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A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

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A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

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Content Running head: SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 1
A STUDY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS
AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS
by
Patrick Gittisriboongul
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Patrick Gittisriboongul
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 2
Dedication
To my children, Darren and Kara, you will never realize the amount of love that
one person can have for another until the two of you have children of your own. I love
the both of you more than you will ever know. I am so proud to be your father and live
for the both of you.
To my beautiful wife, Katy, you are everything to me: soul mate, best friend, love
of my life. Words cannot describe my appreciation for all the sacrifices you had to make
in order for me to check this off my bucket list. Without you, my life would be empty
and meaningless. I cannot wait to grow old with you, watch our kids grow up, and finish
off the rest of our bucket list together. I love you times infinity.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 3
Acknowledgments
I acknowledge and thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia, for his
encouragement, guidance, and mentoring throughout this process. I was fortunate to
have him as a mentor and sincerely appreciate all that he has done to build my leadership
capacity.
I thank my second chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita, for serving as a model for
educational leadership. He provided the essential “superintendent vitamins” and has been
instrumental in allowing me to reflect on my experiences and abilities and ultimately to
improve as an educational leader. I thank him for guiding me throughout this process.
I thank my third chair, Dr. Alison Nordyke, for her support throughout this
process. I sincerely appreciate the time, effort, and willingness to review my dissertation
with such short notice, as well as her impressive patience and flexibility.
Finally, I thank my cohort, all amazing and remarkable people who have made
my experience at USC fulfilling. I thank Crystal, Sherry, Suzy, and George for allowing
me to be a part of something special for the past 3 years that I will remember for the rest
of my life. I am grateful to have gone through this experience with the four of them.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 9
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 12
Significance of the Study 13
Summary of Methodology 13
Assumptions 14
Limitations 14
Delimitations 14
Definitions of Related Terms 15
Chapter 2: Literature Review 18
Globalization 18
Globalization and Education 18
Implications of Globalization on American Education 20
Economic and Business Impact 20
21st-Century Skills 26
Access and Analysis 27
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Skills 30
Communication (Written and Oral) 33
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading by Influence,
Curiosity, and Imagination 36
Agility and Adaptability 38
Initiative and Entrepreneurship 41
Superintendents as Instructional Leaders 43

Chapter 3: Methodology 49
Research Design 50
Sample and Population 51
Instrument Validity 52
Instrumentation 52
Qualitative Data 52
Quantitative Data 53
Data Collection 54
Qualitative Data 54
Quantitative Data 54
Data Analysis Procedures 55
Ethical Considerations 57
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 5

Chapter 4: Findings 58
Purpose 59
Response Rate 59
Quantitative Demographic Data 60
Qualitative Demographic Data 62
Research Question 1 63
Critical Thinking, Collaboration, Creativity, and Communication
as 21st-Century Skills 64
Technology Use as a 21st-Century Skill 65
Discussion 66
Research Question 2 67
Strategic Planning 67
Targeted Professional Development 69
Focus on Curriculum Design 70
Discussion 71
Research Question 3 71
Role of Teachers 72
Role of School-Level Administrators 73
Role of District Personnel 74
Discussion 75
Research Question 4 76
Use of Data and Multiple Measures 77
Discussion 78
Chapter Summary 79

Chapter 5: Conclusions 81
Statement of the Problem 81
Purpose of the Study 81
Research Questions 82
Methodology 82
Summary of Findings 83
Implications for Practice 84
Future Research 85
Conclusion 85

References 87
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Question/Instrument Connection 99
Appendix B: Survey Instrument 100
Appendix C: Interview Cover Letter 102
Appendix D: Survey Email 103
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Educational Attainment 60
Table 2: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience in District 61
Table 3: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience Overall 61
Table 4: Characteristics of Superintendents Who Were Interviewed in the
Qualitative Phase 62
Table 5: Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors Influencing Implementation of
21st-Century Skills 64
Table 6: Superintendents’ Rating of Stakeholder Importance to 21st-Century
Skills Implementation Process 72
Table 7: Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors That Influence Reform for
21st-Century Skills 76
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 7
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the strategies, practices, and leadership
skills utilized by California superintendents in implementing 21st-century skills in their
respective districts. A mixed-methods design was used, combining qualitative and
quantitative analysis. Quantitative data from 37 California superintendents were
collected via an online survey and two currently employed superintendents in southern
California participated in face-to-face interviews. Purposeful sampling was used to select
2 superintendents who met specific criteria to provide focused and meaningful data.
Interview and survey data were reviewed and analyzed to identify commonalities,
themes, and patterns in the responses.
The findings revealed that superintendents had a shared understanding and
definition of 21st-century skills aligned to Wagner’s definition: critical thinking,
communication, creativity, collaboration, and the use of technology. Analysis of data
identified strategic planning, professional development, and a focus on curriculum design
as practices used by superintendents to implement 21st-century skills. Teachers, school-
level administrators, and district personnel were identified as key stakeholders needed for
superintendents to implement 21st-century skills successfully in their districts. The use
of data and multiple measures emerged as a central theme in evaluating the effectiveness
of implementing 21st-century skills.
Evidence drawn from the findings provide important lessons for educational
leaders who plan to implement 21st-century skills in their district, school, or
organization. The findings revealed that superintendents can address 21st-century
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 8
learning needs using a variety of leadership strategies and methods. The study
contributes to the body of scholarly literature on superintendent leadership. Because the
role of the superintendent is multifaceted, superintendents must possess a wide and varied
skill set.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 9
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but
those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn” (Toffler, 2006, para. 3).
The United States has long viewed its schooling system and the students who are
produced by it as a sign of national excellence. Most parents feel positively about their
child’s school and believe that any issues that may exist with schools must be in areas
other than their own. School employees, from the superintendent to the teachers, believe
that they are all working hard to provide students with the best possible education.
However, the public’s view of education is not always positive. Twenty years
ago, Gardner (1983) released an open paper, A Nation at Risk, to the American people,
stating that the nation was at risk because the once unchallenged preeminence in
commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation was being overtaken by
competitors throughout the world. This report was concerned with only one of the many
causes and dimensions of the problem, but it was the one that undergirded American
prosperity, security, and civility. The report stated that, while the United States could
take justifiable pride in what its schools and colleges had historically accomplished and
had contributed to the country and the well-being of its people, the educational
foundations of society were being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatened
the very future of the nation and its people. What had been unimaginable a generation
ago had begun to occur: Others were matching and surpassing American educational
attainments.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 10
Almost 20 years later, Gurría (2010), Secretary-General of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), reported that the United States was
still an average performer in reading (rank 14 in OECD) and science (rank 17) but had
dropped below the OECD average in mathematics (rank 25). It was not so much that
American students were slipping; rather other countries were surpassing the United
States. Gurria also reported a wide gap between the top 10% and the bottom 10% of 15-
year-olds in the United States, similar to that observed between top- and bottom-
performing countries participating in the Program for International Student Assessment-
International (PISA).
Thus, a combination of the failure to meet the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) goal
of 100% proficiency in both Mathematics and English Language Arts by all students, the
inadequate ranking of the United States compared to other countries on international tests
such as PISA and encouragement from the business community provided an impetus to
the education community to reconsider educational practices. Wagner (2010) cited that
only 70% of the United States’ high school seniors were graduating from the K–12
system, in contrast to Denmark (96%) and Japan (93%). The students produced by
American schools were not ready for college or career. In response, the term 21st-
century skills has become a requisite part of the K–12 educator’s vocabulary. Replacing
the current Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) test with a Next Generation
assessment based on the new Common Core State Standards has forced districts to
reexamine current practices. School districts are grappling with how to train
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 11
administrators and teaching staffs to implement practices to prepare students for the new
assessments beginning in the 2014-15 school year.
Identified 21st-century skills are essential as students of the U.S. educational
system are increasingly competing against students from the outside global community
for jobs. Dede (2010) described the main difference between 20th-century skills and
21st-century skills as stemming primarily from the new technology and information
available to the general public. Students are required not only to use technology in their
careers but to mine massive amounts of information available on the Internet. Another
need for 21st-century skills is the increasing number of jobs that are currently assumed by
computers and other technologies, replacing humans (Jerald, 2009). This explains the
need for graduating students to be prepared for different types of careers.
Jerald (2009) explained how globalization breaks down the barriers between
nations and noted that the potential jobs in America are no longer limited to Americans.
This increases the level of competition for available jobs. Businesses that were surveyed
estimated that only 50% of college graduates are prepared for the work force (Wagner,
2010). This statistic encourages businesses to look outside of the United States to fill
positions. These are just a few of the deficiencies listed in the literature; all combine to
suggest that changes must be made within the schooling system.
Wagner (2010) claimed that students are not necessarily receiving a poor
education; however, he noted that it is the same education that was received by students
50 to 100 years ago. While the world around students has changed, the environment
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 12
inside the classroom has remained unchanged. All of these factors combine to require
different educational practices.
Thus, in order to ensure the economic security and success of students, districts
and schools must adjust to provide students with a more relevant education. Reforms that
fall under the umbrella of 21st-century skills, such as the Common Core State Standards,
the four Cs (communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking), and STEAM
initiatives (science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics) are in need of
implementation at the K–12 level.
Statement of the Problem
While there have been many studies on 21st-century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation, little is known about the characteristics and strategies of
superintendents who implement 21st-century skills in their school districts. This study
examines several California superintendents’ implementation of 21st-century skills in the
K–12 public school system.
Purpose of the Study
The findings from the research provide superintendents and other district leaders
with direction and intellectual resources to plan their implementation of 21st-century
skills as defined by Wagner (2008). Key stakeholders and their roles for implementation
are identified and evaluation of 21st-century skills implementation is provided.
Research Questions
Four research questions guided the study:
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 13
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
Significance of the Study
This study adds to the current body of scholarly literature by identifying how
California superintendents implement 21st-century skills, as defined by Wagner (2008),
in their districts. This information provide support and ideas for other superintendents
who are trying to implement 21st-century teaching and learning into their school districts.
These findings may also provide useful information to curriculum and instruction
departments as they look to support the vision of their superintendent. The goal of
reporting the implementation process of these skills can potentially lead to student
success in the global marketplace.
Summary of Methodology
A mixed-methods design was used to examine the research questions. A case
study format was used to collect qualitative data. Interviews were conducted with two
superintendents to address the research questions (see interview protocol, with items
matched to research questions, in Appendix A). Quantitative data were collected in the
form of responses to a 21-item survey (Appendix B). The questionnaire was sent to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 14
superintendents of public school districts in California. The multiple superintendents and
their responses form the triangulation required for research (Merriam, 2009).
Assumptions
The researcher assumed the following:
1. Superintendent leadership is essential to the implementation of new initiatives.
2. Superintendents can identify and communicate how they are implementing
21st-century skills.
3. The chosen procedures and methods were appropriate.
4. The collected information sufficiently addressed the research questions.
Limitations
The following study limitations are recognized:
1. The validity of the data was reliant on the chosen instruments.
2. The ability to gain access to superintendents was limited.
3. Ability or willingness of superintendents to provide accurate responses could
be limited.
4. With so little scholarly research on the implementation of 21st-century skills, it
was difficult to choose a shared, narrow definition.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study were as follows:
1. Only superintendents in California were recruited.
2. Interviews were delimited to 10 superintendents who had been in the position
for more than 2 years.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 15
3. The many definitions of the term 21st-century skills required selection of one
definition. The research focused on the definition provided by Wagner (2008).
Definitions of Related Terms
21st-Century Skills: The skills needed by students to compete in the global work
force and economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative,
effective written and oral communication, accessing and analyzing information, and
curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The statewide accountability system mandated
by NCLB that requires every state to ensure progress.
Common Core State Standards (CCSS): Standards designed to be adopted
nationally so that all states are teaching using the same standards. Instead of focusing on
objective-based learning, CCSS focuses on learning fewer standards but developing a
deeper understanding of content, which is intended to allow for more thorough
instruction.
Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA): The act passed in 1965 that emphasized
equality in education, with high standards and accountability (U.S. Department of
Education, 2001).
Four Cs: Collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, and communication.
Students need to learn more than the reading, writing, and arithmetic to be successful in
the global community. The 4 Cs were added to enhance instruction to make students
competitive in the global marketplace
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 16
Globalization: The process by which countries become more integrated in goods,
capital, ideas, and labor.
Next Generation Assessments (NGA): The tests that will replace the STAR in
California. California has chosen the company Smarter Balanced Assessment
Consortium (2012) to create the NGA. This test will be a computer-administered
predictive assessment that will allow for various levels of questions based on the
student’s answers.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The federal government’s current reauthorization
of ESEA that holds schools accountable for subgroup AYP scores, with a goal of 100%
proficient by all students by 2014 (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): A group of
30 countries whose mission is to promote policies that will improve the economic and
social well-being of people around the world. The OECD provides a forum in which
governments can share experiences and seek solutions to common problems. The
OECD’s importance for this study is that it administers and analyzes the PISA tests every
4 years (OECD, 2013).
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21): An organization focused on forming a
network of major businesses and community leaders, policymakers, and educators to
change educational practice.
Program for International Student Assessment-International (PISA): A program
of testing conducted every 3 years for assessment of 15-year-olds’ skills in reading,
mathematics, and science (PISA, 2013).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 17
Project-Based Learning (PBL): A student-driven yet teacher-facilitated approach
to learning (Bell, 2010).
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC): A California state-led
consortium developing assessments aligned with the CCSS.
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR): California’s current statewide
standardized assessment that fulfills requirements of NCLB and produces AYP and
Academic Performance Index (API) scores.
Wagner’s 21st-Century Skills: Skills proposed by Wagner (2008) to describe what
will be needed for students to be competitive in the global work force. These skills
extend beyond the California state standards and include problem solving and critical
thinking; collaboration across networks; leading by influence, agility and adaptability;
initiative and entrepreneurship; effective written and oral communication; accessing and
analyzing information; and curiosity and imagination.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 18
Chapter 2
Literature Review
A review of literature was conducted to explore the availability of supporting
resources related to the leadership practices of K–12 superintendents’ implementation
and use of 21st-century skills in California public schools. Wagner’s (2008) definition of
21st-century skills is applied in this study. In reviewing the literature, information was
analyzed to support understanding of six areas related to the research questions: (a)
globalization, (b) history of education, (c) focus on California education, (d) economic
and business impact, (e) 21st-century skills frameworks, and (f) leadership for reform.
Globalization
The concept of globalization, “the process whereby countries become more
integrated via movement of goods, capital, labor, and ideas” (Bloom, 2004, p. 59) is not
new. The ongoing process of globalization varies by region around the world (Bloom,
2004). Guillen (2001) described globalization as a process in which stakeholders
“converge towards a homogeneous organizational pattern of ‘best practice’ or ‘optimal
efficiency’” (p. 3). Coe, Arvind, and Tamirisa (2007) described globalization as the
agent that “makes the world a smaller place” (p. 32), where distance is no longer an
obstacle in obtaining goods, services, and ideas.
Globalization and Education
Bloom (2004) linked educational globalization to the global economy. The three
main channels in which globalization works in conjunction with education are economy,
“crossnational communication,” and the speed of change (Bloom, 2004). Bloom argued
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 19
that the global economy thrives when global education is on the rise. As much as this
true, it is also recognized that, however “globalized” education is, there are many
inequities in terms of quality and access for certain countries, particularly third-world
countries. Although higher education facilities in third-world countries may utilize
current and relevant curricula, local classrooms in primary and secondary education
facilities continue to utilize outdated curricula. This shows that, although globalization
has permeated education, the actual classroom has remained under the radar (Carnoy &
Rhoten, 2002). In order to assess globalization’s impact on education, research must be
done on globalization’s relationship to the “overall delivery of school, from transnational
paradigms, to national policies, to local practices” (Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002, p. 2), not a
single institution or a certain population’s test scores.
The term crossnational communication refers to “bringing nations together”
(Bloom, 2004, p. 68) through international trade, commerce, mobility, and education.
Bloom described a “good education” to be one that promotes inclusivity and encourages
students to develop knowledge and skills that are applicable beyond their own culture or
country’s needs. As students are exposed to this type of education, the process of
globalization quickens.
Migration and immigration are also key assets of globalization to both the home
country and the new country. As immigrants settle in a new country, they bring their
own ideals, customs, and traditions. In return, a wealth of new knowledge is also sent
back to their home countries. This speeds the process of globalization (Levitt, 1996).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 20
The goal of globalization is to create a more connected world through various
avenues, ultimately to effect change in a range of capacities. Bloom (2004) argued that
faster globalization will result in quicker and greater change. The largest impact on the
speed of globalization is education. This is not to be confused with the fact that
education cannot function alone to further globalization but it is necessary and vital to the
process (Bloom, 2004).
Implications of Globalization on American Education
Globalization places growing pressure on American workers (Freeman, 2007).
Approximately 85% of middle-class jobs and 90% of “fastest-growing, high-paying” jobs
require a postsecondary degree (Wagner, 2008). Bottery (2006) asserted that American
globalism is a strong force around the world; yet, according to PISA, the United States
trails in education behind nations such as Korea, Finland, and Japan. In order for the
United States to be competitive in the global market, proficiency in basic knowledge and
skills, such as mathematics, reading, writing, and foreign languages, does not suffice.
The emphasis is no longer on what students know; rather, the emphasis is on what
students can do with the information, otherwise known as “applied skills” or 21st-century
skills. The integration of 21st-century skills to core curriculum is vital for students who
are seeking success in postsecondary education and the work force, both at home and
abroad (Silva, 2008).
Economic and Business Impact
To meet the demands of the new global economy, 21st-century skills have
become a necessity for students today. Technological innovation and new requirements
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 21
posed by the global economy have created a world that is more interconnected and
diverse, where information is readily available from anywhere in the world.
Superintendents must lead and develop their schools in ways that reflect understanding of
a rapidly changing and developing economy. This thinking challenges traditional school
leadership to reform teaching and learning rapidly to keep current with global, societal,
and economic needs.
Businesses and industry have clearly indicated that they need employees who are
well prepared to be a productive part of a global work force in the knowledge economy.
Black and Lynch (2004) and Zoghi, Mohr, and Meyer (2010) detailed how organizations
have changed their approach to doing business and how employees have increased
responsibility and contribution to meet the demands of today’s competitive economy.
The P21 (2008), an organization focused on forming a network of major businesses and
community leaders, policy makers, and educators to change educational practice,
indicated that about 54% of the U.S. economy was centered on the production of material
goods and services in 1967. In contrast, about 63% of that economy moved to an
information-based service economy 30 years later, in 1997. From 1995 to 2005, 17
million service-sector jobs were created and more than 3 million manufacturing jobs were
lost (P21, 2008).
In a report published by P21 entitled 21st Century Knowledge and Skills in
Educator Preparation, Greenhill (2010) outlined the importance of developing 21st-
century skills to support students’ preparation in an increasingly competitive global
market. Greenhill identified three issues that drove the need for change in the American
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 22
educational system: (a) the dual achievement gap, (b) shifting economy and labor market,
and (c) shifting labor demands.
Greenhill (2010) also explained how the shift from an industrial economy to a
service-based economy has created a labor market demand for people who are
knowledgeable and creative in thought. Greenhill advocated that American schools
promote the understanding of the 21st-century interdisciplinary themes, which he
identified as global awareness, economic literacy, civic literacy, health literacy, and
environmental literacy. Greenhill suggested that educators take the following actions to
support this learning by all students: (a) integrate technology to support academic
content, (b) establish standards-based instruction, (c) utilize varied methods of
instructional delivery, (d) coach and mentor peers, and (e) differentiate student
assessment strategies.
Three major business surveys were identified in the literature that itemized the
work skills important for employment in the 21st century. A survey of employers by P21
(2008) found that the top skills that employers sought were professionalism, teamwork,
oral communication, ethics and social responsibility, and reading comprehension. The
study determined that community and business leaders, policy makers, and educators
must work together so future workers will have the work place skills necessary to
succeed.
Koc and Koncz (2009) performed the second survey as part of their work with the
National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). Their survey results,
published as the 2009 NACE Research Report: Job Outlook 2010, supported the previous
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 23
study. As they explained, businesses and employers have increased their expectations for
potential employees, hiring fewer people and expecting them to do more. However,
businesses continue to seek employees with specific and specialized skills. Koc and
Koncz (2009) indicated that the top skills sought by employers were analytical,
teamwork, communication, and technical skills, along with strong work ethics.
In 2006 the New Commission on the Skills of the American Work force—a group
of business leaders, governors, school chancellors, and former Secretaries of Labor and
Education—released a follow-up to its 1990 report on the nation’s educational and
economic challenges. The message of the 2006 report indicated that basic skills were
necessary but not sufficient (National Center on Education and the Economy, 2007). The
Commission’s report described how global competition and technology have changed the
game for American workers. The commission asserted that students need a strong
foundation in basic skills but that this foundation alone is no longer enough for economic
and job security. As they explained, job security can exist only in a world where ideas
and abstractions are the path to a job, where creativity and innovation are crucial for a
good life, and where high levels of education are offered (National Center on Education
and the Economy, 2007).
Numerous studies on the global economy and the “flat” world document that
tomorrow’s workers must be ready to change jobs and careers more frequently, to be
adaptable in acquiring job skills, and to incorporate job-embedded and education-
acquired knowledge on business processes and problems (Friedman, 2007). Friedman
indicated that the global labor force has doubled from the time when China and India
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 24
opened their economies to the world. He explained that the application of information
technology to the very core of business operations has caused a profound shift in the
needed skills of workers. The global market is rewarding those who have high
educational achievement and technical skills. The worker of the 21st century must have
science and mathematics skills, creativity, fluency in information and communication
technologies, and the ability to solve complex problems. Studies show that, as the global
economy continues to evolve, workers will change jobs and careers seven or eight times.
Friedman asserted that, to be competitive, Americans must engage in lifelong learning to
update their education and job skills and think of themselves as competing with everyone
in the world. Clearly, the future economic security and well-being of American workers
is tied to educational achievement.
The other concerns center on the downward trend in student test scores in
America and the general lack of preparation for living and working in the 21st century
(P21, 2007). It has been widely documented that students, especially urban students,
graduating from public schools in the United States are not prepared for work in an
increasingly global society.
Globalization has contributed to increased communications regarding students’
educational achievements and student data on an international level that has resulted in
comparative data. U.S. students’ mediocre to low performance on international tests is
often cited as the reason that students should be globally competitive and that education
should ensure that U.S. students have superior advantage in the global economy.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 25
In 1983 A Nation at Risk announced a crisis in American public education due to
the mediocrity of public schools. America’s economic security was threatened by a labor
force that was no longer competitive in the global marketplace (Wagner, 2008). Global
competition in the United States continues to be linked to the global economy and to
concerns that students in the United States are being outscored and surpassed by students
in other countries, especially India and China, in the areas of mathematics and science
(Wagner, 2008).
International testing data add to public concern that America’s students rank low
relative to those from other countries. Both government and university officials warn that
American schools must do more to prepare students for careers in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and develop broader perspectives on culture,
language, and geography. Thus, much of the impetus that makes global education a topic
of conversation today derives from economic, political, and security concerns (Wagner,
2008).
Schools are called to be accountable for students’ success, especially in the areas
of mathematics and science. Stronger alliances with business communities are often
forged out of mutual interest to produce students who are prepared to work and compete
in the global economy (Wagner, 2008).
Children in the United States need 21st-century skills to thrive as successful
citizens, workers, and leaders. There is a large gap between the knowledge and skills
most students learn in school and the knowledge and skills that are needed to be
successful in a global work place or community (P21, 2009). To bridge this gap, P21 has
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 26
partnered with several states, including California, to reform education and align
classroom environments with contemporary standards. Hence, the new CCSS have been
created to address these 21st-century needs for students.
21st-Century Skills
“Developing students who are independent enough to think critically about
academic subject matter and real-life problems is an educational objective of paramount
importance to our educational system as well as greater society” (Tsui, 1999, p. 185).
The literature on 21st-century skills includes many definitions of that term,
including Wagner’s (2008) seven skills, the P21 skills (2008), and Rotherham and
Willingham’s definition (2010). For the purposes of this study, an in-depth review of
Wagner’s (2008) seven skills was conducted to identify the essential skills that students
require to be successful.
In a report by the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS)
Commission on Accreditation (Witt, 2010) it was reported that Wagner, from the Harvard
Graduate School of Education, had interviewed over 800 CEOs and asked them the
essential question, “Which qualities will our graduates need in the 21st century for
success in college, careers, and citizenship?” Wagner (2008) identified seven 21st-
century skills that are required to be competitive in the global knowledge economy.
These skills, which he claimed only few American schools are nurturing, were accessing
and analyzing information, problem solving and critical thinking, effective written and
oral communication, collaboration across networks and leading by influence, and
curiosity and imagination, agility and adaptability, and initiative and entrepreneurship.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 27
U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan (2009) stated, “21st-century skills are
skills that increasingly demand creativity, perseverance and problem solving combined
with performing well as part of a team” (p. 2). However, an important question is
whether NCLB and 21st-century skills are contradictory or complementary. John Bailey,
Director of the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology in the
Bush administration, suggested, “Standardized tests can measure only a few of the critical
skills that we hope students will learn” (as cited in Salpeter, 2008, para. 6). ISTE
president Van Dam concurred:
Many districts are so overwhelmed and concerned about the NCLB requirements
and potential financial repercussions of not complying, that for most of them the
safest route is the back-to-basics approach focusing entirely on 20th-century skills
at the expense of 21st-century ones. (as cited in Salpeter, 2008, para. 6)
So, what are the strategies and tools needed for students to be 21st century ready?
Access and Analysis
Commentators on education are discussing that a new generation of learners is
entering the educational system (Prensky, 2001). This new generation has grown up with
information and communication technology (ICT) in their everyday lives, differentiating
them from previous generations and from their teachers and educational institutions.
Educational institutions must redesign themselves to accommodate these “digital
natives,” said Prensky. Prensky defined digital natives as people who are immersed in
technology, surrounded by video games, music, smart phones, computers, and many
other technology toys. Social researchers Howe and Strauss (2000) defined this group as
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 28
people with distinctive characteristics that set them apart from previous generations.
These team-oriented achievers are talented with technology and claim that they will be
America’s next great generation.
Prensky (2001) asserted that this generation learns differently. They are active
experiential learners, proficient in multitasking and dependent on communication
technologies for accessing information and for interacting with others. Prensky labeled
the people born before 1980 as “digital immigrants” who are radically different from the
digital natives and lack technological fluency that the natives possess. Prensky claimed
that most teachers belong to the digital immigrant group.
Bennett, Maton, and Kervin (2008) argued that, although there are calls for major
changes in education, these calls have been subjected to little critical scrutiny, are
undertheorized, and lack a sound empirical basis. There is thus a pressing need for
theoretically informed research on how to use the potential of these “digital natives” and
to prepare them through institutions and teachers who are ready for the 21st century.
With the advent of the 21st century, media and technology have exploded. The
ability to analyze this information and discern what is important and what is not is
essential. Access to this information is no longer reserved to the elite in American
society (Wagner, 2010).
Future generations must have these basic skills as they compete against a global
community for employment (Wagner, 2010). Although global competition has existed
for centuries, the 21st century has introduced many technologies that have propelled
more nations into global competitiveness. To maintain its status as a leading nation, the
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 29
United States must teach basic skills that include data analysis (Darling-Hammond &
Adamson, 2010). The challenge for employers is the sheer amount of data that they must
analyze in order to help their organization grow. Employees must be ready to take on the
challenge of collecting information and then have the skills to distinguish what is
pertinent (Wagner, 2010). Companies are searching for people who have these analysis
skills.
Although distinctly different, creativity and analysis actually work together.
People must be able to think creatively to open up the possibility of analyzing data in a
variety of ways. This inquisitive mindset allows for new solutions to be discovered.
Employees in the 21st century will need to have the ability to analyze data and
information to identify new avenues, opportunities, and challenges. It is no longer a
luxury but a necessity to be able to reason, analyze, weigh evidence, and solve problems.
These skills must be mastered to be effective in the work place. Companies have moved
from a top-down approach to management to a more collaborative model. Analysis of
data has become even more important in this process as employees must decipher which
information should be shared with members of their team (Wagner, 2010).
These analytical skills must be taught within the K–12 education system.
Students must learn to be inquisitive and to analyze information (Robinson, 2011).
Unfortunately, as students continue through the current education system, they become
less and less inquisitive, asking fewer questions and exhibiting apathy toward learning
(Wagner, 2010). This poses a dilemma in the 21st century in which the skills of analysis
are necessary to survive in a highly competitive and global market. Students should be
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 30
engaged in learning and education should stimulate and nurture an atmosphere of
creativity and inquiry (Robinson, 2011). Students need to be challenged and given other
innovative learning methods in preparation for the work force (Wagner, 2010). School
standards continue to impede students’ ability to master analysis skills. Heavy emphasis
has been placed on state standards that focus on memorization rather than on analysis.
Standardized testing must also be revisited regarding its effectiveness in helping students
to understand the processes of analysis (Robinson, 2011). High-stakes testing must
assess whether students can apply knowledge to new problems and situations. Despite
these needs, schools have not changed fundamentally for decades (Wagner, 2010).
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking, or “the ability to engage in purposeful, self-regulatory
judgment” (Abrami et al., 2008, p. 1102), is widely recognized as an important, even
essential, skill. Abrami et al. insisted that most educators would agree that critical
thinking is one of the most desirable outcomes of formal schooling. Critical thinking
involves thinking about important problems in all academic areas, as well as thinking
about social, political, and ethical challenges in the current complex and multifaceted
global world. Tsui (1999) stated that, to safeguard a democratic society with an able
thinking citizenry and to ensure a competent work force, it is essential to foster critical
thinking skills. A short-term advantage of a critical thinker is that it improves the quality
of the student. Through critical thinking, students become problem solvers.
The findings reported by Abrami et al. (2008) support the idea that how critical
thinking instruction is provided affects the improved critical thinking skills. Critical
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 31
thinking requirements must be a clear and important part of course design. Furthermore,
critical thinking skills must be developed separately and then applied to courses.
Collaborative learning seems to make a difference in the attainment of critical thinking
skills. The least effective method, according to Abrami et al., is to immerse students in
thought-provoking material without explicit use of critical thinking principles. Abrami et
al. would agree that it is important to understand and know how to master 21st-century
components, one being critical thinking, to be ready for the 21st century.
Abrami et al. (2008) also found pedagogy to be a critical component of 21st-
century skills. Many studies (e.g., Martin, Craft, & Sheng, 2001; VanTassel-Baska, Zuo,
Avery, & Little, 2002; Zohar & Tamir, 1993; Zohar et al., 1994) have shown that the
impact of the interventions was greatest when special advanced training in preparation for
teaching critical thinking skills was given to instructors. Furthermore, the impact of the
interventions was greatest when observations of critical thinking teaching practices and
course administration by instructors were reported. Contrary to these findings, the
impacts of critical thinking were smallest when the intention to improve critical thinking
skills was only listed among the course objectives and no effort was shown to incorporate
critical thinking in the course design and implementation. Therefore, better results can be
achieved through purposeful and active training and teacher support. It is clear from the
findings that improvement in students’ critical thinking skills must occur through explicit
instruction.
Tsui (1999) found that the greatest gains in critical thinking occurred in general
education courses that focused on a synthesis of knowledge rather than on specific
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 32
information. Consequently, institutions that offered more humanities courses and
interdisciplinary courses showed higher gains in students’ critical thinking skills. Active
learning techniques (e.g., student participation in small discussion groups, class
presentations, discussions and disagreements, debates, independent study, writing and
rewriting based on feedback) versus lecture-style teaching produced increases in critical
thinking skills as well. Students who had papers critiqued by their instructors and their
peers, worked on independent research projects, took essay exams, worked on group
projects, and gave class presentations showed the most gains in critical thinking skills as
they were able to think critically about what they or others had written (Tsui, 1999).
Furthermore, taking multiple-choice exams appeared to detract from nurturing students’
ability to think critically. A critical thinker constructs responses and answers to
questions, challenges rather than memorizes, and recognizes from a list of possible
answers, all of which contribute to higher-order thinking (Tsui, 1999). Tsui asserted that
both course content and instructional methods contribute to the growth of critical thinking
skills in students. It is important to note that some faculty do not actively engage in
fostering critical thinking skills because they see it as time consuming and risky (Haas &
Keeley, 1998). Altering commonplace teaching techniques would thus seem more
appropriate than radically replacing them. Faculty and teachers must skillfully guide
discussions and facilitate student participation to cultivate useful discussion (Pascarella &
Teranzini, 1991). Writing and rewriting must be incorporated into all coursework.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 33
Communication (Written and Oral)
In a global economy that has been infused with technology as a primary means of
communication, the value and importance of effective communication through all
methods is reiterated (Bennis, 2003). For example, Wagner (2010) reported that 87% of
teenagers were communicating online approximately 2 to 3 hours per day. Wagner
estimated that 188 billion text messages were sent in 2010, compared to just 14 billion
text messages sent 10 years prior. Text messaging is just one way people are
communicating (Kluger, 2012). Wagner (2010) contended that Internet-ready
technologies being used for communicating are not specific to texting and span from
computers and gaming systems to portable devices and smartphones. These various
avenues have pushed the boundaries of communication, yet have also impeded the ability
to communicate in person (Wagner, 2010). Wagner’s interview of more than 800 Chief
Executive Officers (CEOs) indicated that employers looked for people who were
effective communicators. Sharkey (2010) warned that today’s students are becoming less
and less adept at in-person communication and that written and verbal person-to-person
communication is challenging for today’s youth.
Wagner (2010) attributed the decline in communication skills of today’s
generation to the work environments of the past few decades. Wagner pointed out that
people in the work force are increasingly working in virtual offices, thus replacing face-
to-face communication with emails. Wagner contended that the prevalence of email has
led to the necessity to train employees on appropriate methods of communication.
Sharkey (2010) viewed effective communication in relation to other skills, such as
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 34
persistence, clarity, persuasion, and inquiry. Wagner (2010) argued that strengthening
written communication skills must begin prior to leaving college. Companies aim to hire
people who can engage in a rapidly changing environment and can communicate
effectively within the realm of business and the variety of communication methods that
takes course within a single day. The environment is no longer a top-down hierarchal
management with employees specializing in singular skills. The work place has become
a flattened hierarchy in which teams work on specific projects in networks. This change
in the work place only highlights that communication skills are vital for employees as
they communicate more widely rather than simply follow directions from management
(Wagner, 2010).
The skill sets that students need to succeed in the university are no different from
those that are needed in the work force (Ireh & Bailey, 1999). Effective communication
skills are required throughout college and are considered a basic skill to be successful in
academia and in the work place.
Wagner (2010) attributed students’ ineffective communication skills to an ever-
changing environment. Wagner described short, abrupt, and informal modes of
communication, such as texting and Facebook, which are widely used by students
ineffectively for communication purposes in many work environments. Entering into a
computer-literate era, it is essential for everyone to have certain basic skills (Stuart &
Dahm, 1999), including the ability to communicate. Students must employ a new system
of understanding for the 21st century, which, according to Stuart and Dahm, includes
communication and interpersonal skills, analytical and problem-solving skills, creative
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 35
thinking, and negotiating and persuasion skills. In collaboration, students will need to
communicate orally and in writing; without this, collaboration cannot occur. Students
need not only to be able to read, write, and speak proficiently; they must also be able to
understand their audience, listen, and use a variety of technology and artistic media to be
prepared for the 21st century (Wagner, 2010).
An investigation into appropriate methods for strengthening communication skills
while using technology revealed that, when students see information and communication
technologies, particularly the Internet, as an instructional instrument, their learning
increases (Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010). Cheung and Huang (2005) agreed, based on the
results of a study conducted at the university level; students’ Internet usage correlated
positively with general learning. Thus, one way to communicate with surface learners
(those who use the Internet simply as a leisure time activity) is to assign work that allows
them to use Internet. Another method, suggested by Yilnaz and Orhan (2010), is for
teachers to give assignments that require the use of the Internet as a source. A deep
learning approach requires the use of skills such as integration, synthesis, and reflection
(Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010).
For these reasons, when setting assignments, teachers should direct students to a
variety of sources that suggest different perspectives on the same topic. They can
provide alternative information and thereby strengthen written communication skills;
presentations and collaboration with peers can solidify verbal communication skills.
Over the course of time, this will encourage students to adopt these learning strategies
and deep learning may be achieved (Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 36
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading by Influence, Curiosity, and
Imagination
Other skills that students will need to keep up with the challenges of the era are
collaboration and communication skills, opportunities for self-expression, sharing ideas
and thoughts, and helping each other (Kafai, 2002). In today’s global economy, the work
style has shifted from document focused to people focused. A survey by the American
Management Association (AMA; 2010) cited working in teams as a key factor in how
corporations choose managers, followed by their ability to communicate. Therefore,
being able to work collaboratively with a diverse group of people is an essential skill in
the 21st-century economy. According to Roschelle and Teasley (1995), collaboration
can be defined broadly as building and effectively utilizing relationships, which
ultimately helps people to build on each other’s ideas, which in turn leads to innovation.
Innovation, consequently, fosters learning and productivity (Jarboe, 1996). In some
countries such as the United States, Israel, and Canada, collaborative learning is highly
valued, starting as early as preschool and continuing through graduate school (Webb &
Mastergeorge, 2003). Pink (2005, p. 51) stated, “In the Conceptual Age, what we need is
a whole new mind—one that incorporates both right brain and left brain directed
aptitudes.”
Knight and Bohlmeyer (1990) insisted that simply asking students to work
together in small groups will not promote collaboration. Instead, collaboration skills
must be taught. The skills that students need to collaborate effectively include
management of group dynamics, problem-solving processes, and interpersonal
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 37
communication skills (Webb & Farivar, 1994). Three types of communication skills
were found in members of effective collaborative groups: providing explanations, asking
questions, and engaging in argumentative discussions (Chan, 2001).
As learning involves the construction of knowledge in one form or another and is
thus constructivist by nature, researchers such as Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)
questioned what kind of instructional approaches best promotes these types of sought-
after skills. The instructional approaches must provide direct instructional guidance.
One such approach is PBL. Bell (2010) defined PBL as a student-driven yet teacher-
facilitated approach to learning. Learners ask questions about topics that have aroused
their curiosity. The teacher guides students through their research and oversees each step
of the process. Students create projects individually or cooperatively. PBL is not
supplementary to instruction; it is the basis for curriculum delivery. Greater
understanding of topics, deeper learning, higher-level reading, and increased motivation
to learn are some reported outcomes of PBL.
Geier et al. (2008) reported that students who engaged in PBL outscored
traditionally educated peers. Although 21st-century skills are not evaluated on current
standardized tests, Boaler (1999) found that, over a period of 3 years, three times as many
PBL students achieved the highest possible scores than did their traditionally taught
peers.
Learning responsibility, independence, and discipline are three outcomes of PBL
(Bell, 2010). As students become more proficient in PBL, they create blueprints for
themselves to stay on task and to stay focused, they self-monitor their progress through
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 38
daily agenda setting, they report their progress, and they set goals, thus managing their
time. The teacher regularly meets with the students to ensure that they are on track. In
this process, students are also learning socially; they are becoming proficient at
communication, negotiation, and collaboration. Students must brainstorm and act as
good listeners.
The element of choice is crucial to student success. Technology is often used as a
means, not an end. An authentic use of technology for PBL work makes use of the
fluency that the digital natives of today possess. Gultekin (2005) provided evidence that,
through PBL, students become better researchers, problem solvers, and higher-order
thinkers.
To address the standardized testing that currently does not encourage
collaboration and innovation, Tom Torlakson, California’s State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, explained that Smarter Balance Testing is scheduled to begin in 2014-2015 to
support 21st-century skills (Hoag, 2013). Torlakson stated, “It’s time for California to
move forward with assessments that measure the real-world skills our students need to be
ready for a career and for college” (para. 1).
Agility and Adaptability
Since entering the 21st century, the United States and most nations have seen a
societal and an economic shift (Wagner, 2010). The speed of media and technology has
grown exponentially in its sophistication and influence and has even infiltrated how
people are learning, experiencing the world, and interacting with one another (Wagner,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 39
2008). Wagner pointed out that some people are adapting and embracing change, while
others have not adapted or will not adapt.
Sharkey (2010) claimed that the growth curve for technology continues to double
every year and a half. Furthermore, Sharkey asserted that these changes are extremely
powerful and warned that, if society is not able to adapt, the future of the United States is
uncertain. Wagner (2010) noted that businesses are changing rapidly in the 21st century.
Employers are able to train employees for the technical aspects of a job but workers must
be able to adjust and adapt to situations in order to resolve currently unknown problems.
Wagner (2010) argued that companies in the 20th century and those in the 21st
century are vastly different. Within the past 2 decades, companies have restructured their
organizational practices. Teams in the work place in the 21st century collaborate and
adapt to projects rather employing a hierarchal management style, as was previously
commonplace. Jobs are not defined by a specific talent or ability; rather, they are
centered around specific problems or tasks that must be accomplished by a team.
Individuals within the team must be able to adapt and identify the best alternative to solve
the problem or to reach the intended goal. Moreover, what was once deemed blue-collar
work has undergone inevitable changes in the 21st century. The work place demands that
workers be able to adapt to the changing landscape of the work environment, as
companies try to stay relevant and competitive in a global economy (Wagner, 2010).
Wagner (2010) elaborated on the variety of skill sets that workers must have
across many industries. He cited Karen Bruett of Dell Computers, who manages the K–
12 education strategic business development. Bruett explained that her job has changed
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 40
dramatically over the term of her employment. Skills that were important 5 years ago
have morphed into something entirely different. She attributed her success to flexibility
and adaptability. Wagner explained that the reality is that some workers are not adapting.
The process of change is so challenging that some companies have provided professional
development and coaching to assist employees to learn how to be adaptable.
Employers search for candidates who can adapt to the work environment
(Wagner, 2010). Increasingly, companies reiterate that future employees must be flexible
and adaptable. When someone is hired, adaptability and learning skills are more
important than technical skills (Wagner, 2008). Companies seek workers with these traits
because they know that, ultimately, the employees will have to adapt to changing job
expectations (Wagner, 2010). In the 21st century, businesses are required to be
adaptable, which is essential to their sustainability.
Education is no exception to this requirement. People who work today must be
able to think, be flexible, change, and use a variety of tools. Each year, thousands of
students enter universities and community colleges. As these students prepare to enroll in
college courses, many are unprepared or cannot adapt to the rigor of academia. Students
must learn to adapt not only academically, but also socially, to the university
environment. They will encounter people from a plethora of cultures and must learn to
interact, engage, and adapt to every new situation (Wagner, 2010).
Wagner (2010) claimed that classrooms have remained the same for more than
half a decade; teachers have not deviated from a prescribed set curriculum. Due to the
mounting governmental pressures of statewide high-stakes testing, teachers are forced to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 41
teach to the test (Wagner, 2010). Adaptability requires that superintendents employ a
new system of leadership to lead in the 21st century (Stuart & Dahm, 1999).
Initiative and Entrepreneurship
Interest in education and training in enterprise have increased within the past few
years, especially in Finland and other European countries, as well as in the United States
and China (Seikkula-Leino, 2007). The European Union places importance on
developing an entrepreneurial culture by cultivating the appropriate mindset,
entrepreneurship skills, and awareness of career opportunities (Commission of the
European Communities, 2006). However, the basic question of how entrepreneurship
development can be integrated into the American school curriculum remains unanswered.
According to Seikkula-Leino (2007), entrepreneurship education involves such
terms as enterprising (general education and learning processes) and entrepreneurial
(business context). For younger students, enterprise education is more appropriate as
students learn to take responsibility for their learning and for themselves and learn how to
cope in a complex society. Students learn to deal with higher levels of complexity and
uncertainty to make organizations more effective; at the same time, they are fulfilled
personally. This type of education develops behaviors, skills, and attributes to create
innovative practices to cope with change. Enterprising education is the process whereby
these behaviors are learned and supported; it requires a shift in pedagogy. Cooperative
learning, PBL, group and peer work, teamwork, learning by doing, pedagogical drama,
and learning diaries are parts of the process. Knowledge is gained and mistakes are
considered to be a part of the approach.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 42
Leffler and Svedberg (2005) reported results of interviews with teachers that
included their views on what enterprise and entrepreneurship mean. “Children can see
how much money they can make from a theatre . . . where they can see that they are
doing a job that is rewarded (interview with a primary school teacher)” (p. 219). An
upper secondary teacher said, “It doesn’t really mean that they should be entrepreneurs,
but rather that they should be enterprising, that is, creative, be able to imbibe knowledge,
be able to utilize the channels they have for getting knowledge in every different way”
(p. 219).
The empirical studies of school practice by Leffler and Svedberg (2005) indicated
a multifaceted practice for entrepreneurship. However, organization and implementation
of such classroom activities seemed to rest on assumptions that teaching and learning are
primarily a collective undertaking and that learning and acting are two sides of the same
coin. However, this is not unique to enterprise learning.
Yan and Yu (2007) provided empirical evidence of the importance of social
interactions affecting students’ learning experience in enterprise learning. Collaboration
and shared problem solving (e.g. partnerships with local companies), as well as learning
in action by reproducing, transforming, and producing (e.g., operating the school
cafeteria once a week) and apprenticeships are examples of social interactions, together
with elements of enterprising and entrepreneurship (Leffler & Svedberg, 2005). Yan and
Yun (2007) implied that interpersonal skills and opportunities for guidance and
interaction with various people should be developed for effective implementation of these
enterprise programs.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 43
Although entrepreneurial training has been infused into curriculum, mainly
through extracurricular activities and in some cases by being explicitly included in the
curriculum, most entrepreneurial programs show that teacher training is a very important
factor in the success of the programs (European Commission, 2004). Nordic countries
and Great Britain are front runners in this area, although an extensive lack of teaching
materials and teachers’ knowledge is still evident (Lundström, 2005).
Finland, in particular, has actively promoted entrepreneurship education in
general education at all levels and has been supported administratively by the Ministry of
Education. The Finnish National Board of Education introduced the National Core
Curriculum for Basic Education, which includes entrepreneurship education. Finland
underwent a curriculum reform during 2004–2006, basing its reform on Macdonald’s
(2003) partnership model. This “bottom-up” model draws attention to the teachers’ roles
as change agents (Fullan, 1999). Teachers develop their own abilities, underpinning the
importance of teachers’ beliefs about aims and contents. Parents, administrative bodies,
curriculum reformers, researchers, and parents became partners to the teachers in
reforming the curriculum.
In summary, Wagner (2010) would agree that superintendents must come together
with principals, teachers, students, and the community to build and strengthen the 21st-
century skills that are needed to remain competitive in the global economy.
Superintendents as Instructional Leaders
When implementing new initiatives (for example, 21st-century skills), the
superintendent must supply clear expectations of success for that vision (EdSource,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 44
2006). Fullan (2002) stated that, if entities want to achieve sustainable reform, the
leaders of those groups must create a radical change in the learning culture of the district
and schools. Without vision from the leader of the district—the superintendent—long-
lasting reform is impossible. Petersen (1999) agreed stating that educational reform is
impossible without a strong vision from the superintendent. Fullan (2005) claimed that
one of the most important parts of an instructional leader’s job is to create a relationship
between the initiatives, which provides principals and teachers with a clear direction or
path to guide their schools and students. Fullan (2003) stated that educational
transformation is impossible without solid leadership at all levels. If 21st-century skills
are to be implemented, strong leadership at all levels (district and site) is essential.
Petersen (2002) identified the need for superintendents to articulate specific goals
for the district and to establish standards required to meet those goals. The
superintendent must also have the visionary leadership, organizational skills, planning,
and evaluations in place to ensure the success of the stated goals. Waters and Marzano
(2006) concurred, citing a statistically significant correlation between setting goals for
teaching and learning and student achievement. Key stakeholders must understand the
vision and goals created by the superintendent for the district to be successful.
One of the superintendent’s roles is to use messaging to communicate the vision
or to create systems by which he/she can develop training programs and strategies to
ensure the success of the vision (Grogran & Andrews, 2002). To accomplish this type of
instructional leadership by superintendents, Hoyle (1989) called for a different model by
which superintendents are prepared for their position. He recommended professional
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 45
training that includes being comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty. Datnow (2000)
cited an example in Memphis, Tennessee, where the superintendent’s initiative was one
of the single factors that encouraged schools to adopt the proposed reform. The research
showed that, if the superintendent put his/her full support behind a reform, it was more
likely to happen. Datnow said that, even if the teachers did not believe in the reform
wholly, they still committed to it because the superintendent supported the reform.
Ely (1990) suggested that, for implementation to be successful, stakeholders must
have voice in the change process. The administration shows its commitment to the
change by asking key stakeholders for their input. Kowalski (2005) said that
superintendents cannot use top-down communication strategies to inform staff of
changes; rather, they must build relationships to have the opportunity to create change.
Datnow (2000) suggested that increasing the amount of teacher involvement in a true and
genuine way increases the potential success of the reform. Shuldman (2004) supported
teacher involvement by claiming that teachers will ultimately decide whether the
superintendent is supportive of the new initiative and that this can be shown through time
and attention to the desired implementation task. Shuldman (2004) noted that the
superintendent’s policies create the culture of the district and the school. Johnson (1996)
discussed the value of moving away from a top-down approach to a team approach.
Elmore (1999) concurred that collaborative team approaches are much more successful
than a manager-style top-down approach. Elmore used the term distributed leadership to
emphasize the point that a team is required to make sustainable changes to the
instructional program. Creating a shared vision is the only way to engage stakeholders to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 46
transform learning for the 21st century (Dede, Korte, Nelson, Valdez, & Ward, 2005).
Petersen (2002) found that, if there is a strong relationship between the superintendent
and the major stakeholders (which may include district leaders, principals, and the school
board), then the vision of the superintendent and the ability of the district to be successful
is more likely. Without the support of the superintendent, it is unlikely that initiatives
will become part of the culture of the district.
According to Datnow (2000), when district officials begin a reform process,
teachers tend to receive the initiative with hesitation. Teachers may implement the
change due to compliance but not necessarily because it is the best reform for their
school. Petersen, Sayre, and Kelly (2007) explained that the teachers’ perception is that
the superintendent’s role is critical in creating an instructional vision for the district.
Without this vision, reform may not be possible. Principals have reported that, if they
have clear direction from the district office, with the superintendent guiding the direction,
the initiative is much more likely to be successful (EdSource, 2006). Without the solid
backing of the district office, it will be more difficult to implement new initiatives.
The role of the superintendent must include assessment and development of the
teachers’ knowledge and the potential of what the teachers can accomplish in the
classroom (Grogran & Andrews, 2002). This suggests that inventory must be taken to
determine where the teachers are in the implementation of 21st-century skills and what
should be developed explicitly to assist the teacher’s individual growth toward
implementation. Sergiovanni (1998) stated that, if the teachers’ capital is developed, the
instructional leaders have increased the value of education in general. Rotherham and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 47
Willingham (2009) discussed that the reforms in the past have been unsuccessful because
a focus has not been placed on teacher training, curriculum development, and assessment.
They noted that taking on an implementation task of this magnitude must include
extensive professional development for teachers. Rotherham and Willingham (2010)
discussed the need for developing human capital in district teachers, which can be
accomplished only with methodical and deep professional development of teachers and
administrators.
Superintendents cannot possibly solve all of the problems in a school district by
themselves (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006); they need the support of community
members in the form of businesses, local universities, and families. Hoyle (1989) stated
that superintendents should work in concert with the leaders of industry and politics to
create schools that will prepare students for future jobs. If the instructional leader is
successful in creating this system, with the support of the staff and community, then the
vision will be implemented. Districts may choose to elicit input by creating a
superintendent advisory committee (EdSource, 2006). Monthly meetings can be held to
gather input from the stakeholders to improve the district’s understanding of how the
strategies and implementation progress from the perspective of the individual stakeholder
groups. Johnson (1996) stressed the importance of the superintendent’s meaningful
collaboration with stakeholders within the district to achieve lasting reform.
Studies of successful innovations have shown that these innovations included
certain elements. Ely (1990) identified the following elements as essential to the
successful implementation of innovation: resources, current knowledge and skills,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 48
inadequacy of the status quo, time rewards, participation, commitment, and leadership.
All of these factors may be important to the implementation of 21st-century skills. Earle
(2002) noted that the preparation of the teacher is also essential. Building relationships,
differentiated professional development opportunities at the teacher’s correct level of
proficiency in an area such as technology, commitment to the program, and follow-up
training are all essential to the implementation of reform. Earle (2002) wrote that these
key elements will lead to a successful, integrated model of implementation. Earle
recommended this model as a method to create additional teacher leaders to carry the
message forward. He identified three levels of learning: confidence, competence, and
creativity (or put another way, learner to adopter to leader). For a reform effort such as
21st-century skills to become fully integrated, these levels of learning must be addressed
(Earle, 2002).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 49
Chapter 3
Methodology
The literature review revealed that businesses and industry have identified the
need for well-prepared employees to be a part of the global work force in today’s
knowledge economy. The downward trend in student test scores has been widely
documented. The lack of preparation for living and working in the 21st century leaves
students, especially urban students, who graduate from public schools in the United
States unprepared for employment in an increasingly global society. Globalization itself
has contributed to increased communication regarding student achievements on an
international level. Schools are held accountable for preparing students to be ready for
college and career. Stronger alliances with business communities are often formed to
encourage students to be prepared to work and compete in the global economy. Today’s
students, employees of the future, need 21st-century skills to thrive as successful citizens,
workers, and leaders.
Leadership plays an important role in reform. Superintendents must lead and
develop their districts to keep up with the rapidly changing economy. To create
sustainable reform, superintendents must create a radical change in the learning culture.
District leadership must present a strong vision and a clear expectation of success.
Furthermore, a superintendent must have organizational skills, planning, and evaluation
in place to ensure the success of the stated goals. Other factors that ensure success of
implementation include strong relationships with major stakeholders, teacher training and
preparation, community member support, and solid backing from the district office.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 50
While there have been many studies of 21st-century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation—little is known about the characteristics and strategies of
superintendents who implement 21st-century skills in their respective school districts.
The purpose of this study was to examine California superintendents’ implementation of
21st-century skills in the K–12 public school system. This study was guided by four
research questions:
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
The answers to these questions will provide a frame from which current and
future superintendents can create and sustain a 21st-century teaching and learning reform
that will produce citizens who meet the needs of the global economy.
Research Design
Creswell (2009) described qualitative research as an approach to examine and
understand the meaning that people associate with social or human problems.
Conversely, quantitative research is a method for testing objective theories by analyzing
the relationships among variables. Creswell described the mixed-methods approach as a
mixture of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to the research. It involves
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 51
philosophical assumptions, the use of both qualitative and quantitative measures, and a
mixture of both approaches. Creswell contended that the strength of a mixed-methods
approach is greater than either the qualitative or quantitative research by itself. Based on
that position, this study utilized a mixed-methods approach.
In this research the in-depth interviews with superintendents provided qualitative
data to address the research questions. A survey was mailed to a pool of superintendents.
All data were collected and reported using the mixed-methods approach to strengthen the
study.
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling was used to select at least 10 superintendents for the
interview and 100 questionnaires were sent out to superintendents. Purposeful sampling
allowed for identification of superintendents with certain criteria (Patton, 2002). The
quantitative sampling criteria were superintendents (a) serving in California, (b) in their
current position for at least 1 year, and (c) serving in a school district with at least 5,000
students. The requirements for the qualitative portion of the study were identical, except
that superintendents to be interviewed had to have at least 2 years of experience so they
could report on implementation over time in one district.
One hundred superintendents with the aforementioned criteria who were
identified on the California Department of Education website received a letter with a
description of the study and its purpose, as well as an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
protocol description regarding participation by human subjects. The superintendents
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 52
were invited to participate, and the survey was included. Two superintendents were
invited to be interviewed (Appendix C).
The research was delimited to the state of California, as each state has varied
requirements for the new CCSS, as well as varied testing procedures, both of which will
affect implementation of 21st-century skills.
Instrument Validity
The validity of the survey was determined by the similarity of the chosen
instrument to instruments used in prior related studies. Questions were developed based
on the body of research on superintendents, 21st-century skills, and how leaders
implement reform. Both the survey and the interview protocol were gender neutral and
were field tested on principals to ensure that the questions were clear and to determine
the amount of time required to complete each instrument.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation selected for this study was based on a mixed-methods
approach and included a survey and interviews.
Qualitative Data
Interviews of superintendents were chosen as a method to elicit information
regarding the implementation of 21st-century skills in the interviewee’s district.
Interviews allowed the investigator to probe for deeper answers to the complex questions
(Merriam, 2009). Value, opinion, and knowledge questions were included in the protocol
(Appendix A). During the interviews, the superintendents were asked questions related
to the following topics: (a) globalization, (b) focus on California education, (c) economic
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 53
and business impact, (d) 21st-century skills frameworks, and (e) leadership for reform.
The superintendents were asked to describe how the reform implementation would be
delivered to staff and how its progress would be monitored. The protocol was
administered consistently to all interviewees. In addition to the standard, open-ended
questions, follow-up questions were used to clarify or to give opportunity for elaboration.
Because there is no large body of research on the topic of superintendents and their
implementation of 21st-century skills, the questions were designed to address the steps
that would be required to achieve large-scale reform.
Quantitative Data
The survey to collect quantitative data was designed to reach more participants
and allowed the investigator to gather information about how superintendents described
their knowledge about implementing 21st-century skills in their districts (Fink, 2013). A
forced-choice response style with a 4-point Likert-type scale was used, omitting the
neutral response of neither agree or disagree (Fink, 2013).
This study may have implications for other districts as they embark on their
process of implementation of 21st-century skills. The interview was expected to identify
successes and challenges, the types of professional development that are most successful
for teachers, and which monitoring tools have worked to sustain reform. The interviews
were also expected to identify leadership qualities required to implement large-scale
reform.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 54
Data Collection
A mixed-methods approach, including qualitative and quantitative data, was used.
Qualitative data were collected in the form of interviews and quantitative data were
collected via a survey. The study design was approved by the IRB at the University of
Southern California prior to conducting any interviews or administration of the survey.
The collected data were secured and used only by the researcher. The identities of all
participants remained confidential throughout the course of the study.
Qualitative Data
A series of interviews with various superintendents was conducted during the
summer of 2013. To maximize the time appropriated for the interview, an interview
protocol (Appendix A) was formulated based on the four research questions (Weiss,
1994). The researcher interviewed two California superintendents. All interviews were
audio recorded and transcribed and the responses were coded. Participating
superintendents were given the option to receive a copy of the completed dissertation.
Quantitative Data
Qualitative data were collected via an electronic survey. In collaboration with
two other researchers, the researcher for this study designed a survey with a Likert-type
scale and administered it via Survey Monkey™. The researcher and colleagues contacted
100 California superintendents, inviting them to participate in the survey in summer
2013. Participating superintendents had a time frame of 1 month to complete the online
survey. The team of researchers coded all received survey data to use for the study. All
survey data were confidential and were accessible only to the team of three researchers.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 55
Data Analysis Procedures
In qualitative studies, data may be derived from the content of interviews,
observations notes, and analyzed documents (Merriam, 2009); such was the case in this
study. Merriam (2009) indicated that data analysis involves consolidating and
interpreting what people have said and how the researcher uses the data to address the
research questions. The process of qualitative data analysis used in this study followed
Merriam’s (2009) step-by-step process of analysis.
Interviews with each of the superintendents were digitally recorded and
transcribed verbatim. All transcripts were carefully reviewed to allow the researcher to
obtain a general idea of the data and to reflect on the overall meaning (Creswell, 2008).
Because interviews were the primary source of data collection, the researcher employed a
coding strategy by segmenting responses into categories and labeling the categories with
codes or themes (Creswell, 2008; Merriam, 2009). Codes were determined based on
commonalities, themes, and patterns found in the responses. The codes included
technology, accountability, communication, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration,
instruction, leadership, professional development, strategic planning, and miscellaneous.
Interview data were coded and analyzed to transform the data into findings (Merriam,
2009).
The coding process was also applied to documents that were analyzed based on
the relevant characteristics of the content. The constant comparative method was used to
analyze data gathered from documents, observations, and interviews. Merriam (2009)
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 56
indicated that the constant comparative method compares one segment of data with
another to determine similarities and differences.
Responses to the online survey provided data for the quantitative portion of the
study. SurveyMonkey provided the necessary online security and data analysis
capability, including the ability to analyze open-ended results and the ability to create
comparison reports, use cross-tabulations, and use filters. Responses to the survey were
analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as percentages and frequency, to determine
alignment and correlation to the results of two or more research questions and to compare
how groups of respondents answered survey questions. In analyzing the data in this way,
the four research questions were addressed and the responses to questions regarding 21st-
century skills were identified and compared.
The use of multiple sources of evidence is critical to qualitative research to ensure
the accuracy and trustworthiness of the study. Data from the transcribed interviews,
observation notes, and documentation were triangulated and analyzed to develop themes
and subthemes that described a broader picture of the results.
Merriam (2009) indicated that the final step in data analysis involves a period of
intensive analysis with findings that are substantiated, revised, or reconfigured. Creswell
(2008) indicated that the final step in data analysis involves interpreting the data. Using
data collected and coded, in addition to the literature review and theoretical framework,
the researcher cross references and triangulates to determine whether each set of findings
supports other findings and to align the findings with the research questions.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 57
Ethical Considerations
This research study was approved by the IRB of the University of Southern
California and conducted with written consent from each participating superintendent.
To ensure the rights of the superintendents, safeguards were put in place so that each
participant’s anonymity was guaranteed. Any request to withdraw from the study at any
time would have been honored.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 58
Chapter 4
Findings
This chapter presents the findings of data collection and analysis from California
public school superintendents and highlights the context and experiences of
superintendents involved with the implementation of 21st-century skills in their
respective districts. The previous chapters described the scope of the study, the
relationship of the study to existing research, the theoretical framework that guided the
study, and the research design and methodology. This study was guided by four research
questions:
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
The findings presented in this chapter are representative of a larger mixed-
methods study gathered from 10 superintendent interviews and survey data collected
from 37 California superintendents by a team of five researchers. Each researcher
conducted two interviews and the responses were coded and aligned to the set of
qualitative interview data collected by the research team. Quantitative survey data from
responses to a survey completed by 37 superintendents were collectively used to provide
consistency and reliability and to ensure triangulation of the data. Data gathered from
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 59
review of documents obtained from district websites or distributed at face-to-face
interviews were also analyzed to validate and triangulate the data. This use of
triangulation methods is known to reduce risks and biases associated with a singular
approach (Creswell, 2009). This chapter presents the findings from qualitative interviews
conducted with two superintendents and quantitative survey data based on responses to a
survey by 37 superintendents.
Purpose
The driving force behind this study was an effort to understand the leadership
strategies and practices that can result in improved student attainment of the 21st-century
skills needed for college, career, and beyond. The findings from this research will
provide superintendents and other district leaders with the direction and the intellectual
resources to plan their own implementation of 21st-century skills as defined by Wagner
(2008). Key stakeholders and their roles for implementation were identified. Evaluation
strategies to measure the effectiveness of 21st-century skills implementation were
discussed. Data collected through the interviews and the survey were used to identify
significant themes that emerged from the data.
Response Rate
In June 2013, a personalized email (Appendix D) was sent to a randomized
sample of 100 currently employed public school superintendents in California, inviting
each superintendent to participate in a brief online survey (Appendix B) through
SurveyMonkey. Of the 100 email invitations sent, 37 surveys were completed,
representing a response rate of 37%.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 60
Two currently employed superintendents in southern California were selected for
in-person interviews for the qualitative section of this study. Each superintendent was
interviewed using a set of prepared questions using the open-ended interview method
(Patton, 2002). Appendix A contains a copy of the qualitative interview protocol. All
responses were digitally recorded and transcribed for in-depth analysis and alignment to
the set of qualitative interview data collected by the team of five researchers. A total of
10 superintendent interviews were conducted by the research team. Data collected from
two of the 10 superintendent interviews are presented in this report.
Quantitative Demographic Data
Table 1 summarizes the highest educational attainment of the 37 superintendents
who responded to the survey. The data indicated that 54.1% of the respondents had
completed a doctoral degree, 43.2% had completed a master’s degree, and 2.7% had
completed another professional degree.
Table 1
Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Educational Attainment

Measure Bachelor’s Master’s Other professional Doctoral

Number 0 16 1 20
Percentage 0 43.2 2.7 54.1

Table 2 summarizes survey response data with regard to the distribution of years
of experience as the superintendent of their respective districts at the time the survey was
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 61
Table 2
Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience in District

Measure < 2 years 2-5 years 6-9 years 10+ years Total

Number 7 19 8 3 37

Percentage 18.9 51.4 21.6 8.1 100.0

completed. More than half (51.4%) of the superintendents had experience as a
superintendent ranging from 2 to 5 years.
Table 3 summarizes survey response data with regard to the distribution of years
of experience as a school superintendent at the time the survey was completed. These
superintendents had an average of 7.1 years of overall superintendent experience.
Table 3
Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience Overall

Measure < 2 years 2-5 years 6-9 years 10+ years Total

Number 1 16 11 9 37

Percentage 2.7 43.2 29.7 24.3 100.0

This section reviewed the demographic data obtained through 37 responses to a
quantitative survey sent to 100 public school superintendents in California. The data
indicated that the typical respondent had completed a doctoral degree, had an average of
4.6 years of experience in the current district, and had an average of 7.1 years of
experience as a superintendent overall.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 62
Qualitative Demographic Data
Two superintendents were selected for face-to-face interviews in the qualitative
section of this study. They were chosen based on the following criteria: (a) currently
employed as a superintendent in a southern California public school district, (b) service
of at least 2 years in the district, and (c) serving in a district with 21st-century teaching
and learning initiatives. Purposeful sampling was used to select two superintendents who
met the criteria to provide focused and meaningful data to contribute to the study.
Preserving anonymity was critical to the study, so the superintendents were assigned
pseudonyms. Demographic information about the two interviewed superintendents is
summarized in Table 4.
Table 4
Characteristics of Superintendents Who Were Interviewed in the Qualitative Phase

Superintendent Profile District

1 Gender: Male Enrollment: 29,854
Ethnicity: White Free or reduced-price meals: 46.6%
Age: 50-59 years Minority students: 67.8%
Education: Master’s degree Schools meeting AYP: 15
Years as superintendent: 2
Years in current position: 2

2 Gender: Female Enrollment: 7,618
Ethnicity: Hispanic/Latina Free or reduced-price meals: 95.0%
Age: 60-69 years Minority students: 99.4%
Education: Master’s degree Schools meeting AYP: 0
Years as superintendent: 8
Years in current position: 4

SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 63
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, How do California superintendents define 21st-
century skills? Information in the literature review and Wagner’s (2008) definition of
21st-century skills identified seven skills that students need to be competitive in a global,
knowledge-based economy: (a) assessing and accessing and analyzing information,
(b) critical thinking and problem solving, (c) effective written and oral communication,
(d) collaboration across networks and leading by influence, (e) curiosity and imagination,
(f) agility and adaptability, and (g) initiative and entrepreneurship. Based on the survey
responses, more than half of the superintendents surveyed (55.6%) recognized the
significance of globalization for implementation of 21st-century skills. Economic and
business impact gained the highest average rating (3.75), with a focus on California
education receiving the lowest average response (3.11). Table 5 summarizes these data.
For the purposes of this study, the interviewed superintendents were given the
opportunity to offer their own definition for 21st-century skills based on personal
interpretation, experience, and interests. A unifying theme for defining 21st-century
skills from the interviews with the two superintendents: references to the “four Cs,” the
commonly label for critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication skills.
Also, both superintendents made reference to technology use as a 21st-century skill and
identified the importance of access to technological tools for students.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 64
Table 5

Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors Influencing Implementation of 21st-Century Skills

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

Globalization 0 2 14 20 3.50 36
Focus on California
education 1 3 24 9 3.11 37
Economic and business
impact 0 0 13 24 3.65 37
21st-century skills
frameworks 0 1 19 16 3.42 36
Leadership for reform 0 2 19 16 3.38 37

Critical Thinking, Collaboration, Creativity, and Communication as 21st-Century
Skills
Qualitative data collected in superintendent interviews were generally consistent
in identifying critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication as 21st-
century skills. For example, Superintendent 1, in defining 21st-century skills, stated,
That’s critical thinking with collaboration. Not only getting college ready and
being A-G, having those high-level, rigorous academic content, but also knowing
that they need to be able to collaborate and communicate well. That part of being
successful is working as a team, that if we don’t start training them early on, as
early as elementary school, to have conversations and problem solve and think
critically together, that is a 21st-century skill, is being able to work with that.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 65
Superintendent 2 also emphasized the “four Cs” and stated that 21st-century skills
“are those skills that our students need to be successful, whether it’s academically or
professionally in terms of their career in the 21st century.” Superintendent 2 continued,
I looked at some of the things that we’ve been working on. . . . I’ve taken
information from the Partnership for 21st Century Skills in the 21st-century
schools. A lot of just the framework has been the focus, the collaboration,
communication really truly how important that is and being collaborative and
learning how to work collaboratively with others.
In defining communication skills, Superintendent 2 stated, “When I mean
communication, it’s being able to express their ideas whether that’s orally, in written
form, graphically, just a variety of ways and in a variety of settings.” Superintendent 2
concluded her definition of 21st-century skills by stating that it is “certainly making
students academically proficient but also being able to communicate.”
Technology Use as a 21st-Century Skill
Another theme that emerged in the analysis of qualitative interview data regarding
the definition of 21st-century skills included the use of technology by students.
Superintendent 1 defined 21st-century skills as “preparing kids for global competency
and technology.” In reference to piloting iPads
®
at the high school, Superintendent 1
stated, “That’s been how we’ve been moving in 21st-century skills in addition to a larger
district-wide effort with some focus on the four Cs.”
Superintendent 2 recognized the importance of access to technology for English
language learners, which represented a large majority of students in her district; she
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 66
stated that “getting our students to standard English is the first step, and then getting them
beyond standard English and beyond really looking as what those global communication
strategies such as technology that our kids need to have access to.”
In both interviews, the significance and importance of technology use as a 21st-
century skill was evident in the number of references to the CCSS program, which
utilizes the Smarter Balanced computer-based adaptive assessments to measure student
learning. Superintendent 1 specifically stated, “When we defined 21st-century learning,
we wanted to align with the Common Core initiative.” Superintendent 2 stated, “We’re
moving toward and having everybody come on board with Common Core.”
Discussion
The set of 21st-century skills is transforming how people learn, the nature of how
work is conducted, and the meaning of social relationships. Today, much success lies in
being able to communicate, share, and use information to solve complex problems, in
being able to adapt and innovate in response to the new demands and changing
circumstances, and in being able to command and expand the power of technology to
create new knowledge. Superintendents recognize the importance of preparing students
with 21st-century skills to compete in a global society because of the significant impact
that it can have on globalization, the economy, and business. Although they did not
specifically refer to Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills, the interviewed
superintendents consistently provided definitions aligned to Wagner’s seven skills,
including critical thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication. The use of
technology continues to play a significant role in enabling students to acquire the creative
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 67
thinking, flexible problem solving, collaboration, and innovation skills that they will need
to be successful in work and life.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, How do California superintendents implement 21st-
century skills? Interview questions utilized in this area of the study were designed to
obtain information from California superintendents regarding their specific practices of
implementing and supporting the use of 21st-century skills. The interview questions that
were incorporated to obtain this information were the following:
1. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
2. What steps have been taken to implement 21st-century skills in your district?
3. What challenges do you face in trying to implement 21st-century skills in your
schools? How have you met these challenges?
In an effort to address the second research question, findings were triangulated
through in-depth analysis of documents aligned to the interview data. Three themes
emerged from the analysis of responses to the interview questions: (a) strategic planning,
(b) targeted professional development, and (c) focus on curriculum design.
Strategic Planning
The interviewed superintendents consistently reinforced the utilization of strategic
planning to implement 21st-century skills in their districts. Superintendent 1 stated, “The
exciting thing is really go through strategic planning in the spring, we’ll be able to
connect all that, make it one uniform plan.” In reference to the steps to implement 21st-
century skills, Superintendent 2 stated, “Strategic planning looks at the instructional
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 68
program . . . it looks at everything that impacts student learning, teacher, attendance,
student care, business plans, everything that has to do with the instructional part and the
elements that affect it.”
Superintendent 2 indicated that principals in her districts are required to present
their plans to the school board. She described the nature of these presentations, “So the
conversation is about what was your plan last year, what were your results, what are you
going to do to change your plan to adjust what happened.” Superintendent 1 provided
documentation of a strategic plan and referred to it as a “Common Core Innovation Plan.”
In reference to the plan, Superintendent 1 stated,
Our mission statement actually, which is very old, it’s been around for probably
10 years, really is timely at this point, talks about global competencies and about
21st-century skills. . . . We’ve capitalized on the school, our school district really
focusing on really building on what we have in place, and then also moving to the
next level. There’s a lot of good student achievement with a lot of good
initiatives.
Documentation was analyzed to verify the plans that were referenced in the
interviews and to address the second research question. Documents provided by
Superintendent 1 were titled “Common Core Innovation Plan” and included a section on
the Vision for 21st-Century Learning and specific action steps for implementation of
21st-century skills. Documentation provided by Superintendent 2 was titled, “Academic
Achievement Plan” and included a section for Performance Gaps/Root Causes and an
area for principals to identify the steps needed to reach a target.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 69
Targeted Professional Development
The second common theme that emerged from the interviews related to
addressing the second research question was the importance of professional development
in the implementation of 21st-century skills. Superintendent 1 stated, “We’re focusing a
lot on teacher professional development.” In relation to the steps taken to implement
21st-century skills, Superintendent 1 stated, “We focused our first year in terms of
professional development on strategy, not necessarily the content of the Common Core.”
Superintendent 2 also stressed the importance of professional development for
principals and administrators in implementing 21st-century skills.
We have monthly professional development for them around anything we’re
doing and preparing the teachers to do. They get it first. So when we did the
curriculum alignment with our teachers the year before, all the principals learned
the steps. . . . So whatever we do, our plans to do for the district, the principals did
it first and have to internalize it and we do all the work with them.
Both superintendents shared some of the challenges that they faced in the area of
professional development. Superintendent 1 stated, “We’re just starting. We’re not
anywhere near where we’d like to be.” Superintendent 1 also referred to the fiscal
challenges, stating, “Part of the challenge in doing the Common Core and 21st-century
learning is that there’s not a whole lot of money to do this.” In contrast, Superintendent 2
indicated challenges in providing too much professional development for teachers. “One
of the things we had challenges in is we just had a lot of professional development days
or opportunities, so we had to be very intentional on how we even set staff meetings.”
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 70
Focus on Curriculum Design
The third theme that surfaced from the superintendent interviews related to the
second research question was the importance of curriculum design and alignment in the
implementation of 21st-century skills. In addressing how 21st-century skills are
implemented, Superintendent 1 stated, “We’re going to do much more with curriculum
alignment.” He supported this line of thought by stating,
What we realized was that the way curriculum and instruction’s been done for
years is not the way that we could continue doing that, that we needed to redesign
that department as part of educational services. There needed to be two pathways.
There needed to be an academic content design which really dealt with the rigor
of the curriculum and redesigning based on 21st-century skills. There also needed
to be that career technical, that those pathways needed to be aligned like the
STEM.
Superintendent 2 also made reference to special education with regard to the
design and alignment of curriculum in implementing 21st-century skills in her district.
We talked about what are we doing differently. If we’re doing the same unit of
study, how are you scaffolding for special ed? Our special ed teachers are
involved in anything they do with PD. They were part of the curriculum
alignment.
She also referred to the “evolvement of curriculum alignment” in her observation of the
teacher meetings that she attended that focused on data reflections.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 71
Discussion
Overall, analysis of qualitative interview data revealed three major themes related
to how these superintendents implemented 21st-century skills in their respective districts:
(a) strategic planning, (b) professional development, and (c) focus on curriculum design.
Fullan (2005) explained the importance of instructional leadership at the district level and
reported studies that suggested that superintendents who serve as instructional leaders
significantly contribute to the overall success of their school districts. Both
superintendents recognized the importance of their role as instructional leader for their
districts and understood the value of strategic planning, professional development for
administrators and teachers, and the need to redesign curriculum that is aligned to 21st-
century skills and global competencies.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, Who are the key stakeholders needed for superin-
tendents to implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system? The purpose of
this question was to identify individuals or groups that the superintendents considered to
be critical in implementation of 21st-century skills. According to Waters, Marzano, and
McNulty (2003), to implement positive change, the district leader must oversee effective
strategic planning processes to ensure a continual focus on what matters most to all
stakeholders. The superintendents were asked, “To what extent do you agree that the
following stakeholders are important to the implementation process?” The rating for all
categories within this item ranged from 2.68 to 3.86. Teachers were rated most favorably
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 72
(3.86), whereas politicians received the lowest rating (2.68). Table 6 summarizes the
responses to this question.
Table 6
Superintendents’ Ratings of Stakeholder Importance to 21st-Century Skills

Implementation Process

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

Community 0 1 23 13 3.32 37
Parents 0 0 14 23 3.62 37
District-level personnel 0 0 10 27 3.73 37
School-level administrators 0 0 6 31 3.84 37
Teachers 0 0 5 32 3.86 37
Students 0 0 15 22 3.59 37
Politicians 3 11 18 5 2.68 37
Unions 2 9 14 12 2.97 37
School boards 0 0 14 23 3.62 37

Role of Teachers
In identifying the key stakeholders needed to implement 21st-century skills, the
participating superintendents made reference to teachers as the most significant
stakeholder group. Teachers received the highest average rating (3.86) on the survey.
Both interviewed superintendents described teachers as having a significant role in the
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 73
implementation of 21st-century skills. For example, Superintendent 1 commented, “We
have really focused heavily on our teachers in the last couple of years.” Superintendent
2, in reference to the role of teachers, stated, “It’s a partnership.”
Superintendent 1 further emphasized the role of teachers in the implementation of
21st-century skills:
Everything that I’ve worked with, you have to bring teachers along with you and
they’d have to feel like they’ve helped to create it. Especially with this 21st
century . . . it’s exciting work and teachers want to be a part of it.
Superintendent 2 reflected on the feedback that she had received from principals
regarding the pilot of the Smarter Balanced computer-based assessments, which
incorporate 21st-century skills: “For our principals to see the level of involvement that
the teacher and the principal and everyone has to have a role to make this happen.”
Role of School-Level Administrators
School-level administrators received the second highest average rating (3.84)
from the superintendents on the survey. Both interviewed superintendents referred
frequently to the role of the principal and spoke about building the leadership capacity of
principals to implement 21st-century skills in their respective schools. For example,
Superintendent 1 stated, “Are we meeting the needs of our teachers, and then of course,
our principals as leaders, are they getting what they need?” In explaining one of the
strategies of implementing 21st-century skills, Superintendent 2 explained, “We have
meta-reflections with the principal. We all meet together, and that’s facilitated. They
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 74
hear each other’s data so they understand how their teachers feel when their results are
discussed in a larger setting. That’s an important thing.”
Superintendent 2 also discussed the role of school-level administrators in terms of
modeling and building the leadership capacity of principals. “So when I have a principal
meeting, I model structures, learning activities, collaboration activities that I want them
to do.” Superintendent 1 extended the concept of modeling leadership capacity by
participating in the same professional development trainings that principals attend. He
cited feedback he received from principals: “You are actually there, which is really great
to have a superintendent sitting in the training with principals too and hearing the
PowerPoint that we had put together.”
Role of District Personnel
District-level personnel received the third-highest average rating (3.73) on the
survey. Both interviewed superintendents spoke specifically about district personnel in
support of 21st-century learning initiatives. For example, Superintendent 2, in reference
to the Educational Services Department of the district, stated,
What I’ve done in this department is I have five directors, so I assign a director to
one or two schools administration and they work on the support part. We’re
support partners. They meet with them at least . . . depending on . . . some once a
week, some week more, but anything they do that’s impacting the student
learning. We want to make sure that they go through a process so they check in
on how they’re doing it and some need more support than others.
Superintendent 2 also stressed the importance of district personnel.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 75
We’re interchanged. There’s no division here who’s doing what. Everybody’s
involved, and so the principal . . . and we thought it might be somewhat intimidat-
ing . . . they loved it. This was good. We really had a chance to connect with you
and every department . . . what do you need for special ed, what do you need from
this, what do you need from that . . . and then we kind of helped them with their
process.
Superintendent 1 identified specific district-level personnel who were essential in
the implementation of 21st-century skills in his district. “Our coordinator, Elsie, has been
part of the professional development team working with instructional specialists to
implement the strategy focus, and that’s written a lot in the plan.” In reference to district
cabinet and administrators in general, Superintendent 1 stated, “We got to have the right
person. We’re in the process of identifying who those people are going to be, who the
right people are to be successful in implementing this. It’s a conversation we have quite
often.”
Discussion
The participating superintendents revealed that teachers were considered to be the
most important stakeholder group in the implementation of 21st-century skills. Both
superintendents recognized the role and impact that teachers can have on the
implementation of any initiative including 21st-century skills because of their direct
contact with students. In addition, the superintendents recognized the importance of
school-level and district-level administrators and have created systems and structures of
support to help them to implement 21st-century learning initiatives.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 76
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, What strategies do California superintendents use to
evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation? In determining the evaluation strategies
used to evaluate the effectiveness of implementing 21st-century skills, interview data
revealed that the use of data and multiple measures was the primary strategy applied by
the superintendents. This is in direct alignment to the response data from the survey to
the question, To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence reform for
21st-century skills? The ratings for all categories related to this item ranged from 2.65 to
3.32. State and federal accountability was rated highest (3.32) and demands from
politicians was rated lowest (2.65). Table 7 summarizes responses to this question.
Table 7
Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors That Influence Reform for 21st-Century Skills

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

State and federal
accountability 0 3 19 15 3.32 37
Demands from the
community/business 0 3 23 11 3.22 37
Demands from politicians 2 11 22 2 2.65 37
Market pressure and
competition, including
competition from charter
schools, private schools,
and declining enrollment 0 6 19 12 3.16 37

SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 77
In California, state and federal accountability is often associated with California’s
integrated accountability system that reports both the state API and the federal AYP. The
API and AYP include multiple indicators, including test performance results from the
California Standards Test (CST), California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), and
high school graduation rates. In many cases, superintendents may be evaluated on the
basis of state and federal accountability results; thus, the results of the survey and
interviews analyzed revealed the significance of using data and multiple measures to
evaluate effectiveness of 21st-century learning initiatives.
Use of Data and Multiple Measures
The use of data and multiple measures was a reoccurring theme in data collected
from the interviews in addressing the strategies used to evaluate the effectiveness of
implementing 21st-century skills. Superintendent 1 stated,
It depends. Different measures for different places. I think one will be dropout
rates and what the impact is on dropout rates. Are we really connecting with kids
and are they going to stay in school and do they see some value in going to
school?
Superintendent 2 stated,
One of the things we did patch up that was really interesting is when we moved
over to systems Illuminate, we make sure that part of our Ed Services meeting
was that we sat with the principals and have them log on, look up their data, so
that if they said they didn’t know how, we did it right there.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 78
Superintendent 2 also made reference to an “instructional audit,” which she
described as analysis of all student data and the steps that could be taken to improve
student learning. In describing the instructional audit, Superintendent 2 stated, “It looks
at everything that impacts student learning, teacher, attendance, student care, business
plans, everything that has to do with the instructional part and the elements that affect it.
That is an instructional audit.”
Interview data from Superintendent 1 also identified the Seal of Biliteracy as a
measure to evaluate the effectiveness of 21st-century learning initiatives. The California
State Seal of Biliteracy is a program that recognizes high school graduates who have
attained a high level of proficiency in speaking, reading, and writing in one or more
languages in addition to English. The Seal of Biliteracy is based on eligibility criteria,
which include passage of a foreign language Advanced Placement examination, among
other requirements. Superintendent 1 explained,
Are we having more students graduating with the Seal of Biliteracy? Are people
taking advantage of that? Is there some trend data that shows that it’s being well-
received with the dual language Mandarin program that we have at the elementary
school? Is it continuing?
Discussion
An evaluation reveals how well an initiative meets its purpose and objectives. In
evaluating the effectiveness of 21st-century initiatives in a school district,
superintendents must rely on data and multiple measures to determine what has or has not
worked. Lessons learned from evaluations help stakeholders who are involved in the
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 79
implementation and adoption of 21st-century skills to improve what they are doing. In
addition, evaluations help to justify investment in projects, tools, or technology by
demonstrating impact and outcomes. The factor that superintendents indicated was most
significant in influencing 21st-century initiatives was state and federal accountability.
Accountability includes multiple measures and the corresponding data to evaluate
whether specific initiatives have improved student performance on assessments.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this study was to identify leadership strategies and practices that
can result in improved student attainment of 21st-century skills. In reviewing the
literature and analyzing interview data, survey data, and documents, additional insight
was obtained that adds to the body of scholarly literature identifying how superintendents
implement 21st-century skills.
Data analysis for Research Question 1 presented two significant themes. The first
theme was a shared definition of 21st-century skills, which was comprised of the four Cs:
(a) critical thinking, (b) collaboration, (c) creativity, and (d) communication. This
definition was aligned to Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills that included
seven skills required for students to be competitive in a global, knowledge-based
economy. The second theme that emerged from the interview data was use of technology
as a 21st-century skill. This was made apparent by references to devices such as iPads
and the Smarter Balanced computer-based assessments.
Analysis of responses related to Research Question 2 yielded major themes as
well. In determining how superintendents implement 21st-century skills, strategic
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 80
planning, professional development, and a focus on curriculum design were identified in
the interview data. Analysis of documents affirmed the importance of these areas and the
implications for instructional leadership skills needed by current and aspiring
superintendents.
Data related to Research Question 3 identified three major stakeholders in the
implementation of 21st-century skills: (a) teachers, (b) school-level administrators, and
(c) district personnel. The role of these stakeholders in the implementation of 21st-
century skills is invaluable, not only because of the professional expertise that they bring,
but also because of their direct impact on students.
Because of an increased focused on state and federal accountability, analysis of
data related to Research Question 4 identified the use of data as a major theme in
evaluating the effectiveness of 21st-century reform initiatives. Superintendents
recognized that they must use multiple measures to evaluate and determine whether
efforts to implement 21st-century skills in their respective district have been effective.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 81
Chapter 5
Conclusions
This chapter presents a summary of the study and conclusions drawn from the
findings presented in Chapter 4. It begins with a review of the previous chapters,
including the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study and the methodology
used in the study. Chapter 5 also presents a summary of the major findings, implications
for practice, recommendations for future research, and concluding remarks.
Statement of the Problem
While there have been many studies on 21st-century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation, little is known about the leadership practices, skills, and
strategies of superintendents who have implemented 21st-century skills in their school
districts. This study examined how several California superintendents implemented 21st-
century skills in their school districts.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to identify the strategies, practices, and leadership
skills utilized by superintendents to implement 21st-century skills to improve student
achievement. The findings from this study will provide superintendents and other district
leaders with the direction and the intellectual resources to plan their own implementation
of 21st-century skills, as defined by Wagner (2008). Stakeholders and their roles for
implementation were identified, along with strategies used to evaluate the effectiveness
of implementing 21st-century skills. In an era of educational accountability, an
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 82
interconnected global world environment brings the challenge of preparing students for a
future that cannot be predicted (Friedman, 2007).
Research Questions
Four research questions guided the study:
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
Methodology
The findings of this study reflect the results of both quantitative and qualitative
analyses. A mixed-methods approach was used, including an online survey (Appendix
B) to collect quantitative data and face-to-face interviews (Appendix A) to collect
qualitative data. Questions for the survey and interview protocol were developed by the
researcher and validated before distribution and use. The multiple superintendents and
their responses form the triangulation required for this study (Merriam, 2009).
Two currently employed superintendents in southern California were selected for
in-person interviews for the qualitative section of this study. Purposeful sampling was
used to select two superintendents who met specific criteria to provide for focused and
meaningful data to contribute to the study. Each superintendent was interviewed using a
set of prepared questions using the open-ended interview method (Patton, 2002).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 83
Interview responses were recorded, transcribed, analyzed, and coded to identify key
themes.
Quantitative survey data from 37 superintendents were used to triangulate the
qualitative data. Data gathered from documents obtained from district websites or
distributed at face-to-face interviews were analyzed to validate and form the triangulation
of data. This use of triangulation methods is known to reduce risks and biases associated
with a singular approach (Creswell, 2009).
Summary of Findings
Research Question 1 asked, How do California superintendents define 21st-
century skills? The data indicated that these superintendents defined 21st-century skills
as the “four Cs”: (a) critical thinking, (b) creativity, (c) collaboration, and (d)
communication. All skills were aligned to Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century
skills. In addition, the superintendents frequently cited the use of technology as a 21st-
century skill and identified the importance of providing access to specific technology
tools for students in their districts.
Research Question 2 asked, How do California superintendents implement 21st-
century skills? The data indicated that the major practices used to implement 21st-
century skills were (a) strategic planning, (b) professional development, and (c) a focus
on curriculum design. These major practices were verified through interviews in which
the two superintendents provided detail about how each of these strategies is carried out
in their district. Documentation was analyzed to verify planning documents referenced in
the interviews.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 84
Research Question 3 asked, Who are the key stakeholders needed for superin-
tendents to implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system? Interview and
survey data identified three major stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement
21st-century skills: (a) teachers, (b) school-level administrators, and (c) district-level
personnel. Teachers were rated highest (3.86) on the survey and were consistently
referenced in the qualitative interviews. School-level administrators were rated second-
highest (3.84) on the survey and were specifically identified in the superintendent
interviews as key stakeholders in the implementation process. District-level personnel
were rated third-highest (3.73) and were frequently mentioned by name and title as being
significant to the implementation of 21st-century skills.
Research Question 4 asked, What strategies do California superintendents use to
evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation? The data indicated that the use of data
and multiple measures was the primary way to evaluate the effectiveness of
implementing 21st-century skills. This was directly correlated to the survey data related
to factors that influence reform for 21st-century skills. State and federal accountability
was rated highest (3.32), often associated with accountability and student test
performance. The use of data and multiple measures was a reoccurring theme from the
interview data as the main practice used to evaluate the effectiveness of implementing
21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
This study’s findings revealed that superintendents are able to address 21st-
century learning needs using a variety of leadership strategies and methods. These
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 85
findings contribute to the body of scholarly literature. Because the role of the
superintendent is multifaceted, superintendents must possess a wide and varied skill set.
In the interviews, both superintendents shared that they had previously held positions that
had required them to oversee various aspects of public education, ranging from
curriculum to finance or facilities to special education. The interviews showed that these
superintendents highly valued the role of technology as a 21st-century skill and that
future educational leaders should also be technology leaders.
Future Research
In terms of generalizability of this study, the sample could be considered small in
comparison to larger quantitative and qualitative research studies. While the findings of
this study may not generalizable to a larger population, the study can provide school
leaders and board members in California with findings and recommendations that are of
significance in how superintendents define and implement 21st-century skills in their
school districts. There are several areas for recommended future research: (a)
investigation of superintendents nationwide rather than solely in California; (b) research
regarding current or possible assessments to measure 21st-century skills, such as the new
Common Core/Smarter Balanced Assessments; and (c) implications for higher education
and how colleges and university leaders define and implement 21st-century skills.
Conclusion
As the landscape of public education continues to shift and as the effects of the
global economy increase pressures and accountability on schools, effective leadership is
more important than ever. Superintendents have the capacity to create profound change
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 86
and to have a positive impact on student attainment of 21st-century skills by (a) having a
clear definition of 21st-century skills; (b) using strategic planning, professional
development, and a focus on curriculum; (c) involving teachers, school-level
administrators, and district personnel in the process; and (d) using data and multiple
measures to evaluate and monitor the effectiveness of the implementation.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 87
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Appendix A
Research Question/Instrument Connection
Research Question 1: How do CA superintendents define 21st-century skills?
 How do CA superintendents define 21st-century skills?
 What are the goals of 21st-century skills for your district?
 What are your thoughts about 21st Century learning and how does it affect your
school district?
Research Question 2: How do CA superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
 How do CA superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
 Tell me what steps have been taken to implement 21st Century learning in your
district?
 What challenges do you face in trying to implement 21st Century learning in your
school? How have you met these challenges?
Research Question 3: Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to
implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system?
 Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
 What role does the district office have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role does the board have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role do principals have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role do your teachers and unions have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role does your community have in implementing 21st-century skills
 What challenges do you face in involving all stakeholders in the implementation
of the 21st-century skills?
Research Question 4: What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the
effectiveness of the implementation?
 What strategies do superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness of the
implementation?
 How do you evaluate the effectiveness of implementing 21st-century skills?
 What indicators or measures do you use?
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 100
Appendix B
Survey Instrument
1. Highest educational attainment?
Bachelor’s Degree
Master’s Degree
Other Professional Degree
Doctoral Degree
2. Years of experience as the superintendent in your current school district:
__________
3. Years of experience as a school superintendent: ______
4. To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence reform for 21
st

Century skills? (Please rank in order from most important (rank 1) to least
important (rank 4)
a. State and federal accountability _________
b. Demands from the community/businesses _________
c. Demands from politicians _________
d. Market pressure and competition, including competition from charter schools,
private schools, and declining enrollment _________

5. To what extent do you agree that the following stakeholders are important to the
implementation process? (1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Agree, 4 =
Strongly agree)
a. Community 1 2 3 4
b. Parents 1 2 3 4
c. District-level personnel 1 2 3 4
d. School-level administrators 1 2 3 4
e. Teachers 1 2 3 4
f. Students 1 2 3 4
g. Politicians 1 2 3 4
h. Unions 1 2 3 4
i. School boards 1 2 3 4
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 101

6. To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence implementation
of reform with a focus on 21st-century skills?

a. Globalization 1 2 3 4
b. Focus on California education 1 2 3 4
c. Economic and business impact 1 2 3 4
d. 21st-century skills frameworks 1 2 3 4
e. Leadership for reform 1 2 3 4

SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 102
Appendix C
Interview Cover Letter

Dear Superintendent,
My name is Patrick Gittisriboongul, a doctoral student in the Rossier School of
Education at USC. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process
under the direction of Dr. Garcia and Dr. Castruita.
Our research focuses on a Study of California Public School District Superintendents and
their Implementation of 21st-century skills. Thank you for your willingness to participate
in a 30-minute interview.
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. This research study has been reviewed
and approved by the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board for
Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes that the research procedures safeguard your
privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and rights. Please be assured that your
participation and answers will be kept confidential and anonymous. In no way will any
data be presented in any manner where any individual can be identified. If you have any
questions, please feel free to contact me at the information listed below.
Our interview has been scheduled to take place at your office on:

Date Time
Attached please find a list of topics and questions we may cover during this interview.
Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions. Thank you for your
participation.
Sincerely,
Patrick Gittisriboongul, USC doctoral candidate
gittisri@usc.edu
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 103
Appendix D
Survey Email

Dear Superintendent:
I am currently a doctoral student working on my dissertation. I am pursuing an Ed.D.
degree in the K–12 leadership at the University of Southern California, chaired by Dr.
Pedro Garcia and Dr. Rudy Castruita.
The purpose of my research is a “Study of California Public School District
Superintendents and their Implementation of 21st-century skills.” Dr. Garcia and Dr.
Castruita have identified you as a successful leader in your district and stated your input
would be invaluable. Gathering data from superintendents like yourself who have
demonstrated highly effective leadership skills will be an essential part in the success of
my research.
I am very aware of your time constraints so I composed a short survey that I hope you
would be able to complete. The survey will take approximately 15 minutes to complete.
This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes
that the research procedures safeguard your privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity,
and rights. Please be assured that your participation and answers will be kept confidential
and anonymous. In no way will any data be presented in any manner where any
individual can be identified. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
Please click the following link to take the survey at your earliest convenience. Thank you
very much for your time and kind assistance.
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/21stcenturyskillsUSC
Sincerely,
Patrick Gittisriboongul, USC doctoral candidate
gittisri@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify the strategies, practices, and leadership skills utilized by California superintendents in implementing 21st-century skills in their respective districts. A mixed-methods design was used, combining qualitative and quantitative analysis. Quantitative data from 37 California superintendents were collected via an online survey and two currently employed superintendents in southern California participated in face-to-face interviews. Purposeful sampling was used to select 2 superintendents who met specific criteria to provide focused and meaningful data. Interview and survey data were reviewed and analyzed to identify commonalities, themes, and patterns in the responses. ❧ The findings revealed that superintendents had a shared understanding and definition of 21st-century skills aligned to Wagner's definition: critical thinking, communication, creativity, collaboration, and the use of technology. Analysis of data identified strategic planning, professional development, and a focus on curriculum design as practices used by superintendents to implement 21st-century skills. Teachers, school-level administrators, and district personnel were identified as key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-century skills successfully in their districts. The use of data and multiple measures emerged as a central theme in evaluating the effectiveness of implementing 21st-century skills. ❧ Evidence drawn from the findings provide important lessons for educational leaders who plan to implement 21st-century skills in their district, school, or organization. The findings revealed that superintendents can address 21st-century learning needs using a variety of leadership strategies and methods. The study contributes to the body of scholarly literature on superintendent leadership. Because the role of the superintendent is multifaceted, superintendents must possess a wide and varied skill set.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gittisriboongul, Patrick (author)

Core Title A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/19/2013

Defense Date 09/17/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,common core,Educational Leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendents

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), Nordyke, Alison (committee member)

Creator Email pgittis@gmail.com,pgittis@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-347706

Unique identifier UC11296396

Identifier etd-Gittisribo-2162.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-347706 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Gittisribo-2162.pdf

Dmrecord 347706

Document Type Dissertation

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Rights Gittisriboongul, Patrick

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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