriculture however, since the arrival of Intel in 1997, technology has become a major export
and given Costa Rica new opportunities (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). This new direction and
opportunity has changed the workforce demands on Costa Ricans; thus, the educational system
has had to adjust or risk losing investments from multi-national corporations (Sandoval, 2005).
These adjustments began even before Intel moved into Costa Rica, since part of the
agreement for Intel to invest in Costa Rica included the Costa Rican government accomplishing
the following:
• Increasing the number of technical graduates;
• Creating a one year certificate program and a one year associate degree focused on
semiconductor manufacturing and microelectronics at the Instituto Tecnico de Costa
Rica (ItCr);
• Improving the quality of technical curricula in advanced microelectronics;
• Offering language training programs at ItCr;
• Increasing the level of skills in construction and project management by local
contractors. (World Bank Group, 2006)
In response to these agreements, in 1994 the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education
approved a new educational policy with the specific objective of transforming the Costa Rican
educational system into one that met the needs of the 21st century (Ministerio de Educacion
Publica, 2007). The aims and objectives of this policy were:
• Offer equal access to quality education at all schools regardless of location;
• Develop essential skills for international markets;
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• Strengthen core values;
• Strengthen scientific and technical education;
• Raise awareness of the need for economic and social development in harmony with
the environment. (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007)
For close to two decades the Costa Rican educational system has been working on
developing 21st century skills to meet the demands of globalization and multi-national
corporations. Yet, minimal research exists analyzing the outcomes of these attempts. There is
evidence to suggest a gap between the Costa Rican educational system’s current state and where
it envisions itself needing to be in order to meet the new workforce demands. Some of the
hurdles include the relatively low graduation rates from secondary schools and the low number
of graduates with a science, math, or technology degrees (Sandoval, 2005). However, before
moving forward and developing a new plan for addressing these challenges, it is important to
assess the impact of current and past endeavors to educate students for the 21st century,
especially as other countries and schools around the world embark on similar endeavors and can
learn from those who have traveled this road before them.
Thus, this study investigated how globalization and multi-national corporations have
already influenced the Costa Rican educational system. This case study investigated to what
extent 21st century skills are taught and developed in a Costa Rican elementary school affiliated
to Intel. This case study also examined the educational leadership in the selected school using
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory (2003).
Statement of the Problem
Costa Rica has changed over the past few decades as a result of the fiscal crisis of the
1980s. Due to their developed educational system and increased cost of living, a new economic
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strategic plan was implemented to attract hi-tech foreign direct investment (FDI) to compete in
an evolving global market. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new
direction and opportunity to this small Central American country. As more MNCs invest in
Costa Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility to help students develop technical
and inquiry-based 21st century skills becomes an increasing challenge. Despite having five
national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate amongst its population,
Costa Rica continues to have both a low secondary graduation rate and low pursuit of higher
education (Castro, 2010). As a result, Costa Rica lacks knowledge-ready workers prepared to
take on the new job opportunities.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact globalization and multinational
corporations have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in
Costa Rican schools and universities. The study identified the role school leaders have played in
the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study investigated if these initiatives in the educational system are
producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers, building human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guide the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
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3. How has educational leadership been affected directly by policy decisions that came
about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Importance of the Study
With globalization spreading rapidly around the world, more and more educational
systems, in addition to Costa Rica’s, are refocusing on developing 21st century skills to equip
their citizens with the skills necessary to compete and succeed in the future marketplace. Take
for example, the current shift to the Common Core Standards in the United States. The impetus
behind this shift was research such as a Nation at Risk (1983) and the Global Achievement Gap
(2010) indicating that the traditional American educational system is not adequately preparing
students to compete in a global knowledge economy. Therefore, as countries such as the United
States embark on the endeavor of educating students for the 21st century, it behooves them to
learn from what other systems have already done, especially when they are facing similar
challenges. For example, as in Costa Rica, low secondary graduation rates, inequities in access to
quality education, and a relatively small number of students graduating with degrees in science,
math and technology, are challenges that plague the Unites States (Denning, 1983). Thus, this
case study is potentially beneficial not just for the participants and those indirectly working with
them, but also for any educational system in the midst of transforming itself to educate students
for the 21st century.
This study is most beneficial to the school site leadership, educators, and policy makers
in Costa Rica who are directly or indirectly part of this study. This study offers a vehicle for
school site leadership to analyze and evaluate their efforts, practices, organizational structure,
and intended student outcomes in order to guide future decisions. The school site can use the
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data and findings from this study to implement changes, or sustain policies and systems already
in place, to better meet the school’s goals and objectives.
This study is valuable to educators because it provides data and findings about
curriculum, pedagogical practices, and classroom structures intended to develop 21st century
skills. Thus, educators can gain insight to help them determine what curricular, instructional, and
structural decisions to make when striving to maximize their efforts in developing 21st century
skills. In addition, the study’s findings can be used to assist policy makers in deciding what to
fund and what to support.
Limitations
Limitations are circumstances beyond the control of the researcher (Simon & Goes,
2011). The limitations of this study are:
• Respondents’ biases cannot be filtered when they answer interview or survey
questions. However, triangulation was used in an attempt to minimize biases and
increase the validity of the collected data (Merriam, 2009).
• The study was a snapshot in time, so events could change before or after the presence
and interaction with the researcher.
• The analysis of the data may be subject to the researcher’s biases and interpretations,
but all attempts were made to be cognizant of biases and set them aside.
Delimitations
Delimitations are limitations the researcher chose to use (Simon & Goes, 2011).
Following are the delimitations for this study:
• This case study is one of 12 from a thematic dissertation group. Thus, this case study
was subject to certain constraints set forth by the thematic group.
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• The school used in this study was selected because it is an Intel school but also
because it was one of the schools to which an executive at Intel gave access.
• A relatively small amount of data was collected since the study was conducted at a
single elementary school, involving a limited number of participants. Therefore, it is
not possible to say that the views captured in this study are the views of the majority
of Costa Rican educators or school leaders.
• This case study was conducted in a school in Costa Rica. Meanwhile, the researcher
lives in the United States, so access, time, and cultural differences are potential
limitations.
• The study was conducted in a Spanish speaking country so there was constant
translation between English and Spanish; nuances of meaning could have been
unintentionally lost in translation.
• No consideration was given to socioeconomic status or race.
Assumptions
Certain assumptions have been made while conducting this research:
• Data collected from interviews, existing documents and survey responses reflects
honest and accurate depictions of the experiences of the participants.
• During observations what was presented was not orchestrated to present a fictitious
image of the school.
• Participants in the study are implementing strategies, structures, or policies to develop
21st century skills, as the Costa Rican Ministry of Education (Ministerio de
Educacion Publica, 2007) has articulated as one of the principal goals of the country’s
educational system.
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Definition of Terms
Some terms frequently used in the study have connotations that may differ from those in
the common domain. The following operational definitions are offered to provide clarity of
meaning:
• 21st Century Skills — These skills are a blend of content knowledge, specific skills,
expertise and literacies. They are the new “basic skills” for work, learning, and
citizenship in the 21st century (Wagner, 2010).
• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) — FDI refers to an investment made to acquire lasting
interest in enterprises operating outside of the investor’s economy. In the case of FDI, the
investor’s purpose is to gain an effective voice in the management of the enterprise. The
foreign entity that makes the investment is termed the “direct investor.” The enterprise in
which direct investment is made is referred to as a “direct investment enterprise.” Some
degree of equity ownership, typically 10%, is almost always considered to be associated
with an effective voice in the management of an enterprise (United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development, n.d.).
• Globalization — Changes in economics that affect production, consumption and
investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population. It has a direct
effect on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which schooling is a part (Spring
2008).
• Human Capital — The knowledge, skills, competencies and other attributes embodied in
individuals or groups of individuals acquired during their life and used to produce goods,
services or ideas in market circumstances (Westphalen, 1999).
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• Knowledge-Based Economy — Knowledge-based economy refers to trends in the
economy towards greater dependence on knowledge, information and high skill levels,
and the increasing need for ready access to all of these by the business and public sectors
(OECD, 2005).
• Multinational Corporation (MNC) — A multinational corporation or multinational
enterprise (MNE) is a corporation that owns or controls production or service facilities
outside the country in which it is based. MNCs may engage in various activities like
exporting, importing, and/or manufacturing in different countries. Some distinctive
characteristics of MNCs are: large size, worldwide operations, international management,
and mobility of resources across geographical boundaries (United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development, n.d.)
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
This case study explored the impact that globalization and the presence of multinational
corporations have had on an elementary school in Costa Rica, which has a close affiliation with
Intel, one of Costa Rica’s most influential MNCs and an active proponent in transforming
education to develop 21st century skills. It also explored how globalization, and by extension,
the influence of a multinational corporation has manifested itself in the instruction and
expectations for learning in an elementary school in Costa Rica. Finally, it examined how policy
decisions guided by globalization and the presence of an MNC have affected educational
leadership in Costa Rica.
Chapter 2 summarizes literature that explains the historical, political, and educational
context that set the stage for multinational corporations to invest in Costa Rica. It also defines
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globalization, 21st century skills, and educational leadership, and identifies the frameworks used
to analyze this case study.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to conduct this case study and describes the
tools that were used to collect and triangulate data in order to validate the findings. Also, it
includes a description of the participants and the process used to analyze the data.
Chapter 4 identifies and describes the data results and identifies themes that surfaced in
the data for each of the research questions.
Finally, Chapter 5 includes a summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations.
This final chapter also describes how this study contributes to the body of knowledge on the
impact of globalization and multinational corporations for the educational system in Costa Rica,
and potentially in other countries around the world. In conclusion, it identifies needs for future
research.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Globalization and the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) have transformed
the global economy into a knowledge-based one in which innovative ideas and technical
expertise hold the key for workers to be competitive (Ashton, Brown, & Lauder, 2008). This
transformation has required a rethinking of educational leadership, curriculum, and instruction to
focus on developing 21st century skills (Carnoy, 1999). Globalization and MNCs demand and
incite change in educational systems. However, current research has not come to any complete
consensus on how exactly globalization and MNCs affect educational systems. Furthermore,
there is ongoing debate on whether globalization has a positive or negative impact on educational
systems (Wade, 2003). Regardless, globalization is a ubiquitous force that affects educational
systems, and educational systems must respond to it or risk being left behind.
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the presence
of MNCs. Costa Rica was once primarily an agricultural economy, however the growth of
technology as a major export has given the country new direction and opportunities (Monge-
Naranjo, 2007). As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems must
refocus on developing 21st century skills in their students or risk becoming less attractive to
MNCs; they must have a highly-skilled workforce prepared for a knowledge-based economy
(Monge-Naranjo, 2007). However, before looking forward to how Costa Rica can adjust and
respond to the demands of globalization and MNCs, it is essential to investigate how these two
forces have already influenced the Costa Rican educational system.
The purpose of this study is to understand what impact globalization and multinational
corporations have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in
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21
Costa Rican schools. The study identifies what role school leaders have played in the
development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives.
In addition, the study determines whether these initiatives are producing greater numbers of
knowledge-ready workers in an educational system that builds human capital capable of meeting
Costa Rica’s needs. To this end, this study addresses the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been affected directly by policy decisions that came
about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Based on the aforementioned research questions, this chapter provides an overview of the
literature pertaining to: the historical context in which globalization and MNCs surfaced in Costa
Rica, the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the Costa Rican educational
system, the development of 21st century skills as a result of globalization and the presence of
MNCs, and the impact of globalization and MNCs on educational leadership.
This chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section focuses on the history of
Costa Rica and is subdivided into political, economic, and educational history. The second
section defines globalization, describes the impact of globalization on Costa Rica, and identifies
the theoretical framework for globalization used in this study. In the third section, educational
leadership is defined and the leadership framework used for this study is described.
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History of Costa Rica
Compared to many characterizations of other developing countries in Central America,
Costa Rica stands out as exceptional. Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica eliminated its army in
1949; its illiteracy and infant mortality rates are among the lowest in the region; it has a strong
healthcare system; and it has a history of peace and stability (Sick, 1999). These characteristics
have often resulted in Costa Rica being referred to as the Switzerland of Central America. This
comparison seems even more apropos when considering that Costa Rica was the first country in
the area to attract multi-national corporations and significant foreign direct investment (FDI)
(Mirchandani & Condo, 2005). In this section, the political, economic and educational history of
Costa Rica are traced in order to elucidate the factors that made this possible.
Political History
Spanish colonization in Costa Rica began in 1502 when Columbus visited its eastern
coast and called it the “Rich Coast” (Florek & Conejo, 2007). Though many colonists visited
Costa Rica in the early 1500s, the first permanent Spanish colony was not settled until 1524. The
island’s remote location relative to the Spanish empire’s capital in Guatemala City, its lack of
riches, and poor roads made Costa Rica less attractive to settlers than other parts of the empire
(Augelli, 1987). Costa Rica remained part of the Spanish empire until 1821 when Central
America gained independence from Spain. However, from 1821-1823, Costa Rica was part of
Agustin de Iturbide’s Mexican empire. In 1823 it became a province of the Federal Republic of
Central America until 1838 when it declared independence and declared itself a sovereign state.
In 1848, Costa Rica finally became a republic (Veillette, 2005). Yet, despite Costa Rica’s lack of
independence for over three centuries, in reality it functioned relatively independently since it
remained fairly isolated, sparsely populated, and abandoned by its colonizers (Hall, 1985).
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Costa Rica was one of the most democratic and peaceful countries in Latin America from
its post-colonial period until its civil war in 1948 (Duff & McCamant, 1968; Johnson, 1976).
However, the characterization of Costa Rica as democratic and peaceful does not signify that it
was free of political unrest, especially in the early post-colonial years. Political coups were not
uncommon, nor were attempts on the lives of early presidents and heads of state by parties with
opposing views (Lehoucq, 2005). However, most coups were relatively brief and bloodless,
compared to those in neighboring Central American countries (Lehoucq, 2005).
In 1825, Juan Mora Fernandez was the first head of state after Costa Rica gained
independence, and he remained in power for eight years. However, from 1833 to 1848 there were
twelve changes of head of state, with four of those changes resulting from coups or popular
uprisings. In 1848 Costa Rica became a republic, but its first president was forced from office
one year later by a small group of economically powerful and politically influential coffee
magnates. For the following nineteen years, the Costa Rican presidency remained relatively
stable, with all presidents completing their terms without any coups or uprisings. In 1868 this
came to an end when Jose Castro Madriz, who was the first president of the republic and who
had been reelected in 1866, was deposed by a coup. Instability in the presidency ensued until
1870 when Tomás Guardia assumed the Costa Rican presidency and governed by military rule.
Between 1868 and 1870 the presidency changed hands five separate times.
Ironically, it was Tomás Guardia’s military dictatorship that brought political stability.
Additionally, despite Guardia’s violation of constitutional and human rights, there were various
developments under his leadership that positively affected Costa Rica in lasting ways and
planted the seeds of a fledgling democracy (Lopez, 1996).
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Under Guardia’s leadership, the revised constitution of 1871 was implemented, and some
of the changes and their effects still persist in contemporary Costa Rica. These changes included:
establishing a unicameral legislature and strong executive branch; strengthening government
institutions; and increasing taxes used for heavy investments in free and obligatory education for
men and women, public health, and the Atlantic Railway (Booth, 1989). A system of checks and
balances helped maintain relative political stability and significant investment in education and
other social welfare programs, marked the surge of a healthy and literate population (Booth,
1989). Building the Atlantic Railway was a significant contribution to international trade,
particularly with European markets, since it connected the eastern and western coasts of Costa
Rica and allowed European traders to use the much closer eastern coast (Houk, 1953). All of
these contributions set the stage for Costa Rica becoming an attractive location for MNCs and
FDI a century later.
The next major changes that solidified Costa Rica as a viable location for MNCs and FDI
came with the new constitution adopted at the conclusion of the 1948 Civil War. Prior to the war
there was a democratic system in place in Costa Rica; however, there were several anti-
democratic and economic factors that contributed to the unrest that resulted in conflict (Kantor,
1954). For example, suffrage was denied to several groups, such as women and indigenous
populations, and fraud and undue influence were present in the political system. With the rise of
coffee as a major contributor to the Costa Rican economy, the influence of the elite group that
held a monopoly on the Costa Rican coffee trade increased. This oligarchy used their influence
to decide election outcomes and used military force to silence any opposition (Gudmundsun,
1983).
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During the first half of the 20th century, economic booms and busts, driven in part by the
volatility of world markets and Costa Rica’s dependence on exports, resulted in inflation,
decreases in wages, unfair working conditions, a greater divide between the rich and poor, and
unemployment (Booth, 1989). In turn, these challenges generated class conflict and political
strife and created the conditions for the 1948 Civil War (Kantor, 1954).
The Costa Rican Civil War was incited and won by Jose Figueres and his National
Liberation Army whose ideals were rooted in social democracy (Tartakoff, 2007). After the Civil
War, the 1949 Costa Rican Constitution was instituted. Some critical contributions of the 1949
Constitution included:
1. Creation of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE) to ensure future clean elections.
2. Voting rights for women and people of African descent.
3. Prohibition of self-succession for office holders to diminish corruption.
4. Elimination of the army, which prevented the military from being the potentially
destabilizing force it had been in the past. (Lackey & Katz, 2010)
These changes reflected a commitment to social democracy and set the foundation for a
culture inclined toward civilian rule and co-optation of working classes, which led to a more
egalitarian and less classist society, collaboration rather than conflict among opposing forces,
and peace and fairness (Lackey & Katz, 2010). Another factor that contributed to the stability
and growth of Costa Rica at this time was its anti-communist stance, which kept it on the “good”
side of the United States, unlike other Latin American countries such as Guatemala and
Honduras, who due to their communist inclinations did not have American economic or political
support (Hurwitz, Peffley, & Seligson, 1993). The new constitution, the resulting changes in the
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second half of the 20th century, and its anti-communist stance created a landscape that made
Costa Rica a viable location for MNCs.
Economic History
Costa Rica means Rich Coast but it was one of the poorest regions of the Spanish Empire
in the Americas with a 1719 Spanish governor describing Costa Rica as the poorest and most
miserable Spanish colony in all America (Gabb, 1875). The Spanish named the area “Costa
Rica” because they were impressed by the generous gifts of gold and copper the local inhabitants
gave them upon arrival. However, these riches had been acquired through trade with more distant
tribes, and the existence and location of any small deposits of gold in Costa Rica were unknown
at the time. The lack of riches is likely one of the factors that contributed to Costa Rica’s peace
and stability, since it was in the wealthier parts of Central America that the Spanish colonists
concentrated their efforts and presence (Augelli, 1987).
Other factors that contributed to the relative isolation of Costa Rica and, hence, its
relative peace included:
1. Decentralized and complex indigenous political geography;
2. Diminished indigenous population due to newly introduced viruses;
3. Indigenous populations living in remote areas, which were difficult to reach. (Lopez,
1996)
These factors resulted in a limited work force, which coupled with scarce natural riches,
relegated Costa Rica to nothing more than a frontier province deserving limited attention. In over
three centuries, barely a few thousand Spaniards actually settled permanently in Costa Rica.
These factors nurtured a people who were poor, but self-reliant, proud, and used to a
considerable amount of freedom. Multiple pre-independence accounts refer to the formation of a
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national consciousness of individualistic small landowners, scornful of both religious and
political authority, isolated and uninvolved with commerce, as the foundation of Costa Rican
democracy (Monge, 1977). According to Booth and Walker (1989), despite differing social and
racial backgrounds, “Costa Rica retained a much greater degree of racial and economic
homogeneity than its neighbors . . . . Social inequities in Costa Rica were never great enough to
let one class or race completely dominate others to the detriment of the majority of the populace”
(p. 25). It is said that in Costa Rica a humbler colonial and post-colonial elite arose. As late as
1853, a foreign visitor, William Marr, observed that the elite were rather close to the commoner
(Houk, 1953). Houk (1953) mentioned, for example, that on market day it was not uncommon to
see the president of the republic or other officials behind a counter selling his wares or services.
During colonial times, the very conditions that kept Costa Rica poor were also instrumental in
maintaining its peace and stability, since its poverty made it unattractive to potential invaders.
Costa Rica’s post-colonial economic growth was due primarily to agriculture. The growth
and export of coffee, and later bananas, were the most pivotal, and even today they remain the
third and second sources of foreign income, behind tourism. Largely due to coffee, and at the end
of the 19th century bananas, Costa Rica converted from a sparsely populated country of
subsistence level farmers on communal lands to a developing country with an agricultural
economy based on cash crops (Hall, 1978). With the rise of coffee as a major export also came
the rise of the “cafetaleros,” or coffee barons (Booth, 1989).
Several factors contributed to the rise of coffee as an export including:
1. British interest in buying Central American coffee after Central American countries
gained independence from Spain.
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2. Completion of the Panama Railway in 1855 by the United States, which provided a
way for transporting coffee to the Atlantic side of the isthmus, which was closer for
British buyers willing to pay well for Costa Rican coffee.
3. Costa Rica’s rich volcanic soil and mountainous cloud forests are ideal for growing
high quality coffee.
4. Costa Rican government’s land incentives for settlers who grew coffee. (Rausch,
2005)
In Costa Rica the largest division between the elite and the commoner arose not from
land ownership or who could grow more coffee, but rather based on who ran the processing mills
and had access to the markets (Ortiz, 1996). Nonetheless, the coffee trade economically
benefited not only the upper class minority, but as a national enterprise it also raised the living
standard for the majority of the population and bridged the political and economic interests of
both groups (Facio, 1972). However, it did deepen the economic schism between the upper class
minority, or “cafetaleros,” and everyone else (Booth, 1989).
By 1849 the “cafetaleros” had established themselves as a powerful oligarchy. Coffee
was a major economic source for Costa Rica in the 1800s, and by mid-century the cafetaleros
had gained significant political influence, evidenced by their forcing out the of country’s first
elected president, Jose Maria Castro, just two years after his 1847 election (Biesanz, Biesanz, &
Biesanz, 1987). Furthermore, in 1849 they catapulted one of their own, the coffee baron Juan
Rafael Mora, into the presidency of the newly independent Costa Rica (Molina Jiménez, 1993).
Mora was president until 1859 when he was ousted and replaced by another coffee baron, Jose
María Montealegre, who remained in power until 1863.
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Through the end of the 1800s the Costa Rican economy remained fairly stable, but by the
1920s that was no longer the case. Free education, free health care, and social welfare were part
of Costa Rica since gaining its independence, and much of the funding for these social programs
came from taxing the wealthy, particularly the coffee barons (Alvarado, 2011). In the early
1920s funding these social programs became increasingly challenging, so taxes were raised,
particularly for the rich. To avoid taxation, many of the wealthy left Costa Rica. This flight of
capital and World War I brought about Costa Rica’s first financial crisis (Lindenberg, 1990). The
political unrest brought about by World War I caused coffee prices and the quantity of coffee
exports to decrease around the world. Up to that point, Germany had been the biggest importer of
Costa Rican coffee, so with Germany at the center of World War I, Costa Rican coffee exports
dramatically declined (Lindenberg, 1990). With this decline in coffee exports and the flight of
the coffee barons from Costa Rica, the relative influence of the coffee barons sharply decreased
(Booth, 1989).
The Costa Rican economy was able to slowly and steadily bounce back from this crisis
by diversifying their goods and services, but not before the eruption of the 1948 Civil War. The
Civil War concluded with the adoption of a new constitution in 1949 (Lehoucq, 1996). Some of
the developments that came with the new constitution contributed to Costa Rica’s steady
economic growth until the 1970s, further cementing Costa Rica as an attractive location for
MNCs included government intervention in the economy and the creation of a welfare state and
a more extensive public school system. By the late 1970s, one out of every five Costa Ricans
was employed by the State. Major public investments were being made in health, nutrition,
social welfare assistance to low-income families, social security, and other public-sector
services. The Costa Rican government also owned and operated numerous basic industries,
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including public transportation, energy production, telecommunications, insurance, banking,
cement, liquor and fertilizer production, among others (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Throughout the 1970s, it became increasingly difficult for the country to generate enough
economic resources to maintain rising wages, to finance ambitious social projects and to fund
public building projects. At that time, several factors came together to trigger the country’s first
economic crisis since the 1920s, among them: increased foreign debt, especially from
commercial banks at variable interest rates, sharp inflation, currency devaluation, high oil prices,
low prices for coffee, bananas, and sugar, high costs of the welfare state, and the disruption
caused by the war in Nicaragua (Seligson & Martínez, 2005). By the 1980s Costa Rica had
accrued the world’s highest per capita debt (Seligson & Martinez, 2005).
In response to this economic crisis, Costa Rica created the Costa Rican Investment
Promotion Agency (CINDE), a private non-profit organization whose main objective was to
attract foreign direct investment (FDI) (Nelson, 2005). Initially CINDE focused on attracting
FDI from agriculture and unskilled-labor intensive manufacturing, however, this proved
relatively unsuccessful since there were already plenty of markets that could meet that demand.
CINDE soon realized Costa Rica had the potential to provide the human capital for skilled-
intensive industries, which many of its neighbors could not, so in the 1990s there was a shift
towards skilled-intensive industries (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Intel’s announcement in 1997 of their plans to build an assembly and testing plant in
Costa Rica reaffirmed the viability of attracting high-tech FDI and gave the Costa Rican
economy a significant boost. Intel had a signaling effect for Costa Rica and helped attract other
MNCs (World Bank Group, 2006). A signaling effect occurs when a high profile company
makes a decision that attracts interest and attention from other companies. The assumption is that
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the high profile company has conducted in-depth due diligence and carefully considered the pros
and cons of venturing into a new location. When Intel decided to invest in Costa Rica it signaled
to other MNCs that Costa Rica was a good investment (Larraín, López-Calva, & Rodríguez-
Clare, 2000).
According to Spar (1998) some of the factors that initially made Costa Rica attractive to
Intel and other MNCs, and which immediately separated Costa Rica from other Central
American countries, included: Costa Rica’s high literacy and life expectance rates, and Costa
Rica’s stable, business-friendly economic and political conditions. Examples of these conditions
include President Figueroa’s direct involvement in touting MNCs to Costa Rica; changes in
policy and law to expedite processing of permits and construction; expedited customs clearance
for businessmen; and changes in university curriculum based on MNCs recommendations
(World Bank Group, 2006).
Towards the end of his presidency, President Figueroa’s priorities were to attract FDI
from high technology companies in order to continue to build Costa Rica’s technology cluster
and attract even more MNCs and FDI (World Bank Group, 2006). To this end, Costa Rica
conceded to Intel’s prerequisites for moving into Costa Rica. These concessions applied to all
foreign and local companies and still persist today. Some of the resulting economic incentives
included the elimination of capital tax, free trade zones, and reinvestment benefits.
After Intel’s 1996 announcement that it would construct a $300 million assembly and test
plant in Costa Rica, other MNCs also established branches in Costa Rica. Among these are
Hospira Inc., Cisco, Microsoft, Baxter International Inc., Procter & Gamble and Motorola Inc.
(Larraín, López-Calva, & Rodríguez-Clare, 2000; Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007). Indeed, according to Promotora del Comercio Exterior de Costa Rica (PROCOMER), in
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2005 there were 46 high-tech MNCs in Costa Rica, providing direct employment to over 14,000
people and exporting more than $3,000 million dollars (Arce, 2007).
Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica was pivotal; however, it is important to note that
prior to 1996 several companies in the electronics sector were already established in Costa Rica.
These companies included Motorola, Trimpot, Sylvania, and Espion (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Yet, it was Intel and the changes brought about by CINDE in their
effort to attract other “big fish” in the high tech sector that clinched Costa Rica’s position as a
significant player in the world economy (World Bank Group, 2006). The presence of these
MNCs has significantly influenced not just the Costa Rican economy, but also other sectors such
as the educational system.
Educational History
The first school in Costa Rica was founded in Heredia in 1751. During this time it was
common for the church to run schools in Central America, and Costa Rica was no exception; the
Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica supervised this first school (Terraciano, 2004). In 1869, 48
years after achieving independence from Spain, under the leadership of its first president and a
former educator, Jose Maria Castro, Costa Rica was among the first countries in Latin America
to make education free and mandatory. When compulsory education was first introduced roughly
10% of the population was literate (Stycos, 1982). Forty years later, 50% of the population could
read and by 1970, 90% of the population was literate (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). In 2012 Costa
Rica boasted a 94.9% literacy rate, the highest of all nations in Central America (Central
Intelligence Agency, 2011).
Many of the leaders in the struggle for Costa Rican independence were educators; thus,
since the creation of Costa Rica as an independent nation there has been an investment in
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education and a belief that education is the means by which a democratic culture is fostered. In
its early history, the government funded education with the taxes collected from the coffee
industry. Today, the government continues to fund free, compulsory education, and since the
1970s it has invested more than 29% of its budget on it (Clark, 1997).
When education was first made mandatory, the reality was that there was limited access
to primary school and no access to secondary schools for certain populations, particularly
women, people of African descent, and populations living in remote areas. Many of these
challenges were not addressed until the new constitution was adopted in 1949, which established
the current Costa Rican educational system (Monge-Naranjo, 2007).
With this new constitution and the dissolution of the military came a renewed focus on
education and the “Army of Teachers” (Stough & Aguirre-Roy, 1997). To date, Costa Rica
boasts having more teachers than military personnel, and continues to uphold the vision for
education set forth by the Ministry of Public Education when it was established in 1949 as the
entity in charge of education in Costa Rica.
The mission of the Ministry of Public Education is to ensure everyone has access to
quality education centered on personal development and the promotion of a Costa Rican society
united through opportunity and social equality. According to the Ministry of Public Education
(Costa, 1949), the purpose of the educational system is to:
. . . develop civic citizens who love their Homeland, are aware of their rights and
fundamental freedoms and have a deep sense of responsibility and respect to human
dignity; to contribute to the complete development of humanity; to nurture citizens for a
democracy that reconciles individual interests with those of the community; to stimulate
the development of solidarity and human understanding to conserve and enlarge cultural
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heritage imparting knowledge of history, masterpieces of literature and fundamental
philosophical concepts.
The Ministry of Education oversees the national system of education. There is a national
curriculum in Costa Rica, however schools have the autonomy to adapt the curriculum to meet
their goals and student needs. For example, schools that have a population that is at least 25%
indigenous are considered Indigenous Schools and have the option to add indigenous history and
indigenous languages to their curriculum (Ministerio de Educacion Publica de Costa Rica,
2010a). Similarly, there are some schools that have strong ties to private institutions and the
institution’s interests impact the curriculum taught. Take for example, schools that participate in
the “Iniciativa Intel Educacion” Program. Intel provides these schools a range of services and
resources, and schools at all education levels participate (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). Among the services and resources Intel provides certain elementary schools
are: teacher professional development, teaching resources, and technology.
The Costa Rican educational system consists of pre-school and four subsequent cycles
(Table 1). In 2007 there were 536,436 pupils enrolled in 3,771 primary schools and only 377,900
students attended public and private secondary schools (Encyclopedia of the Nations, n.d.). In
remote areas of Costa Rica access to secondary schools accounts for part of this drastic decline in
enrollment. Other factors contributing to this statistic are working to support family, secondary
school not being mandatory, and students not being prepared to pass secondary exams. In 2009
only 68% of students passed all secondary exams (Ministerio de Educacion, 2009).

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Table 1
Costa Rican Educational Cycles
Cycle Grades Mandatory/Not Mandatory
Cycle I Grades 1-4 (Elementary) Mandatory
Cycle II Grades 5-6 (Elementary) Mandatory
Cycle III Grades 7-9 (Secondary) Not mandatory
Cycle IV Grades 10 -12 (Secondary) Not mandatory

After graduation from secondary school, there are many options for college and
university. In 1940, the University of Costa Rica became the country’s first university
established. Currently, in addition to the University of Costa Rica, there are three other public
universities and approximately 55 private universities and colleges (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Combined, these institutions offer more than 1,500 degree programs
including diplomado, bachelor, licenciatura, masters, and doctoral degrees (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). At the university level, the most degrees are typically awarded in the
field of education (especially to women), followed by economics and social sciences (Castro,
2010). Degrees in the sciences and technology are awarded the least (Castro, 2010).
Another educational option not part of the free public educational system is attending a
professional training center, which is the equivalent of high school. These centers award the most
degrees in economic sciences and engineering. Historically, these centers have increased in
numbers and popularity since the arrival of MNCs and have provided much of the workforce for
the Costa Rican multinational corporations (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Despite the professional training center’s popularity, they only attract 25% of the secondary
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population (Monge-Naranjo, 2007), which leaves 75% who do not focus on the technical skills
MNCs are demanding.
MNCs’ direct impact on educational decision-making stems back to Intel’s initial
investment in Costa Rica. In order for Intel to invest in Costa Rica, the Costa Rican government
had to agree to the following: increase the number of technical graduates; create a one year
certificate program and a one year associate degree focused semiconductor manufacturing and
microelectronics at the Instituto Tecnico de Costa Rica (ItCr); improve the quality of technical
curricula in advanced microelectronics; offer language training programs at ItCr; and increase
the level of skills in construction and project management by local contractors (World Bank
Group, 2006). The effect of this influence seems to vary through the different sectors of the
educational system. The workforce demands of MNCs seem to have the most impact on the
professional training centers, certain private universities that focus on technology and sciences,
and on some elementary and secondary schools that have established partnerships with
multinational corporations.
MNCs in Costa Rica follow the Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning
Multinational and Social Policy, which outlines that the government and MNCs develop national
policies for vocational training and guidance, closely linked to employment and career
opportunities (International Labor Organization, 2001). This declaration also states that MNCs
should ensure relevant training is provided for all levels of employees to meet the needs of the
corporation as well as the development policies of the country.
In response to this declaration, MNCs in Costa Rica have established partnerships with
educational non-profits such as the Omar Dengo Foundation, universities, and the government to
provide knowledge and financial resources to students and potential future employees (Monge-
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González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Many of the resources are focused on developing the use
of technology, improving teaching and learning, and promoting technological innovation. At the
university, primary, and secondary levels MNCs have provided professional development for
teachers, have donated software, and given discount prices for operating system upgrades. MNCs
have funded technology innovation competition amongst university students and, as in the case
of Intel, have even founded schools.
MNCs have also had an indirect impact on the Costa Rican educational system by
creating demand for a workforce with a specific skill set. These required skills are, in part:
speaking English, working in collaborative groups, problem solving, having a strong math and
science background, and being computer literate (Spar, 1998). In response, different sectors of
the educational system have made adjustments to meet these demands. For example, according
to CINDE (2005a), 50% of primary schools and 100% of high schools have computer labs and
50% of public schools and 100% of private schools teach English. An added spillover effect is
that many workers have gained and honed skills while working with MNCs and have then taken
these skills to local companies. Thus, the workforce demands and expectations of MNCs and
local companies have, in some cases, begun to converge.
Despite these adjustments, there is a need for additional changes to keep up with the
workforce demands set by MNCs. One area that needs attention is cultivating a work force with
graduate degrees, particularly in sciences and math (Castro, 2010). Obstacles to this goal include:
(1) a sharp decline in student attendance in secondary school, (2) a small university student
population compared to the population in primary grades, and (3) outdated curriculum that does
not focus on the skills needed to keep Costa Rica competitive (Castro, 2010).
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Costa Rica has a high rate of primary school attendance and a high promotion rate from
primary to secondary school. Nonetheless, failure rates due to grade repetition or dropout are
very high in secondary. For example, the failure rate in 2007 was 27.2% for the seventh grade
and 24.2% for the tenth grade (Guasch et al., 2009). Enrollment in secondary schools increased
slightly in 2009, however this was due to a 2008 change in policy that made it easier for
secondary students to promote from one grade level to the next (Guasch et al., 2009). Only 50%
of high school students graduate and only 25% of graduates go on to pursue a college degree,
meaning that of all Costa Rican high school students, only 12.5% attend college. Of those
students an even smaller percentage pursue degrees in science and math. Many secondary
students follow the academic branch, which has a rather weak math and science curriculum
(Guasch et al., 2009). About 19% of high school students enroll in the technical branch, which
focuses more on computer science and electronics. These students will acquire skills they can put
to use in MNCs immediately, however, these students do not tend to pursue higher degrees
(Guasch et al., 2009).
A more elusive obstacle to the educational demands of globalization and MNCs is that of
adequately educating students to succeed in a knowledge-based economy. Costa Rica boasts high
literacy rates, but literacy merely indicates an individual can read and write. It does not speak to
the skills and dispositions necessary for the knowledge economy, which has resulted from the
spread of globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica.
Globalization
Globalization has transformed the global economy into one that is knowledge-based, and
in which innovative ideas and technical expertise hold the key to being competitive (Ashton,
Brown, & Lauder, 2008). This transformation has required a rethinking of education’s purpose,
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content, pedagogy, and assessment in educational systems across the globe (Carnoy, 1999) in
order to meet the new marketplace demands. The influx of MNCs into Costa Rica has brought
these new marketplace demands. This section will: (1) define globalization, (2) identify the
theoretical framework of globalization used in this study, and (3) synthesize key findings.
Globalization Defined
The idea of globalization is not new, but the term “globalization” was virtually unheard
of until the 1990s, when economist Theodore Levitt (1983) is said to have coined the term. Now,
it is on the lips and minds of many, as evidenced by a recent Google term search, which
delivered over 120,000,000 hits (Wesseling, 2009). Despite its relative commonality there is no
precise and consolidated definition that experts from different social science fields agree upon
(Urbsiene, 2011).
For the purposes of this study, Spring’s (2008) definition of globalization will be used.
According to Spring (2008), globalization is a change in economics that affects production,
consumption and investments, which in turn affects larger segments of the world’s population. It
has a direct effect on cultural, geo-political, and social changes, of which schooling is a part
(Spring, 2008). This direct impact is brought about by globalization’s flattening of the world,
resulting in a need for an educational system to prepare students to compete with students around
the globe and to be able to innovate and create, not simply perform pre-designed tasks
(Friedman, 2005).
The change in economics has resulted in a knowledge-based economy characterized by
the use of knowledge, rather than ownership of capital, to generate new wealth and by a shift of
power from owners and managers of capital to knowledge workers (Drucker, 2001). A
knowledge economy relies on the application of technology and the use of ideas and not on
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physical abilities (World Bank, 2003). According to Reich (2005) in a knowledge economy,
income inequalities are due to differences in knowledge and skills, and ultimately the
effectiveness of the educational systems in developing that knowledge and those skills.
Friedman (2005) posits the world has changed and continues to transform at a constant,
fast-moving pace, which in turn demands the educational system be responsive to these changes.
Suarez-Orozco (2005) argues that the way students are educated is culturally defined and should
constantly change to help subsequent generations carry on the culture’s expectations and
economic success. Trilling and Fadel (2009) claim that, in order to be competitive in a global
knowledge based economy, a shift must occur so that individuals are educated with a focus on
developing the application of knowledge tools and technology, nurturing innovation, and
advancing problem solving skills.
Darling-Hammond (2010) explains that knowledge and information is expanding at an
astounding pace, so education can no longer focus on the transmitting and memorizing pieces of
information. Instead, it is more important to be able to use technology to access and evaluate
information (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Also, it is essential that educational programs teach
disciplinary knowledge that focuses on concepts that encourage the ability to innovate and think
critically in order to allow individuals to use this knowledge to adapt and thrive in new situations
and in a changing world (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
Other skills and competencies often identified as needing development in order to prepare
students to be viable competitors in the globalized 21st century include: the ability to work with
diverse groups, leadership, and science and technology expertise (Daggett & Pedinotti, 2005;
Friedman, 2005). Friedman (2005) argues that advances in technology have allowed corporations
to more easily expand into markets throughout the world and tap into human resources across
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national borders. Friedman (2005) uses outsourcing as an example of the need to be prepared to
communicate and work with people all over the world. Daggett and Pedinotti (2005) argue for
the importance of focusing on the sciences and leadership, using China and India as examples of
countries whose educational systems have excelled by focusing on the sciences and leadership,
and now rival countries like the United States who have traditionally been at the forefront of the
global marketplace.
Theoretical Frameworks of Globalization
There are many lenses through which globalization in education may be viewed. The four
most prevalent are: world culture, world system, post-colonialist, and culturalist (Spring, 2008).
World culturalists posit all cultures are converging into one global culture based primarily on the
Western educational system (Ramirez & Boli, 1987). World culturalists believe nations and
states use this global culture as the model for making decisions about their own educational
systems simply because they consider it to be the best.
The world system scholars argue there are two distinct and unequal zones in the world
(Arnove, 1980). World system scholars insist the dominant zone, composed of the United States,
the European Union, and Japan, actively work to instill their beliefs and values on the rest of the
world, whether or not the rest of the world wants to adopt them. Through this lens MNCs, which
typically are native to the dominant zone, impose their values and ideology on the host country,
primarily because they see their way of thinking as superior (Arnove, 1980).
Post-colonialists see globalization as a tool to set economic and political agendas that will
benefit the rich at the expense of the poor (Brown & Lauder, 2006). Through this lens, the MNCs
are seen as exploitative with everything they do being for economic benefit.
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The culturalist perspective draws from anthropology and presumes there is an exchange
between local and foreign educational systems to create a new global culture. Furthermore, the
culturalist perspective conceives that in addition to human capital, other facets of education such
as environmental, religious, and human rights contribute to this new global culture, which
extends beyond the educational system (Anderson-Levitt, 2005).
The theoretical framework of globalization underpinning this study is the world
culturalist perspective. Through this lens, the impact of globalization on the Costa Rican
educational systems and leadership will be examined.
21st Century Skills
Business leaders, politicians, and educators consistently identify 21st century skills as
essential for success in a global knowledge-based economy. Yet, depending on who is
identifying the 21st century skills there are differences in their description. Margaret Hilton and
James Pellegrino (2012) summarized the literature on 21st century skills by categorizing them
into three competencies, further subdivided into eight clusters. The three domains are the
cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Table 2 depicts the eight clusters and how
corresponding 21st century skills are categorized.
Hilton and Pellegrino (2012) offer a comprehensive summary inclusive of several of the
key components of the more popular conceptualizations of 21st century skills, such as the
framework presented by Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009), enGauge 21st Century Skills
(NCREL, 2003), and Tony Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills (2010). For the purposes of this
study, Tony Wagner’s (2010) 21st century skills will be used when exploring how globalization
has impacted schools and educational leadership in Costa Rica.

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Table 2
Cognitive Competencies, Clusters, and 21st Century Skills
Cluster Terms Used in 21st Century Skills
Cognitive
Competencies
Cognitive Processes
and Strategies
Critical thinking, problem solving, analysis,
reasoning/argumentation, interpretation,
decision making, adaptive learning, executive
function
Knowledge
Information literacy (research using evidence
and recognizing bias in sources); information
and communications technology literacy; oral
and written communication; active listening
Creativity Creativity, innovation
Intra-Personal
Competencies
Intellectual Openness None
Work Ethic and
Conscientiousness
None
Positive Core Self
Evaluation
None
Inter-Personal
Competencies
Teamwork and
Collaboration
Communication, collaboration, teamwork,
cooperation, coordination, interpersonal skills,
empathy/perspective taking, trust, service
orientation, conflict resolution, negotiation
Leadership
Leadership, responsibility, assertive
communication, self- presentation, social
influence with others

Tony Wagner (2010) identifies and describes seven 21st century skills. Wagner’s (2010)
work is significant because it points out that even when a country is considered influential in
setting a global agenda, it does not mean that its own educational system is ready to meet the
demands of a globalized labor force. Wagner (2010) points to the United States’ best schools as
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44
examples of institutions that are not keeping up with the times and adequately preparing
individuals to be competitive in a global, knowledge-based economy. Highlighting the failures of
seemingly successful schools is a stark departure from the constant focus on failing schools, and
it is alarming since it highlights that even the American best is not comparable to the best
worldwide. With a literacy rate of 94.8% Costa Rica boasts one of the best educational systems
in Central America (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001), thus, using a framework that analyzes seemingly
successful educational systems and compares them against a global standard seems appropriate
for Costa Rica.
Wagner’s (2010) 21st century skills were selected for conducting this study for several
reasons. The first reason is Wagner’s (2010) 21st century skills close alignment to the Costa
Rican Ministry of Public Education’s goals and outcomes for transforming the Costa Rican
educational system into one that meets the educational demands of the 21st century. A second
reason is the case study school selected for this study has implemented strategies for developing
21st century skills as defined by Tony Wagner (2010). A final reason is the fact that Wagner’s
(2010) survival skills were born from conversations with CEOs of corporations such as Cisco,
Apple, and Unilever about the workforce preparedness of recent graduates. Similarly, multi-
national corporations in Costa Rica, in particular Intel, were the impetus behind the Ministry of
Public Education’s (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007) educational policy intended to meet
the needs of the 21st century.
Table 3 shows Wagner’s (2010) seven 21st century skills and a brief description of each.

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Table 3
Wagner’s 21st Century Skills
Wagner’s 21st Century Skill, or
Survival Skill Description
Critical thinking and problem
solving
Asking good questions in order to solve new problems.
Using the inquiry process.
Collaboration across networks
and leading by influence
Respectfully communicating with culturally diverse
individuals via different media including conference calls
and webcasts.
Agility and adaptability Taking in all sorts of new information, new situations, and
being able to operate in new ambiguous and unpredictable
ways.
Initiative and
entrepreneurialism
Being a self-starter and seeking out new opportunities, ideas
and strategies for improvement.
Effective oral and written
communication
Communicating with a focus, energy, and passion around
one’s points.
Accessing and analyzing
information
Accessing information efficiently, evaluating its accuracy
and validity, and synthesizing the key ideas.
Curiosity and imagination Using analytical skills to develop out of the box solutions.
Being able to think systematically, but with curiosity,
imagination, and empathy.

In 1994 the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education approved educational policy with
the specific objective of transforming the Costa Rican educational system into one that met the
needs of the 21st century (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007). The aims and objectives of
this policy are:
1. Equal access to quality education at all schools regardless of location;
2. Develop essential skills for international markets;
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3. Strengthen core values;
4. Strengthen scientific and technical education;
5. Raise awareness of the need for economic and social development in harmony with
the environment. (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007)
Additionally, the Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007)
identified the following goals and outcomes as the key to achieving the aforementioned aims and
objectives:
1. Developing foreign language programs;
2. Improving the quality of education at all schools;
3. Incorporating technology in education;
4. Improving multi-grade schools in rural areas;
5. Improving secondary schools;
6. Developing critical thinking skills;
7. Improving environmental education.
Tony Wagner’s definition of 21st century skills is the closely aligned to the Ministry of
Public Education’s goals and outcomes. Tony Wagner (2010) advocates for a transformation to
21st century schools for all schools, not just low performing or suburban schools, middle schools
or universities. Wagner (2010) posits our entire educational system needs a transformation to
better prepare students for the 21st century global knowledge-based economy. Similarly, the
Ministry of Public Education’s (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007) second, fourth, and fifth
outcomes are all intended to ensure all students have access to quality education, regardless of
the location or demographics of the school. For both Wagner (2010) and the Ministry of Public
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47
Education (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007) secondary schools are of particular interest
due their curriculum being grossly inadequate for fostering 21st century skills.
One of Wagner’s (2010) 21st century survival skills is collaboration across networks and
leading by influence, which speaks to the need for the ability to work with culturally diverse
individuals as national borders become less and less important. Thus, collaboration across
networks closely aligns to the Ministry of Public Education’s (Ministerio de Educacion Publica,
2007) first desired outcome of improving foreign language instruction.
The Ministry of Public Education’s (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007) third
outcome, incorporating technology in education, closely aligns to Wagner’s (2010) accessing
and analyzing information survival skill of the 21st century. Using technology is essential to
accessing information in the 21st century, especially due to the fact information continues to
grow. The Ministry of Public Education’s (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2007) sixth
outcome of developing critical thinking skills is part of Wagner’s (2010) survival skills.
Finally, the elementary school selected for this case study, participated in a pilot program
called Assessing and Teaching 21st Century Skills, or ATC21S. For this pilot study, the 21st
century skills assessed and taught were divided into four categories: ways of thinking, ways of
working, tools for learning, and skills for living in the world. Table 4 demonstrates how the skills
included in the first three categories exactly parallel all of Tony Wagner’s (2010) 21st century
skills. The skills for living in the world are: citizenship, life and career, and personal and social
responsibility. These skills for living in the world are not included in Wagner’s (2010)
framework for 21st century skills and for the purposes of this study they were not addressed.

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Table 4
Alignment between Tony Wagner’s 21st Century Skills and ATC21S
ATC21S Tony Wagner’s 21st century skills
Ways of thinking
- Creativity, critical thinking, problem-
solving, decision-making and learning,
innovation
- Critical thinking and problem solving
- Agility and adaptability
- Initiative and entrepreneurialism
- Curiosity and Imagination
Ways of working
- Communication and collaboration
- Collaboration across networks and
leading by influence
- Effective oral and written
communication
Tools for working
- Information and communications
technology and information literacy
- Accessing and analyzing information

Educational Leadership
Throughout the 1900s there were various attempts to define leadership and hundreds of
distinct definitions were developed (Rost, 2001). Despite the divergent definitions some
commonalities did arise: (1) leadership is a process, (2) leadership involves influence, (3)
leadership occurs in groups, and (4) leadership involves common goals (Northouse, 2012). Thus,
Northouse (2012) defines leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal.
Northouse (2012) further explains that since leadership is a process, it is distinctly not a
trait or characteristic that resides in the leader, but rather a transactional interaction between a
leader and his or her followers. Because leadership is a two way street where a leader influences
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49
and is influenced by followers, leadership is available to everyone; it is not restricted only to one
formally designated leader in a group (Northouse, 2012).
There are many ways to influence a group. According to French and Raven (1958) there
are five sources of power that can be used to influence: coercive power, reward power, legitimate
power, expert power, and referent power. Coercive power is based on the leader’s ability to
punish with followers complying out of fear. With reward power, leaders use incentives to goad
followers. Legitimate power is derived by the leader’s position or title, with followers complying
because they believe in the legitimacy of the power holder. Expert power comes from having
expertise, knowledge, or information, and referent power is based on the leader’s attraction,
character or charisma. When there is referent power, followers comply because they like or
respect the leader (French & Raven, 1958).
Just as there are many sources of influence, there are many types of groups. For example,
there are small task groups, large organizational groups, or community groups. Regardless of the
specific characteristics of the group, the important factor is that there be a group, since leadership
cannot occur outside of the context of a group (Northouse, 2012).
The final component for leadership is the leader and his or her followers having a
common goal. This common purpose decreases the possibility that leaders will force their
followers to follow them and decreases the possibility of the leader acting in unethical ways
(Northouse, 2012).
Theories of leadership abound. Some conceptualizations of leadership, such as the trait,
skills, or style approach, focus specifically on the leader (Northouse, 2012). The trait approach
focuses on the innate qualities and characteristics of a leader and is often thought of as the “great
man theory” (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). The skills approach focuses on the learned
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skills and abilities of a leader, while the style approach emphasizes the behavior of the leader
(Northouse, 2012).
Another category for concepts of leadership is one in which the follower and the context
are at the core, such as situational approach and contingency theory. The situational approach
focuses on the developmental level of the follower and calls for a leader to be responsive to the
needs of his or her followers. A situational leader must change how closely he or she guides his
or her followers based on the followers’ developmental stage (Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Nelson,
1993). Contingency theory suggests that a leader is only as effective as how well he or she fits
the situation (Northouse, 2012). There are still other concepts of leadership such as the Leader-
Member Exchange, which centers around the interactions between leaders and followers or
newer theories such as authentic leadership or transformational theory, which focus on the
authenticity of the leader (Northouse, 2012) or on the ability of the leader and followers to
motivate and empower each other (Burns, 1978).
Regardless of the how leadership is envisioned, leadership is a precondition for an
effective organization. At a school site, according to Barth (1990), the quality of the educational
program depends on the school principal. While the principal’s direct impact on student learning
may be difficult to discern, the principal is the most important reason teachers grow or are stifled
in the classroom (Barth, 1990).
A principal leader is tasked with balancing time between instruction and management.
Marshall (2008) suggests that the principal’s number one priority should be activities for
bringing all students to high levels of achievement. However, Stronge (1990) suggests that while
the development of high quality learning environments should be fundamental goals of
principals, the managerial function is also necessary for quality schools. The role is not
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51
management versus instructional leadership; instead, the focus should be balancing the two to
create an effective school.
Marzano’s 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader
According to Marzano, McNulty and Waters (2005) regardless of the espoused leadership
framework, there are 21 key principal responsibilities that are correlated with positive student
achievement and that a principal must undertake in order to effect positive student learning
outcomes. These 21 responsibilities include both instructional and management responsibilities
(Marzano, McNulty, & Waters, 2005) and, depending on the context and goals, some may be
more relevant than others. The 21 responsibilities, a brief definition, the average correlation to
student achievement, and the interval of correlations within which one can be 95% sure the true
correlation falls are included in Table 5 (Marzano, McNulty, & Waters, 2005, pp. 42-43).
In addition to identifying the 21 responsibilities, Marzano et al. (2005) recognized first-
order change and second-order change as the underlying factors that connect them. They
described first-order change as incremental, or the next logical step that the organization would
take. Marzano et al. (2005) claim that first-order change is focused on the day-to-day workings
of the school and is aligned to the natural way that people approach problems. Marzano et al.
(2005) recognize that all 21 responsibilities must be attended to in order to exert first-order
change.

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Table 5
Marzano, McNulty, and Waters (2005) 21 Leadership Responsibilities for Leaders
Responsibility The extent to which the principal . . .
Average
correlation
to student
achievement 95% C1
Affirmation Recognizes and celebrates
accomplishments and acknowledges
failures.
.19 .08 to .29
Change Agent Is willing to challenge and actively
challenges the status quo.
.25 .16 to .34
Contingent Reward Recognizes and rewards individual
accomplishments.
.24 .15 to .32
Communication Establishes strong lines of communication
with and among teachers and students.
.23 .12 to .33
Culture Fosters shared beliefs and a sense of
community and cooperation.
.25 .18 to .31
Discipline Protects teachers from issues and
influences that would detract from their
teaching time or focus.
.27 .18 to .35
Flexibility Adapts his or her leadership behavior to
the needs of the current situation and is
comfortable with dissent.
.28 .16 to .39
Focus Establishes clear goals and keeps those
goals in the forefront of the school’s
attention.
.24 .19 to .29
Ideals/Beliefs Communicates and operates from strong
ideals and beliefs about schooling.
.22 .14 to .30
Input Involves teachers in the design and
implementation of important decisions
and policies.
.25 .18 to .32

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Table 5, continued
Responsibility The extent to which the principal . . .
Average
correlation
to student
achievement 95% C1
Intellectual Stimulation Ensures faculty and staff are aware of
the most current theories and practices
and makes the discussion of these a
regular aspect of the school’s culture.
.24 .13 to .34
Involvement in
Curriculum, Instruction,
and Assessment
Is directly involved in the design and
implementation of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment practices.
.20 .14 to .27
Knowledge of
Curriculum, Instruction,
and Assessment
Monitoring/ Evaluation
Is knowledgeable about current
curriculum, instruction and assessment
practices. Monitors the effectiveness of
school practices and their impact on
student learning.
.25 .15 to .34
Optimizer Inspires and leads new and challenging
innovations.
.27 .22 to .32
Order Establishes a set of standard operating
procedures and routines.
.20 .13 to .27
Outreach Is an advocate. .27 .18 to .35
Relationships Demonstrates an awareness of the
personal aspects of teachers and staff.
.18 .09 to .26
Resources Provides teachers with materials and
professional development necessary for
the successful execution of their jobs.
.25 .16 to .33
Situational Awareness Is aware of the details and
undercurrents in the running of the
school and address current and
potential problems.
.33 .11 to .51
Visibility Has quality contact and interactions
with teachers and students.
.20 .11 to .28
Note: 95% Cl stands for the interval of correlations within which one can be 95% sure the true
correlation falls.
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54
Marzano et al. (2005) defined second-order change as deep change. It requires innovation
and is characterized as a stark departure from the past. Second-order change requires leaders to
address seven out of the 21 responsibilities: (a) “Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and
Assessment;” (b) “Optimizer;” (c) Intellectual Stimulation;” (d) “Change Agent;” (e)
“Monitoring/Evaluating;” (f) “Flexibility;” and (g) “Ideals/Beliefs” (p. 70). Making changes to
an educational system in order to respond to industrial competitiveness demands second-order
change since a shift in thinking and a different way of doing things is required (Heifetz, 1994).
Thus, in a school site where there has been a significant shift towards developing 21st century
skills, it is expected that a leader will undertake these seven responsibilities.
The literature reviewed so far addresses leadership approaches and leadership
responsibilities that can be employed while influencing people to achieve a common goal in a
particular situation or context. According to Bolman and Deal (2013), all specific situations can
be categorized into one of four frames, and within these frames a leader uses a particular
leadership approach to navigate through the frame while assuming specific leadership
responsibilities.
Bolman and Deal (2013) based their framework on the theory that all situations exist
within these frames, so all leaders work within their context. Furthermore, Bolman and Deal
(2013) postulate that effective leaders know the frame or combination of frames they are
working in, keep to their leadership approach regardless of the frame, and engage in the different
responsibilities depending on the situation and its frame. When analyzing Marzano’s 21
Leadership Responsibilities and the various leadership styles there are definite connections with
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) frames.
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55
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory
There have been numerous models created to examine leadership and its effectiveness.
One model, created by Bolman and Deal (2013), focuses on the four methods of framing the
environment and challenges that are being faced while making decisions in an organization.
Although the preferred frame of a leader can be identified, this model has determined that the
most effective leader is one who has the ability to use all four frames to make decisions.
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) Four Frame Theory of organizational leadership uses the
concept that leaders will be impacted by their past experiences as they evaluate alternative
actions. Past experiences create a lens through which the most appropriate course of action is
determined. The frame is not a tool for selecting a course of action, but rather it is how the
situation is evaluated. The frames that make up the Four-Frame Theory are the: structural, human
resource, political and symbolic frames (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The structural frame is based upon the popular ways of thinking about organizations. This
frame, focused on Frederick Taylor’s scientific management, is rooted in the belief that
organizations should be designed for maximum efficiency (Bolman & Deal, 2013). This frame’s
origin is in the work of German economist and sociologist Max Weber (Bolman & Deal, 2013)
in which the ideal organization is described as having six major features: job specialization/fixed
division of labor, authority hierarchy, formal selection/technical qualifications, formal rules and
regulations, impersonality, and career orientation. The structural frame focuses on structures
within an organization.
The human resource frame evolved to refute the notion that employees are motivated and
entitled to only a paycheck. The human resource frame focuses on the importance of the social
aspects of organizations. This frame highlights the relationships between the organization and
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56
the people (employees), but it must be understood that the needs of the two are not always
aligned.
The human resource frame views the organization from the perspective of the employees
and their relationship within and to the organization. According to Bolman and Deal (2013), this
frame is built upon four core assumptions: (a) organizations exist to serve human needs rather
than the converse; (b) people and organizations need each other, organizations need ideas,
energy and talent; people need careers, salaries, and opportunities; (c) when the fit between
individual and system is poor, one or both suffer; and (d) a good fit benefits both.
The political frame is used in response to the decision making process when there are
divergent interests and limited resources (Bolman & Deal, 2013). This frame has five basic
assumptions: (a) organizations are coalitions of assorted individual and interest groups; (b)
coalition members have enduring differences in values, beliefs, information, interests, and
perceptions of reality; (c) most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources; (d)
scarce resources and enduring differences put conflict at the center of day-to-day dynamics and
make power the most important asset; and (e) goals and decisions emerge from bargaining and
negotiation among competing stakeholders jockeying for their own interests. Thus, according to
this frame, all organizations are inherently political.
Two important aspects of the political frame are power and conflict that occur during the
decision making process. Power is defined as the capacity to influence the behavior of others.
Bolman and Deal identify nine sources of power that have been discussed in the research of
social scientists: (a) position or authority, (b) control of rewards, (c) coercive power, (d)
information or expertise, (e) reputation, (f) personal, (g) alliance or network, (h) agenda, and (i)
framing. The power that one holds must be understood and used correctly to influence others.
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57
Having the position may give an individual power, but positional power is rarely enough to
accomplish a task (Kotter, 1985).
Within the symbolic frame, the myth, vision and value of organizations provide purpose
and resolve to the members of the organization. The symbolic frame is deeply rooted in the
human experience, with stories acting as the communication method that conveys the symbolic
meaning to members of the organization, building the culture. Myths, heroes, stories, and
ceremonies propel an organization, rather than rules, policies, or managerial authority.
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Framework Approach to leadership will be used in this
study to investigate how the leadership adapts to changes that resulted from globalization and the
presence of MNCs in Costa Rica. According to Kikoski and Kikoski (2004) organizations that
thrive in the 21st century are those that abandon outdated mental models designed for the
industrial age and learn to create new knowledge through inquiry. Thus, it is expected that
successful 21st century leaders exhibit a combination of all four frames.
Summary and Conclusions
The literature reviewed in this chapter has much to offer in supporting and explaining the
context for this study. This literature review demonstrates how the political, economic, and
educational history of Costa Rica set the stage for the arrival of MNCs. Costa Rica’s generally
peaceful and stable government, its focus on attracting FDI in the second half of the 20th
century, and its investment in free, public education were pivotal in making Costa Rica a viable
location for foreign companies and investment in the 1990s.
Globalization and the advent of MNCs in Costa Rica have demanded change in the
country’s educational system and workforce. In response, the Costa Rican educational system
has set out to educate students who are equipped with 21st century skills that will allow them to
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58
be competitive in a knowledge-based economy. To accomplish this, the educational system has
implemented policy to update the Costa Rican curriculum and instruction.
This study explores to what extent policy changes have filtered into the schools and how
they have impacted school leadership and classroom instruction.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research methodology used for this study. In addition to
reviewing the research questions that guided this project, the chapter provides an overview of the
design, as well as in-depth descriptions of the participants, instrumentation and procedures for
collecting and analyzing data. In designing this study Maxwell’s (2012) Interactive Model of
Research Design guided the work. Maxwell’s (2012) model consists of five components: the
purpose of the study or its goals; the conceptual framework; validity; methods, and research
questions. Guided by Maxwell’s (2012) model, every effort was made to keep the research
questions at the center of the research design and use them to inform every decision related to the
methodology selected for this study.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and multinational
corporations have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study identifies the role school leaders have played in
the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determines if these initiatives are producing greater numbers of
knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of meeting
Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
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60
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been affected directly by policy decisions that came
about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Following Maxwell’s (2012) Interactive Model of Research Design, the purpose of the
study and the research questions were developed to be in close alignment, see Table 6.

Table 6
Relationship Between Research Questions and Purpose of Study
Research Question Purpose of Study
1. What results of globalization and the
presence of multinational corporations are
seen in Costa Rica?
To understand what impact globalization and
multinational corporations have had on
educational leadership and the development of
21st century skills in schools and universities
in Costa Rica
2. What results of globalization and the
presence of multinational corporations are
seen in schools and universities in Costa
Rica?
To identify what role school leaders have
played in the development and
implementation of policy changes seen in
major national education initiatives
3. How has educational leadership been
affected directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of
globalization and multinational corporations?
To determine if these initiatives are producing
greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers
in an education system that builds human
capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.

Design Overview
According to Creswell (1998), there are five approaches to qualitative research design:
narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case study. The appropriate
qualitative approach for this research was the case study. Considering Maxwell’s (2012)
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61
stipulation that research questions dictate which methods to select, case study was selected as the
most appropriate approach since the research questions call for the exploration of an issue with
clearly established boundaries and multiple sources of data collection and analysis (Creswell,
1998). The bounded system is the Costa Rican schools or universities affected by policies
resulting from the impact of globalization and multi-national corporations. Thus, the unit of
analysis for this study is a Costa Rican elementary school with a close affiliation to a major
multinational corporation. The multiple sources of data collection included the following; each
instrument will be described in the instrumentation section of this chapter:
1. Surveys
a. Teachers
2. Semi-structured interviews
a. Multinational corporation leaders
b. Political-policy leaders
c. School leaders
3. Observations
a. Teachers
4. Existing documents
The epistemological perspective of the study was interpretive since its purpose is to
describe, understand, and interpret the issue at hand using an inductive approach (Merriam,
2009). As discussed in Chapter 2, educational policies have been created and implemented in
response to globalization and the presence of multinational corporations in Costa Rica. However,
minimal research exists on the extent of the actual manifestations of these policies at the school
site, classroom, and educational leader level. An interpretative qualitative study allows for a
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62
detail exploration of these manifestations and provides in-depth, detailed and meaning-derived
information that can provide policy and decision-makers with nuanced information regarding
program quality and implementation (Patton, 2002).
This study is part of a larger inquiry of the impact of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations on the schools, universities, and educational leadership of Costa Rica.
Twelve doctoral students from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California met as a thematic dissertation group in October 2012 to develop a common problem
statement and research questions. In order to meet the different interests of the twelve doctoral
students, they were subdivided into three groups, each with a specific focus: elementary schools,
secondary schools, and higher education.
Each member of this cohort conducted a case study at either a university, elementary,
middle or high school in Costa Rica. The criteria for selecting and determining the sample are
discussed in the next section. Individually, each case study conducted is insightful, particularly
for the site in which the study took place. Together, these case studies describe more broadly
how policies resulting from globalization and the presence of multinational corporations have
impacted the development of 21st century skills and educational leadership in Costa Rica and
allow for identifying common themes and trends.
Sample and Population
The sample population for this case study was selected using non-probabilistic purposeful
sampling (Patton, 2002). More specifically, the type of purposeful sampling used was snowball
sampling (Merriam, 2009). Non-probabilistic sampling was used, in part, because of the study’s
qualitative nature, but more significantly, because, according to Honigman (as cited in Merriam,
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63
2009), non-probabilistic sampling is used when research questions call for discovering what
occurs and the implications of the occurrences.
Purposeful sampling was used to maximize learning about the impact of globalization
and multinational corporations on Costa Rican schools (Merriam, 2009). Thus, rather than
selecting any Costa Rican school, only schools that have an affiliation with multinational
corporations were selected for this study. Snowballing sampling occurred because the sample
population for this study grew from one initial contact with Andrés Rodriguez-Clare, a Costa
Rican economist at the University of California, Berkeley.
Gaining Access
Contact with Andrés Rodriguez-Clare was first initiated after the research team
discovered much of the literature on the Costa Rican economy cited him as an expert
(Rodríguez-Clare, Sáenz, & Trejos, 2002; Arkolakis, Demidova, Klenow, & Rodríguez-Clare,
2008; Lederman, Rodríguez-Clare, & Xu, 2011). Rodriguez-Clare then put the research team in
direct contact with many of the country’s past and present leaders, including Miguel Angel
Rodriguez, president of Costa Rica from 1998 to 2002. The research team also sent a letter (see
Appendix A) to Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Prime Minister of Education. Prior to meeting Rodriguez-
Clare, Garnier responded in the affirmative to meeting with the research team. Nonetheless,
Garnier was one of the many leaders Rodriguez-Clare offered as a potential participant in the
study and as a potential liaison between the research team and principals at various schools in
Costa Rica.
Exploratory Team
After initial contact via telephone and/or written correspondence with the Costa Rican
leaders, Rodriguez-Clare connected the research team with, an exploratory research team of five
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64
was created with representatives from each of the three thematic group dissertation teams:
elementary, secondary, and higher education. The exploratory team traveled to Costa Rica in
early March 2013 with several goals in mind. One goal was to meet with educational, corporate
and political leaders in order to set up interview dates with them or some of their colleagues in
June 2013 when the entire research team would be in Costa Rica. Another goal was to establish
contact with and gain access to Costa Rican school sites where the research would be conducted.
A third goal of the exploratory team was to meet other political, school site, and corporate
leaders to be included in the research study. The following is a summary of the exploratory
team’s pathway in gaining information and access to the three types of participants who were
interviewed for this study and a brief biography of the leaders who were interviewed.
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers
In the spring of 2013, the exploratory team met with several high-ranking government
officials to discuss the study. These high-ranking officials were able to discuss some of the issues
the Costa Rican educational system faces, such as the quality of teacher training, lack of
resources for particular schools and the considerably high dropout rate at the high school level.
These high-ranking officials also provided insight into the research questions by highlighting the
fact that MNCs decided to invest in Costa Rica due to the strength of the country’s education.
Furthermore, these high-ranking officials helped gain access to the three political leaders
who were interviewed for this study. For example, Minister of Education Garnier provided
access to Damaris Foster, Director of the Department of Technical Specialization at the Ministry
of Public Education. She has worked in technical specializations twelve years in various
capacities including national secretariat advisor. Currently, she oversees all of the national
advisors from all specializations: accounting, informatics, secretariat, agricultural, tourism,
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65
mechanics, drawing, and design. Her department is responsible for creating and developing the
curriculum used technical colleges throughout the country.
The second political leader interviewed was Gabriella Llobet, the General Director for
CINDE. Gabriella Llobet is a lawyer by training, but, currently she is the head of CINDE, a non-
profit organization whose mission is to contribute to the country’s development through the
attraction of Foreign Direct Investment. CINDE was founded in 1983 by prominent business
people, supported by Costa Rica’s government and financed by grants from the US-AID (Lanza,
1995). During its 30 years, CINDE has attracted more than 200 companies to Costa Rica
including: Intel, Procter and Gamble, Baxter, St Jude Medical, and Western Union (Monge-
Naranjo, 2007).
The third political leader who was interviewed was Michelle Coffey, the Program
Director at the CRUSA Foundation. The mission of the CRUSA Foundation is to promote,
encourage and develop cooperation between the peoples and governments of Costa Rica and the
United States, in all fields of human endeavor, through the exchange of knowledge, specialized
assistance and technical support, for the execution and improvement of policies and programs
that lead to sustainable development, and to the mutual and general benefit of both countries.
The CRUSA Foundation places a high premium on education. Consequently, they have
established six goals for their organization related to education:
1. Encourage high school students to apply the principles of logical thinking both in the
analysis and production of oral work and written texts of different types.
2. Promote the reform process in mathematics education by supporting the design of a
final curricular proposal and teacher training to encourage successful practices and
the use of new tools in the classroom.
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3. Increase interest in learning among students at rural high schools by developing their
social and productive skills.
4. Computerize administrative and record-keeping tasks in the country’s public school
system to enhance and speed up the administrative work of the teaching staff and the
monitoring of each student’s academic achievement and personal and family context.
5. Increase the availability of online learning tools for students.
6. Support the improvement of secondary education through the implementation of the
International Baccalaureate (IB) in public schools.
In her capacity as director, Michelle Coffey works directly with the Ministry of Public
Education and schools throughout Costa Rica.
Executives of Multinational Corporations
The exploratory research team also met with corporate leaders with the aims of gaining
access to them for future interviews, tapping into their networks to expand the list of potential
study participants, and gaining additional information and insights about the proposed study. The
exploratory research team met with Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs at
Intel, Costa Rica. Bialas provided an extensive overview of the educational partnerships Intel has
with high schools and universities in the country. In addition, she provided an overview of
initiatives Intel has implemented to promote science and technology in Costa Rica. Bialas also
provided valuable insight to the Costa Rican educational system by making comparisons to
schools in the United States. Mary-Helen Bialias was one of the three MNC leaders interviewed
for this study.
The second MNC leader interviewee was Patricia Escalante who was the Director of Intel
Teach Costa Rica from 1995-2012. Additionally, she has been working at the University of
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67
Costa Rica as a professor and as lead on a variety of programs. Intel Teach Costa Rica is part of
Intel Teach Worldwide, a professional development program for K–12 teachers which helps
them integrate technology effectively into classrooms and promote student-centered approaches,
engaging students in learning and preparing them with critical skills for success in our digital
world.
Maria Eugenia Bujanda was the third MNC leader interviewed for this case study. She is
the Research Coordinator for the Omar Dengo Foundation. The Omar Dengo Foundation (ODF)
of Costa Rica is a private non-profit organization that has been managing and carrying out
national and regional projects in the fields of human development, educational innovation and
new technologies since 1987. The Omar Dengo Foundation has contributed substantially to the
renovation of national education processes through its focus on equal access to digital
technologies. They work closely with MNCs that are looking to establish partnerships with
schools to improve education.
School Administrators
The exploratory research team also met with higher education administrators who shared
their perspectives on the challenges facing the Costa Rican educational system. Dr. Chaves,
Dean of the College of Education at the University of Costa Rica and Dr. Vargas, Director of the
Education Research Institute (INIE) echoed one of those challenges being high dropout rates at
the secondary level. Both of them committed to providing names of school administrators who
are potential participants in this case study. Ultimately, it was Mary Helen Bialis who provided
access to elementary school sites. With her assistance three elementary school principals were
interviewed: Rutyard Miranda, Principal at Escuela España; Ronny Morales Guadamuz,
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Principal at Escuela Fidel Chavez; and, Abraham Bermudez, Principal at Escuela Manuel
Chavez.
Case Study School
Escuela Manuel del Pilar was selected for this case study. Escuela Manuel del Pilar is a
public urban elementary school located in La Asunción de Belen in Heredia, Costa Rica. Escuela
Manuel del Pilar is about eight miles from San Jose, Costa Rica’s capital, and less than three
miles from the Intel Costa Rica Corporation. With 25 teachers and 363 students in Cycles I and
II, the equivalent of the American first to sixth grade, Escuela Manuel del Pilar is the smallest
elementary in the Heredia region. Of the total elementary population, 118 students receive
special education services. Additionally, there are 86 pre-school students.
La Asuncion de Belen, where Escuela Manuel del Pilar is located, has a population of
4,383 and, according to el Ministerio de Planificacion Nacional y Politica Economica (2008), it
has the highest index for social development out of 469 districts. The economy, social
participation, health, and education all factor into a district’s social development index, and some
of the variables taken into consideration in each of these domains are:
• Economy: Number of homes with Internet access, residential use of electricity.
• Social Participation: Voting participation.
• Health: Availability of clean water, birthrates amongst single teen mothers, mortality
rate for children under 5 years old, and infant low birth weight.
• Education: Special education programs, schools with classrooms that are not multi-
grade, grade level retention, and educational infrastructure.
Escuela Manuel del Pilar was selected for this study due to its ongoing partnership with
Intel. Some examples of how Intel has supported Escuela Manuel del Pilar include: donating
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69
Spanish, math, science and social studies textbooks to each student; providing laptops, software,
and training for the school; and running a summer computer camp. Escuela Manuel del Pilar’s
past participation in the Evaluation of 21st Century Skills Pilot Project was another reason for its
selection since their participation indicates the school has focused on 21st century skills at some
level. Intel and other MNCs funded this pilot project, and the 21st century skills it attempted to
assess are closely aligned to Wagner’s 21st century skills (2010).
Instrumentation
The study consisted of a mixed-methodology approach to research, so the instruments
used were intended to gather both qualitative and quantitative data. The study gathered both
types of data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research questions (Creswell,
2009) by allowing the data to be analyzed on various levels. The quantitative component
consisted of a five-point Likert scale survey given to each teacher and of an analysis of statistical
data gathered from pre-existing documents. The qualitative component consisted primarily of
semi-structured interviews and observations. There were also some quantifiable questions and
quantifiable observable elements included in the interview and observation protocols.
Four distinct data collection methods were used in this study in order to generate a thick
description of the case and allow for triangulation in order to increase the validity of the research
study (Merriam, 2009). Data was collected through surveys, interviews, analysis of documents
and observation. Prior to administering any of the instruments, approval was secured from the
University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (USC IRB) and all participants
were required to sign a consent letter (Appendix B).
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Surveys
The thematic dissertation group created the self-administered teacher survey (Appendix
C) used in this study. The survey has 14 items and responses are on an ordinal scale (Fink, 2013)
of 4 to 1, with 4 being strongly agree, 3 being agree, 2 being disagree, and 1 being strongly
disagree. Additionally, the respondent may select 0 for “Do not know.”
In developing the survey items, the following characteristics were taken into
consideration in order to develop clear and valid items: jargon was avoided, standard grammar
and syntax was used, items were kept concrete and close to the participants experience, and
translation was done by individuals fluent in the target language (Fink, 2013).
The teacher survey gathered data for two of the three research questions. Items 1-9
addressed the second research question, “What results of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica?” Items 10-14
address the third research question, “How has educational leadership been impacted directly by
policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational
corporations?”
An initial pilot study of the survey was conducted. In a pilot study the goal is to simulate
the actual circumstances in which the survey will be administered (Fink, 2013). Thus, the survey,
along with the consent form, was mailed to pilot study participants. However, access issues did
not permit for Costa Rican teachers at schools with affiliation to multinational corporations and
that focus on developing 21st century skills to participate in the pilot study. Instead, Spanish-
speaking teachers in American schools that focus on developing 21st century skills were
selected.
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For this pilot study, the survey was given to seven Spanish-speaking teachers; two were
from Spain and had learned English primarily in school. The remaining five grew up in the
United States, learned Spanish primarily at home, and had learned English once they entered
elementary school. All of them entered an American public elementary school in kindergarten
and were enrolled in English speaking classrooms. Based on the responses and teacher feedback
the survey items seemed to be clear and easily understood. The pilot study was conducted as part
of an assignment for another class the researcher was enrolled in while the survey protocol was
developed.
Interviews
Interviews were instrumental for this case study since they were the only way to uncover
participant feelings, interpretations, beliefs, and perceptions (Merriam, 2009). Four interview
protocols were developed for this case study. One of them is intended for a focus group
interview with school site leaders (Appendix D). The other three interview protocols are intended
for individual interviews with different types of participants: government and policy leaders
(Appendix E), corporate leaders (Appendix F), and school leaders (Appendix G).
Despite the differences in the protocols, there are many commonalities amongst them. All
four protocols consist of four distinct domains: personal background, globalization, 21st century
learning, and leadership traits. Additionally, each interview protocol ends by asking the
participants if they have any documents they would be willing to share that address any of the
four domains about which they were interviewed.
The interview protocols developed for this study are semi-structured; they are a mix of
more and less structured interview questions (Merriam, 2009). For example, the first two
questions are highly structured since they are intended to obtain demographic data: position at
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72
their respective organization and number of years in that position. The other questions are
experience and behavior questions, and opinion and value questions (Merriam, 2009). These
questions are more open-ended and allow for more variability in responses. All questions will be
asked of all respondents, and it is intended they be asked in the order in which they are listed. It
is estimated the interview protocol will be completed in approximately sixty minutes.
According to Demarris (as cited in Merriam, 2009), in constructing the items for any
interview protocol the information needed to answer the research questions related to the study
should be the driving force. Thus, when developing the questions for the interview protocols they
were aligned to the research questions in the following manner: items 1-6 in the Globalization
Domain align to research question 1; items 1-5 in the 21st Century Learning Domain align to
research question 2; and items 1-6 in the Leadership traits domain align to research question 3.
When writing the individual items, consideration was given to the features of good
questions according to Fink (2013). There was an attempt to not write leading questions and to
keep them neutral, devoid of jargon, and brief.
Documents
This case study included the collection and analysis of three of the four different types of
documents: public records, popular culture documents and visual documents (Merriam, 2009).
Specific examples of these documents included mission statements, PowerPoint presentations,
official websites, government statistical reports, organization calendars, and textbooks. Due to
the nature of this study, the fourth type of documents identified by Merriam (2009), personal
documents, did not provide relevant information so they were not collected. Documents were
used to support evaluation of how closely aligned what the site actually does and what it says it
does (Merriam, 2009).
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Observations
Observation data was used to validate the other data. Further, it provided certain data that
cannot be collected through documents or interviews, such as interactions between participants,
the physical setting, and nonverbal communications (Merriam, 2009). For the observation
portion of this case study, the thematic dissertation team developed a classroom observation
protocol (Appendix H) focused on answering research question 2, “What results of globalization
and the presence of multinational corporations are seen in schools and universities in Costa
Rica?” In order to answer this question it was essential to gather evidence of 21st century skills
in the classroom.
Tony Wagner’s (2010) definition of 21st century skills was used, therefore, in designing
the observation protocol the main purpose was to capture evidence of the following skills:
critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration, agility and adaptability, initiative and
entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination. Additionally, in constructing the observation
protocol, attention was given to incorporating Merriam’s (2009) six observation elements:
physical setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversation, subtle factors, and
observer behavior.
Data Collection
To summarize, data was collected from surveys, interviews, observations, and existing
documents. The data collection was completed between April and July of 2013. The following is
a data collection triangulation matrix (Table 7), which depicts how the research questions are
connected to the data collection instruments, and how the data collection instruments triangulate
amongst themselves.
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Table 7
Data Collection Triangulation Matrix
Research
Questions
Teacher
Survey
School Leader
Focus Group
Interview
Government
and Policy
Leader
Interview
Corporate
Leader
Interview
School Leader
Interview
Classroom
Observation
Existing
Documents
(collected for
all research
questions)
May-June
2013
June-July
2013
June-July
2013
June-July
2013
June-July
2013 June 2013 April-July 2013
1. What results of
globalization and
the presence of
multinational
corporations are
seen in Costa
Rica?
n/a Section II.
Globalization
Items 1-6
Section II.
Globalization
Items 1-6
Section II.
Globalization
Items 1-6
Section II.
Globalization
Items 1-6
n/a Website
Newsletters
Internal memos
Brochures
Calendars
Test results
Textbooks
Mission
statements
2. What results of
globalization and
the presence of
multinational
corporations are
seen in schools
and universities in
Costa Rica?
Items 1-9 Section III.
21st Century
Learning
Items 1-5
Section III.
21st Century
Learning
Items 1-5
Section III.
21st Century
Learning
Items 1-5
Section III.
21st Century
Learning
Items 1-5
Items 1-10
3. How has
educational
leadership been
impacted directly
by policy decisions
that came as a
result of the
influence of
globalization and
multinational
corporations?
Items 10-
14
Section IV.
Leadership
Traits
Items 1-6
Section IV.
Leadership
Traits
Items 1-6
Section IV.
Leadership
Traits
Items 1-6
Section IV.
Leadership
Traits
Items 1-6
n/a

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According to Merriam (2009), the researcher is the primary instrument for collecting and
analyzing data in a qualitative research study. With each participant the researcher must
communicate the responses to the common fieldwork questions, which Bogdan and Biklen
(2003) have identified: what is actually being done, how disruptive will the researcher be when
conducting observations, what will be done with the findings, why were the participants selected,
and how will the research benefit the participants. As Bogdan and Biklen (2003) recommend, I
strived to be as candid and honest as possible with all participants. Additionally, when
communicating with participants before and during the interviews I worked towards building
rapport. During observations I tried to be as unobtrusive as possible, and I assumed the observer
as participant stance (Merriam, 2009).
Data Analysis
Data analysis is best accomplished when following a comprehensive process that ensures
it is done as effectively and efficiently as possible. In analyzing the data collected for this
research study, Cresswell’s (2009) six-step approach for data analysis in qualitative research was
utilized. The Cresswell’s six steps (2009) are:
1. Organizing and preparing data for analysis;
2. Reading through all the data;
3. Coding the data;
4. Generating a description and themes of the setting or people;
5. Representing Descriptions and Themes in the Qualitative Narrative;
6. Interpreting the data.
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Step One: Organizing Data for Analysis
After the data was collected, it was prepared for analysis. Preparation for analysis
included: transcribing interviews, scanning materials, and typing field notes.
Step Two: Reading Through the Data
In the second step of Cresswell’s (2009) process, synthesis of the data begins to occur.
Individual pieces of information, gathered from multiple data sources, were synthesized into
general ideas, thoughts, or impressions. At this stage these general statements were still rather
informal and were captured as marginalia in the field notes.
Step Three: Coding the Data
Coding data entails chunking isolated pieces of information into broader categories and
labeling those categories. For this study, the coding process began by attempting to identify some
of the topics expected to be present based on the literature review. For example, 21st century
skills as defined by Wagner (2010) and leadership approaches as described by Bolman and Deal
(2003). Then, coding focused on categories that were not anticipated at the beginning of the
study. Having a framework in mind when engaging in the coding process was useful, especially
when there are multiple researchers (Cresswell, 2009), as in the case of this study, which was
conducted by a thematic dissertation team of twelve researchers. However, by allowing for
unexpected codes, it was possible to stay true to the inductive nature of qualitative studies, where
the data is allowed to speak for itself and create its own conclusions (Merriam, 2009).
Step Four: Generating a Description and Themes for the Setting or People
In Cresswell’s (2009) fourth step, coding is used to develop a detailed description of the
setting and events. Additionally, coding was used to identify a relatively small number of
categories and even fewer themes. These themes eventually morphed into the major findings of
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this qualitative study since they were the big ideas that surfaced repeatedly in the data and
throughout the various data sources.
Step Five: Representing Descriptions and Themes in the Qualitative Narrative
In step five, pieces of data and labels for groups of data pieces transformed into a
narrative aimed at telling a comprehensive story about the people and setting under study. This
narrative is intended to paint a rich picture for the reader and convey deep understanding of the
people and setting (Cresswell, 2009).
Step Six: Interpreting Data
In the final step of Cresswell’s (2009) data analysis process, data is interpreted in order to
give it meaning. In essence, this is the “lessons learned” or the “so why does all this matter” part
of the study.
Ethical Considerations
This research study was conducted by gaining information from people and therefore the
research was done in an ethical manner (Merriam, 2009). Two research areas readily identified
as having the potential to create an ethical dilemma are the collection of data and the
dissemination of findings (Merriam, 2009).
As a result, the researchers were trained and certified by the Collaborative IRB Training
Initiative (CITI). Through this certification, the researchers learned about the responsibility to
protect human subjects and agreed to do so when conducting research. Furthermore, the
researchers applied for and received approval to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the
interview protocols developed for this study.
Privacy and protection were taken into consideration for all participants in this study. The
researchers took all possible precautions to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of all
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participants. For example, when reporting findings and describing the population that took part
in the study, only the participants’ titles and pseudonyms were used. All collected information is
stored in locked computers and/or cabinets.
Summary and Conclusion
Conducting a comprehensive case study provides an understanding of the elements
involved in studying a school site. The study consisted of a mixed-methodology approach to
research using four different instruments intended to capture both qualitative and quantifiable
data: surveys, semi-structured interviews, pre-existing documents, and observations.
The qualitative components of the interviews and observations were used to provide
depth and context to the data collected from the survey and statistical documents. Having
multiple and varied data sources allowed for triangulation in order to confirm, cross-validate, and
corroborate the findings (Creswell, 2009), which are presented in the following chapter.

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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
The main purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of this study. This chapter is
divided into three main sections: (1) a restatement of the study’s purpose and research questions;
(2) an overview of the methodology and participants; and (3) the presentation of the findings
summarized by each of the research questions. The theoretical frameworks used to analyze this
study are: Spring’s (2008) theory of globalization, Wagner’s (2010) 21st century skills, and
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Framework Approach are the theoretical frameworks used to
analyze the data.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact globalization and multinational
corporations have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in
Costa Rican schools and universities. The study identified what role school leaders have played
in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determined if these initiatives in the educational system are
producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers, building human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
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3. How has educational leadership been affected directly by policy decisions that came
about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Methodology Overview
A case study approach was selected as the most appropriate given the study’s research
questions which call for the exploration of an issue with clearly established boundaries and
multiple sources of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 1998). The bounded system is the
Costa Rican schools affected by policies resulting from the impact of globalization and multi-
national corporations. Thus, the unit of analysis for this case study was a Costa Rican elementary
school with a close affiliation to a major multinational corporation.
This case study was part of a larger inquiry of the impact of globalization and the
presence of multinational corporations on the schools and educational leadership of Costa Rica.
Twelve doctoral students from the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of
Education collaborated in gathering and analyzing data at all levels of the Costa Rican
educational system. The twelve doctoral students were subdivided into three groups, each with a
specific focus: elementary schools, secondary schools, and higher education.
Each member of this cohort conducted a case study at either a university, elementary,
middle or high school in Costa Rica. Individually, each case study conducted is insightful,
particularly for the site in which the study took place. Together, these case studies describe more
broadly how policies resulting from globalization and the presence of multinational corporations
have impacted the development of 21st century skills and educational leadership in Costa Rica
and allow for identifying common themes and trends amongst the various levels of education.
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Participant Overview
Due to the study’s qualitative nature and in order to maximize learning about the impact
of globalization and multinational corporations on Costa Rican schools, the sample population
for this case study was selected using non-probabilistic purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002). The
research instruments used to gather data for this study were surveys, interviews, observations and
document reviews.
Interviewees were leaders in one of three sectors: political, educational, and multinational
corporations. Each interviewee was directly or indirectly linked with setting, implementing, or
supporting educational policy. Furthermore, the school level educational leaders were all
elementary schools affiliated with at least one multinational corporation, Intel, and all
multinational corporation leaders either worked for or with Intel. In total nine leaders were
interviewed: three political leaders, three elementary educational leaders, and three multinational
corporation leaders. Table 8 lists the nine leaders who were interviewed, the type of leader they
are, and their respective organizations.
Escuela Manuel del Pilar was selected as the case study for this research project due to its
ongoing partnership with Intel. Some examples of how Intel has supported Escuela Manuel del
Pilar include: donating Spanish, math, science and social studies textbooks to each student;
providing laptops, software, and teacher training for the school; and running a summer computer
camp. Escuela Manuel del Pilar’s past participation in the Evaluation of 21st Century Skills Pilot
Project was another reason for its selection since their participation indicates the school has
focused on 21st century skills at some level. Intel and other MNCs funded this pilot project, and
the 21st century skills it assessed are closely aligned to Wagner’s 21st century skills (2010). The
21st Century Skills Pilot Project identifies the following four broad categories:
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Table 8
Leader Interviewees
Type of leader Name and Title Organization
Elementary School
Educational Leader
Abraham Bermudez, Principal Manuel del Pilar
Elementary School
Educational Leader
Rutyard Miranda, Principal Escuela España
Elementary School
Educational Leader
Ronny Morales Guadamuz,
Principal
Escuela Fidel Chavez
Political Leader Michelle Coffey, Program Director CRUSA
Political Leader Gabriella Llobet, General Director CINDE
Political Leader Damaris Foster, Director Department of Technical
Specialization, Ministry of
Public Education
Multi-national
Corporation Leader
Patricia Escalante Former Director, Intel Teach
Costa Rica
Multinational
Corporation Leader
Maria Eugenia Bujanda, Research
Coordinator
Omar Dengo Foundation
Multinational
Corporation Leader
Mary Helen-Bialis, Academic
Relations and Education Program
Manager
Intel

• Ways of thinking: Creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making and
learning.
• Ways of working: Communication and collaboration.
• Tools for working: Information and communications technology and information
literacy.
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• Skills for living in the world: Citizenship, life and career, and personal and social
responsibility.
Survey and observation participants were selected from three elementary schools that
have partnerships with Intel: Escuela Manuel del Pilar, Escuela Espana, and Escuela Fidel
Chavez. There were a total of 60 survey participants and 25 of them were teachers from Escuela
Manuel del Pilar. Thirty-two classroom observations were conducted with 10 of them at Escuela
Manuel del Pilar.
Research Findings
Results Research Question 1: What Results of Globalization and the Presence of
Multinational Corporations are Seen in Costa Rica?
According to Spring (2008), globalization is a change in economics that affects
production, consumption and investments, which in turn affects larger segments of the world’s
population. Globalization has a direct effect on cultural, geo-political, and social changes. Thus,
the purpose for asking this question was to investigate the ways in which globalization has
affected Costa Ricans on a broad scale.
Theme 1: There has been an increase in job opportunities for English speakers with
technical skills. Typically, an immediate and direct effect of foreign direct investment and the
arrival of multinational corporations is job creation (Borensztein, de Gregorio, & Lee, 1998), and
Costa Rica is no exception (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). In analyzing the
interview data from political, educational and MNC leaders, a common theme was that as a
result of the presence of globalization and MNCs there are more job opportunities for certain
sectors of the Costa Rican population. However, speaking English and having technical skills are
vital to accessing these better paying jobs and promoting into higher posts.
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According to Llobet (personal communication, June 24, 2013), in the last 30 years, MNC
exports of goods and services increased 13 times and currently account for 40% of the gross
domestic product and for most of the newly created jobs. In 2012, Costa Rica exported more than
4,500 different products to 147 different countries, and 40% of all industrial exports were
considered high-tech (Llobet, 2013). The top exported products were electronics components for
microprocessors (19.89%) and precision and medical equipment (10.20%), compared to 1982
when coffee (27.22%) and bananas (26.1) were the top exports. Furthermore, according to
PROCOMER (Calderon, 2012), in 2011 53.3% of all exports were knowledge intensive. Mary
Helen-Bialis, Academic Relations and Education Program Manger, reaffirmed Costa Rica’s shift
to high tech exports or as she phrased it, Costa Rica has gone from “producing bananas chips to
computer chips” (personal communication, June 25, 2013). Furthermore, she shared that the
Costa Rican government had a huge interest in bringing in high-level workforce opportunities
and that Intel has “definitely brought in higher paid workforce opportunities at the technician
level and the operation level as well as the engineering level” (personal communication, June 25,
2013). This shift to knowledge intensive exports has presented unforeseen opportunities but also
new challenges to Costa Ricans.
As Damaris Fosters, Director of Department of Technical Specialization for the Ministry
of Public Education pointed out:
I had to study several years in college to reach the post and salary I have, yet nowadays
there are some youngsters who sometimes earn a thousand, two thousand, three thousand
dollars without a college degree, only because they master a technological ability and
because they speak two languages [English and Spanish]. So, being able to perform a
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technological ability and speak both languages is helping the socioeconomic development
of the country. (personal communication, June 28, 2013)
One of the challenges is keeping up with the labor force demands of MNCs, especially as
it pertains to English and technical specialization. As Michelle Coffey, Director at the CRUSA
Foundation, stated:
There is a lack of coordination, institutional coordination, strategic planning, medium to
long term planning. Now we are in need of 6,000 technical workers that we don’t have.
How are we going to produce that in a year, two years, 6 months? We can’t! And the
English level isn’t adequate, it is insufficient. (Personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Patricia Escalante, former Intel Director, agreed that MNCs have impacted Costa Rica by
increasing job opportunities and by increasing the importance of multilingualism and STEM
(Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects (personal communication, June
26, 2013).
At the school site level, Abraham Bermudez, Principal at Escuela Manuel del Pilar
echoed that:
They [MNCs] have generated more jobs, employed more people so these people have
money to put back in the economy. MNCs have also obliged us to learn other languages,
such as English. Right now I am at a disadvantage because I don’t speak English. I
understand it but I don’t speak it, and right now all corporations demand that their
workers speak English. I’m established and have a career, but knowing English is
something that young people in Costa Rica have to know. In fact, they know one
language, say English, that’s good, but really it’s better if they know 2 or 3 languages.
For example, my children have to learn English. So, they come to my school here where
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they learn English, but they also get private lessons. When they get out into the
workplace, the first question they will have to answer is do you speak English, the next
will be do you have computer skills, and if they don’t know either or one and not the
other, they are at a disadvantage. (Personal communication, June 25, 2013)
In sum, when asked what impact globalization and MNCs have had in Costa Rica, all
nine interviewees responded by saying greater employment opportunities. Additionally, 8 out of
9 mentioned the need for high technical skills and 6 out of the 9 mentioned the need to speak
English in order to take advantage of the growing employment opportunities in MNCs (CINDE,
2013).
Theme 2: Collaboration in a culturally diverse work environment. Two outcomes of
globalization are a shift to a knowledge based economy and a growing interconnectedness
between distant communities (Friedman, 2005). Consequently, working collaboratively in a
culturally diverse environment is an expected outcome of globalization. Thus, it was not
surprising when this surfaced as the second theme in the collected data for this study.
According to Friedman (2005) during the last few decades, technological advances have
compounded the effects of globalization by being an instrument in the exponential growth of
knowledge and by connecting individuals and groups of people in different parts of the world in
an unprecedented manner. These changes manifest themselves in various sectors of a society,
including the workplace.
In the new jobs created in Costa Rica as a result of the presence of globalization and
MNCs there is a strong emphasis on teamwork in a culturally diverse environment. This
emphasis is due primarily to two factors: (1) the growing complexity of the tasks companies
founded on a knowledge based economy are engaging in; and (2) the growing trend to have team
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members from various countries either housed in the same building or communicating remotely
(Wagner, 2010).
With regard to the impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rica, Mary Helen Bialis
shared that one of the direct impacts is focusing on K-12 education and how to support the
learning of 21st century skills. In particular she described Wagner’s (2010) skill of collaboration
across networks and leading by influence. She noted that:
Everything is done in teams around the world. Now, a microchip takes 200 engineers to
design and some are those engineers from Costa Rica, some are in China, some are in
Ireland, some are in Israel, some are in the United States, and they’re all talking together
right now developing this. It’s just a global process of creation and I think that that has
mostly influenced what we are looking for and what we need to teach to make our kids
successful. (Personal communication, June 26, 2013)
In the aforementioned example, she highlighted the need to be able to communicate and
work with culturally diverse individuals via different media. Furthermore, she mentioned as part
of collaboration the need to adjust to different cultural expectations within an organization even
when that organization’s culture goes against the culture of the country in which it is located.
She stated,
I think there are times and challenging parts where we are working on a manufacturing
model and you want to have something totally high quality, using the same process used
somewhere else. There are certain cultural values such as quality, such as constructive
confrontation, kind of things that are not natural within the Costa Rican culture, and they
have had to learn those processes. (Personal communication, June 27, 2013)
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Moreover, according to political leader, Damaris Foster, Costa Rica is more multicultural
and culturally accepting due to globalization and MNCs that demand for collaboration across
diverse groups of people:
They [MNCs] have no discrimination whatsoever. This is because to them an employee
means money and therefore it does not matter what race you are, what color you are; they
just need that employee. So, it has impacted and it has made Costa Rica more
multicultural because now in the transnational companies where you go, you see the
variation of all different cultures and they are working together. (Personal
communication, June 28, 2013)
At the school site level Principal Abraham echoed the importance of collaboration:
Another need that has arisen due to MNCs is the development of students who are critical
thinkers, who work in teams, who are analytical, and who are thinkers. In this
competitive world, students who don’t think, who don’t work in teams, who aren’t
analytical, and who are not critical thinkers, will not progress. (Personal communication,
June 25, 2013)
Theme 3: Holding on to Costa Rican culture. There are several lenses through which
globalization can be viewed and each one tints the impact of globalization in different hues. The
four most prevalent perspectives are: world culture, world system, post-colonialist, and
culturalist (Spring, 2008).
The different perspectives acknowledge that cultural changes result from globalization,
but each one interprets the changes with different degrees of positivity. The third theme that
surfaced from the data gathered for this study seems to converge on the world culture view,
which holds a relatively positive view of globalization (Spring, 2008). Nonetheless, the data
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from the interviews reveals there is a lament for the dilution of the national culture due to
globalization (Bird & Stevens, 2003).
The world culture view posits all cultures are converging into one global culture based
primarily on the Western ideal (Ramirez & Boli, 1987). World culture theorists believe nations
and states use this global culture as the model for making decisions about their own political,
social, and educational systems simply because they consider it to be the best and not because
the more dominant culture imposes its perspectives.
Maria Eugenia Bujanda, Research Coordinator at the Omar Dengo Foundation stated that
due to globalization and MNCs Costa Ricans have changed in many aspects:
We have changed and in every aspect. You can see that in the way we eat in Costa Rica,
maybe it’s because we’re so near to the United States. In many aspects Costa Ricans have
joined the cultural global tendencies, even though, I say that we think the Costa Ricans
tend to resist global tendencies. You can hear Costa Ricans say that we need to go back to
our roots because they see themselves as true Costa Ricans and they have become
disconnected to the old culture.
In a personal communication (June 26, 2013), Mary Helen Bialis also shared that Ticos
are Ticos and they strive to maintain their cultural richness, and a big part of this is maintaining
the environment. “Tico” is the self-appointed slang term Costa Ricans chose for themselves
(“Tico,” 2013). A “Tico” is your quintessential Costa Rican, encompassing the true Costa Rican
culture (“Tico,” 2013). In a personal communication (June 24, 2013) Political leader Gabriella
Llobet, General director of CINDE, also stressed taking care of the environment as being an
important part of the Costa Rican culture. When asked how globalization and MNCs impacted
the cultural factors in Costa Rica, Gabriella Llobet responded that investments that threaten the
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environment are not accepted by Ticos. Gabriella Llobet gave as an example a company that
obtained the necessary permits to explore gold mining in a specific north area of Costa Rica. Yet,
in the eight years that it has held the permits, nothing has been accomplished due to public
opposition to exploiting the environment. Gabriela Llobet shares, “Due, obviously, to our very
strong environmental heart, those types of investments also are really not well appreciated in
Costa Rica. That’s sort of a fact” (personal communication, June 24, 2013).
Principal Bermudez also shared this connection to the environment, though he lamented
the fact that the younger generation preferred to spend time at the mall or dancing rather than
spending time as a family in the country, “cooking Costa Rican food, sitting by the river, going
hiking, observing nature, and spending time with the family” (personal communication, June 25,
2013). He also added that MNCs and globalization impacted cultural factors in several ways:
Food, fashion, customs. Lamentably many of our customs are only now seen in the rural
areas. In the urban areas you don’t see our Costa Rican customs. You see customs that
are from North America or Europe. The people copy and imitate Western ways in how
they dress, what they eat, and what they do. (Personal communication, June 25, 2013)
He continued by asserting “Culturally, these attitudes devalue the values of a country.
They lose who they are and any country in which its citizens lose themselves and the essence of
who they are is not a good place” (personal communication, June 24, 2013).
Results for Research Question 2: What Results of Globalization and the Presence of
Multinational Corporations are Seen in Schools and Universities in Costa Rica?
Globalization and MNCs have had an indirect impact on the Costa Rican educational
system by creating demand for a workforce with a specific skill set, typically referred to as 21st
century skills. According to the literature, these required skills include: critical thinking and
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problem solving; collaboration across networks and leading by influence; agility and
adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism; effective oral and written communication;
accessing and analyzing information; and curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2010).
The data for research question 1 affirmed that the jobs created as a result of the presence
of globalization and MNCs demand specific skills: speaking English, technical skills, and the
ability to collaborate with diverse individuals. Speaking English aligns with Wagner’s (2010)
skill of having effective oral and written communication, though, in the case of Costa Rica the
emphasis is on oral English skills. The ability to collaborate with diverse individuals is directly
aligned to the skill of collaboration across networks and leading by influence. Having technical
skills is not explicitly encompassed by Wagner’s (2010) list of 21st century skills, but one
component of having technical skills was identified as being able to use technology. This
component is directly aligned to Wagner’s (2010) accessing and analyzing information
characterized by the ability to use technology to access information and having the ability to
evaluate the validity and reliability of the information.
As discussed earlier, the data for research question 1 indicates that there is a growing
demand for employees with 21st century skills. Similarly, the data for research question 2 shows
that in education there is a shift in focus towards the development of 21st century skills. Of the
60 elementary school teachers surveyed, 54 (90%) agreed or strongly agreed that the focus of
education at their school has changed to incorporate 21st century learning. Of the surveyed
teachers from Escuela Manuel del Pilar 22 of 25 (88%) agreed or strongly agreed. Table 9
compares the responses of the teachers at Manuel del Pilar and all teachers who were surveyed.
Additionally, 47 out of 60 (78%) elementary school teachers surveyed agreed or strongly
agreed that there has been a change in teacher training to promote 21st century skills. At Escuela
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Manuel del Pilar 22 out of 25 (88%) survey respondents agreed or strongly agreed. Table 10
illustrates the number and percentages of respondents who agree or strongly agree that teacher
training now addresses 21st century skills.

Table 9
Survey Question: The Focus of Education Has Changed to Incorporate 21st Century Skills
All Elementary School Survey
Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 19 (32%) 15 (60%)
3 — Agree 35 (58%) 7 (28%)
2 — Disagree 6 (10%) 3 (12%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 0 (%) 0 (%)
0 — Don’t Know 0 (%) 0 (0%)

Table 10
Survey Question: Teacher Training Has Changed to Promote 21st Century Skills
All Elementary School Survey
Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 17 (28%) 7 (28%)
3 — Agree 30 (50%) 15 (60%)
2 — Disagree 7 (12%) 2 (8%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 5 (8%) 1 (4%)
0 — Don’t Know 1 (2%) 0 (0%)

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Furthermore, when asked if the curriculum reflects 21st century skills such as critical
thinking, communication, and collaboration 45 of the 60 (75%) elementary school respondents
agreed or strongly agreed that it does. Meanwhile at Escuela Manuel del Pilar 16 of 25 (64%)
agreed or strongly agreed. Table 11 compares the data from all respondents and respondents
from Escuela Manuel del Pilar and shows that in both groups the majority agreed the curriculum
reflects 21st century skills.

Table 11
Survey Question: Curriculum Reflects 21st Century Skills Such As Critical Thinking,
Collaboration, and Communication
All Elementary School
Survey Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 25 (42%) 4 (16%)
3 — Agree 20 (33%) 12 (48%)
2 — Disagree 14 (23%) 8 (32%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 0 (%) 0 (0%)
0 — Don’t Know 1 (2%) 1 (4%)

Generally speaking the majority of surveyed teachers agreed that the focus of education,
teacher training, and curriculum included developing 21st century skills. Similarly, all of the
school site, political, and MNC leaders who were interviewed agreed that globalization and the
presence of MNCs had brought about a focus on 21st century skills in schools across Costa Rica.
There were some differences in the 21st centuries skills identified as most impacted by
globalization and the presence of MNCs, such as Intel, however there were some commonalities
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between the leaders’ responses: speaking English, being able to use technology to engage in
critical thinking, and working collaboratively. These three skills are closely aligned to the skills
identified in research question 1 as essential to taking advantage of the new jobs created by
MNCs.
Theme 1: Speaking English. The world culture view of globalization asserts that
cultures are converging into one global culture based primarily on Western ideals (Ramirez &
Boli, 1987). From a geographical perspective, Costa Rica and other Latin American countries are
part of the Western world, but it is only Western Europe and the United States that make up this
Western world ideal. Costa Rica and other Latin American countries are part of those who
according to the world culture view aspire to be more like Western Europe and the United States.
World culture theorists believe nations and states look to Western ideals because they
believe the Western model is the best (Spring, 2008). Hence, in the area of education, for
example, nations and states strive to adopt the Western world’s curriculum and pedagogy
because it is viewed as superior. Similarly, the emphasis on learning English can be attributed to
this desire to become more westernized.
A more pragmatic reason for this focus on learning English is English’s role as the global
lingua franca (Mauranen, 2005). In other words, English is the vehicular language spoken by
people who do not share a native language. English is the third language individuals with
different native languages resort to in order to communicate with one another. Currently, English
is most used by nonnative speakers, in fact, the number of individuals who speak English as a
foreign or second language has surpassed the number of its native speakers (Nunan, 2003).
The English language’s role as the global lingua franca can be traced back to British
colonialism, later to the economic and political power of the United States, and more recently to
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the growth of globalization (Mauranen, 2005). Multinational corporations are no exception to the
use of English as the common language for its diverse and geographically distant employees
(Ehrenreich, 2009). Not surprisingly, all of the multi-national corporation leaders interviewed for
this study spoke English. Additionally, the political and educational leaders also spoke English,
though, at various levels.
Six of the nine leaders who were interviewed identified learning English as a 21st century
skill that schools are focusing on more as a result of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations. Michelle Coffey summed it up when she said, “Everybody is
scrambling for English. Now we need our engineers to speak English. Now we need our high
school students to graduate speaking English” (personal communication, June 28, 2013).
Patricia Escalante further added, that the advent of globalization and MNCs have caused
an increase in offering foreign languages to support MNCs in technology, call centers and other
industries. She identifies English as the most common language offered in K-12 education, but
adds that Portuguese and Chinese are growing in popularity (personal communication, June 26,
2013). Principal Bermudez confirmed that each student at Escuela Manuel del Pilar takes 5
English lessons per week. Furthermore, he asserted:
It is fundamental to use or incentivize the focus on English and that is an area of focus
that has resulted directly from the presence of MNCs. Learning how to use computers is
another focus of MEP (Ministry of Public Education) and just as learning English it came
as a direct result of the need MNC’s had of workers. (Personal communication, June 25,
2013)
The focus on learning English at Manuel del Pilar is evident first in the fact that all the
students take English classes. Secondly, while walking through the campus, everything is labeled
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in both English and Spanish. Thirdly, throughout the visits to Escuela Manuel del Pilar, many
students asked questions in English both out of the classroom and while inside the classrooms.
Sometimes they began asking questions in English on their own. Other times they did so at the
insistence of the teacher or principal that they speak in English. Questions in English came not
only in the one English class visited at Escuela Manuel del Pilar, but also throughout all the
classrooms.
Most of the classroom visits were made in classrooms where the instruction was in
Spanish. In these cases there was no evidence of the use of English for instruction. English was
strictly relegated to English language classes. Thus where the observation data shows that there
was agreement or strong agreement that classroom instruction reflected an emphasis on English
correlates directly with the number of English Language classes observed. Table 12 shows a
summary of the number classes observed and how many of those reflected an emphasis on
English.

Table 12
Observation Data: The Classroom Instruction Reflects an Emphasis on Bilingual Education
Specifically Toward English
All Elementary School
Classroom Observations
N = 32
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Classroom Observations
N = 10
4 — Strongly Agree 5 (16%) 1 (10 %)
3 — Agree 3 (9%) 0 (%)
2 — Disagree 6 (19%) 0 (0%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 18 (56%) 9 (90%)
0 — Don’t Know 0 0

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Theme 2: Computer skills. One of the most significant factors on the spread of
globalization and the growth of a knowledge-based economy is technology (Friedman, 2005).
Technology has not only allowed for the exponential growth of information, but it has also aided
in deteriorating borders between countries both figuratively and literally. For example, the
Internet allows for instant sharing of new knowledge throughout the world. Similarly, the
Internet, Skype, teleconferencing and face time connect individuals in different nations, and if
there is a need to connect in person, there are various forms of travel that can transport
individuals from one part of the world to another in a relatively short time and relatively
inexpensively. Thus, it is not surprising that the use of technology surfaced as one of the 21st
century skills that resulted from globalization and the presence of MNCs (Friedman, 2005).
Of the nine interviewed leaders eight of them identified the use of technology as a vital
21st century skill. Damaris Foster shared that as a result of globalization and MNCs:
The government has tried to have computer laboratories installed in all educational
institutions in Costa Rica. When the laboratories are installed, the teacher is trained to use
software packages and computer programs. So, all the teachers have access to
technology. (Personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Damaris Foster added that there has been a focus on ensuring teachers have access to St.
Martin (French) technology and know how to use it well because “if a teacher demands 100%
from the students, the teacher needs to be at 200%” (personal communication, June 28, 2013).
Otherwise, she explained the teacher is unable to keep up with the technological demands.
Patricia Escalante echoed the importance of both teachers and students learning to use
technology. She shared that from 2000 to 2012, Intel focused primarily on providing access to
technology and training on how to use the technology (personal communication, June 26, 2013).
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Intel donated computers to schools and countless hours of training for teachers. Initially, the
training and follow-up was done face to face, but eventually the training was provided online.
According to the teacher surveys, 93% of all interviewed elementary teachers agreed or
strongly agreed that technology is used in the classroom. Of the respondents from Escuela
Manuel del Pilar 88% agreed or strongly agreed. Table 13 shows the results of the surveys and
illustrates the majority of teacher respondents agree or strongly agree that technology is used in
the classroom.

Table 13
Responses to Survey Question: Technology is Used in the Classroom
All Elementary School
Survey Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 22 (37%) 5 (20%)
3 — Agree 34 (56%) 17 (68%)
2 — Disagree 2 (3%) 2 (8%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 1 (2%) 1 (4%)
0 — Don’t Know 1 (2%) 0 (0%)
Blank 0 0

With regard to access to technology, most survey respondents reported having access to
technology in the classroom. As illustrated in Table 14, 68% of all elementary school survey
respondents and 64% of all survey respondents from Escuela Manuel del Pilar agreed or strongly
agreed that they had access to technology in the classroom.
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Table 14
Responses to Survey Question: There is Access to Technology in the Classroom
All Elementary School
Survey Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 17 (28%) 4 (16%)
3 — Agree 24 (40%) 12 (48%)
2 — Disagree 12 (20%) 5 (20%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 6 (10%) 3 (12%)
0 — Don’t Know 1 (2%) 1 (4%)

The observation data showed that only 9 of the 32 (28%) elementary classrooms
observed used technology, while only 3 of the 10 (30%) classrooms observed at Escuela Manuel
del Pilar used technology. With regard to access to technology, 10 of the 32 (31%) elementary
classrooms observed used technology, while only 3 of the 10 (30%) classrooms observed at
Escuela Manuel del Pilar had access to technology in the classroom. It is significant to note that
at Escuela Manuel del Pilar each classroom teacher had a computer and only a couple of the
upper grade classes had a set of computers in the classroom. The majority of the students used
and had access to computers when they went to the school’s computer lab. Principal Bermudez
reported that all students at Escuela Manuel del Pilar worked in the computer lab twice a week.
Furthermore, Principal Bermudez noted that:
There is little time on computer lessons. But, in theory you can use computers in all
subjects. For example, over 85% of my students have Internet at home. So, a lot of
research work on the Internet is done at home. So even though there are only two
computer lessons per week, the students spend more than that time using computers
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because many teachers give them homework that requires doing Internet research. Often
students do work at home, save it on a memory stick, bring the work to school, and just
project it for the others. They use PowerPoint and Prezi regularly. Kindergarten students
also have computer lessons. (Personal Communication, June 26, 2013)
Theme 3: Collaboration. Another theme that surfaced for research question 2 is the need
for developing collaborative skills in elementary school students. In a knowledge-based economy
collaboration is essential for completing tasks, which typically tend to be complex and require
problem solving (Wagner, 2010).
Several factors have contributed to the educational shift from learning the three Rs —
reading, writing and arithmetic — to solving intellectually and technically challenging problems
working collaboratively in a diverse team. Among the most influential factors are: the rapid
growth of the global knowledge economy and the rapid evolution of technology that allows
instant access to information and that breaks down geographical boundaries. These changes have
resulted in high-tech teams working together via various media from different parts of the world
(Friedman, 2005).
Of the 9 interviewees, 6 of them identified collaboration as a 21st century skill necessary
for succeeding in a globalized knowledge-economy. Patricia Escalante shared that one of the
most valuable courses Intel offers is one on evaluating if a person is really collaborating. Patricia
Escalante stated, “That’s what teachers really value, even more than how to use PowerPoint or
how to use Excel because students today are very different from some years ago with regards to
using technology” (personal communication, June 26, 2013).
Amongst all elementary school survey respondents 55 out of 60 (92%) agreed or strongly
agreed that collaboration amongst students took place on a daily basis. At Escuela Manuel del
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Pilar 100% of the survey respondents said they agreed or strongly agreed that collaboration
occurred on a daily basis. The responses to the presence of collaboration amongst students on a
daily basis are displayed in Table 15.

Table 15
Responses to Survey Question: Collaboration Amongst Students Takes Place Daily
All Elementary School Survey
Respondents
N = 60
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 25
4 — Strongly Agree 30 (50%) 12 (48%)
3 — Agree 25 (42%) 13 (52%)
2 — Disagree 5 (8%) 0 (0%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
0 — Don’t Know 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

Additionally, the classroom observation data shows that in the majority of the observed
classrooms, student desks are set up for collaboration. In 28 of the 32 (88%) observations student
desks were set up in a collaborative manner. At Escuela Manuel del Pilar desks were set up in
small groups in 20 of the 25 (80%) classrooms.
Despite the desk set up for collaboration, the teacher’s reporting that collaboration occurs
on a daily basis, and the principal’s instance that collaboration is pervasive throughout the
school, little evidence was found of actual collaboration taking place. Of the 10 classrooms
observed, collaboration was seen in only 5. In these five classrooms there was student-to-student
interactions and students worked in a group towards a common goal. In the remainder of the
classrooms students sat in small groups, but worked independently. The observation data for all
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elementary classrooms found that in 24 of the 32 (75%) classrooms collaboration was present as
seen in Table 16.

Table 16
Observation Data: Collaboration Amongst Students Takes Place in the Classroom
All Elementary School Survey
Respondents
N = 32
Escuela Manuel del Pilar
Survey Respondents
N = 10
4 — Strongly Agree 4 (12%) 0 (0%)
3 — Agree 20 (63%) 5 (50%)
2 — Disagree 2 (6%) 0 (0%)
1 — Strongly Disagree 5 (16%) 5 (50%)
0 — Don’t Know 1 (3%) 0 (0%)

Results for Research Question 3: How has Educational Leadership Been Affected Directly
by Policy Decisions that Came About as a Result of the Influence of Globalization and
Multinational Corporations?
Interviewees identified teachers and school site leaders as the ones primarily responsible
for implementing 21
st
century skills. Furthermore, 48 of the 60 (80%) surveyed elementary
school teachers agreed or strongly agreed that school site leaders are active participants in the
implementation of 21
st
century skills. At Escuela Manuel del Pilar, 21 of 25 (84%) surveyed
teachers agreed or strongly agreed that school site leaders are active participants in the
implementation of 21
st
century skills. This data is supported by research findings that indicate
the school leader is an important change agent when it comes to making transformational change
and positively impacting students’ learning outcomes (Robinson, 2007).
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An idea that was echoed by interviewed leaders at all levels is that school site leaders
must be able to recognize and have 21st century skills themselves in order to implement them in
the school site and develop them in students. In accordance with this idea collaboration and
critical thinking and problem solving emerged as themes in the data for research question 3. As
these two themes are presented, they will also be examined through Bolman and Deal’s (2003)
Four Frame Approach (Table 17).

Table 17
Description of Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Approach
Frame Description
Structural
Framework
A leadership approach based on analysis and design – the focus is on
structure, strategy, environment, implementation, experimentation, and
adaptation.
Human Resource
Framework
A leadership approach based on support, advocacy, and empowerment –
the focus is on empowering, increasing participation, support, sharing
information, and involving various stakeholders in decision-making.
Political
Framework
A leadership approach based on coalition and building – the focus is on
clarifying what they want and what they can get; assessing the
distribution of power and interests; building linkages to other
stakeholders; using persuasion first, then using negotiation and coercion
only if necessary.
Symbolic
Framework
A leadership approach based on inspiration – the focus is on using
symbols to capture attention; framing experience by providing plausible
interpretations of experiences; discovering and communicating a vision.

Bolman and Deal (2003) suggest that when analyzing leadership issues and proposing
solutions, leaders tend to operate in one of four frames: human resources, political, structural or
symbolic. Each of the frames offers a sound leadership approach. Collectively, however, the four
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frames make it possible to reframe a problem and view solutions from multiple perspectives. In
this sense, if multiple frameworks are reflected in leadership style, there is a better chance of
achieving institutional goals, especially during the critical phase of transformational change.
Collaboration. In order to be a successful school leader in the 21st century it is
imperative to be collaborative (Hilton & Pellegrino, 2012). According to Hilton and Pellegrino
(2012) teamwork and collaboration are fundamental inter-personal competencies to being a
successful leader in the 21st century. Furthermore, Wagner (2010) identifies collaboration as one
of the key skills for the 21st century not just for leaders, but also for successful employees.
Principal Bermudez shared:
If as a leader I stay in the past century, and I am passive, inactive and don’t get involved
with various stakeholders, the teachers, the kids, the parents and if I am person who is
hierarchical. It is a problem. (Personal communication, June 25, 2013)
Principal Bermudez’ statement speaks to the recent shift in school-based leadership from
positional or authoritative leadership to a more inclusive conception of leadership than existed
previously. Notions such as “distributed leadership” (Handy, 1996), “leadership as an
organization-wide quality” (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995), “leadership of the many” (Lakomski,
1995), “community of leaders” (Senge, 1997), “role-based leadership” (Limerick, Cunnington, &
Crowther, 1998) and “co-leadership” (Heenan & Bennis, 1999) now occupy a prominent place in
the educational administration literature and are commonly accepted as the approach most likely
to bring about lasting change and increased student learning.
Principal Bermudez speaks to collaboration at the school level with teachers, parents, and
students in order to be successful in implementing 21st century skills (personal communication,
June 25, 2013). Michelle Coffey (personal communication, June 28, 2013) identified computer
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knowledge, English, and collaborative work in the classroom as essential to preparing students
for entry level work in the 21st century. She continued by sharing that in order to develop these
skills in students members of an institution or an organization have to work in harmony toward a
common goal:
You probably heard a gazillion times that we are very individualistic. Yes, we are. And,
that is one of the problems why institutions and organizations don’t work. Everyone is
going in their own direction and designing their own programs. We don’t have a
conductor. We need a conductor, so that the trumpets and violins can work together and
be resource efficient. (Personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Principal Bermudez and Michelle Coffey spoke about the need for collaboration at an
institutional level. However, the need for collaboration between different institutions and
institutions at different levels also surfaced in the data. All the interviewed leaders acknowledged
there has been an increase in school resources due to Intel’s involvement. Thus, collaboration
between schools and MNC’s, such as Intel, are useful in achieving implementation of 21st
century skills. Damaris Fosters mentioned:
Intel has collaborated with many institutions. It is a company that helps to train and helps
to tech. It comes to schools, no matter where they are. Intel has helped in the job fairs, in
the engineering expo, in the youth expo. It has given donations. Intel has helped small
schools by giving each child a computer for the youngsters, especially, in the
marginalized schools. It goes to the little towns and all that. Therefore, Intel has made an
impact at a national level and in education. So, it is an ally that the government has.
(Personal communication, June 28, 2013)
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Damaris Foster further noted the need to collaborate across different levels in order to
change education and be successful at teaching for 21st century skills:
It is a task for the country, and being from the country means that it is on all levels. It
serves no purpose to do it in secondary schools only, when the youngsters have already
gone through eight paradigms in primary school. No, we have to start in primary and
continue in secondary and universities. Therefore, until those three are in line, in the
same direction working together, we will be able to say that we achieved and reached
success. If not, we are always going to be like small islands. (Personal communication,
June 28, 2013)
Collaboration between different organizations and throughout a vertical network requires
that a leader traverse in all four of Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Framework Approach. The
structural frame guides the implementation of appropriate structures for articulation between the
different stakeholders and organizations. In the case of Escuela Manuel del Pilar, Principal
Bermudez shared that every year before the school starts there are professional development
days where he communicates to his staff the vision and goals for the school (personal
communication, June 25, 2013). Furthermore, during the school year there are weekly staff
meetings where teachers are trained or given time to plan together. Principal Bermudez also
shared the intentional classroom desk setup and how it contributes to implement collaboration:
In our classrooms desks are not in rows they are in groups, and that’s because we
understand that work in groups, collaborative work and work that engages students helps
them learn. Also, if there is a student who struggles, when that student is in a group it
helps him to work in a group who can help him. (Personal communication, June 25,
2013)
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With regard to structures in place to work with MNCs, Intel, for example, has liaisons
that work exclusively with schools, and who have set up specific structures in which technology,
volunteer work, training, and monetary donations are distributed and used in school sites
throughout Costa Rica. The Ministry of Public Education also has periodic meetings with
principals in the same region to discuss the vision and education goals for the country.
Additionally, the Ministry of Public Education has set up a virtual community, Educatico, where
educators at all levels can share information and discuss important topics.
The human resource framework allows the leader to bring everyone on board and situate
individuals in positions where they will be successful and their contribution will help achieve the
greater goal (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Principal Bermudez discussed the importance of teacher
leadership and recognized the importance of developing teachers in order to improve education.
He stated that ultimately the teacher is the one responsible for implementing 21st century skills,
but he has to be there side by side with the teacher (personal communication, June 25, 2013).
Principal Bermudez stated that five years ago teachers were not computer literate, so he had to
make sure to develop their skills and encourage those who were afraid to move away from the
typewriter. This idea of developing people surfaced again when Principal Bermudez was
explaining the Ministry of Public Education’s (MEP) teacher profile:
Lamentably, there is no profile. It’s very open. If as a young person I feel that I want to
work with young kids, then I can be a teacher. But, MEP does not have a profile. So,
sometimes we have people who are not good for education. MEP hires them and they
send them to me, so I have to work with them and help them. (Personal communication,
June 25, 2013)
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The political frame will assist the leader in building coalitions and managing competing
interests from different stakeholders within the organization and from different organizations
(Bolman & Deal, 2003). At the school site level, Principal Bermudez has to reach a balance
between the teacher, student, MEP, and parent priorities (personal communication, June 25,
2013). Principal Bermudez did credit the Prime Minister of Education for ameliorating the
principal’s challenges by giving them more autonomy over certain decisions. So, he did mention
that, in that respect, he no longer have to worry about top down decision that did not necessarily
make sense at his school site (personal communication, June 25, 2013). Nonetheless, he did
mention having to address competing priorities, while maintaining student learning at the center
of everything.
Know that as primary school principals we see everything. That’s important to know. We
work with teachers. We also work with the boards of education and what they want. We
have to deal with leaks, dripping sinks, the classroom facilities, painting, floors that need
repair, and any emergency. We are all by ourselves, with administrative tasks, with the
board of education, with the community, with all infrastructure problems, with
instruction, and with working directly with children. If I actually had a choice I would
stay with the technical side: working with children, with instructional methods, with
teaching, with teachers. But that’s not an option. It’s hard to balance everyone. (Personal
communication, June 25, 2013)
Finally, the symbolic frame will support the leader in inspiring individuals to undertake
the difficult challenge of bringing about change in the school (Bolman & Deal, 2003). In talking
about the ideal teacher, Principal Bermudez stated, “If I wrote the profile teachers should have
love for self and the children; should be active, open-minded, a self-starter, not shy, willing to do
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anything for the students, and have good values” (personal communication, June 25, 2013). The
symbolic frame supports the leader in setting an agenda for a greater cause (Bolman & Deal,
2003). According to Principal Bermudez in the case of Escuela Manuel del Pilar that greater
cause was educating students so they could be good citizens, with good values, and love of
country (personal communication, June 25, 2013). Throughout the interview with Principal
Bermudez he lamented the deterioration of Tico values due to globalization and the presence of
MNCs. Principal Bermudez stated, “Culturally, these attitudes devalue the values of a country.
They lose who they are and any country in which its citizens lose themselves and the essence of
who they are is not in a good place” (personal communication, June 25, 2013).
Principal Bermudez’ perspective echoed the purpose of education set out by the Ministry
of Education in 1949:
. . . to develop civic citizens who love their Homeland, are aware of their rights and
fundamental freedoms and have a deep sense of responsibility and respect to human
dignity; to contribute to the complete development of humanity; to nurture citizens for a
democracy that reconciles individual interests with those of the community; to stimulate
the development of solidarity and human understanding to conserve and enlarge cultural
heritage imparting knowledge of history, masterpieces of literature and fundamental
philosophical concepts. (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2010b)
During the visit to Escuela Manuel del Pilar, there was evidence of pride in the homeland
in half of the classrooms visited. In one classroom students sang an old patriotic song. In two
other classrooms the same patriotic song was posted on the wall and maps and facts about Costa
Rica were displayed on the walls. In one classroom students learned historical and geographical
facts about La Asuncion, the “poblado” in which the school is situated, and in the remaining two
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classrooms poems about the beauty of Costa Rica were displayed. Of significance is the fact that
only one of these classrooms was a social studies classroom. The rest ranged from mathematics
and English to science and reading.
La Escuela Manuel del Pilar itself is a symbol of the history, tradition, and cultural
richness of Costa Rica. The Ministry of Culture and Youth identified the school’s kindergarten
building as a historical landmark. The Ministry of Culture and Youth identifies the building as
an example of rural architecture constructed in wood. It is one of the few remaining structures
of its kind in the city of San Jose, and it symbolizes the transition to modern day uses of space,
architectural design, and materials. According to the Ministry of Culture and Youth
(Ministerio de Cultura y Juventud, 2002):
The building has significant historical and affective value for the Asuncion community,
since many generations of its inhabitants have been educated there. Thus, the school is
tied to the area’s historical, social and economic development and it is a symbol of
development in these areas.
Preserving past values and traditions while building for the future by teaching students
21st century skills is in essence the symbolic lens through which the work at Escuela Manuel del
Pilar is galvanized.
Critical thinking and problem solving. With regard to the changes that educational
leadership has undergone due to globalization and the presence of MNCs, it is essential for
educational leaders to have critical thinking and problem solving skills. As defined by Wagner
(2010) critical thinking and problem solving include:
The ability to apply abstract knowledge to solve a problem and to execute a solution – the
ability to think broadly and deeply. It means having and using a framework for problem-
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identification – assumptions and facts, acquiring information, viewing alternative
solutions. Another part of critical thinking is surrounding yourself with people who have
differences of opinion and who can help you come to the best solution.
Damaris Foster identified this ability when she said educational leadership has changed to
meet the current 21st century educational demands by demanding “passion and being
investigative” (personal communication, June 28, 2013). Knowing and using the inquiry process
is fundamental to critical thinking and problem solving (Wagner, 2010).
Damaris Fosters adds that in working with professors at Costa Rican School of Education
(MEP) has “tried to make a deal with the professors to use the constructivist model. And with
them learning how to use it so that they can apply it toward their students” (personal
communication, June 28, 2013). Damaris Foster shares that this push towards the constructivist
approach to teaching is aligned to the push for developing 21st century skills because if the
expectation is for students to learn how to think and analyze then their teachers and leaders have
to learn in this way (personal communication, June 28, 2013). Damaris Foster noted:
If I graduated as a teacher from the behaviorist system are you now going to tell me that I
have to impose the constructivist model upon the student? It doesn’t work. Therefore, in
all of our educational system, that is the paradigm that we are using. The constructivism.
(Personal communication, June 28, 2013)
Michelle Coffey further offered that educational leaders must be “trained for the future.”
She mentioned that it is not enough to train leaders to deal with the problems of today or work
with the technology of today. She shared that there is a “need to be smarter than that and use
today’s equipment for tomorrow’s technology and the day after tomorrow’s technology”
(personal communication, June 28, 2013).
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Principal Bermudez added that it is a problem if he as a leader stays in the past century
and is passive and inactive. He added that it is important to be a leader with an open mind in
order to bring about change and real learning. “A close-minded person is just going to give
information. Transmitting knowledge is very easy. I read, you listen” (personal communication,
June 25, 2013). He asserted that in this competitive world, someone who does not think, who
isn’t analytical, and who isn’t a critical thinker will not progress.
According to Wagner (2010) considering multiple perspectives is fundamental to critical
thinking and problem solving. Thus, examining a problem comprehensively through all four of
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Frameworks is critical to problem solving and critical thinking, and a
21st century leader cannot be successful without doing so. Principal Bermudez reiterated this
idea of having a broad perspective when he shared:
If I turn the clock back 20 years, my perspective was more narrow. I would think about
the classroom and look at the students and think about how cute they are, and how they
are going to learn to read and write, but my perspective did not extend beyond the four
walls of the classroom. With globalization I am more open minded and my perspective is
broader. (Personal communication, June 25, 2013)
The need to work within Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Framework Approach is
compounded when the approach to problem solving is collaborative in nature as is Principal
Bermudez’ approach. In order to solve complex problems successfully as are the challenges
encountered in improving teaching for 21
st
century skills, collaboration is key since no one
person can change an entire system or organization. It is essential for everyone to collaborate
around a meaningful common goal and use processes that allow for the achievement of the
common goal. Equally important to successful collaboration, is maintaining and building the
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relationships between the individual members and building group interdependency This can
only be accomplished by considering the structural, human resources, political, and symbolic
frameworks (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Summary
As a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica there has been an
increase in employment opportunities. However, in order to take advantage of these
opportunities potential employees must have technical skills and good command of English
speaking skills. Globalization and MNCs have also increased diversity in the Costa Rican
workplace and to a smaller extent in the country itself. Thus, the ability to work collaboratively
with diverse groups of individuals has become increasingly important. In general, Costa Ricans
have a positive view of globalization since it is attributed with establishing a higher standard of
living and better employment opportunities in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013). Nonetheless, there is a
lament for the loss of traditional Costa Rican culture and an effort to maintain it, which is not an
uncommon byproduct of globalization (Spring, 2008).
The new workplace demands that have developed as a result of globalization and the
presence of MNCs have brought about changes in the Costa Rican schools and universities.
Schools have a new focus on developing the 21st century skills students need to be successful in
a globalized knowledge-based economy. In particular, the focus is on: learning English, having
computer skills, and working collaboratively.
Similarly, globalization and the presence of MNCs have demanded the educational
leadership adjust in order to meet the educational demands that have resulted from the new
economy and workplace expectations. In order to successfully develop 21st century skills in
students and teachers, it is essential for school leaders to also have 21st century skills. As most
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significant to accomplishing this task, the following three skills surfaced: ability to collaborate
with diverse individuals; ability to think critically and problem solve; and ability to analyze and
solve problems using a comprehensive approach such as Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four
Frameworks.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main purpose of this chapter is to present final conclusions and recommendations.
This chapter is divided into four sections: (1) an overview of the study’s purpose, research
questions, and methodology; (2) a summary of the findings; (3) implications and
recommendations for practice; and (4) future research areas.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact globalization and multinational
corporations have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st century skills in
Costa Rican schools and universities. The study identified what role school leaders have played
in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determined if these initiatives in the educational system are
producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers, building human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been affected directly by policy decisions that came
about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
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Methodology Overview
A case study approach was selected as the most appropriate given the study’s research
questions, which call for the exploration of an issue with clearly established boundaries and
multiple sources of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 1998).
The multiple sources of data collection included the following:
1. Surveys
a. Teachers
2. Semi-structured interviews
a. Multinational corporation leaders
b. Political-policy leaders
c. School leaders
3. Observations
a. Teachers
4. Existing documents
Summary of Findings
Eight themes emerged from the data for the three individual research questions. However,
these eight themes can be summarized into three overall themes since there was overlap between
the themes that emerged for the individual research questions. The three themes that emerged
from the data for the entire study are: (1) there is a lament for the dilution of “Tico” culture; (2)
there is a growing emphasis on 21st century skills, in particular English, computer, and
collaborative skills, in the workplace and schools; and (3) successful educational leaders have
21st century skills, in particular collaborative, problem solving and critical thinking skills.
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Finding 1: There is a Lament for the Dilution of “Tico” Culture
Research question 1 set out to explore how globalization and MNCs have affected Costa
Rica. In line with Spring’s (2008) definition of globalization the data indicated that globalization
and MNCs have impacted socioeconomic, cultural, and political factors throughout Costa Rica.
In the socioeconomic sector MNCs and globalization have provided higher-paying, high skill
based employment opportunities. In the political sector, the impact has been most strongly felt in
the implementation of certain business and educational policies. Business related policies
intended to increase foreign direct investment, including elimination of capital tax, free trade
zones, and reinvestment benefits, have been implemented. Also, the Ministry of Education has
implemented educational policies to develop the 21st century skills that employees in a
globalized knowledge-based economy and in MNCs will need in order to be competitive. Some
of the educational policies include English instruction for all students, partnerships with MNCs
and non-profit organization to bring technology into the classrooms, and a growing focus on
STEM instruction.
In the cultural arena, the data indicate that Costa Ricans have sought to become more
Westernized in the way they dress, eat, socialize, and arguably in what they value and believe.
The majority of the data did not indicate a negative view of these changes. Instead the data
signaled a world culturalist globalization view in which nations and states model themselves
after a Western ideal because they believe it is the best model politically, socially, and culturally
(Spring, 2008). Nonetheless, a lament for the dilution of the “Tico” culture did pierce through the
data. In response to this loss of “Tico” culture there seemed to be some efforts at the school site
level to hold on to “Tico” culture and traditions even if it was mostly through symbolic
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endeavors, such as yearly celebrations with traditional dress, food and music and lessons in the
classrooms about these elements.
Finding 2: There is a Growing Emphasis on 21st Century Skills, in Particular English,
Computer, and Collaborative Skills in the Workplace and Schools
Research questions 1 and 2, respectively, set out to explore how globalization and MNCs
have affected Costa Rica in general and the Costa Rican schools in particular. A significant
finding was that in general globalization and MNCs have been a growing influence in the Costa
Rican workplace demands. Globalization and MNCs have expedited the shift to a globalized,
knowledge-based economy and as a result have demanded that competitive employees have
English, computer, and collaborative skills (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Consequently, the Costa
Rican educational system has had to respond to these demands by focusing on the development
of these skills in students from kindergarten through university. The data suggests that schools
have made efforts in developing these skills. For example, students learn English beginning in
elementary schools, the Ministry of Public Education has committed to having at least one
computer lab in every school, students have computer classes beginning in kindergarten, and
classroom desks are set up in small groups rather than in individual rows. Furthermore, 92% of
elementary school teachers reported that collaboration occurred in their classrooms on a daily
basis and 93% of them reported that technology is used in the classroom.
Despite the strides made towards developing English, computer and collaborative skills
there are some challenges that remain. Even though students begin learning English in
elementary school, many still struggle with English oral skills when they reach the workplace.
Damaris Foster, pointed out that one of the reasons why students struggle with English oral skills
despite their many years of English language instruction is due to how the Costa Rican teachers
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teach English. Damaris Foster remarked, “The teacher who teaches English was prepared to
teach grammar, not to prepare the student to converse. So, we are having that problem from
primary schools” (personal communication, June 28, 2013). The observation data gathered in the
English classes supported this idea. In general students worked in a workbook and the teacher
did most of the talking.
With regard to computer skills the focus in schools has been primarily to teach students
how to use computers to word process, create presentations, and research. However, as Patricia
Escalante noted, “Students today are very different from some years ago and they are using
technology. They have technology” (personal communication, June 26, 2013). Thus, students
today do not necessarily need to learn how to use technology as an end to itself (Wagner, 2010).
Rather, students need to use technology in a more sophisticated way such as to create and
problem solve (Wagner, 2010). Patricia Escalante echoed this idea when she shared that teacher
feedback from 58 countries around the world indicated they wanted professional development on
using technology to develop cognitive and 21st century skills and not just on how to use the
technology (personal communication, June 26, 2013). With regard to collaboration, schools have
taken the first steps by setting up a physical structure that is conducive to working
collaboratively, however, the majority of the observation data indicated that students sat in
groups and worked independently rather than truly collaborating.
Finding 3: Successful Educational Leaders Have 21st Century Skills, in Particular
Collaborative, Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Skills
Research question 3 set out to explore how educational leadership has been affected by
policy decisions that came about as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational
corporations. The data showed that educational leadership has been affected by demanding that
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educational leaders themselves understand, believe, and exemplify 21st century skills. In order
for a school to successfully accomplish a common goal, it is essential for resources, structures,
behaviors, and beliefs to be aligned in support of this goal (DuFour & Eaker, 1998). The 21st
century skills that surfaced as most important for educational leaders were: collaboration,
problem solving and critical thinking.
According to Marzano et al.’s (2005) 21 responsibilities for leaders flexibility and
situational awareness have the highest correlation to student achievement. Also, according to
Bolman and Deal (2003) using a multiple perspective approach to decision-making has the most
positive results. Collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking are founded on flexibility,
situational awareness, and multiple perspectives (Hilton & Pellegrino, 2012). Thus, this finding
is validated by the research on educational leadership. In order to collaborate effectively, a leader
must know what type of influence to exert in order to accomplish a common goal (Northouse,
2012) and still maintain positive relationships with various stakeholders with competing
interests. The ability to make this decision requires the leader to have awareness of the situation,
the ability to analyze the situation through various lenses, and flexibility in the approach used to
analyze and address the challenge (Bolman & Deal, 2003). Similarly, in order to be a critical
thinker and problem solver an individual has to exercise these same three traits: flexibility,
situational awareness, and multiple perspectives.
Finally, given the exponential growth of new information and the rapid changes that are
occurring as a result of technological advances new and more complex challenges are constantly
surfacing (Wagner, 2010). Thus, being collaborative, a critical thinker, and a problem solver are
crucial for leading a school or any organization into the future (Wagner, 2010).
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Implications and Recommendations for Practice
From the findings emerged implications and recommendations for practice in three areas:
pedagogy, leadership, and vision. Following is a presentation of the implications and
recommendations in each of the three areas.
Implications and Recommendations for Pedagogy
In order for schools to be more successful in developing 21st century skills in students
there has to be a shift in pedagogy to being more student-centered, rigorous, and
interdisciplinary. Particular to this study the shift has to take effect in the teaching of English and
computer skills. Furthermore, there needs to be a deeper understanding and implementation of
collaboration as one of the instructional strategies used throughout the curriculum. These claims
are validated by Wagner (2010) and Friedman (2005), whose work assert that multilingualism,
technology skills, and collaboration are fundamental to being a successful learner and leader in
the 21st century.
Teaching English. Traditionally, English classes have focused on filling out workbooks
pages and the teacher doing a lot of the talking. Consequently, many English learners often
struggle speaking English (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). It is recommended that English
classrooms focus on developing oral skills in the target language, thus the majority of
instructional time must be spent with students practicing English (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). It is
imperative that there is less time spent on filling out workbook pages individually and listening
to the teacher and more time spent in groups having discussions and getting feedback from the
instructor. In order to accomplish this it is essential for the instructor to have good command of
the English language and be well versed in instructional strategies for teaching a second
language (Johnson, 1994). Examples of effective strategies for developing oral skills in English
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include (Jin, 2012) the following: student dialogue, retelling stories, discussion and debate, free
talk, acting out plays, and delivering speeches. In brief, in order to develop English oral skills
instructional time should focus on maximizing the amount of time students spend practicing oral
English skills. Additionally, it is also important for students to have appropriate models of the
target language (Jin, 2012) in order to develop their oral skills.
Teaching computer skills. With regard to computer literacy, schools are mainly focused
on teaching students how to use computers. However, given the amount of technology that
students have access to outside of school, the need is no longer for teaching students how to use
computers to word process or find information. The need is now for students to use technology
to create new knowledge and solve problems (Wagner, 2010). Students now are “digital natives”
(Wagner, 2010). Generation Z students, or those who where born in the 1990s or 2000s, have
grown up with technology, including computers, and they either know how to use the technology
or are not afraid to explore it (Prensky, 2001). In order to graduate globally competitive students,
schools must give students the opportunity to use computers to create new knowledge and to
problem solve. Schools must focus on using computer skills to accomplish complex tasks. Thus
the recommendation is not for students to have a computer class where the focus is to learn how
to use a computer. Rather, the recommendation is for students to practice using computers in
context and that students are expected to use computers to solve tasks in mathematics, science,
and other disciplinary areas (Jonassen, Mayes, & McAleese, 1993). Thus, making computer use
a means to an end and not the end itself.
Teaching collaboration. In order for collaboration to take place the team must be
engaged in solving or performing a rigorous task (Wagner, 2010). It is not enough to put groups
of students together and have them compete against each other on recalling facts. Nor is it
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enough to sit students in groups, have them work independently, and check in with each other to
compare answers or when they have a question. Thus, the recommendation is for student groups
to engage in tasks that require critical thinking or problem solving in order to emulate the type of
collaboration they will be expected to engage in in a globalized, knowledge-based economy
(Wagner, 2010).
Implications and Recommendations for Educational Leadership
Educational leaders must embrace 21st century skills in order to successfully lead a
school that nurtures globally competitive students. With globalization and the rapid advances in
technology, educational leaders will be confronted with new and unexpected challenges more so
than ever before. Consequently, the 21st century skills that will be instrumental to the
educational leader in the new globalized, knowledge-based economy are collaboration, problem
solving and critical thinking. It is recommended that educational leaders assume a
comprehensive approach when making decisions about how to approach and address a challenge.
More than ever examining a situation through Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Frames and being
flexible and having situational awareness are essential traits of educational leaders. Since these
traits are a pre-requisite for 21st century skills.
Implications and Recommendations for Maintaining Culture
With the exception of cultural groups that exist in isolation, all cultural groups experience
change as a result of various factors including technological advances, immigration,
environmental changes, and new discoveries (Erez & Gati, 2004). With the spread of
globalization cultural groups are susceptible to more rapid change. It is important to remember a
culture has many layers and some of those layers are more visible than others and some are more
fundamental than others. Fundamental to a cultural group is its core ideology, and that is what
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124
must be preserved in order to still remain true to its culture (Hatch, 1993). According to the
Costa Rican Ministry of Education the purpose of its educational system is to:
. . . develop civic citizens who love their Homeland, are aware of their rights and
fundamental freedoms and have a deep sense of responsibility and respect to human
dignity; to contribute to the complete development of humanity; to nurture citizens for a
democracy that reconciles individual interests with those of the community; to stimulate
the development of solidarity and human understanding to conserve and enlarge cultural
heritage imparting knowledge of history, masterpieces of literature and fundamental
philosophical concepts. (Ministerio de Educacion Publica, 2010b)
Thus, remaining “Tico,” especially in the education sector should mean espousing this
ideology. It is recommended that any cultural group, including an organization, realize that if it is
to meet the challenges of a changing world, it must preserve and protect its core ideology, but be
ready to sacrifice specific manifestations of this ideology to change and evolution (Collins, 2004)
and globalization. Thus, it is recommended that an organization, such as a school, have a clearly
defined vision founded on a set of uncompromising core beliefs.
Future Research Areas
The following are the author’s recommendations for future research. Each suggestion
would add to the bank of data on how schools and educational leaders can develop 21st century
skills in students in order to meet the workforce demands of globalization and MNCs.
• Further research should be done on schools that do not have a partnership with an
MNC since globalization demands are placed on all schools not just those with
partnerships with MNCs.
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• Future research should be done on different types of elementary schools besides
public, urban schools to explore if factors such as being private or rural impact how
or to what degree 21st century skills are implemented.
• Future research should be done in schools with students who have low rates of
computer and Internet access at home.
• Future research should analyze teachers who successfully develop 21st century skills
and determine what traits or make them effective.
• Future research should be done in schools with students with low socio-economic
status.
• Future research should be done in schools that work with the same MNC in different
countries in order to investigate if different cultural factors have an impact on
implementing strategies that develop 21st century skills in students and to explore if
there are differences in the way globalization and MNC impact different societies.
Conclusions
Change and evolution have always been inevitable, however, with the spread of
globalization they are occurring more rapidly and more intensely. In order to remain competitive
in a globalized world it is essential to embrace 21st century skills, in particular collaborative
skills with culturally and linguistically diverse individuals and computer skills to use for problem
solving and critical thinking (Wagner, 2010). With globalization will come new and unforeseen
challenges and flexibility and situational awareness in working collaboratively when problem
solving will be fundamental traits for any leader who wants to be successful.
In spite of all these changes, however, it is essential for a leader to have a vision based on
a core set of ideologies that will be the compass for the organization. Similarly, an individual
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needs a similarly grounded vision so that his compass remains on course despite the multitude of
influences vying for his attention. Only then will an organization or an individual play its role in
maintaining a democratic society such as the one described in the Ministry of Education’s
purpose for the educational system.

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United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (n.d.). Foreign direct investment (FDI).
Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved from http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/Foreign-
Direct-Investment-(FDI).aspx
Urbsiene, L. (2011). The concept of globalization: Contemporary approaches. Business: Theory
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Veillette, C. (2005). Costa Rica: Background and U.S. relations. Washington D.C.:
Congressional Research Services, Library of Congress.
Wade, R. H. (2003). Is globalization reducing poverty and inequality? World Development,
20(10), 1-23.
Wagner, T. (2010). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools don’t teach the new
survival skills our children need — and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Wesseling, H. L. (2009). Globalization: A historical perspective. European Review, 17(3/4), 455-
462.
Westphalen, S. (1999). Reporting on human capital, objectives, and trends. Paper presented at
Measuring and Reporting Intellectual Capital: Experiences, Issues and Prospects
International Symposium. Amsterdam, Netherlands.
World Bank. (2003). Lifelong learning in the global knowledge economy: Challenges for
developing countries. Washington, D.C.: Author.
World Bank Group. (2006). The impact of Intel in Costa Rica: Nine years after the decision to
invest. Investing in Development Series. Washington, D.C.: Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency.

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APPENDIX A
FIRST LETTER TO THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California
(USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation process. The
purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and Multinational Corporation
have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and multinational
corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately two weeks to conduct
our research. This visit will occur in at the end of June/early July. We would appreciate an
opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education, and educational
leaders at district and school site levels. I It is our goal to survey and interview key individuals to
gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly. We
know that you time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence possible to go over
the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request and feel free to contact us with any questions.
We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

142
Estimado Dr. Leonardo Garnier,

Somos estudiantes de la Escuela de Educación Rossier en la Universidad del Sur de California
(USC). Como parte de nuestra disertación, decidimos investigar sobre la educación en Costa
Rica. El objetivo de nuestro estudio es entender el efecto que tienen la globalización y las
Corporaciones Multinacionales en las escuelas y universidades de Costa Rica. Nuestro estudio se
enfocara en las siguientes preguntas:

¿Han sido influenciadas las decisiones políticas por los efectos de la globalización y las
corporaciones multinacionales?

¿Qué papel juegan los líderes escolares en este proceso?

Como parte del estudio, estamos planeando visitar Costa Rica por aproximadamente dos
semanas para llevar a cabo nuestra investigación. Visitaremos su país a finales de junio /
principios de julio. Agradeceríamos la oportunidad de hablar con usted y con otros miembros de
la Secretaría de Educación; y si es posible también con líderes educativos al nivel del distrito y
en las escuelas. Es nuestra meta entrevistar a individuos claves para reunir los datos necesarios
para nuestro estudio.

Un representante del consulado Costarricense sugirió que lo contactáramos a usted directamente.
Sabemos que su tiempo es valioso, y agradeceríamos cualquier correspondencia para poder
platicar con usted sobre el propósito de nuestro estudio.

Gracias por tomarse el tiempo de leer esta solicitud y no dude en contactarnos si tiene alguna
pregunta. Estamos muy agradecidos por su ayuda!

Atentamente,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, y Alejandra Macías
Estudiantes del programa doctorado en USC
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

143
APPENDIX B
RECRUITMENT/CONSENT LETTER

Date ________________

Dear__________________________,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed in this
packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may shed light on
the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in Costa Rica. This study
may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational leadership and twenty-first
century skills.

My name is Anita Arora, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction and
guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the University of
Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please sign the consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous by the
researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that
will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
_________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California. Thank you, in
advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Anita Arora and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
anitaaro@usc.edu and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent
to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in a brief
interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

_____________________ ___________ __________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

144
APPENDIX C
SURVEY PROTOCOL FOR TEACHERS

Date:________________________ Location of Survey__________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the number that
best represents what you think.

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to promote
twenty-first century skills such as critical
thinking, collaboration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration amongst students takes
place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. Technology is used in your classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Lessons promote higher level thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Curriculum reflects twenty-first century
skills such as critical thinking, collaboration,
and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Intel has positively impacted your school
site.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has improved resources at your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Students are college and/or career ready
with twenty-first century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Teachers are held accountable to
implement twenty-first century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

145
Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate twenty-first
century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
12. Educational decisions are influenced by
multi-national corporations.
4 3 2 1 0
13. School site leaders are active participants
in implementation of twenty-first century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to teachers
and students.
4 3 2 1 0

CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

146
Protocolo de la encuesta para maestros
Fecha:________________________ Sitio:_________________________
Instucciones: Clasifique sus opiniones con respeto a las siguientes declaraciones marcando con
un circulo el número que mejore represente lo que usted piensa.

Pregunta
Totalmente
de Acuerdo
De
Acuerdo
En
Desacuerdo
Muy en
Desacuerdo
No
Se
1. El entrenamiento de maestros ha
cambiado para promover las
habilidades del siglo 21, tales
como el pensamiento crítico,
colaboración y comunicación.
4 3 2 1 0
2. La colaboración entre los
estudiantes se lleva a cabo a diario
en el aula.
4 3 2 1 0
3. La tecnología se usa en su aula.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Las lecciones promueven
pensamiento a alto nivel.
4 3 2 1 0
5. El currículo ha cambiado para
promover las habilidades del siglo
21 (como el pensamiento crítico, la
colaboración y la comunicación).
4 3 2 1 0
6. Hay acceso a la tecnología en el
aula.
4 3 2 1 0
7. Intel ha tenido un impacto
positivo en su escuela.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel ha mejorado los recursos
en su escuela.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Los estudiantes estan preparados
para la universidad y/o para una
carrera que requiere habilidades
del siglo 21.
4 3 2 1 0
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

147
Pregunta
Totalmente
de Acuerdo
De
Acuerdo
En
Desacuerdo
Muy en
Desacuerdo
No
Se
10. Los maestros rinden cuentas de
implementar las habilidades del
siglo XXI en la clase.
4 3 2 1 0
11. El enfoque de la educación ha
cambiado en su escuela para
incorporar el aprendizaje de las
habilidades del siglo XXI.
4 3 2 1 0
12. Decisiones educativas son
influidas por las corporaciones
multinacionales.
4 3 2 1 0
13. Los líderes de la escuela son
participantes activos en la
implementación de las habilidades
del siglo XXI.
4 3 2 1 0
14. Los líderes de la escuela
comunican las metas y la visión de
la escuela con los maestros y
estudiantes.
4 3 2 1 0

CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

148
APPENDIX D
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR SCHOOL SITE LEADERS
Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background

Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization

1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa Rica?
4. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
5. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
6. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

149
III. 21st Century Learning

1. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
2. How has professional development at schools and universities changed to promote
the access and use of technology?
3. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s involvement?
5. How are school’s preparing students for the twenty-first century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits

1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current twenty-first century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?

V. Document Collection

Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

150
APPENDIX E
GOVERNMENT AND POLICY LEADERS INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background

Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.

1. What is your position and how is it connected with the education system in Costa
Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization

1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa Rica?
4. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
5. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
6. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

151
III. 21st Century Learning

1. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that promote
access and use of technology?
3. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s involvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits

1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st century educational
demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?

V. Document Collection

Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

152
APPENDIX F
CORPORATE LEADER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background

Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.

1. What is your position and how is it connected with the education system in Costa
Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization

1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa Rica?
4. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
5. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
6. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

153
III. 21st Century Learning

1. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
2. How has teacher training at schools and universities changed to promote the access
and use of technology?
3. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s involvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry level work for the 21st century?

IV. Leadership Traits

1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st century educational
demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?

V. Document Collection

Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

154
APPENDIX G
SCHOOL LEADER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21st
century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?

I. Background

Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization

1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How has globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
6. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

155
III. 21st Century Learning

1. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
2. How has professional development at schools and universities changed to promote
the access and use of technology?
3. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s involvement?
5. How are school’s preparing students for the 21st century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits

1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st century educational
demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st century skills in the
classroom? How?

V. Document Collection

Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

156
APPENDIX H
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION TOOL

Date:________________________

Location of Observation__________________ Observer:_________________

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis on
bi-lingual education specifically towards
English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration amongst students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

157

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level thinking. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects twenty-first century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of twenty-first century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

158

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Student desks are set-up in a
collaborative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student centered instruction is evident
in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In the highly competitive and rapidly changing world, many countries are finding a need to adapt to a global market. Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the last 30 years. Once a country that relied on agricultural exports, Costa Rica is now heavily influenced by high-tech foreign direct investment. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to Costa Rica, but it has also presented new challenges to its educational system. In the past few decades, the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education has charged the educational system with educating students that are technically literate and possess 21st century skills. Furthermore, multinational corporations have invested money and resources at all levels of the educational system in order to better develop students who are prepared for a global economy. Costa Rican schools and their leaders are facing pressure to ensure their students are prepared to be productive citizens by ensuring they have the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a labor market that demands a new set of skills, which most educational systems around the world are not providing their students. Despite having five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate amongst its population, there remains a low secondary graduation rate, a low percentage of students pursuing higher education, and even fewer who are pursuing higher education in science or technology. In order to prepare Costa Rican students to be competitive in a high-tech global market, educational shifts are needed to ensure students possess twenty-first century skills. To make these educational shifts, leaders in government, industry, and education all need to play an active role. This case study uses Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory to understand what impact globalization and multi-national corporations have had on educational leadership, and it investigates to what extent government policy and investment by multinational corporations have impacted the development of 21st century skills, as defined by Tony Wagner (2010), in Costa Rican students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bernal, Elizabeth (author)

Core Title A case study on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on the development of 21st-century skills and educational leadership

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/09/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century skills,Costa Rica,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory A. (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email ebernal@usc.edu,Elizabeth.Bernal@lausd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-418448

Unique identifier UC11296248

Identifier etd-BernalEliz-2540.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-418448 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BernalEliz-2540.pdf

Dmrecord 418448

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Bernal, Elizabeth

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA