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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on higher education in Costa Rica and implications for educational leaders

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The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on higher education in Costa Rica and implications for educational leaders

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS
ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN COSTA RICA AND IMPLICATIONS FOR
EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
by
Monica Pan
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this to the three who never gave up on me and pushed
me to be where I am at today. Thank you Nancy, mom, and God for being there for me
throughout my whole life. I am so blessed to have you all in my life and to be able to
complete my dissertation with you by my side encouraging, pushing, and loving me.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
I am so thankful to have completed my dissertation. There are many people who
have made this process possible. I would like to express my gratitude to all my profes-
sors who guided and supported me along the way, especially Dr. Escalante, Dr. Garcia,
and Dr. Fischer.
This process would not be possible without the collaboration and support of my
11 other thematic dissertation group members—special thanks to them. Working and
traveling with all of them to another country, Costa Rica, will always hold a special
place in my heart.
Finally, I would like to thank my friends, and family. I thank them for their
guidance, help, support, and encouragement during all these years, for being so under-
standing, and for making this process so smooth and possible for me. I would not have
been able to finish my dissertation without them. Special thanks go to my loving sister
Nancy, who helped me get through it all; to my loving mom, who taught me about
perseverance and to never give up on my dreams; to my HRock family, who was there
to cheer me on and be part of my adventure; and to God, who was with me minute and
second of every day, carrying me through it all. I am grateful to all for their love.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 7
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 9
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 11
Importance of the Study 11
Limitations of the Study 11
Delimitations of the Study 12
Assumptions of the Study 12
Definitions of the Terms 12
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 13
Globalization 13
Knowledge Age 13
Knowledge-Based Economy 13
MNC 13
Twenty-First-Century Skills 14
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 15
History of Costa Rica 15
Globalization 21
Education 24
Globalization and Costa Rica 26
Education System 29
The Influence of MNCs on Education 34
Twenty-First-Century Skills 41
Leadership 46
Bolman and Deal 47
Northouse 51
Marzano 52
Summary 55
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 56
Research Questions 56
Research Design 57
Conceptual Framework 58
Population and Sample 60
Instrumentation 61
Surveys and Interviews 63
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Observations 64
Data Collection 65
Data Analysis 66
Ethical Considerations 66
Summary 67
Chapter 4: Results 68
Description of Participants 69
Mary Helen Bialas (Interviewed June 25, 2013) 69
Dr. Marta Camacho (Interviewed June 27, 2013) 70
Anibal Cota (Interviewed June 27, 2013) 70
Dr. Allen Pacheco (Interviewed June 27, 2013) 70
Patricia Escalante (Interviewed June 28, 2013) 71
Mario Antonio Conejo Solis (Interviewed June 27, 2013) 71
Dr. Leonardo Garnier (Interviewed June 24, 2013) 71
Ronny Guadmuz (Interviewed June 26, 2013) 72
Abraham Bermudez (Interviewed June 25, 2013) 72
Jorge Quesada (Interviewed June 26, 2013) 72
Results Relating to Research Question 1 72
Economy: Agricultural to Knowledge Based 73
Cultural and Social Significance: College Readiness and Social
Awareness 80
Discussion Regarding Research Question 1 84
Results Relating to Research Question 2 85
Technology 86
Bilingual Education: English 89
Discussion for Research Question 2 97
Results Relating to Research Question 3 98
Educational Leadership: School Curriculum 100
Educational Leadership: Teacher Training 104
Discussion Regarding Research Question 3 107
Chapter Summary 108
Chapter 5: Discussion 110
Summary of Findings 111
Research Question 1: How Globalization and Presence of MNCs Have
Impacted Costa Rica Economically, Culturally, and Socially 111
Research Question 2: Technology, Bilingual Education, and 21st-
Century Skills Prevalent in Schools and Universities 112
Research Question 3: Educational leadership in School Curriculum
and Teacher Training 114
Implications for Practice 116
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Future Research 118
Conclusion 119
References 121
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 127
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 129
Appendix C: Survey Protocol for Teachers 130
Appendix D: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 132
Appendix E: MNC Leader Interview Protocol 135
Appendix F: School Leader Interview Protocol 138
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Tool 141
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and
multinational corporations (MNCs) have had on educational leadership and the devel-
opment of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study
identified what role school leaders have played in the development and implementation
of policy changes, as seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the study
helped to determine whether these initiatives were producing greater numbers of
knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of
meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
The study was conducted by a thematic dissertation research team of 12 doctoral
candidates selected by Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team collaborated on con-
ceptual frameworks and used the following: the four-frame theory of Bolman and Deal,
the framework for 21st-century learning of Partnership for 21st Century Learning,
Spring’s research on globalization and education, and Wagner’s conceptual framework
of 21st-century skills to develop a survey that was given to leaders at the selected
schools to measure their knowledge of 21st-century skills, awareness of the recent
changes in government policy, and the influence of MNCs in Costa Rica. Open-ended
interview questions were constructed collaboratively based on the frameworks men-
tioned above, and each researcher conducted an in-depth interview with an educational
leader at his or her particular school site for an individual case study.
This study demonstrated that the presence of MNCs and globalization have been
essential in their impact on Costa Rica and subsequent changes in the education sector.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
Twenty-first-century skills were found to be necessary for educational leaders and
teachers to implement in schools and universities. For a knowledge-based economy, it
is important to implement 21st-century skills in the class curricula, particularly the skills
of collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and problem solving.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
In a country such as Costa Rica, which has shifted from an agricultural economy
to a knowledge-based economy, how can schools and educational leaders prepare
students to succeed in the 21st century? Educational leaders find themselves in a new
role with constantly accelerating technologies and increasing knowledge. Schools and
educational leaders are faced with the challenge of preparing students for work and life
in the 21st century. Today, educational leaders need to understand global demands and
prepare students with transferrable knowledge from classroom to workforce. Students
must be able to apply the knowledge and skills that they gain in the classroom to the
new, knowledge-based economy.
This study analyzed what impact globalization and multinational corporations
(MNCs) have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills
in schools and universities in Costa Rica. It provides insight for corporate leaders,
education leaders, and education stakeholders on how they can prepare students for
21st-century skills for the knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. Various leadership
frameworks and analytical tools are discussed; these frameworks help leaders under-
stand, approach, and solve problems in more systematic ways. The frameworks also
help guide leaders on how they can best manage their organizations (schools).
A qualitative case study method was used because it approaches a study in terms
of people, situations, events, and the processes that intertwine (Maxwell, 2013). A
qualitative study provides strength that a quantitative study could not do, such as
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
focusing on specific situations and people with an emphasis on description instead of
numbers (Maxwell, 2013). The data collection process for this qualitative case study
included the use of a variety of instruments such as surveys, interviews, and observa-
tions to help triangulate the data.
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
presence of MNCs. Once a country primarily based on an agricultural economy, the
growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this
small Central American nation. As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and
university systems’ responsibility for developing 21st-century skills in students has
become increasingly more challenging. Despite having five national universities, 51
private universities, and a 95% literacy rate in the population, there remains a lack of
knowledge-based workers in the country.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand what impact globalization and MNCs
have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study identifies what role school leaders
have played in the development and implementation of policy changes, as seen in major
national education initiatives. In addition, the aim was to determine whether these initi-
atives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated in this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Importance of the Study
Costa Rica has undergone many developments over the past decade, one of
which is the construction of plant sites by high-tech MNCs (HTMNCs), including Intel,
Cisco, and Microsoft. This study is important because the rise of the high-tech sectors
in Costa Rica has shifted the economy from an agricultural economy to a knowledge-
driven economy. This study provides insight for corporate leaders, education leaders,
and education stakeholders on how they can support and serve the increase of
knowledge-based workers in Costa Rica. In addition, it provides leaders in Costa Rica
with further strategies to support the technology- and knowledge-based economy.
Limitations of the Study
Every measure was taken to ensure the reliability and validity of the study; how-
ever, the following limitations are still acknowledged:
1. The study was limited to the study participants in the study.
2. The participants were individuals located in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
3. Only participants who met the inclusion criteria were included in the inter-
views and surveys.
4. The study took place over a brief period of time.
5. The study was limited to participants who voluntarily responded on surveys
and in interviews.
6. The validity and reliability of the study were dependent on the reliability of
the survey instruments.
Delimitations of the Study
The participants were selected based on inclusion data, such as school leaders,
corporate leaders, school and university locations, and individuals available during the
time frame when the research group visited Costa Rica.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions were made for the study:
1. That all the participants would respond to surveys and interviews truthfully,
to the best their knowledge,
2. That the interview questions, interview guides, and surveys were valid, and
3. That the information shared by participants would be related to their experi-
ence working in schools that are influenced by MNCs.
Definitions of the Terms
The following terms are defined for application within this dissertation:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Investment by a company in a country other than that in which the company is
based.
Globalization
Changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and investments,
which in turn affects larger segments of the world’s population. It has a direct impact
on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which schooling is a part (Spring,
2008).
Knowledge Age
The 21st-century Knowledge Age is seen as a tipping point, equivalent in effect
to the Age of Discovery, the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the internal
combustion engine (Snape, 2012).
Knowledge-Based Economy
The use of knowledge technologies such as knowledge engineering and knowl-
edge management to produce economic benefits as well as job creation (Machlup,
1962).
MNC
A corporation or multinational enterprise that is registered in more than one
country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation that
both produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a social
responsibility and commitment to help improve the host country’s education system
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
that is registered in more than one country or that has operations in more than one
country. It is a large corporation, that both produces and sells goods or services in
various countries.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Skills that are a blend of content knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and lit-
eracies (Wagner, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
Traditionally, Costa Rica is known for its exports in bananas and coffee. How-
ever, with the HTMNCs’ investment in Costa Rica, the country has grown from being
known as the “golden coffee” of the world to the “golden chip” of the world. Eighty
percent of Costa Rica’s exports used to be in coffee and bananas, but today Costa Rica
has the highest software exports per capita in Latin America (World Bank Group,
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency [MIGA], 2006).
This review provides insight into the effects that globalization and expansion of
MNCs) have had on the leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools
across Costa Rica. Understanding the influence of MNCs on the education system in
Costa Rica should enable leaders to learn and best support the current knowledge-based
economy. To explore the impact that MNCs have had in Costa Rica and determine how
to best support the educational leadership in Costa Rica, the literature review begins
with a discussion of an overview of Costa Rica’s history and how the nation has
evolved over the past decades, how globalization can transform a country and its educa-
tion system, the structure of Costa Rica’s education system and the importance of edu-
cation, the influence of MNCs in education, and educating students about and equipping
them with 21st-century skills. Leadership frameworks are also discussed.
History of Costa Rica
It is important to know Costa Rica’s history to understand the source of its
progress over the years. The history makers addressed in this section are Christopher
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
Columbus, Costa Rica’s presidents, and government leaders of Costa Rica. These
individuals have all helped to advocate for and shape change in Costa Rica. Under-
standing Costa Rica’s history provides insight to the nation’s values (i.e., peace and
preserving its environment). In addition, the Costa Rican Investment Promotion
Agency (CINDE), FDIs, and MNCs have made a historical impact on Costa Rica as the
nation has transformed from being an agricultural- to knowledge-based economy.
Through understanding Costa Rica’s history, educational leaders will obtain a better
grasp for Costa Rica and how to optimally support and lead its new knowledge-driven
economy.
In 1502, Columbus landed in Costa Rica and gave the country its name, which
means “Rich Coast” due to the plentiful gold ornaments adorning indigenous people.
Shortly thereafter, the Europeans settled in Costa Rica. Central America declared the
country independent in 1821, and in 1823 Costa Rica became a member of the United
Provinces of Central America. When the United Provinces fell apart in 1838, Costa
Rica declared itself sovereign, and the Republic of Costa Rica was established shortly
afterwards. The rule of General Tomas Guardia, President of Costa Rica from 1870 to
1882 was remembered as a time of limited liberty and high debt for many Costa Ricans;
however, it was during his presidency that there was a rise in sugar and coffee exports
and an increase in educational attainment. During that time, the increase of coffee
production encouraged rapid population growth, upward education progress, and eco-
nomic development (Encyclopedia.com, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
Costa Rica, for the most part, has been under democratic rule. The government
is comprised of a president, two vice presidents, and a congress of 57 members. The
constitution guarantees equality before the law and freedom of speech and does not
allow government officials to run for the legislature or the presidency while already in
office (Constitution of, 2013). The president, cabinet ministers, and all government
employees are not allowed to participate in election campaigns or to hold party office.
In addition, the constitution guarantees foreigners the same rights as Costa Rican citi-
zens; however, neither foreigners nor members of the clergy may participate in political
affairs. Costa Rica has two political parties: the Partido de Liberacion National (Na-
tional Liberation Party; PLN), which is a reformist party that has been leading the
country since 1948; and the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (Social Christian Unity
Party; PUSC). In 1952, Figureres was elected president and during his term, Costa Rica
became one of the most prosperous and democratic countries in Latin America. During
the period of his leadership, women had the right to vote and he was a strong opponent
to all dictatorships. However, during the 1980s, Costa Rica was confronted with politi-
cal violence such as terrorist activities in San José, as well as economic crises. Despite
this environment, the Costa Rican government did its best to avoid being drawn into
war, even though the United States was ready to support Costa Rica by building a
military for the country. After the economic and political crises, Costa Rica’s economy
started to recover as a result of peace settlements (Encyclopedia.com, 2013).
In February 1986, Oscar Arias Sánchez became president of Costa Rica. During
that time, the surrounding countries in Central America descended into war, drug
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
trafficking, corruption, and further economic distress. However, Arias led the country
by focusing on international affairs and a peace movement to bring stability to the
region. In August 1987, a peace plan for Central America was signed in Guatemala by
Nicaragua, Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Honduras. The provisions accom-
plished by Arias under this peace plan were free elections in all countries, a guarantee of
basic democratic freedoms in Nicaragua, a cease fire by both Sandinistas and Contras,
an end to outside aid to the Contras, amnesty for the Contras, repatriation or resettle-
ment of refugees from all countries, and an eventual reduction in the armed forces of all
countries. Arias won the Nobel Prize for Peace later that year for his efforts to bring
peace to the country (Encyclopedia.com, 2013).
Costa Rica has tried to aim toward achieving a peaceful and honest government
ever since Costa Rica faced one of its deadliest events in the 20th century, the 44-day
civil war that left 2,000 people dead. Costa Rica has taken action to make its country a
place of peace and currently does not have an army. Based on the 1949 constitution,
Costa Rica banned its country from having an army, which was instead replaced with a
civil guard. In 2000, the Coast Guard was established, and ever since then Costa Rica
has had a history of environmental preservation as well as police and internal security
forces to protect the country and to maintain the country’s peaceful and hospitable
reputation (Encyclopedia.com, 2013).
Costa Rica has undergone many developments over the past decade, one of
which has been the construction of plant sites by HTMNCs. The rise of the high-tech
sectors in Costa Rica has shifted the economy from an agricultural economy to a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
knowledge-based one. Costa Rica is a small country in Central America with a popula-
tion of approximately 4 million people. Historically, Costa Rica was founded on a
strong education system that was developed in the beginning of the 19th century. Costa
Rica had one of the highest literacy rates during that time, and the value of education
was further emphasized through the emergence of public universities. The country went
from being driven by an import philosophy to an export philosophy, which enabled
trade liberation and companies to import their equipment tax free. For many years,
companies did not have to pay income tax, and this tax-free system helped to attract FDI
(World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006).
Over the years, the tax-free system attracted HTMNCs to invest in Costa Rica.
FDI has been a key element in increasing a country’s global economy. A country with
strong FDIs will help produce jobs for employment, technological advancements,
productivity improvements, and economic growth. FDIs act as an agent that transfers
knowledge and technology across countries, especially to developing countries. Due to
the great benefits derived when companies invest directly into another country, attract-
ing FDIs is essential for the economic development and growth of a country (Jensen,
2003). As a result, the Costa Rican government has readjusted its country’s policies to
provide a hospitable environment for foreign companies to invest in its country; it has
strengthened Costa Rica’s FDI.
To support the new rise of science and technology in Costa Rica, CINDE, a non-
profit organization, was developed in 1983. This nonprofit organization is comprised of
businessmen and women and is supported by Costa Rica’s government. The main
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
objective of CINDE is to help Costa Rica’s economy prosper and to continue attracting
the FDI to invest in Costa Rica (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). With the wealth of knowledge
in the electronic industry that CINDE acquired over the years, as well as CINDE’s
expertise in attracting FDI, the organization was able to put together a presentation for
Intel and convince Intel to invest its plant assembly site in Costa Rica. In November
1996, Intel announced its decision to invest its plant assembly in Costa Rica
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel was the first technology plant site developed in Costa
Rica. There were three main reasons why Intel decided to invest in this plant site: (a)
the location of the country, (b) the country’s political stability and legacy of past invest-
ments, and (c) attractive tax and tariff conditions along with pro-active foreign invest-
ments from CINDE (Jensen, 2003).
Costa Rica is located in Central America between the United States and Latin
America. The country’s location acts as a bridge between the United States and Latin
America, as well as between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Costa Rica’s ideal loca-
tion helps to reduce the travel time for goods delivered between the regions. In addi-
tion, Costa Ricans have a high literacy rate; a majority of Costa Ricans are educated and
can speak English. This high literacy rate can be credited to the country’s commitment
to education. Finally, Costa Rica has been a country that is stable both economically
and politically. With all these desirable traits, along with CINDE’s proactiveness in
making sure that Costa Rica is able to support the needs of MNCs, Costa Rica became
the chosen country for Intel to build its plant site (Cordero & Paus, 2008). Today, many
high-tech firms have built their plant sites in Costa Rica. HTMNCs have driven the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
process of globalization in Costa Rica; the country has the highest software exports per
capita in Latin America (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006) and is now known as the
“golden chip.” Costa Rica made history from becoming an agricultural- to a
knowledge-based economy.
It is important to examine the history of Costa Rica to get an understanding of
the country’s value system, foundation, and the changes it has undergone. Throughout
history, Costa Rica has displayed values that are important to its people (e.g., peace).
To this day, Costa Rica remains a peaceful and welcoming country; for example, it has
eliminated the national Army. These characteristics of location, political stability,
legacy of past investments, educational literacy, attractive tax and tariff conditions, and
high FDI are the driving forces behind for why MNCs have invested in Costa Rica.
Today, Costa Rica represents the most heavily invested region in Latin America with
respect to technology. The timeline of Costa Rica’s history from when Columbus first
landed to when CINDE attracted MNCs to invest in Costa Rica all demonstrate how an
agricultural country has progressively shifted to a knowledge-based country. As a
result, Costa Rica is constantly finding ways to support its new knowledge-based
economy.
Globalization
Over the decades, globalization has brought people and nations closer together
through technological innovations by decreasing the time that it takes to receive and
send out information. Globalization has enhanced the flow of information throughout
the world and has given people greater awareness and knowledge of their societies.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
Globalization can be seen as a positive or negative effect. The positive effects of
globalization promote economic growth, harmonization, technological advancement,
and a country’s efficiency. However, the negative effects of globalization include harm
to the environment, economic and political inequalities, elevation of the loss of account-
ability in government, and hindering culture preservation (Zeiler, 2002). In this section,
the focus is on globalization and its impact on education and Costa Rica.
According to Spring (2008), globalization can be defined as a phenomenon of
increased economic integration among nations, characterized by the movement of
people, ideas, social customs and products across borders. Economist Theodore Levitt
coined the term globalization as changes in economics affecting production, consump-
tion, and investment (Stromquist, 2002). In general, globalization is a social process of
interactions among people, companies, government, and society. The country’s foreign
trade, investments, and technology drive globalization. Society and individuals are all
affected by globalization, from technology to new government policies (Bottery, 2006).
There are various resources that argue how globalization emerged, which in-
volves several theories. World system theorists have argued that the start of globaliza-
tion was during European capitalism in the 16th century. Meanwhile, economic histori-
ans contest that globalization began in the 20th century from international trade and
investments. The debate of when and how globalization emerged is still ongoing.
Economist Ronald Findlay (as cited in New World Encyclopedia, 2013) felt that there
were two major eras of globalization: The first globalization era began in Eurasia when
the Mongols conquered the land. This event brought awareness to the Europeans of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
East Asia’s civilization, which initiated the desire of Europeans to improve their naval
technology to discover East Asia and the rise of trade between countries developed.
The second globalization era began during World War I. Since then, globalization has
been driven by many trade negotiations and a series of agreements to remove the restric-
tions of free trade. Barriers to international trade and investment have declined since
World War II as a result of international agreements such as the World Trade Organiza-
tion and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Globalization is inescapable, and
countries are impacted by globalization, whether or not they actively choose to partici-
pate (New World Encyclopedia, 2013).
Fair trade theorists feel that richer countries benefit from globalization at the
expense of poor countries. Most likely, countries that are economically, financially, and
technologically behind will experience the negative effects of globalization. Mean-
while, the pros of globalization are free trade and the advantages of all countries bene-
fitting economically from the trading. Supporters of free trade feel that it will lead to
lower prices, more employment, higher output, and greater consumption opportunities.
Other supporters of globalization see globalization as being beneficial in spreading
democracy and market mechanisms that will produce higher levels of material wealth
for the world in aggregate. In addition, the proglobalization movement concludes that
based on statistics, the proportion of people in developing countries living below $1.00
per day has decreased by 50% within the past 20 years and the life expectancy has
doubled in developing countries since World War II. This information suggests that
globalization, contrary to antiglobalization beliefs, is closing the gap between developed
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
and developing countries. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region,
and income inequality has diminished across the world as a whole (New World Ency-
clopedia, 2013).
Overall, the history of globalization, whether achieved or not, has focused on
increasing economic growth crossculturally. Technology and information are particu-
larly crucial drivers. Today, people can communicate all around the world in minutes
with the speed of the Internet, emails, Skype®, and other advanced technologies (Guil-
lien, 2001). The outcome of globalization has impacted the lives of people around the
world.
Education
Education is an important factor in globalization. This section presents various
educational theoretical perspectives and examine how globalization has impacted edu-
cation. Currently, there are four main theoretical perspectives regarding the process of
globalization and education (Spring, 2008): world culture, world system, postcolonial,
and culturalist. The world culture perspective is based on the assumption that the ideal
education system is modeled through the Western education system. The Western
education model advocates mass schooling and education for everyone. Regardless of
an individual’s economic and racial background, he or she is entitled to the right of an
education. World culture theorists feel that the Western school system is the best
education system; thus, nations around the world should replicate this model. World
system theory, however, is different from the world culture theoretical perspective. The
world system perspective is based on the assumption that the world exists as one unity
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
but has two major unequal zones. The more dominant and powerful zones include the
United States, European countries, and Japan, which have a goal of implementing their
educational practices or systems in less dominant zones (i.e., developing countries;
Spring, 2008). The sponsorship by the World Bank of junior secondary schools in
Jamaica is an example of the world system. These junior secondary schools were
structured so that the less specialized and less skilled working-class people could gain
more education. The supposed intention of training them for a workforce, however, is
to serve the interest of dominant core sectors in Jamaica (Clayton, 1998). Along the
same line as world systems, the third perspective, the postcolonial analysis theorist,
feels that a country’s economic and political power determines a country’s predominant
knowledge. Postcolonial analysis theorists, contrary to world cultural theorists, do not
feel that the ideal educational structure is the Western practice but rather that the world
is influenced by the Western education system—not because it is the ideal education
model but due to the West’s political and economic power. Culturist theorists do not
have one ideal education system in mind; they question the simplistic idea that there is
an ideal education system. They feel that the world is influenced by multiple school
models, that the world takes in educational ideas from various forms of knowledge, and
that society can view the world in many different ways (Spring, 2008).
The four theoretical perspectives illustrate that the future outcomes of globaliza-
tion and education can have various results depending on the perspective used. World
culture and world system theorists want to support and improve the current human
capital education model. Postcolonial theorists feel that the dominant global education
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
model is destructive and exploitive to society. Finally, the culturalist theorist wants to
incorporate various frameworks into the school system. It is important to understand
the four theoretical perspectives because they play a role in Costa Rica’s education
outlook. For example, the impact of MNCs has improved Costa Rica’s economy.
Other countries can view MNCs as taking a postcolonial approach whereby MNCs have
influenced Costa Rica’s education system not because the influence of MNCs in Costa
Rica provide an ideal educational model but rather because MNCs’ political and eco-
nomic power in Costa Rica have driven Costa Rica’s education system. Due to the
globalization of MNCs in Costa Rica, the economic and political powers are influencing
the education system in the country and educational leaders will have to develop an
educational system that will support its learners in a knowledge-based economy (Spring,
2008).
Globalization and Costa Rica
Globalization has played an important role in the development of Costa Rica as
a country. This section investigates how globalization has changed Costa Rica’s econ-
omy and how globalization has impacted the country’s culture and environment. In
addition, it discusses how the president of Costa Rica, José Maria Figueres, played an
integral part in globalization by greatly influencing MNCs to invest in Costa Rica.
Costa Rica went from an economy that was known for its agricultural exports
such as coffee and bananas to a HTMNC economy. The globalization of Costa Rica has
affected its country environmentally. Costa Rica’s national park system encompasses
25% of the entire country. Through the national park system, Costa Rica is able to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
protect its exotic flora and fauna that compose 5% of the world’s biodiversity. Costa
Rica is an ecotourism leader that advocates planet-friendly ways to preserve and protect
the environment. Over the years, Costa Rica has taken a living approach called Pura
Vida, meaning pure life. With the increase of tourism, trading, technology, and MNC
plant sites, globalization has changed the traditional dynamics within Costa Rica with
respect to peace, harmony, and the privacy of local communities. Globalization has
attracted many foreigners as well as tourists. The fact that foreigners are investing in
property in Costa Rica has driven property values up and has made it hard for local
Costa Ricans to manage their lives with the property value increases. In addition, the
privacy of the local community is affected by globalization. Indigenous people and
their cultures are intruded by foreigners and many are forced to adapt to the new culture
that globalization has created. Over the decades, Costa Rica has placed great value to its
commitment to peace, human rights, and the environment; however, globalization has
interfered with Costa Rica’s value system and all the aforementioned are some negative
effects that globalization has had on Costa Rica (Global Exchange, 2011b). The posi-
tive effects of globalization include the growth of Costa Rica’s economy. José Maria
Figueres was president of Costa Rica from 1994 to 1998. He played an integral part in
globalization and increasing Costa Rica’s economy during those years. It was also
during Figueres’s presidency that Intel was looking into Costa Rica as a potential
country in which to invest and build its plant site. Figueres wanted to build up Costa
Rica’s economy; he wanted Costa Rica to develop a productive and significant role in
the global economy. Figueres, educated at West Point and at Harvard University, felt
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
that Costa Rica would develop a strong global economy by attracting HTMNCs to
invest in the country. Throughout his presidency, he was able to work with CINDE to
develop an effective promotion strategy and attract Intel to invest $300 million to
developing its plant site (Nelson, 2008). As a result of Intel’s decision to invest, other
MNCs invested in Costa Rica, and Costa Rica transformed into a country whose main
exports are microprocessors.
Globalization has impacted Costa Rica significantly. One could say that Intel
and other MNCs in Costa Rica had positive effects on Costa Rica’s economy. Through
globalization, Costa Rica has created thousands of jobs for its people as well as im-
proved the quality of technical education to train people interested in working for the
technology sector. Globalization in Costa Rica has created networks between the locals
and foreign trade entities and has increased Costa Rica’s general global competitiveness
(Nelson, 2008). As a result of globalization, by 2007, Costa Rica had attracted 56 elec-
tronic firms employing 11,000 people, 23 medical device firms employing 6,000 peo-
ple, and 48 service firms employing 15,000 people (CINDE, 2006). Today, as a result
of globalization, Costa Rica has benefitted economically and is a world leader in tech-
nology.
Globalization has impacted Costa Rica’s economy, environment, and culture.
Through Figueres’s leadership and the impact of globalization, Costa Rica has shifted
from a country that was once agricultural and slow paced to a country that is technologi-
cally and economically advanced. Globalization has played an important role in the
development of Costa Rica as a country. Due to the globalization of MNCs in Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
Rica, it is important for educational leaders to develop strategies to support this new
knowledge-based economy.
Education System
Costa Rica places a high value on education. The country has a 96% literacy
rate for citizens who are aged 15 years and older. In 1869, the country gave everyone
free access to education. Costa Ricans have a history of valuing education and take
pride in their education because they feel that it is the key to success (Skidmore &
Smith, 2001). This section deals with Costa Rica’s educational system from the pre-
school stage to higher education. In addition, it examines the Ministry of Public Educa-
tion and the role it plays in the schools and education system of Costa Rica (CINDE,
Department of Research, 2011).
The current school structure in Costa Rica has four levels: preschool education,
primary education, middle (high school) education, and superior education. At the pre-
school level, education is based on development stages of infants. According to the
Minister of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública [MEP], n.d.), the edu-
cation system approaches human development with the assumption that people are
shaped by their physical, cultural, and natural interactions. During the preschool stage,
education is approached holistically. Students have an active role in their learning
environment, and all students interact with their own reality and ultimately become
shaped by their personal interactions and the surrounding environment. The curriculum
is not a traditional one; instead, it is a theoretical humanistic approach focused on
human development and a sociocultural concept. A student’s interactions with his or
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
her peers, teachers, family, counselor, and society all partake in molding and defining
the student’s learning process. Curriculum is structured to understand the individual
student, the student’s surroundings, the educational institution, and how to improve the
student’s quality of life. Given this concept, the curriculum is very flexible and is made
to fit the needs of the individual (MEP, n.d.). Preschool education continues up until
the child reaches the age of 6.
After preschool, students begin their primary education. At the primary level,
education continues to the sixth grade. Courses taught at that level include Spanish,
social studies, science, math, agricultural education, computer science, religious educa-
tion, physical education, home education or industrial arts, music education, and plastic
arts. At the primary level, it is important to note that schools implemented internet
access in educational centers to keep up with new technological advances. Indigenous
schools, however, use the basic national curriculum and in addition, incorporate three
main indigenous courses into their curriculum: native language (region specific), indige-
nous culture, and environmental education. After completing primary education, stu-
dents go onto secondary education (MEP, n.d.).
At the secondary level, education is focused on achieving competitive skills.
The education system, then, is divided into formal and nonformal education sectors;
these two sectors are academic or technical schools. Academic schools entail 4 years of
study from Grades 7 to 11; they prepare students who want to continue advanced educa-
tion (college) after they graduate from high school. Technical schools involve 5 years
of study from Grades 7 to 12 and help prepare students who want to go straight into the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
labor force after high school. After high school, all students are required to pass every
subject test in order to receive their high school diplomas. At the advanced educational
level, there are four public universities in Costa Rica; the remaining universities are
private schools (MEP, n.d.). This is the school structure in Costa Rica; however, with
the need for knowledge-based learners, there have been additional educational programs
to help prepare students to work in the technology sector.
In Costa Rica, the MEP is in charge of Costa Rica’s national education system.
The Superior Council of Education authorizes educational policies, and the role of the
MEP is to ensure that those curricular and policy decisions are communicated to educa-
tional leaders who will ultimately incorporate that vision into curricular planning, edu-
cational programs, and school projects. There are 20 education regional headships, each
of which is in charge of a regional director of education. The regional director oversees
two technical departments: the Educational Development Department and the Adminis-
trative Development Department. These technical departments act as the school’s
circuit units that are in charge of the advisory supervisor and contain educational centers
at all levels and modalities of a school (MEP, n.d.). The mission of the MEP in Costa
Rica is to promote the development and consolidation of an exceptional educational
system. It aims to provide quality education and access for all and is focused on per-
sonal development and the promotion of a Costa Rican society that is united through
opportunity and social equality (Amigos of Costa Rica, n.d.).
The structure of the MEP has been modified over the years to fit the modern
needs of society. In 2001, it established an office for Education of Human Sexuality for
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
the purpose of educating students and educators on human sexuality. Also, in 2002 it
established the office for Juridical Division of Education Ministry with the aim of
addressing legal issues in the education sector. Also formed was the Computer Admin-
istrative Division in consideration of the increased growth of science technologies and
telecommunications in Costa Rica. In 2003, the MEP established an office for the
Rights of Childhood and Adolescence of the MEP with the goal of advising and coordi-
nating with educators on childhood and adolescence education policies (MEP, n.d.).
Some priority goals of the MEP in Costa Rica are (a) revising the analysis of the pro-
cedure to select beneficiaries so as to ensure that students and schools in impoverished
rural areas still have access to the benefits of educational programs; (b) providing
students with more assistance in school dining rooms, student transportation, and
scholarships; (c) strengthening the offices within the MEP; and (d) fulfilling goals
implemented in the computer science strategic plan (MEP, n.d.).
In addition, the MEP (2007) developed 21st-century policies to support today’s
21st-century skills in Costa Rica. On November 8, 1994, the educational policy into the
21st century was approved by the higher education Council (MEP, n.d.). Some of the
basic principles of the policy are listed below:
1. Individuals should be able to develop personally and should seek opportuni-
ties to contribute to the development of their country while fulfilling their
own needs and pursuing their own happiness. They should be able to inter-
act with other people and cultures to solve problems and produce benefits for
their country. They should respect their own values and the values of others.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
2. Education should promote the broadening of understanding through chal-
lenging classroom situations and opportunities for self-growth. Individuals
should “learn how to learn.” Teachers should promote the need and love for
learning in the students so they will become life-long learners.
3. Social and economic gaps should be bridged by providing individuals with
possibilities for social improvement in order to integrate them into every-day
problem-solving situations. The goal should be to promote a self-sufficient
society.
4. Achieving sustainability in production and economy in general represents a
challenge for education. The country needs more qualified people in order
to increase productivity and improve the spirit of competitiveness. There is
also a need to integrate the country more effectively into global economy.
5. The information or content that learners acquire should be up-to-date and
should be relevant to global development in the 21st century.
6. Education should aim to reinforce values and attitudes. This is a moral
imperative. (p. 8)
These developments demonstrate how the MEP embraces the vision for schools in
Costa Rica to incorporate 21st-century skills in schools.
The MEP’s (n.d.) educational policy geared toward 21st-century skills develop-
ment refers to three philosophical visions: humanist, rationalist, and constructivist. The
humanist looks at the person as a whole; this philosophy takes on a holistic approach of
understanding the individual and all that surrounds the individual. The rationalist’s
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
approach understands people and their capacity. It focuses on what people must do to
continuously improve and learn, with the aims for greater progress toward reaching
individual goals. The constructivist philosophy focuses on the individual’s prior knowl-
edge and cultural background. From there, it aligns learning with instructional strate-
gies that draw the individual’s attention and create motivation by using what is familiar
to him or her (MEP, n.d.). The MEP and its partnerships with corporations and founda-
tions aim to close the gap between the “old world” of the classroom and the “new
world” of 21st-century skills.
This section has demonstrated the high value that Costa Rica places on its edu-
cation system from preschool through higher education. Twenty-first-century learning
is more than just learning from classroom instruction; instead, 21st-century learning is a
lifelong educational process in which each member of society contributes to the com-
mon good. In order to support MNCs in Costa Rica, it is important for Costa Rica to
highly prioritize its education system. Over the years, the MEP has established new
offices and restructured its National Center of Education Infrastructure to improve the
efficiency of the education system in Costa Rica by making sure that the priority goals
are addressed. The success of MNCs and the knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica
will rest primarily on the effectiveness of Costa Rica’s educational leaders, education
programs, and education system.
The Influence of MNCs on Education
Over the years, many MNCs have invested in plant sites in Costa Rica, including
Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft. These investments of MNCs have increased awareness in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
educational sectors such as the Omar Dengo Foundation, as well as MNCs, regarding
implementing and funding various educational programs to support skill development
and training for a knowledge-based economy. This research paper focuses specifically
on one MNC, Intel; however, for the purpose of providing the readers insight to how
MNCs have impacted Costa Rica, three MNCs are addressed in this section to discuss
how the impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica. This section specifically deal
with HTMNCs (i.e., Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco) that have all influenced Costa Rica’s
economy. It will also address educational policies that Costa Rica has added to its con-
stitution to support the economy as a result of the investment of MNCs in Costa Rica.
MNCs are defined as business organizations that have activities running in more
than two countries; this organizational form is known as foreign direct investment
(Lazarus, 1997). The history of MNCs began with early trade. Traders would go the
distances, traveling to various places in the hope of profiting from their trade. The
demands for foreign goods persisted throughout the decades. During the 19th and 20th
centuries, the rising wealth in Western countries increased foreign trade. The small size
of many European countries allowed MNCs to flourish because they had more employ-
ees working outside the country than within (e.g., Sweden, The Netherlands, Switzer-
land). MNCs today are portals for diffusion and transfer of knowledge. The knowledge
of how to organize and coordinate people across divisions is essential for MNCs to
achieve quality, speed to market, and products at affordable costs (Lazarus, 1997).
Costa Rica has faced challenges in skill development and training from the
knowledge-based economy. There is a need for graduates in higher academic degrees
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
(i.e., PhDs) to support Costa Rica’s knowledge-based economy. MNCs are having
trouble finding people who have graduate degrees in the areas of electrical and
electronic engineering, computer science, industrial engineering, and mechanical engi-
neering. Employees lack the problem-solving skills, scientific and mathematical skills,
business administration skills, and foreign language skills necessary to support the
transition of a knowledge-based economy (Monge-González & González, 2007). Thus,
it is essential for MNCs to take part in the process of partnering with schools and uni-
versities to develop proper training and skill development for students. MNCs such as
Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have taken action to improve the education system by
creating programs to help support Costa Rica’s knowledge growth.
Intel, an American MNC that produces semiconductor chips, invested in its
plant site in Costa Rica in 1996. Since that time, the nation has produced more than
90% of the chips that Intel has sold worldwide. Over the years, Intel has provided
essential training skills to its employees. For example, Intel has created programs to
improve the quality of teachers in the sciences and mathematics, developed programs
that allow students to create their own scientific research projects and get more hands-
on experience at an early age, and partnered with universities to develop curriculum and
make certain that the materials being taught in the science and technology majors are up
to date. Intel created the Latin America Engineering Services Group that offers research
and development to keep employees up to date on high-tech innovations. To support
the growth of the knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica, Intel has supported Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
Rica’s school system by starting many educational operations to help with skill develop-
ment (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
At the elementary and secondary education levels, Intel’s main focus is on
teacher training. Intel feels that keeping teachers updated on the latest teaching method-
ologies and educational subjects will be crucial to their teaching effectiveness. A
program that Intel established for elementary and secondary education is Intel Educar,
which trains elementary and secondary teachers on how to use various technologies.
Another program that Intel sponsors is Foundation for the National Center of Science
and Technology, which provides quality math and science activities for teachers, as well
as Intel Mathematics Day—a day when teachers observe real-world mathematic situa-
tions at Intel to learn from and then incorporate into classroom teachings. Intel has also
sponsored programs such as a self-instruction training manuals for rural teachers to help
teachers learn more about their own teaching styles and leverage them optimally, as well
as the Students as Scientists professional development program to increase student par-
ticipation in science fairs. Intel has also focused on the improvement of technical
schools in Costa Rica. In 2004–2005, Intel donated $20 million to the MEP for dis-
bursement to various technical schools. Intel has supported higher education by work-
ing with universities to update curricula in the math and engineering departments and
started a new degree program in electronics to help train technicians for jobs at Intel. At
the Costa Rican Technological Institute, there has been an increase in the enrollment of
students of students taking engineering courses—from 577 in 1997 to 874 students in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
2000. As a result, more students are pursuing computer science and electronic careers
(Monge-González & González, 2007).
Another MNC, Microsoft, has developed programs for educational leaders,
teachers, and students such as the Partners in Learning Grant, which provides training
for teachers and students in computer use; Fresh Start for Donated Computers, which
donates computers to various educational institutions in Costa Rica; the School Agree-
ment Subscription Licensing Program, which provides discounted Microsoft software
deals for elementary public schools; Peer Coaching, which offers resources on how to
use technology in alignment with educators’ school requirements; Imagine Cup, which
sponsors worldwide competitions that allow college students to promote their software
developmental skills and solutions to others; and M Zone, a program that trains students
on how to publish digital newspaper. As of 2006, 765,000 students, 10,500 teachers
and 1,200 school leaders had benefitted from the various programs that Microsoft
created (Monge-González & González, 2007).
Finally, Cisco, a world leader in Internet network devices, has a vision to change
the way that people work, live, and play. Cisco started its development in Costa Rica in
1996 and since then has developed the Networking Academy, which trains students on
how to create and design computer networks. It does so with the hope that students can
apply what they learned and pursue higher education careers in engineering, computer
science, and other information technology (IT) jobs. This program provides training to
students and professors so that they can then transfer what they learned and provide the
same training to other students (Monge-González & González, 2007). Overall, MNCs
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
recognize the need for knowledge-based workers and have taken the initiative to train
and provide educational programs that support these workers.
In 1988, the nonprofit organization Omar Dengo Foundation brought digital
technologies to preschool and community classrooms nationwide. The foundation has
been involved in carrying out national as well as regional projects in the areas of human
development and educational technological projects. These projects have benefitted the
children, students, educators, professionals, and society of Costa Rica’s residents.
Today, it provides a number of people with opportunities in skill development. The
foundation offers students skills to develop for the 21st century using the internet and
the world of digital programming. It has developed multiple partnerships with MNCs,
academic institutions, government, education leaders, and companies over the years to
design and evaluate programs that promote the skills development of the individual
(Omar Dengo Foundation, 2009).
The constitution is the fundamental law of the country; it reflects the country’s
societal value system. Costa Rica’s policies have been changed and adjusted to fit the
educational demands of MNCs. Education is highly valued in Costa Rica, and through
the influence of MNCs investing in Costa Rica, education policies in Costa Rica have
been modified to support a knowledge-based economy. Costa Rica’s constitution has
been structured and revised to meet the new demands of a knowledge-based economy.
Article 78 of Title VII, Education and Culture, was amended in 1981 to provide a set
plan to fund universities in Costa Rica (i.e., Technological Institute of Costa Rica;
Constitution of, 2013). This shows how Costa Rican policies have been adjusted to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
accommodate the needs of MNCs by assuring the integrity of Costa Rica’s education
system to train students so that they will be prepared to work for high-tech MNCs.
Article 78 was further amended in 1997 as follows:
1) Preschool education and general basic education are compulsory. These
levels and the diversified education level are, in the public system, free and
supported by the Nation;
2) Public expenditure in State education, including higher education, shall not
be less than six percent per annum of the gross domestic product, in accor-
dance with the law without detriment to the provisions of article 84 and 85
of this constitution;
3) The state shall facilitate the pursuit of higher studies by persons who lack
monetary resources. The Ministry of Public Education, through the organiza-
tion established by law, shall be in charge of awarding scholarships and
assistance. (Constitution of, 2013, para. 3)
The impact of MNCs such as Intel, Cisco, and Microsoft has changed Costa
Rica’s economy. Today, Costa Rica is a knowledge-based economy; and in order to
support MNCs in Costa Rica, it is essential to train students and provide them with a
technology medium so that they can start to develop skills in working with multimedia
and computers. Through schools, universities, and other educational programs, educa-
tional leaders have taken initiative to meet the demands of a knowledge-based economy.
Knowledge is opportunity, and educational leaders must seek various educational
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
avenues to provide opportunities for people of all ages to become successful, contribut-
ing members of society (Omar Dengo Foundation, 2009).
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Students today are immersed in various technological advancements, come from
diverse backgrounds, and have different learning styles. 21st-Century Skills is a global
movement that seeks to redefine teachings to educate students for the 21st century. In
today’s world, students need to develop problem-solving skills essential at work and in
life (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Schools in the 21st century must structure their curricu-
lum to educate future generations on three transformational changes: the knowledge-
based economy, unlimited access of information, and the new technological media
advances (Wagner, 2008). This section discusses Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills
to prepare students for the 21st century. It examines frameworks from the Partnership
for 21st Century Skills (2009), which educational leaders can leverage to prepare stu-
dents for 21st-century jobs.
Students live in a new world, and schools must develop curricula that will
prepare students with skills for the 21st century. According to Wagner (2008), there are
seven survival skills to accomplish this task. These survival skills were developed
through interviewing scores of business leaders ranging from Apple to Chemical Man-
agement’s chief executive officer (CEO), Clay Parker. Numerous studies were re-
viewed on the skills that employers desired and the discrepancies in obtaining those
desired skills in the workforce. The study indicated a list of skills that business leaders
valued and found important for their employees to possess to succeed in this ever-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
changing era. Business leaders felt that these skills were not only necessary to succeed
in their companies but also important to have for lifelong learners. The seven survival
skills are (a) “Critical Thinking and Problem Solving,” (b) “Collaboration Across
Networks and Leading by Influence,” (c) “Agility and Adaptability,” (d) “Initiative and
Entrepreneurism,” (e) “Effective Oral and Written Communication,” (f) “Accessing and
Analyzing Information,” and (g) “Curiosity and Imagination” (Wagner, 2008, p. 14).
First, critical thinking is the ability to ask keen questions that enable learners to
think critically and solve problems; these skills go hand in hand with the ability to
succeed in the rapidly growing knowledge-based economy. First, critical and problem-
solving skills are important because today’s work requires employees to collaborate in
teams to solve tasks and problems and reach a solution. Employees need to figure out
solutions on their own. Often there is not someone guiding and directing them each
step of the way; thus, employees need to solve problems and be able to think critically
to meet their end goal (Wagner, 2008).
Second, collaboration across networks and leading by influence is another
necessary skill. The structure of teamwork in the 21st century is different than it was
before technological advancement. Today, virtual teams are created to allow team
members from all over the world to collaborate on projects on the Internet. This re-
quires members to work independently and exercise their critical and problem-solving
skills so that they will be prepared when they meet with their group on conference calls
or webcasts. Collaboration via the Web is an important skill. As organizations go
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
global, employees need to develop skills to work globally with diverse cultures and
organizations (Wagner, 2008).
Third is agility and adaptability. Success in today’s job field requires employees
to be flexible and adaptable. Technology is ever changing, and training that an em-
ployee learned at his or job 6 years ago is most likely not the proper training needed in
today’s rapid technological changes. Schools also must implement adaptability and
agility skills in their environment by encouraging students to think outside the box.
Teachers need to encourage their students’ creativity and diverse thinking; schools must
promote an environment where there is not just one right answer but rather multiple
answers that can provide a solution to the desired goal (Wagner, 2008).
Regarding the fourth survival skill, initiative and entrepreneurialism, employers
are looking for employees who are risk takers and who will take the initiative to be
creative, even if they are not assured of success. Employers are looking for employees
who are entrepreneurs—willing to be stretched, to go outside of their comfort zone and
take on new challenges (Wagner, 2008).
Regarding the fifth survival skill, oral and written communication, one of the
most important skills employers look for is communicative abilities, both oral and
written. A study done by Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009), the study found
that 52% of employers reported written communication (i.e., ability to write memos,
letters, and reports) as one of the skills that high school students should develop.
Employers have also reported that 80% of their employees lack this skill (Wagner,
2008). Effective communication is a necessary skill, especially when so much of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
results of a project are dependent on effective communication via email and conference
calls.
The sixth survival skill is accessing and analyzing information. Employees in
the 21st century are constantly bombarded with much information; they have to be able
not to only manage the information but also to process it and interpret what the informa-
tion means (Wagner, 2008).
Finally, the seventh survival skill is curiosity and imagination. Being able to use
both the left brain (analytical) and right brain (artistic) is a challenge, but an employee
who possesses the skills to tap into his left and right brain to produce a structured but
creative project is highly valued in today’s job market (Wagner, 2008).
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) is a national organization that pro-
motes 21st-century learning for students. The organization has a vision for all students
to achieve success in the new global economy. Partnership for 21st Century Skills
provides educational leaders with a framework to teach their students skills that are
needed in the 21st century. The framework is broken down into various skill areas:
1. Core subjects such as English, reading, math, science, economics, history,
government, geography, arts, and world language. These are the core subjects being
taught. The 21st-century themes incorporated into these core subjects include global
awareness; financial, economic, business, and entrepreneurial literacy; civic literacy;
health literacy; and environmental literacy. It is important to incorporate 21st-century
themes into core subjects so that students can be informed on the pertinent issues facing
them in the 21st century.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
2. Learning and innovation skills. Students in the 21st century are faced with
an environment that requires them to apply creativity, critical thinking, communication,
and collaboration skills to their work. Educators can help students cultivate these skills
by structuring courses whereby students can work in groups, analyze and evaluate
problems, and think out of the box.
3. Information, media and technology skills. Students in the 21st century live
in a technology and media society. Vast amounts of information are transferred through
technology every day. To prepare students for success in the 21st century, educators
need to teach students how to use technology at a young age.
4. Career and life skills. Students navigating today’s environment face many
complex challenges that require them to apply their problem-solving skills. They need
to have knowledge that ranges from managing projects to working with diverse people
and cultures. To succeed in the 21st century, teachers must equip students with career
and life skills that go beyond the classroom.
The frameworks of Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) and Wagner’s
(2008) seven survival skills are all essential tools for practitioners to help prepare
students and employees for success at school, work, and life in today’s environment.
For example, it is important for students to develop critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. Educational leaders can help students develop critical and problem-
solving skills by incorporating programming and robotics into the curriculum. Subse-
quently, students are helped to develop these skills by working on projects that stimulate
their minds and require them to come up with solutions for given problems. Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
thus develop digital-literate skills that are necessary for them when they start working.
As Costa Rica has transformed from an agricultural- to a knowledge-based economy,
the frameworks of Partnership for 21st Century Skills along with the seven survival skill
sets constitute important skills that employers seek out in their employees.
Leadership
Twenty-first-century leaders have shifted from a capital growth that was once
rooted in industrial steel and automobiles to a capital growth driven by information and
financial services (Dess & Picken, 2000). As the 21st-century economy shifts from
capital-intensive to information-intensive industries, new leadership roles emerge to
meet the demands. The traditional techniques of leadership that were effective in the
past may not provide the same efficiency for the 21st-century environment. This re-
search paper focuses specifically on the leadership of Bolman and Deal (2011); how-
ever, for the purpose of providing background on leadership, concepts from Marzano,
Waters, and McNulty (2005) and Northouse (2007) are also addressed in this section.
Leaders need to develop innovative ways of thinking and looking at problems within
their organizations. The frameworks from Bolman and Deal, Marzano et al., and
Northouse are just that—they serve as analytical tools that leaders can use to approach,
understand, and solve problems from various frameworks. These authors have high-
lighted the frameworks that leaders can use to best manage their organizations (i.e.,
schools).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
Bolman and Deal
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica has challenged leaders to
take on new leadership roles in schools and universities. Leaders must incorporate new
leadership roles to meet the needs of the knowledge-based economy. Leaders can
incorporate these roles in a knowledge-based economy by applying Bolman and Deal’s
(2011) four leadership frames: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic.
According to Bolman and Deal, these are the four distinctive frames that people use to
perceive their world. For leaders, understanding these four frameworks allows them to
serve as change agents for their organizations and to be effective leaders who will have
the knowledge to lead their employees.
The structural frame focuses on the roles and responsibilities of the organiza-
tion; it serves as a blueprint that leaders can use to clarify the organization’s goals and
clarify tasks and roles for each team member. This framework focuses on formal rules
and the hierarchy of the organization. Leaders should use this framework when the
roles and tasks are well defined and when there is little ambiguity on what the organiza-
tion hopes to achieve with respect to goals. Assigning work and making sure that every
team member contributes to work are essential for the structural framework to run
efficiently. Thus, leaders must have a strong grasp of the organization’s policies, regu-
lations, and requirements in order to lead the team and delegate work accordingly.
Leaders need to be well versed in knowledge about the organization and the people who
work there so that they can assign work to team members who have the proper exper-
tise. Achieving success in the structural framework is achieved by following these main
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
concepts: clarifying the organization’s goals, maintaining an external and internal envi-
ronment of understanding how things flow and work, implementing a clear structure
that is appropriate to the setting, identifying the key people in charge of tasks, and
focusing on the task of the organizational structure while remaining flexible to adapt to
new goals and objectives (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
The human resource frame takes an opposite approach compared to the struc-
tural frame. Instead of focusing on the policy and rules upon which the organization is
founded and runs, it focuses on people as the ultimate measure of assessing how well
the organization is functioning. The human resource frame views people as the heart of
the organization; leaders who apply this framework are sensitive to understanding the
needs of the people and the organization. In the structural frame, the needs of the
organization might be very straightforward; however, in the human resource frame, the
needs of the people are not as straightforward. Leaders have to tune into their employ-
ees and understand their values so as to better lead them. Humans have a wide range of
emotions, talents, and complexity as individuals. Under this frame, the leader needs to
tap into the emotions and talents of each individual and then cultivate those talents into
the organization. The emphasis in this frame is for the leader to be a listener and sup-
porter to empower people so that they achieve their best. Key elements of effectiveness
in the human resource frame are loyalty to people by promoting employees from within
the organization and rewarding them for their performance, investing in people by
having them undergo development classes and supporting their personal growth and
development, empowering people by providing the support and resources needed for
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
success, and promoting diversity in the work environment by embracing people from all
backgrounds. The human resource frame is appropriate to use when the leader wants to
develop interpersonal relationships with others to strengthen the solidity of the team-
work in the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
The political frame acknowledges the divides and conflicts that are inevitable in
an organization. It views organizations as a place where people compete for resources,
power, influence and interests. The leader understands the importance of the different
groups’ interests and negotiates ways in which groups can compromise and come to an
agreement on their differences. The leader gains in stature by developing ties with
major constituencies. Leaders use this frame to facilitate change within and outside of
the organization. Successful leaders using this frame incorporate the following ele-
ments: managing individuals and interest groups; building power bases in an organiza-
tion where people have various differences on values, beliefs, interests, and views and
being able to maneuver through those differences while ensuring that each interest
group is valuable; negotiating conflicts over limited resources and allocating resources
accordingly; and creating compromises among stakeholders. The political frame is
most appropriate to use when resources are scarce and when there is a conflict on goals
and values. An effective political leader will know how to use his or her political skills
by being able to negotiate among the conflicting parties. The result of the negotiation
and actions will determine the fall or rise of the leader with respect to how he or she can
take charge of the political arena. Leaders would need to create a network that supports
their decisions and actions. Also, leaders need to understand the importance of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
developing lifelong alliances and friendships to assist them in meeting the goals of the
organization (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
Finally, leaders who lead applying the symbolic frame do so with inspiration and
bring meaning to their organization. Leaders who follow this frame must understand
the tradition and culture of the organization. Stories of tradition drive people to find
meaning and purpose and to increase their loyalties to their organization. The approach
is organic in that as the organization evolves, new hopes and values are implemented
into the organization. Leaders rely on building common value systems that people
support and cherish. Symbolic frames allow leaders to define the purpose and culture of
the organization and accomplish its mission. These types of leaders are usually strong
advocates for tradition and value systems in their organization. This frame is best used
when an organization uses rituals and ceremonies to deepen its relationship among
members within an organization; leaders then need to make their employees feel that
their personal work and the mission of the organization are well aligned in intentions
(Bolman & Deal, 2011).
The four frames from Bolman and Deal (2011) serve as analytical tools, provid-
ing leaders with lenses to help them examine and solve problems from various perspec-
tives. Each frame has its own importance, and no frame is more important than another.
However, effective leaders who are able to diagnose an organization’s structure and
implement positive solutions will be able to use multiple frames to arriving at a solu-
tion. Effective leaders who are knowledgeable in the four frames and are able to apply
them accordingly will be able to advocate and negotiate the best possible solutions.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
Northouse
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica has challenged leaders to
take on new leadership roles in schools and universities. Another leadership framework
that is important for educational leaders to understand is that of Northouse (2007).
Leaders can incorporate new leadership roles in a knowledge-based economy by apply-
ing the Northouse’s leadership framework. According to Northouse, leadership is
defined as having the following elements: (a) process orientation, (b) influence, (c)
group context, and (d) goal attainment. In addition, Northouse identified ways to
improve and approach leadership: (a) the trait approach, (b) the skills approach, (c) the
style approach, and (d) the situational approach. As leaders, understanding this frame-
work allows them to serve as change agents for their organizations.
According to Northouse (2007), leadership is a process orientation, which
suggests that leadership is not a trait with which one is born but rather a skill developed
over time and through experiences. Leadership is also an influence, meaning that it
involves leaders influencing people and communities to be in agreement even through
their disagreements. Leadership also takes place in a group context, meaning that
leaders are concerned with engaging others to accomplish a certain goal. Finally, lead-
ership is leading others to attain a certain goal. For example, basketball coaches lead
their teams to achieve the goal of winning the championship finals. Overall, leadership
is a process by which the leader attempts to influence a group to achieve a common goal
that will benefit the corporation’s mission.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
There are different ways to approach and improve the quality of leadership, as
identified by Northouse (2007). The trait approach focuses on the leader and is based
on the assumption that leaders are born with certain traits that help them become great.
In contrast, the skills approach is based on the premise that leadership is a process in
which leaders develop relevant skills over time. It is not innate, but rather learned. The
style approach is when leaders lead by impacting others through their tasks and relation-
ships that they build. Finally, the situational approach is when the leader focuses on the
situation and, depending on the situation, adapts his or her leadership style accordingly.
This style is very flexible and constantly changes depending on the situation.
It is important for leaders to understand these different leadership styles because
in order for Costa Rica’s knowledge-based economy to continue to flourish, so much
rests in the hands of the educational and MNC leaders in Costa Rica. These leaders
must be able to influence and lead others from various backgrounds and skills with the
purpose of achieving success for Costa Rica’s knowledge-based economy.
Marzano
The last leadership framework addressed in this section is that of Marzano et al.
(2005). Leaders take on certain responsibilities and, according to Marzano et al., school
leaders have 21 responsibilities that successful leaders must address. These 21 respon-
sibilities are the following: (a) affirmation, which refers to the extent to which leaders
recognize and celebrate the success of the schools; (b) change agent, which refers to
leaders having the courage to challenge the status quo; (c) contingent rewards, which
refers to school leaders recognizing individuals for their achievements; (d)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
communication, which refers to school leaders establishing lines of communication
between students and teachers; (e) culture, which refers to the school’s unique values,
set of beliefs, and feelings regarding what is important to their particular school; (f)
discipline, which is essentially protecting teachers from issues that distract them from
their instructional purpose; (g) flexibility, which refers to how leaders adapt their leader-
ship behavior to the situations and the needs of others; (h) focus, which refers to how
leaders meet and establish clear goals; (I) ideals/beliefs, which refers to the articulation
of leaders’ beliefs and ideals regarding leadership; (j) input, which refers to leaders
involving teachers in their design for decision making; (k) intellectual simulation,
which refers to leaders making sure that their staff and faculty are up to date with the
most current practices and theories; (l) involvement in curriculum/instruction/assess-
ment, which refers to instructional leaders being immersed directly in the design and
implementation of curriculum, instruction , and assessment of activities; (m) knowledge
of curriculum/instruction/ assessment, which addresses how leaders are aware of the
various approaches to best practices; (n) monitoring/evaluating, which refers to how
leaders monitor the effectiveness of school practices and how they impact student
achievement; (o) optimizer, which refers to providing the best support and the necessary
resources to achieve a goal; (p) order, which refers to creating structure and process in
schools; (q) outreach, which refers to how leaders advocate and represent their school
to the public and stakeholders; (r) relationships, which refers to the extent leaders are
engaged with the personal lives of teachers and staff; (s) resources, which refers to how
leaders provide teachers with the resources to be effective at their jobs; (t) situational
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
awareness, which addresses how leaders are aware of the relevant details and events to
address current and potential problems; and (u) visibilities, which refers to the interac-
tions that school leaders have with teachers, students, and parents.
It is important to apply these 21 responsibilities because they are transferrable
knowledge that can aid in the effectiveness of educational leadership in Costa Rica.
Leaders find themselves taking on new leadership responsibilities due to the shift from
an agricultural- to a knowledge-based economy in Costa Rica. These 21 responsibilities
delineated by Marzano et al. (2005) are not new findings for school leadership theories;
rather, they validate the existing leadership theories and beliefs of the responsibilities
that school leaders must tackle to be effective school leaders. These 21 responsibilities
are essential for school leaders to apply, because each has a direct influence on students’
academic achievement (Marzano et al., 2005). Thus, educational leaders in Costa Rica
need to lead by keeping these 21 responsibilities in mind if they want their students to
succeed academically. MNCs in Costa Rica have challenged leaders to take on the
responsibilities mentioned above, and it is up to leaders to navigate these challenges
successfully.
Today, the majority of workers in Costa Rica are knowledge workers. Given the
transition from agrarian- to knowledge-based workers, the role of leaders must also
change to address the needs and expectations of the knowledge workers. One style that
leaders can emulate in a knowledge-based society is transformational leadership, which
acknowledges the need for change in order for the organization to meet the desired
goals. Transformational leaders lead with vision, problem-solving skills, creativity, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
help to transform the way in which others perceive their jobs by understanding and sat-
isfying the needs of their employees. Transformational leadership is similar to Bolman
and Deal’s (2011) human resource leadership frame. Both leadership styles attempt to
have people lead by understanding their employees and empowering the employees with
the skills and knowledge that they need to be successful in their jobs. In conclusion,
MNC executives and educational leaders must lead with vision, problem-solving skills,
creativity, and provide the 21st-century skills and resources for the knowledge-based
workers in Costa Rica.
Summary
In summary, the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica has impacted Costa Rica’s
awareness regarding the need for knowledge-based workers. Costa Rica has responded
to this need by focusing its commitment to education. For example, due to the presence
of many MNCs in Costa Rica, the country has increased its commitment regarding edu-
cation not just at the primary and secondary level but also in providing technical high
schools and universities that will support the need for knowledge-based workers. At
one institution, the number of students enrolled in engineering fields grew from 9.5% in
1997 to 12.5% in 2000 (Larraín, López-Calva, & Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica’s
strategy to collaborate with universities and government to improve the curriculum and
teacher training in technical fields has helped the country support its technology- and
knowledge-based economy. To further this success, Costa Rica should continue devel-
oping and investing in its education system.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
The study was conducted by a thematic dissertation team of 12 doctoral candi-
dates from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California
(USC). The thematic group met to discuss the topic of globalization and the impact that
MNCs have had on Costa Rica, as identified by the literature review. Through the
thematic team’s collaboration, a design and methodology were implemented. The study
identified leadership and 21st-century skills that were helpful for Costa Rica to acquire
in order for educational leaders to succeed in a knowledge-based economy.
Chapter 2 described the impact that globalization and MNCs involvement have
had on Costa Rica through an overview of Costa Rica’s history and how the nation has
evolved over past decades, the concept of globalization and how it can transform a
country and its education system, the structure of Costa Rica education system and the
importance of education, the influence of MNCs on Costa Rica’s education system,
educating and equipping students with 21st-century skills, and leadership frameworks.
This chapter describes the procedures used to address the research questions: (a) the
research design, (b) the sample and population, (c) instrumentation, (d) data collection,
(e) data analysis, and (f) ethical considerations.
Research Questions
To understand the impact that globalization and the involvement of MNCs have
had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica, the following research questions were developed:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Research Design
The study used a qualitative study to understand the impact that globalization
and MNCs involvement have had on educational leadership and the development of
21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. Merriam (2009) defined a
qualitative researcher as one who attempts not only to research what people are experi-
encing but also determine how they interpret these experiences. Merriam emphasized
the importance of choosing a research design that fits one’s research question(s). A
qualitative methodology was utilized in this study because this method approaches the
study in terms of people, situations, events, and the processes that are all intertwined
(Maxwell, 2013). A diverse collection of data provided the best approach for this par-
ticular study.
A qualitative study provides strength that a quantitative study could not, such as
focusing on specific situations and people with an emphasis on description instead of
numbers (Maxwell, 2013). The study attempted to understand how the education
systems in Costa Rica have changed. In addition, the research team collected data using
a qualitative approach to investigate inductively by gathering rich data regarding what
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
was observed. Merriam (2009) defined this type of qualitative research as a case study
and suggested that an object of study should be identified. Identifying an object allows
the researcher to explain the “what” and focus on the targeted areas. This case study
focused on gathering data from multiple educational sources but specifically focused on
schools in Costa Rica that were influenced by MNCs.
A survey that was developed by the research team was administered to business
and educational leaders in Costa Rica and their respective school board presidents and
school board members. The survey was distributed to a spectrum of educational and
business leaders in the hope of obtaining generalized results for the population. Surveys
allow researchers to capture general themes on a broad spectrum (Creswell, 2009). In
addition, interview questions were constructed to answer the three research questions.
The interview questions were operationalized—that is, broken down into smaller parts
so that interviewees could understand and answer the questions. The interview ques-
tions were created from a series of questions that were developed to answer the leader-
ship theory-based frameworks. The goal was to have participants answer the interview
questions, which collectively addressed the three research questions. The interview
questions were designed so that they would be open-ended, thus allowing for qualitative
research. Both survey and interview questions were developed so that the thematic
group could triangulate data in regard to the study.
Conceptual Framework
Merriam (2009) defined three types of qualitative case studies: historical and
observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. The study approached the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
research from a multisite case study perspective; the research team gathered and ana-
lyzed data from multiple sites or cases to find common characteristics. Maxwell (2013)
suggested that a conceptual framework be used because this framework allows research-
ers to identify common characteristics.
The research team approached the purpose of this study by using the following
frameworks: the four-frame theory of Bolman and Deal (2011), Framework for 21st-
Century Learning (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2012), Spring’s (2008) Re-
search on Globalization and Education (Spring, 2008), and Wagner’s (2008) research
on the global achievement gap. These frameworks serve as an analytical tool to provide
leaders with lenses to examine and solve problems from various perspectives. Each
framework has its own importance and purpose, and no framework is more important
than the other; however, effective leaders can diagnose an organization’s structure and
implement positive solutions will be knowledgeable about using multiple frames to
arrive at a solution. Effective leaders applying the different frameworks will be able to
advocate and negotiate the best possible solutions.
The thematic research group discussed and collaborated on the frameworks
used. Surveys and interview questions were developed, as a team, to address globaliza-
tion and the impact that MNCs have had on educational leadership and 21st-century
skills in Costa Rica’s schools. Open-ended interview questions were constructed based
on the frameworks mentioned above.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
Population and Sample
The study was conducted by a thematic dissertation research team of 12 doctoral
candidates selected by Dr. Michael Escalante. The dissertation team was interested in
the strategies that educational leaders used at their respective sites. A purposeful sam-
pling approach allowed the group to gain insight and depth in understanding the issues.
Purposeful selection of participants was accomplished through a subgroup team of four
doctoral candidates who volunteered to develop the contacts in Costa Rica. The sub-
group team contacted participants in Costa Rica by email, letter, phone conversations,
and face-to-face meetings. This team was also responsible for planning and executing
the exploratory trip in March 2013, prior to the entire group’s data collection trip sched-
uled for June 2013. During the exploratory planning trip in March 2013, the subgroup
met with Costa Rican government, corporate, and educational leaders. Specifically,
they met with the former President of the Costa Rica, the MEP, the Dean of the College
of Education, the Director of Education Research of the University of Costa Rica
(UCR), the director of CINDE, the Director of Intel Educational Program, the Director
of the FTZ Business Association, and the Director of Costa Rica-United States of
America (CRUSA). These leaders of government, corporate industry, and education
were all chosen as a purposeful sample for the study (Patton, 2002).
The selection of the participants for the June 2013 data collection trip was based
on the availability of the established contacts and referrals from these contacts. In addi-
tion, the research team will visit 12 Intel-supported schools to conduct the research
protocols. The research team will confirm the dates and times when they would meet
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
with participants for interviews, conduct surveys, and observations. A survey was
developed and distributed to site leaders at the selected schools to measure their knowl-
edge of 21st-century skills, awareness of the recent changes in government policy, and
the influence of MNCs in Costa Rica.
Instrumentation
The thematic group worked together to develop instrumentations for the study.
This study was conducted using fieldwork in Costa Rica comprised of interviews,
observations, and surveys as instrumentation for data collection. Data were collected
from a variety of sources. The different sources helped triangulate data and lessened the
risk of bias and accidental associations related to the particular data collection method
(Maxwell, 2013). The dissertation team created the instruments based on the literature
review and the development of the research questions. Each dissertation team member
worked from a selected group of governmental, industry, and K–12 educational leaders
and higher educational leaders at the university setting to determine the impact of
globalization and MNCs on the Costa Rican education system and educational leader-
ship.
The instruments were constructed based on the conceptual frameworks from
Bolman and Deal (2011), Spring (2008), Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009), and
Wagner (2008). Spring’s research was used to determine whether the participants
viewed the results of globalization and the presence of MNCs from a world culture,
world system, post colonialist, or culturalist perspective. Wagner’s seven critical skills
and abilities (i.e., critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leading,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written
communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination)
will help to determine how the study participants feel that the results of globalization
and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica. Finally,
Bolman and Deal’s (2011) political, structural, human resource, and symbolic frames
provided insight on how participants felt that educational leadership has been impacted
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs.
Before the exploratory trip, contacts were made in Costa Rica through numerous
emails. One email was sent to Leonardo Garnier, Costa Rica’s Minister of Public
Education (see Appendix A), addressing that as part of the dissertation study, the disser-
tation team was planning to visit Costa Rica to conduct the study and would appreciate
an opportunity to speak with him, members of the MEP, and educational leaders at the
district and school site levels. Each participant in this study received an information
letter and a recruitment/consent letter to be signed and returned prior to participation
(see Appendix B).
Each dissertation cohort member chose one school site and individual theme for
his or her dissertation. This researcher focused on the UCR, specifically on the School
of Education, Master’s in Teaching Education Program, and how it is preparing teachers
in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands
of MNCs. The various protocols such as surveys, interviews, and observations were
used during the visits to UCR. These protocols allowed the researcher to record notes
and check off specific 21st-century skills that were being developed in the classroom.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
As a result of the many group aspects of the thematic process, there may be similarities
in the dissertations.
Surveys and Interviews
The survey method was chosen for this research project because it is the best
method to collect information “directly from people about what they believe, know and
think” (Fink, 2013, p. 24). A one-time, self-administered paper survey consisting of 17
items in the format of forced-choice questions/open-ended/likert scale) was provided to
the group of governmental, industry and educational leaders for distribution to a small
selection of managers and/or teachers within the organization. The survey was used for
research rather than to meet policy or program needs, or as an evaluation of a program
(Fink, 2013).
A pilot survey was developed and tested to ensure that the actual survey and
interview questions are practical and provide the information needed for the research. A
self-administered survey has to be clearly written so that the respondents can compre-
hend the directions and answer the survey questions (Fink, 2013). Pilot tests can also be
used to determine how long it will take a respondent to complete the survey or interview
questions and will improve the response rate through elimination of unclear questions
and so on (Fink, 2013). A copy of the final survey is contained in Appendix C.
Interview questions were operationalized—that is, broken down into smaller
parts so that interviewees can understand and answer the questions. The interview
questions were created from a series of questions that were geared to answer the leader-
ship theory-based frameworks. The objective was to develop interview questions that,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
collectively, would address the theory-based leadership frameworks and answer the
three research questions. The interview questions were constructed so that they would
be open-ended questions to allow for qualitative research.
Student researchers asked semistructured, open-ended questions to selected
governmental, industry, and educational leaders from K–12 schools and universities to
determine how they viewed the impact of globalization and MNCs on Costa Rican
society, schools and universities, and on educational leadership. Semistructured ques-
tioning allowed the researchers flexibility while providing the ability to capture the
viewpoint of the participants and perhaps new ideas on the research topic. Interviewing
is the most effective technique to use for data collection when conducting in-depth case
studies of only a few chosen individuals (Maxwell, 2013). The dissertation team de-
signed interview protocols that are included in Appendices D, E, and F.
Observations
According to Merriam (2009), observation is an essential method for collecting
data for a qualitative research project. It is a means to obtain a personal account of the
phenomenon or phenomena being studied and, together with interviews and the exami-
nation of documents, provides a well-rounded analysis of the topic. However, because
the researcher cannot help but be somewhat of a participant and an observer, the situa-
tion may be subject to distortion because it is occurring under conditions outside of a
controlled environment, such as a laboratory (Merriam, 2009). The dissertation team
developed an observation protocol that is contained in Appendix G. The protocol was
created based on the checklist provided by Merriam and includes the following
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
elements: (a) physical setting, (b) the participants, (c) activities and interactions, (d)
conversations, (e) subtle factors, and (f) researcher’s own behavior.
Data Collection
A qualitative and multimethod approach was used to collect data (Creswell,
2009) . The dissertation group acquired a list of available participants from the govern-
ment officials in Costa Rica. Data were collected from surveys, observations, and
interviews. Observations were conducted to capture the physical space, participants’
behaviors and interactions, demographic information, and the sequence of events.
Notes and pictures were taken to capture the observations listed above. Interviews were
conducted at the school site or the place of business. Interviews allowed respondents to
provide personal perspective as well as historical background regarding change over
time, which can be a critical aspect of this case study (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009;
Patton, 2002). A team of four researchers interviewed four participants each. Potential
probing during the interviews based on the participants’ responses varied per research
member. Each interview was recorded and notes taken to highlight significant re-
sponses or areas where additional data were offered. Each interview was then tran-
scribed and analyzed. Surveys were distributed to a spectrum of educational and
business leaders in the hope of obtaining generalized results for the population. Once
the surveys were collected, the data were coded and transcribed.
After the data were gathered (i.e., observations, interviews, and surveys), the
research group compared and analyzed them with one another. The reason for choosing
observations, interviews, and surveys was to strengthen the research. The goal was to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
triangulate the data by collecting and analyzing data through different methods to
identify a common theme. The data were used to broaden the overall depth of the study
and to create the opportunity to develop conclusions at the end of the study (Lal, 2001;
Marshall & Rossman, 1995).
Data Analysis
The purpose of the study was to understand the impact that globalization and the
involvement of MNCs has had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-
century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. A qualitative approach was
used to gather data in addressing the research questions. Each member of the thematic
group distributed surveys, collected the surveys, and conducted open-ended interviews
with his or her selected sample population. After the data were collected, all the mem-
bers met and discussed survey and interview results. Each member organized and
coded his or her data. Once all of the members had presented their survey results, the
data were compiled, organized, and recorded into a shared file. Themes and patterns of
the results are identified and reported in Chapter 4.
Ethical Considerations
All 12 thematic group members completed the USC Institutional Review Board
(IRB) application and completed the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). The
CITI is an online human subject educational program designed to make sure that the
both the human subjects and researcher(s) involved in the study would conduct the
research in an ethical manner. The IRB process ensures that the whole research process
is conducted ethically and without any emotional and/or physical harm to the subjects.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
Summary
In this chapter, several qualitative methods were used to address the research
questions so as to understand the impact that globalization and involvement of MNCs
has had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools
and universities in Costa Rica. The instruments chosen for the study were collabora-
tively decided based on the conceptual frameworks addressed in Chapter 2. Each
member collected the data individually, and the results were then gathered and pre-
sented to the thematic group members. The thematic group worked together to analyze
and code the data.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
Chapter 4
Results
Costa Rica, traditionally, known for its “golden coffee” of the world, has pro-
gressed into a country that is known as the “golden chip” of the world due to the invest-
ment of MNCs in the nation. As a result, today’s educational leaders must learn how to
navigate a new world economy and prepare educators and workers for the knowledge-
based economy. Considerations should be given to explore ways to support educational
leaders in Costa Rica and to equip its students with 21st-century skills.
This chapter presents an analysis of the data that were collected through surveys
interviews, and observations. The study was designed to examine the impact that
globalization and MNCs have had on Costa Rica with respect to education in schools
and universities, educational leadership, and policies. The study utilized Spring’s (2008)
theoretical perspectives regarding the process of globalization and education, Wagner’s
(2008) 21st-century skills, and Bolman and Deal’s (2011) leadership frameworks. The
thematic group developed three research questions to guide the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNC’s are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced by policy decisions as a
result of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
A qualitative approach including surveys, interviews, and observations was used
to collect data. The thematic group sent out surveys to teachers who met the selection
criteria and interviewed educational leaders, government leaders, and corporate leaders
who met the criteria. Classrooms, school and university campuses, and facilities were
also observed. All of the data were collected, triangulated, and analyzed to better
answer the thematic group’s three research questions.
Description of Participants
Various educational leaders, government leaders, and MNC leaders were inter-
viewed. The interviewees and the school sites selected for the study were preselected
by the exploratory research team based on their involvement with MNCs, specifically
their involvement with Intel. The study was designed to examine the impact of global-
ization and MNCs on Costa Rica, as relating to education in schools and universities,
educational leadership, and policies. This study used data from schools, universities,
and government programs to answer the research questions. For this paper, the primary
resource was data analyses in higher education, specifically at the UCR, where surveys
were distributed and teacher surveys were completed. Observations within classrooms,
school facilities, and overall campuses were noted. Various educational leaders, gov-
ernment leaders, and MNC leaders were also interviewed. Descriptions of the nine
interviewees are provided to support and answer the three research questions.
Mary Helen Bialas (Interviewed June 25, 2013)
Mary Helen Bialas is the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager
for Intel. She acts as the liaison between Intel Costa Rica and the Intel Corporation
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
programs that support education in Costa Rica from K–12 through higher education.
Ms. Bialas has been with Intel for the past 16 years; she previously worked in the
private education sector as a project manager. Prior to that, she worked as a Peach Corp
Program Manager in education and community.
Dr. Marta Camacho (Interviewed June 27, 2013)
Dr. Marta Camacho has been the Director of the Education School at UCR for
over 5 years. She oversees the career tracks related to preschool and elementary years,
as well as the 10 career tracks relating to middle and high school. She feels that the
teaching profession is one of most important professions. At one point, she was a
preschool teacher and feels that the quality and level of education attained play a pivotal
role in a student’s development.
Anibal Cota (Interviewed June 27, 2013)
Anibal Cota is the Coordinator of the Master’s Program in Electronics at the
Costa Rica Institute of Technology (ITCR). At the time of the interview, she had been
in this position for 6 months. Prior to that, she had been teaching and was also a
researcher for 6 years.
Dr. Allen Pacheco (Interviewed June 27, 2013)
Dr. Allen Pacheco is the Academic Coordinator for the B.A. in English in the
School of Modern Languages at the UCR, a position he had held for 2 years, but has
been with the UCR for the past 25 years. For 4 years, he was working as the Dean of
the school and has occupied many different roles during his time at UCR.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
Patricia Escalante (Interviewed June 28, 2013)
Patricia Escalante is the former Director of Intel. She was in charge of the Intel
Teach Program for Costa Rica beginning in 1995. She is a professor at the UCR and
has been teaching at UCR since 1991. She teaches English and is in charge of several
programs. Currently she is in charge of the conversation program, which is offered to
members of the community.
Mario Antonio Conejo Solis (Interviewed June 27, 2013)
Mario Solis is the ITCR professor at the School of Material Science and Engi-
neering. He is also the ITCR representative for the Costa Rican Commission of Atomic
Energy. Mr. Solis started working with ITCR in 1987 and was the director of the school
from 2004 to 2008.
Dr. Leonardo Garnier (Interviewed June 24, 2013)
Dr. Leonardo Garnier has been the Minister of Public Education in Costa Rica
since 2006. He is in charge of the preschool, primary school, and high school system.
Dr. Garnier was born in San José and earned a degree in economics from the UCR and a
Ph.D. in economics from the New School for Social Research in New York. He has
worked as a professor at UCR in the School of Economics and has been a researcher at
the Institute for Research in Economics. He has also held various positions in the public
sector in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
Ronny Guadmuz (Interviewed June 26, 2013)
Ronny Guadmuz is the Director at Escuela Fidel Chaves Murillo in Costa Rica,
where he has been for 30 years, with 18 years in the administrative area and 12 years as
a teacher.
Abraham Bermudez (Interviewed June 25, 2013)
Abraham Bermudez has been the Director at Escuela Manuel del Pilar for 9
years. As a public primary school director, he sees everything. He deals with the
operations and administrative side; he sees teachers as they work and evaluates what
they do. He also works with the Board of Education on operational issues; he has to
deal with leaks, dripping sinks, the classroom facilities, painting walls, handling floors
that need repair, and any other emergencies.
Jorge Quesada (Interviewed June 26, 2013)
Jorge Quesada has been working at the Center for University Linkage at ITCR
for 31 years. He is a journalist with a master’s degree in communication.
Results Relating to Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked: What results of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations are seen in Costa Rica? The answer to this research ques-
tion lay in exploring the factors that influenced how the country has shifted from an
agricultural to a knowledge-based economy. This progressive shift started when Intel
became the first MNC to invest in its plant site in Costa Rica in 1996. Since then, mul-
tiple MNCs have invested in Costa Rica due to Costa Rica’s desirable characteristics:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
location, political stability, legacy of past investments, educational literacy, attractive
tax and tariff conditions, and high FDI (Jensen, 2003).
Costa Rica has economically flourished, going from an agricultural to a
knowledge-based economy with the compilation of various events and partnerships that
have happened over time. Costa Rica’s partnership with technological sectors, educa-
tion policies, and educational leaders has moved the country toward a knowledge-based
economy. The investment in education over the decades has made it possible for Costa
Rica to grow and welcome MNCs into the country, thus making it a pathway for the
development of a knowledge-based economy (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). There has been
a significant growth of jobs in the business and software industry since the 1990s
(Travica, 2002). Prior to the knowledge-based economy, Costa Rica was not a key par-
ticipant in the global market. However, with the new economy, Costa Rica has wel-
comed the global market, as the country currently ships 50% of its exports, uses English
frequently, and has seen a significant increase in its people majoring in computer sci-
ence subjects (Travica, 2002). The themes of economic, cultural, and social impact
emerged from the surveys, interviews, and observations conducted to investigate
Research Question 1.
Economy: Agricultural to Knowledge Based
Due to globalization and the presence of MNCs, Costa Rica’s economy has
shown strong growth. Spring (2008) defined globalization as a phenomenon of in-
creased economic integration among nations, characterized by the movement of people,
ideas, social customs and products across borders. Globalization is a social process in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
which there is interaction among people and their society, and this interaction is preva-
lent in Costa Rica’s school systems. Globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica have created thousands of jobs for its people in sectors such as technology and
communications. José Maria Figueres, President of Costa Rica from 1994 to 1998,
foresaw the need for Costa Rica to expand far beyond its agricultural investments in
order to move forward in its economy. Figueres saw the investment of Intel and its
plant site in Costa Rica as a start in the development of a strong global economy (Nel-
son, 2008). Today, the presence of MNCs and globalization have attracted many
electronic, medical, and service firms (CINDE 2006). As a result of globalization and
MNCs, Costa Rica has been impacted economically, socially, and culturally. Surveys,
interviews with educational leaders and political leaders, and observations also indi-
cated that the presence of MNCs and globalization have impacted Costa Rica economi-
cally, socially, and culturally.
Surveys were administered to UCR teachers to assess whether or not globaliza-
tion and MNCs had impacted Costa Rica. The survey responses supported the fact that
due to the impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs, Costa Rica’s economy
has shifted from an agricultural to a knowledge-based economy. When surveying UCR
teachers, a majority answered affirmatively to the following survey statements:
1. The focus of education has changed at your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.
2. Educational decisions are influenced by MNCs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
3. School site leaders are active participants in the implementation of 21st-
century skills.
The positive responses to these three questions indicated that Costa Rica has
economically changed, as it has gone from an agricultural to a knowledge-based econ-
omy. The focus on education has also changed; universities are incorporating 21st-
century learning, and educational decisions are being influenced by MNCs. Prior to the
presence of MNCs and globalization, Costa Rica was an agricultural economy and 21st-
century skills were not present or needed; however, with the new knowledge-based
economy, Costa Rica is making sure that the country prepares and educates its students
for success in navigating the knowledge-based economy. The economic change has
impacted Costa Rica not only on the macro scale but also on the micro scale. The
implementation of 21st-century skills in the school system as a result of globalization
and the presence of MNCs corporations is widely seen in Costa Rica. Twenty-first-
century skills are now incorporated in the schools and universities. The affirmative
responses to the three survey questions showed that educational leaders (teachers,
educational leaders, and government leaders) are all participants in implementing 21st-
century skills for students in the classrooms.
Globalization and the presence of MNCs have impacted Costa Rica economi-
cally. Costa Rica has had many opportunities to engage in open trade with other coun-
tries and increase its global competitiveness. Such trade with many countries has
enriched the country’s economy. Globalization and continuing technological advances
offer unprecedented opportunities for economic development (Nelson, 2008). Since the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
presence of MNCs and globalization, there has been an increase of jobs in the field of
technology. As a result of the economic change, there has been an increasing need for
people who are educated in the technology sector. Thus, technical education training
for students interested in the technology sector has been essential in preparing them for
the knowledge-based economy. The affirmative responses by teachers to the survey
indicated that the school systems are incorporating 21st-century skills in schools to
make sure that students are prepared for the new knowledge-based economy.
Interviews supported the impact of economic change in Costa Rica due to
globalization and the presence of MNCs. Interviews with Anibal Cota, Mary Helen
Bialas, and Dr. Allen Pacheco also support the theme of economic impact and growth in
Costa Rica. Ms. Cota, Coordinator of the Master’s Program in Electronics at ITCR,
described the economic changes she has seen in Costa Rica due to the effects of global-
ization and the presence of MNCs. She shared in her interview how globalization and
MNCs have impacted Costa Rica’s economy and agreed that globalization and MNCs
have definitely contributed to Costa Rica’s economy from an agricultural to knowledge-
based one:
A lot of changes have [taken place] here in Costa Rica. For example, before
Intel came here in 1998, the electronics industry was very local. We just do our
products, our process of production, but we export very few things in electron-
ics, [which were] very limited to Costa Rica. Before that Costa Rica was a
market just for coffee, bananas, pineapples, and etcetera. I remember clearly our
electronics in the '80s here received 60 students each year. When Intel came
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
here, it started receiving 120 students. . . . So if you ask me, the effect of
globalization on our careers, it was very strong. We doubled our capacity of
receiving the students . . . it changed a lot [of the ways] we do things.
The kind of jobs was more in agriculture. Now in Costa Rica, you can
find many people working in call centers that are related to the MNC
corporations. Even the people start to receive more money. It changes a lot.
For example, the amount of cars you see in the streets has increased. Before
that, people buy a car and have it for about 20 years. Today, you can find a lot
of new cars and they drive a new car every year, very impressive. People also
start to travel more to the United States. Before that, I remember when I was a
child, the people that traveled to the United States, you say, “Ah, they have a lot
of money, they can travel.” Today, no more. Everybody is traveling to the
United States for work and vacations. It has changed a lot. There are more
flights to Costa Rica.
Mary Helen Bialas, Academic Relations and the Education Program Manager
for Intel, also spoke of the economic changes in Costa Rica due to globalization and
MNCs in her interview:
When I first came here over 30 years ago, I could see it was definitely an agricul-
tural society; cattle, bananas, the cow were the main products. Then we went in
around the '80s, and we started moving toward the reengineering and becoming
an agro industrial and tourism. We went from producing banana chips to now
computer chips.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
When asked if MNCs had contributed to the changes in Costa Rica, Ms. Bialas’s re-
sponse was affirmative. She noted that the government was supportive in making
changes in Costa Rica to support the needs of MNCs; as a result, the economy rapidly
changed: “The U.S. Agency took to help move this change from agriculture toward high
tech. I think there is a lot of initiative on part of the government to support it and
definitely there has been a change.” Finally, in regard to some of the economic changes
that have occurred in Costa Rica, Ms. Bialas commented: “Well, definitely MNCs have
brought in higher paid workforce opportunities, and it’s at the technician level and the
operation level as well as the engineering level.
Dr. Allen Pacheco, Academic Coordinator for the B.A. in English degree in the
School of Modern Languages at the UCR, spoke of the positive economic impact of
globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica and the ways in which the government has been
involved in making sure that students are prepared with 21st-century skills so that they
can be successful in the workforce:
For better or worse, we have been impacted economically in a good way with
the hiring of more people. That has been very good. However, if those students
don’t have the tools and level of education that is needed, they cannot get access
to those posts. But for the most part, the students or workers (with jobs with
MNCs) in general have had a positive influence on their economic status. Many
families have benefitted well with their spending. However, on the other hand,
you have many workers that don’t have the necessary skills or education and
what the government has done is to try to give through INIE [the National
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
Institute for Learning]. They provide training to the whole population on differ-
ent skills, and one of the skills is English language skills. This type of training is
provided in every town of Costa Rica. There is a need there, and people become
interested in getting trained and learning English so they have the chance to get a
better job.
The interview responses of Ms. Cota, Ms. Bialas, and Dr. Pacheco all related to
their personal experiences of how they had seen Costa Rica’s economy shift from an
agricultural to a knowledge-based one as result of globalization and MNCs.
Observations further supported the economic changes in Costa Rica due to the
presence of MNCs and globalization. In San José, the streets were filled with cars,
shops, and buildings that showed Costa Rica’s economic boom. The presence of MNCs
has expanded the technology sector, as was evident in the schools and classrooms
visited by the thematic group. Students used technology to present their coursework to
their classmates, and technology was seen in the classrooms. All classrooms observed
displayed students collaborating and working on projects together. These observed
skills indicated that the education system is focused on producing knowledge-ready
workers to support the knowledge-based economy. In addition, the city was robust and
vibrant, and one could find various items imported from countries all over the world,
similar to items that one could find for sale in the United States. Globalization has
opened up the pathways to open trade, and Costa Rica has been a country that has
embraced the opportunity of open trade with other countries.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
Cultural and Social Significance: College Readiness and Social Awareness
Another theme that was demonstrated was the social and cultural impact in
Costa Rica of globalization and the presence of MNCs. Costa Rica has always placed a
high value on its education system; however, with the impact of globalization and the
presence of MNCs, education is valued even more. Culturally, Costa Rica values edu-
cation as a way to prepare students for college readiness. Over the years, many MNCs
have invested in plant sites in Costa Rica; and these investments have increased aware-
ness in educational sectors such as the Omar Dengo Foundation, schools, universities,
as well as MNCs that provide support, to prepare students for college readiness.
Survey and interview responses also supported how Costa Rica has been cultur-
ally and socially been impacted due to globalization and the presence of MNCs. One of
the survey questions asked of UCR teachers was the following: “Students are college
and/or career ready with 21st-century skills.” A majority of teachers affirmatively
responded to the statement, thus indicating that the presence of MNCs and globalization
promoted social and cultural changes as Costa Rica. Universities’ focus on education
that incorporates 21st-century skills for its students shows that culturally and socially,
MNCs and globalization have impacted Costa Rica. Before the presence of MNCs and
globalization, there was no necessity to prepare students with this type of career readi-
ness and 21st-century skills; however, as the economy shifted from agricultural to
knowledge based, a need was present to ensure that students were prepared with 21st-
century skills.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
Culturally, Costa Rica has had to adjust to the presence of MNCs. Prior to the
entrance of MNCs, the country was very traditional and rich in biodiversity. There was
no trading on a global scale; however, the presence of MNCs and globalization has
helped transform Costa Rica into a country now involved with the updates of technolog-
ical advances. In addition, MNCs have impacted Costa Rica socially. Costa Rica is
communicating with various leaders from around the world, and school site leaders in
Costa Rica are actively participating in the implementation of 21st-century skills in
schools. This development indicates that school leaders are well aligned in moving
Costa Rica forward in a global manner.
Interview responses supported the cultural and social impact in Costa Rica of
globalization and the presence of MNCs. Jorge Quesada, an educator at the ITCR
Center for University Linkage, spoke of the social and cultural changes in Costa Rica,
especially within the education sector. Globalization has brought many opportunities,
such as a whole new job market in the technology sector. In order for students to stay
competitive in this knowledge-based economy, they must be educated and prepared
with the right skill sets. Hence, education is no longer a recommendation, but rather a
necessary tool to succeed in a knowledge-based economy. Mr. Quesada noted:
The changes have not only been economic but also social and within education. It turns
out that ever since Intel arrived 12 or 13 years ago, there has been increasingly more
MNCs. Intel and the new MNCs require a new labor force that was not formerly re-
quired. As a result, going to school has been an unofficial requirement for social
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
mobility and professional growth. It has also made it necessary to be better prepared for
today’s economy.
Globalization does bring a lot of opportunities, but if you don’t prepare
yourself to take advantage of those opportunities, it doesn’t matter if they are
there. To the individual, globalization opens an opportunity to become an active
agent. If I want to excel, be competitive, and contribute to the betterment of
society and the economy, I need to study. You [meaning we] can analyze what
happens in any country from the economic, social, or political point of view and
you will find people that agree or disagree with globalization. I believe that one
has to prepare himself to successfully play a role in the global market. Also, we
are experiencing migration; we have access to technologies that link us to Asia
or other regions of the world. We are not the Costa Rica [from] 10 years ago.
This is why people have to prepare themselves.
Dr. Camacho, the headmaster at UCR, also spoke of the cultural and social
impact within the education sector. In her interview, she spoke of the cultural and
social changes in the way that students dress and communicate. Globalization and the
presence of MNCs have encouraged Costa Rica to advance its global technology. As a
result, teachers and students are all using more sophisticated technology: “It has to
change; it must change; it is impossible not to change. [Students] dress differently, they
communicate differently; they use technology differently. Teachers in Costa Rica are
using high technology especially related with all these modern technologies.” Dr.
Camacho also spoke of the different ways of incorporating information now, as
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
compared to before: For example, when she was in school, “in order to obtain the
information, you have to go to a library. Now, people visit the libraries less because
there is so much information online.” On a social level, globalization has affected
people at all stages and from different backgrounds. Globalization and the presence of
MNCs have allowed people to communicate and align together in a progressive,
technology-savvy environment. Dr. Camacho stated: “It’s impossible not to find some-
one who is globalized especially in these ages. And also the demands on the country in
Costa Rica. . . . For example . . . now, all is digital/technological.”
Dr. Pacheco also spoke of the cultural and social influence that globalization and
the presence of MNCs have had on Costa Rica. Students are now more prepared than
ever for college through their access to and use of technology. In addition, students are
socially impacted by the world through media and technology. Dr. Pacheco noted:
Yes, culturally . . . of course we have been influenced by the U.S. Now, more
then ever, with technology you can see our kids’—our youth’s expectations are
very similar to any other kid in the U.S. or around the world. You can see now
the way they dress, the things that they buy, and . . . [it is] like any kid in the
U.S. or Europe. It’s because of this globalization and technology that they get
access to [seeing how] people live in other countries. We didn’t use to be influ-
enced like this so much—how we dress. Now, they come up with songs and
technological devices . . . it’s like, “Wow, we live in a global world!” There are
no frontiers or borders.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
Discussion Regarding Research Question 1
Costa Rica has become a knowledge-based economy due to the presence of
MNCs and globalization. Surveys, interviews, and observations indicated that the
presence of MNCs and globalization have impacted Costa Rica economically, cultur-
ally, and socially. Economically, Costa Rica has shifted the economy from an agricul-
tural to a knowledge-based one. The presence of MNCs and globalization has improved
Costa Rica’s economy. MNCs, particularly Intel, have played a vital role in funding
schools and universities with programs and computers to foster 21st-century skills in the
knowledge-based economy. Before Intel came to Costa Rica in 1998, the electronics
industry was local and limited to the trade in Costa Rica; however, since the arrival of
Intel, there has been a global export of electronics and more college students enrolling
in the electronics field.
In addition, globalization and MNCs have influenced Costa Rica culturally and
socially. The culture in Costa Rica has changed. It has become more modernized, has
influenced the way a student dresses, and trade is conducted on a global scale. To keep
up with the global changes, Costa Rica continues to value education and support prepar-
ing students for the 21st century, as it is essential to train and provide students with the
proper education for developing their skill sets for multimedia and technology.
Through the schools, universities, and other educational programs, educational leaders
have taken the initiative to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy by fur-
thering and strengthening the education system. Students are being prepared for col-
lege, as confirmed by the survey responses and interview data. Socially, Costa Rica is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
up to date with the global market; globalization and the knowledge-based economy have
made it possible for people in Costa Rica to communicate on a global scale. MNCs,
particularly the high-tech sectors, have impacted Costa Rica socially. Costa Ricans are
involved and trading with other countries and are communicating with others through
their access to modern technologies.
Results Relating to Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Costa Rica has faced chal-
lenges in skill development and training for the knowledge-based economy. There is a
need for graduates in areas of electrical and electronic engineering, computer science,
industrial engineering, and mechanical engineering (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). Since the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica, Costa Rica has become a
tech savvy country. MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have taken action to
contribute to the technological advances in Costa Rica by supporting the education
sector in creating programs to help support Costa Rica’s technological growth. In addi-
tion, the presence of MNCs and globalization have made English a necessary tool for
communication and trade with other countries; therefore, schools and universities have
implemented English into the school curriculum, and English is a key component of
teacher training programs. Students today come from diverse backgrounds and have
different learning styles. Twenty-first-century skills constitutes a global movement that
seeks to redefine teachings to educate students for the 21st century. Universities in the
21st century have structured their curricula to educate future generations, particularly
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
collaboration and critical thinking skills. Today, virtual teams are created to allow team
members from all over the world to collaborate on projects through the Internet. This
development requires members to work independently and exercise their critical and
problem-solving skills so that they will be prepared when they meet with their group on
conference calls or webcasts. As organizations go global, employees need to develop
the skills to work globally with diverse cultures and organizations (Wagner, 2008).
Evidence of these three themes was found in survey responses, observations, and
interviews. These three recurring themes as a result of globalization and presence of
MNCs in schools and universities are (a) the implementation of technology, (b) profi-
ciency in the English language, and (c) collaboration and critical thinking (21st-century
skills).
Technology
Prior to the presence of MNCs and the impact of globalization, Costa Rica was
equipped with the skills to thrive in an agricultural economy. However, now in a
knowledge-based economy, new skill sets are required. The Partnership for 21st Cen-
tury Skills (2009) is a national organization that promotes 21st-century learning. The
organization’s vision is to have all students achieve success in a knowledge-based
economy. Partnership for 21st Century Skills provides educational leaders with a
framework through which they can teach students the skill sets necessary to succeed in a
knowledge-based society. One of these skills is technology. As a result of globalization
and the presence of MNCs, teachers need to prepare students to be equipped with tech-
nology skills in the fast-paced and ever-changing technological world.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
When UCR teachers were surveyed, the results demonstrated that schools have
implemented technology into their curriculum, as a majority of teachers answered
affirmatively to the two statements regarding the use and access to technology in the
classroom:
1. Technology is used in your classroom.
2. There is access to technology in the classroom.
The affirmative response to these two questions indicated that the presence of MNCs
and globalization in Costa Rica have impacted schools and universities, particularly in
the use of technology in schools. Many MNCs have supported schools and universities
in Costa Rica with technological advancement. Intel, in particular, donated $20 million
to the MEP for the disbursement of technology at various technical schools, and the
company has also been a main advocator of technological usage and an actual provider
of technological equipment for schools (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Interviews also supported that the results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs have impacted schools and universities in Costa Rica through the development
of technology. Dr. Allen Pacheco, Academic Coordinator at UCR, spoke of the essen-
tials of technology in the universities due to the impact of globalization and MNCs in
Costa Rica. The Omar Dengo Foundation, a nonprofit organization, has played an
essential role in carrying out the educational innovations of new technology in Costa
Rica for almost 30 years. Dr. Pacheco noted:
We have had training and conferences on how to incorporate technology into
teaching. However, Omar Dengo has done a lot, almost 30 years, since they
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
have introduced technology in Costa Rica. And now, what we are doing is first
getting teachers happy with integrating technology into their teaching so that the
students can see the benefit of using that, so when they go out there and teach
Omar Dengo’s infrastructure . . . they don’t see it as something new . . . but
that’s the norm. So what we are doing every year is incorporating different
tools, different infrastructure, and having a lot of conferences on training on
technology so that when they get out there, they can use the technology not just
for the sake of using it, but to benefit their own teaching [and] the students’
learning. . . . What used to happen was that technology was bought for the sake
of technology. “Oh, that’s cool . . . you can use that!” But how are we benefit-
ting students in their own thinking and their own development? So the shift is
onto integration with a purpose.
Schools and universities have been training teachers on how to use technology
and how to incorporate technology into the students’ learning. Patricia Escalante,
former Director of Intel, also described implementation of technology in Costa Rica due
to the effects of globalization and presence of MNCs:
We did quite well because at the end we have 240 master teachers, so they were
a lot and once or twice a year at least we would get in touch with them and we
would retrain them at the beginning face to face, but then we started moving to
online, because all of the courses that Intel has are online. We have to train
those teachers, the master teachers, how to do training online.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
Observations in schools and universities supported the technological implemen-
tations in class due to globalization and presence of MNCs. At UCR, technology and
computers were evident in schools and classrooms. Teachers were giving lectures
through the use of PowerPoint®, and students were giving class presentation using
computers and various technological devices.
Bilingual Education: English
Another result of globalization and the presence of MNCs is bilingual education,
particularly English. As Costa Rica trades with other countries, learning English is
essential for effective communication. Survey responses indicated the impact of global-
ization and presence of MNCs, as UCR teacher survey participants answered that there
has been a change in teacher training and curriculum to promote one of 21st-century
skill-set communication. The majority of UCR teachers who were surveyed answered
affirmatively to the following two statements regarding communications:
1. Teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical
thinking, collaboration, and communication.
2. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication.
The positive response to these two statements indicated that the impact of
MNCs and globalization is seen in Costa Rican schools and universities, particularly in
the form of English language usage and 21st-century skills. As part of the teacher
training programs, teachers are learning English, and students are learning English in
their school curriculum as well. The implementation of English is a priority on which
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
schools and universities are focusing to prepare their students for success in a
knowledge-based society. English is a necessary tool for students to communicate with
other students and serves as a common language in the global market. Prior to
globalization and the presence of MNCs, Costa Ricans used to speak Tico, but today
English is one of the main languages used to communicate. The curricula in schools
and universities have changed due to the need to prepare students for 21st-century skills.
Wagner (2008) presented seven survival skills with respect to 21st-century learning, one
of which is communication. In particular, many MNC companies and employers look
for employees who speak English.
The need for English was further supported through interviews. Anibal Cota,
ITCR coordinator, indicated how the presence of MNCs and globalization have influ-
enced the importance of communication, specifically the need for the English language:
Yeah, for example, there is especially one thing I can point out. It is the use of
the language. Before that, everybody spoke Tico . . . and [there was] not so
much English influence in the language. Today you can find a lot of English
everywhere, a lot. Even when you go to a restaurant or something like that, you
always find some kind of English word here and there. Many people in Costa
Rica, for example—this is starting with the companies, the little companies, but
they name it with English names, for example. I have friends that work in Intel
—HP, for example—something like that, and when you talk with them, they use
some kind of “Spanglish.” And it is very, very, very strong . . . that mixture of
language.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
Ms. Cota noted that she had seen an increase of the English language due to the pres-
ence of MNCs:
Before these companies came here, very few people speak English. The kinds of
jobs [available] were more in agriculture, something like that. Very few people
came to the university in technical careers. After that, it changed a lot. Now in
Costa Rica, you can find many, many people speaking English and many, many
people in call centers related to these companies.
Ms. Cota further elaborated on this change as she described how the English language is
implemented in the classrooms. When teachers are hired, employers want them to
speak English:
For example, I have seen the process of hiring new professors here. The skills
you request of the people have changed because I remember some of the col-
leagues talking about it. Today you need to ask for many skills, for example,
speaking English because you have to relate with these companies that speak
English... So there are some kinds of skills people need so if you work in a big
company, you are a more suitable candidate for the job. So it has changed.
Dr. Allen Pacheco, English academic coordinator at UCR, also described the
importance of the English language and how the impact of MNCs has played a role in
the necessity of the English language:
MNCs have also obliged us to learn other languages, such as English. Right
now I am at a disadvantage because I don’t speak English. I understand it, but I
don’t speak it, and right now all corporations demand that their workers speak
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
English. I’m established and I have a career, but knowing English is something
that the young people in Costa Rica have to know. In fact, if they know one
language, say English, that’s good, but really it’s better if they know two or three
languages. For example, my children have to learn English. So, they come to
my school here where they learn English, but they also get private lessons.
When they get out into the workplace, the first question they will have to answer
is, “Do you speak English?” The next will be, “Do you have computer skills?”
And if they don’t know either or one and not the other, they are at a disadvan-
tage.
Mario Solis, ITCR professor, also spoke of the importance of English, highlight-
ing that universities are making an effort for students to learn English:
The university has made it a point to help students learn English, as without it
they won’t even get an interview. CONARE [Consejo Nacional de Rectores]
offers courses for English language acquisition. The 12–18 modules are field
specific and help students pass the TOEFL [Test of English as a Foreign
Language], which helps them become more marketable. The modules are free.
In addition to the interview data and survey responses that supported the neces-
sity of learning the English language, observations showed that English is one of the
main languages in Costa Rica. Teachers, educational leaders, and political leaders who
were interviewed all spoke or understood English.
Collaboration and Critical Thinking
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
Another recurring theme was that schools and universities have implemented
21st-century skills for students to learn and be prepared for the knowledge-based econ-
omy. The new economy has trickled down to how educational leaders prepare and
teach students for a knowledge-based society. Preparing students with 21st-century
skills is an essential tool for students to thrive and succeed in the workforce and in life
in general. Twenty-first-century skills constitutes a global movement that seeks to
redefine teaching so as to properly educate students for the 21st century. In today’s
ever-changing world, students need to develop problem-solving skills that are essential
at work and in life (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Of the UCR teachers surveyed, affirmative
responses were received for the following survey statement:
1. Collaboration among students takes place daily.
2. Lessons promote higher level thinking.
3. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication.
4. Students are college and/or career ready with 21st-century skills.
5. Teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in the class-
room.
6. The focus of education has changed at your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.
The “yes” response to these six survey statements suggested that there has been
an implementation of 21st-century skills such as collaboration and critical thinking in
schools and universities due to the presence of MNCs and globalization. Surveys
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
showed that students collaborate daily in class and that critical thinking is used as
students collaborate with one another on school projects. Teachers also take part in
preparing students for 21st-century skills by developing curriculum reflects such skills
as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. Schools and universities must
develop curricula that will help prepare students with skills for the 21st century, and
according to Wagner (2008), there are seven survival skills to accomplish this task. In
this section the 21st-century skills focused on are critical thinking and collaboration.
Interview data supported the implementation of the 21st-century skill of collabo-
ration. In Dr. Allen Pacheco’s interview, he described the need for collaboration as a
21st-century skill set as students and teachers need to collaborate with one another and
work in teams to complete projects:
Yes, you’re expected to know certain things and people expect workers to have
good skills, such as working with others, and they expect leaders to take certain
positions. But those are things that still we see—we need a lot of time for those
skills to be developed. It’s very hard working in teams and collaboration. In my
case, I have a project with the University of Kansas so that in every course they
have a project with students from the University of Kansas at the university
level. They have to collaborate and synchronize and present their projects at the
end of the semester through a videoconference, so at least they’re getting the real
way of doing things globally. But still when you see people working in groups
saying, “We’re not going to be responsible for this,” there is no collaboration. It
is hard for them to see that by collaborating they could get better results, faster.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
Dr. Pacheco described what UCR is doing to empower teachers to teach students with
collaboration and critical thinking, both 21st-century skills in the knowledge-based
economy:
Now what are we doing here at the university? For example, we have had some
conferences and training as professors, and we have had some experiences in the
process of learning about the necessary tools for teachers to empower them to
teach 21st century skills—such as working in groups and teams, having values
towards others in terms of tolerance, the use of technological tools for working
and for accomplishing tasks. The fact that students have to have short-term and
long-term goals and learn how to accomplish tasks and reflect on the process . . .
breaking down tasks that are complex to see the difference in how well you can
do with or without a clear goal. . . . For us, the fact that our students will be out
there competing with not just Costa Ricans, but with people from all around the
world, makes it a challenge for us. We, as professors, have to have the skills so
we can actually produce better results . . . but we have failed this need. Other-
wise, our students would have had better chances and opportunities.
Patricia Escalante, former director of Intel supported the need for the teaching of
21st-century skills such as critical thinking:
Yes, increase in offering foreign languages to support MNCs in tech, call cen-
ters, and other industries. Languages include English, Portuguese, and Chinese.
Okay, we train around 250 master teachers and so the master teachers first—we
began in the metropolitan area and then we moved. We would move to the rural
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
areas, and our objective was to have at least one or two master teachers in every
school district around the country.
Every year we had new courses and from 2008 to 2012, the focus was
more centered on developing cognitive skills and 21st century skills. Have you
visited the page, the “Intel teacher”? All of those courses that are online are
devoted to that—to developing those 21st-century skills and helping teachers
evaluate them. How can I evaluate world values, or how can I evaluate if a
person really is collaborating . . . there’s a course for each of the skills. That’s
what teachers really value, even more than how to use PowerPoint® or how to
use Excel®, because students today are very different from some years ago.
Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Intel, stated in her interview that there is a need
to prepare students with 21st-century skills. This preparation starts in elementary
school, so by the time the students graduate from college or high school, they will be
equipped with 21st-century skills that will allow students to be successful in the
knowledge-based society:
One of the direct impacts we’re working on . . . from K through 12 and higher
ed, is how to support the learning of the 21st-century skills. Having 21st-cen-
tury skills [require] that students be prepared to be successful in any career in the
future, in the knowledge economy and in the globalized economy. I think also
helping the future workforce get developed for how to work in our kind of an
environment [is important]. Because everything is done in teams around the
world. Now, a microchip takes 200 engineers to design, and some of those
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
engineers are from Costa Rica, some are in China, some are in Ireland, some are
Israel . . . they’re all talking together right now developing this. It’s just a global
process of creation, and I think that that has mostly influenced what we’re look-
ing for. . . . What kind of programs are going to spread across globally so that we
can have also signature programs with the global programs?
Discussion for Research Question 2
Survey responses and interviews provided evidence that there is an implementa-
tion of technology, English language, and 21st-century skills in schools and universities
in Costa Rica. Students have access to technology in schools, and teachers are incorpo-
rating technology into the school curriculum. MNCs such as Intel have also supported
the development of technology by providing training for teachers and programs for
students. There is high access to and high usage of technology in school classrooms. In
addition, English is incorporated into the curriculum. English is essential to be an effec-
tive communicator in the global market, and schools and universities are making sure
that English is taught to students. Prior to globalization and the presence of MNCs,
Costa Ricans used to speak Tico, but today English is one of the main languages of
communication. Finally, 21st-century skills such as collaboration and critical thinking
skills are implemented in the school curriculum. As being part of the globalization and
due to the presence of MNCs, having the ability to think critically and collaboratively
will serve students well in a knowledge-based economy in which employers place high
value on employees who can solve problems and work in teams.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
All these implementations are essential because students today live in a
knowledge-based society. Universities and schools must develop new curricula that
prepare students to incorporate technology, English, and 21st-century skills, as these
skills will allow students to succeed. Technology and the English language in Costa
Rica are part of Wagner’s (2008) seven skills for success in the 21st century. Research
demonstrates that asking questions, critical thinking, and problem solving are essential
in the field of business. Employers and business consultants need these skills to navi-
gate and be successful in a new global “knowledge economy” (Wagner, 2008).
Through technology and English, students will use the seven survival skills (i.e., critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration, adaptability, entrepreneurism and initia-
tive, oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing, and curiosity and imagi-
nation) in their everyday interactions. It is essential for school practitioners to help
prepare students for success at work, school, and life in a knowledge-based economy.
Results Relating to Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been influenced
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The foundation of this research question stemmed from literature that deals with how
schools and universities have implemented new policies to prepare students for 21st-
century skills. According to Bolman and Deal (2011), there are four frames of leader-
ship: political, symbolic, human resources, and structural. An effective leader must be
able to navigate the different frameworks and apply them to the appropriate situation(s).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
Survey responses, observations, and interview data supported that educational
leadership in Costa Rica has been impacted by policy decisions resulting from the
influence of globalization and MNCs. Two recurring educational leadership themes
were indicated as a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs in schools and
universities: school curriculum and improving teacher training.
Educational leaders have taken initiative in school curriculum to make sure that
students are prepared for the 21st century. The school curriculum is basically as fol-
lows: At the preschool stage, the curriculum is not a traditional one; instead, it is a
theoretical, humanistic approach focused on human development and a sociocultural
concept. A student’s interactions with his or her peers, teachers, family, counselor, and
society all have a part in molding and defining the student’s learning process. Costa
Rica’s constitution has been structured and revised to meet the new demands of a
knowledge-based economy. Article 78 of Title VII, Education and Culture, was
amended in 1981 to provide a set plan to fund universities in Costa Rica (i.e., Techno-
logical Institute of Costa Rica; Constitution of, 2013). As indicated in Chapter 2, this
amendment shows how Costa Rican policies have been adjusted to accommodate the
needs of MNCs by assuring the integrity of Costa Rica’s education system to train
students so that they will be prepared to work for high-tech MNCs.
The curriculum is structured to understand the individual student, the student’s
surroundings, the educational institution, and how to improve the student’s quality of
life. At the primary level, students take various courses such as computer sciences,
math, music education, and the like. At this level, it is important to note that schools
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
have implemented Internet access in educational centers to keep up with new technolog-
ical advances. At the secondary level, education is focused on achieving competitive
skills. The education system, then, is divided into formal and nonformal education
sectors; these two sectors are academic or technical schools. Finally at the university
level, particularly at UCR, the curriculum is divided into six major academic areas from
which students can choose: Agricultural Sciences, Arts and Letters, Basic Sciences,
Engineering, Health, and Social Sciences. The Graduate Studies System offers master’s
and doctorate degrees in a variety of academic fields.
The curriculum has changed since the development of globalization and the
presence of MNCs to now incorporate 21st-century skills to help prepare students for
the knowledge-based economy. In addition, educational leadership has changed in its
way of preparing teachers. Teachers are now being trained in and taught 21st-century
skills, English, and technology skills so that they can implement them in their class-
rooms. How educational leadership has been influenced directly by policy decisions as
a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs was found in two prevailing
themes: school curriculum and teacher training.
Educational Leadership: School Curriculum
Costa Rica is a knowledge-based economy. In order to support MNCs in Costa
Rica, it is essential to train students and provide them with a technology medium so that
they can start to develop skills in working with multimedia and computers. Through
schools, universities, and other educational programs, educational leaders have taken
the initiative to meet the demands of a knowledge-based economy. Educational
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
leadership has been influenced directly by policy decisions for the school curriculum as
a result of globalization and MNCs. This influence was evident in the survey responses
and interview data. The focus of education has changed at schools and universities to
incorporate 21st-century learning. Due to the change of focus in education, curriculum
has changed to match this new focus. Of the teachers surveyed at UCR, the majority
answered affirmatively to the following statements:
1. Educational decisions are influenced by MNCs.
2. School site leaders are active participants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.
3. The MEP has changed to incorporate technology and science.
The positive response to these three statement supported that the presence of MNCs has
impacted policies for the education system (as evident in the new constitution) and the
focus on 21st-century skills in schools and universities. Educational decisions are
influenced by the presence of MNCs, as shown by how the Minister of Public Education
has also taken on the leadership in driving the importance of educating students in
technology and preparing them for the knowledge-based economy.
Educational leaders are implementing 21st-century skills in the curriculum. The
new policies in government and schools are reflected in the school curriculum, as there
are now more courses focused on technology, English, and 21st-century skills. Educa-
tional leaders have taken on new leadership roles in making sure that the curriculum is
preparing students for the knowledge-based economy. With respect to Bolman and
Deal’s (2011) four leadership frames (i.e., structural, human resources, political, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
symbolic), leaders must be able to understand and navigate leadership framework with
regarding each specific situation. An effective leader would be one who can not only
apply one leadership framework but can apply multiple frames in arriving at a solution.
Because the government has updated its constitution, the schools and universities have
adhered to the new educational standards by implementing school curricula that prepare
students for knowledge-based economy. These changes relate to the educational leader-
ship frames described by Bolman and Deal (2011), particularly structure and political
leadership frames. The structural frame designs and implements a blueprint to follow
that will be appropriate to the situation. The new curriculum implemented in schools
and universities will help in clarifying their goals. It will focus on the task, facts, and
logic in making sure that through curriculum, students will be prepared for college
readiness and work when they graduate. The political framework was fulfilled by
government and political leaders taking initiative in advocating the new changes in the
constitution regarding the school curriculum. Leaders in the political world understand
the importance of the different groups’ interests and have negotiated in ways that will
facilitate compromise across different parties. The school curriculum aligns with the
political and structural framework. Costa Rica’s education system is moving toward
preparing students with 21st-century skills. As a result, new policies and educational
leadership have emerged, as evident in the new curriculum that is implemented in
schools and universities to prepare students for the 21st century.
Schools are preparing students to program computers at an early age. In
addition, teachers need to know how to use technology and educate students by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
implementing technology into the curriculum; otherwise, schools will not understand
the purpose of using their new technology. Costa Rica’s Minister of Public Education,
Dr. Leonardo Garnier, spoke of this educational leadership change in his interview:
They started learning how to program computers early on in school. The second
thing we did was not to start at the high school but to start at the primary school.
It was much more difficult and much more expensive, but the results were very
good. And an important thing was not to start with the central valley but to start
with the rural areas and then progressively move, and I think that was very
smart, so now you have about 60% of our students receiving education in
informatics and that was in the '80s . . .
Dr. Garnier noted the need to have teachers who are strategically focused on how they
are going to teach students regarding the usage of technology. Teachers need to know
how to use technology and educate students by implementing technology into the
curriculum:
So yes, we use a lot of technology, but we know this is not about technology—
it’s about education. And having a computer for every kid, if you don’t know
what your educational policy is or your strategy or how the teacher is really
helping the kids to learn, you will spend a lot of money . . .
Dr. Garnier concluded that the objective is to have students learn and be educated in
technology. The Omar Dengo Foundation, a nonprofit organization, has been a tremen-
dous asset in partnering with schools and universities to provide access to technology
for students and educating them on the use of technology:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
Basically our objective is that every kid should be in contact with technology.
Access, yes. Some of this happens through the Ministry and some of this hap-
pens because it happens. . . . So basically what we are trying to do is have access
to technology, try to use it intelligently. We have great relations with the Omar
Dengo Foundation, which is like our main partner in this, and I think it is a very
responsible institution. Always reflecting on what we’ve been doing is right and
what have been the mistakes, because a lot of things you do don’t work and then
you better recognize that they didn’t.
Educational Leadership: Teacher Training
Teacher training is another theme that arose as educational leadership is influ-
enced directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs. This theme was supported by survey responses and interviews. These changes
relate to the educational leadership frames found in Bolman and Deal (2011), particu-
larly in the structural and human resource frames. Again, the structural framework is
used as teacher training focuses on the task, facts, and logic in making sure that teachers
are trained to teach students for college readiness and work when they graduate. The
human resource frame is fulfilled by making sure that educational leaders are in tune
with the teachers’ needs and empowering them with the support and resources for them
to thrive and succeed in the classroom. Teachers need to be trained properly to teach
students 21st-century skills. New policies are developed to make sure that students
receive a quality education, and teachers now take on a new leadership role. This
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
change was evident in the survey responses, as the majority of UCR teachers answered
affirmatively to the following survey statements:
1. Teacher training has changed to promote 21st-century skills such as critical
thinking, collaboration, and communication.
2. Lessons promote higher level thinking.
3. Teachers are held accountable to implement 21st-century skills in the class-
room.
4. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication.
The positive responses to the four statements supported how educational leadership has
made changes due to the impact of globalization and presence of MNCs. One of these
changes is how educational leaders have revised teacher training by incorporating 21st-
century skills. Teachers are trained and being taught 21st-century skills such as English
and technology so that they can teach and prepare students with these same skills.
Interview data supported the fact that educational leadership has been influenced
directly by policy decisions as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs.
Director Ronny Guadmuz at Escuela Fidel Chaves Murillo spoke of the new policies
and new changes in teacher training at the university level. The interviewer asked the
following:
Have you seen teacher training at the university level? Maybe in your opinion
has it changed versus—like you said, when you were at the University of Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
Rica 12 years ago? Recently with the new teachers, have you seen a change in
the education of teachers?
Mr. Guadmuz responded:
I think some of the universities have changed that. For example, we have the
new university that is a technical university—they are trying to train the English
teachers, for example. Some of the curriculums are difficult to change as it
takes time. There are also new laws like the internal control one that ensures we
are updated and current and must have a minimum level of risks and necessities,
so we have worked in both areas, in the legal aspect and personal training. Usu-
ally the training is directed to leadership.
Abraham Bermudez at Escuela Manuel del Pilar also spoke of the teacher
training, comparing past training to how it exists in the present knowledge-based econ-
omy:
In teacher training in the past, there was no use of technology or software.
Before, you could be a teacher without even knowing how to use a computer. If
you needed something to be typewritten, it was enough to type it up using a
typing machine. Now, that is not the case. Now, computer courses are a basic
requirement of the teacher training programs. Now teachers need to know how
to use computers and software. MEP is also switching over to using tools on-
line; for example, student grades and files are online. Discipline is moving to an
online platform. Now we scan notes from parents and doctors and upload them.
MEP has started several online systems, and it is no longer a choice to use them.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
It is a directive. So, we have to learn. This started 4 years ago, and if you don’t
know, you have to learn. Now I have about 90% of my teachers who carry their
laptop and input everything into the online platform. When I ask them for
grades or any form of data, they just press click and send it over. We have a
server, and in the teacher’s lounge there are three computers, and each class has
a computer for teacher use.
A problem I have right now is the wireless Internet. It has been a little
spotty; sometimes it works and sometimes not. But we are working on getting it
fixed because we need it. Intel gave us a wonderful software program, but we
can’t use it until the wireless is working properly. It’s hard to get teachers who
were in training programs 20 or 30 years ago to start using technology. They
have to want to learn. First, they have to be motivated. I will partner them with
someone who is comfortable with technology. At my school we are all using
computers. But I have colleagues who have teachers on staff who don’t want to
learn how to use the computers. They are close to retirement, so they don’t want
to learn anything new. But at this school I have 100% computer use.
Discussion Regarding Research Question 3
The need for teacher training was not essential before the rise of the knowledge-
based economy. However, teachers now have to be trained properly to teach students
21st-century skills. Training for teachers now incorporates English and technology
skills. This way, teachers will be prepared with skills to support and teach their students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
with those same skills in the classrooms. New policies are developed to make sure that
students receive a quality education, and teachers now take on a new leadership role.
An analysis of data was done to include data gathered from surveys and inter-
views, which resulted in the development of two clear themes. As a result of policy
decisions due to the impact of globalization and presence of MNCs, educational leader-
ship has become focused on school curriculum and teacher training leadership. The
data showed that educational leaders have applied Bolman and Deal’s (2011) leadership
frameworks in their approach to implement curriculum and teacher training to incorpo-
rate technology, English, and 21st-century skills.
Chapter Summary
The data for this study were collected through surveys, interviews, and observa-
tions. The study was designed to examine the impact that globalization and MNCs have
had in Costa Rica on the education in schools and universities, educational leadership,
and policies. The study utilized Spring’s (2008) theoretical perspectives regarding the
process of globalization and education, Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century skills, and
Bolman and Deal’s (2011) leadership frameworks.
The data analysis showed that various themes emerged through the research
questions; these themes were further supported through the analysis of survey
responses, observations, and interviews. The data relating to Research Question 1
involved the following themes: (a) economic (i.e., agricultural economy to knowledge-
based economy), (b) cultural, and (c) social—all aspects of how globalization and the
presence of MNCs have impacted Costa Rica. The data relating to Research Question 2
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 109
involved three themes: (a) technology, (b) bilingual education (i.e., English), and (c)
21st-century skills (i.e., collaboration and critical Thinking). Finally, the data relating
to Research Question 3 involved two themes regarding educational leadership: (a)
school curriculum and (b) teacher training. These themes addressed the three specific
research questions that the thematic group developed at the beginning.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
Chapter 5
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to understand the impact that globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. In order to identify and understand the impact of
globalization and MNCs, a thematic group of 12 doctoral students surveyed educational
leaders, government leaders, and MNC leaders in Costa Rica. The survey instruments
were developed collaboratively as a thematic group after reviewing the literature. Each
member of the thematic group conducted interviews, surveys, and observations collec-
tively as a group and at their individual school or university sites. Different data collec-
tion was conducted for a more in-depth perspective and triangulation of data. The 12
doctoral students collaborated after a review of the literature and three research ques-
tions were developed:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNC's are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been influenced by policy decisions as a
result of globalization and MNCs?
Research Question 1 focused on the results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs on a more global-macro scale. This research question showed that Costa Rica
was impacted economically and educationally by globalization and the presence of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
MNCs. Research Question 2 focused on the results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs on a more micro scale. This research question showed that schools and universi-
ties were impacted by globalization and the presence of MNCs in the implementation of
technology, English language, and collaboration and critical thinking (21st-century
skills). Research Question 3 focused on identifying the educational leadership and
policy decisions that were made as a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs.
This research question suggests that educational leaders are taking various initiatives
such as aligning teacher training and school curriculum to make sure that students are
being taught 21st-century skills for the knowledge-based economy.
Summary of Findings
Through the data analysis of surveys, observations, and interviews, each theme
of the research questions was well supported.
Research Question 1: How Globalization and Presence of MNCs Have Impacted
Costa Rica Economically, Culturally, and Socially
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The data showed that globalization and the presence of
MNCs have impacted Costa Rica’s economy, transforming it from an agricultural to a
knowledge-based economy. This change has resulted in an increase of jobs in the tech-
nology sector. The survey responses indicated that due to the development of a
knowledge-based economy, Costa Rica has taken initiatives to prepare its people to be
successful in the new economy. These initiatives are reflected in the changes of focus
in education, including more technical education training and 21st-century skills
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112
implemented to prepare students for a new skill set of jobs in the knowledge-based
economy. Thus, as a result of the economic change, there is a need for people who are
educated and trained for the technology sector.
The surveys and interviews are supported by Defining Globalization (Spring,
2008), which sums up four interpretations of educational globalization. The data sug-
gested that world culture is the most applicable to this study. World culture is based on
Western education ideals of all students having access to school and education—an
essential component for maintaining a country’s economic and democratic rights
(Spring, 2008). As a knowledge-based economy, Costa Rica is providing all children
the right of an education. MNCs (specifically Intel) have had a major influence in
funding programs and providing resources to schools and universities. The presence of
Intel in Costa Rica has increased careers in the technical fields. MNCs and globaliza-
tion have developed Costa Rica’s economy from an agricultural to a knowledge-based
economy (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Research Question 2: Technology, Bilingual Education, and 21st-Century Skills
Prevalent in Schools and Universities
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The data showed that the
impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and universities
through the implementation of technology, English language, and collaboration and
critical thinking (21st-century skills). In a knowledge-based economy, schools and
universities must prepare students with 21st-century skills. The survey responses
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113
indicated that schools and universities are responding to the new skill set needs by
giving students access to technology in the classrooms and using technology in their
assignments. Students are also being taught English in class and are encouraged to
communicate with one another in English. Lessons are also structured to have students
think critically and to collaborate in teams on group assignments. Each of these imple-
mentations has helped students to become college and career ready. The findings from
the interviews revealed that there is a need for 21st-century skills, and the schools and
universities are preparing students through access to and use of technology, and working
in groups to solve problems and collaborate as a team. In addition, students need a
strong foundation for 21stcentury skills and this preparation should start from elemen-
tary school, all the way through college.
The surveys and interviews were aligned with and supported by Wagner’s
(2008) 21st-century skills, which suggest that specific skills are important for employ-
ees to succeed at work. The presence of Intel in Costa Rica has increased careers in the
technical fields. Intel has partnered with schools and universities to support educational
programs and training of employees in technology skills (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The
access and use of technology will allow students to use skills such as critical thinking
and problem solving. In addition, the knowledge-based economy has provided opportu-
nities for Costa Rica to trade and communicate with countries from around the world.
The surveys and interviews also supported Wagner’s (2008) belief in the need for com-
munication (English) and collaboration as part of the 21st-century skill set. Today,
virtual teams are created that allow team members from various countries to collaborate
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
on projects, and this process entails communication through a common language—
English. Students are learning English in the classrooms and collaborating on school
projects to achieve the skills necessary for the 21st century.
Research Question 3: Educational leadership in School Curriculum and Teacher
Training
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been influenced by
policy decisions as a result of globalization and MNCs? The data showed that educa-
tional leadership has been influenced by policy decisions as a result of globalization and
the presence of MNCs. Educational leaders have taken initiative in the development of
school curricula and teacher training. In a knowledge-based economy, teachers must be
trained and supported with resources that will best guide and teach students 21st-
century skills. The survey responses indicated that educational leaders have taken into
consideration the needs of MNCs and have incorporated curriculum and teacher training
that will best equip students to work in the technology sector. Educational leaders have
also been active participants in implementing 21st-century skills within the schools’
curricula. In addition, the Minister of Public Education has incorporated technology
and science into the curriculum. Each of these strategies have helped students to be
college and career ready with 21st-century skills. Educational leaders have taken on
new leadership roles in making sure that the curriculum and training of teachers are
preparing students for the knowledge-based economy. The findings from the interviews
revealed that teachers are being trained in how to use the computers, whereas before,
teachers could teach in the classroom even if they did not know how to use the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
computers. Now, computer courses are a basic component in teacher training programs.
The school curriculum incorporates computers, and students learn early on in school;
they start learning in primary schools and continue throughout college.
The surveys and interviews were aligned with and supported by Bolman and
Deal’s (2011) leadership frameworks, which suggest that in order for individuals to be
effective leaders, they should be able to navigate the four frameworks for each situation.
The impact of globalization and the presence of MNCs have challenged educational
leaders to take on new leadership roles. Educational leaders have taken on these new
leadership roles through the implementation of school curriculum and teacher training.
They align with Bolman and Deal’s structural, political, and human resource frame-
works. Through the structural framework, educational leaders have developed school
curriculum and teacher training that will serve as a blueprint in guiding and supporting
teachers with resources that will allow them to be effective instructors. Through the
political framework, educational leaders such as the Minister of Public Education have
reached out to schools and universities to make sure that students have the necessary
equipment in their classrooms to be updated in the ever-changing world. In addition,
the government has updated its constitution so that schools and universities must adhere
to new educational policies. Finally, the human resource leadership framework is
demonstrated in that educational leaders have to be attuned to teachers to understand
their values and how to best support them. Educational leaders need to invest not only
in the school curriculum and teacher training programs but also in the teachers who will
participate in the programs and execute the curriculum with students. As a part of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
teacher training, not only are the programs teaching teachers computer and English
skills but they are also empowering teachers with the skills and support to teach stu-
dents 21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
The results of the study further supported the literature review that globalization
and the presence of MNCs have impacted the country of Costa Rica in various ways.
The results indicated that preparing students for 21st-century skills is crucial. MNCs
(particularly Intel), educational leaders, and government leaders have all contributed to
ensure that students are prepared with 21st-century skills. The findings demonstrated
that it was not one particular person or place that is responsible to prepare students with
21st-century skills in a knowledge-based economy; instead, it is about everyone taking a
role in contributing to prepare students, both inside and outside of the classrooms, to be
successful in society.
Many educational organizations, particularly the UCR, have had training and
conferences to teach teachers how to incorporate technology into the teaching. Non-
profit organizations such as the Omar Dengo Foundation have contributed significantly
to providing teachers with the resources and skills they need to integrate technology into
their instruction. In addition, the president of UCR has made it a priority to budget and
have a 5-year plan to provide professors with the technological tools and skills to
improve the various programs at UCR. Intel has also played a significant role in the
school education system. Particularly at UCR, Intel has partnered with the Engineering
and Language Departments. Intel has provided scholarship opportunities, computers,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
and educational programs to UCR to help students succeed in the technology sector.
This partnership once again shows how globalization and MNCs have impacted Costa
Rica’s education system and how there is a need for English and technology skills for
Costa Rica’s knowledge-based economy.
The findings indicated that a majority of Costa Rican schools and universities
are implementing 21st-century skill instruction to prepare students for the knowledge-
based economy. However, there are still some departments within the schools and
universities that have not yet adjusted to the changes. A possible reason is that they are
still adjusting to the new implementations. Teachers and educational leaders should not
fear the new changes and should be open to new ways of teaching, because students are
now living in a different world compared to before. Previously, one would find re-
sources at the library through books, but today educational resources can be found a
click away through the access of technology. Equipping teachers with the educational
training and providing them with the proper support and resources will give them the
confidence and knowledge they need to succeed in implementing 21st-century skills
into their classroom curriculum.
Twenty-first-century skills are important in a knowledge-based economy. As
Costa Rica has become a global competitor, there are necessary skills that schools and
universities require to prepare students. These skills—specifically collaboration, com-
munication, critical thinking and problem solving skills—are essential. As the economy
expands globally, there will be innovative ways to communicate and collaborate with
colleagues and coworkers. Jerald (2009) mentioned how the new collaboration and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
communication platform will facilitate more sophisticated interactions. No longer will
distance matter; people from various countries will be able to interact and collaborate on
group projects. There will be more of a “horizontal” collaboration instead of a “verti-
cal” one. Collaboration and communication are essential 21st-century skills because
providing such humanistic insight are actions that computers and technology will be
unable to achieve. Critical thinking and problem solving are also necessary 21st-cen-
tury skills. In a knowledge-based economy, students need to be self-directed and make
effective decisions right away. This process calls for the ability to process the evidence
provided and to make a reasonable decision based on the given information. Students
need to become good critical thinkers not just by understanding the materials through
memorization but by actually applying the knowledge learned. Students must be cre-
ative and think outside the box to keep updated with the evolving global changes.
Again, these are critical 21st-century skills that computers and technology cannot
provide (Jerald, 2009).
Future Research
Educational leaders and MNCs will continue to be instrumental to student
success. Globalization and the presence of MNCs proved to be key factors in driving
the knowledge-based economy and its focus on Costa Rica’s education sectors. This
study gave insight to educational leaders and MNCs on how 21st-century skills are key
to student success. Suggestions for future research are the following:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
1. It is recommended that this study be replicated but include more educational
leaders and MNC leader interviews. A larger sample of interviews will allow for a
stronger validation of data results.
2. It is recommended that a study be conducted in which teachers are followed
through their teacher training period so as to identify ways to be support teachers.
3. It is recommended that a study be conducted to examine teacher training
programs and how teachers are taught to implement 21st-century skills into their cur-
ricula.
4. It is recommended that a study be conducted to examine student success and
how college preparation in 21st-century skills have prepared students for the 21st
century.
5. It is recommended that a study be conducted to examine the relationships
between MNCs’ involvement and student success at schools and universities.
Conclusion
The results of the study supported the literature review, surveys, observations,
and interviews that globalization and the presence of MNCs have impacted Costa Rica.
The presence of MNCs and globalization was found to critical in the changes for the
Costa Rican education sector. Twenty-first-century skills were found to be necessary
for educational leaders and teachers to implement in schools and universities. The 21st-
century skills learned in class will prepare students to be better equipped for a
knowledge-based economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
Implementing 21st-century skills into the class curriculum is essential for the
knowledge-based economy— particularly the skills of collaboration, communication,
critical thinking, and problem solving skills. Globalization and technology have created
and expanded new platforms for how people communicate and collaborate. Distance is
no longer a factor in collaborating with others on group projects, and the English lan-
guage has become one of the global languages through which people can communicate
with one another.
As the surveys and interview data indicated, schools and universities have im-
plemented teacher training and curricula to incorporate 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. Schools and universities recognize
that teaching methods and content must be updated to follow the pace and growth of a
knowledge-based economy. For students to thrive in the new economy, educating them
with 21st-century skills seems to be the path for success.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
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Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Public Education
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,
A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our disserta-
tion process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and
multinational corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our
study is asking the following questions:
1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and
multinational corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?
As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey
and interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.
After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspon-
dence possible to go over the purpose of our study.
Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!
Sincerely,
Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129
Appendix B
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date ________________
Dear__________________________,
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that
may shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools
in Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educa-
tional leadership and 21st-century skills.
My name is Monica Pan, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction
and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to with-
draw at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anon-
ymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be pre-
sented in a manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identi-
fied.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you
may contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern
California. Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
Monica Pan and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu
I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions.
I consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate
in a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.
_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
Appendix C
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: ____________________ Location of Survey: ______________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration among students
takes place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. You have been trained to integrate
technology into your instruction.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Technology is used by students in
your classroom at least weekly.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Lessons promote higher level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
6. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collab-
oration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
7. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Intel has improved resources at
your school site.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Students are provided the oppor-
tunity to be college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. Teachers are encouraged to im-
plement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
12. The focus of education has
changed at your school site to incor-
porate 21st-century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
13. Educational decisions are influ-
enced by multinational corporations.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders are active par-
ticipants in implementation of 21st-
century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
15. School site leaders communicate
the goals and the vision of the school
to teachers and students.
4 3 2 1 0
16. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to site
leaders.
4 3 2 1 0
17. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to teach-
ers.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
Appendix D
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your teachers to
implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
Appendix E
MNC Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system in
Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st cen-
tury?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in the curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports that schools receive to help prepare
teachers in the implementation of science, technology, engineering, and mathe-
matics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 138
Appendix F
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 139
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabo-
ration, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 140
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering and mathematics can be
seen in your curriculum?
2. How have the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the Minister of Education supported the emphasis on science, technol-
ogy, engineering and mathematics?
4. Are you aware of any types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 141
Appendix G
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ____________________
Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically to-
ward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 142
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 143
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the class-
room.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 144
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a collab-
orative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Science
Technol-
ogy
Engineer-
ing
Mathe-
matics
11. Do you see evidence of STEM be-
ing taught in the classroom?
Yes Yes Yes Yes
No No No No
Field Notes and Examples:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 145
Other Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and multinational corporations (MNCs) have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st‐century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study identified what role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of policy changes, as seen in major national education initiatives. In addition, the study helped to determine whether these initiatives were producing greater numbers of knowledge‐ready workers in an education system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. ❧ The study was conducted by a thematic dissertation research team of 12 doctoral candidates selected by Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team collaborated on conceptual frameworks and used the following: the four‐frame theory of Bolman and Deal, the framework for 21st‐century learning of Partnership for 21st Century Learning, Spring’s research on globalization and education, and Wagner’s conceptual framework of 21st‐century skills to develop a survey that was given to leaders at the selected schools to measure their knowledge of 21st‐century skills, awareness of the recent changes in government policy, and the influence of MNCs in Costa Rica. Open‐ended interview questions were constructed collaboratively based on the frameworks mentioned above, and each researcher conducted an in‐depth interview with an educational leader at his or her particular school site for an individual case study. ❧ This study demonstrated that the presence of MNCs and globalization have been essential in their impact on Costa Rica and subsequent changes in the education sector. Twenty‐first-century skills were found to be necessary for educational leaders and teachers to implement in schools and universities. For a knowledge‐based economy, it is important to implement 21st‐century skills in the class curricula, particularly the skills of collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and problem solving.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Pan, Monica (author)

Core Title The impact of globalization and multinational corporations on higher education in Costa Rica and implications for educational leaders

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/20/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,Globalization,Higher education,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Martinez, Brandon (committee member), McCarty, Cynthia (committee member)

Creator Email monipan@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-413910

Unique identifier UC11296214

Identifier etd-PanMonica-2518.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-413910 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PanMonica-2518.pdf

Dmrecord 413910

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Pan, Monica

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA