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Music in worship in the Churches of Christ and choral music performance in Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities

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Music in worship in the Churches of Christ and choral music performance in Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities

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MUSIC IN WORSHIP IN THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST AND
CHORAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE IN CHURCH OF CHRIST
AFFILIATED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

by

Jeffrey Marshall Brookey

________________________________________________________________________

A Treatise Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(CHORAL MUSIC)

December 2013

Copyright 2013 Jeffrey Marshall Brookey

ii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this treatise to my parents, Marshall and Jessie Brookey. I am thankful
for their continuous love and support and for raising me in the Church of Christ, which is
the inspiration for this study. The influence of the a cappella singing practice of the
church propelled me toward a career in choral music and instilled in me a deep affection
and appreciation for the Church of Christ worship music tradition.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have guided and supported me throughout my doctoral work at USC
and deserve to be recognized.
I would like to thank my professors in choral music: Dr. William Dehning,
Dr. David Wilson, and Dr. Megan Solomon, who were instrumental in the beginning of
my academic journey. I also thank Dr. Jo-Michael Scheibe, Dr. Nick Strimple, and
Dr. Cristian Grases, the professors who guided me toward degree completion.
I thank my former and current students who inspired me to further my education
in order to provide better direction and service to them.
My family, friends, and former teachers and professors always had more faith in
me than I had in myself. I would like to thank them for believing I could succeed in
post-graduate work and encouraging me along the way.
I owe a great amount of gratitude to my sister, Janet Billets, for her extraordinary
dedication in helping me complete this study. Her love and commitment are boundless.
And foremost, I thank Suzanne Brookey, my incredibly supportive wife of fifteen
years, and my beautiful son, Jaxon, whose love have carried me through this quest. My
hope is that Jaxon learns from his daddy to never give up on a goal, even though at times
it may seem out of reach.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii

Abstract viii

Introduction 1

Chapter 1: A Brief Historical Account of the Development of the
Churches of Christ, Their Doctrine, and Their Non-Instrumental
Music Worship Practices 3

Roots of the American Restoration Movement 5

The Stone-Campbell Movement (American Restoration Movement) 8

Division Among the Christian Churches 13

About the Churches of Christ 15

Church of Christ Doctrine 16

Song Service in the Churches of Christ 19

The Argument Against Instrumental Music In Worship: The New Testament 21

The Argument Against Instrumental Music In Worship: The Early Church 23

Perceptions of Church of Christ Music Worship 26

Chapter 2: The Shape-Note and Singing School Tradition in America 28

The Influence of Regular Singing 28

Singing School History 30

Shape-Note Tradition 35

Shape-Note Notation 39

v

Chapter 3: A Survey of Church of Christ Affiliated Colleges and Universities
and Their Choral Music Programs 42

Ohio Valley University 45

York College 47

Florida College 48

Rochester College 50

Freed-Hardeman University 52

Lubbock Christian University 54

Oklahoma Christian University 56

Faulkner University 58

Lipscomb University 60

Abilene Christian University 63

Harding University 66

Pepperdine University 69

Conclusions 72

Chapter 4: Choral Conductors’ Perspectives on Teaching at a
Church of Christ Affiliated College or University 73

Church of Christ Affiliation 74

Musical Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Raised
in the Churches of Christ 75

The Lack of Graduate Music Programs 77

Support for College Choirs; Lack of Support for Church Choirs 78

Restrictions on the Performance of Choral Music Repertoire 81

Choral Music Performances at Church of Christ Worship Facilities 84

vi

Touring 86

The Decline of Musical Preparedness Among Church of Christ Youth 88

Chapter 5: Music Education in the Churches of Christ 89

Church of Christ Worship Music Comparison 90

The Use of Shape-Note Hymnals 93

Shape-Note Singing Ability in the Churches of Christ 94

Shape-Note Singing Education of the Past 95

Current Strategies to Learn Music in the Church 97

The Decline of Congregation Singing: The Opinion of Others 101

Church Support 102

College Support 105

Conclusion 112

References 115

Appendices

Appendix A: A Depiction of the Cane Ridge Rival Meeting, 1801 124

Appendix B: Front cover of Thomas Campbell’s
Declaration and Address, 1809 125

Appendix C: Mainstream Churches of Christ in America 126

Appendix D: “The Church,” by Ellis Crum 128

Appendix E: Church of Christ Worship Service Sample 129

Appendix F: Sample pages of Thomas Walter’s Grounds and Rules of
Musick Explained (1721) and John Tuft’s
Introduction to the Singing of Psalm- Tunes (1726) 130

Appendix G: Psalm 61 from Bay Psalm Book, 1698 133

vii

Appendix H: The Easy Instructor, by William Little and
William Smith, 1801 134

Appendix I: The Art of Singing, by Andrew Law, 1803 139

Appendix J: Sample pages form Sacred Harp, Southern Harmony,
and Missouri Harmony Tunebooks 141

Appendix K: “Amazing Grace” as published in the 1911 edition of the
Original Sacred Harp 157

Appendix L: Four and Seven Shape-Note System 158

Appendix M: Accredited Church of Christ Affiliated Colleges and
Universities With Undergraduate Academic Programs 159

Appendix N: IRB Exempt Study Information/Fact Sheet 160

Appendix O: Sample of Stamps-Baxter Publications 161

viii

ABSTRACT

The Church of Christ is a Christian denomination that sprang from the nineteenth
century Restoration Movement in the United States of America. Music serves a definitive
role in the worship service of the Churches of Christ by means of active participation in a
cappella congregational singing. Except for a few congregations, instrumental music is
not permitted in the church, nor are church choirs in the traditional sense. Special music
presentations are rarely included in the services.
Singing schools of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the United States
influenced churches to teach shape-note music reading to strengthen congregational
singing. The Churches of Christ have kept this tradition since their origin and still sing
from shape-note hymnals today despite the fact that many current members have never
been trained to read this form of musical notation.
Although the singing of choral music, other than hymns, is not found in the
worship services of the Churches of Christ, the denomination supports choral music
programs in their affiliated colleges and universities. In many of these programs, the use
of instrumental music is permitted. This paradox raises the question of how and why the
church supports choral music and the performance of instrumental music in their schools
but not during their worship services. This study will begin with a historical account of
the development of the Church of Christ denomination, its doctrine, and its a cappella
singing tradition.

ix

Twelve Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities are investigated in
this study. Included will be the perspectives of choral conductors on how the church’s
a cappella singing traditions affect their programs. In addition to the discussion on
collegiate choral music programs, the Church of Christ denomination’s past and present
music education practices will be examined.

1

INTRODUCTION

Professional musicians as well as worship leaders, church members, and students
will gain a better understanding of the importance of the role of singing in the Churches
of Christ as a result of this treatise. The study will also provide a survey of twelve Church
of Christ affiliated colleges and universities and an examination of their choral music
programs. A clear distinction will be made between the a cappella congregational singing
tradition in worship and choral music performance practice of these institutes of higher
education.
The study is divided into five chapters: (1) a brief historical account of the
development of the Churches of Christ, their doctrine, and their non-instrumental music
worship practices; (2) the shape-note and singing school tradition in America; (3) a
survey of Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities and their choral music
programs; (4) choral conductors’ perspectives on teaching at a Church of Christ affiliated
college or university; and (5) music education in the Churches of Christ. The objective of
the content is to answer the following questions:
 What is the origin of the Churches of Christ? What is the denomination’s doctrine
and worship practices?
 What is the case for a cappella singing in the Churches of Christ?
 What is the shape-note tradition and why was it employed?
 What are the profiles of the twelve Church of Christ affiliated colleges and
universities that are reviewed in this study?
 In the choral music programs of Church of Christ affiliated colleges and
universities, what degrees and ensembles are offered?
2

 Why are collegiate choirs supported in the Churches of Christ, but not church
choirs?
 What challenges do choral conductors of the Church of Christ colleges and
universities face regarding performance restrictions?
 How did the early Churches of Christ teach shape-note music reading to their
members? Is the shape-note method utilized today?
 In the Churches of Christ, is there a correlation between the quality of
congregational singing and music education practice?

An ample amount of older and newer research exists on the history of the
Restoration Movement, its leaders, and more specifically, the development of the
Churches of Christ. Published documents explain the church’s doctrines and rationale for
its biblically-based opinion that only non-instrumental music should be a part of the
worship service. In addition, substantial research on the history of the American singing
schools and shape-note singing has been conducted, which contributes to the
understanding of the origin of music education in the Churches of Christ.
Primary sources by means of unattributed interviews of current, former, or retired
choral conductors of Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities are the core of
the new research findings. Presented information will consist of conductors’ perspectives
on: musical advantages and disadvantages of being raised in the Churches of Christ, the
comparison of worship music and choral music performance, guidelines for choral music
performance and repertoire selection, and past and current music education practices of
the Churches of Christ.

3

CHAPTER 1

A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CHURCHES OF CHRIST, THEIR DOCTRINE, AND THEIR
NON-INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC WORSHIP PRACTICES

The Churches of Christ emerged from the Christian Churches in the nineteenth
century and became their own sect after controversies arose over the use of instrumental
music and social issues. Since it has been recognized as its own entity in 1906, the church
itself has had many sects break away from its foundation. In addition to the mainstream
Church of Christ, six arms of the church are now listed in the Encyclopedia of American
Religions. Each group worships exclusively with a cappella music but varies with the
mainstream church on other practices. The arms of the church are the Churches of Christ
(Pentecostal), the Churches of Christ (Pre-millennial), the Churches of Christ (Non-
Sunday School), the Churches of Christ (Non-Class), the Churches of Christ
(One-Cup), and the Churches of Christ (Non-Institutional).
1
The International (Boston)
Churches of Christ were once included in the above list but have asked to no longer be
associated with the other Church of Christ sects. This study is based on the American
mainstream Churches of Christ, whose roots are still the most in line with the Stone-
Campbell movement, have the most number of congregations and members, and have

1
J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions, 7th ed., s.v. "Christian
Church."
4

produced several affiliated colleges and universities. The mainstream church has neither
alliance nor fellowship with the other sects.
2

According to The New Oxford American Dictionary, the word sect is described
“as a group of people with somewhat different religious beliefs from those of a larger
group to which they belong.”
3
Denomination is identified as “a recognized autonomous
branch of the Christian Church.”
4
The Churches of Christ started as a sect in the late
nineteenth century and moved toward a denomination within the twentieth century. The
Churches of Christ have maintained from the beginning their dedication to restoring
worship practices of the apostolic church. Their members believe they are the “one true
church,” and therefore many do not identify themselves as a sect or a denomination. For
the purpose of this study, however, the church will be referenced as a denomination in
order to separate it from other religious bodies that may be mentioned. Unlike most
denominations, the Churches of Christ do not have a central organizational headquarter.
Although each congregation has its own governing system, the mainstream Churches of
Christ are united in principal beliefs and practices.
5

2
Richard T. Hughes, Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in
America (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1996), 1.
3
Elizabeth J. Jewell and Frank Abate, ed. The New Oxford American Dictionary, s.v.
"sect."
4
Ibid., "denomination."
5
Richard T. Hughes, The Churches of Christ: Student Edition (West Port, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2001), 5.
5

Roots of the American Restoration Movement
The Churches of Christ have argued since their origin that they are Christians, not
Protestants, yet their roots date back to the Reformation Movement of the sixteenth
century.
6
The early reformers wanted to get “back to the sources”—the scriptures—that
have an authority of their own. Their beliefs denied the traditions of the Roman Catholic
Church and the pope’s authority. Martin Luther (1483–1566), a leading reformist of the
sixteenth century, criticized the Catholic Church in his Ninety-five Theses. He was
excommunicated by the pope for refusing to retract his writings at the 1521 Diet of
Worms, Germany:
Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason—for
I do not trust either in the pope or in councils alone, since it is well known that
they have often erred and contradicted themselves—I am bound by the Scriptures
I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will
not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. May
God help me. Amen.
7

Luther’s full intent was misunderstood; he wanted to reform the Roman Catholic Church,
not do away with all its traditions. The aim of the Restoration Movement was to restore
the form of the apostolic church by using only scripture as its guide.
8

6
Crawford Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry
of Churches of Christ (Abilene, TX: ACU Press, 1988), 21.
7
Roland Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (New York: Abingdon-
Cokesbury Press, 1950), 185.
8
Crawford Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry
of Churches of Christ (Abilene, TX: ACU Press, 1988), 23.
6

A Swiss contemporary of Luther was the reformist Huldrych Zwingli
(1484–1531). He was also convinced through his personal study of biblical scriptures that
the Roman Catholic Church’s practices were without authority. This notion fueled the
Swiss Reformation. Zwingli introduced his reforms as head of his church, the
Grossmünster, in Zurich, Switzerland. He removed the cathedral’s organ, the cathedral’s
elaborate décor, and priests’ vestments. He preached that worship should emulate the
apostolic church, which was in a humbling primitive state and without worldly
distractions. He believed that “everything that is added to the true institutions of Christ is
an abuse.”
9

Scholars have surmised that Zwingli was against instrumental music but not
congregational singing. The historian Gottfried Locher remarked: "The old assertion
Zwingli was against church singing' holds good no longer. . . Zwingli's polemic is
concerned exclusively with the Medieval Latin choral and priestly chanting and not with
the hymns of evangelical congregations or choirs."
10

Other influential reformers of the sixteenth century were Martin Bucer (1491–
1551) of Strasbourg, Austria, and Zwingli’s successor in Zurich, Heinrich Bullinger
(1504–1575). Of the early reformers, however, the American Restoration movement was
influenced the most by Zwingli and John Calvin (1509–1564).
11

9
Ibid., 27.
10
Gottfried W. Locher, Zwingli's Thought: New Perspectives (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1981),
61.
11
Crawford Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry
of Churches of Christ (Abilene, TX: ACU Press, 1988), 29.

7

John Calvin, a prominent theologian and pastor, fled France and settled in
Switzerland to escape Protestant persecution due to religious tensions. There he emerged
as a leader of the Reformation in Geneva and was head of Geneva’s Company of Pastors.
[Calvin] sought to formulate a wholly biblical theology, transform the city into a
model of Christian faithfulness, encourage Swiss and other reformers to join in
common cause, and promote the growth of churches reformed by their conformity
to the doctrine, church order, practices, and ethics of the Word of God as set forth
in Scripture.
12

Calvin believed in iconoclasm, the separation of church and state. The premise was that
the church should be separate from worldly influences. He also preached the concepts of
the Divine Elections (salvation is pre-destined), and foremost, of biblical authority over
man-made traditions and humanism.
13

As the movement gained momentum, the Reformation spread to England. King
Henry VIII (1491–1547) broke away from the Roman Church for personal gain and
formed the Church of England in 1534. The Anglican Church was out of Rome’s control,
yet maintained many of the traditions and the organization of Catholicism.
Reformed theology became more at the forefront in England when King Henry’s
son Edward VI (1547-1553) established the law that churches were to use Archbishop
Thomas Cranmer's Book of Common Prayer. Edward’s reign was short, however, and his
successor, Mary Tudor (1553-58), abandoned Protestantism and brought back
Catholicism by force. Fearing persecution, many Protestants (Marian exiles) fled to the

12
Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-
Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of
Christ, Churches of Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004), 108.
13
David Wilson. "Luther and Calvin" (lecture, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, October 20, 2004).
8

continent and were influenced by Zwingli’s reformers.
14
Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
succeeded Mary and established a more middle ground between the Catholics and
Protestants. Queen Elizabeth welcomed the Marian exiles when they returned to England,
yet they soon felt she was not doing enough for the Reformation. These Puritans, as they
were called beginning in 1563, wanted to purify the church. The Puritans and Anglicans
both agreed on the authority of scripture, yet the Anglicans also wanted to be ruled by
church law and policy.
15

John Knox, a Marian exile, returned to England, but Queen Elizabeth I found him
to be too obstinate and sent him to Scotland. There he became a great reformer,
introducing Protestantism to that country. After his death, his followers formed the
Presbyterian Church, the institution that influenced Thomas Campbell and his son
Alexander, leaders of the Restoration Movement in America.
16

The Stone-Campbell Movement (American Restoration Movement)
The beginnings of the Restoration Movement can be traced to Scotland’s reformer
John Glas (1695–1773) and his followers. Glas already had a plan in place to restore

14
Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-
Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of
Christ, Churches of Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004), 611-612.
15
Crawford Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry
of Churches of Christ (Abilene, TX: ACU Press, 1988), 51.
16
Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-
Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of
Christ, Churches of Christ (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004), 612.
9

practices of the apostolic church by the time the Restoration Movement began in
the New World:
1. We think ourselves obliged to regard all the words of Christ and his apostles,
in their plain, obvious, and original meaning; looking upon every precept in
the New Testament (except such as may relate to what is properly
miraculous), to be binding upon us now, as much as upon the first churches.
2. We think ourselves bound to follow the practices of the primitive disciples
and churches, as far as we can learn from the New Testament how they
walked, while the apostles were with them, beholding their order and
steadfastness in the faith.
3. We think ourselves also bound carefully to avoid all the things for which they
were reproved, by our Lord or his apostles.
17

During the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century in America, four
movements were in force concurrently to restore practices of the early church. This
period of time in American history is referred to as the “Second Great Awakening.”
18
It
produced a huge growth of Protestantism and gave birth to new groups such as the
Christian Church, which later produced the sects Disciples of Christ and the Church of
Christ. The leaders of these individual movements were from different denominational
backgrounds and lived in various parts of the country. They did not know of one
another’s teachings in the beginning, but eventually joined forces to form one
“restoration movement” with their common purpose of uniting Christians. The leaders of
the four movements were: James O’Kelly, a Methodist; Abner Jones and Elias Smith,
Baptists; Barton W. Stone, Presbyterian; and Thomas and Alexander Campbell,

17
David Edwin Harrell, "Christian Primitism and Modernization in The Stone-Campbell
Movement," in The Primitive Church in the Modern World, ed. Richard T. Hughes (Chicago:
University Of Illinois Press, 1995), 109-110.

18
The First Great Awakening during the 1730s and 1740s focused on the evangelism of
existing church members in developing a more personal relationship with Christ.
10

Presbyterian. The Restoration Movement’s key tenets were: (1) being “Christians only”
by minimizing denominational differences, (2) going “back to the Bible” for all
authoritative worship practices as replacement for man-made religious creeds, and (3)
attempting to restore apostolic practices of the early church.
19
Two of these movements
had the greatest influence in the history of Christian churches when they joined camps in
1832 to form the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement.
20

Barton W. Stone (1772–1844) was an ordained Presbyterian minister, although he
had serious doubts about the denomination’s doctrine. From 1800 to 1803 Stone preached
anti-Calvinist themes and rebutted Presbyterian beliefs at revivals in Kentucky, such as at
Cane Ridge (see Appendix A) and Concord. Before he was to be disciplined by the
synod, he and others left the church to form the Springfield Presbytery. It disbanded in
1804, just a few months after its inception because the leaders felt the church lacked
biblical authority regarding policy. In Reformation and Modern, Ferguson quoted from
The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery:
We will, that this body die, be dissolved, and sink into union with the Body of
Christ at large; for there is but one Body. We will that our power of making laws
for the government of the church and executing them by delegated authority,
forever cease. We will that the people henceforth take the Bible as the only guide
to heaven.
21

19
"The Historical Background of the Restoration Movement," Internet Ministries,
accessed July 20, 2013, http://church-of-christ.org.
20
Everett Ferguson, Reformation and Modern, 2nd ed. (Abilene, TX: Abilene Biblical
Research Press, 1967), 73.

21
Ibid., 69.
11

From that moment, Stone and his followers referred to themselves simply as
“Christians.”
22

Thomas Campbell (1763–1854) was a Seceder Presbyterian
23
minister in Ireland
and came to America in 1807. When he arrived, he became minister of a United
Presbyterian Church but became discouraged by man-made theology; he left the church
and began preaching to all Christians, in spite of their denomination heritage. He felt
salvation should be based on personal faith and a commitment to the Lord and Savior. He
called a plea for Christian “unity, peace, and purity” in his 1809 Declaration and Address
(see Appendix B). Even though it came five years after The Last Will and Testament of
the Springfield Presbytery, the Declaration and Address has come to be known as the
defining document of the Restoration Movement.
24

Thomas Campbell’s son, Alexander Campbell (1788–1866), arrived in America
shortly after the address and was happy to learn that his father shared many of his own
beliefs about church restoration. By 1812 Alexander, alongside his father, became the

22
Ibid.
23
“…a faction of Scottish Presbyterianism which emerged during the revivals that swept
the Scottish church in the early 1700s. The Seceders were united in their attack upon the
patronage system of the established Church of Scotland and its lack of spiritual awareness.” J.
Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions, 7th ed., s.v. "Presbyterian."
24
Thomas Campbell, Declaration and Address, introduction by William Robinson
(Birmingham: The Beran Press, 1951), 1.
12

leader in the “Disciples” movement.
25
The Restoration movement gained momentum in
1832, when Stone’s followers united with the movement led by Campbell in Lexington,
Kentucky. The Christian movement began to spread throughout the South and into the
Midwest, led by these two reformers.
26
Within three years, over 20,000 people had joined
the cause, and by the time of Alexander Campbell’s death in 1866, it had become the
fourth largest Christian denomination in the country, trailing only the Baptists,
Methodists, and Presbyterians.
27

The Christian churches became more denominational between the years 1840 and
1875. Alexander Campbell said in 1839 that the “brotherhood” should be named
Disciples of Christ, even though Barton W. Stone was against it. Walter Scott, another
leader of the movement, was concerned about the rising number of Catholics and called
for Protestants to join together under the auspices of one denomination, as stated in his
newspaper The Protestant Unionist. In 1849 a brotherhood assembly took place in
Cincinnati, Ohio, called The General Convention of the Christian Churches of the United
States of America, which gathered 127 delegates from various congregations. This group
later formed the American Christian Missionary Society. It was a great landmark in the

25
Lewis Leroy Snyder, "Alexander Campbell as a Change Agent within the Stone-
Campbell Movement From 1830-1840," (PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 1987), 125,
ProQuest (8717729).
26
Jim Mankin and Jason Fikes, "When Shall I Reach That Happy Place," Restoration
Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1996, January 01): 16, ACU Restoration Quarterly Archives (accessed July
23, 2013), http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/ vol_38_no_1_
contents/mankinfikes.html.
27
Richard T. Hughes, The Churches of Christ: Student Edition (West Port, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2001), 3.
13

Restoration movement when Alexander Campbell changed his stance of opposing
mission work to accepting it as a higher call to unite Christians further.
28

Division Among the Christian Churches
The Stone-Campbell church was recognized by different names in the late
nineteenth century: the Church of Christ, the Disciples of Christ, and the Christian
Church. During that time, congregations began separating over issues regarding worship
practices and society support, such as mission work. The Churches of Christ emerged
from the movement as one of the most conservative churches of the Restoration.
29

Thomas Campbell interpreted the scripture I Peter 4:11 to be a mandate for Christian
actions: “If anyone speaks, they should do so as one who speaks the very words of God.
30

In “Proposition 5” of his Declaration and Address he advised:
That with respect to the commands and ordinances of our Lord Jesus Christ,
where the Scriptures are silent, as to the express time or manner of performance,
if any such there be, no human authority has power to interfere, in order to supply
the supposed deficiency, by making laws for the church. . . . Much less has any
human authority power to impose new commands or ordinances upon the church,
which our Lord Jesus Christ has not enjoined.
31

28
Everett Ferguson, Jack P. Lewis, and Earl West, The Instrumental Music Issue
(Nashville: Gospel Advocate, 1987), 64.

29
J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions, 7th ed., s.v. "Christian
Church."

30
I Peter 4:11 (New International Version).

31
Thomas Campbell, Declaration and Address, introduction by William Robinson
(Birmingham: The Beran Press, 1951), 15.
14

Campbell’s declaration to “speak where the Bible speaks; be silent where the Bible is
silent” became a maxim for his followers and further caused the separation from the
Christian Churches during the late nineteenth century over such issues as the non-use of
instrumental music in worship.
32

After the Civil War, David Lipscomb, who became editor of the Christian
periodical the Gospel Advocate, became an influential figure for the conservative church
and led them into the twentieth century. One of the reasons Lipscomb sided with the
Church of Christ was that he shared the church’s view on women’s role in worship,
guided by I Corinthians 14:34: “Women should remain silent in the churches. They are
not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the law says.”
33
Lipscomb was upset
that the Disciples’ “liberals” were placing more women in leadership positions. Ironically
Lipscomb and other Gospel Advocate writers were later labeled “liberal’ by the Disciples
for supporting Christian schools.
34

The divide became official in 1906 when the United States Census Bureau listed
separately two churches; the Churches of Christ and the Christian Church. The reason for
the separation was the stances the churches took on using instrumental music in worship.
The Church of Christ did not allow instruments, whereas the Christian Church
worshipped with musical accompaniment. The name Disciples of Christ was
interchangeable with the Christian Church during this time. Years later, the Independent

32
Ibid.,1.

33
I Corinthians 14:34 (New International Version).
34
J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions, 7th ed., s.v. "Christian
Church."
15

Christian Church formed its own sect, separate from the Disciples of Christ. After the
divide the Church of Christ maintained many of its followers in the rural South but lost
thousands to the Disciples of the North and in urban centers. The church had to rebuild its
membership and did so with great success on the campaign of being “the one true
church.” Thousands of new converts joined, especially from the South and Midwest
American regions.
35

About the Churches of Christ
The most current mainstream Church of Christ statistics report that 12,438
congregations and 1,210,612 total members exist in America and its territories (see
Appendix C). Texas holds the highest number of Church of Christ congregations with
2,003, and Tennessee maintains second place with 1,433.
36
Eighty percent of the
American Church of Christ membership is located between Nashville, Tennessee, and El
Paso, Texas, although there are congregations in all fifty states.
37
In addition, at least
2,000 members of the church reside outside of the United States.
38

35
Richard T. Hughes, The Churches of Christ: Student Edition (West Port, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2001), 3.
36
"Churches of Christ in the United States Statistical Summary By State / Territory," 21st
Century Christian, Inc, accessed June 1, 2013, http://21stcc.com/pdfs/ccusa_stats_sheet.pdf.
37
John Dart, "Loose-knit Churches of Christ Share a Tradition," Los Angeles Times (Los
Angeles, CA), sec. Religion, April 20, 1996.
38
"How Many Churches of Christ Are There," Internet Ministries, accessed July 20,
2013, http://church-of-christ.org.
16

The Churches of Christ are autonomous in that they are not governed by a higher
ecclesiastical authority. The individual congregation is led by selected members from the
assembly, who are called elders and deacons. The qualifications of such positions are
based on their belief of biblical authority as directed in I Timothy 3:1–8.
39

Although Church of Christ congregations are self-governing, they are united by
communication through national periodicals, colleges and universities, and annual lecture
conferences in various parts of the nation. Pepperdine University in Malibu, California,
and Abilene Christian University in Abilene, Texas, host such conferences annually.
40

Church of Christ Doctrine
As editor of the Christian Baptist (1823–1830), Alexander Campbell published a
blueprint for Christian worship based on biblical authority that the Churches of Christ
still use today. He believed that to restore worship as once practiced in the apostolic
church, adult Christians needed to be baptized by immersion for the forgiveness of their
sins, partake in the Lord’s Supper every Lord’s Day (Sunday), tithe to support the church,
and worship through singing and praying.
41
The Church of Christ is a New Testament
church that calls for Christian unity among all believers in Jesus Christ. They have no
man-made creed; they view the Bible as their only authoritative guide for worship and

39
I Timothy 3:1-8 (New International Version).
40
John Dart, "Loose-knit Churches of Christ Share a Tradition," Los Angeles Times (Los
Angeles, CA), sec. Religion, April 20, 1996.
41
Richard T. Hughes, The Churches of Christ: Student Edition (West Port, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2001), 17.
17

Christian living. As previously stated, the church is diligent in its Bible-based practices,
as declared in the hymn by Ellis Crum, “The Church of Christ follows Christ’s Word,
where He doth speak, there we are heard; where He is silent, we are too, what Christ
commands is what we do.”
42

One becomes a member of the Churches of Christ by becoming a Christian, not
by meeting denomination requirements or engaging in special classes. The criteria for
becoming a Christian according to the Churches of Christ are studying the Gospel,
believing God’s Word, repenting of past sins, confessing that Jesus is Lord, and being
baptized in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: “Peter replied, ‘Repent and be baptized,
every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you
will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.”
43

Infants and small children are not baptized in the church since it is reserved for
the penitent believers. There is no age requirement for baptism because the church trusts
that individuals mature in their own time in the understanding of the Gospel; they
comprehend the love and sacrifice Jesus has made for humanity in giving up his life on
earth so that mankind may live eternally. The church maintains that followers must have
faith and repent of their sins before they are baptized. Upon baptism by immersion,
believers become Christians and are automatically accepted as a member of the church.
44

42
Ellis J. Crum, "The Church," (No. 1) in Sacred Sections for the Church, ed. Ellis J.
Crum (Kendallville, IN: Sacred Selections Publisher, 1956). See Appendix D.
43
Acts 2:38 (New International Version).
44
Everett Ferguson, The Church of Christ: A Biblical Ecclesiology for Today (Grand
Rapids, MI: William B. Eerman's Publishing, 1996), 196.
18

They may begin to partake in communion on each Lord’s Day to show reverence for the
crucifixion of Jesus, which is a central part of their worship services.
In the Churches of Christ, only immersion baptism is acceptable. The word
baptize comes from the Greek word baptizo and means “to dip, to immerse, to plunge, to
sink, or to submerge.”
45
In addition to this literal translation, immersion is practiced in
the Churches of Christ because they believe it was the practice of the apostolic church.
Another argument comes from the analogy of baptism with burial and resurrection from
the apostle Paul in Romans 6:3–5:
Or don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were
baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into
death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of
the Father, we too may live a new life. For if we have been united with him in a
death like his, we will certainly also be united with him in a resurrection like
his.”
46

Becoming members of the Church of Christ, males are encouraged to participate
in worship services, such as reading scripture, serving communion, or leading singing.
Female members are welcome to teach Sunday school to children and to assume other
supporting roles in the church. They are not, however, allowed to be in a leadership role
or to address the assembly based on the biblical interpretation of the scripture that
commands that women “remain silent.”
47

45
"How Is Baptism Defined By Greek Dictionaries?," Richard Hollerman, accessed July
18, 2013, http://truediscipleship.com.
46
Romans 6:3-5 (New International Version).
47
"Baptism," Internet Ministries, accessed July 18, 2013, http://church-of-christ.org.
19

Song Service in the Churches of Christ
The Swiss Reformed theologian, Karl Barth, stated in his Church Dogmatics:
The Christian community sings. It is not a choral society. Its singing is not a
concert. But from inner, material necessity it sings. Singing is the highest form of
human expression. . . . We can and must say quite confidently that the community
which does not sing is not a community.
48

A cappella congregational singing is the music worship practice of the Churches of
Christ. Church choirs, special music presentations, and instrumental music are extremely
rare in the church because they provide a performance aspect that has been traditionally
viewed as unscriptural.
49
The opinion of the use of instrumental music in worship varies
among members of the Churches of Christ. Many do not view it as a “heaven or hell”
issue as they once did. Singing together as a congregation is a participatory action,
whereas listening to a choir or instrumentalists is passive. Worshiping together through a
cappella singing unites the congregation; everyone is participating as one voice. Church
members may not perceive that instrumental music is necessarily wrong, but they prefer
to keep the tradition of singing a cappella music in worship as it is an act of “mutual
encouragement.”
50

48
Karl Barth, Christian Dogmatics, ed. G.W. Bromily and F.W. Torrance, vol. IV,
(Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1962), 866-867, quoted in Darryl Tippens, That’s Why We Sing
(Abilene, TX: Leafwood Publishers, 2007), 7.
49
Harold E. Holland, "The Hymnody of The Churches Of Christ," The Hymn 30, (1979,
January 01): 266.
50
Joe Ed Furr, A History of Church Music (Navasota, TX: Taylor Publications, 2000), 25.

20

Active and enthusiastic four-part
51
congregational singing has been the custom in
the Churches of Christ. The majority of hymnals and other published sacred song
materials in church are printed with shape-note notation, yet as it will be shown later in
the study, the ability to read such musical notation is quickly becoming obsolete.
In a traditional Church of Christ worship service, the singing consists of seven to
ten songs led by a song leader (see Appendix E). Song leaders are male members of the
assembly who typically volunteer their services. Occasionally a church will pay a song
leader or worship music minister in the Churches of Christ, but it is not common.
Depending on the size of the congregation, a church will have two to several song leaders
who serve on a monthly rotation. The leader begins by pitching the song selection,
usually with the aid of a pitch pipe. He then gives a preparatory conducting beat and
leads the congregation in song by singing the melody line.
52
Critics question if man-made
instruments are not allowed in the Churches of Christ, why are song leaders allowed to
use pitch pipes or tuning forks to pitch a song? The church’s response is that instruments
are allowed to aid the singing, such as by sounding a musical pitch, which may be
accomplished by using any instrument, even a piano or organ. However, once the pitch is
given, the instrument must be silent. One would argue that instrumental accompaniments
aid singing, but in the church, it is viewed as a performance by the instrumental player.
53

51
Soprano (melody), alto, tenor, and bass vocal parts.

52
Harold E. Holland, "The Hymnody of The Churches Of Christ," The Hymn 30, (1979,
January 01): 266.
53
Joe Ed Furr, "Neglecting Church Music, “The Singing School at Abilene Christian
University, accessed March 7, 2012, http://www.singingschool.org.
21

The Argument Against Instrumental Music In Worship: The New Testament
The Churches of Christ have stood firm on avoiding any practice that is not
authorized biblically. Although the Old Testament mentions that instruments were used
in worship of God, the New Testament provides no evidence that instrumental music was
used in praise or worship. Therefore, the church adopted a dogmatic attitude and insisted
that if the Bible is silent, then the church must be silent regarding the use of instruments
in worship services.
54

The New Testament does not mention the use of instruments in worship services,
but reference to musical instruments is found in the book of Revelation. In Revelation
14:2, the Apostle John describes the voice speaking from heaven: “And I heard a sound
from heaven like the roar of rushing waters and like a loud peal of thunder. The sound I
heard was like that of harpists playing their harps.”
55
Advocates of instrumental music
argue that if there are “harps” in heaven, then instruments should not be forbidden in
worship services. The Churches of Christ dismiss the reference, claiming the playing of
instruments is purely symbolic.
56

Singing is the only musical act in worship referenced in the New Testament,
although some interpreters do not believe it is a mandate. Eighteen verses in the New
Testament speak of singing, yet most do not pertain to singing in the public assembly.

54
Everett Ferguson, Jack P. Lewis, and Earl West, The Instrumental Music Issue
(Nashville: Gospel Advocate, 1987), 14.
55
Revelation 14:2 (New International Version).
56
Joe Ed Furr, "A Holistic View of Song Leading," The Singing School at Abilene
Christian University, accessed July 2, 2013, http://www.thesingingschool.org.
22

But in I Corinthians 14:26, the Apostle Paul gave such instruction to the church in
Corinth: “When you come together, everyone has a hymn, or a word of instruction, a
revelation, a tongue or an interpretation. All of these must be done for the strengthening
of the church.”
57
Also, Ephesians 5:18–19 reads “[B]e filled with the Spirit, speaking to
one another with psalms, hymns and spiritual songs. Sing and make music in your heart
to the Lord .”
58
In the verses from I Corinthians and Ephesians, God does not command
Christians to sing in an assembly of worshipers; singing is a suggested guideline.
Nevertheless, the Churches of Christ justify their decision to include only congregational
singing in worship music based on these scriptural references.
59

Supporters of instrumental music in worship argue that the Greek word psallo,
which has been translated to mean “sing” in the Bible, refers to both vocal and
instrumental music. The early translation from 500 BCE to 300 BCE is “to play,” but
from 300 AD to 500 AD the translation became “to sing or chant.”
60
In E.A. Sophocles’
Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods (146 BCE to 1100 AD), psallo is
defined as to “chant or sing religious hymns.”
61
In Modern Greek the word has lost all

57
I Corinthians 14:26 (New International Version).
58
Ephesians 5:18-19 (New International Version).
59
Jo Ed Furr, "A Holistic View of Song Leading," The Singing School at Abilene
Christian University, accessed July 2, 2013, http://www.thesingingschool.org.
60
Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church, 3rd ed. (Fort
Worth, TX: Star Bible Publications, 1999), 1.
61
E.A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods (B.C. 146 to A.D.
1100), 1st ed., s.v. "psallo," quoted in Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship
of the Church, 3rd ed (Fort Worth, TX: Star Bible Publications, 1999), 1.
23

musical instrument connotations, and the word now translates to “sing.” The strongest
case against this argument, however, is that Christians of the apostolic church did not use
instrumental music in worship.
62

The Argument Against Instrumental Music In Worship: The Early Church
Research has shown that if instrumental music was used as part of worship in the
apostolic church, it was an unusual occurrence. Everett Ferguson in his
A cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church, quoted early Christian leaders’
views on music in worship; among the leaders are Ignatius of Antioch and Justin Martyr
(second century), Tertullian (third century), and Eusebius and Ambrose (fourth century).
All the leaders refer to singing but not to the use of instruments.
63
Ferguson furthers his
argument by finding sources that specifically argue against instrumental music in
worship. For example, he quoted from Niceta of Remesiana’s fourth century treatise on
church music, On the Utility of Hymn Singing:
It is time to turn to the New Testament to confirm what is said in the Old, and,
particularly, to point out that the office of psalmody is not to be considered
abolished merely because many other observances of the Old Law have fallen into
desuetude. Only the corporal institutions have been rejected, like circumcision,
the sabbath, sacrifices, discrimination in foods. So, too, the trumpets, harps,
cymbals and timbrels. For the sound of these we now have a better substitute in
the music from the mouths of men. The daily ablutions, the new-moon
observances, the careful inspection of leprosy are completely past and gone, along
with whatever else was necessary only for a time, as it were, for children. Of
course, what was spiritual in the Old Testament, for example, faith, piety, prayer,

62
Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church, 3rd ed. (Fort
Worth, TX: Star Bible Publications, 1999), 2.
63
Ibid., 48-52.
24

fasting, patience, chastity, psalm-singing—all this has been increased in the New
Testament rather than diminished.
64

Another example of a fourth century reference against instrumental music is found in the
Exposition of Psalms 41, by John Chrysostom:
David formerly sang songs, also today we sing hymns. He had a lyre with lifeless
strings, the church has a lyre with living strings. Our tongues are the strings of the
lyre with a different tone indeed but much more in accordance with piety. Here
there is no need for the cithara, or for stretched strings, or for the plectrum, or for
art, or for any instrument; but, if you like, you may yourself become a cithara,
mortifying the members of the flesh and making a full harmony of mind and
body. For when the flesh no longer lusts against the Spirit, but has submitted to its
orders and has been led at length into the best and most admirable path, then will
you create a spiritual melody.
65

The human voice was the only instrument allowed in the assembly for many
centuries, a practice that followed the tradition of the Jewish Synagogue and worship
practices of Jesus’s apostles. Pipe organs began to appear in churches in the early ninth
century but were not recorded as being used in the worship services until the tenth
century. It was not until the thirteenth century that instrumental music in church was
widely accepted. This practice is found, however, only in Western Christianity; the
Eastern Orthodox tradition still worships exclusively with a cappella music.
66

During the European Reformation, many protestant churches stopped the use of
instrumental music, thus reverting to music practices of the early church. John Calvin, for

64
Ibid.,54. Translated by Gerald Walsh in Fathers of the Church, vol. 7. (New York:
Cima Publishing, 1949), pp. 71f.
65
Oliver Strunk, ed., Source Readings in Music History (New York: W.W. Norton &
Company, 1950), 70.
66
Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church, 3rd ed. (Fort
Worth, TX: Star Bible Publications, 1999), 81.
25

example, was against instrumental music in worship and strongly believed in the
importance of congregational singing. He established strict guidelines. First of all, no
instruments were allowed. He also mandated that the words of songs had to be scriptural
and primarily from the book of Psalms because he believed that these were the only
words written by God, and thus worthy of God. In addition to these and other guidelines,
the singing had to be pure, simple and only melodic.
Calvin helped develop the Genevan Psalter, a collection of 126 melodies
designed to be sung with metrical translations of the 150 Biblical Psalms and three other
canticles. Calvin did not want folk tunes allowed in the Psalter because he did not want
secular influences in the music that would poison the text. The melodies used were a
compilation from a number of sources, including Gregorian chant and Lutheran tunes,
although these musical sources are not always easily recognizable.
67
In the preface of the
Genevan Psalter, Calvin wrote:
But that the world may be so well advised, that in place of songs in part vain and
frivolous, in part stupid and dull, in part foul and vile, and in consequence evil
and harmful which it has used up to now, it may accustom itself hereafter to the
singing of these divine and celestial hymns with the good king David. Touching
the melody, it has seemed best that it be moderated in the manner we have
adopted to carry the weight and majesty appropriate to the subject, and even to be
proper for singing in the Church, according to that which has been said.
68

67
David Wilson. "Luther and Calvin" (lecture, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, October 20, 2004).
68
"Preface to the Psalter," Michael Owens, accessed July 14, 2013,
http://genevanpsalter.com/attachments/Gen_Psal_intro_Calvin.PDF. From the facsimile edition
of: "Les Pseaumes mis en rime francoise par Clément Marot et Théodore de Béze. Mis en
musique a quatre parties par Claude Goudimel. Par leshéritiers de Francois Jacqui" (1565).
26

Perceptions of Church of Christ Music Worship
People of different belief systems and Christian denominations have at times cast
a negative view on the worship practices of the Churches of Christ. For example, some
view the Church as too conservative and archaic in their beliefs, such as in their
insistence that women remain silent in the assembly. But the strongest criticism by non-
members of the Church of Christ is the church’s condemnation of the use of instrumental
music in worship. It is the one characteristic that separates the Churches of Christ from
most Western Christian-based religious institutions. A number of non-Church of Christ
members make the assumption that if the church does not worship with instrumental
music or have church choirs, then music does not play an active role in the services. This
assumption is incorrect; music is a vital part of the worship services of the Churches of
Christ as evidenced by the practice of congregational singing. In fact, one may argue that
congregational singing occurs more frequently in worship services of the Churches of
Christ than in any other assemblies of Christian organizations.
The Italian word a cappella translates from the Latin “in the style of the church,”
and the term has become universally accepted to mean singing without instruments.
Certain critics view the Churches of Christ non-use of instruments as being an
abnormality, when in fact, a cappella singing was the predominant use of music in
Christian worship for centuries.
69

69
Everett Ferguson, A Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church, 3rd ed. (Fort
Worth, TX: Star Bible Publications, 1999), 81.
27

Singing a cappella music presents many challenges even among trained musicians
in the classical sense. To enhance the quality of a cappella congregational singing, the
Churches of Christ have utilized a system to aid amateur singers to read musical notation.
The historic development of the shape-note tradition and the singing schools in America
have influenced the long-standing music practices of the Churches of Christ, which will
be discussed in detail in the next chapter of this study.

28

CHAPTER 2

THE SHAPE-NOTE AND SINGING SCHOOL
TRADITION IN AMERICA

The adherence of the Churches of Christ to a cappella music led to their use of
shape notes in worship hymnals. Many avenues of research are in the shape-note
tradition, but this chapter will serve only as a brief historical account of its origin and
influence on the American singing schools of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The most common and sometimes only association with shape-note hymns is with the
Sacred Harp tradition; however, that topic will only be briefly discussed in the scope of
this paper. The chapter’s main objective is to provide background information to
familiarize the reader with early music education practices of the Churches of Christ.

The Influence of Regular Singing
By the late seventeenth century, congregational singing had begun to decline in
America which prompted a movement to reestablish unity in singing. Controversies over
some issues of the movement arose during the early eighteenth century. A number of
churches debated whether church singing should be audible due to members’ literal
interpretation of the following scriptures from the Bible: “[Be] filled with the Spirit,
speaking to one another with psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit. Sing and make
29

music from your heart to the Lord.”
1
Advocates of non-audible singing claimed that the
Bible dictated that worship music should be in the heart, not out loud.
2

Besides the debate on non-audible singing in church, another argument in the
eighteenth century was whether to sing psalms or hymns of “human composure;”
although the psalms were scriptures set to music, some hymns were composed as
expressions of personal feelings. The greatest controversy, however, was over the style of
the singing.
3
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, American church music was
challenged by the advocates of “regular singing” reform versus those who argued for the
“usual way” of singing. The usual, or common way, adhered to the common musical
practices of the day, mostly utilized by the poorly educated and by inhabitants of rural
communities. The tunes were sung in unison with added embellishments and were not
uniform from congregation to congregation, or from individual to individual, for that
matter. Therefore, these handful of tunes were highly original and individualized.
Although these tunes were printed in the psalter, they were mostly passed down orally.
4

Whereas the usual way of singing was part of the worship in rural communities,
regular singing, which involved singing by note or by rule, was mainly practiced in New

1
Ephesians 5:18-19 (New International Version).

2
Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School and Shape-note Tradition: Residuals In
Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1968),
73.

3
Ibid.

4
John Bealle, Public Worship, Private Faith: Sacred Harp and American Folksong
(Athens, GA: The University Of Georgia Press, 1997), 6.
30

England’s urban areas. The advocates of this style desired the congregations to sing the
printed tunes with accuracy and to sing harmonic parts whenever possible. In regular
singing people were encouraged to learn how to read music in order to expand the scope
of hymns used in worship services.
5

By the last third of the eighteenth century, regular singing was the predominant
mode of music in worship in America. During this time tunebooks were being published
and the rise of the singing school movement began. However, the result was not at all
expected by the advocates of regular singing whose goal was to make entire
congregations musically literate. Rather than promoting literacy, the reform led to
separating singers from non-singers and encouraged the development of church choirs;
therefore, most of the congregations still primarily learned the church tunes by rote. An
abundance of new tunes was introduced by having the trained singers sit together as a
choir to lead the congregational singing.
6

Singing School History
As a direct result of the regular singing reform, singing schools were established
throughout the New England region and became America’s most important musical

5
Buell E. Cobb, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and Its Music (Athens, GA: The
University Of Georgia Press, 1978), 58.

6
Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School and Shape-note Tradition: Residuals in
Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss., University of Southern California, 1968),
92.

31

institution.
7
These schools, led by singing masters, offered a course in choral singing and
sight-singing. The objectives were to improve singing in church and to be able to
introduce more tunes in the worship services.
8
The by-products of the singing school
movement were the production of the first school of American composers, the
publication of hundreds of sacred music tunebooks, and the establishment of church
choirs and musical societies.
9

The singing masters taught using tunebooks that contained instructions, exercises,
and sacred choral music. In 1721 the first textbooks for school use were published:
Thomas Walter’s The Grounds and Rules of Musick Explained and John Tufts’
Introduction to the Singing of Psalm-Tunes (see Appendix F). Walter’s book contained
twenty-four pages of “some brief and very plain instructions for singing by note,” one
page of vocal exercises with rules for tuning the voice, and sixteen three-part psalm
tunes. Tufts’ book was similar to Walter’s work, but Tufts included more tunes and a
more concise introduction to reading music. Also, Tufts’ musical notation used letters
instead of notes, such as the Bay Psalm Book of 1698 (see Appendix G), which was the
first edition with tunes that printed the letters F-S-L-M (fa, sol, la, mi) under the notes.
10

7
Ibid., 94.

8
Ibid., 98.

9
"Shape-note Singing Schools," David Warren Steel, accessed August 6, 2013, http://
www.arts.state.ms.us/crossroads/music/sacred_harp/mu4_text.html.

10
Buell E. Cobb, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and its Music (Athens, GA: The
University Of Georgia Press, 1978), 63.

32

The practice of printing syllables under the notes began with the Sternhold and Hopkins
Psalters from 1570 to 1608, as well as with other psalters from that same period.
11

As the singing school movement spread throughout New England and into the
South, standardized method books and materials took form. Manuscript tunebooks were
published that were similar to the printed tunebooks, but they varied in that manuscript
paper was inserted so that students could write out various musical exercises. The most
important instructional material printed were tunebooks that included gamuts, a summary
of the rudiments of music, vocal exercises, and a large volume of printed music, often
organized from easy to difficult tunes. The introduction of these tunebooks consisted of
many lessons, such as: staff and clefs; notes and rests; varieties of meter; keys; musical
letters and transpositions; and characters used in music. Certain tunebooks included a
dictionary of terms, ornamentations, and observations on singing.
12

The gamut, otherwise known as the scale of music, is what would be called a
sight-singing guide today. The names of all the staff degrees were listed in both G and F
clefs; the C clef was used later. Next to the scale degrees, where the names of notes were
sometimes listed, the solmization syllables were given. The system was used in England,
where only four syllables— fa, sol, la, and mi—were used. Fa was used for the tonic and
subdominant; sol for the dominant; la for the mediant and submediant; and mi for the

11
Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School and Shape-Note Tradition: Residuals in
Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss., University of Southern California, 1968),
98.

12
Ibid., 105.

33

leading tone. Directions were given on finding mi to determine key centers. Mi was the
leading tone since it was the only syllable used once in the diatonic scale.
13

Most of the tunebooks used in the singing schools used the four-syllable
solmization, but toward the end of the eighteenth century, there was much opposition to
this system and a demand for a seven-note scale. Tunes in Three Parts (1763) was the
earliest tunebook, and one of only a handful to use the seven-note solmization system of
the time
14

The singing masters of the schools were also concerned with tone production.
Most emphasize soft singing, which today would signify singing in a light head voice.
Two teachers of the singing school movement, Daniel Read and Simeon Jocelyn, wrote
on the importance of singing softly. Read explains that imitating quality voices improves
vocal production in his American Singing Book (1785):
The method of singing in a soft and easy manner is very advantageous for
learners; it gives them an opportunity of hearing the master’s voice and imitating
him, it is the best way to cultivate their own, and sometimes causes those voices
which are harsh and unpleasant to become musical.
15

Jocelyn wrote in The Chorister’s Companion (1782):
All high notes should be sounded soft, but not faint; let all be done with ease and
freedom, endeavoring to cultivate a musical voice; observing for imitation, the

13
Ibid., 106.

14
Ibid., 117.

15
Daniel Read, American Singing Book (New Haven, CT: Printed for and Sold by the
Author, 1785), 23, quoted in Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School and Shape-note Tradition:
Residuals in Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss., University of Southern
California, 1968), 119.

34

sweet sound of the violin, the soft melody of the flute, and the tuneful notes of the
nightingale.
16

Read also gave instructions in tunebooks on how to sing musically, paying close attention
to articulation and unity of vowel, and how to sing the ending of phrases.
In addition to tone production, it was essential that the singing masters classified
voices correctly. William Billings stated in his Singing Master’s Assistant that “the bass
should be majestic and deep, the tenor full and manly, the counter loud and clear, and the
treble soft and sonorous.” The instruction book also stated that if a singer does not meet
the quality of any of these types, then they should not sing. Billings proclaimed, “I had
rather hear four people sing well, than four hundred almost well.”
17

Barton Stone and Alexander Campbell also believed that singing was a way to
unite the Christian churches. They combined their two earlier published hymnals into one
called Psalms, Hymns and Spiritual Songs in 1834. The hymnal was popular and five
editions were published, selling over 100,000 copies. Campbell changed the hymnal’s

16
Simeon Jocelyn, The Chorister's Companion (New Haven, CT: Printed for and Sold by
Simeon Jocelyn And Amos Doolittle, 1782), quoted in Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School
and Shape-note Tradition: Residuals in Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss.,
University of Southern California, 1968), 118.

17
Willaim Billings, Singing Master's Assistant (New England: Draper and Folsom,
1778), 15, quoted in Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School and Shape-note Tradition: Residuals
in Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss., University of Southern California,
1968), 120.

35

name to Christian Hymn Book in 1851 because he believed the Christian Church should
also be united in song.
18

Alexander Campbell viewed singing as an essential part of Christian worship and
valued hymnody highly, as evidenced by the following remark:
[T]he subject of the Christian psalter, psalm or hymn book, is therefore of the first
importance; as, next to the Bible, no book in the world has such influence on the
heart. No volume, indeed, ought to be studied with more care, and composed with
more special regard to the sacred style, than this book of Christian worship.
19

He was not concerned, however, with the quality of singing or the music reading
capabilities of his followers. He stated that worshippers who sang correctly were nearly
as “devilish as witchcraft” for focusing on singing quality instead of on the words. His
hymnal had only the words printed, but five years after his death in 1871, an edition was
published that included musical notation.
20

Shape-Note Tradition
The shape-note tradition began in the early part of the nineteenth century. While
singing schools were declining in the urban communities, they flourished in the South

18
Jim Mankin and Jason Fikes, "When Shall I Reach That Happy Place," Restoration
Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1996, January 01): 17, ACU Restoration Quarterly Archives (accessed July
23, 2013). http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/
vol_38_no_1_contents/mankinfikes.html.

19
Forrest M. McCann, "A History of Great Songs of the Church," Restoration Quarterly
38, no. 4 (1996, January 01): 220.

20
Jim Mankin and Jason Fikes, "When Shall I Reach That Happy Place," Restoration
Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1996, January 01): 19, ACU Restoration Quarterly Archives (accessed July
23, 2013). http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/1990s/
vol_38_no_1_contents/mankinfikes.html.

36

and the Western frontier. The proliferation of the use of shape notes and of folk hymns
printed in the tunebooks led to this new shape-note era.
21

One of the hardest tasks for the singing masters was to teach students solmization
in relation to the different key signatures. Earlier musicians, such as Tufts, attempted a
notation system based on solmization, but the method did not catch on until the invention
of shape notes. In shape-note notation, each of the four syllables fa, sol, la, and mi were
given a distinct shape. Therefore students did not need to know the name of notes or key
signatures, for the shape of the notes guided them to sing the appropriate syllable with
accuracy.
22

The shape-note system was first printed in The Easy Instructor, published in
Philadelphia in 1801, by William Little and William Smith (see Appendix H). In 1803 a
Connecticut singing master named Andrew Law published his fourth edition of The Art
of Singing. In his edition, shape notes were printed without staff lines (see Appendix I).
Law insisted that he invented the shape notes in 1785, although scholars now believe that
he derived the shapes from Little and Smith.
23
Although this type of notation was

21
John Bealle, Public Worship, Private Faith: Sacred Harp and American Folksong
(Athens, GA: The University Of Georgia Press, 1997), 2.

22
Curtis Leo Cheek, "The Singing School And Shape-note Tradition: Residuals In
Twentieth-century American Hymnody," (DMA diss., University of Southern California, 1968),
134.

23
Buell E. Cobb, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and Its Music (Athens, GA: The
University Of Georgia Press, 1978), 66.

37

considered uncouth by many musical critics, it nevertheless caught on and spread quickly
throughout the South and West, spurring numerous sacred music publications.
24

In 1816 Ananias Davisson and Joseph Funk, both from Virginia, became the first
singing masters to publish their own shape-note tunebooks. Over thirty tunebooks using
the shape-note notation were in print by 1860, the most popular being The Southern
Harmony by William Walker, and B.F. White and E.J. King’s The Sacred Harp (see
Appendix J). The Sacred Harp was first published in1844, and “Sacred Harp” singing
became a new musical genre. The book is still in print today and is widely used by Sacred
Harp followers who have kept that tradition alive.
25

Shape-note tunebooks of the South included folk melodies. The folk songs had
been passed down orally and were harmonized and set to sacred words. Many of these
tunes, such as “Amazing Grace” (see Appendix K), which is published in the 1911
edition of the Original Sacred Harp, have grown to become America’s most loved
hymns.
26

The main sources of American folk hymns are the nineteenth century shape-note
tunebooks. The first two publications were Christian Harmony, by Jeremiah Ingalls, and
Samuel Holyoke’s The Christian Harmonist, both written circa 1805. The first tunebook
that included a high volume of these folk hymns was Ananias Davisson’s Kentucky

24
John Bealle, Public Worship, Private Faith: Sacred Harp and American Folksong
(Athens, GA: The University Of Georgia Press, 1997), 2.

25
"Shape-Note Singing Schools," David Warren Steel, accessed August 6, 2013, http://
www.arts.state.ms.us/crossroads/music/sacred_harp/mu4_text.html.

26
Ibid.
38

Harmony in 1816. Forty out of the 165 tunes in the publication are classified as folk
hymns. Camp meeting songs, related to folk hymns, also became increasingly popular
around the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The religious revivals of the American Restoration Movement spread from the
South to the Western frontier. People traveled far distances to camp out at these revivals.
The meetings were energized with emotional preaching and singing. The songs were
sung spontaneously and with great enthusiasm. Most of these songs were secular tunes
with sacred texts—many of them written by Isaac Watts or Charles Wesley—with added
refrains. These songs became very popular and soon afterward were written down,
harmonized, and printed in shape-note tunebooks.
27

Like the tunebooks of the eighteenth century, the tunebooks of the nineteenth
century still had many pages of lessons of instruction. The gamut of the updated
tunebooks printed the shape-note head next to each of the solmization syllables. These
books also included a more in-depth study of harmonic intervals. The music was no
longer organized from the easiest to the most difficult, but was divided into two sections:
“Part I. Most of the Plain and Easy Tunes Commonly used in Time of Divine Worship,”
and “Part II. Some of the More Lengthy and Elegant Pieces Commonly Used at Concerts,
or Singing Societies.”
28

27
John Bealle, Public Worship, Private Faith: Sacred Harp and American Folksong
(Athens, GA: The University Of Georgia Press, 1997), 36.

28
William Walker, "Introduction to the Grounds of Music, The Rudiments of Music, and
Plain Rules for Beginners," in The Southern Harmony and Musical Companion, 2nd ed.
(Philadelphia: E.W. Miller, 1939), 1, 119.
39

Shape-Note Notation
Singing masters challenged the idea of learning the four shape-note system as
early as 1830. The most influential creator of the seven shape-note system was Jesse B.
Aikin, who published The Christian Minstrel in 1846. Aikin believed, as did many
others, that having only four shapes for seven tones was confusing. He concluded that
sight-singing would sharply improve by adding the three remaining symbols to the
diatonic scale.
The process of singing seven shape notes is recognizing pitch by its shape rather
than by its place on the staff (see Appendix L). This is done by matching the correct
shape with one of the seven syllables— do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti- (do)—linked to notes in a
diatonic scale. As stated in the preface of the 1879 hymnal Shining Light :
The peculiar system of notation used in this book is of modern date, being the
invention of J. B. Aiken, in the year 1846. Its special advantage over round notes
consists in representing each note of the scale by a distinct character. Hence, the
reading of notes is greatly simplified, and the learner finds no difficulty in singing
by note in any of the keys; and this shape (that of Do) is the keynote, wherever
found upon the staff.
29

The new system became very successful and spurred many new editions of the
seven shape-note notation between 1846 and 1873. William Walker was at first wary of
this new method.
30
In the Introduction of his Southern Harmony, Walker stated:
Some contend that no one can learn to sing correctly without using the seven
syllables. Although I have no objections to the seven-syllable plan, I differ a little
with such an opinion, for I have taught the four syllables patent notes, the Italian

29
J.h. Tenney and Aldine S. Kieffer, "Preface," in Shining Light (Dayton, VA: Ruebush,
Kieffer And Co, 1879), 1.

30
Gilbert Chase, America's Music from the Pilgrims to the Present (Chicago: University
Of Illinois Press, 1987), 183.

40

seven syllables, and the numerals also, and in twenty-five years’ experience, have
always found my patent note pupils to learn as fast, and sing as correct as any.
31

Ten years later Walker changed his position. He published the seven shape-note notation
in The Christian Harmony in 1866 and wrote that “the seven-syllable character-note
singing is the quickest and most desirable method known.”
32

Besides Walker’s advocating the seven shape-note notation, many other tunebook
compilers, such as Joseph Funk, also switched to the system in their new editions in the
1860s.
33
Reading seven syllables seemed to be more logical than four. However, many
critics argue that reading four symbols is less confusing and actually helps with tuning,
because the symbols are harmonically linked.
34

Two shape-note traditions exist within the United States: the Sacred Harp, which
is tied to recreational singing, and churches who worship without instrumental music.
Both shape-note traditions, however, have steadily lost ground since the late nineteenth
century, although enthusiasts of Sacred Harp are striving to preserve the four-note shape
method through its annual singing conventions hosted in cities throughout America.
Churches with non-instrumental music use the Aiken seven-note shape method as a sight-
singing aid in congregational a cappella singing. Only a select few Christian

31
William Walker, "Introduction," in The Southern Harmony (Philadelphia: E.W. Miller,
1854).

32
Gilbert Chase, America's Music from the Pilgrims to the Present (Chicago: University
Of Illinois Press, 1987), 185.

33
Ibid.

34
"What Are The Shapes And Why? An Introduction To Sacred Harp Shape-note
Singing," Willard, Keith, accessed August 6, 2013, http://fasola.org/introduction/
note_shapes.html.

41

denominations still sing a cappella music using shape notes, including the Churches of
Christ.
35

The impact of the singing schools and shape-note tradition can be seen as the
most profound influence of American music in history. The most obvious effect was the
establishment of church choirs and increased quality of congregational singing. But more
importantly, this era spurred great interest in the learning of music, which eventually led
to the beginnings of our American music education in schools and in church.
Through Internet research, one can find over thirty singing schools in America
today. The locations are primarily within the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia,
Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Texas. Many schools are sponsored
by Sacred Harp followers, and a few are associated with church denominations, such as
the Churches of Christ and Primitive Baptists. Among Church of Christ affiliated
colleges and universities, Abilene Christian University hosts an annual singing school
each summer; the school was established in 1946 and is the oldest singing school in
existence.
36

The shape-note traditions and the establishment of singing schools influenced
worship and music practices in the Churches of Christ. The appreciation for singing
extends to the Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities; their choral music
programs will be presented in the next chapter.

35
"Shape Notes," James Tackett, accessed July 16, 2013, http://
www.paperlesshymnal.com.

36
R.l. Vaughn, "Annual Shape-Note Singing School," Ministry and Music-Seeking Old
Paths (blog), accessed December 27, 2007, http://baptistsearch.blogspot.com.

42

CHAPTER 3

A SURVEY OF CHURCH OF CHRIST AFFILIATED COLLEGES AND
UNIVERSITIES AND THEIR CHORAL MUSIC PROGRAMS

For the last several years, it has been estimated by college administrators of
Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities that approximately 10 to 15 percent
of graduating Church of Christ high school seniors attend one of their schools.
1
Students
of the Churches of Christ select one of these schools based on factors such as: the quality
of academic programs, financial affordability, the importance of attending a Church of
Christ school, spiritual campus life, influence by family members, quality of campus
facilities, job placement upon graduation, and proximity to home.
2
Research has shown
that students who are not associated with the Church of Christ choose to attend the
religious institution for the following reasons: financial scholarship offer, class size, the
character or type of the student population, and the desire to explore their own spiritual
beliefs.
3

The initial rationale for establishing Church of Christ colleges was to provide a
place for the church’s young people to study in a Christian environment, safeguarded
from the perceived corruption of secular state schools. The institution’s purpose was also

1
Roger Collins, "Selected Correlates for College Choice for Church of Christ College
and University Students," (PhD diss., University of Nebraska, 2006), 1, ProQuest (3225795).

2
Ibid., 7.

3
Michael B. Wood, "Factors Students Use in Choosing to Attend Church of Christ
Institutions of Higher Education When Students Have No Affiliation with the Church of Christ,"
(PhD diss., Arkansas State University, 2010), iv, ProQuest (3398020).
43

to promote further understanding and appreciation for the Church of Christ doctrine. But
beyond this, the Church of Christ colleges have proven to be legitimate higher learning
institutions that promote critical thought and academic success. Students gain a
knowledge of the world, and because of the success of the institutions, the world has an
increased awareness of the Church of Christ denomination.
4

After World War II, Church of Christ leaders wanted to move the church in a
more progressive direction. They still wanted to keep autonomy among its congregations,
but wanted to unify goals for all the Churches of Christ by supporting mission work and
higher education institutions. The Churches of Christ hit a building boom during the
1940s and 1950s, constructing a thousand new church buildings throughout the United
States and opening new undergraduate colleges and schools of graduate theological
education.
5
College enrollment in America grew significantly larger after the war as GIs
flooded universities, including the five Church of Christ schools at the time: David
Lipscomb College (successor to Nashville Bible School founded in1891); Abilene
Christian College, founded in 1906; Harding College, founded in 1924; and George
Pepperdine College, founded in 1937.
6

Previous to the surge in enrollment, individual Church of Christ members, not
congregations, donated money to the Church of Christ institutions. The above-mentioned

4
Richard T. Hughes, The Churches of Christ: Student Edition (West Port, CT: Praeger
Publishers, 2001), 139.

5
Ibid., 99.

6
Ibid., 106.
44

schools began to ask for monetary support from congregations when building expansion
became necessary to keep up with the increased enrollment. This practice met opposition
from Church of Christ leaders such as Grover Cleveland Brewer, Roy Cogdill, and
Fanning Yater— prominent writers for the Christian periodical the Gospel Guardian.
Opponents feared that the institutions would become “parachurch organizations” with too
much power. The critics deemed such donations as a threat against Alexander
Campbell’s nineteenth century ideals of avoiding denomination status and devotion to
autonomy.
7
Brewer, Cogdill, Yater, and other opponents refused to support Church of
Christ colleges and mission work. They eventually broke away from the church and
started a new sect: the Churches of Christ (Non-Institutional).
8

Accreditation, a process of recognizing educational levels of performance and
ensuring levels of quality at an institution, is regulated by the United States Secretary of
Education and the Department of Education. Receiving a higher education accreditation
signifies that a college or university has curricula, faculty, classes, and programs that
meet certain higher standards. These schools require their student body to learn from
multiple areas of study.
9
Presently sixteen accredited colleges and universities are
affiliated with the Churches of Christ (see Appendix M), in addition to numerous non-
accredited Bible and theology schools. Out of the accredited higher learning institutions,

7
Ibid., 107.

8
Bobby Ross Jr., "Who Are We?," Christian Chronicle, The, accessed July 9, 2013,
http://christianchronicle.org.

9
Jeffrey Alstete, College Accreditation : Managing Internal Revitalization and Public
Respect (Gordonsville, VA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 2.
45

twelve have music course offerings and vocal music ensembles. This chapter will
examine each of the twelve Church of Christ schools regarding their general school
background, music degrees offered, and vocal music ensembles. The colleges and
universities will be presented in order, based on student population, from smallest to
largest.
10

Ohio Valley University
Ohio Valley University is a private Christian four-year liberal arts school located
in Vienna, West Virginia. The school’s mission states, “At Ohio Valley University we
seek to transform lives in a Christ-centered academic community that integrates higher
learning, biblical faith, and service to God and humanity.” The university offers
baccalaureate degree programs in fourteen different subject areas, a graduate degree in
education, and two associate degrees. The projected campus enrollment for the fall of
2013 is 501 students from twenty-seven states and twelve nations. The student to faculty
ratio is 9:1, with the average class size of twenty students. The university’s tuition cost is
approximately $17,000 per year. Ohio Valley University is accredited, yet it is currently
on probation for not meeting several criteria in the most recent accreditation analysis.
11

The school, originally named Ohio Valley College, was founded in 1958 by
Harding University alumni who saw a need for a Church of Christ school in West

10
"List of Church of Christ Colleges and Universities," Oklahoma Christian University,
accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.oc.edu/about/church-of-christ/list-of-church-of-christ-
colleges-and-universities.html.

11
"OVU Fast Facts," Ohio Valley University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://ovu.edu/
base.cfm?page_id=377.
46

Virginia. Initial classes began in 1960 at South Parkersburg Church of Christ, just four
miles from the current South Campus, which opened in 1963. The school went through a
great expansion in the 1990s with the construction of the North Campus, and Ohio Valley
gained university status in 2005. The Church of Christ university requires its students to
take at least one Bible class per semester and to attend a daily chapel service.
12

Ohio Valley University does not offer a traditional bachelor degree in music but
instead, students may pursue a bachelor of arts in interdisciplinary studies with a music
concentration. As a result of low enrollment among music students, many of the required
music classes are not offered at the university. Ohio Valley University has therefore made
arrangements for students to complete the necessary coursework at nearby higher
education institutions. The university offers a music minor, which is earned after
completion of nineteen units of instruction.
13

Ohio Valley University has one traditional choir, the A Cappella Singers, and one
contemporary Christian ensemble, OVU Express. The A Cappella Singers group is an
auditioned choir and according to the university’s 2012-2013 course catalog, performs
choral music repertoire from the Renaissance to present day with emphasis on spirituals
and hymn arrangements. The OVU Express, a small, auditioned a cappella singing group,

12
"Ohio Valley University," Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_Valley_University.

13
"2012-2013 Catalog," Ohio Valley University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http:/www.ovu.edu/site.cfm/2012-13catalog.cfm.

47

tours throughout the United States, performing primarily at Church of Christ youth
events. Their performances serve as a recruiting measure for the university.
14

York College
York College, located in the city of York, Nebraska, is a private liberal arts
school founded in 1890 by the United Brethren Church. The institution has been affiliated
with the Churches of Christ since 1956. It is a small school; 500 students are expected
to attend in the fall semester of 2013. The college offers an associate degree and
four baccalaureate degrees with over twenty academic majors. The only graduate degree
option is a master of arts in curriculum and instruction. Current annual tuition at York is
$15,600 and the student to teacher ratio is 12:1. The mission of York College is “to
transform lives through Christ-centered education and to equip students for lifelong
service to God, family and society.” Baccalaureate students are required to take six
courses in religious studies and to attend a daily thirty-minute chapel service.
15

Choir and theatre courses are offered as part of the Fine Arts and Communication
Department at York College; however, there are no instrumental music performing
ensembles. Three degrees are offered within the fine arts: a bachelor of arts with a theatre
emphasis, a bachelor of arts in vocal music performance, and a bachelor of music

14
"Area Concentration: Music," Ohio Valley University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://ovu.edu/site.cfm/Academics-Home-/Colleges-Schools.

15
"York College at a Glance," York College, accessed July 3, 2013, http://york.edu/
about/glance.asp.

48

education with a vocal emphasis.
16
York College has two choral music ensembles: the
Concert Choir and Celebration Singers.
The Concert Choir is York College’s premiere choral ensemble, which is
composed of a fifty to sixty voice auditioned choir opened to all students at the school.
The choral music repertoire performed is primarily a cappella sacred music, including
hymns and spirituals. The choir performs some accompanied music, and in April 2013
joined forces with the Abendmusik, a professional choir and orchestra from Lincoln,
Nebraska, for a performance of Felix Mendelssohn’s Elijah. The Celebration Singers is a
smaller auditioned show choir and performs choreographed popular music repertoire in
costume.
17

Florida College
Florida College, a small Christian college in Temple Terrace, Florida, is affiliated
with the Churches of Christ (Non-Institution). As previously mentioned, the non-
institutional Churches of Christ sect broke away from the mainstream Churches of Christ
due to disagreements involving supporting higher education institutions. Florida College
is funded only by private individual donors and by students’ tuition costs. It accepts no
direct contributions from any church congregation. Originally founded as a junior college

16
"Vocal Music Degrees," York College, accessed July 3, 2013, http://york.edu/
academics/edu/voc/degree.asp.

17
"The Performing Arts at YC," York College, accessed July 3, 2013, http://york.edu/
academics/arts/performing/index.asp.

49

in 1946, Florida College became an accredited four-year higher education institution in
1996.
18

Florida College degree programs include associate, bachelor of science, and
bachelor of arts degrees in ten fields of study: biblical education, biblical studies,
business administration, communication, elementary education, liberal studies, pre-law,
pre-professional health science, sports management, and music. The school has a student
population of 500 from thirty-five states and six countries and its student to teacher ratio
is 12:1. The annual tuition for full-time students is $13,670. Florida College students are
required to attend a twenty to thirty minute daily chapel service, to take in daily Bible
classes, and to complete at least eight courses of biblical studies throughout their tenure.
19

The Florida College Music Department offers a bachelor of arts degree in music
with emphasis in either instrumental or vocal music. The school is in the planning stages
of starting a bachelor of music education degree as well. As listed in the Florida College
2012-2013 catalog, the mission of the music program “provides courses leading to a
liberal arts bachelor’s degree in music, as well as learning and performing opportunities
for students with majors in other areas, in a context appropriate to the college’s overall
emphasis on spiritual, mental, physical, and social development.”
20

18
Bobby Ross Jr.,"A Non-Institutional Institution," Christian Chronicle, The, accessed
July 11, 2013, http://christianchronicle.org.

19
"Florida College," Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_College.

20
"2012-2013 Catalog," Florida College, accessed July 3, 2013, www.floridacollege.edu/
wp-content/uploads/2010/.../catalog-2012-2013.pdf.

50

Florida College offers two auditioned choral ensembles: Chorus and Chamber
Singers. Both choral ensembles perform classical sacred and secular music from
different historical periods, including popular tunes and jazz standards. The Chorus is the
larger, principal ensemble, and the Chamber Singers consists of sixteen to twenty-four
singers. None of the members are music majors. The choral ensembles have an
opportunity to tour within the United Sates every year, although it is not mandatory.
21

Rochester College
Rochester College, located in Rochester Hills, Michigan, has a current enrollment
of 1200 students representing sixteen states and five countries. The school was founded
in 1959 by members of the Church of Christ and was originally named Michigan
Christian College. The institution was renamed Rochester College in 1997. Degrees
offered at Rochester include an associate of arts, an associate of science, a bachelor of
arts, a bachelor of science, a bachelor of business administration, and a master of arts in
religious education. Full-time students are required to attend chapel services twice per
week, and as part of their general education core, complete nine units (three courses) in
Christian values.
Rochester College’s current tuition cost is approximately $18,000 per year and as
of 2011, the student to teacher ratio is 14:1. Like other Church of Christ higher learning
institutions, Rochester gives students the opportunity to study abroad through its Global
Education program; destinations include areas in Europe, East Africa, and Israel. The

21
"Music," Florida College, accessed July 3, 2013, http://floridacollege.edu/academics/
degree-programs/music.
51

college’s mission statement reads: “Rochester College cultivates academic excellence,
principled character, servant leadership, and global awareness through a rigorous
educational experience that integrates liberal arts and professional studies within an
inclusive Christian heritage.”
22

The Music Department of Rochester College offers a bachelor of arts in music, a
bachelor of science in music, and a bachelor of science in music education with either an
instrumental or vocal music emphasis. With the latter degree, students may earn a
Michigan K-12 Teacher Certificate in Music. Rochester College supports three choral
ensembles: the A Cappella Chorus, Autumn, and the Community Choral Ensemble.
The A Cappella Chorus, established in 1959, has been a part of the college from
the beginning. The auditioned choir of music and non-music majors has a demanding
performance schedule, presenting over thirty concerts each year locally and on their
nation-wide tours. Choral music repertoire performed is varied, ranging from early to
contemporary a cappella works, as well as larger works with orchestral accompaniment.
The A Cappella Chorus often collaborates with the Rochester Symphony Orchestra and
the Detroit Symphony Orchestra in concerts. Recent performances have been George
Frideric Handel's Messiah, Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana, the Giuseppe Verdi Requiem,
and Ludwig van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony.
Autumn is an auditioned choral ensemble that specializes in contemporary
a cappella choral music repertoire, ranging from spiritual hymn arrangements to jazz and
popular music. The Community Choral Ensemble is Rochester College’s non-auditioned

22
"RC at a Glance," Rochester College, accessed July 6, 2013, http://rc.edu/admissions/
undergrad-admissions/rc-at-a-glance.
52

choir opened to non-music majors. Performances are infrequent and the choir does not
tour.
23

Freed-Hardeman University
Freed-Hardeman University was established in 1869 as a private high school and
college in Henderson, Tennessee. After many openings and closings with various name
changes, it was renamed Freed-Hardeman College in 1919, after the President of the
National Teachers’ Normal and Business College, A.G. Freed, and vice-president, N.B.
Hardeman. The school gained university status in 1990. Freed-Hardeman University’s
mission is “to provide every student an education permeated with Christian values. The
university is dedicated to Christian faith and practice and the pursuit of academic
excellence in a supportive environment.” Freed-Hardeman is a private higher learning
institution with an approximate student enrollment of 2,000 from thirty-states and
nineteen countries. Its undergraduate degrees are bachelor of arts, bachelor of science,
bachelor of business administration, and bachelor of social work. The university also
offers graduate degrees in ministry, business, and education.
Freed-Hardeman’s 2013-2014 undergraduate tuition is $20,500, with a student to
teacher ratio of 14:1 within its twelve academic departments in six schools. Many
students take the opportunity to study overseas in the FHU Abroad program. Options are
a semester-long stay in Belgium, a summer immersion program in Spain, and a short
exposure tour of Israel and Jordan. Like the other colleges reviewed in this chapter,

23
"Music, Theatre, & Visual Art Course Descriptions," Freed-Hardeman University,
accessed July 6, 2013, http://rc.edu/academics/catalog-undergraduate.
53

continual spiritual and biblical growth for students is a focus at Freed-Hardeman.
Undergraduates are required to complete ten academic units in biblical values courses
and to attend daily chapel services.
24

The Freed-Hardeman Music Department offers a bachelor of arts in music with a
vocal or piano performance emphasis, and a bachelor of music with a teaching licensure
in vocal or general music. The only instrumental music major is piano performance, but
the school has instrumental performing ensembles. The Ambassadors is a small
a cappella singing group that is sponsored by the Office of Admissions. They serve to
recruit and to promote the university by singing at school and church-related events. Two
choral ensembles are part of Freed-Hardeman’s Music Department: the University
Chorale and the University Singers.
The Freed-Hardeman University Chorale is an auditioned ensemble open to all
students at the school. The choir specializes in performing a cappella sacred music but
performs choral literature from all music eras as well. The choir performs frequently
throughout the year, both at home and on annual recruiting tours to various parts of the
country. Every other summer, the choir combines with the University Singers on an
international performance and mission tour. The Freed-Hardeman University Singers is
also an auditioned choir but is more limited in choral music repertoire than the University

24
"History and Mission," Freed-Hardeman University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://fhu.edu/admissions/transfer/facts.aspx.
54

Chorale. The a cappella choir is dedicated to singing and performing hymns and worship
songs only.
25

Lubbock Christian University
In 1957 Lubbock Christian College was founded by members of the Church of
Christ in Lubbock, Texas, and rose to university status in 1987. The school offers
bachelor of arts degrees in fifty-five majors and master of arts degrees in five areas of
study. Student enrollment is a little more than 2,000 students, and the student to teacher
ratio is 13:1. Undergraduate tuition is approximately $18,000 per year.
26
U.S. News &
World Report ranks Lubbock Christian University as a “Top 20 Comprehensive College
in the Western Region.”
27
Lubbock Christian University’s mission is “to educate
students, imparting values for scholarship and for living. Through its baccalaureate and
graduate programs, the university challenges students to think critically, to excel in their
disciplines, and to model Christ.” According to the 2012-2013 Lubbock Christian
University Student Handbook, students are required to complete twelve units of Bible

25
"Choral Program," Freed-Hardeman University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://fhu.edu/
academics/colleges/ArtsAndSciences/FineArts/Music/Choralprogram.aspx.

26
"Our History and Core Values," Lubbock Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://lcu.edu/about-lcu/our-history?rf=nav.

27
"Lubbock Christian University," US News and World Report LP, accessed July 9,
2013, http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/lubbock-christian-university-
3586.

55

courses and to attend a thirty-minute chapel service four times per week. Graduate
students are encouraged to attend as well, but are exempt from the requirement.
28

The Music Department at Lubbock Christian University offers four baccalaureate
degrees: bachelor of arts in music, bachelor of music in music education, bachelor of arts
in music with a business emphasis, and a bachelor of arts in music with a pre-music
therapy emphasis. Students who pursue the bachelor of music in music education may
choose areas of emphasis in vocal and instrumental music, and upon completing their
degree; they receive a Texas K-12 Teaching Certificate.
Four vocal music ensembles are offered at Lubbock Christian University: Praise
Choir, Chamber Singers, Forte, and Best Friends. The Praise Choir has the largest
enrollment with upward of fifty singers. Performances are mostly at church-related
events, on and off campus, and the group serves as a Christian outreach performing
ensemble. The repertoire performed is a cappella and comprises traditional hymns,
classical sacred music, African-American spirituals, and contemporary Christian music.
The choir tours within the United States annually and travels internationally every two
years.
The Lubbock Christian University Chamber Singers is a smaller auditioned choral
ensemble with sixteen to twenty students. Their repertoire is more extensive than the
Praise Choir since it includes music, both secular and sacred, from all historical periods.
The choir sings a cappella and accompanied choral music. The Chamber Singers tours
with the Praise Choir in addition to performing at local churches and high schools.

28
"2012-2013 Lubbock Christian University Student Handbook," Lubbock Christian
University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://.lcu.edu/resources/student-handbook.html.
56

The vocal ensemble Forte performs music from the pop, country, musical theatre,
and jazz genre. The group performs at community and school functions rather than at
church services. Best Friends is a ten-member a cappella singing group that performs
contemporary Christian and praise and worship music. Typical performances include
special concerts at churches and high schools.
29

Oklahoma Christian University
As the mission statement reads, “Oklahoma Christian University is a higher
learning community that transforms lives for Christian faith, scholarship, and service.”
Oklahoma Christian University, founded in 1950, is located in Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma. The university has fourteen undergraduate academic departments with more
than sixty majors in its three schools. Graduate areas of study include ministry, divinity,
business administration, and engineering. In 2012 the school had the highest student
population on record with 2,271 in attendance and was able to maintain a low student to
teacher ratio of 13:1. Tuition cost for full-time undergraduate students as posted in the
2013-2014 catalog is $18,800. Oklahoma Christian University has been recognized as an
outstanding western regional college by U.S. News and World Report and the Princeton
Review.
30

29
"Music Department and Vocal Ensembles," Lubbock Christian University, accessed
July 3, 2013, http://.lcu.edu/majors-programs/bachelors.../music/vocal-ensembles.html.

30
"University Profile," Oklahoma Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
oc.edu/about/university-profile.html.
57

Eighty percent of the student body at Oklahoma Christian University lives on
campus, which promotes a healthy student life with participation in several organizations
and intramural sports. The university’s study abroad program is extensive with
destinations in Europe, the Pacific Rim, Latin America, and Japan. Approximately 25
percent of Oklahoma Christian students participate in this program before graduation.
Daily chapel attendance is a university requirement. Students also need to complete eight
units of Bible courses as part of their general education requirement.
31

The Music Department at Oklahoma Christian University offers a bachelor of arts
degree in instrumental or vocal music performance and a bachelor of music education
degree with instrumental or vocal music emphasis. The department has five full-time
faculty members and several adjunct professors. They “are committed to providing
student musicians with the finest possible academic and performance programs and
facilities.” Students have many opportunities for ensemble experience by participating in
the school’s instrumental music groups, musical theatre, and choir.
32

The University Chorale is the oldest musical ensemble at Oklahoma Christian,
founded at the college’s inception. The auditioned choir varies between sixty-five and
one hundred singers and consists of students from several academic disciplines.
Choral music repertoire performed is vast, including sacred and secular works with or
without instrumental accompaniment. The Chorale has performed major choral and

31
Ibid.

32
"Department of Music," Oklahoma Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
oc.edu/academics/music/.
58

orchestral works with the Oklahoma Symphony Orchestra, the Oklahoma City
Philharmonic and the Oklahoma Community Orchestra, in addition to the University
Orchestra. Touring with the University Chorale has been extensive, traveling throughout
the United States, Mexico, Canada, and most recently, Austria, where they were
accompanied by a Viennese orchestra in their performance of Franz Schubert’s Mass in
B-flat.
Members of the fourteen to twenty-member Chamber Singers are selected from
the University Chorale. The group performs diverse classical choral literature, vocal jazz,
and contemporary Christian songs. A new non-auditioned mixed choir will be added in
the coming year that is open to any student on campus wishing to sing.
33

Faulkner University
Montgomery Bible School opened in 1942 in Montgomery, Alabama. In 1953 the
school was renamed Alabama Christian College, and the name changed to Faulkner
University in 1985. Faulkner University is a private four-year Christian university with
extended campuses in three other Alabama cites: Birmingham, Huntsville, and Mobile.
The school enrollment is approximately 3,000 with an 18:1 student to teacher ratio. Its
annual tuition for full-time undergraduates is approximately $16,000. Faulkner
University offers degrees in associate, bachelor, masters, and doctoral programs, and a
degree in law. Students may choose from among sixty majors within its five schools.
Faulkner University’s mission is “to glorify God through education of the whole person,

33
"Choirs," Oklahoma Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://oc.edu/
academics/music/choirs.html.
59

emphasizing integrity of character in a caring, Christian environment where every
individual matters every day.” Daily chapel services are required for undergraduate
students as well as eight courses in Christian literacy as part of the school’s core
requirements. For students earning a music degree, two courses in Christian aesthetics
and philosophies of fine arts are also required.
34

The degrees in music within the Faulkner University’s College of Arts and
Sciences are a bachelor of arts in music and a bachelor of arts in music theatre, as well as
a minor in music. The school has instrumental, choral, and theatrical music performing
ensembles. The school’s choral music ensembles include the University Chorus and
Faulkner Singers. A choral sight-singing course is required for participation in either one
of the auditioned choirs. The course may be taken a semester prior to choir enrollment or
concurrently.
The University Chorus is the largest ensemble and is restricted to performing only
a cappella sacred choral music repertoire. The choir is open to both music majors and
non-music majors. The University Chorus performs frequently on and off campus
throughout the year and tours annually throughout the United States. The Faulkner
Singers is a smaller select ensemble whose members are also in the University Chorus.
The group performs varied repertoire, singing sacred and secular choral music from all
eras.
35

34
"About Faulkner," Faulkner University, accessed July 6, 2013, http://faulkner.edu/
aboutfaulkner/default.aspx.

35
"Music Department," Faulkner University, accessed July 6, 2013, http://faulkner.edu/
academics/artsandsciences/finearts/mu/degrees/default.aspx.
60

Lipscomb University
David Lipscomb and James A. Harding were co-founders of the Nashville Bible
School, which opened in 1891; the school was renamed Lipscomb University in 1918.
Lipscomb University is a private liberal arts higher educational institution located in
Nashville, Tennessee. In addition to a strong undergraduate college with over seventy
majors, the university offers a number of master of arts and doctoral degree programs.
The school has seen a substantial rise in enrollment in the last few years with the addition
of 1,000 new students since 2008, and a 59 percent population increase since 2005.
Enrollment for the fall of 2013 is expected to be approximately 4,000 students. Faculty
increases have been made to accommodate the enrollment boom, and the school has been
able to remain its student to teacher ratio of 12:1. Tuition cost at Lipscomb is
approximately $24,000 per year.
36

According to the 2012-2013 Lipscomb University Student Handbook, attendance
at two thirty-minute chapel services per week is required for all undergraduates.
Eighteen units of Bible courses are part of the university’s core academic requirements,
which is the most required at any other Church of Christ school. Lipscomb University’s
principal mission is “to integrate Christian faith and practice with academic excellence.”
The institution’s core values as listed in their mission statement reads as follows:
• Christlikeness
Lipscomb exists because of the redemptive power of Jesus Christ. The
constant aim is for each member of the Lipscomb family to grow in His
image.

36
"Who We Are," Lipscomb University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://lipscomb.edu/who-
we-are.
61

• Truth
Truth is sought in each class and should be lived out in the behavior and
speech of each employee and student.

• Excellence
In every facet of our work, Lipscomb University seeks the highest level of
performance and service. “Perpetual improvement” is the mantra for each
class, department, or administrative area.

• Service
Everything we do and teach should reflect the second great command “to
love your neighbor as yourself.” Knowledge acquired and skills gained are
to be used to bless the lives of others.
37

Lipscomb University has a comprehensive music department through its
numerous baccalaureate degree programs: a bachelor of music in instrumental, piano, or
vocal performance; a bachelor of music in composition; a bachelor of music in music
education with either an instrumental, vocal, or general music teaching emphasis (a four
and a half year program which includes student teaching, culminating with a Tennessee
Teaching Certificate); a bachelor of arts in music; a bachelor of arts with an
interdisciplinary major in worship ministry; and a bachelor of science in music.
Lipscomb also offers an eighteen-unit required music minor.
The Department of Music at Lipscomb University houses several instrumental
and vocal music performing ensembles, providing a variety of options and experience for
music majors and non-music majors alike. In the field of choral music, Lipscomb
University has four offerings: A Cappella Singers, University Singers, Chamber Singers,
and Jazz Vocal Ensemble.

37
"2013 Student Handbook," Lipscomb University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
lipscomb.edu/campuslife/student-handbook.
62

The A Cappella Singers is a select auditioned choir opened to all Lipscomb
students. The choir sings a wide array of choral literature —both sacred and secular—and
performs accompanied and unaccompanied music. In January each year, the choir travels
to various parts of the country on a recruiting tour, performing sacred a cappella choral
music repertoire to local churches and schools. International performance tours occur
occasionally during the summer as well. The choir joins forces at the end of the first term
with the university’s Wind Ensemble for a Christmas concert, in addition to their annual
collaboration with Christian singing artist Amy Grant at the community tree-lighting
ceremony “The Lighting of the Green.” The A Cappella Singers performs a major work
with orchestra at their culminating concert every spring semester. In recent years they
have performed Gabriel Faure’s Requiem, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Vesperae
solennes de Dominica, Antonio Vivaldi’s Gloria in D Major, RV 589 and the Johannes
Brahms' Ein deutsches Requiem, op. 45.
38

The Lipscomb University Chamber Singers is an auditioned choral ensemble that
performs Renaissance to modern day choral music repertoire. The choir typically consists
of only one to two singers per vocal part. The choir mainly comprises junior and senior
music majors, although all Lipscomb students are eligible for the group’s selection. The
Chamber Singers group performs once per semester. Similar to size but vastly different in
style, is the university’s Vocal Jazz Ensemble. As the name implies, the auditioned
singers perform jazz music standards and arrangements of popular tunes. The ensemble
performs four concerts per year with Lipscomb’s University Jazz Band.

38
"A Cappella Singers," Lipscomb University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
lipscomb.edu/music/A-Cappella-Singers.
63

The University Singers of Lipscomb is a training choir for developing singers
and musicians; this non-auditioned choir is open to all college students. Students learn to
sing choral music repertoire, and sight-reading and basic vocal and musicianship skills
are taught. The choir combines with the A Cappella Singers for performances during the
Christmas season and performs one other concert during the spring semester.
39

Abilene Christian University
Abilene Christian University is located in Abilene, Texas. The university was
founded as Childers Classical Institute in 1906 and began with twenty-five students. In
1920 the school’s name changed to Abilene Christian College, and the institution gained
university status in 1976. Today Abilene Christian is home to nearly 5,000 students from
across the United States and forty-three nations with a student to teacher ratio of 16:1.
Undergraduate tuition for the 2013-2014 academic school year, including summer
courses, is $28,350. Abilene Christian is committed to its academic and Christian values
as indicated in their mission statement:
The mission of Abilene Christian University is to educate students for Christian
service and leadership throughout the world. This mission is achieved through:
(1) exemplary teaching, offered by a faculty of Christian scholars, that inspires a
commitment to learning; (2) significant research, grounded in the university’s
disciplines of study, that informs issues of importance to the academy, church,
and society; (3) meaningful service to society, the academic disciplines, the
university, and the church, expressed in various ways, by all segments of the
Abilene Christian University community.
40

39
"Choral Ensembles," Lipscomb University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://lipscomb.edu/
music/Ensembles.

40
"About ACU," Abilene Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://acu.edu/
aboutacu/profile.html.
64

Over 125 areas of study are offered at Abilene Christian University, including
graduate programs. The university is primarily respected for its strengths in biblical and
church-related programs, such as concentrations on Christian worship, on youth and
family, and on mission ministry. They are also academically successful in other areas of
study; the U.S. News and World Report has given Abilene Christian University one of the
top rankings in their “Up and Coming Universities in the West Region” report.
41

Attendance at thirty-minute daily chapel services is required for all students. To fulfill
part of the university’s core curriculum, undergraduates take fourteen units of Bible
courses. The university offers semester-long and short-term study abroad programs in
England, Uruguay, and Germany. Students also have opportunities to participate in
special programs in other regions of the world, such as in Australia, China, and India, as
well as in major cities within the United States.
42

Abilene Christian University hosts a treasured, long-standing a cappella singing
competition. “Sing Song” originated in 1956 and brings thousands of audience members
to its annual February performances. Campus social groups compete with themed four-
minute medleys of popular tunes with altered lyrics. Costuming and choreography play a

41
"Abilene Christian University," US News and World Report LP, accessed July 12,
2013, http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/abilene-christian-university-
3537.

42
"About ACU," Abilene Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://acu.edu/
aboutacu/profile.html.
65

big role in the performances. Over one-third of the university’s student population
participates each year.
43

Over thirty staff members, including sixteen full-time faculty members, are
employed in the Department of Music at Abilene Christian University. As stated on their
webpage, they are “committed to preparing outstanding musicians and leaders in our
profession, and to reflect God's creative force and presence in our lives and art.” Three
degrees are offered in the department: a bachelor of arts in music, a bachelor of music
with teacher certification with emphasis in either vocal or instrumental music, and a
bachelor of music in voice or piano performance. A music minor may be earned with
completion of twenty-two units. Two choirs are among the numerous performing
ensembles at Abilene Christian University.
44

The A Cappella Chorus at Abilene Christian University was founded in 1938. The
auditioned ensemble is the oldest college a cappella chorus in the Southwest and is
committed to “the study and performance of the finest choral literature of all musical
eras.” The choir performs sacred music with instrumental accompaniment; it performed
with the Abilene Christian University Orchestra of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s
Requiem in May, 2013. The A Cappella Chorus tours yearly to various parts of the
country and performs four major concerts each year.

43
"Sing Song," Abilene Christian University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://acu.edu/
events/singsong/index.html.

44
"2012-2013 ACU Catalog: Department Of Music," Abilene Christian University,
accessed July 3, 2013, http://acu.edu/catalog/music.
66

The University Chorale is an auditioned choir as well, yet serves primarily as a
training choir for the A Cappella Chorus. Since the choir does not have a rigorous
performance schedule and does not tour, students who cannot commit to the busy
schedule of the A Cappella Chorus may prefer to join the University Chorale.
45

Harding University
Founded in 1924 as Harding College in Morrilton, Arkansas, Harding University
is a private four-year Christian liberal arts higher education institution. The university is
named after James A. Harding, an early influential leader in the Churches of Christ.
Harding University’s main campus is located in Searcy, Arkansas, and includes
approximately 7,000 students from fifty states and fifty-three countries. The school has
satellite campuses in North Little Rock and Bentonville, Arkansas, and its Graduate
School of Religion is located in Memphis, Tennessee. The undergraduate annual tuition
is approximately $20,000 and the student to teacher ratio is 17:1. Nearly 50 percent of
Harding’s students spend one to two semesters studying abroad at one of the school’s
international campuses in Australia, Chile, England, France, Greece, Italy, and Zambia.
Harding University is recognized for its deep spiritual commitment and strong academic
programs.
46
U.S. News & World Report “Best Colleges” issue ranked Harding as one of

45
"Music Ensembles," Abilene Christian University, accessed May 2, 2013, http://
acu.edu/academics/cas/music/ensembles/.

46
"About Harding," Harding University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://harding.edu/about.
67

the top twenty best regional universities in the South. It is also ranked second to the
University of Arkansas as the best college in the state.
47

Harding University offers varied areas of study with ten bachelor’s degrees in
more than 100 academic majors and fifteen degrees within the graduate program. As
posted on the university’s official website, Harding’s mission is:
To provide a quality education that will lead to an understanding and philosophy
of life consistent with Christian ideals. This involves the following goals: (1)
generally, the integration of faith, learning and living, (2) specifically, the
development of Christian scholarship, (3) the promotion of Christian ethics, (4)
the development of lasting relationships, (5) the promotion of wellness and (6) the
promotion of citizenship within a global perspective.
Within the fifty-three units of undergraduate core requirements, students at Harding
University commit to studying eight units of Bible courses. Students are also required to
attend chapel for a thirty-five minute devotional gathering daily.
48

The Department of Music at Harding University offers a bachelor of arts degree
in music (a general liberal arts oriented program that is with no specific concentration)
and a bachelor of music education with either an instrumental or vocal emphasis. Courses
required for Arkansas K-12 teacher licensing is included in the bachelor of music
education program. Music majors and non-majors are given many performance
opportunities at Harding through its vocal music programs.
49

47
"Harding University," US News and World Report LP, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/search.result/name+Harding%
2520University.

48
"About Harding," Harding University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://harding.edu/about.

49
"Department of Music," Harding University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://harding.edu/
music/.
68

The university has five choral music ensembles: Chorus, Concert Choir, Belle
Canto, Belles & Beaux, and the Good News Singers. The sixty-member Chorus
specializes in a cappella sacred repertoire but is not restricted to any choral music genre,
including accompanied secular works. The choir is auditioned, and although music
majors take precedence, the vocal ensembles at Harding are opened to any of the student
body. The Chorus tours yearly throughout the United States and many of its members
also travel overseas every other summer; they perform at churches and assist with Church
of Christ missionaries. In addition to the choir’s regular concert schedule, they often
collaborate with the Concert Choir to perform with the Arkansas Symphony Orchestra of
Little Rock, Arkansas, in their Masterworks series.
50

The Concert Choir is a ninety-member auditioned choir; the majority of students
are not music majors. The choir maintains a busy performance schedule, singing at eight
to ten events per semester. They tour within the area and have the opportunity to travel
with the Chorus on international tours.
The Chamber Singers is an auditioned advanced choral ensemble ranging from
twelve to sixteen singers. Many members also sing in the Concert Choir or the Chorus.
The Chamber Singers perform four concerts on campus each year and tour occasionally.
The choir primarily performs Renaissance and contemporary choral literature.
The newest choral ensemble addition to Harding University is the Belle Canto
choir. The sixty-voiced women’s choir began in the fall of 2011. Belle Canto performs
both secular and sacred choral literature. The non-auditioned choir performs on campus.

50
"Harding University Chorus," Harding University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://
harding.edu/chorus.
69

The two non-choral vocal ensembles at Harding University are Belles & Beaux
and Good News Singers. Belles & Beaux is a fifteen-member instrumental and vocal
combo that performs a wide range of popular music; they perform many gigs throughout
the year, locally and throughout the United States. The Good News Singers is a ten-
member a cappella ensemble that specializes in contemporary Christian music.
The group performs at Church of Christ events, such as youth rallies and camps,
throughout the country.
51

Pepperdine University
Pepperdine University’s main campus is located in Malibu, California, with a
student population of approximately 7,700 undergraduate and graduate students. Seaver
College, the undergraduate school, enrolls approximately 3,000 of these students.
Pepperdine’s Graziadio School of Business and Management has satellite campuses
throughout Southern California. Approximately 50 percent of Pepperdine’s students
study abroad within their college career as part of the school’s international program.
Program destinations include Argentina, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, England, and
China. The university also offers summer programs in Spain, England, and Fiji.
Pepperdine students come from every American state and from seventy countries.
George Pepperdine, a successful businessman and member of the Church of
Christ, founded George Pepperdine College in 1937. The original campus was in
downtown Los Angeles but moved to Malibu in 1972. The school was renamed

51
"Department of Music," Harding University, accessed July 3, 2013, http://harding.edu/
music/.
70

Pepperdine University in 1970. Pepperdine is a Christian liberal arts private university,
and although Pepperdine is affiliated with the Churches of Christ, many of its faculty,
administrators, and board of regents represent different religious backgrounds.
Twelve percent of Pepperdine students report they are Church of Christ members, which
is the smallest percentage of any other Church of Christ affiliated college or university.
52

Pepperdine’s statement of purpose is “to pursue the very highest academic
standards within a context that celebrates and extends the spiritual and ethical ideals of
the Christian faith.” Pepperdine is considered among the United States finest universities.
U.S. News and World Report ranked Pepperdine University fifty-fourth nationally in
2013.
53
Annual tuition for undergraduates is approximately $43,000. Students are
required to take three Bible classes throughout their tenure at the university and to attend
fourteen spiritual events per semester in the school’s Convocation Series, which are
“activities aimed at building Christian faith, affirming Christian values, or addressing
ethical and moral issues within a Christian worldview posed by current events.”
Pepperdine has a 13:1 student to faculty ratio and an average class size of twenty.
Pepperdine hosts many areas of study with forty majors, thirty-seven minors, many
graduate programs, and a law school.
54

52
"About Pepperdine," Pepperdine University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://pepperdine.edu/about/pepperdine.

53
"Pepperdine University," US News and World Report LP, accessed July 8, 2013, http://
colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/pepperdine-university-1264.

54
"About Pepperdine," Pepperdine University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://pepperdine.edu/about/pepperdine.
71

A music graduate degree at Pepperdine is not offered, but undergraduate students
have the opportunity to earn a bachelor of arts in music. The areas of emphasis in this
degree are applied music in vocal performance, instrumental performance, music
composition, and applied music education with a vocal or instrumental emphasis. Music
education students may also earn a California Secondary Teacher Credential within their
course of study. A minor in music may be earned with sixteen units, eight lower-division
units and eight upper-division units.
55

Pepperdine University has three choral performance ensembles: the Concert
Choir, Chamber Singers, and Collegium Musicum. The Concert Choir is the largest
choral ensemble on campus and performs a variety of choral music repertoire, including
one major choral and orchestral work per year. The Chamber Singers is a select vocal
ensemble that performs a variety of challenging choral music repertoire. The Colegium
Musicum is a chamber ensemble composed of singers and instrumentalists who perform
music from all music historical eras. The Pepperdine University’s Choral Music
Department philosophy as stated on their webpage is:
1. To enhance one's development of the technical science of music and vocal
production in a choral laboratorial environment.
2. To advance the science of transforming the composer's intentions into an
inspiring art form.
3. To engage in the University's mission by sharing the gift of music in a
wholesome atmosphere of Christian service to society.
56

55
"Fine Arts Division Major and Minor," Pepperdine University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://seaver.pepperdine.edu/finearts/music/academics.

56
"Choral Activities," Pepperdine University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://seaver.pepperdine.edu/finearts/music/programs/choralactivities.htm.
72

Conclusions

As indicated in this review, all the above-mentioned college and universities
maintain campus life activities, both academic and social, that promote spiritual growth
and foster higher educated learning within a Christian environment. The schools’
undergraduate population, along with their staff and faculty, come together at least once a
week, and for many, five times per week, to engage in chapel services. This activity not
only nurtures spiritual life on campus, but also creates a sense of community. Many
students at these schools are active in college programs that are not required within their
academic major, such as the opportunity to study abroad and to participate in the
performing arts ensembles.
Many of the reviewed colleges and universities have similar degree and choral
music ensemble offerings. The next chapter will reveal, however, how each choral music
department varies in relation to the stipulations and expectations of governing bodies and
by the Church of Christ culture within their geographic region. The chapter is a recorded
perspective of the relationship between Church of Christ worship music practices and
collegiate choral music performance from selected choral conductors of the twelve
Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities investigated in this study.

73

CHAPTER 4

CHORAL CONDUCTORS’ PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING AT A
CHURCH OF CHRIST AFFILIATED COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY

The majority of the findings presented in the final two chapters are from primary
sources. Choral conductors of affiliated Church of Christ colleges and universities were
interviewed for research in this study. Eligible candidates were current, former, or retired
choral conductors at one of the twelve Church of Christ schools reviewed and listed in
chapter three. In accordance with the approved Institutional Review Board exempt study
(see Appendix N), all interviews were confidentially conducted and no identifiable
information is linked to the interviewees and their prospective institutions. All interviews
were conducted via telephone in a secure location following a structured protocol in
which all respondents answered the same questions in the same predetermined order. The
interviews were scheduled and held at the time of convenience for all participants. The
following questions were asked during each interview and pertain to information
presented in this chapter:
 Are you a Church of Christ member? If so, at what location is your current place
of worship? Were you raised in the Church of Christ? If so, where was the
location of your hometown church?
 What are the constructive influences and— if any—challenges the Churches of
Christ a cappella singing tradition has had on you as a choral conductor?
 In your opinion, why are there no music graduate courses or degrees offered at
any of the Church of Christ colleges or universities?
 In your opinion, why are collegiate choirs supported in the Churches of Christ,
but not church choirs in their congregations?
74

 At your school, are you restricted in your choice of choral music repertoire
performed? Does your choir perform sacred music with instrumental
accompaniment? Does your choir perform major choral and orchestral works? If
so, are there restrictions on text selection?
 Is your choir permitted to perform concerts at Church of Christ facilities? If so,
are they only allowed to perform a cappella music? Is your choir ever permitted to
sing or provide special music for Church of Christ worship services?
 How do you recruit singers? Do you tour with your choir? If so, where do you
tour?

Church of Christ Affiliation
Interviews were conducted with eleven current or former choral conductors in this
study. All interviewees were raised in the Churches of Christ and currently hold
membership at a Church of Christ congregation different from their hometown church.
Representation from fourteen states will be presented, which provides a good sampling of
music practices of the Churches of Christ and choral music practices within their higher
education institutions. The states in which the combined interviewees were raised in or
currently serve or have served as a faculty member are: Arkansas, California, Colorado,
Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Tennessee,
Texas, and West Virginia. All conductors have also been a member of a least one
congregation of the Church of Christ within these states.
1

1
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013. In-depth descriptions or
quotations from one particular interviewee will be cited by their interview number and the date in
which their interview took place.
75

Musical Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Raised in the Churches of Christ
The Church of Christ a cappella singing tradition had a great influence on the
interviewees’ decision to pursue a career in choral music. Participating in high school
choral ensembles and instrumental music instruction also had a great impact on their
career choice, but the church nurtured their love of singing, appreciation for four-part
harmony, and the realization of the importance of learning how to sight-sing. The
following paragraphs are the choral conductors’ perspectives on the constructive
influences of the church.
Song leading in the church gave four of the interviewees a conducting advantage
at an early age. In the Churches of Christ, male members may serve in the worship
services after they have been baptized. Activities could involve leading a prayer, reading
a scripture, giving a “talk” (a short five to ten minute sermon), serving communion, and
song leading. One choral conductor believed that leading songs in worship was a call
from God. The conductor’s participation in church as a child and teenager developed a
keen sense of hearing harmonies as well as a true devotion to singing. Two other
interviewees had similar experiences and said song leading by age eight provided years
of conducting experience, which was an advantage over college peers in their field of
study. The church experience also helped the conductors gain confidence in front of a
group.
2
The fourth choral conductor said song leading granted musical experiences in ear
development in hearing harmonies, understanding conducting basics, and understanding

2
Interview No. 6-8 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
76

the power and emotional aspect of singing. The interviewee also noted that song leading
developed an appreciation for text setting and the importance of conveying God’s
message through song.
3

All choral conducting interviewees mentioned the influence of a cappella singing
on musical ear development. One of the conductors explained the experience as follows:
I learned how to pick up harmonies and how to follow a vocal line from listening
to my mom sing alto from a very young age. From there I would listen and pick
out the vocal lines from the other voice parts and make comparisons. I guess you
can say that even though I had no formal music training at age eight, I was
already beginning to analyze music.
4

Although all interviewees developed strong aural and sight-singing skills from
church congregational singing, one conductor indicated that this is no longer occurring
among the younger generation. It was expressed that the majority of Church of Christ
college choir students have neither a strong ear nor sight-singing ability. The ones who
do possess such skills most likely did not acquire them from the a cappella singing
tradition of the church, but rather from other sources: their parents who helped them with
reading music during worship song services or at home, their high school choir
experience, or their instrumental music training. The choral conductor observed that
discussions with students about their musical background indicated that congregational
singing is less prominent in the Churches of Christ than it once was due to the lack of

3
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18 2013.
4
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
77

music education in the church.
5
This issue will be discussed in greater detail in the next
chapter.
Certain interviewees indicated that being raised in the church did not hinder them
from becoming choral conductors. The ones who felt disadvantaged by their church
background identified the deficiency in the knowledge of sacred choral repertoire,
especially in liturgical music, as the primary impediment. For example, one individual
noted:
The challenge I faced as a college student in choral music, especially in graduate
school, was the knowledge of choral music repertoire. I was especially deficient
in sacred choral music. I was unfamiliar with Latin or German texts and did not
even recognize a standard Ave Maria setting. I had a difficult time understanding
any type of liturgical music. I had to work very hard to get caught up with my
peers on choral repertoire. I was exposed to a whole new world of music and in
hindsight, it was a very exciting time in my life.
6
Other disadvantages mentioned by some conductors were the lack of solo
performance opportunity, the knowledge of accompanied choral repertoire, and the
ability to work with instrumentalists.
7

The Lack of Graduate Music Programs
In the context of Christian higher education, the main emphasis is undergraduate
training in all disciplines offered. In Church of Christ schools that have graduate

5
Interview No. 1 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 9, 2013.
6
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
7
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
78

programs, the degrees offered are primarily within the religious or Bible departments.
Pepperdine University is the exception; it has extensive graduate schools in education,
business, and law. For the most part, the Churches of Christ do not have the resources or
financial means to run music graduate programs in their colleges. As pointed out by
several choral conductors, there are simply not enough music majors. The majority of the
instrumental ensembles, for instance, are composed of non-majors; therefore, monies are
scarce in supporting the undergraduate music program.
8
One interviewee critically
assessed that members of the Churches of Christ hold a strong disregard for choral
conductors. It was explained that the attitude probably comes from the lack of church
choirs and paid choral directors or song leaders in the denomination. It is perceived that
the church mistrusts music programs of institutions of higher education, and that the
church as a whole views music as a function and not as an academic discipline.
9

Support for College Choirs; Lack of Support for Church Choirs
The question of why Churches of Christ support collegiate choirs but do not allow
church choirs in worship provoked the most varied responses from the interviewees.
A general reply by many was that in Christian higher education, the liberal arts are
emphasized, which includes comprehensive music programs. The church wants to ensure
that offerings in their colleges are as available as in state universities, but with a Christian

8
Ibid.
9
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
79

point of view. Since choirs are found in non-Church of Christ liberal arts colleges, they
are also included in their schools.
Although church choirs are not allowed in the Churches of Christ, members seem
to appreciate good choral singing and have a special affection for sacred a cappella
music. For most congregations, as stated, choral music belongs on the secular stage, not
in worship. Certain responses to this question went beyond the subject of worship versus
performance and evoked passionate personal views on the issue. A sampling of these
responses is as follows:
There is no biblical authority to have choirs in church. There needs to be a
complete separation from worship and performance. Church choirs are
performing for the congregation; therefore, the mindset of the choir members are
that of performers, not glorifying God. The congregation is not actively
participating when they listen to a choir during services, so they are not
worshiping. The church supports college choirs as they recognize the student
benefits within a positive setting. Performance is appreciated in the “secular
world” but has no place in God’s house. The Churches of Christ are proud of their
college choral programs but see no place for them in worship services.
10

Universities and their music departments need choral programs in order to be
nationally accredited. Many Church of Christ colleges make their choral
ensembles to be glorified gospel choirs. They do not regard choral music as an
academic discipline. There is a major contradiction here. They will support,
mainly in the way of “allowing” a choral program to exist at a college, yet do not
want it, or they feel it is non-scriptural to have a church choir in worship services.
Every church and college has a different scenario. In my state, for instance, there
are some churches that have an a cappella church choir but do not allow them to
sing during worship; but some do.
11

In my view there is a lot of hypocrisy in the Churches of Christ regarding
comparing what acts are entertainment (secular) and what is considered as

10
Interview No. 1 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 9, 2013.
11
Interview No. 7 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
80

worship (sacred). Having an organ in the church is entertainment. Having a
church choir is entertainment. Having a soloist is entertainment. Having an
entertaining preacher who gives humorous anecdotes in his sermon—that is
worship. Yes, there is definitely a double standard here.
12

One choral conductor feels the contradiction of supporting choirs at Church of
Christ universities but not in church services is due to “pure ignorance” about what a
choir is about and what it could bring. A number of parents of students are surprised
when any music is performed with instrumental accompaniment at concerts. It was
further added that it is almost as if people are brainwashed into believing instrumental
music or performance of any kind is evil. This rationale is not with the majority, it was
stated, but a small element is unfortunately there. Congregations in different regions of
the United States are known to be open to church choirs, although that is not even a
consideration where the conductor currently resides. The conductor personally believes
the choice of not having a church choir or instrumental music in the worship service of
the Churches of Christ is based on tradition, and not on biblical authority.
13

The final testimony from a choral conductor on the disparity between allowing
collegiate choirs and not church choirs indicated that the church is inconsistent across the
nation on views on church choirs and worship music in general. Because no higher
organization oversees the practices of all the Church of Christ congregations, the
structures vary a great deal from church to church. It is difficult to unify musical practices
within the Churches of Christ. It is true, the conductor commented, that the majority of

12
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
13
Interview No. 8 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
81

Churches of Christ do not have church choirs and do not believe that it is scripturally
justified to have them. Those congregations feel strongly about the separation between
church and the stage. Unfortunately, many people from the church do not feel they can be
spiritually fed by listening to a choir sing and believe the only way to worship with music
is to be an active participant. Their objection to choirs is that there is no place for
performance in the sacred world.
14

Restrictions on the Performance of Choral Music Repertoire
Perhaps the greatest paradox between the Churches of Christ and the choral
programs of their affiliated colleges and universities is not the fact that choirs are absent
from worship services, but rather that several of these programs are restricted in
performance repertoire in spite of their so-called secular exception. Although one of the
interviewees took a conservative stance by stating “there needs to be a complete
separation from worship and performance,”
15
limitations are placed on some Church of
Christ college choirs outside of worship. In some cases restrictions are made on choir
conductors and their choirs, even on the concert stage. It could be argued that since these
programs are “affiliated” with the Churches of Christ, their behaviors in and out of
worship need to reflect the church’s practices and beliefs. This is the case with two of the
interviewed choral conductors as they explained that they put restrictions on themselves,

14
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
15
Interview No. 1 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 9, 2013.
82

such as not performing sacred accompanied music, for fear of offending others and to
avoid conflict.
The repertoire performed at one school is exclusively sacred, such as Christian
songs, hymns, and spirituals. Sacred music with instrumental accompaniment is not
allowed. The conductor stated that the constraint is discouraging, and that the
performance of accompanied sacred music was tried in the past but was not supported
among the college community.
16

At another college, instrumental accompaniment is accepted with secular choral
selections but not with sacred music. The mandate regarding choral music repertoire
selection comes from a few donors to the college and from college administrators. Sacred
major works, such as a Bach cantata or a requiem, for instance, cannot be performed
because of the use of instruments.
17
The conductor indicated that many college leaders do
not have such conservative views, but for now this is how it stands.
A choral conductor with twenty-eight years of teaching at one college was glad to
report that the school no longer restricts choral music repertoire performed. The change
of policy was the result of a long journey defending choral artistry to the college
administration and conservative board members. Gradually the conductor educated the
college leaders on fine choral music. It began with introducing secular songs with
instrumental accompaniment, and from there, performing one or two a cappella sacred

16
Interview No. 4 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 13, 2013.
17
Interview No. 1 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 9, 2013.
83

music with Latin texts at a concert. Continual testing of the waters occurred until
performing sacred music—even major works—with instrumental accompaniment was
accepted. The college community now supports the choral conductor’s selection of music
although they were hesitant to accept repertoire choices in the beginning.
18
The remaining choral conductors who were interviewed stated that they have no
restrictions in the performance of choral music repertoire with the exception of singing an
all-sacred a cappella program at specified Church of Christ events. These conductors
perform a wide array of choral music repertoire with their choirs, including major choral
and orchestral works. For several, it is the only reason they choose to remain employed at
their respective colleges.
19
It was noted that times have changed significantly in many of
the Church of Christ colleges and universities regarding the performance of choral music
with instrumental accompaniment. One interviewee commented that the line could not
have been crossed twenty years ago. During that time, certain students would have
walked out of choir rehearsal if a piano had been used to aid the teaching of a sacred
choral work. The conductor is fully aware that other Church of Christ schools are very
conservative and still have major restrictions on choral music repertoire.
Besides having restrictions on choral music repertoire selection and instrumental
accompaniment, one Church of Christ college choir has a foreign language constraint.

18
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
19
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
84

Singing in a foreign language would be considered “speaking in tongues,”
20
which is not
an acceptable Church of Christ practice according to the college leaders.
21

Choral Music Performances at Church of Christ Worship Facilities
The use of worship facilities for choral music performances is diverse among
Church of Christ congregations. All the interviewees stated that they have held choral
concerts in Church of Christ buildings, either at their local church or on tour. Each
individual church determines whether performances are allowed during or after worship
services and which repertoire choices are acceptable. Through conversations with the
choral directors interviewed, it has been concluded that churches in urban centers tend to
be more progressive and therefore have fewer restrictions on the visiting college choirs.
For instance, all but one of the choral conductors stated that their choir has performed at
least once during Church of Christ worship services. This is a more likely occurrence, as
several said, in the North or in contemporary churches in Texas. One conductor said that
a church even allowed the choir to bring in a portable keyboard to accompany the
performance.
22

20
In reference to one of the gifts received from the Holy Spirit found in I Corinthians
12:4-10 (New International Version). The Church of Christ believes this power of instantaneously
speaking in a foreign language was only granted to the apostles, based on their interpretation of
Acts 8:15-17 (New International Version). Speaking in tongues is generally known as a
Pentecostal practice.
21
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
22
Interview No. 7 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
85

A choir performing during worship services at a Church of Christ or singing
anything other than sacred a cappella music is a rare exception, even among the most
modern churches. All interviewees were allowed to perform for a congregation in a
Church of Christ building, yet usually the concerts do not occur during regular worship
services. Several conductors stated that the best performance times are immediately
following a service, either on a Sunday or Wednesday night, because the choir would
more likely have an audience; many church goers who attend a worship service also
remain for the concert. Certain conductors who perform varied choral repertoire
throughout the year said they feel limited when singing for Church of Christ
congregations since the repertoire has to be primarily sacred a cappella music. It is
difficult for these conductors to prepare two sets of literature: a program designed
specifically for Church of Christ audiences and one created for the general public.
23

Choral performances at Church of Christ facilities are not usual venues for the
college choirs reviewed. Most have their own concert halls on campus or perform at
church buildings of other denominations where the acoustics support choral singing.
One choral conductor performs a variety of music, a cappella and with instrumental
accompaniment, and stated that they therefore must perform in venues other than Church
of Christ buildings. Even if the choir only performed a cappella hymns at their concerts,
they would not want to perform at Church of Christ facilities because the structures tend

23
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
86

to be lacking in aesthetics and acoustical design. Church of Christ buildings, it was said,
are notorious for being as plain and simple as possible.
24

At least two other conductors interviewed mentioned the poor acoustical setting in
Church of Christ buildings. One conductor tries to avoid performing in these settings as
much as possible. At the previous college where this interviewee taught, the choir rarely
sang in Church of Christ buildings. It was not due to restrictions, but by choice. Concerts
were held at other denomination buildings where the architectural design aided the
singing instead of diminishing it. The college leadership did not have an issue with the
choir singing in buildings of other faith-based institutions or singing at worship services
at different church denominations. The choral conductor preferred this since the choir
was given the opportunity to sing for a full audience when it performed at a Sunday
morning service. Job security would have been threatened, however, if the choral
conductor had attempted to have the college choir perform at a non-Church of Christ
building twenty years ago.
25

Touring
All but one of the choral conductors interviewed said they tour with a choir
annually. Touring destinations are primarily to different regions of the United States,
although one choir recently traveled to Europe. Recruiting measures, such as mailing

24
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
25
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
87

music department literature and performance recordings and offering scholarships, are
utilized by several conductors. But the most successful avenue in bringing students to
Church of Christ college choral programs is touring.
The number of Church of Christ students enrolled in affiliated colleges and
universities has been declining. Although one college has as high as 90 percent
enrollment of members of the church, most do not have more than 50 percent, and one
university has dropped as low as 12 percent. This is one reason many conductors want to
improve targeting prospective students who are not necessarily connected with the
church.
26

Although touring is an effective recruiting method, one conductor stated he had
moved away from exclusively performing for churches on tour and is now primarily
engaged in exchanges with high school choral programs.
27
Another conductor’s goal is to
recruit students by improving the quality of the choral program and therefore achieving
greater exposure on a national level, such as performing at conventions of the American
Choral Directors Association.
28

26
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
27
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
28
Interview No. 8 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
88

The Decline of Musical Preparedness Among Church of Christ Youth
During the discussion on recruiting, it was indicated that Church of Christ
students are less likely to be targeted than before because they are coming into the
college choral programs less musically prepared. Many stated that the strongest singers
come from quality high school choral programs or have had extensive instrumental music
training. There was a time, an interviewee recalled, that choral conductors from any
college were delighted to have students with a Church of Christ background join their
program. Regardless of whether students had previous high school music experience,
choral conductors were confident that the students could sing harmony well and be able
to sight-sing. This is no longer a common characteristic among the denomination’s young
people because the singing culture in the Churches of Christ has dramatically changed.
29

The closing chapter will affirm the neglect of music education within the Churches of
Christ.

29
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.

89

CHAPTER 5

MUSIC EDUCATION IN THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST

In the previous chapter choral conductors were interviewed on perspectives on
teaching at Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities. The interviewees further
discussed their observations of past and present music educational practices in the
Churches of Christ. The concluding passages will reveal evidence of the decline in the
quality of congregational singing and the response, or lack thereof, from the church and
its affiliated higher education institutions. The following questions pertain to information
investigated in this chapter:
 If applicable, compare and contrast music used in worship at the church you
currently attend to where you were raised. Compare and contrast the quality of
congregational singing at both churches.
 Did your hometown church sing from shape-note notation hymnals? Does your
current church use such hymnals? If not, describe the hymnals or other singing
materials used at your church.
 To your knowledge, what percentage of your past and present congregations have
or had the ability to read shape-note notation? Do you read shape-note notation?
If so, how did you learn?
 Describe any music education on reading music, shape-note or otherwise, you
have observed in the Churches of Christ. To your knowledge, what methods are
currently being used to teach new music in the church?
 Is shape-note sight-singing currently being practiced or taught at the college you
teach? Do you know if it is being taught anywhere else? Are there music courses
offered at your school that specifically aid Church of Christ worship music
leaders?
 What sight-singing teaching aids and/or texts are being used in your collegiate
music program? Do you practice sight-singing in choral rehearsals? If so, what
method do you use?

90

Church of Christ Worship Music Comparison
The hometown congregational singing practices of all interviewees are similar
because they worshipped with four-part a cappella singing of traditional hymns and
Southern gospel music from the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century; such
music is found in the Great Songs of the Church, and in the Stamps-Baxter publications.
1

Virgil Oliver Stamps founded the Stamps Music Company in 1924 and changed the name
to “Stamps-Baxter” when J.R. Baxter Jr. joined business with him in 1925. The
influential music company was based in Dallas, Texas, and published hundreds of now
classic Southern gospel music, such as “He Bore It All” and “When All of God’s Singers
Get Home”
2
(see Appendix O). The Great Songs of the Church hymnal was compiled by
Elmer Leon Jorgenson and was first published in 1922. It is the longest surviving hymnal
of the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement and is still being used today in every state
of America and in the majority of the English-speaking nations and territories of the
world.
3

Worship music practices of the interviewees’ current Church of Christ
congregations vary somewhat more than their hometown churches. Three choral
conductors stated that the musical practices of their hometown and present church are

1
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013. In-depth descriptions or
quotations from one particular interviewee will be cited by their interview number and the date in
which their interview took place.
2
Joe Ed Furr, The History of Church Music (Navasota, TX: Taylor Publications, 2000),
70-71. See Appendix O.
3
Forrest M. McCann, "A History of Great Songs of the Church," Restoration Quarterly
38, no. 4 (1996, January 01): 219.
91

very similar. The only difference is the church they currently attend will occasionally
sing newer music among the older hymn selections. The goal of one of these three
conductors as a worship music leader is to begin incorporating newer contemporary
Christian music into the song service. A blended service of traditional hymns and
contemporary praise and worship music is described as the current singing practice of
four of the interviewees. The remaining conductors stated that their song service
primarily consists of contemporary praise and worship music.
4

All worship music services described thus far are in the tradition of
a cappella congregational singing. But the church where one interviewee attends will
occasionally project a video from YouTube, iPod, or another recorded source of a
contemporary Christian artist; the video is usually shown during communion or during
other reflective times of the service. More often than not, instrumental music is being
used as accompaniment to the singing in these recorded projections. Congregation
members are generally accepting of this format but would not be comfortable with a live
performance of the same music during worship services. The interviewee stated that he
would not object to attending a church that worships with instrumental music, but as a
member of the faculty, it would be against college regulations to do so.
5

In contrast to the acknowledgement that it would not be acceptable to attend a
worship service with instrumental music, one interviewee stated that certain Churches of

4
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
5
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
92

Christ in Texas have begun to use instruments in their worship services. These churches
have not broken away as a new sect from the mainstream Churches of Christ, yet they
have chosen to disrupt the defining aspect of worship that has separated the church from
other Christian denominations, namely the Disciples of Christ. The conductor added that
many opponents of instrumental music exist among Churches of Christ, yet the use of
instruments in worship is increasing, and this practice will likely become more common.
6

Choral directors were asked to compare the singing quality of the Churches of
Christ they have attended. Two choral directors stated that the singing quality, which
exhibited enthusiastic four-part harmony, was about the same in both their hometown and
current church. Two other choral conductors stated that the singing quality of their
current church outmatches their hometown church. In both of these cases, the cause was
due to much larger congregations and a higher percentage of people who were musically
educated. The responses of the remaining seven choral conductors revealed the singing
quality of the hometown churches was much stronger than the churches they attend
today.
7
One choral conductor gave a cause by describing the church singing culture:
My current congregation does not appreciate the heritage of singing the great
hymns. The singing quality was better growing up as people enjoyed singing then.
Now it seems as though people are too self-aware of their own voice and are
afraid to sing out with confidence. This goes against the Church of Christ heritage
of selfless, enthusiastic, full-bodied congregational singing. The newer music is

6
Interview No. 7 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
7
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
93

more difficult to sing than the old hymns and fewer members read music than in
the past. The harmonies often are lost in the music.
8

The seven interviewees who commented that the singing in their hometown was
stronger than in the churches they currently attend also noted that their members could
read music in their hometown congregations. These members were mainly amateur
musicians who could read shape-note notation.
9
Therefore one may conclude that there is
a direct correlation between the singing quality of a cappella worship music and the level
of music reading ability.

The Use of Shape-Note Hymnals
All choral conductors interviewed stated that in their experience, they have only
seen hymnals with shape-note notation in the Churches of Christ. Ten out of the eleven
interviews revealed, however, that their current church uses a projector to display hymns
on a screen. Eighty-two percent of these churches use The Paperless Hymnal,
10
which is a
trademarked product patented by James Tackett. This collection of projectable hymns for
church congregations is not scanned from hymnbooks, but new artwork is designed for
projection with Microsoft PowerPoint. This collection of hymns may be projected with
only lyrics or with lyrics and music, and notation could either be in round-note or shape-

8
Interview No. 3 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 11, 2013.
9
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
10
Ibid.
94

note format.
11
One interviewee noted that the quality of congregational singing improves
when the music and lyrics are projected on the screen for two reasons: singing is
amplified because worshippers are looking forward rather than looking downward at a
hymnal, and members who have problems reading the small print hymnals can see the
music and lyrics more clearly.
12

The congregations mentioned above use The Paperless Hymnal in the shape-note
format. One conductor stated that his church recently purchased new hard-back, shape-
note edition hymnals, although the majority of his congregation do not understand what
shape notes are. The interviewee stated that one reason Church of Christ congregations
still purchase a shape-note edition hymnal is for the convenience. It was further explained
that a favored Church of Christ hymnal source, Taylor Publishing, for instance, prints
their standard edition of hymnals with shape notes. If a church prefers hymnals printed
with common or rounded notes, it may take up to a year longer to print.
13

Shape-Note Singing Ability in the Churches of Christ
According to the interview research, it is estimated that 75 percent of the choral
conductors’ hometown congregations could read shape-note notation. That is a
considerably high statistic in comparison with the estimated 8 percent of the conductors’

11
"Paperless Hymnal," James Tackett, accessed July 16, 2013,
http://paperlesshymnal.com.
12
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
13
Interview No. 3 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 11, 2013.
95

current congregation’s ability to read shape notes. Ten out of the eleven interviewed
stated that they have been educated in shape-note sight-singing. Six of these learned to
read shape notes as children in classes taught at their church or by attending area singing
schools. Two were taught by family members. One was self-taught, and the other learned
in college.
14
A choral conductor shared the memory of being introduced to shape notes by
his father:
I learned shape-note sight-singing in church at an early age. I fondly remember
singing out of the old, shape-note hymnal, Great Songs of the Church and asking
my dad what those funny shapes meant. Dad provided me a quick lesson right
there in the middle of church services, and that was all the instruction I needed to
begin my journey of shape-note singing.
15

Shape-Note Singing Education of the Past
Music in worship is a vital part of a church’s ministry. In larger congregations of
other denominations, the development of a church choir music program is similar to that
of schools where involvement is increased by creating opportunities at all levels. The
graded church choral program consists of elementary children, youth, and adult choirs.
For the children’s music program, the intent is to not only give opportunities for musical
growth and worship-oriented enrichment, but also to serve as a feeder program for the
more advanced choirs. In addition to providing worship music for services, a church
choir also serves as an opportunity to musically educate its members, no matter what the

14
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of
affiliated Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
15
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
96

age.
16
In the Churches of Christ, one will rarely find a church choir or hear a visiting
choir within its church services. Some will argue that the church is not only
miscomprehending the worship benefits of including church choirs during their worship
services, but also neglecting an opportunity for music education. One the other hand,
opponents of choirs within the Churches of Christ say that the congregation sufficiently
provides music in worship and, at least in the past, have provided an effective form of
music education: shape-note singing.
Several of the interviewees stated that their hometown church offered classes on
singing shape-note notation. These sessions were sporadic but well attended. In their
recollection, the shape-note training improved the congregations’ sight-singing
tremendously. Attendance at singing schools by church members during the summers
also supported musical growth. Curriculum at the schools consisted of shape-note sight-
singing, vocal production, and for male church members, lessons on song leading.
17
One
choral conductor added that as a child, the congregation was given the rudiments of
music books published by the Stamps-Baxter Music Company. They were allowed to
take them home and practice and have review lessons after Wednesday night church
services.
18

16
David Wilson. "The Graded Church Choir Program" (lecture, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, February 16, 2005).
17
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
18
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
97

According to all choral conductors interviewed, the Churches of Christ have been
negligent in continuing with music education practices. Ten of the eleven choral
conductors stated that their current congregations do not offer any music education other
than occasional assistance to song leaders. It has been noted that singing schools still
exist, mainly in Texas and Oklahoma, but the interest is not as strong as it once was.
19

The remaining interviewee’s response is the exception; the conductor stated that singing
schools in the vicinity are well-attended and that quarterly shape-note sight-singing
classes are offered at the church. The focus of the referred church is teaching the young
people shape-note notation; the majority of the adults are already proficient. The choral
conductor’s church also hosts week-long training sessions on worship song leading. The
focus here is on how music should support theological lessons, basic conducting, and the
understanding of musical notes well enough to pitch the songs correctly.
20

Current Strategies to Learn Music in the Church
Regarding the process of introducing new music to the congregation, 55 percent
of the interviewed choral conductors stated that praise teams help the learning process.
Praise teams are groups of four or more musicians who assist in leading singing. At least
one singer per vocal part (soprano, alto, tenor, or bass) is amplified by the use of a
microphone. The placement of praise teams vary, depending on the need and comfort

19
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of
affiliated Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
20
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
98

level of the congregation they serve. Arrangements observed are standing next to the
song leader and facing the congregation, sitting on the front pew facing the pulpit, sitting
on the back pew facing the pulpit, or sitting somewhere else unseen by the congregation.
In addition to providing support in learning new music, those in favor of praise teams say
they provide vocal balance by providing leadership in all parts, thus strengthening
harmony singing. Five of the interviewees emphasized the importance of positioning the
praise team seated, facing the pulpit with the rest of the congregation. If they were
standing and facing the congregation, many people would become uncomfortable and
view it as a performance. In the churches of these five interviewees, the only one who
may face the congregation in a song service is the song leader.
Some churches do not have praise teams at all because they feel the very notion of
them brings an entertainment aspect of worship they wish to avoid.
21
This is not the
scenario, however, of the church attended by one interviewee. It was acknowledged that
the praise team consists of a paid leader and of volunteer members from the
congregation. They meet separately and practice the new music as a choir before
presenting it to the congregation. At times the praise team will first sing the new song for
the congregation, and during the second run-through, the congregation will join in. A
few members are uneasy with the performance characteristic it presents, yet that is not
the thinking of the majority.
22
The remaining interviewees who do not worship with

21
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
22
Interview No. 10 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
99

praise teams stated that bringing new music into the assembly is a much more daunting
task.
Two choral conductors stated introducing new music at church usually occurs
during the Sunday or Wednesday night worship services. The song leader teaches the
congregation one part at a time. For instance, everyone sings the melody, and then the
alto line, and so forth. Once a new song becomes more familiar, the song leader directs it
during the main church service on Sunday morning.
23

It is reported that no new music instruction is given at the churches the other
interviewees attend. Two interviewees commented on this process:
There’s no real approach to teaching new music at our congregation. It is the
“sink or swim” approach. The song leader states to the congregation that they are
going to sing a new song and they start singing. There is no instruction, no
individual part-learning, and no discussion whatsoever. The song leader hopes the
congregation will eventually catch on, but sadly, that is rarely the case. There is
no praise team to help with the learning process. At my church, the elders will not
even allow the song leader to sing a vocal line for demonstration as it would be
viewed as a performance.
24

New music is not introduced with any particular method. There is rarely any
instruction given before the song leader begins the song. The congregation usually
even struggles with the melody as the song leader typically will not slow the
tempo to aid with the sing-through. Those in the congregation with a strong
musical ear will attempt to sing harmony, yet not the harmony that is actually
written. The song leader will try a few more attempts with the new song in the
weeks that follow. If the congregation fails to improve, the song is put aside,

23
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
24
Interview No. 8 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
100

never to be heard of again. Needless to say, due to the level of musicianship
among the congregation, there is not a lot of new music that is sustained.
25

Lastly, one choral conductor interviewed is very discouraged with the lack of
music instruction in the church the conductor attends. It was stated that all new music is
taught by rote, and although the praise teams help, picking out harmonies out of a quartet
is a skill that most do not have. It is perceived that the leaders of the church do not care
about quality or accuracy, only that the singing is a cappella. According to the
interviewee, it is deplorable.
26

Recordings are available of the newer music that many of the church members
listen to. One popular worship music source among congregations reviewed is Hallah
Worship,
27
which specializes in recordings of a cappella arrangements of contemporary
Christian music. The problem is that when the members attempt to learn the music in this
fashion, they typically only learn the melodic line. The choral conductor is afraid that
singing in harmony is becoming a thing of the past in the Churches of Christ.
28

25
Interview No. 4 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 13, 2013.
26
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
27
"Hallah Music," Hallah Worship, accessed August 2, 2013, http://hallahworship.com.
28
Interview No. 9 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 18, 2013.
101

The Decline of Congregation Singing: The Opinion of Others
The acknowledgements expressed by the choral conductors interviewed about the
depletion of music education in the Churches of Christ are shared by many others in the
church. Several worship leaders have expressed their views on this topic. Joe Ed Furr,
Director of the Singing School at Abilene Christian University stated in “Neglecting
Church Music:”
Most churches spend much money to hire a skilled preacher. They demand a high
degree of professionalism in the preaching pulpit. But singing is the opposite.
Many congregations have no interest in spending money on church music. They
use the old hymnals until they fall apart. They do not ask for professionalism
among song leaders. Most churches will tolerate mediocrity in music leadership.
29

Gary McKnight, choral director at Freed-Hardeman University, concurred with Furr in an
article published in The Christian Chronicle in 2009:
Elders and congregations want as good a preacher in the pulpit as they can
possibly have —why not the same for the song leader? After all, when we get to
heaven the preaching will be over. We’ll be singing all through eternity. We do
not put enough emphasis on singing in our worship.
30

In another article published in The Christian Chronicle, Jack Boyd, Professor Emeritus
of Abilene Christian University, noted:
Far too many of our members believe that they know church music when, in fact,
they only know Church of Christ music, and that often means Church of Christ
music of the 1940s, ’50s and ’60s. This lack of historical perspective has kept
many misconceptions alive for generations. An example would be demanding that
our hymnals be typeset in shaped notes. The fact is that fewer than 2 percent of
our members have even a rudimentary grounding in shaped notes (no new convert

29
Joe Ed Furr, "Neglecting Church Music," The Singing School at Abilene Christian
University, accessed March 7, 2012, http://www.singingschool.org.
30
"Take Notes: Church Music Lacks True Harmony, Singing Experts Say," Christian
Chronicle, The, accessed July 23, 2013, http"//christianchronicle.org.
102

reads shaped notes), and virtually nobody younger than 40 understands what the
phrase “shaped note” means.
31

James Tackett, Founder of the Paperless Hymnal, posted on his company’s website:

The Churches of Christ welcome those members who have been musically trained
into the church. These men are quickly recognized and are asked to help with the
song service. However, the Church is doing nothing to train their members in
music education that do not already have a formal musical background. This is a
major cause to why congregational singing is deteriorating in the Church.
32

And finally, David Kite, a Church of Christ song leader from Austin, Texas,

humorously expressed:

Now you have to take piano lessons to learn how to read a cappella music in a
church that doesn’t allow pianos. Go figure!
33

Church Support
Through this study it can be determined that the heritage of a cappella singing in
the Churches of Christ is being threatened. The early American hymnals had only words
printed in the pages. When congregational singing began to decline, it was evident that
the ability to read music was essential to the church; therefore hymnals began to be
published with music notation. To aid in this learning process, shape-note notation was
invented. This method proved to be successful, especially to those who had no formal
music training. Its success continued into the twentieth century with churches who

31
Jack Boyd, "That's Why We Sing: We Can Revitalize A Cappella Worship," Christian
Chronicle, The, accessed May 4, 2013, http"//christianchronicle.org
32
James Tackett, "Shape Notes," The Paperless Hymnal, accessed July 16, 2013,
http://www.paperlesshymnal.com.
33
"Song Leaders Weigh In On Old Vs. New, the Future of Church Singing," Christian
Chronicle, The, accessed July 2, 2013, http"//christianchronicle.org.
103

worshiped exclusively with a cappella music, such as the Churches of Christ. Now the
church is repeating history by disregarding music education, which is causing the decline
of congregational singing once again. To salvage and build upon the great a cappella
singing tradition of the church, it must be aware of the decline, see the need for
improvement, and then become proactive in bringing music education back to its
members.
One choral conductor stated that church members who complain about the decline
of their congregational singing need to encourage music education in the church. It
begins with ensuring that the congregation is led by quality song leaders. If no musically
trained members are in the church, the leadership should invest in hiring a professional to
teach interested members or to send such men to singing schools or to traditional music
schools. Secondly, it was added that more time should be allocated for singing and
learning how to sing well. As a child, the interviewee stated that his church would set
aside one Sunday afternoon a month to learn new music. In addition, monthly “Area-
Wide Sings” would occur that brought teenagers together from other Church of Christ
congregations to sing devotional hymns of praise called, “devo songs.” It was noted that
singing brings people together and that the Area-wide Sings were a favorite social
gathering for those growing up in the church. The closing comments of this interviewee
emphasized the importance of setting aside additional time for singing together as a
church community to strengthen music worship in the church. Regarding singing
improvement, it was stated: “The congregation of a Church of Christ is its own choir;
104

therefore as choirs do, they need to practice and rehearse to become proficient in
singing.”
34

Rick Johnson, late minister of Eastside Church of Christ in Antioch, California
stated in The Christian Chronicle that churches need to focus on musically training the
younger generations, whether by bringing back the singing school model or shape-note
reading tradition.
35
A conductor interviewed agreed with this reference and added that the
methods for sight-reading or sight-singing are really based on instrumental music, as is in
Western World notation. Shape-note notation never became a standard simply because it
was so opposed by instrumentalists, although it was a proven method for vocalists. The
conductor knows many amateur musicians, such as his parents, who can sight-sing better
than any of his colleagues using the shape-note method.
36

A choral conductor did not mention the need to bring back shape-note reading in
the congregational a cappella tradition but believes in treating church members a little
more like choirs in the process of learning music. No praise team is in place at the church
attended, so to achieve better singing, the conductor is planning to mix the musicians
with the non-musicians and the strong voices with the weaker ones during the song
services. Assigning section leaders from members of the congregation to help encourage
singing the correct vocal lines is also in the making. Section leaders work well in the

34
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
35
"Song Leaders Weigh in Old Vs. New, The Future of Church Singing," Christian
Chronicle, The, accessed July 2, 2013, http://www.christianchronicle.org.
36
Interview No. 11 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 25, 2013.
105

college choir conducted and there is hope that the concept will transfer successfully to
congregational singing. The interviewee further explained that new Christian songs and
hymns are not being written in the old tradition but rather in the popular contemporary
Christian music that is used in worship within the Churches of Christ; the music is a
cappella arrangements of instrumental accompaniment songs. Therefore, the harmonies
and rhythms are much more difficult than the old hymns. It was concluded that music
education in the church has declined over the years, yet this is the time they need it the
most.
37

College Support
Darryl Tippens, Provost of Pepperdine University, challenges church leaders to
take charge in moving forward with music education in the Churches of Christ:
Elders, ministers, youth ministers have all sorts of meetings, conferences, and
associations, yet today few churches invest in programs that really teach everyone
to sing. Where are the regional and national meetings devoted to enhancing
congregational singing? How many Bible lectureships give special attention to
teaching new hymns? Where is the Christian university willing to establish a
Center for A Cappella Worship? Where do worship leaders meet to share their
knowledge of hymns, their methods for teaching new songs and old? Who is
helping to revitalize the singing in old churches, small churches?
38

In 2007 the year Tippens published his book, he co-hosted Pepperdine
University’s first of three international symposiums of sacred a cappella music called
“The Ascending Voice.” The Ascending Voice II was held in 2010, and the third

37
Interview No. 7 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 17, 2013.
38
Darryl Tippens, That's Why We Sing (Abilene, TX: Leafwood Publishers, 2007), 24.
106

symposium took place in 2013. The event is open not only to Church of Christ members,
but to anyone that treasures the a cappella singing tradition in Christian worship.
Representatives from other denominations such as the Mennonites, Eastern Orthodox,
and the Reformed Presbyterians, have attended the symposiums.
Collegiate choirs who performed a cappella programs at The Ascending Voice III
were the Pepperdine University Chamber Choir, Rochester College A Cappella Chorus,
Ball State University Chamber Choir, Lubbock Christian University Chamber Singers,
and the Occidental College Glee Club. The symposium also included a cappella sacred
music performances from professional choirs, including the Los Angeles Master Chorale.
Lectures at the three-day event included: “A Cappella Songs for a New Generation,”
“When West Meets East and South: A Cappella Music in a World Context,” and
"Practice and Performance Theory in Shape-Note Singing."
39

Lipscomb University has been the location of a similar event hosted by
A Cappella Ministries, home to the professional Christian a cappella groups Acappella,
Durant, and Vocal Union. Its annual a cappella music festival is called Acufest, a three-
day festival held in the summer. A cappella music concerts are held as well as lectures on
given topics such as worship leading and composing music for congregational singing. In
2009 James Tackett, President of the Paperless Hymnal Company and choral music and
music theory teacher at the Singing School at Abilene Christian University, gave a lecture
at Acafest on music education in the church. He was concerned by the lack of proficient

39
"The Ascending Voice III," Pepperdine University, accessed July 23, 2013,
http://cvent.com/events/ascending-voice-iii/agenda.
107

music reading skills and expressed the need for a comprehensive congregational music
program within the Churches of Christ. Addressing church worship leaders, he outlined
seven ways to execute the plan:
(1) Teach new songs by teaching people to sing their parts. (2) Teach a class on
the basics of music and shape-note singing. (3) Encourage individuals to expand
their knowledge about church music by attending one of the singing schools
within the brotherhood. (4) Start a singing organization (choir) at your church or
community. (5) Train young men to be song leaders. (6) Have singing services
with emphasis on the songs (hymnody history), and (7) Educate children in
music.
40

These school-sponsored events are effective in identifying the need for music
education in the church, but the question arises whether the Church of Christ colleges and
universities offer courses to support music worship ministry. All of the reviewed music
programs provide the standard music theory and aural training classes that one would
find in American colleges. Some sight-singing and ear training texts used in these schools
are Listen and Sing, by David Damschroder,
41
the Robert Ottman Elementary Harmony,
42

and the most commonly used among the reviewed programs, Manual for Sight Singing
and Ear Training by Gary S. Karpinski.
43
Movable do solfège
44
is the sight-singing

40
James Tackett. "Teaching Music in Your Church" (lecture, Acufest at Lipscomb
University, Nashville, TN, July 6, 2009).
41
David A. Damschroder, Listen and Sing, 1st ed (Stamford, CT: Cengage, 1995).
42
Robert W. Ottman, Elementary Harmony, 5th ed (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson,
1997).
43
Gary S. Karpinski, Manual for Sight Singing and Ear Training, 1st ed (New York:
Norton, W.w. & Company, Inc, 2006).
44
Solfége syllables are based on a composition’s musical key. For instance, in C Major,
do would be C, whereas in E Major, E would be do, and so forth.
108

method preferred in these music programs, and also by the choral conductors who
incorporate sight-singing in their choral rehearsals.
45
In addition, one college employs a
text for upper division vocal music education students that emphasizes hearing and
singing harmony: the Choral Score Reading Program,
46
by Richard Grunow and Milford
Fargo.
47
The above courses are designed to prepare the student in a music performance or
education career. Certainly these students who are members of the Churches of Christ
may use these learned skills to assist singing or song leading in their respective
congregations, yet Lipscomb University is the only school which has a degree
specifically geared for the church musician.
The Lipscomb College and Bible Ministry collaborates with the music department
in offering an interdisciplinary major in worship ministry. The descriptions of the music
courses required in this degree are listed in the 2013-2014 course catalog:
MU 1302 Introduction to Song Leading in Worship
Provides basic preparation for planning and leading congregational singing in
worship, including music fundamentals and conducting.
MU 3303 Music in Worship I
Designed to provide the potential worship leader/minister with the musical tools
necessary to function effectively in a local congregation. The course will focus on
three primary areas: leading congregational worship, finding and arranging music

45
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of
affiliated Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
46
Milford Fargo and Richard F. Grunow, Choral Score Reading Program (Chicago: Gia
Publications, 1985).
47
Interview No. 6 with past or present choral conductor of an affiliated Church of Christ
college or university, July 16, 2013.
109

appropriate for a cappella worship and working with church singers, both
individually and in praise teams or choirs.
MU 3313 Music in Worship II
This course is designed to provide the potential worship leader/minister with the
practical tools necessary to plan worship and administer a worship ministry in a
local congregation. The course will focus on the following areas: identifying and
utilizing worship ministry resources, planning meaningful worship services,
utilizing worship related software and technology, and administering a
music/worship ministry.
MU 3403 History of Church Music
A study of the history of music in the church with emphasis on the cultural
backgrounds and practice of music in the Bible, the impact of the Reformation,
and recent trends within American church music.
48

Elective courses are found at several other Church of Christ colleges and
universities designed for music leadership in the church. For instance,
Freed-Hardeman University, Faulkner University, Ohio Valley University, and
Oklahoma Christian University offer a course similar to Lipscomb’s song leading class.
Abilene Christian provides its students the opportunity to enroll in “Survey of
Congregational Song,” and “Philosophy of Church Music,” through their intercollegiate
program at neighboring school, Hardin-Simmons University.
49
The remaining schools

48
"2013-2014 Course Catalog," Lipscomb University, accessed July 3, 2013,
http://lipscomb.edu/catalog.
49
"2012-2013 Course Catalog," Freed Hardeman University, Faulkner University, Ohio
Valley University, Oklahoma Christian University, Abilene Christian University, accessed July 3,
2013, http://fhu.edu/academics/catalog.aspx, http://faulkner.edu/Academics/handbooks.aspx,
http://ovu.edu/site.cfm/ovuacademiccatalog.cfm, http://oc.edu/academics/academic-catalog.html,
http://acu.edu/catalog/2012_2013/courses/mucm.html.
110

reviewed, however, do not offer any such courses, including the two largest Church of
Christ affiliated universities, Pepperdine and Harding.
50

Research has shown that the reviewed colleges and universities that offer courses
designed for music in worship in the Churches of Christ focus on individual training
rather than instruction on strengthening music skills and congregational singing. As
revealed in this study, the church is steeped in the shape-note tradition and still has music
notated in this format, yet there is no mention or instruction on shape-note singing in any
of the Church of Christ institutions. Perhaps administrative leadership and choral
conductors of Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities have missed a great
opportunity to strengthen congregational sight-singing.
As a result of the interviews, two choral conductors were motivated to offer their
professional assistance to their congregations. Influenced by the conversation on the topic
of preserving the Churches of Christ a cappella singing tradition, these two musicians
began discussions with their church leadership to implement a music education program
at their church. It has been confirmed that for one, approval has been granted and shape-
note sight-singing classes will begin in the coming year.
Church of Christ colleges and universities could support worship and music
education in the church. As listed in chapter three, Bible or religion courses are required
for all undergraduate students at the reviewed schools. Church of Christ congregations
could benefit greatly if one of these required classes included curriculum on music

50
Compiled from unattributed interviews of past or present choral conductors of affiliated
Church of Christ colleges or universities, July 9 to July 25, 2013.
111

reading, by means of shape-note or standard notation. The church already has a rich
relationship with shape notes, thus choral conductors could incorporate this system into
traditional reading music practices in their choral music rehearsals.
Over thirty years ago an article was published in the Choral Journal about shape-
note choral singing by Joel R. Stegall, former Dean of the Ithaca College School of
Music. His research found that the shape-note system did not carry over to American
schools because of influential urbanites and classically train music teachers deemed the
system too countrified. This revelation led Stegall to question if the system had been the
“victim of a musical injustice committed by the sociology of progress.” He continued:
It certainly requires a strange set of mental contortions to glory in the
sophistication of our advanced musicianship when we realize that many of our
grandfathers became quite proficient music readers with a minimum of formal
training. Our forebears had a method. Apparently it worked—and with ordinary
people, not just “talents.” Having rejected it, have we “thrown out the baby with
the bath water?”
51

The author of this study asks the reader to ponder what the thousands of students
at these colleges and universities who are Church of Christ members could bring to their
respective congregations to improve congregational singing in the a cappella tradition.
A powerful change would ensue if Church of Christ congregations were open to music
education—including shape-note music reading and basic musicianship skills—and if
colleges and universities required music education classes as part of their religious course
requirement.

51
Joel Stegall, "Shape Notes And Choral Singing: Did We Throw Out The Baby With
The Bath Water?," Choral Journal 19, no. 2 (1978, October 1): 10.

112

CONCLUSION

The basic doctrine of the Churches of Christ has not fundamentally changed since
the denomination’s inception in the nineteenth century. During the Stone-Campbell
Restoration Movement the church separated from the Christian churches to follow their
conservative interpretation of the New Testament. Their adherence to Campbell’s
declaration to “speak where the Bible speaks; be silent where the Bible is silent”
influenced their music practices in worship. They forbade instrumental music in worship
services, accepting only a cappella congregational singing. Choirs were not accepted
because of the view that singing should be participatory, not performance-oriented.
Today the majority of the Churches of Christ adhere to previous music worship
practices, but some changes are evident. A few congregations have started to incorporate
instrumental accompaniment in their worship services, and choirs in the form of praise
teams are becoming more common.
Although a cappella music plays a vital role in worship, reading musical notation
has declined in the Churches of Christ. The shape-note tradition was adopted by the
church to enable amateur singers to read music, which improved congregational singing
throughout the twentieth century. Some Church of Christ members still read shape notes,
but the practice is becoming archaic. Because fewer members are able to read musical
notation in the shape-note or traditional form, the quality of congregational singing has
suffered.
113

Since the late nineteenth century, Church of Christ affiliated colleges and
universities have been established. The colleges offer students a well-rounded education
within a Christian environment. Choral music programs exist in twelve of these
institutions. The music degree programs and choral ensembles are similar among the
schools, but they vary in their performances because of the restrictions placed on some
colleges by the school’s leadership.
The Churches of Christ do not allow choirs to perform in their worship services
but accept collegiate choirs. Most congregations do not believe that performances are
appropriate in a worship service. College choirs, however, are not part of worship and
therefore are generally supported by churches. Despite the overall acceptance of college
choirs by churches, in some colleges there is not a finite separation between worship
practices and secular performances. For instance, church doctrine still limits some choir
conductors’ ability to use instrumental music with sacred songs, even on the concert
stage.
The Church of Christ choral music conductors who were interviewed for the study
believe that music education in the church has declined. Shape-note or other music
notation is not emphasized, and music education is neglected. This dilemma has become
more recognizable by musicians, worship leaders, and college faculty; the discussion to
restore music education in the church has begun but needs further action.
Leadership is needed in the church and the college choral music programs. The
church must implement a music education curriculum, thereby improving congregational
singing. College choral directors can assist churches by offering their expertise in music
114

education. Such collaboration would benefit the church and the choral music programs of
the affiliated Church of Christ colleges and universities.

115

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124

APPENDIX A

A DEPICTION OF THE CANE RIDGE RIVAL MEETING, 1801

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125

APPENDIX B

FRONT COVER OF THOMAS CAMPBELL’S
DECLARATION AND ADDRESS, 1809

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126

APPENDIX C

MAINSTREAM CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN THE UNITED STATES

127

128

APPENDIX D
THE CHURCH, BY ELLIS CRUM

129

APPENDIX E
CHURCH OF CHRIST WORSHIP SERVICE SAMPLE

Retrieved from the weekly bulletin of the Porterville Church of Christ, Porterville, CA,
http://www.pvcoc.org/News_View.aspx?Articleid=220, accessed August 11, 2013

Bulletin – Sunday, July 29, 2012
Hymn #279- "We Shall Behold Him"
Welcome/ Announcements: Gary Ingraham
Prayer-Mitchell Galbraith
Children's Contribution
Hymn #524- "I Know Whom I Have Believed"
Hymn #334- "Tis Midnight, and on Olive's Brow"
Communion: Tom Elford
Offering #881- "Mansion over the Hilltop"
Children Bible Hour/ Attendance Cards
Hymn #294- "You're the One"
Scripture Reading: Sean Tallerico Romans 12:9-21
Lesson: Marshall Brookey
Hymn #959- "Just a Little Talk with Jesus"
Hymn #749- "The Battle Belongs to the Lord"
Closing Prayer: Monte Moore

130

APPENDIX F
SAMPLE PAGES THOMAS WALTER’S THE GROUNDS AND RULES
OF MUSICK EXPLAINED (1721) AND JOHN TUFT’S
INTRODUCCTION TO THE SINGING OF PSALM-TUNES (1726)

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California Libraries, accessed August 11, 2013,
http://galenet.galegroup.com.libproxy.usc.edu/servlet/Sabin?af=RN&ae=CY3801229109
&srchtp=a&ste=14

131

132

133

APPENDIX G
PSALM 61 FROM BAY PSALM BOOK, 1698

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2013.

134

APPENDIX H

THE EASY INSTRUCTOR, BY WILLIAM LITTLE
AND WILLIAM SMITH, 1803

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2013https://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://docs.newsbank.com/select/SHAW2/52269.

135

136

137

138

139

APPENDIX I
THE ART OF SINGING, BY ANDREW LAW

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accessed August 11,
2013https://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://opac.newsbank.com/select/shaw/8764
Shaw-Shoemaker Digital Edition,

140

141

APPENDIX J
SAMPLE PAGES FROM SACRED HARP, SOUTHERN HARMONY,
AND MISSOURI HARMONY TUNEBOOKS

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2013, http://people.bethel.edu/~rhomar/HymnalPages/SacredHarp.html,

142

143

144

Retrieved from The Southern Harmony, by William Wlaker, (Philadelphia:
E.W. Miller, 1854).

145

146

147

Retrieved from Missouri Harmony with Introduction by Alllen D. Cardin, (Cincinnati:
Phillips and Reynolds, 1816).

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

APPENDIX K
AMAZING GRACE AS PUBLISHED IN A 1911 EDITION
OF THE ORIGINAL SACRED HARP

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2013http://music.allpurposeguru.com/2011/10/american-shaped-notes-tune-books-and-
the-fasola-tradition/.

158

APPENDIX L
FOUR AND SEVEN SHAPE-NOTE SYSTEM

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http://fasola.org/introduction/note_shapes.html

Fa Sol La Fa Sol La Mi
Retrieved from “Shape-Note Singing,” accessed August 11, 2013,
http://ozarktraditions.org/the-music/shape-note-singing.

159

APPENDIX M

ACCREDITED CHURCH OF CHRIST AFFILIATED
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES WITH UNDERGRADUATE
ACADEMIC PROGRAMS

Abilene Christian University Abilene, TX
Amridge University Montgomery, AL
Crowley’s Ridge Christian College Paragould, AR
Faulkner University Montgomery, AL
Florida College Temple Terrace, FL
Freed-Hardeman University Henderson, TN
Harding University Searcy, AR
Heritage Christian University Florence, AL
Lipscomb University Nashville, TN
Lubbock Christian University Lubbock, TX
Ohio Valley University Vienna, WV
Oklahoma Christian University Oklahoma City, OK
Pepperdine University Malibu, CA
Rochester College Rochester Hills, MI
Southwestern Christian College Terrell, TX
York College York, NE

160

APPENDIX N
IRB EXEMPT STUDY INFORMATION/FACT SHEET

161

APPENDIX O
SAMPLE OF STAMPS-BAXTER PUBLICATIONS

“He Bore It All” and “When all of God’s Singers Get Home,” from Sacred Sections for
the Church, ed. Ellis J. Crum (Kendallville, IN: Sacred Selections Publisher, 1956).

162

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brookey, Jeffrey Marshall (author)

Core Title Music in worship in the Churches of Christ and choral music performance in Church of Christ affiliated colleges and universities

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Choral Music

Publication Date 10/14/2013

Defense Date 10/01/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Choral Music,Church of Christ,OAI-PMH Harvest,university choral music programs

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Grases, Cristian F. (committee chair), Scheibe, Jo-Michael (committee member), Strimple, Nick L. (committee member)

Creator Email jbrookey@lcusd.net,jeffbrookey@sbcglobal.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-338427

Unique identifier UC11296086

Identifier etd-BrookeyJef-2101.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-338427 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BrookeyJef-2101.pdf

Dmrecord 338427

Document Type Treatise

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Brookey, Jeffrey Marshall

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA