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Origins and nature of regional planning, U.S.A.: An history, an evaluation, and a projection

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Content ORIGINS AND NATURE OF REGIONAL PLANNING, U.S.A. I * An History, An Evaluation, And A Projection A Thesis Presented to the Faculties of the Schools of Public Administration and Architecture University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in City and Regional Planning by Virgil Alfred Meeds M » June 1966 UMI Number: EP64775 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. D issertation Publishing UMI EP64775 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Copyright © 1966 by Virgil Alfred Meeds This thesis, written by VIRGIL A. MEEDS under the direction of the undersigned Guidance Committe, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Public Administration in partial ful fillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING Date A p r il..25 1 9 6 6 ............................................................ Guidance Cjartfimittee: J C h a ir j^ tru o 3 Ç i . Æ - :- - . '-» * 4 * e mmmm ggg—g ^ g W tin & T iiiiiiiim ii TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p ter P a g e I, INTRODUCTION: Current Era, Requisite For P la n n in g .................................................................................................. 1 The Nature of the Study 23 The Importance of the S tu d y ................................................. 27 The Purpose of the Study .......................................... 31 Definitions of Terms Used ................................................. 32 Sources of Information ............................ 38 II. HISTORY OF REGIONAL PLANNING.................................... 40 The Era Of Regional Planning’s Early Origins . 44 Regionalism ......................................... 62 Growth of Metropolis (City R e g io n )............................ 64 Influence of the Growth of City Planning . . . 68 Metropolitan P la n n in g ............................................................... 77 Influence of Conservation................................................. 100 Influence of Depression and the New Deal . . . 113 Proliferation of Jurisdictions and Authorities . 126 Interstate Compacts and Regionalism .... 129 Growth of Science and Technology................................... 136 The Sociological Approach to Regionalism . . . 138 III. CURRENT STATUS OF REGIONAL PLANNING . . 142 Enabling Legislation . . . . . . 144 i i i C h a p ter IV. V. Executive Body . . . . . . . . . State and Regional Planning Information . . Planning Organization . . . . . . . . Status and Elements of the General Plan . . Educational Institutions: Regional Planning Information . . . . . . . . . . . . REGIONAL PLANNING: A PERSPECTIVE BY INFERENCE . . . . . . ................................... R egion as Planning Unit . . . Major Regional Elements, Functions, Problems Comprehensive Nature of Regional Planning . Regional Planning Procedure: The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . Incentives and Objectives of Regional Planning Organization For Regional Planning .... REGIONAL PLANNING: A PERSPECTIVE BY PRO JECTION ...................................................................... The Nature of Regional Planning . . . . . A Resource Oriented Regional Planning A Goal Oriented Regional Planning . . . A Scientifically and Technologically Oriented Regional Planning . . . . . . . . . An Organizationally Oriented Regional Planning . . . . . . . . Regional Research and Survey . . . . . IV P a g e 154 170 181 199 213 233 234 243 258 266 272 275 287 295 305 308 310 317 321 V C h a p ter P a g e Regional Analysis and Synthesis............................ 324 Regional and Policies Plan Preparation . . 340 Regional Goal Form ulation.......................................... 342 Organization for Regional Planning . . 345 VI. EDUCATION FOR REGIONAL PLANNING . . . 350 Recommended Prerequisite Master^s Program in City P lanning ..................................................................... 361 Recommended Doctoral Program in Regional Planning . . 362 VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......................................................... 364 Conclusions ...................................................... 371 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................... 381 APPENDIX A. Universal Declaration of Human Rights . 410 APPENDIX B. Selections of Literature Related to the Revolution of Woman . . . . . . 417 APPENDIX C. Structure and Membership of the United N a tio n s ••••• 421 APPENDIX D. Varying Concepts of the Region .... 424 APPENDIX E. Some Selected Regions . . ••••• 425 APPENDIX F. Varying Concepts of Regionalism . . . 441 APPENDIX G. Letters and Questionnaires of the Surveys 443 APPENDIX H. Regional Planning--Part I, Pacific North west: Table of Contents . . . . . . . 453 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION CURRENT ERA, REQUISITE FOR PLANNING The end of World War II marked the beginning of a complex era of diverse evolution and explosive revolution. Never before in the history of the world have social evolution and human revolution been so widespread or of greater intensity. An accelerating rate of increase in population growth has further intensified and complicated these dynamic phenomena. The continued evolution of science and the dynamic revolutions thereby engendered in technology have im« posed profound effects upon environment, paradoxically portending disaster while affording momentous opportunities for developing more qualitative progress than written history records for civilization. Political and social as well as commercial and trade organization is manifesting all the symptoms associated with the need for more effec tive adaptation to the rapidly changing dynamics of a complex cultural evolution. Economic revolution too is at an intense pitch as universal demand increases for a fairer share of the fruits and a greater parti** cipation in the functions of an economic system, which is itself in dynamic revolution. Revolution in environment is evident in the pro cess of urbanization, a phenomenon of vast and diverse complexity, illustrating humanity in confusion and environment in chaos. This study has humanity as its most important concern, and 2 all the issues pertaining to human opportunities for growth and deve lopment central to that concern as its criteria. It fully acknowledges the dignity and wurLh of human beings as conceived in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (see Appendix A) proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations, and considers it the highest possible responsibility of a nation to insure those rights for all of its people, with all its powers, policies and resources. This is the foundation of the study and upon it are based all the values and issue all the goals with which regional planning as conceived herein is con cerned, in theory and principle, as process and as method. It further asserts what should be an accepted fact, that a nation^s wealth and its strength reside in the quality of its people, and that upon the insurance of those rights that quality depends. It sets as its primary goal the universal establishment of minimum standards of life and of occupa tion, below which the existence of no person or group will be tole rated, but above which unrestricted opportunity for individual and social growth will be assured. A secondary concern of this study, but intimately related to the first, is that of the earth as resource and the use of the earth and its resources in the interest of human beings. Directly related to the earth as resource are science and technology, the means by which natural resources are converted from the potential to the utility state. Beyond this is environment, which is the result of the application of science and technology by social, economic, and political imperitives to land, water and air as its primary resource components which de pend upon systems created by man for resource conversion, produc 3 tivity and the creation of new and renewal of old environment. These systems are represented by the organizational means man establishes through a procès s of institutionalization to effect these ends and through a process of feedback develops a degree of self regulation as well as a capacity for development over a period of time. These central themes can be restated in a larger sense in terms of three relationships : (1) man^s relationship to nature and to the universe, (2) man^s relationship to himself, and (3) man*s re lationship to his fellow man. Perhaps Leonard Cutrow^s Triptych shown on the frontispiece illustrates the meaning more clearly. His first panel, "Man*s Relationship to Nature and the Universe” implies the need for an awareness of the awesome infinity of its dimensions, the limitless complexity of its reality, the incredible dynamics of its character, the miraculous cycles of life and death it manifests, its perpetual challenge to man and its vast resource potential for pro moting qualitative progress beyond man’ ^ s wildest imagination. The second panel represents "Man’s Relationship to Himself,” and con cerns man^s will to know, his continuously elevating levels of aspi ration, his desire for increased worth, his perpetual goal seeking, ever broadening, and when achieved, ever changing. Finally, the third panel poignantly depicts "Man’s Relationship to His Fellow Man” his interdependence, his inter-responsibility, his interrelationships. Indeed, in a world fraught with environmental resistance and threa tened by the persistence of man’s inhumanity to man or the contin uation of Thor stein Veblen’s "predatory phase of human development” that world is too dangerous for anything but truth and too finite for 4 anything but fraternity. Therefore, man’s relationship to his fellow man becomes vitally important, if man and his world are to know survival and to render that survival meaningful. Evolution of human culture and revolution of human beings are the major force components of man in his attempts to relate to his fellow men, and these forces create the central issues to which planning must address its policies and programs. Evolution of science and revolution of technology are the physical means man em ployes to relate to nature and the universe, and it is the function of planning to create new and influence the restructuring of old insti tutions to yield the organization necessary to formulate policies and develop programs designed to create a more socially, physically and psychologically inhabitable environment. Evolution of knowledge and revolution in the systems of knowledge are through unification of its systems and application of its precepts the manipulative and integra tive means man uses to understand himself, his fellowman and his environment, and thereby attain the wisdom synonymous with the qualitative emergence of self and the qualitative evolution of civili zation and its artifacts. A brief look at some of the more dramatic evolutionary patterns and revolutionary trends should illustrate the nature of our explosive era which demands coordinated planning on several levels, if we are to strengthen the base and augment the pace of qualitative cultural progress, and should, moreover lend support to the philosophy of planning which will be broadly outlined herein. Human resources, as the fundamental element of concern in this study can be viewed in two primary senses: (1) as humanity, the 5 philosophical concept, to which attaches all the qualitative character istics from which flow revolution as well as the quality and degree of development of culture, and (2) as population, the functional or sta tistical concept, represented by the specialization of demography, where concentrations upon age, sex, birth, death, race, marriage, migration, density, mortality and fertility rates, mobility and the popular preoccupation with the projection of all these statistics illu strates the expansion, growth and distribution of population, the sub stance of society, or its raw material. The human revolutions currently underway, well documented in news media throughout the nation, originate from four principal sources: (1 ) minorities generally and the Negro people in particular; (2) youth generally, both lower and middle class, as evidenced in the latter case by the widespread revolts upon the nation’s campuses ; (3) women generally, cutting across all economic and ethnic differ entiations; and finally, the aged generally, the majority of whom are retired to a life of uselessness long before "their heart and nerve and sinew have ceased to serve their turn" and most of whom are retired to poverty or experience varying deprivations symptomatic of poverty before death grants them release. The general and widespread practices of discrimination and wanton restrictions and limitations leveled against these sectors of humanity are the essence of the revolutions underway and moreover, represent an incredibly retrogressive waste that results in detracting immensely from the growth of the nation and from its qualitative cul tural and technological progress. Here, in this human waste alone. 6 is resource potential for closing the gap between technology and cul ture, between technological capability and the reality of the urban en vironment, and between the potential and the existing human condition if men but will these evolutions. Here is the resource potential for creating the physical and social conditions which will augment the development of creative abilities that lie dormant in all normal human beings. Economists today are preoccupied with the projection of "a theory of motivation, " research psychologists are attempting to con struct techniques of measurement pursuant to analysis of motivation, and sociologists are pursuing similar lines of investigation for the purpose of determining the nature of drive and the possibilities for promoting incentives for entrepreneurial enterprise--all of which are apologetic pursuits at best. What is much more pertinent is freeing those still enslaved and restricted elements of our national human re sources to develop potential now suppressed by the existing system. These restrictions and limitations manifest themselves in the fact that while constituting ten per cent of the population, the Negro people are twenty per cent of the low income group, sixty-five per cent of slum dwellers, and earn forty-five per cent less than Caucasian equi valents. The ill health, illiteracy, crime and other social conse- quencies attentuating these conditions have been well documented. These restrictions are the fountainhead of current revolutions for human rights and with relationship to minorities and youth express themselves in demonstrations , sit-ins, kneel-ins , civil disobedience, economic boycotts, wakes, marches, voter registration campaigns, domestic peace corps, picketing, riots, non-violent protest, and the 7 proliferation of factions for and against the changes demanded, that have often in the past and may certainly in the future result in de structive violence. These restrictions and limitations manifest themselves in an unheralded revolution gathering momentum across the entire country, one which though quieter and without violence is the result of basic limitationsonwomen’s aspirations; inequality of pay for the same work as men, restrictions in many professions, relegation to clerical, operative and service work primarily. Evidence of these restrictions is documented in the fact that though America’s ninty-six million wo men out number men by some four million, only eleven of her 435 re presentatives are women; only two of her 3 07 federal district judges are women; only two women have held seats in the senate; only 234 of her 7,700 state legislators are women; and in her entire history only two women ever held cabinet rank. The revolution of women manifests itself in many ways. Among them are the high divorce rates: 21 per cent (5,481, 000) of the women in the work force in 1962 were divorced or separated; Los Angeles County recorded 44, 922 marriages in 1962 as against 42, 248 divorce actions filed. Another manifestation is in the growing litera ture of protest in popular women’s magazines and analysis of the pro blems at issue in various journals and professional periodicals, ^ The Federal Government issued its classic, American Women, the ^For a list of published works representative of the types of literature available and being produced please refer to Appendix B. 8 Report of the President’s Commission on the Status of Women in 1963, and the United Nations has initiated and carried out many studies and published many reports on aspects of the status of women in its mem ber nations. The United States Department of Labor has also pub lished numerous reports, many of which are international in scope, embracing data on member nations of the International Labor Organi zation. It is to be expected that in an economy continually growing, where increasing educational and training opportunities are available to women, this revolution will expand and its demands intensify until greater opportunity is open to women for self-fulfillment, or for the development of their potential to a higher level than is now possible. During the "glory age" of ancient Rome, the average human life expectancy was thirty years. Today, in the United States, it ranges from sixty-nine to seventy-three years. Advances in medicine and science generally offer hope for further significant progress. The young science of gerontology, where the process of ageing is being studied in more detail than ever before, where objective mea surements are being developed of the biological age as opposed to the calendar age, and where the molecular basis of ageing is being cla rified, could well extend the life expectancy of human beings to 11 0 years within the next ten years. The somewhat older science of geriatrics, which specializes in the treatment of old age diseases, is making valuable contributions. These developments, which increas ingly add to the growing numbers of aged persons, coupled with re lated social and economic phenomena, have spawned a now quiet but increasingly expanding revolution of the aged. Expressed primarily 9 in the proliferation of organizations for imposing political pressure, which will grow as the numbers of the aged increase and promote the changes necessary to extricate them from a crisis compounded of extreme loneliness, chronic unemployment, poverty, slums and seriously inadequate health facilities. Evolution of human resources in terms of the demographer’s statistics on population is an interesting study and a fascinating story as well, with many implications when the results of the game of pro jection are tabulated. Some major findings follow: every seven and one-half seconds a new birth occurs in the nation; since 1900 the population of the United States has increased 135 per cent, doubling every fifty years and by the year 2000 will have reached 400, 000,000; world population registers three births every second and increases by fifty million people every year; the United Nations estimates that the earth’s three billion people will more than double in fifty years to reach 6. 9 billion in the year 2010; since 1940 world population has grown from about 2. 5 billion to 3. 2 billion, which increase alone is greater than the total estimated population of the earth in the year 1800. Projections estimate that within 200 years, world population will reach fifty billion people. For 1963 United States population in creased 1. 4 per cent to 190, 695, 000 with a net gain of one person every twelve seconds. In mid-1963 for the first time more than a million people were 85 years or more, altogether 17,567,000 people were 65 years or more. The urban revolution, a continuting phenomenon of vast and diverse complexities, with its tidal migrations and proliferation of 10 governmental jurisdictions, its decaying center and sterile suburbs, its filthy streets, its forest of telephone, telegraph and power poles and wires, its archaic and inadequate mass-transit systems, its un kempt and dangerous parks, its outlying countryside splattered with unimaginative housing subdivisions and by shopping centers whose anti-architectural buildings are mere merchandising barns, its high ways disgraced with enormous billboards and hideous drive-ins, its super-congestion, its social and economic ghettos, its pollution of air and water, its slum and blight, its unbalanced land uses and in equitable tax structures, and the compounding of these problems by fractionalized expediences addressed to symptoms rather than com prehensive planning addressed to cause, is largely a result of popu lation dynamics and the phenomenon of urbanization. When the Christian era began, the earth supported a popu lation of about 250, 000,000 people. Colonial America was beginning when that figure approached 500,000,000 people. Today that popu lation is three billion and by the year 2000 it is expected to reach six billion. Therefore, it took sixteen hundred years in the very recent past for the world’s population to double, three hundred for it to in crease fivefold to three billion, its present population, and is ex pected to require only fifty years for it to increase twelve fold, or a 2 total of six billion by the year 2000. These phenomena, especially in highly industrialized nations occur predominantly in urban areas. 2 Philip M. Hauser, "Man and More Men: The Population Prospects," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, (XXI, June 1964), p, 4 — 8. 11 In 1800 there were four places in the United States with a population of 25, 000 or more people and two with 8, 000 or more con stituting national urbanization at a mere four per cent of the total population. By 1850 two places had a population of 300, 000 or more people, four ranging between 100, 000 and 200, 000, fifty-five having 10,000 or more people, with a total of eighty-five places classified as urban, representing 12. 5 per cent urbanization. By 1880 two hundred and eighty five places classified as urban, represented a national urbanization of 22. 7 per cent. By 1900, urban population had reached 39. 0 per cent, and by 1910 the United States Bureau of the Census found it necessary to introduce the concept of the metropolitan dis trict, to describe the phenomenon of one or more central cities and the contiguous suburban townships surrounding them. By 1920, fifty per cent of the population or 53,000,000 people lived in urban areas. The Census of 1950 found it necessary to expand the concept of the metropolitan district with three new definitions: (1) the urbanized areas, (2) the standard metropolitan areas, and (3) the metropo litan state economic areas. By I960 the Bureau of the Census recog nized 192 standard metropolitan areas where the nation’s urban popu lation had reached 69. 9 per cent of the population total. The pace as well as the recency of this phenomenal evolutionary development is most significant. Before 1850, no nation by current definitions could be described as predominantly urbanized; by 1900 only Great Britain could claim the distinction. A mere sixty-five years later all the world’s industrial nations are highly urbanized and the process of urbanization is rapidly accelerating. 12 All of these developments viewed in relation to the other phe nomena have focus in the urban complex as man’s major regional ele ment and as his theatre of social, economic and cultural evolution. Here has developed a form of human habitat never before extant in the entire written history of the world. Here, social and economic forces of great intensity and political and social philosophies of di verse variety are projected out of the dynamics of the times as grave solutions to explosive and critical problems. Here, a population of great variety and range in quality is beset with fear, anxiety and con fusions that threaten the very foundations of social and group peace. Here, social, political and economic forces of imposing power pro duce a physical and psychological environment of a dehumanizing nature well documented in the humanist literature from the "anti- utopian" novels of Huxley and Orwell, to the French existentialists and to the writings of Pasternak, DuBois, Fromm and many others, but at the same time representing a challenge to man, his knowledge and his technology, demanding that the urban crisis be moved to the center of man’s attention and threatening disintegration to all life so long as it remains periferal to his major concerns. The multi faceted human revolutions underway in the urban complex represent, essentially, part of a universal demand for the establishment of social, economic and political systems which insure the rights of in dividuals, their freedoms and the security of unrestricted exercise of those rights in the pursuit of opportunities equally available to all citizens for the full development of their potentials. The evolution of science has created multiple revolutions in 13 technology. As scientists master the secrets of the universe, new opportunities for further development in technology, industry, agri culture and medicine follow fast upon each other, and science becomes ever more influential as a direct force in production, with production conversely becoming the technological application of advances in the sciences. These advances herald for the first time in history the pos - sibility of meeting and satisfying all the needs of man at the highest levels. Cybernation makes possible a system of almost unlimited productive capacity, requiring progressively less human labor and demanding a complete reorganization of the economic and social sys tem for its most advantageous application and for effective adjustment to its diverse impacts. The energy revolution which has potential for producing more power than man has created throughout the history of the world offers unlimited quantities from three main sources : (1) con trolled thermonuclear reaction, (2) the sun for solar energy, and (3) the under-ground heat of the magmatic layer. Revolution is in pro gress in our industrial and technological systems, promoted and abetted by a revolution in the physical and life sciences. Its facets legion and apparently unlimited: we are at the threshold of the funda mentals of the origins of life, the chemical elements and the galaxies; we have launched the physical and communicative exploration of space through hundreds of trillions of miles by spacecraft and thousands of trillions of miles by means of radio-telescopic probes into the infinite outer reaches of our own galaxy to the Milky Way and to the limits of the known universe and beyond; we are exploring the inner reaches of the earth's land as well as the greatest depths of its oceans; we are 14 probing the nature of life itself through the chemistry of DNA (deoxy- ribonecleic acid), the code by which cells reproduce themselves and by which hereditary traits of one generation are passed on to the next; we have electronically reproduced some of man's senses, developed more sensitive instruments than the human eye, ear or touch, and in what is inadequately called the "computer", reproduced many of the faculties of the human brain. In communication technology, electro nic typesetting linked to transatlantic cable permits the New York Times Sunday edition, regularly containing more words than the Bible, to be published in key South American as well as European cities simultaneously. A single laser beam is theoretically capable of transmitting thousands of times more information than all the television, microwave and radio channels currently in use throughout the United States. In medicine, man has through new chemical drugs, anti-biotics (penicillin, streptomycin, aureomycin, declomycin, cho- loromycetin, tetracycline, terramycin and various insecticides) al most acquired death control, which has augmented doubling the world population to three billion in the last forty years, a figure which re quired 200,000 years to reach one-half of before. We are approach ing an understanding of the basic constitutents of matter, of the pro cess by which the brain functions, and of the factors governing be havior. We excelled the highest hopes of Alfred Nobel in 1944 when by producing the first fissionable substances of uranium and pluto nium, we created energy ten million times that of his favorite explo sive, nitroglycerine. Ten years later in 1954, the first fission- fusion-fission super bomb was exploded, the twenty megaton Bikini, 15 with energy of explosion one thousand times greater than that of all explosives used in all the wars that have taken place during the his tory of the world. Since Nobel envisioned "a substance or a machine with such terrible power of mass destruction that war would thereby be made impossible forever," that vision too has been accomplished. Integrated with the quality of scientific achievement is an exhaustive quantity. There are currently in excess of 50,000 scientific and tech nical journals, publishing annually about 1, 200,000 articles of signi ficance for some branch of science research and engineering in the physical and life sciences. Every year there are about 60, 000 new science books and 100,000 research reports. The amount of work being done is increasing at an accelerating rate, doubling every twenty years. It is to be expected that these developments penetrate every aspect of our daily lives. Evolution of rapid social change which confronts people with dilemmas and opportunities as well as decisions of a most crucial nature, results in decennial changes that formerly required one thousand years to occur. Revolution in war and weaponry has exploded. New forms of weaponry have been developed which can obliterate civilization almost instantly, proving the final futility of war, at the same time men and nations, with arrogant indifference create ever new concepts of war: limited war, guerrila war, cold war, arms race, overkill, brush fire war, peripheral military action, police action, ad infinitum and nu merous and diverse variations of psychological warfare. It is not surprising that our youth are in revolt--it is they who sacrifice their lives in these ingeniously contrived, senseless new wars. 16 The industrial revolution ushered in an era which necessi tated the development of new forms of organization to cope with its dynamics, of which the joint- stock, limited-liability company typified by the modern corporation emerged as the most important new form. The 500 largest United States industrial corporations ranging from Permanente Cement Company with sales of $85, 984, 000 and net pro fits of $7, 731, 000 to General Motors with sales of $16, 494, 818, 000 and profits of $1, 591,823, 000 in 1964 represent giant industrial em pires which require even more complex organization to properly 3 function in the management of vast and complex enterprises. Their impact upon our private and public lives in many instances parallel that of government, and in some cases exceed governmental influence they certainly have no mean effect upon the operations of government itself. In the political arena, the evolution of organizations of dif ferent structure, form, scope, scale and authority, has occurred on the local, national and international levels. Internationally, the most significant organization to emerge has been the United Nations, which with its 118 member nations as of September 1965 and covering many functions ranging from the security of nation's rights to the security of human rights, continues to expand its membership as well as its 4 functions. The European Economic Community, functioning among 3 The Fortune Directory: The 500 Largest U. S. Industrial Corporations, Fortune, LXX, No. 1, (July 1964), pp. 179-196. 4 For the organizational structure of the United Nations and a list of its member nations, please see Appendix C. 17 its rn.em.ber nations France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg has created what amounts to a "superstate." These six nations act as one upon matters of mutual concern and have estab lished organization unprecedented in the annals of international rela tionship. Composed of The High Authority which is the government of the Common Market for coal and steel, advised by a Consultative Committee of workers, producers and consumers; The Assembly, made up of 142 members of parliament who represent the people, supervises and guides the action of the High Authority, which is re sponsible to it; The Court of Justice, which ensures obedience to the Treaty by which the Community was set up; and The Special Council of Ministers, made up of representatives of each national government and has to be consulted before the High Authority takes important de cisions. The establishment of uniform patent and bankruptcy laws, a unified transportation investment policy, a uniform policy for fuel use and a court of justice reveal a few of the activities which document the establishment in Europe for the first time in its history of supra national institutions, whose decisions amount to a law common to all the nations concerned. Indeed, its success has been such that it con tinues to evoke discussion of the possible federation of European nations, a "United States of Europe." At the national level, the growth of government may be read in the increase of President Truman’s budget of $35.8 billion in 1946 to President Johnson’s of $99. 7 billion in 1965, a 55 per cent increase. Or, in terms of employment, the last ten years recorded an increase of 175,000 persons employed in the national government, which is in 18 terms of money, an increase of $638,4 million or an increase of 81. 3 per cent. The picture at the local level of government is even more dynamic. The state and local governments reported 7,188,000 em« ployees as of October 1963, a growth of 2,329,000 in ten years or a 47.9 per cent increase, or put another way, the states grew by approx imately 626, 000 employees (54.5 per cent) and the local government added 1,703,000, an increase of 245. 9 per cent. In terms of money, the states increased its payrolls by $397, 7 million (up 13 1. 6 per cent) and the local payrolls grew by $1,126,400,000 (up 110.1 per cent) in 5 the last ten years. The increase therefore, in non-federal or state and local government employment not only outstrips that of the federal government, but exceeds by a factor of seven the increase of employ ment in the fast paced auto industry and by a factor of three the in crease in all manufacturing industries combined. ^ The 3. 3 per cent increase in state and local government employment from 1962 to 1963 compares with a 2. 7 increase in employment in retail trade and a 2. 2 7 per cent increase in the service industries. On the immediate local scene, in another, but related context it can be noted that Los Angeles County government had only 22 functions in 1900, but more than 900 5 U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States; I960, (Eighty-first edition. ) Ü T ST Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. , I960, pp 422-429. ^Alfred L. Malabre, Jr. "Employment Boom: Jobs Increase Fastest In State and Local Government Positions. " The Wall Street Journal, October 15, 1964, p. 1. ^Ibid. 19 today, and this example is easily duplicated in many other counties characterized by one or more central cities of major metropolitan areas. The proliferation of political jurisdictions about the central cities of these metropolitan areas and the rapid growth of local government, document the need for more effectively structured area organization to solve effectively the problems of the urban region. g The county is often the expedient employed, as well as city-city and city-county consolidations ^ but a review of their efforts would easily disqualify this approach as an effective solution to the organization indispensible to this rapidly growing human region, if it is to be rendered and maintained a desirable habitat for all its people. On the labor front, the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations brought into being in 1955 the largest union organization in the United States. The growth of unions and the change in union organization and structure, has, over the years, paralleled those of public and private business, and imply the need for unions too, to adopt new methods and new or ganization in tune with changing conditions. Finally, even philanthropy has developed organization in the form of monolithic foundations to carry out the basic functions of how to give money away, to what and to whom. To a large degree they are postwar phenomenon. Of the 6,000 foundations with assets above g Mitchell Gordon. "Counties* Comeback: Local Units Experience a Revival Unexpected by Political Scientists. " The Wall Street Journal, August 20, 1963, p. 1. 20 $50, 000, some 1, 600 were formed from 1940-50, and 2, 800 from 1950-60. The ten largest range from the Lilly Endowment, estab lished in 1937, with assets of $151. 0 million to Ford Foundation, founded in 1936 with current assets of $3.32 billion. The 6,007 foundations which qualify for the Foundation Directory published by the Russell Sage Foundation are divided into five categories: (1) general research, (2) special purpose, (3) community, (4) company sponsored, and ( 5 ) family. These evolving as well as emergent organizations, with their dynamic structures, complicated forms and diverse concerns represent neither a highway to niverna, nor a freeway to disaster, but are rather human attempts to cope with the dynamic revolutions in technology resulting from the continuing evolution of science, the accelerating growth of population and the impact of both population and technology upon environment as man attempts to convert land and resources to human use. The emergence of the administrator as specialist and the science of administration as a new discipline, is merely an expression of the need for more effective methods in ad ministration of organization. Thus, political science and law, age- old dominant disciplines of the organizational process now share the stage with the administrative process, a factor of the industrial re volution, which has been vital to its growth and development. The industrial revolution, with its overwhelming domination of many aspects of national life, with its major organization "the corporation" has influenced other organization in both the private and public sec tors of the economy, imposing its affects upon values, methods, pro- 21 cesses and procedures, sometimes constructively, sometimes de structively, for their uncoordinated efforts often produce economic, if not physical disaster. As previously stated, the secondary concern of this study is of the use of land as resource and the development and use of the re sources of the earth, water and air. Again, the central concern is human beings as the epicenter of all planning processes. Encom passed herein is concern with the utilization of the earth* s space, the adaptation of organisms to natural and controlled environments; the conservation, development and utilization of natural resources, pat tern of region and ordering of regional forces and the planning and organization of the physical, social, economic and functional ele ments of the region in terms of their relationship to the region and to each other as "region makers, " Essentially, the study focuses upon region as environment and the process of planning as the rational means for converting that environment, by necessary or ganization, through the application of technology, to a more habitable social, physical and psychological surround. Here again, the con cerns are complex and integrated with all the other elements of reality, as well as utopia; for, today^s reality is yesterday*s utopia, and tomorrow's utopia is born of man*s desire to eliminate environ mental resistances and secure those priorities of progress which measure the advance of civilization. The evolutionary events of the twentiety century have created an atmosphere of war and revolution, and our fears resulting there from have conditioned our perceptions under the pressure of propa 22 ganda, and delusion to a view of the world which desperately clings to the past or hopes by some miracle that the realities of revolu tionary change will somehow dissolve and leave us at peace. Such hopes are madness, or at least represent failure to understand the changes, trends and impending changes which will revolutionize the world as we know it today. The rapid cultural evolutions and the dynamic human revolutions which accompany them are continuing and inescapable. They challenge the status quo in religion, politics, economics, industry, organization, science, technology, education, ways of life, occupation and means of living. They challenge the myths of our time which are comparable in their naiivete to those of the Greeks in theirs. They reject folklore and superstition, espe cially when they manifest themselves in political, economic or social dogma, which under the microscope prove to be mere exponents of a morality of privilege at best, or worse an environmental resistance which restricts the forward march of progress. They protest limi tations on human freedoms, whether they be imposed by a vote-cast ing majority which restricts a basic right to purchase property where one is economically able, a majority vote going against municipal financing of critically needed educational or other social needs, or a powerful politically organized minority which by capturing the control ling reins of a party imposes its will upon a majority. They dissent majority decisions when those decisions violate any human right to which they are entitled and maintain that a mere vote cannot now or ever be the basis upon which those rights may be determined. In a word, human rights and freedoms upon which are based the oppor 23 tunity for qualitative development of the individual and of society as a whole are the essence of the planner*s concern and the fountainhead from which spring all the issues to which he must address the pro grams and policies designed to create a more habitable environment. It is into this world in revolution that planning must project itself, if it is to be more than an apologetic tool for creating an environment conducive to the qualitative development of the individual and the qualitative progress of civilization. The Nature of The Study If willing to seek them out, one can discover scores of studies by the United Nations, universities, private foundations, nations and states which indicate the predictable developments in human productivity and technological efficiency. Further research would reveal studies related to the quantity and quality of resources, both primary and secondary, with relation to their location in regions, states and nations throughout the world. Though less numerous, studies have been developed on the rational use, development and conservation of natural resources. Statistical studies have been made of population all round the world, from which popular news publications often draw sensationalist type news, such as "Population 9 Explosion Poses Gravest Threat" and "Billion Chinese Called F uture*s No. 1 Dilemma. Numerous statistical studies too, are Q Los Angeles Times, December 8, 1963, p. 1. ^^Los Angeles Times, April 23, 1964, p. 1. 24 continually produced as standard procedure by many of the planning agencies throughout the nation, with the appropriate projections. There have been studies of an "urban regional" nature such as the New York Plan of 1925^^ and Philadelphia Plan of 1930. The New York plan was composed of two parts : (1) "The Regional Survey," consisting of eight volumes: I. Major Economic Factors in Metro politan Growth and Arrangement; II. Population, Land Values and Government; III. Highway Traffic; IV. Public Recreation; V. Public Recreation; VI. Buildings: Their Uses and Spaces About Them; VII. Neighborhood and Community Planning; and VIII. Physical Conditions and Public Services, and (2) "The Regional Plan" consisting of two volumes: I. The Graphic Regional Plan; and II. The Building of the City, a discussion of the art of city building and the future of building in the region, including general problems and proposals, and with special reference to specific projects illustrating possibilities of 1 3 future development. Although soundly scored by Lewis Mumford upon its publication, it remains a classic in the annals of regional planning reports. "The Philadelphia Tri-State Plan, " produced by The Russell Sage Foundation, The Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, A Study Prepared by tbe Regional Plan As- sociation. Inc., New York, 1925. 12 Russel Van Nest Black, The Philadelphia Tri-State Plan, The Regional Planning Federation of Tbe Tri-State District, (Penn sylvania, New Jersey and Delaware), 1930. 13 Lewis Mumford, "The Plan of New York: I," The New Republic, (June 15, 1932), p. 121, "The Plan of New York: II", The New Republic, (June 22, 1932), p. 146. 25 the efforts of concerned community groups and in contrast, financed by the same groups, was a similar attempt to analyze a tri- state area of urban character and project plans for its rational growth and development. The severe depression of the 1930's saw the evolution of plans for the Tennessee Valley, an area four-fifths the size of England, which sprawls across parts of seven states, and had at that time a population exceeding two million people. The entire watershed of the Tennessee River, a region rather than a valley is an area which contains a wealth of natural resources, mile-high mountains, land close to sea level, rolling country, valleys and in numerable streams. The plans for the area represented the most significant example of planning on a true regional basis that this nation has produced and moreover, triggered projections of "TVA's" 14 on an international scale. More recently. The New York Metro politan Region S tu^ was published. Composed of nine volumes : (1) "Anatomy of A Metropolis," (2) "Made In New York," (3) "The New comers," (4) "Wages In The Metropolis," (5) "Money Metropolis," (6) "Freight And The Metropolis," (7) "One-Tenth Of A Nation," (8) "1400 Governments," (9) "Metropolis 1985" and a technical supple ment, "Projection of a Metropolis. " It attempts an analysis and an 14 "An International TVA?," The Economist, December 9, 1944, pp. 766-767. 15 New York Regional Plan Association, Inc. New York Metropolitan Region Study, Graduate School of Public Adminis tration, Harvard University, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Har vard University Press, I960). 26 interpretation of the forces that shape the largest and most complex urban region in the United States, a 22-county area encompassing parts of three states (New Jersey, New York and Connecticut). Even more recently "Megalopolis" was published. Sponsored by The Twentieth Century Fund, it attempts to describe the origins and prospects of a pattern of urban areas 600 miles long and varying be tween thirty and 100 miles in width, with over 37 million inhabitants, and extending from Manchester, New Hampshire to Washington, D. C. An area occupying 1.8 per cent of the acreage of the United States, it has 21 per cent of the total population. The study delves into causes, trends, relationships, "tidal movements" , of men and goods. Much of its concentration is upon the dynamics of urbanization and the social, economic and political forces that create that dynamics. Although this study encompasses the central elements of the studies and reports outlined above it is not an attempt to reproduce any of them. It is therefore neither a study of any given region, nor of specific regional plans. Briefly, this thesis is an effort to illus trate the birth, growth and possible future of an increasingly impor tant level of environmental planning. It is therefore, in its first part, historical in nature, in that it will attempt to identify the be ginnings of regional planning as idea and trace its course through the maze of concepts, planning efforts, political and social dispositions, area development, philosophies, and organizations created to tackle Jean Gottmann, Megalopolis: The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States, (Cambridge, Massacbusetts: The M. I. T. PTesl, 1961). 27 single purpose functions and found themselves involved in complex , multi-faceted problems, to its emergence as a specific science and art addressed to specific interrelated problems. The second part of the study will be journalistic in nature, since it will largely report on existing regional planning agencies and the scope and nature of their work in principle and in practice. It will largely examine in addition the institutions of higher learning by survey and search out its current status there, in whatever form it may be found, by whatever title it may be given to gauge its potential for further development. Finally, it will attempt to analyze its his torical strengths and current trends and project upon this base a theory of regional planning, possible organizational structure, its scope and possible future role, educational programs to prepare future regional planners for professional practice, and an outline of its principles and practices. The Importance Of The Study The brief illustration of the current era which occurs at the beginning of this introduction brings clearly into focus much of the dynamic negative and positive aspects of environmental realities. The importance of planning in such an era cannot be over emphasized. The dynamic crisis in human relations and the parallel population ex plosion are intensifying, creating increasingly serious problems. Planning must address itself to these problems. The ineffectiveness of political, social and economic organization in solving these pro blems demands the restructuring and reorientation that will justify 28 their reasons for existence. Planning must direct its attention to or ganization, both private and public and to combinations of these to more effectively solve those problems that will not yield to existing organization. The challenge of the region as it exists today, and its potential for tomorrow as an effective habitat for the exploding popu lation must be faced if the problems it portends are to be solved. Planning of adequate scale and comprehensiveness must be instituted if problems of region which will have detrimental effect upon its ele ments are to be solved. The massive technological changes with their potential benefits in energy, communications, automation and cybernation must be harnessed and applied to convert nature and nature*s resources to a more inhabitable environment for man and his evolving culture. A planning approach equal to this task must be developed and applied, if equitable benefits to mankind are to be drawn from a prolific science and an affluent technology. Only ef fective planning can comprehend these forces, harness them and apply the intelligence necessary to convert nature and naturels re sources to a more habitable environment for man and his continually developing civilization. These issues demand new concepts of or ganization, new applications of old technology ajtid new technological applications, new concepts of environment and new regional patterns, new values and goals and new methods of determining them. These problems demand reappraisals of old traditions and new approaches to contemporary explosive conditions. It should be understood that as the intensities of protest against diverse social, economic and political inequities increase, as poverty in the midst of plenty expands 29 as the apathy of the majority increases and the restraint and patience of the minority decreases, planning more in scale with their inten sities, as well as with their geographical distribution, must be ini tiated and instituted at several organizational levels. As an expan ding technological capability increases geometrically and a sluggish economy grows at a rate almost three per cent less than that neces sary to maintain the reasonable degree of use of resources by ab sorbing the annual increase in the civilian labor force and in produc tivity or output per m sLn hour, it becomes even more imperitive that the planning process address itself to this paradox. The importance of the study becomes apparent even upon a cursory examination, which would immediately reveal dynamic inter relationships between regional elements. The significance of plan ning at the regional level also becomes apparent, since none of the problems outlined above can be expected to be resolved with present approaches and their intensification clearly continues. It is therefore the thesis of this study that planning at the regional level is the so lution to solving the problems of a mushrooming conurbation that threatens to sweep across the countryside in all directions, leaving in its wake problems that will yield only to planning in scale with its threat. As numerous cities within the region struggle unsuccessfully in their attempts to solve problems regional in nature, the corre lation between city and regional planning becomes apparent, and regional planning is revealed as the significant missing link in a plan ning process, now dominated by detailed, restricted local planning and highly specialized state and federal planning. It is precisely at 30 the regional scale the multigrained fabric of culture and subculture vividly reveals itself, that a sufficiency of forces and relationships of the vital elements that shape the human environment come into sharp enough focus to facilitate analysis, synthesis, plan and policy formulation and program promulgation and implementation to effec tuate the development of a creative theatre which will enhance man*s highest social aspirations. At this level the primary elements, human resources, can be seen in relation to the secondary elements and their development viewed in proper scale of quantity and quality, and perspective of space and time. At this level the patterns of physical development can be viewed over a range large enough to de termine the qualitative growth conducive to cultural as well as eco nomic progress. At this level too, the major and most important goals of individuals and of society can be effectively established as objectives and the course of development of community and other re gional elements so organized and functions so coordinated that check mated problems impossible of solution at the municipal level can be resolved, qualitative growth induced and waste and destruction of the earth* s resources eliminated, which would disadvantage future gener ations and threaten the continuity of nation. It follows that in the light of intensifying revolutions, born of human creativity in science and technology, human failures and suc cesses with environment and organization, human strengths and weak nesses in their relationships with other human kind, imbalances in the distribution of human resources and inequities in the quality of human resource development, and the massive and continually in 31 creasing problems resulting therefrom, no more important study can be undertaken than one which attempts to project a method or a pro cess equal to the monumental task of dissolving environmental resis tances and promoting the attainment of social and cultural priorities of progre s s. The Purpose Of The Study The foregoing presents the case for planning at a scale equal to the massive problems which over shadow the current era and con tends that regional planning is that scale. The foregoing indicates the necessity for planning over an area geographically large enough to encompass the extensive and complex problems that impose them selves upon humanity and environment in the current era, and asserts that the region is that area. The foregoing crystalizes the multipli city and complexity of problems that completely ignore municipal, county and sometimes state boundaries and emphasizes the ines capable interrelations, contending that regional planning is the ef fective means of implementing solutions as well as directing the con structive evolution of dynamic social and technological change. Therefore, the study is multi-purpose in nature, for it will seek out and analyze regional planning as concept in terms of its historical development over a period of sufficient length to discover the major factors that gave it birth and the influences and factors that gave it growth; it will survey regional planning through the United States as it exists today in practice in governmental organizations throughout the fifty states and academically throughout the network of educa- 32 tional institutions which prepare students for planning careers; and finally, upon the analytical and synthesized base resulting from re search and survey, project a theory of regional planning as well as an outline of its principles and practices. As a general, over-all purpose, the study will aim at promoting a philosophy of regional planning by identifying unifying concepts, principles, methodology and structure which will hopefully form a valid basis for more ef fective planning education and lend foundation and direction to plan ning as a profession. Definitions of Terms Used Any study of this nature and purpose will incorporate many terms the definitions of which will occur where they are employed, or will naturally assert their meaning by the nature of their use; how ever, it is felt that certain definitions central to the study should be set forth at the outset for several reasons, but mostly to clarify the context within which they are used and to orient the mind of the reader to that framework. Region. The varying concepts of region have been set forth by many who have attempted to delimit its meaning by a process of simplification and through elimination effect a discontinuity which would draw it into an identifiable framework, which, thus isolated, yields quick familiarity by simplified occupation. The best attempt to list definitions of region discovered during research is repre sented by those listed in Howard W „ Odum's American Regionalism where examples of this and other approaches more ecological in 33 17 nature are set forth. As conceived herein 'region* is a flexible term which may vary with the planning problem, function or purpose and which, within that context, may be further defined by physio graphic, economic, social and political determinants of region and the relationships between them which in sum delimit the realities tantamount to region for planning purposes. Regionalism. The varying concepts of regionalism have also been set forth by many who have attempted to delimit its meanirg by a similar process and the best attempt discovered to list these de finitions was also made by Howard W. Odum in American Regiona- 18 lism. To them should be added Howard W. Odum's own concept, which is essentially comprehensive in nature and double pronged in thrust. It is a concept with implications in literature, geography, history, ecology, anthropology, psychology, economics, political science and sociology. Regionalism is a means of synthesis of all the social sciences and to an extent the humanities. It is the method by which society yields to analytical analysis and can be viewed as a whole. In the second sense it was seen by Odum as a program of action, and further an approach whereby the regions may be inte grated into the national whole without losing their differentiation. Regionalism to H, W, Odum was all this and more, because it pro vided the method whereby human intelligence could be used most ef- 1 7 For a copy of "Varying Concepts of The Region" as it appeared in American Regionalism , please see Appendix D. 18 For a copy of "Varying Concepts of Regionalism" as it appeared in American Regionalism, please see Appendix F. 34 effectively in the solution of social problems. As conceived herein 'regionalism* may be considered the classical term employed by early regionalists to describe the survey, analysis and synthesis of physical, functional, economic, social and political phenomena pre requisite to regional planning. In the perspective of regional planning by projection presented in Chapter V, classical regionalism will emerge as regional science, whose current main objectives merely foster exchange of ideas and promote studies focusing on the region and utilizing tools, methods and theoretical frameworks specifically designed for regional analysis, as well as concepts, procedures and analytical techniques of the various social and other sciences, but which will become the "physics of regional phenomena" in regional planning of the future. Geotechnics. A term originated by Patrick Geddes which refers to the applied science of making the earth more habitable. It follows as a corollory that "metrotechnics" is the applied science of making the metropolis more habitable. Geotechnics is related to the natural region-wmetrotechnics to the urban region. Automation. The automatic linkage of a production process to a mechanism which checks that process and adjusts it to a desired standard, David Foster defined automation as development into data controlled process, embracing all feedback systems where data are 19 extracted from the process for correcting process performance. 19 David Foster, Modern Automation, (London; Sir Isaac Pittman & Sons, Ltd. , 1963), pp. 1-10. 35 Foster further described automation as covering programmed pro cesses without feedback elements and simple instrumental systems as partial automation where data is picked up from a process and pre sented an operator for his information. Automation is not mechani zation--it commences where mechanization leaves off. In contrast to automation, a machine is a device which "simply does not know what it is doing. " Automation may also be described as the appli cation to established industrial processes of artificial devices which can simulate human psychic functions (senses, memory, standards, intelligence) in order that these processes may acquire characteris tics of adaptability and self optimization. Feedback. An arrangement of sensing and powering devices which continuously detects the condition of an apparatus, or of a pro duct made by an apparatus, and establishes the error between the actual condition and that desired. The error produces a force which is fed back into the apparatus to correct the condition, which when corrected the feed back device ceases to operate, called negative feedback, because the error is made to cancel itself out. Cybernation. Derived from the Greek "kybernetes, " which means steersman or steering force, cybernation refers to automated systems of production, controlled by computing machines. The late Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics as the science of control and com munication in the animal and machine. Cybernation, something quite different from automation, the process by which a block of metal could be placed at at one end of a series of machines and emerge at the other as a finished engine block without the need of human inter - 36 vention. Automated machinery could do some things fast and well, nevertheless, its potential to organize human beings out of work was limited because of its inflexibility. Cybernation, however, is highly flexible and will become more so as time passes. Cybernation is the process of linking a computer, which is effectively a machine which will make decisions and using it to control automated machinery. These interlocking machine-systems can often be controlled by a few people sitting at computers. The potential to organize human beings out of work in order to increase the efficiency of machine systems is already large and rapidly growing. Therefore, the current changes in technology are not merely a continuation of those of the last 150 years (the industrial revolution), but an entirely new phenomenon, which demands entirely new means of control. Terminology of Regional Description. The view that region alism is the scientific study of the region which facilitates goal deter mination, the planning pursuant to policy and program formulation, and the implementation of plans through effective organization demands a terminology which arises from new concepts requiring new words and new meanings for existing words. Since regional planning addres ses itself to environment, the problem of scale in regional planning necessitates delineation by definition. The following terms repre senting dimensions of region and regional elements and beyond to en compass geographical areas containing more than one region, facili tates ordering the generalization necessary for establishing the scale and the position of region in the structure of environmental reality. The terms defined below are borrowed from other disciplines and are 37 employed here in terms of the meanings assigned, not in terms of the meanings they represent in other disciplines. Microchore. A term used to refer to small topographical areas or physical developments such as might be manifested by the structural parts of the major elements of region. The commercial center of a city, its civic center, its convention center or its cultural center might be considered "a microchoric" element of region. Mesochore. A term used to refer to large topographical areas or physical developments representative of the major elements of the region. A town or city, the communication and transportation system between elements of region, the system of regional parks and recreational facilities, a regional agricultural industry, or a major regional industrial park can be referred to as "mesochoric" elements of region. Maxichore. The region itself is a maxichoric element of a larger environmental reality, and may occur in numbers within a large state or nation or may transcend boundaries of a small state or nation. Macrochore. Groups of interrelated regions may be referred to as macrochoric environments. Continents, nations and a major island or group of islands may be considered representative of this category. Landscape. A portion of a territory found to exhibit essen tially the same aspect after having been examined from any necessary number of perspectives. The cultural landscape would be the physi cal environment as modified by man and his works. 38 The following terms are related to man's inhabitance of an area and are defined as indicated, Occupance. The process of man’s entering into and living in an area and the transformation of the environment which results therefrom. Sequential Occupance. The sequence of cultures and cul tural impresses that have created a complex of superimposed oc- 20 cupance patterns in any given "surround, " or environment. Sources of Information Field Sources. This category represents direct or personal sources, which herein are primarily through written communication reflected mainly in letters from educators or practitioners in re gional planning or in fields directly related. However, information from a few personal interviews will be included where salient facts difficult of documentation by other source must be confirmed. This category will also include information yielded by the two surveys which will constitute the major data tabulated in Chapter III which sets forth the current status of regional and state planning in its practical application and regional planning in its academic and 21 theoretical sense. 20 Warner L. Marsh, Landscape Vocabulary (Los Angeles; Miramar Publishing Co., 1964), p. 291. 21 For a copy of the questionnaires which yielded the infor mation incorporated in the surveys please see Appendix G. 39 Documentary Sources. Since this study is in itself one of analysis and of synthesis, it follows that this elementary categori zation of sources of information is interrelated and overlapping, and is set forth here primarily to indicate the de facto sources drawn upon for documentation. Consequently, the primary sources of a documentary nature were secured through the same questionnaire survey as well as personal interview, conference and participant observation. The secondary sources, representing data transcribed or compiled from original sources, merely reflect the inavailability of primary sources or the difficulty of obtaining the information from them. Such data will be used only as a last resort in that they are too often subject to error. In such cases the primary source will be cited to make the original source known to those who wish to consult it. Historical Sources. Although these sources will also be documented in some instances, they will primarily draw upon the wealth of literature in the field of regional planning and that of fields directly related thereto which elucidate the ideas and trends and crys tallize the influences, whether political, social, economic or techno logical which enhanced the idea of regional planning in theory or pro moted its evolution as process in practice. The synthetical nature of this study will often fuse or dis solve these categories, but it is hoped that the organization and structure of the biliography and notes will clarify such tendency and enable the reader to discover easily any original sources necessary to his own research which may be projected to greater depth. CHAPTER II HISTORY OF REGIONAL PLANNING The major literary problem facing the historian attempting to tell the story of an emerging concept struggling for expression; of related principles and ideas straining against dogma; of entrenched political, social and economic systems resisting the emergence of necessary new systems, forms, processes; of tradition in conflict with efforts to correct conditions; of states, counties and cities wrestling with development problems during dynamically changing decades; of economic, social and political lag in an increasingly ad vancing technological era; and of the laws and literature which best expressed its emergence--is to reveal a plot. All history requires a plot, but a history such as implied above demands a scheme that indicates the most significant relationships of the important realities that gave it substance. Compounded of revolutionary ideas, and the desire for the implementation of bold and nobel objectives; com pounded too of proposed solutions to vast areal problems based upon comprehensive analysis and synthesis; rooted in the knowledge of man, society, nature and nature's resources yielded by the imposition of the several disciplines cuid their interrelationships; peopled with bril liant practical visionaries, promoted by values that motivate action, and abetted by conservationist's ideals, but still remaining an idea whose time has not yet come, regional planning is nebulous in con 40 41 cept, obscured by presumption, diver se in approach, contradictory and inconsistent in application and in meaning, but as all-inclusive and com plicated as the culture it seeks to advance, and as profound in concept as its founder s were in their visions. Evolutionary in nature, regional planning had its birth in many cultural and historical forces, but its rise and incidence was primarily the result of metropolitanism. In 1834 after a year's sojourn in America and an extensive inquiry into the nature of her democracy, the celebrated French his torian, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote: There are at the present time two great nations in the world which seem to tend toward the same end, although they started from different points : The Russians and the Americans . . , All other nations seem to have nearly reached their natural limits and only to be charged with the maintenance of their power ; but these are still in the act of growth; all the others are stopped or continue to advance with extreme difficulty; these are proceeding with ease and celerity along a path to which the human eye can assign no term . . . Their starting points are different and their courses are not the same. Yet each of them seems to be marked out bj^ the will of Heaven to sway the destinies of half the globe. Though considered a rash and fantastic prediction at the time, it has been strikingly realized since the end of World War II, but with this seemingly endless term of advancement in the United States has emerged problems essentially regional in nature that will without some significant advances in comprehensive planning of a regional nature effect a continual slow-down in this advance which will result in an arrested civilization or worse, retrogression beyond that point. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy In America, translated by Henry Reeve (Revised Edition, Vol. I, New York: The Colonial Press, 1900), p. 441-442. 42 Centuries ago, during the lifetime of Christ, alarmed by a Rome "in which the powers of this overgrown state have been long employed in working their own destruction," Titus Livius, the greatest historian of Rome, in his History of Rome wrote : Consider by what kind of men and by what sort of conduct, in peace and war, the empire has been both acquired and extended. Then, as discipline gradually declined, follow the structure of ancient morals ; at first, as it were, leaning aside, then sinking farther and farther, then beginning to fall precipitate, until arriving at the present time our vices have attained to such a height of enormity, that we can no longer endure either the burden of them or the sharpness of the necessary remedies, .. This is the great advantage to be derived from the study of history; indeed, the only one which can make it answer any profitable and salutary purpose; for, being abundently fur nished with clear and distinct examples of every kind of con duct, we may select for our selves and for the state to which we belong, such as are worthy of imitation; and carefully noting such, as being dishonorable in their principles, are equally so in their effects, learn to avoid them. The Greeks conceived history as cyclic patterns of eternal recurrence. The Hebrews started the conception of history as a linear process in a God-willed direction, an eschatological, teleo- logical approach which was passed on to Christianity, with a view of history as the record of the mighty acts of God, in which man exer cises free will, but God's ultimate purpose is not to be frustrated. Later, the use of the historical viewpoint for the clarification of problems and phenomena evolved and declined, being replaced by descriptive anthropology, positivism, existentialism. The foregoing views of the nature and purpose of history ^Titus Livius, The History of Rome, translated by D, Spillan, A.M. , M.D. (Book I, London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. , 1911), p. 3-4. 43 begin to shed light upon the whys for this chapter, which are vital to understand the status of regional planning today and its potential for tomorrow, indeed its necessary establishment tomorrow. History herein is to be treated as a study of the past in which thinking, and reasoning will lead to insights and perception necessary to under stand ourselves and our world, so that planners in cooperation with related disciplinarians can formulate relevant and reasoned alter natives and become more effective in re solving environmental resis tances and promoting the attainment of priorities of progress. There fore, history herein is to be considered as a way of learning which assumes that only by understanding planning efforts in the past can we project efforts that will be more effective in the future; only by comprehension of the evolution of regional planning can we perceive the process and nature of its modifications and gain insight into what it was, understanding of what it is and plausible perspective on what it may become. The search in history is one of immersing one's self in the past and emerging from its sub mar ini an depths with a wider and more intense consciousness of the limitations of previous views and more aware of the alternatives available and better pre pared with the instruction history affords which is indispensable for maki ng de ci s i on s. This excursion into the history of regional planning draws extensively upon regional planning literature which the bibliography confirms as being rich and well stocked; it draws too upon investi gations by well known students of regionalism, regional planning and related disciplines with direct connections between their specialized 44 field and the comprehensive art and science of regional planning. It attempts further to grasp the nature and significance of regional plan ning, the primary and secondary elements involved, their relation ships and the causes and consequences of what is revealed. It is therefore an effort to provide the following: (1) the major causes and influences which gave it birth and which resulted in its transformation from stage to stage; (2) the logical series of causes and effects which led to its rise and evolution; (3) the picture of the American reality at the stages of its evolution which most influenced its form, concept, function, growth; and, finally (4) the fundamental description of the structure and circumstances, the form and purpose of regional plan ning as it evolved in American history. The Era Of Regional Planning's Early Origins The period commonly referred to as the "turn of the century" following 1890 was the explosive era in which the first faint stirrings of regional planning began. Intercession into the Cuban War of Inde pendence of 1895 and the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 thrust the United States upon the dynamic stage of international affairs. Big business in the form of a mythological but legal "corporate individual" was ex*» ploding; eighteen trusts with an aggregate capital of $288 million in the decade from 1880*90 had expanded to 157 trusts with a capital of $3. 150 billion by 1900; the railroad network included some 200, 000 miles of track and had a par value of securities estimated in excess of $15 billion. A scientific revolution triggered by social and eco nomic dynamics was underway; the public health movement was pas 45 teurizing milk, sanitizing water and destroying the breeding places of malarial and yellow fever mosquitos; entire communities were being immunized against small pox, anthrax and diptheria; and personal hy giene was being taught in the schools. In the field of applied science, electricity and the internal combustion engine had produced the elec tric street railway, the wireless, the telephone and the incandescent lamp; both the automobile and the airplane were becoming more than a novelty. During the decade from 1890 to 1900 more than 400, 000 patents were issued. Between 187 0 and 1900 the number of students in the public high schools and grade schools increased from 6. 9 million to 15, 5 million; in the high schools from 1889*90, 43, 731 graduates more than doubled to 94, 883 from 1899 to 1900; graduate degrees in creased in the same period from 16,703 to 29,375. Other educational advances were achieved: 37 states levied taxes for public libraries; grants amounting to $62. 5 million were made to community libraries for the purchase of periodicals and books. The cultural and social revolution of the times was replete with interpreters, dissenters, writers in crisis, critics and philoso phers. Some of the foremost follow and shed light on the nature of those explosive times: 1871 * Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, The Silent Partner. A Puritan protest against factory conditions in New England and a plea for better treatment of labor, 1873 - Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age. Political corruption and greedy citizens in the age of President Grant. 1880 - Henry Adams, Democracy. A defense of demo cracy against the indifference, contempt and pessimism of the rich. 46 1881 * Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor. Cruel treatment of the American Indian by the United States Government. 1884 - John Hay, The Breadwinners. An attack on labor leaders in the spirit of individualistic capitalism. 1888 * Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward. Utopian picture of abundance and a good life under a socialistic regime in the year 2000. 18 90-98 - Hamlin Garland, Main Travelled Roads. Hard bitten and impoverished farming families in the Middle West struggling for a livelihood. 1894 - H, D, Lloyd, Wealth Against Commonwealth. Assailed Standard Oil Company and the system of in- dividualistic acquisition and called for a new order of cooperation. 1894 - W. D. Howells, A Traveler From Altruria. Conflict between classes and masses in the light of a democratic and socialistic ideal. 1900 - Theodore Drieser, Sister Carrie. Cruel fate of the poor and humble in the land of great riches and prosperity. 1901 * Frank Norris, The Octopus. An epic of great wheat production in California. 1904 » Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities. Journalistic treatment of corruption of American muni- cipal government. 1905 - David Graham Phillips, The Deluge. For democracy against corruption and oppression by the privileged few. 1905 - Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth. The new plutocracy against a background of seasoned riches. 1906 - Upton Sinclair, The Jungle. Poverty, filth and suffering in a great industrial center. 1910 - Jack London, Revolution. Industrial strife at a high pitch and in a revolutionary temper. 1911 - Edith Wharton, Ethan Frome. Cold fate of the poor in New England farming communities. 47 The conditions of the times that produced these social critics were characterized by the most inhumane housing for people in the cities: their crowding and overcrowding in tenements, the vile sinks and more vile privies, foul cellars full of rubbish, dilapidated and dangerous stairs, plumbing pipes containing large holes emitting foul sewer gas throughout the houses, rooms so dark and dank their very nature was disease, cellars occupied as sleeping places, dangerous fire traps without fire escapes, buildings without waste disposal or adequate water supply and infested with vermin of every description, including disease-carrying roaches and rabies - carrying rats. Such places housed thousands of industrial workers in the United States; into them crowded thousands of new immigrants from Europe. At the same time, the slums yielded millions of dollars to owners in rents and increased land values. As early as 1893, George K. Holmes of the United States Census Office calculated the estimate that 20 per cent of the wealth of the United States is owned by 3/100th of 1 per cent of the population; 71 per cent is owned by 9 per cent of the families, 3 and 29 per cent is all that falls to 91 per cent of the population. In 1904 Robert Hunter, employing the scientific method, re ported that there are in fairly prosperous years, probably, no less than 10 million persons in poverty; that is to say, underfed, under- q clothed and poorly housed. Of these, about 4 million were deter- ^Robert Hunter, Poverty, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912), pp. 41-45. ^Ibid. , p. 1 1 . 48 mined to be public paupers, over two million working men unemployed from four to six months of the year, no less than one million workers injured or killed each year on the job and many overworked and under paid. It was also, in general, determined that unnecessary disease was far too prevalent and that the insanitary conditions of tenements and factories were the rule rather than the exception. Earlier, in 1894, Richard T. Ely, a teacher of economics at the University of Wisconsin, who combined studying, observation and theorizing with the formulation of programs for social action, 5 published his Socialism. This work and the later Poverty, indicated above, taken collectively, offered among other recommendations, the following proposals for corrective social action: (1) making all fac tories and tenements sanitary and safe; (2) taxation of incomes and inheritances and application of the revenues to social purposes; (3) stamping out contagious diseases by public health measures; (4) shortening hours of work, especially in dangerous and laborious in dustries, and for women and young people; (5) public care of defec tives and dependents, separating them from the body of employable and industrious workers; (6) insurance against sickness, unemploy ment and accidents in industry; (7) compensation to workers injured in industries through no fault of their own--a great source of poverty and family distress; (8) old age pensions; (9) establishment of mini mum hours and wages in "sweated " industries and enforcement of Richard Theodore Ely, Socialism: An Examination Of Its Nature, Its Strength, And Its Weakness, With Suggestions Eor Social Reform (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. , 1894), pp. 253-354. 49 sanitary standards by public authority; (10) regulation of tenements, planning and improvement of cities with provision for parks, play grounds, and other recreational facilities; (11) conservation and wise use of natural resources; (12) raising standards of physical well being by compulsory public health measures; and (13) extension and im provement of public education for all children of all the people. These "radical changes" have to a large extent been established and history records the organization and form that gave them existence, but at the time they were attacked as "foreign ideology" and commu nism, devoid of any qualities American. The truth of the matter is that the demand for change arose out of conditions existing here in America, and it required sustained protest as well as revolution to bring the necessary changes into being. This same era saw great contributions by Henry George, (Progress and Poverty, 1879) , whose concepts of the single tax and the unearned increment were severely attacked by the wealthy, but which spurred the imagination of the masses of slum dwellers and helped promote the protest that finally led to change; Jacob A. Riis, whose vivid descriptions of life in the tenements of New York City in How The Other Half Lives , at least touched the consciousness of the holders of power by imposing an awareness of the conditions upon them; and Thor stein Veblen, whose Theory of Business Enterprise, 1904, pointed out that modern business was carried on largely by corporations, not by individuals ; that great fortunes had accrued to individuals by the formation of trusts and combines which closed many competitive plants and raised prices; that other great fortunes had 50 been accumulated by selling pieces of paper, called stocks and bonds, to investors at prices far above their true value; that instead of in creasing the production of wealth in innumerable cases, big business operations actually reduced the production of wealth. All of which was documented with extensive study of court records and legislative reports on the methods of trusts, combinations and financiers, so often ignored by economic theorists. Lewis Morgan in anthropology, Asa Gray in botany, Josiah Willard Gibbs in physics, Wolcott Gibbs in chemistry, Simon Newcomb in astronomy, Josiah Royce, William James and Charles S. Pierce in philosophy, all engraved their names in history. In the arts, the works of Walt Whitman, Henry James and Mark Twain were great literary contributions ; in painting, Winslow Homer, George Inness, Homer Martin, John S. Sargent and William M. Chase; and in sculpture, Augustus St. Gaudens, Daniel Chester French and George C. Barnard. In architecture, Louis H. Sullivan, H. H. Richardson, and a talented coterie of others created an aes thetic which later became known as the "Chicago School" of architec ture, whose story is told in the recent study by Carl W. Condit, ^ and which continues to influence American architecture today. In music, Boston in 1881, Chicago in 1891, Cincinnati in 1895 and Philadelphia in 1900 followed the example of New York which established its Philhar- Carl W. Condit, The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-19237 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964). 51 monic in 1845, drawing great European masters to perform and gave American composers the opportunity to express their delightful if not profound work. Edward MacDowell, Horatio Parker, Arthur Foote and George Chadwick were prominent among these. Politically, this era saw the tenure of four presidents : (1) Benjamin Harrison, 1889*1893; (2) Grover Cleveland, 1893-1897; (3) William McKinley, 1897-1901; and Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-1909. The most noteworthy of these was, of course, Theodore Roosevelt, who ascended to the presidency after the assination of President McKinley. His first message to Congress was a blueprint of far- reaching reforms. Significant for our purposes, among them were: (1) the creation of a federal department of commerce and industries; (2) the conservation of natural resources; and (3) extension of the merit system. His campaign for the conservation of natural re sources was energetic and largely, but not completely, successful. Between the years 1907 and 1928 irrigation projects in fourteen states were underway, 148 million acres of timber lands placed in federal reserve, and all public land containing mineral resources were with drawn by Congress to safeguard them. Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens, Ray Stannard Baker and Frank Norris influenced public opinion by means of their writings which created the support that gave Roosevelt^s crusade for social justice and public safety through the Meat Inspection and Pure Food and Drug Acts the force of law. Political revolution was underway, as vigorous efforts were ini tiated to remodel governmental structure and democratize its pro cesses. In political science, the battle between the school of the 52 "individualist theorists" (government represented the people, and its primary duty was to keep order, defend life and property and refrain from interfering with economic enterprise) and the "meliorists" (government of the United States from the beginning had in fact repre sented powerful economic classes, manufacturers, financiers, bankers, and planters, actually opposed to the interests of the people at large and that it had constantly interfered with agriculture and small economic enterprises in order to benefit the holders of special privileges). Even justices of the Supreme Court read into their de cisions the opinions favorable to "big business," not merely the in terpretation and enforcement of the Constitution. J, Allen Smith^ s The Spirit of American Government, 1907 concisely described their position as follows: The Constitution is a scheme of government . . . planned and set up to perpetuate the ascendency of the property-holding class leavened with democratic ideas. The major political parties were dominated by corporations and men of great wealth. The sources of many evils, such as corruption, are found, not in the slums, but in the selfishness and greed of those who are the recognized leaders in commercial and in dustrial affairs. Individualism as ’no government inter ference with business, * was merely the selfish view of a relatively small class which controls the industrial system and resists the reins of political control slipping out of its hands. The major results of these struggles were the initiative and the referendum, first adopted by South Dakota in 1898, which led to more direct government; the recall, first adopted by Los Angeles in 1903, made public officials more responsive to public opinion, and direct primaries, introduced by Robert M, LaFollette in 1903 in Wis consin, enabled voters to name candidates for public office as well as 53 choose between them. Among other factors and forces, David Graham Phillips, in his series in Cosmopolitan magazine in 1906 attacked the United States Senate as a body of rich men who legislated for the rich 7 and defeated the aspirations of the people. Efforts to initiate the popular election of United States senators began in earnest at the turn of the century when voters demanded that the alliance between preda tory wealth and unscrupulous politicians who controlled the Senate be replaced by the vote, and culminated in the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution being ratified by three-fourths of the States in 1913. The year 1901 saw the establishment of the Socialist Party of America created out of the unification of the Socialist Labor Party, first established in 1876 and Eugene V. Debs Social Democratic Party, established in 1897. Concerned about excessive hours of labor, unem ployment insurance, labor codes, government ownership of the rail roads, telegraph and telephone companies and other utilities, adoption of the initiative, referendum, recall and proportional representation, it denounced the programs of the progressives as futile "bourgeois tinkering. " The Industrial Workers of the World (I. W. W. , 1905), sponsored by an extremist faction among the Socialists and leaders of the revolutionary labor unions, insisted that the "workers of the world organized as a class take possession of the earth and the machinery of production and abolish the wage system. " Its tactics of mass strike. 7 David Graham Phillips, The Treason of the Senate (Aca demic Reprints, Stanford, California, first printed as a series of 9 articles and an editorial forward in Cosmopolitan, March-Novem ber, 1906). 54 sabotage and violence caused the states and the federal government to proceed against it, imprisioning its most influential leaders in 1918, and by 1925 its membership had dwindled and its organization dis solved, but its fight for human rights and against exploitation left an g indelible stamp upon the nation. The struggle for woman suffrage was early documented in 1881-1887 in a three volume history of woman suffrage. A bill to establish suffrage for women was first introduced in Congress in 1878, resulting from vigorous agitation by Susan B. Anthony who first de manded such an amendment in 1869. Fully supported in her efforts by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapmann Catt, their efforts culminated in the publication of Anna Carlin Spencer's Woman's Share in Social Culture in 1913, which dealt sys tematically with the role of women in social evolution from primitive times to the modern age. Forty-one years after its first introduction, the Eighteenth Amendment was passed by Congress and referred to the states for ratification in 1920. The era was also one of continued slavery for the Negro people in a serfdom which effectively checkmated their efforts for social, economic and political freedom. The Supreme Court in Fies sy vs. Ferguson had in 1896 rejected the plea based on the Four teenth Amendment, to nullify a Louisiana law requiring racial segre gation aboard trains. Such laws, designed for discrimination and dis- g Richard Theodore Ely, Recent American Socialism (Balti more, Johns Hopkins University Studies, Vol. Ill, John Murphy & Co. Printers, April, 1885), pp. 4-74. 55 enfranchisement were early enacted and well established in the new constitutions of Mississippi, 1890, South Carolina, 1895, Louisiana, 1898, North Carolina and Alabama, 1901, Virginia, 1902, Georgia, 1908, and Oklahoma, 1910, This too was a time of revolution by the Negro people, who faced with the resistance of those who made peace ful change impossible resorted often to violent revolution to express their demand for change. These reactions to slavery termed "slave uprisings," but more properly, "slave revolts" are well documented 9 in Herbert Aptheker' s study by the same name. Continuing from the Emancipation Proclamation until today, angry protest as well as revolution has been recorded in a literature produced by writers of crisis, which though beginning to emerge, remains much suppressed by powers dedicated to discrediting a well justified revolt against widespread injustice, greedy exploitation and a wanton discrimination fed by a willful prejudice that has dominated American life throughout her history. Frederick Douglass, eminent American abolutionist, said as early as 1850: If there is no struggle, there is no progress. Those who profess to favor freedom, and yet deprecate agitation, are men who want crops without plowing up the ground. They want rain without thunder and lightening. They want the ocean without the awful roar of its waters. In 1853, in a paper designed to spur men to action and iden tify the obstructionists in their midst, Douglas wrote: 9 Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Publishers, l943. ^^Charles E, Silberman, Crisis in Black and White (New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, 1964), p. 218. 56 If we are ever elevated, our elevation will have been accom plished through our own instrumentality. The history of other oppressed nations will confirm us in this assertion. No People that has solely depended upon foreign aid, or rather, upon the efforts of those in any way identified with the oppressor, to undo the heavy burdens, ever stood forth in the attitude of Freedom. Some one, imbued with the spirit of human freedom, from among themselves, has arisen to lead them on to victory. They have dashed their fetters to the ground. In a speech delivered in Washington D. C. in 1886: The American people have this lesson to learn: That where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where igno rance prevails, and where any one class is made to feel that society is an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob, and degrade them, neither persons nor property will be safe. . . . Hungry men will eat. Desperate men will commit crime. Outraged men will seek revenge. Finally, in a pamphlet published in 1894 Douglas wrote: The presence of deprived citizens in any section of this country constituting an aggrieved class, smarting under terrible wrongs, denied the exercise of the commonest rights of humanity, and regarded by the ruling class of that section as outside the government, outside of the law, outside of society, having nothing in common with the people with whom they live, the sport of mob violence and murder, is not only disgrace and scandal to that par ticular section, but a menace to the peace and security of the whole country. William Edward Burghardt DuBois, one of the foremost in tellectuals the United States has produced, who died in 1963 at the age of 96, in Ghana, and whose contributions to the advancement of freedom in America and in the world at large have yet to become ^^Lerone Bennett Jr. "The Up-To-Date Frederick Douglass," (Ebony, Vol. XIX, No, 8, June 1964), p. 7 2. ^^Ibid. , p. 76 ^4bid. , p. 76 57 known or appreciated by that nation, was early a militant and an early revolutionist as well, with an eloquence of protest in his works that can compete with those of the founding fathers. An example of his early essays confirms that fact: . . . The dangerously clear logic of the Negro's position will more and more loudly assert itself in that day when increasing wealth and more intricate social organization preclude the South from being, as it so largely is, simply an armed camp for intimidating black folk. Such waste of energy cannot be spared if the South is to catch up with civilization. And as the black third of the land grows in thrift and skill, unless skilfully guided in its larger philosophy, it must more and more brood over the red past and the creeping, crooked present, until it grasps a gospel of revolt and revenge and throws its new-found energies athwart the current of advance. Even today the masses of the Negroes see all too clearly the ano malies of their position and the moral crookedness of yours. You may marshal strong indictments against them, but their counter - cries, lacking though they be in formal logic, have burning truths within them which you may not wholly ignore, O Southern Gentlemen! If you deplore their presence here, they ask. Who brought us ? When you cry. Deliver us from the vision of intermarriage they answer that legal marriage is infinitely better than systematic concubinage and prosti tution. And if in just fury you accuse their vagabonds of violating women, they also in fury quite as just may reply: The rape which your gentlemen have done against helpless black women in defiance of your own laws is written on the foreheads of two millions of mulattoes, and written in inef faceable blood. And finally, when you fasten crime upon the race as its peculiar trait, they answer that slavery was the arch crime, and lynching and lawlessness its twin abortion; that color and race are not crimes, and yet they it is which in this land receives most unceasing condemnation. North, East, South, and West. His poetic eloquence employed to express the often denied desire of his oppressed people for freedom and the opportunity for development is confirmed by the following: 14 William Edward Burghardt DuBois, The Souls of Black F oik: Essays and Sketches (Cambridge: University Press” John Wilson and Son, 1903), p. 105-106. 58 I sit with Shakespeare and he winces not. Across the color line I move arm in arm with Balzac and Dumas, where smiling men and welcoming women glide in gilded halls. From out the caves of evening that swing between the strong-limbed earth and the tracery of the stars, I summon Aristotle and Aurelius and what soul I will, and they come all graciously with no scorn nor condescension. So, wed with Truth, I dwell above the Veil, Is this the life you grudge us, O knightly America? Is this the life you long to change into the dull red hideousness of Georgia? Are you so afraid lest peering from this high Pisgah, between Philistine and Amalekite, we sight the Promised Land ? ^^ This era, dominated by the unholy "Bargain of 1877" between northern industrialists and southern agriculturists, was characterized by the most brutal and shameful beatings, lynchings and rape ever in flicted upon a people other than the American Indian in the history of the nation. At the same time, the thunderous expansion of American industry, the railroads and new war industries were creating a boom ing economy. The first major revolt, which history records as a "race riot" occurred in 1908 in Springfield, Illinois, and this led to the establishment of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People by Negro intellectuals for the defense of Negro rights. William Edward Burhardt DuBois was one of its founders. In 1900, 40 per cent of the population of the United States was urbanized, and of the remaining 60 per cent rural and farm population 57 per cent was tenant farmer. The cities which housed the urban population were the result of powerful economic and technological forces that created a communicational and social dynamics more ex tensive and intense than history records. Industrialization increased ^^Ibid., p. 109. 59 the national wealth from $16 billion in 1860 to $65 billion in 1890, but concentrated seventy-one per cent of that wealth in the hands of nine per cent of the people, or conversely, eighty-eight per cent of the people owned only fourteen per cent of the wealth. This condition bred poverty in the cities, spreading of slums, unhealthy tenements, a death rate in New York’s 1. 5 million tenement dwellers of sixty-two per 1000, in contrast with the norm elsewhere of twenty per 1000. Jacob A, Riis’ study poignantly revealed their plight. These con ditions spawned reformers, boards of charity, some 100 social ser vice centers, of which Jane Adams’ Hull House, founded in 1889 in Chicago, was one of the most famous, and launched the new pro fession of social work. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, 1859, and Descent of Man, 1871, had been accepted in its hypothesis by most scholars and though still controversial, was also accepted by intelli gent laymen as well. This era also saw the beginning of a revolution in religious orthodoxy, with the study of comparative religions emerging to add even new dimensions beyond the hypothesis of the concept of evolution. The number of daily newspapers increased from 700 in 1870 to 2, 500 in 1900, while circulation mounted from 2, 5 to fifteen million. Yellow journalism arising out of the desperate com petition for profit in the circulation war between Pulitzer and Hearst resulted in a new low in journalistic sensationalism. Jacob A. Riis, How The Other Half Lives: Studies Among The Tenements of New York (New Y ork: Char le s Scribner’s Sons, i8To r . 60 The cities and towns which were the site and theatre of all these revolutionary changes and threats of change were undergoing change themselves. The administrative inefficiency of municipal government in the anachronistic ' 'mayor - council" system was all too obvious. Add to this the rampant corruption exposed by the jour nalist, Lincoln Steffens, and the reasons for reform become quite 17 clear. The commission and the council-manager forms of muni cipal government emerged as the two major forms designed to cor rect the deficiencies and excesses of the council-mayor form. The former, first introduced in Galveston Texas in 1900, has had less success than the latter, which has given birth to the professional "city manager” who administers the city much as an executive might manage a corporation. These structural changes in municipal government were coupled with the merit system and civil service to insure competancy as well as remove many positions of responsi bility from the uncertainties and instabilities of the winds of political change. Such was the era existing in the United States when the factors and forces and the physical conditions of the environment reached such an intensity that the reactions of concerned and respon sible men naturally sought some solution to the problems. In 1895 Brooks Adams recognized the fact that history in every form had a bearing on what was taking place in the United States and what would Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities (McClure, Phillips & Co. , 1904; New Y ork; Hill and W ang, Inc, , 1957), 61 17 take place in the future. This idea is reinforced today in history textbooks which acknowledge the relationship between political events and economic and social movements, between the current domestic history and the broader stream of world affairs, and between the issues of the past and current problems. Thus, it is impossible to actually pinpoint the turn of the century as the era in which regional planning as concept actually emerged, nor can we say that the forces that gave it birth were strongest at that time. We can only say that those times saw the evolution of conditions which created a chain of events which gave birth and growth to regional planning as process, regionalism as science, and the region as sociological, political, economic and planning theatre. As early as 1681, William Penn, in attempting to plan Philadelphia, the first city to be so planned in the "new world, " desired "a site at the mouth of a good river, " and to plan a "greene towne" with spaces around the houses for gardens and orchards - - so that it will never be burnt, and always be wholesome. The site, fixed just above the Delaware and Schuylkill, and a "master map" prepared for the Philadelphia "region. " Perhaps William Penn was the great grandfather of regional planning. He pinpointed a co ordinated highway system as one of the first essentials of a good plan; however, let it suffice to say that during the period from Penn’s time to our "turn of the century," influences, both foreign and domestic, led to the evolution uf regional planning. 17 Brooks Adams, The Daw of Civilization and Decay: An Essay on History (New York: The Macmillan Co, , 6 2 Regionalism The period of United States' history from William Penn's time to our recent turn of the century saw the development of a great nation, "fated to sway the destinies of half the globe," expand across the breadth of a continent from ocean to ocean. That expansion was facilitated and enhanced by the rise of sectionalism, with the Indus trial North and the Agricultural South representing the first sectional entities. The nature of American sectionalism is documented in the writings of many historians, but its most eminent spokesman was Frederick Jackson Turner, whose classic work on American 18 sections, was a major contribution to the development of the con cept, "regionalism. " The work records the fascinating story of sec tionalism, through authentic concepts, and definitions, through the naturally expanding domain, in which geographic areas became arti culate sections of economic incidence and cultural conflict, and through the transformation from sectionalism to regionalism. The 19 distinctions between the two were considered by Howard W. Odum to be: (1) regionalism envisages the nation first, making the national culture and welfare the final arbiter, it is therefore essentially a co operative concern; on the other hand, sectionalism sees the region first and the nation afterward; it is therefore a competitive emphasis; 18 Frederick Jackson Turner, The Significance of Sections In American History (New York: Henry Holt & Co, , IncTl 1932). 19 Howard W. Odum and Harry Estill Moore, American Regionalism (New York: Henry Holt & Co. , Inc. , 1938), pp. 42-51, 63 (2) sectionalism emphasizes the autonomy inherent in political bound aries and state sovereignities, confuses the state as unity in the re gional or national whole, with the separate state as an entity, and emphasizes technical legislation, provincial interests, local loyalties and centralized concerns. Over against the cooperating group-of- states region, it sets up a confederation of states "with common in terests, menaced by federal action"; (3) sectionalism is in-breeding, regionalism is line-breeding; (4) inherent in the concept and practice, by the very nature of its regional, inter-regional and national co operative processes, is the implication of more of the designed and planned society in regionalism than in sectionalism, the group, cor respondent to individualism; and (5) sectionalism has its counterpart in a potential and in the full flowering of its development, an inevi table coercive federalism, which is contrary to the stated ideals of American democracy. As Hedwig Hintze stated: Regionalism must be distinguished from nationalism in that it recognizes a higher national unity and superior national interests, but involves certain ethnic factors, such as cul tural, traditional or linguistic peculiarities, which provide a basis for what is often termed a sub-nationality. Thus, the growth of the United States through an expanding frontier saw migration flood masses of her natural and naturalized people from the eastern cities and rural areas into regions and sub-regions of the west, and wrote history first in a provincial sectionalism which continues today to be transformed into a more organic regionalism. 20 Hedwig Hintze, "Regionalism, " Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. XIII, p. 209. 64 Growth of Metropolis (City Region) In 1895 Brooks Adams set forth a theory of history in general that hypothesized that all human societies pass through a stage of wide dispersion on the land, to a stage of high concentration; that they fall under the sway of capitalistic usurers and that they enter 2 1 a period of decay and dissolution. The growth of America accurately exhibited the first part of that theory, for the migrations that she ex perienced in terms of population flow revealed just such a develop ment, These migrations, four in number, are described by Benton MacKaye as follows: The first migration that cleared the land west of the Alleghe nies and opened the continent, the work of the land pioneer; the second migration that worked over this fabric a new pattern of factories, railroads and dingy industrial towns, the bequest of the industrial pioneer; and the third migration, the flow of men and materials into our financial centers, the cities where buildings and profits leap upward in riotous pyramids. These three migrations have covered the con tinent and knitted together its present framework; this frame work, the product of three migrations, is itself in a state of flow, and its movement constitutes the fourth migration, or "metropolitan invasion. " The first migration saw population flow into the regions of the frontier, and out of it emerged, within a single century, an agri cultural industry which was established from coast to coast. The second migration, facilitated by the "iron horse", saw the establish- 21 Adams, xxxvii-xlv, 22 Benton MacKaye, The New Exploration: A Philosophy of Regional Planning (New York: Harcourt. Brace & Go. , Inc. , 192^7, pp. 75-94. 65 ment of the bulk of the American railway system by the year 1890, in cluding four lines to the Pacific Coast; concomitant with it was the in dustrial revolution, which recorded the flow of population into the fac tories, located in the cities. The third migration, which recorded the growth of cities and the development of the "paper economy, " also re corded the rise of the skyscraper to house the financial empires of a massive industrialized system. The fourth migration is a complex, uncontrolled relocation of population and industries, the continued ex pansion of the city as well as a proliferation of new cities and the phy sical joining of existing cities, over vast areas, together with the emergence of "megalopolis. " The latter part of Adam’s theory, the "period of high concentration, " seems by virtue of the fourth mi gration, to be confounded; the period of concentration remains and intensifies, but is complicated by a complex phenomenon of urban ex pansion and decentralization, both of population and political juris diction and of commerce and industry. The story of the growth and development of American cities is told in the literature of city planning, of history, of commerce and business, of sociology, of entertainment and recreation, of religion and education, of politics and legislation, of science and technology, of slum and proverty, of crime and disease, of graft and corruption, of law and administration, and of the arts, engineering, and architec ture. That story is an epic of the dynamic growth and expansion of transportation centers and centers of communication and manufac turing, of commercial and trade cities, of university towns and of resort cities; it is the story of the rise and decline of mining towns. 66 of port and market cities, of government and administrative centers. It is the story too of the complex process of urbanization beyond all previous development, the proliferation of numerous cities around a major central city, of new urban patterns which evoke ever newer and more imaginative terms to describe them: "the exploding metro polis," super city, motopia, conurbation, and "megalopolis." This dynamic phenomenon of civilization, this evolving seat of culture, this theatre of man’s potential, this emergent manifestation of man's intellectual prowess, this lithic and precise history of man's efforts to eliminate environmental resistance records in its continual evo lution a tit anti c struggle against natural and man-made forces which tend to impede progress, delay inevitable cultural advances, and but tress environmental resistance. The evolution of the city in America articulated with the growth of the city, several major problems that lent influence to the emergence of regional planning. These problems relate to land as resource, communication, work, recreation and patterns of living, - and are, in terms of their interrelationships the concern of regional planning. They may be categorized as follows: (1) physical or land use elements ; (2) functional elements ; and (3) organizational elements. As the problems related to these elements intensified, with the growth of cities, concerned and responsible men attempted to solve them by many means. The need for parks and recreational facilities 23 was first answered on a regional basis in New Jersey, where Essex 23 F, W. Kelsey, The First County Park System (New York: Ogilivi, 1905), 67 County established the first county park system in the United States in 1905. The problem of traffic and transportation was early recognized as one of a regional nature. Therefore, The Commercial Club of Chicago, in its Plan of Chicago , published in 1909, devoted an entire chapter to the relation of the City of Chicago to the Middle West, and incorporated recommendations for a system of highways for areas within sixty miles of Chicago. The growth of the city complicated by the proliferation of numerous political jurisdictions witnessed the rise and incidence of "districting" (zoning) as a measure instituted by various political jurisdictions for the purpose of protecting homes from the intrusion of apartment buildings, industrial uses, nuisances, and other uses incompatible with residential land use. In November of 1916, a conference on "planning" held in Visalia, California dis cussed districting as a means of protecting homes from other land use intrusions as well as methods of attack which included public ac quisition, power, comprehensive zoning, and a plan for future growth by restricting farm land from city use.^^Attempts by the eighteen then existing city planning boards in California, represented at the con ference to institute zoning, were almost immediately faced with the conflicts arising from different zoning categories being assigned land adjacent to the political boundaries between two jurisdictions. Thus, the growth of the city, and the diversity of activities within it created the need for zoning, which in turn articulated jurisdictional conflicts ^^"When Cities Grow," Survey, (November 11, 1916), Vol. XXXVH, p. 151. 68 which resulted in an awareness of the need for a more regional ap proach to planning, in the interest of resolving such conflicts. Many such conflicts between legally established perogatives of separate jurisdictions can be cited such as street and road planning, public utilities and water pollution, but merely labor the point that in the main they fed fuel to the fire that created "regional consciousness. " Therefore, it can be said that the growth and expansion of cities and the conflicts between them are not new to our time, nor are the basic problems that this growth creates new problems, now, at the turn of the century, or before. However, it was at the turn of the century that these problems reached such an intensity, that con cerned and responsible men were motivated to action. In the literary world, men wrote of it, whether they were economists, political scientists, social reformers, poets, or historians, as our brief his tory of the era cited above documents, but the action most significant herein is that which is recorded in the story of city planning. Influence Of The Growth Of City Planning No more important influence upon the evolution of regional planning as idea, nor its rise and incidence in practice, exists than that of the growth and practice of city planning. Its development is well documented in "the literature, " so no attempt will be made to redo, that which has already been so well accomplished, but it is felt that some of the significant events which were most instrumental in influencing the evolution of regional planning should be outlined to establish as fact its influence upon the emergence and growth of 69 regional planning. Seven years after the turn of the century, the first city plan ning commission was established in Hartford, Conneticut. Ten years Z5 later, one hundred had been established in the United States. Two years before the turn of the century, Ebenezer Howard had published his little book, "Tomorrow; A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, " which 2 6 later became known as "Garden Cities of Tomorrow. " These two events had tremendous impact upon city planning in theory and in practice. Initially, city planning efforts were concerned with the pro per development of civic centers; however, attempts to plan such cen ters clarified the need for planning beyond them, which, in turn, al most immediately made clear the need for planning the city as a whole. Attempts to accomplish comprehensive city planning, soon revealed the fact that the community of interests to be planned were not within the confines of a single political entity, and thus the Com monwealth Club of California, which had organized a section on city planning in 1914, found itself compelled, in September of 1923 to state: Regional planning is more vital than zoning or interior plan ning. Most of our cities cope with local or town problems through their own city or town planning commissions- -but wider problems are still to be settled. Relations between cities concerning residence, business and transportation are assuming increasing importance with the closer settle ment of the territory between them. 25 F. B. Williams, "City Planning Instruction In Urban Schools and Colleges," American City, Vol. XVI (March, 1917), 248. 2 6 Ebenezer Howard, Carden Cities Of Tomorrow (London: Faber and Faber, Ltd., mcmxlv), p. 9. 27 Transactions, Commonwealth Club of California, XVIII, 70 Earlier in the same year. Nelson P. Lewis, consulting engineering director of the physical survey of the Regional Plan of New York And Its Environs, stated the case for regional planning as he saw it: Larger areas than the city must be studied, and instead of beginning with present centers and providing for expansion outward, absorbing one after another of outlying towns and villages, it is time to begin at the outer edges of a great metropolitan district to study existing communities and strive to encourage the development of their centers to create new social, commercial and industrial centers and strive to protect what is worth saving from being drawn into the vortex at the big center and absorbed bodily by it, with no line of demarcation and no barrier to the steady outward movement of population. As city planning developed, the impact of problems which did not respect jurisdictional boundaries intensified and many added their voices and their pens to the plea for regional planning. Patrick Geddes, in his Cities in Evolution, first published in 1915 stated: The city survey which should include the whole topography and its extensions and contour maps and relief models, of soil and geology, climate, rainfall, winds, historical ma terial, studies of progress and development of towns, and means of communication . . . in this way appears not only the need of relating to the immediate environs, but to the larger surrounding region . . . town and country interests are commonly treated separately, with injury to both . . . Greater New York, now linked up on both sides by collos- sal systems of communication above and below its dividing waters, is also rapidly increasing its links with Philadel phia- -itself, no mean city--and with minor ones without number in every direction possible. For many years past it has paid to have tramway lines continuously along the roads all the way from New York to Boston, so that taking these growths altogether, the expectation is not absurd that the not very distant future will see practically one vast city line along the Atlantic Coast for 500 miles and stretching No, 6 (November, 1923), p. 251-81. 2 8 Nelson P. Lewis, "Regional Planning," Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, (January 19l 1923), p. 554- 560. 71 back at many points, with, a total of--it may be--as many millions of population, Daniel H, Burnham's admonition, "Make no little plans . . . em bodied the concept of integrating the city, village, county and state plans into a composite whole, as well as basing all plans upon scien tific foundations. Burnham early recognized the fact that the "asso ciation of sovereign municipal bodies, " in effective organization was vital to carry out all individual plans in relation and harmony with 30 each other. In 1917, Morris Knowles scored the prevalent attitudes : Home rule does not mean the right of a city to injure its citizens by neglecting in its development to consider its own best interests. Desire for local autonomy and the frequent ambition of energetic municipal representatives should not cause us to lose sight of the sovereignty of state, and that individual as well as community must give way to the common good . . . Twenty-five per cent of United States^ population live within the area of twenty- five metropolitan districts, and within some districts 170 different municipal units exist, having population of over 5,000. Continuity and unity of action is obviously neces sary . . . If we take the various factors already mentioned, and regard them in combination--the pressure of social and economic problems, the democratization of our politi cal machinery, the growth in the sense of collective respon sibility--we must conclude that the supreme problem of the future will not be how to thwart the movement toward state control, but how to direct it in such a way as to achieve legitimate ends without sacrificing the individuality of the citizen. 29 Patrick Ceddes, Cities in Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1915), p. 128. 30 Theodora K. Hubbard, "Brief Survey of City and Regional Planning In the United States, 1929," City Planning , VI, No. 3 (July, 1929), p. 199. 31 Morris Knowles, "Metropolitan Districts for Planning and Administration," XVII, (August, 1917), p. 124. 72 Then, in 1919, still concerned about solutions to metropolitan problems thwarted by resistance to planning at the metropolitan scale required for successful solution, Knowles wrote: Regional planning was born in the efforts of neighboring towns to cooperate in the solution of joint engineering and utility pro blems, and consists, as does town planning , in the harmonious adaptation of a thing to the needs of human life . . . the great engineering problem of regional planning is the comprehensive planning of all the features, with consideration of their re lation to one another, so as to secure the greatest good at the lowest possible cost. From the time of England's first planning act, the Town Planning Act of 1909, to the Town Planning Act of 1919, which gave local authorities the power to cooperate in preparation of a joint town planning scheme, several eminent city and regional planners emerged to put the act to work. City planning had, by this time been well es tablished, and the need for comprehensive planning of the city region, especially in the case of the larger cities had become more than obvious. One of these planners, who was later to become director of plans and surveys of the Plan of New York And Its Environs ; early stated his position in July of 1919: Many problems bearing on life and growth within and sur rounding our cities must be investigated and analyzed, to properly plan our cities and towns. Recent events prove the interrelation and dependence of town and country. Decentra lization of industry indicates the importance of controlling and guiding such growth. Artificial political boundaries are less and less important. The real controlling factors which determine and encourage industrial growth are physical and natural more than administrative and artificial. 32 Morris Knowles, "Engineering Problems of Regional Plan ning, " American City XXI (August, 1919), p. 116-118. 33 Thomas Adams, "Regional and Town Planning," American City XXI (July, 1919), p. 4-6. 73 Adams considered the regional plan a general plan of the area, a ske leton and tentative plan of a region with several municipal units, with overlapping and interrelated problems, which included highways, sys tems of communication, use of land, and services in the form of sys tems of public utilities, parks and recreation, water supplies and sewerage. He outlined principles as valid today as they were in 1919, among which were : (1) the magnitude of problems together is no rea son for dealing with them piecemeal, as the price of failing to apply scientific method is so great, any reasonable effort or expense to avoid its payment is justified; (2) no city plan is satisfactory if not prepared with due regard to the regional development around the city, therefore, regional planning should come first; (3) there must be co operation between municipalities in preparing the regional survey, the plan and cooperation between the municipal councils, industries, and owners of real estate in working out the town plan; (4) the regional plan must consider the regional aspects of zoning, the application of minimum standards for housing, main arterial highways, the relation between industries and all means of communication, the conservation and distribution of power, and the preservation of general amenities. Adams also took the home rule advocates to task: Home rule in its extreme form is the bolehovist reaction to state autocracy; and the antidote to both is to be found in some middle ground of mandatory cooperation between all groups of government, backed up by skilled executive departments in the provinces and states and trained managers in the municipality. Home rule -- the creation of petty-togging interference of provincial and state politicians, whose re strictive measures are designed to cover their ignorance rather than promote principles of general well being. 74 Cooperative action can secure all the necessary regional planning, and strengthen the case for effective and reason- home rule. A brief chronology of city planning events of significance would include: (1) publication of the first edition of American City magazine in 1909; (2) Burnham* s plan for San Francisco published in 1905; (3) the first "National Conference on City Planning" held in Washington, D. C. in 1909; (4) the first Conference of the National Housing Association, 19 1 1 ; (5) the report of the Heights of Buildings Commission in New York in 1913- -the real launching of the idea of comprehensive zoning; (6) Patrick Geddes published his classic Cities in Evolution, 1915; (7) American Planning Institute organized, 1917, followed by the establishment in the United States Department of Commerce a Division of Housing and Building with an Advisory Commission on zoning-- subsequently "City Planning and Zoning," thus giving highest recognition to city planning as an economic neces sity; (8) The Boston Metropolitan District Commission, created by combining a metropolitan water board, a sewerage board and a park commission, 1919, which, though neither regional nor city planning, was an early acknowledgment of the need for planning major munici pal services in relation to each other; (9) The Allegheny County Plan ning Commission, one of the first, established in Pennsylvania in 1918 and given official status in 1923; (10) The Regional Plan of New York and Environs launched, 1922; ( 1 1 ) Chicago Regional Planning Association organized in 1923 and established in 1925 as a nonprofit- ^5bid, , p. 6. 75 making corporation; (12) Regional Planning Federation of Philadelphia, Tri-State District organized, 1925; (13) Niagara Frontier Planning Board organized in 1925; (14) The National Capitol Park and Planning Commission organized in 1926; (15) Dos Angeles Regional Plan Com mission formed in 1923; (l6) Regional Plan for the San Francisco Bay Counties begun in 1925; (17) C. B. Purdom's classic,The Building Of Satellite Towns, published in London, 1925; (18) The United States Supreme Court recognized the legality of zoning in the unprecedented 3 5 case of Euclid, Ohio versus Ambler Realty Company; (19) In 1928 Benton MacKaye published his classic The New Exploration , which set forth a theory of regional planning that many planners have yet to acknowledge as a profound work, clearly illuminating the relationship of man to earth and outlined the terms upon which modern man could occupy the earth and use judiciously all the resources, natural, tech nical and urban without making the land itself uninhabitable and our life unendurable. In this remarkable work MacKaye wrote: Environment is to the cultured man what air is to the animal; it is the breath of life - - environment is the basic ingredient of living as air is of existence . . . cultured man needs land and developed natural resources as the tangible source of bodily existence; he needs the flow of commodities to make that source effective; but first of all he needs a harmonious and related environment as the source of his vital living. These three needs of cultured man make three corres ponding problems; (a) conservation of natural resources; (b) Lhe control of commodity flow; (c) the development of environment. ^ ^^Euclid, Ohio v* Ambler Realty Company, 272 U.S. 365, 475 S, Ct. 114 (1925)1 ^^Benton MacKaye, The New Exploration, p. 30. 76 In other words, MacKaye asserted that regional planning consists in the attempt at discovering the plans of nature for the attainment of man's ends upon t;arth, it visualizes industry as the servant of cul ture, its chief concern is the guidance within the region of the "flow of civilization, " which may consist of the flow of population, of housing and living facilities, of industry, and the phenomena related to all these. He therefore attempted to make it clear that the whole meaning of regional planning is to devise a cultural pattern that will fit a large areal unit and that the qualities inherent in the area not only dictate in large part the features of that plan, but also its te rri torial extent. By February, 1932, when Franklin Delano Roosevelt had held the reins of government for less than two months and his article. Growing Up By Plan, had been published in Survey magazine, more than 691 planning commissions had been established in the United States; eighteen states had some form of regional planning; more than 500 cities had zoning ordinances, and only the states of Arkansas, Idaho, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico and North Dakota were with out city planning commissions; and state planning organizations had been established in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, California, Indiana, and Kansas. The Russell Sage Foundation had published its precedent setting Plan of New York and Its Environs, whose "Million 3 7 Dollars* Worth of Ideas on City and Regional Planning, " was to in- 37 "A Million Dollars* Worth of Ideas on City and Regional Planning, " The American City, July, 1929, p. 81-85. 77 fluence city and regional planning throughout the nation. Metropolitan Planning By the year 1932, it appeared that all the arguments possible of advancement in the cause of "regional planning" at the level then conceived as adequate had been advanced. Most of these arguments proceeded from the impossibility of coping with problems that ignored political boundaries and demanded the cooperation of one or more political jurisdictions for their solution. Some of the foremost advo cates of "regional planning" at this stage of its development (actually metropolitan planning) follow: 3 8 1. Thomas Adams* position on regional planning attained revitalization and expansion as a result of his work on the Regional Plan of New York And Its Environs, and in 1925, when his surveys were well under way he stated further: The regional plan is a skeleton basis for preparation of city, county, town and village plans, the basis for adjusting city needs and conditions of the region. ^^ The regional plan does not differ from the city plan in the nature of its contents or in its purpose. It does differ in extent and general character of area to be dealt with and in the degree of elasticity of the planning proposals. These special characteristics influence the methods of preparation of the regional plan. Industrial, economic and social fac tors, and not political boundaries, control the selection of a regional area. While in the regional plan we enter into 38 The essentials of Adams * position were formulated a num ber of years before and quietly but authoritatively stated. Supra, Chap, ii, p. 72. 3 9 Committee on the Regional Plan of New York and its En virons, "A Body of Doctrine Essential to Regional Planning Success, " American City, (February, 1927), pp. 239^241. 78 the same problems relating to functions and movement as in the city plan, we have to do so in broader outline, with know ledge that the plan is a preliminary step towards the city plan, that it is not intended for legal application, nnd that, in consequence, we have greater freedom of action in making proposals. Instead of being competitive with the city plan, it is the advisory and skeleton basis on which the definite and more detailed proposals of the city plan have to be developed. . . As city planners know, each region or city has its own problems and every city needs special study and a plan of its own. Every city is not only different from every other city, but each is a growing organism. Con ditions of growth are subject to human elements so variable and uncertain in their influence that no code can be more than a general guide. But the variety of conditions makes it all the more important that those things that can be re duced to a statement of principle should be formulated. Under Adams* direction "A Body of Doctrine" was developed on re gional planning and its eighteenth statement developed further the concept of regional planning : While an urban region has no political structure as such, and there is no statutory method of applying the plan as a whole, it will contain definite proposals for adoption by different public authorities within the region. Unlike a formal plan prepared for a city, town or village, the Regional Plan must not be hampered by having to conform to what is immediately practicable under existing laws. It should visualize possibi lities and indicate opportunities that are rational even if new legislation is required to carry them out. Its disadvantages from indefiniteness are offset by advantages in elasticity. It is an elastic outline for the purpose of guiding definite action by public authorities, private corporations and individuals. Whatever difficulty there may be in forecasting what may hap pen, a plan should indicate what may happen, what ought to happen, and should be accompanied by a statement of reasons and principles as the justification for its contents. 40 Thomas Adams, "The Technical Approach To The Study And Planning Of Regions, " City Planning Vol. Ill, No. 2, (April 1927), p. 87, p. 95. 41 Committee on the Regional Plan of New York and its En virons, "A Body of Doctrine. . .," p. 241. 79 2. G, Gordon Whitnall, first director of the Los Angeles Plan Commission, stated in December of 1923: Regional planning is being used to build a metropolis where none now exists, rather than remedy metropolitan deformities . . . The Regional Plan Commission formed in 1923 is now coordinating the separate planning activities of cities into a metropolitan program, , , Regional planning experiments show immediate reactions- - ^fascinating as a romance. * 3. Charles Benjamin Purdom, who had in 1920 developed a plan for twenty-eight new towns around London and proved that thereby a large population could be accomodated, concentrated on the "city region" and the planning of satellite towns as the purpose of regional planning. 4. Russell Van Nest Black, first director of the Philadel phia Tri-State District, formerly associated with the Regional Plan Association of The San Francisco Bay Counties employed a policy of coordinating the planning efforts of the several cities and counties, and developing a comprehensive plan for guiding the growth of the en- 44 tire area. In May of 1927, Black set forth the goals of regional planning as he saw them; a) a unified region with effective ways of getting from place to place; b) uniformly healthy conditions for play and re creation for young and old alike; c) a region governed and maintained at minimum cost because streets and highways, sewers, bridges, and railroads are placed where they will serve purpose in right relation; d ) group of many well con- 42 G. Gordon Whitnall, "Regional Planning Progress in the Los Angeles District, " American City (December 1923), p. 578. 43 Charles Benjamin Purdom, The Building of Satellite Towns (London: J, M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. , 1925. 44 Russell Van Nest Black, "Regional Plan for the San Fran cisco Bay Counties," American City, XXXIII (July, 1925), p. 22-23. 80 nected units of population, each with their own business centers and industries connected by good roads, railroads, airways, all related to central city with social and business advantages unavailable elsewhere and all separated by farm land or parks or recreation areas. 5. The American City issue of May 1926 editorialized; Regional planning disregards political boundaries, and in cludes that larger adjacent territory, economically and socially, already a part of the central city . . . Regional planning is a cooperative movement which each community in developing its own plans for the future realizes an inter community relationship. Each community seeks a solution to its own problems as part of a larger regional movement. The same magazine in its issue of January, 1926 had published the following: City planning has been defined as the conscious attempt to make the city of the present and the future a home which shall be healthful and happy for its people; a workshop which shall be wholesome and effective for its workers. An adequate planning program is concerned with every phase of the physi cal aspects of the city. It contemplates the orderly and logical development of the cities* facilities that they may adequately serve not only immediate needs, but future re quirements as they shall arise. City planning is usually confined within the political boundaries of community. Regional planning is but an extension of the planning program to include the economic and social boundaries of the city, which usually extend far beyond the political boundaries. It is concerned with the physical needs of that region, whose life is largely dependent upon or influenced by the activities of the central city. It looks upon the problems of the various communities within the metropolitan district of a large city as but parts of the single regional problem. It realizes that the solution of these problems can only be reached through regional study and cooperative action. 45 Russell Van Nest Black, "Few Governing Principles of Regional Planning, " American City, XXXVI, (May, 1927), pp. 673-76. 46 "The What, Why and How of Regional Planning, " American City, XXXIV, No. 5 (May, 1926). 47 "What is Regional Planning, " American City, XXXIV, No. 1 (J a n u a r y , 1 9 26). 81 The following November, American City published the position of the manager of the Civic Development Department of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States: The importance of regional planning is equalled only by its physical, legal and social difficulties . . . Regional plan ning is a new field with many factors whose affects we do not know (autos, airplane, population growth) . . . From 1903 to 1923 seven American cities increased their popu lation 277 per cent, should this rate continue, these cities would in forty years cover an area greater than the conti nental United States. The metropolitan region, an area within commuting distance of the central city must provide effectively for industry, commercial and residential areas. The metropolitan region of the future will have distinct separate urban communities which will retain their identity by open space park separators . . . The major concerns of regional planning are open space, parks plus income pro ducing land, transit, rail, highway, water, sewerage dis posal, polico and fire protection, health and educational facilitie s. 6. Clarence Stein, in an article in the New York Times pro posed the "regional city" as the only solution to traffic, transit, and housing problems: New York a week ago voted to raise its debt limit to $300 million for new subways - -more subways will not decrease congestion--they will spread it. New regional cities zoned for business and residential purposes, supplied with parks and playgrounds and comfortable dwellings are necessary. 7, Jacob D * Crane Jr. in an address before the annual ban quet of the Chicago Regional Plan Association proposed Chicago as a "regional city, " the future metropolis of the world. He proposed a continuous park along Chicago's lake front from Wisconsin to 48 John Holder, "Housing And The Regional Plan," American City, (November, 1926), p. 636. Clarence Stein, "Regional Cities Urged," New York Times (November 16, 1927), p. 1. 82 Michigan state lines, and a super power electric system to stimulate 50 industry. This, is an answer to "metropolitan imperialism," 8, Harlan Bartholomew stated his own opinion in 1928; A region is a super city, produced by the modern forms of rapid transit and the automobile. It may be an enlarged city with a common commercial and industrial center, or it may be a group of cities that have grown into a large metropoli tan community, with common physical or economic conditions . . . A region may be a very large area and not a metropolis as for example the German Ruhr Valley, but here we con sider it one large community development around a large city--the most familiar type. Regional planning involves an intimate knowledge of physical conditions, plans for physical improvement, and regulations to insure a sound social structure, together with the necessary legal machinery to enforce and protect the plans. 9. F. Dobrman Jr. clarified his position in March of 1928: Regional planning is a subject of more vital interest to large cities, problems are pressing. The numerous satellite com munities must be welded together as a single unit and out of all the local problems and conditions must be constructed a fabric of plans which will bring the entire area together in a single pattern. A region consists of an economic and indus trial center, and the settled area contiguous to it. The cen tral area is the converging point of the working life, the specialized shopping district, the hub of commerce and trans portation. It usually posesses peculiar advantages for trans shipment such as where rail and water travel meet, or at the crossing of water trails. This centroid is the heart of the region, the source of emanation of the life of all the sur rounding vary, but as the city is the heart, the communities are the links through whose activities are the strength and life supported and sustained. 50 Jacob L. Crane, "Ultimately, the Regional City, " American City XXXIV, No. 1 (January 1926), p. 95. 51 Harland Bartholomew, "Base Maps For Regional Planning," American Society of Civil Engineering Proceedings, (August, 1928), p. 1745. 52 F. Dohrman, Jr. , "Phases of Regional Planning With Respect to Congestion and Decentralization, " Pacific Municipalities, (March, 1928), p. 83. 83 10. Charles S. As cher, eminent housing attourney stated: Regionalism takes on new meaning, and significance for muni cipal administration to help it realize its ends. In January, the Department of Commerce listed sixty seven official and unofficial bodies called regional plan organizations. Most regional plans are balanced extensions of city plans, recog nizing that our present urban limits transcend legal political boundaries. The region dealt with is usually a metropolitan area which must study its highways, transportation, water supply, recreation, etc. in a comprehensive unified way . . . The regional point of view (as opposed both to the metropo litan and over nationalist) will be formulated more definitely every year because they spring from human values. There were, of course others who expanded the meaning of region, regionalism, and regional planning, beyond the concensus of the times. Among the most notable of these were Carol Aronovici, then a lecturer of the School of Architecture and Director of Housing Investigation, Columbia University, whose concept of regional plan ning, while not the ultimate was an advanced approach. His position was stated in 1932: Regional planning in contrast to metropolitan planning is con cerned with the technique of community integration in its re lation to a family of communities which may share in the natural geographic advantages of a self contained region, of which the individual community is a part. Regionalism is not a new concept, nor is it a new condition affecting human society. The history of human society bears the imprint of regional communal life which was self-contained in terms of natural resources, homogeniety of living conditions, climate and safety from adjoining regions. It was the rise of human agressiveness and the development of military imperialism that broke up the regions, attempted to destroy their econo mic, social and cultural unity and built the new state in the interest of which regional integrity had to be destroyed. 53 Charles S. As cher, "Regionalism, A New Approach to the Good Life," National Municipal Review (October, 1931), p. 592. 54 Carol Aronovici, "Let The Cities Perish, " Survey Graphic Vol. LXVIII, No. 13 (October 1, 1932), pp. 437-40. 84 One of the foremost dissenters against the dominant posi tions taken by planners of the day with regard to the definition of region and the nature of regional planning was Lewis Mumford, who unique in stature in modern letters, powerful of intellect, and pro phetic in his projections, early understood and illustrated dramati cally, not only the chaotic nature of current environment, but the gravity of its trends and its course. A few of Mumford's expres sions concerning the region and regional planning follow: To see the interdependence of city and country, to realize that the growth and concentration of one is associated with the de pletion and impoverishment of the other, to appreciate that there is a just and harmonious balance between the two--this capacity we have lacked. Before we can build well on any scale we shall, it seems to me, have to develop an art of regional planning, an art which will relate city and country side in a new pattern from that which was the blind creation of the industrial and territorial pioneer. Instead of regarding the countryside as so much grist doomed to go eventually into the metropolitan mill, we must plan to preserve and develop all our ixatural resources to the limit. . . , The number of things that are waiting to be done--the planting of town forests, the communal restoration of river banks and beaches, the transformation of bare roads into parkways - -will of course differ in each region and locality. . . . In a loose, inconse cutive way, the objectives of regional planning have been dealt with by the conservation movement during the last century; and if the art itself has neither a corpus of experience nor an es tablished body of practitioners, this is only to say that it has, as it were, broken through the surface in anumber of places and that it remains to be gathered up and intelligently used, . . . When regional planning starts its active career, it will concern itself to provide a new framework for our communi ties which will redistribute population and industry, and re cultivate the environment—substituting forestry for timber- mining, stable agriculture for soil-mining, and the general habit of dressing and keeping the earth for our traditional American practice of stripping and deflowering it. 55 Lewis Mumford, Sticks & Stones: A study of American architecture and civilization ( 2nd eR. rev. , New York: Dover Publications, IncTl 1924 ), pp. 206-209. 85 Regional planning means the reinvigoration and rehabilitation of whole regions as the products of culture and civilization, which, instead of being confined to a prosperous minority in the congested centers, shall be available to every person at every point in the region where the physical basis of a culti vated life can be laid down , . , The technology is available to promote regional development, to eliminate our enormous wastes, give new life to a stabile agriculture, set down new communities in human scale. Will man in America learn the art of mastering and ordering his environment to promote his own fuller purposes, or will he be mastered by it ? The alternative to super congestion is not "back to the farm, " unlimited metropolitan growth has its alternative in limited growth with deliberately planned and built up new communi ties . . . Floods are not controlled by a series of dykes or dams—this is expediency—flood control begins when forests are planted in the hills to retain moisture and hold back the waters . . . in other words, cause, rather than effect, must be dealt with. Population growth can only be dealt with by building up communities in the hinterland--to hold back the flood — these communities should provide for work, play, study, living. We have ignored for a century the basic realities of land; contour and landscape, vegetation, power, mineral resources, industry, types of communities. Dollar prosperity is our value - -the regional outlook reverses the process . , . there fore the region must be viewed as a whole. Natural resources and human institutions must be balanced to achieve the best development of land and people. Industry, education, housing, culture, recreation are not separate activities. They exist within a regional complex and complex changes with land changes from valley to mountain top, from coastal plain to upland. . , . To recognize and plan for the development of these regional wholes is the task of regional planning. To live in and through the region itself, to make the most of possibilities and bring it up to the highest pitch of appropriate culture is the effort of regionalism. . , The region lays down certain fundamental conditions that must be considered in its development. . , In America regionalism began as an effort to promote conservation of natural resources and has moved toward more comprehensive activities. In France regionalism meant a protest against excessive centralization in politics 56 Lewis Mumford, "Regions to Live In," Survey (May, 1925). 57 Lewis Mumford, "Intolerable City--Must It Keep Growing?" Harper (February, 1926), pp. 283-93. 86 and culture. In Denmark it meant adaptation of Danish agri culture to dairying and export trade, the growth of Folk High Schools and the achievement of a democratic culture. In Czechoslovakia it has resulted in the formation of a new poli tical state. In England, a theory of civilization enriched by a harmony of local cultures plans for political devolution of constituent nationalities, collaboration of local authorities in regional planning and the garden city movement, , , All these initiatives have an underlying common idea. . . Different con ditions create different problems; different problems require different methods, different methods produce different results. In this recognition of natural diversities lies the vital and unifying element in the regional movement, , , . Elements of the natural region are geological structure, the contours and the climate, which together form the soils and conditions necessary to types of vegetation that can flourish. The re sults of tracing out of the relationships between them (the work of science, ecology and regional geography) has revealed the fact of the individuality of region. Each has its specific his toric and geographic pattern. How long these regional indivi dualities can be ignored or subjugated to antique political pat terns is a pertinent question. . . Natural regions have no hard and fast boundaries (except in the case of islands and isolated mountain areas). Change may be abrupt like the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain areas - - sometimes gradual with inter mediate zones that belong to both regions. Natural boundaries are not as clear as man* s - - but endure longer--if our institu tions are to endure they must be formed in essential harmony with nature* s patterns. . , Each region has its balance - -popu lation, resources, vegetation and animal life. Upsetting the balance may be disastrous. The distribution of population in a region and its layout of industries must be based upon a knowledge and respect for its fundamental economic resources. Where undeveloped, misused or destroyed, the economic foundations of regional life are sapped, Under favourable conditions the city is the node of a region; it is the place where all its resources and advantages are brought together and made available for the whole population. Above all, the city gathers together, carries on, and makes avail able, the social heritage: through school and university, through laboratory and studio and museum and theatre, through its dominant religious and secular associations, the city is the repository of a community's more developed cul tural resources. To the extent that these institutions work ^^Lewis Mumford, "Regionalism and Irregionalism, " Sociological Review (October, 1927), pp. 277-88, 87 harmoniously together, the germ of a city exists, even though the population be as small as a village; to the extent that these institutions do not exist, or antagonise each other, or are insufficient in quantity and defective in quality, the city itself is merely potential, is sunk in somnolence, or even non existent, though people be as closely packed together as in the insulae of old Rome or the slums of New York , , , The gar den city movement has been mainly an effort to start new cities, rather than to rehabilitate and put into condition, old existing centres sufficiently small to permit additions which shall be planned as to make a complete community. Yet plainly, when the region is adopted as the unit for development, the building up of old centres, the breaking up of congested centres, and founding of entirely new centres to promote social life, industry, culture as a unity, all have to be considered to gether; they are, in fact, parts of one process, which aims to rehabilitate the region, , , , No one size of city, and no one one type of city, is sufficient to any region; the amount of con centration needed differs according to the place-possibility and the type of work: it ranges from the hamlet or village to serve the farming community up to the regional capital, which acts as the centre for regional administration, for business, and for the higher branches of education—as well as for the specialised function not necessary for the smaller centre, such as the hospital and the higher courts of law. . .For the growth and development of regional cities, one can put forv/ard no abstract limitations: the limitations of the size of a city are fixed by the local situation, by the state of the arts, and by the possibility of creating other nev/ cities in a regional rela tionship, The notion that cities have no limit of growth is fantastic. The question in each case is to establish the maxima and the minima of population with respect to industrial and agricultural developments, beyond which limit life is dif ficult, burdensome, and in the long run futile. If these limi tations, in an expanding community, were established in any particular city without opening up new centres and encouraging fresh development, the result would be intensified congestion. That is why, in expanding countries no limitation of con gestion can take place without a deliberate planting and pro motion of regional cities, or, in static or declining countries, a renewal of small dilapidated cities. What one looks for in the regional distribution of population is the recognition of the inherent and natural limitations on city grov/th. One of these limitations is the fact that a certain social "plant and equipment" is needed for a given unit of popu lation: if the unit be doubled, the plant must be doubled too; that is to say, a new "city" must be founded. We habitually ignore this limitation in congested centres by not attempting to provide the new parts of a city with a sufficient equipment in parks, playgrounds, schools, theatres, libraries, while even the physical public utilities may have begun to enter at a 88 late period of the city's activity, or expansion, and are often insufficient: for it is only by giving the greater part of the population less than the necessary plant and equipment that further growth can be managed at all in the big centres. Another limitation on city growth is the necessity of preserving open spaces for recreation; another is the necessity of pre venting stream pollution and obtaining drinking water without such an outlay on the physical apparatus as will impoverish every other phase of a city*s activity. Still another limitation is the time-distance from the center of the community to the outskirts; for when the time-distance becomes so great that functions of the centre are only intermittently employed by those on the outskirts, they might better form a separate city. The philosophy of regionalism and the art of regional plan ning are both very young everywhere, and, of course, not the least so in America; indeed, the first scarcely exists in America, except as it has found incidental expression in the writings of sporadic writers like Henry Thoreau and Liberty Bailey and Mrs. Mary Austin, while regional planning itself (in America as in England), instead of being identified with the general development of the region, cultural, economic, social, has grown up out of the administrative and economic problems connected with the congestion and expansion of great cities. It follows that there has been a hiatus between the cul tural and the economic ideas of regional planning. An uncon scious regionalism has been growing up in the cultural life of England and America, as in other countries, and it has been abetted by the little theatre movement, by the rehabilitation or the founding of regional universities; but this regionalism has been unsteady on its pins and spasmodic, because it was harnessed to no policy of land-planning, industrial resettle ment, civic renewal and city building. At the same time, all the technical endeavours in city-planning and industrial ex ploitât! on have been weakened and partly misdirected for lack of an accepted philosophy to give them a setting and a purpose, and for lack, too, of an enlightened public, for whom these matters would have a personal as well as a practical appeal. In the slow, varied and partly involuntary growth of regiona lism there is the promise, it may be, of changes more subtle and profound than those that can be embodied in any definite political programme. What we are working for is a new atti tude towards our political and industrial institutions, towards the human drama itself, towards the earth upon which it is staged. Our industrialism has been other-worldly: it has blackened and defaced our human environment, in the hope of achieving the abstract felicities of profits and dividends in the industrial hereafter. It is time that we came to terms with the earth, and worked in partnership with the forces that pro mote life and the traditions that enhance it. Regionalism sug gests a cure for many current ills. Focussed in the region. 89 sharpened for the more definite enhancement of life, every activity, cultural or practical, menial or liberal, becomes necessary and significant; divorced from this context, and dedicated to archaic or abstract schemes of salvation and happiness, even Lhe finest activities seem futile and meaning less; they are lost and swallowed up in a vast indefiniteness. In this sense regionalism is a return to life; and, in Gilbert Murray’s paraphrase of Euripides, "he who knows as the long day goes, that to live is happy, has found his heaven. "59 Essentially a philosopher, Lewis Mumford's position on re gionalism and regional planning, as opposed to those of the Thomas Adams' persuasion, represented a polarity. The former was, of course, highly theoretical and ensued from an analysis in depth of the essential purpose of the environment and the relationships and interrelationships between its elements. The latter, stemmed from the practical pursuit of regional planning and dealt primarily with the existing conditions of the urban environment, its trends, its growth, and how through planning that environment could be modi fied to best accomodate the changes that growth would create. No more definitive illustration of that polarity exists than the criticism of the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs written by Lewis Mumford, titled simply, "The Plan of New York, and the reply by Thomas Adams, titled "A Communication In Defense of the Regional Plan, " The following paragraphs are excerpts from each, some in dialogue, which illustrate that polarity. ^^Lewis Mumford, "The Theory and Practice of Region alism, " Sociological Review (November, 1927), pp. 18-32. ^^Lewis Mumford, "The Plan of New York, " New Republic (June 15, 1932, pp. I2I-I26 and June 22, 1932, pp. 146-154. ^^Thomas Adams, "A Communication In Defense of the Regional Plan," The New Republic (July 6, 1932), pp. 207-210. 90 The last volurae of the "Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs" appeared at the end of 1931. The Plan was conceived by Mr. Charles D. Norton, a trustee of the Russell Sage Foun dation; and a committee to carry it out was formed in 1921. The full scale investigation and survey began in 1923; a whole corps of city planners, engineers, statisticians, economists, lawyers and minicipal experts have been at work on it; many preliminary pamphlets and ten sumptuous illustrated volumes embody the research and the recommendations. This enter prise was supported by the Russell Sage Foundation; and it cost over a million and a quarter dollars. Because of the mag nitude of the task, because of the money and civic good will behind it, because of the high reputation of the investigators themselves. New York’s Regional Plan has been pretty gener ally accepted as the last word on the subject of city planning and regional development. The guiding spirit in the plan was Mr. Thomas Adams, an experienced city planner and adminis trator, a man of international reputation. He directed the sur veys, wrote a good part of the reports and gathered the results together in a final volume. No one can confront the imposing staff of authorities and experts that assisted him without a feeling of genuine deference. If they are wrong, who can be right? If they are muddled, who can be clear ? Still, authorities must finally be judged by the same cri terion that applies to everyone else: what is the quality of their thought and what is the validity of their conclusions ? After a painstaking examination of this tremendous work, and after due consideration and consultation with many other autho rities, I am frank to say at the outset that the "Regional Plan for New York and Its Environs" is a disappointment. It not only fails as a specific enterprise for the benefit of New York: it fails as an example. Mr. Adams, indeed, hopes that the "plan has rendered a real service in establishing some of the principles underlying the problems of city and regional plan ning, and so has been of use to those struggling with similar problems elsewhere. " But while in many parts of the survey particularly in Volumes Six and Seven, many essential prin ciples are ably set down and many current tendencies in city development are judiciously criticized, the effect of the plan itself is to up set most of the criteria that the authors, in their more detached and critical moments, have established. With respect to the general effect of the Plan- - as distinguished from specific contributions within the Report - - M r. Adams' hopes are unfounded. As a survey of the region and as a handbook on the muni cipal affaire of some four hundred diverse governmental units, the Regional Plan is invaluable. It presents with great skill and adroitness a good part of the merely local data that are necessary as a basis for plans and policies in the metropolitan area of New York, already a conglomeration inhabited by some 91 eleven and a half million people. On a score of specific pro jects, the Regional Plan has suggested procedures or sketched out designs with which no competent person will take issue. But it is precisely in the broader aspect of regional survey and regional plan that Lhe report is fundamentally weak; it not merely fails to demonstrate valid principles and useful methods of procedure, but by its show of authority it creates barriers against anyone else * s arriving at them. Were its example and its assumptions, widely followed in other cities, the results would, I think, be disastrous for them. What is the source of this weakness? . . . To account for it, one should have a better understanding of the essential tasks planning and the strategy of living in our present civilization.’ In one of his books Mr. Lewis Mumford designates the Place de l’Etoile in Paris as a square. As I see it, in plan and on the ground, it is a circle. Mr. Mumford could no doubt demonstrate that his description was correct in theory. I could prove my conception correct in fact and geometrical form. But probably each would remain unconvinced. Here we have an illustration, first of the relativity of truth, and second of the wide gap between Mr. Mumford and me. He conceives regional planning as a square closed in by one fixed idea. I conceive it as a circle having a focal point, or definite major objective, in social improvement, but including numerous radial avenues affording access to different ideas as well as exits for ideas that every sincere person must aban don, after proper test. In other words, Mr. Mumford has a theory of what regional planning should be which experience has taught me to distrust profoundly as affording a desirable social objective. That it is visionary is not in question even by its author. I, on the other hand, have no definite theory but am merely an experimenter and student who has been endeavoring to discover where the largest measure of truth is to be found. One must finally judge the Regional Plan not by its separate details but by its drift. Thus, the report talks garden cities but drifts toward further metropolitan centralization; it talks neighborhood planning and better housing, but drifts toward our present chaotic methods of supplying both; it talks of ob jective standards of light and air for building but drifts toward over intensive uses of even suburban areas. / o Mumford, "The Plan . . , , pp. 121-122. 63 Adams, "A Communication . . . , p. 207. 92 On matters of critical importance for an understanding of metropolitan development, as a special phenomenon in the growth of cities, the Plan has only a slight contribution to make. In a preliminary report to the committee, Mr. Walter W. Stewart, an able economist, suggested that a regional plan for the area involved a study of the complex forces that affect the balance between farm and city populations ; but neither this nor the relation of metropolitan growth and metropolitan finance was undertaken by the surveyors--although the latter is plainly a key problem. In their anxiety to arrive at tangible recommendations for the Plan, the Russell Sage planners failed to deal systematically with more than a fraction of the forces that have created the present complex of cities and that condition any attempt to effect their improvement. ^4 Mr. Mumford does not write as a man who has faced the facts and difficulties of making a thorough survey of urban conditions and tendencies, or of planning a city or region in a democratic country; rather as an esthete-sociologist, who has a religion that is based on high ideals, but is unworkable. His main quarrel with the Regional Plan is its drift . Precisely. It drifts away from his ideal conception of what a plan should be, and he is intolerant toward any other conception. Thirty years ago I had ideas similar to those expressed by Mr. Mumford. In words quoted from him they were "patheti cally immature. " . . . I have found that movement is essen tial to progress in reform and that one must keep to the road, and as nearly the middle of it as possible, if any improvement is to be made. This is the main point on which Mr. Mumford and I, as well as Mr. Mumford and Geddes, differ—that is, whether we stand still and talk ideals or move forward and get as much realization of ideals as possible in a necessarily im perfect society, capable only of imperfect solutions of its problems. Mr. Mumford reveals himself as an apostle of economic changes that would require the combined power of the P resi dent, Congress and state legislatures to bring about. The Regional Plan goes far in proposing restriction on rights to property, but no further than it is reasonable to expect public opinion to go, or government to authorize in the future. It would have been folly to have attempted to make it a charter for rebuilding the social state in tri state regions, as Mr. Mumford implies it should have been. Moreover, if planning were done in the way he conceives it should be done, it would require a despotic government to carry it out. I would rather have the evils that go with freedom than have a perfect physical order achieved at the price of freedom. ^ ^ L e w is M u m f o r d , " T h e P l a n . . . , p . 122. ^ ^ A d a m s , " A C o m m u n ic a t io n . . . , p . 2 0 8 . 93 In geography, the word region has a fairly exact connotation; but the Russell Sage planners have used it to describe an arbi trarily chosen area of metropolitan influence. Why was an area with a forty-mile radius from the center taken as the basis of the Survey and Lhe Plan? This question is bound up with all the population predictions and a good part of the plans for transportation and traffic; and yet the intentions and pur poses which were in the planners' minds in choosing such an area are nowhere very clearly expressed or cogently ac counted for. In Plan Volume One, we learn that "the boun daries were determined largely on four grounds, namely: (1) they embraced the area within which population can and does travel in reasonable time from home to place of work—that is the commuting area; (2) they included the large outlying re creational areas within easy reach of the metropolitan center ; (3) they had regard to the physical characteristics such as watersheds and waterways ; (4) they followed the boundaries of cities and counties at the periphery of these areas of admini stration. The assumptions involved in this choice are not in the least self-evident. By what criterion is two hours' com mutation per day a reasonable expenditure of time, energy, money? Why should a metropolitan area be planned so as to increase the flow of population from a crowded center to more and more fully urbanized but dependent outlying areas? . . . If garden cities are to be built up, as at one point the Regional Plan advocates, why should the colonization of such cities be within the expensive surburban districts of the metropolis, in stead of in the cheaper agricultural areas beyond? Why does the notion of planning for the metropolitan area carry with it in the minds of the Russell Sage planners the notion of pro gressively filling up the metropolitan area? This question of a boundary line is of critical importance ; for an area with thrice as great a radius would have altered almost every term in the problem. The question becomes all the more pertinent when one observes how often in the report the low average density of population for the forty-mile area is cited- - as if this were in some fashion a palliation for the indecent con gestion of the metropolis itself or an earnest of the possibility that future growth, arising out of similar causes would be less congested. . . . The original estimates on this basis of a population by 1965 of 2 9 , 000, 000 for the entire area have now been reduced by the planners to 21, 000, 000; but the principle remains fal lacious, Sociologically speaking, the assumption is valueless; psychologically speaking, it must be classed as wish fulfil ment. The New York region, then, as described by the Regional Plan, is a purely arbitrary concept, based upon future possi bilities of transportation and past facts of city growth. But the population of this area is not simply determined by the 94 biological ratio of births over deaths; nor will it be determined inevitably by the social and economic forces that have acted in the past, since these are not immutable. The actual popu lation that will come into the area is conditioned not merely by industrial movements, changes in the form of labor organi zation, laws governing immigration, the rate structures es tablished for railroads and for giant power ; it is also con ditioned by the very plans and policies that are made to meet an increase anticipated or a decrease of population. To as - sume that growth within an arbitrary metropolitan area will continue automatically in the future, under the same con ditions that prevailed in the past, is to beg the question; it is to place a premium upon inertia and routine and to register a vote against those possibilities of social control which a plan, by its very nature, must conjure up. Of course, in certain physical respects the Plan cannot be changed. The boundaries of the region is one of these. 1 am not impressed with the claim of Mr, Mumford that his know ledge of what the boundary should be is superior to that of the five leading experts who collaborated with me in confirming its selection, after careful study. The region was not arbi trarily chose, as he suggests, nor is it forty miles in radius, except in New Jersey. In one direction it extends to one hun dred and thirty miles. It includes open territory sufficient to house the whole population of the United States in densities similar to those in garden cities. In this connection Mr. Mum ford suggests that the area should have been large enough to provide for garden cities. It happens that 1 took a prominent part in selecting the site for the first garden city in England in 1903. Many sites were available, but the necessity of being in proximity to a large city, for economic reasons, dictated the choice of Letchworth, thirty-four miles from London. When Sir Ebenezer Howard chose the second site at Welwyn, after twelve years of experience of Letchworth, it was not chosen farther away from, but seventeen miles nearer to London. ^ The Regional Plan's difficulties on the fundamental matters of area and population derive from two sources. First: they have accepted as "automatic" and "inevitable" a process of metropolitan aggrandizement which has been in good part de liberate; the outcome of consciously formulated plans and pur poses. Second: the investigators do not distinguish between the actual forms of urban growth in our present civilization. In the first volume, for instance. Professor Haig, discussing ^^Lewis Mumford, "The Plan . , , , p. 123. 6 7 Adams, "A Communication . . . , p. 2 08. 95 the economic conditions of metropolitanism, ignores the part played by the efforts to promote congestion, such as the pyra miding of ground rents in the business districts and the estab lishment of differential freight rates in favor of the Pox-L of New York, and within that Port, of Manhattan Island. Nor does he distinguish between urbanism in general and metro- politanism; hence, for him, the increase in proportion of city dwellers to agricultural workers is a justification of the pro cess of metropolitan expansion--as if that were the sole mode of city development ! So confidently did the Russell Sage planners accept the in evitability of metropolitan development that they blinded them selves to the significance of their own statistics, and even a r ranged them in such a fashion as to obscure the real trends to the casual reader. . . . Whereas the increase from 1900 to 1922 was 83. 6 per cent, that from 1912 to 1922 was only 13.6 per cent, and whereas in the first period the factory workers increased more rapidly than the population, in the second the population increased more rapidly than the factory workers. . . . In other words, there has been a steady decrease in the rate of industrial growth since 1912; a process which has nothing whatever to do, of course, with the present business depression. There is reason to believe that the peak of in dustrial centralization occurred at about 1910, and that since that time new technological factors, particularly electric power, the telephone, the motor car and new methods of cor porate direction, have been making themselves felt. Dealing with this problem almost solely in terms of local factors-- the local market, the necessity for the heavy industries, like chemicals, to find cheaper land to expand on, and so forth— the Regional Plan has not concerned itself with the general conditions that are plainly diminishing the necessity and the convenience of metropolitan centralization. With the myth of New York^s greatness and the desire for metropolitan concentration to spur them, they looked for no other evidence and admitted to no other necessities. Is it any wonder that from the beginning the Russell Sage planners tended to belittle the new social conditions and the new tech nological innovations which might, if socially applied and con trolled, act as a brake upon metropolitan growth? The in fluence of the telephone, the radio, the automobile, the air plane, giant power, skilled industrial planning and rationali zation, in flattening out the "advantages of the metropolis," even the dubious advantage of a large labor market, part of it chronically unemployed--none of these factors has been com pletely canvased and candidly assessed. "It is in the outlying fringe, " writes Mr, Adams, "that the opportunities for improvement are greatest. As the regional survey has shown, it is here that the greatest potentialities 96 exist both for creating good conditions and for the application of measures for the prevention of bad conditions. " Unfortunately, the forces which have created a mess in the center are at work, likewise in the outer fringe. If the re gional planners have no plan for controlling these forces at the center, why should they be more sanguine of their abili ties on the periphery Mr, Mumford^ s specific criticisms are so much interwoven with his opinions that it is difficult to select them for specific reply. Throughout the whole of his article he returns again and again to the assertion that the Regional Plan supports fur ther concentration. As a matter of fact, what we say against additional or excessive concentration would fill a volume, and 1 can give here only one or two illustrations of the inaccuracy of the article on this subject. Our zoning proposals are based on an initial assumption that not more than 40 percent of the gross area of land should be built upon in any part of the city, thus leaving 60 percent open as a condition precedent to building. At present these figures are often reversed and only 40 percent is left free of building. In neighborhoods where land coverage is greater, we cannot hope that public opinion will force its real reduction. In regard to bulk of building, we advocate as a definite limitation that no building in central or downtown Manhattan shall exceed 144 cubic feet per square foot of lot. This compares with 385 cubic feet per square foot of lot in the Empire State Building, which has much less cubage than the existing zoning law permits. Thus the standards of the Regional Plan, which are declared to encourage further con centration, would, restrict building bulk, within the city, to a little over a third of that resulting under the present zoning law. In outer areas we propose that all business buildings shall have a 45-degree angle of light at front and rear, a more stringent regulation of bulk than obtains in most com munities at present. We propose that apartment houses should have the same area of open space per family unit as the minimum permitted for single-family residences, which Mr. Mumford knows is a revolutionary proposal in favor of less concentr ation. In general, we propose a distribution of industry and popu lation which would result in obtaining a ratio of about twice as much open space to building area as now exists. In order to obtain this, we put forward a plan of highways and transit lines which was essential for proper distribution but which Mr. Mumford considers as likely to prevent distribution, ^ ^ L e w is M u m f o r d , " T h e P l a n • • , , p . 124. 6 9 A d a m s , "A C o m m u n ic a t io n . . . , p . 2 0 9 . 97 The truth is that the Russell Sage planners did not take ad vantage of their theoretical freedom; they were so eager to fasten to a viable solution, a solution acceptable to their com mittee full of illustrious names in financial and civic affairs, to the business community generally, to the public officials of the region, that they deliberately restricted the area of their questions. In genuine research, it is a surprising matter to emerge from the investigation with the same con clusions as one provisionally had reached before entering it. . . . There is nothing more practical than a fertile theore tical attack; there is nothing less practical than a concrete proposal which, if not immediately carried out, becomes obsolete and must be replaced. By creating a plan for im mediate adoption, the Russell Sage planners have made a plan that is not worth adopting. Mr. Mumford declares that we evaded the problem and hid essential facts with illusory hopes and false promises. As a staff, he says, we tried to find a solution "acceptable to the committee, " consisting of a caste of bankers, and deliberately restricted the area of our questions. These charges are not worthy either of Mr. Mumford or of any reply except to say that our studies have been from the beginning a simple search for the truth, and our conclusions uninfluenced by any other considerations Mr, Mumford indicts the nation's Constitution and not the Regional Plan when he says that "property values and private enterprise are looked upon as sacred. " But why should they not be if they are values and enterprises based on healthful and proper uses of property and on sound social principles ? The Regional Plan could not have been more insistent than it is in condemning property values that are based on wrong use, and private enterprise that is injurious to public well being. Mr. Mumford shows ignorance of what it is possible to in clude in a regional survey and plan when he suggests that ours should have dealt with "the complex forces that affect the balance between farm and city populations, " as a problem in economics; or with all the complicated factors of metropo litan finance. Incidentally these problems were dealt with to the extent that they were relevant. Because we confined our selves to essential matters in our investigations we failed, the critic says, to deal with "more than a fraction of the forces that have created the present complex of cities. " Ap parently he does not agree that the forces that enter into the life of cities are inexhaustible and that the human mind can- ^^Lewis Mumford, "The Plan . . . , p. 125. 71 Adams, "A Communication . . . , p. 210. 98 not grasp them all. Finally, he comes to the conclusion that the Plan, as conceived by him is a "monumental failure. " But as the "failure" is based on a wrong diagnosis, the conclusion may be dismissed. ^ ^ It follows that the polarity of the Mumford philosophy and the position of the "practical planners" of Thomas Adams’ persua sion is clear. Mr. Mumford proposed the broad approach based upon a region defined by more comprehensive criteria than that recognized by Mr. Adams as being necessary and proper. Mumford clarified his position in "The Plan of New York: 11, " where he stated: Genuine regional planning as distinguished from the super ficial metropolitan planning to which the Russell Sage planners are committed, is not content to accept any of the factors in city growth as outside human foresight and control. If we cannot create better urban conditions without changing our present methods and institutions and controls, we must be prepared to change them: to hold that the present means are sacred and untouchable is to succumb to a superstitious capitalistic taboo.73 The comprehensiveness of regional planning was viewed by Mumford to include sociological forces and he also scored the New York Plan on that account: . . . the planners were thinking either of the physical city alone, or of those even greater abstractions, the plots and values and investments and trends of population. Meanwhile they completely neglected the sociological fact of the city — a collection of groups, within a limited area, housed in ap- propriate permanent structures, serving the common life in related institutions. The city in its complete sense, a a physical organization, an institutional process, an esthetic reality, an incorporation of groups, cannot be increased in definitely in size; for to be effective, the nuclear institutions must, and beyond a certain point in growth, split up again into units conceived on the human scale and x esponsive to human requirements and human needs. 72 T h o m a s A d a m s , "A C o m m u n ic a t io n . . . , p . 210. ^ ^ L e w is M u m f o r d , " T h e P l a n . . . , p . 151. 99 . . . Without the whole corps of essential civic institutions, in active operation and in continual process of renewal, every new area added to the city is by definition a blighted or sub urban area- - an area devoid of citizens because destitute of the the very organs of citizenship. The political corruption of the city, its gangsterdom, its thieving officialdom, its demoralized police, its lax and apathetic public, is not an accidental result but an inevitable product of inorganic forms of urban growth. That the growth of the city is something other than a process of extending transit lines and laying down blank subdivisions is obliquely presented in just one part of the Report--that on the neighborhood unit. But what applies to this unit applies to the city as a whole; for the nucleus is not alone the school, but all the other social groups and institutions which make the dif ference between an integrated corporate life and a private iso lated life. Through the concentr ation of rich individuals, the present financial metropolis claims a disproportionate share of the institutions of art and culture in the country; but by the very act of expanding its urban areas, it removes or lessens opportunity to enjoy these advantages on the part of any con siderable share of its population, ' ^ Therefore, city planning had great influence upon the em er gence and upon the growth of regional planning, and although it had arrived at a state of confusion as to just what it was at the beginning of President Franklin D, Roosevelt's administration, the evidence is irrefutable that it had advanced to the stage that can clearly be de signated as "metropolitan planning, " which is a much more accurate term, or if you will, it can be referred to as "metrotechnics, " the applied science of making the metropolis more habitable. It is pre cisely metr otechnics that the Russell Sage planners had in mind, for the region as conceived by Lewis Mumford as well as the comprehen siveness its planning necessitates was much beyond the framework within which they worked. Although it may be said that all metro polises are regions, specialized as they are or may be - - all regions are not metropolises. ^ ^ M u m fo r d , " T h e P l a n o f N e w Y o r k , " p . 153. 1 0 0 Influence of Conservation The rise of the conservation movement in the United States has its roots deep in the evolution of the American nation. That story is well known, but may be summarized in terms of conserva tion as an emergent phenomenon that increased in its spread and in tensity as the renewable and non-renewable resources of the nation were depleted. The industrial revolution which yielded the techno logical means for the rapid and wholesale exploitation of natural re sources was the major influence in facilitating misuse and waste of resources. That story is dramatically told by such classics as Stuart Chase's Rich Land, Poor Land, " 1934, and Pairfield Osborn's Our Plundered Planet , 1948. The history of conservation is replete with its advocates and its heroes: Ceorge P. Marsh, U. S. Minister to Italy, 1861-1881, had, while there, the opportunity to observe the desolate condition of formerly prosperous Mediterranean areas and concluded that it was the activities of man which upset the balance of nature with disastrous results. His work, Man and Nature , or Fhy- sical Geography as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864 has been called the fountainhead of the conservation movement. His chapter titled "Importance of Physical Conservation and Restoration" had significant influence, and stressed the point that in nature there tends to exist a balance and that human occupance upsets this balance .... "man is everywhere a disturbing agent, wherever he plants his foot, the harmonies of nature are turned to discords. " Carl Schurz, United States Secretary of the Interior in 1887 was considered to be 101 7 5 the original conservationist. Franklin B. Hough, physician, natu ralist, New York State and Federal Census director, presented a paper, "On the Duty of Covernments in the Preservation of F orests, " before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which resulted in the establishment of the Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture in 1876, with Hough as its first com missioner, Cifford Pinchot became chief in 1898, and later authored numerous volumes relating to the conservation movement such as: A Prim er of Forestry, The Fight for Conservation, and Breaking 7 6 New Cround. Pinchot greatly influenced President Theodore Roosevelt in promoting his interest in conservation. Bernard E. Fernow became chief of the division in 1886, influenced the Act of 1897 which established administration of forest reserves, organized the school of forestry at Cornell, Pennsylvania State College and the University of Toronto, stated in one of his works : Whether fertile lands are turned into deserts, forests into waste places, brooks into torrents, rivers changed from means of power and intercourse into means of de struction and desolation—these are questions which concern the material existence itself of society, and since such changes become often irreversible, the damage irrem e diable, and at the same time the extent of available re sources becomes smaller in proportion to the population, their consideration is finally much more important than those other questions of the day. 7 5 ”C. M. Fuess, Carl Slehurz, Reformer (New York: Dodd Mead & Co., 1932), p. 267: 7 6 New York Times, October 6, 1946, Sect. 1., p, 56. 77 Bernard E. Fernow, "The Providential Functions of Covernment With Special Reference to Natural Resources," P ro ceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, ^%4th Meeting, August-September, 1895), p. 336. 1 0 2 John Westly Powell, a geologist, published in 1878 a monograph, "Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, " and as director of the United States Geological Survey, influenced enact- 7 8 ment in 1902 of the Reclamation Act. Charles R. Van Hise, presi dent of the University of Wisconsin from 1903 until his death in 1918, believed that it was the responsibility of the University to place the accumulated knowledge at the service of its citizens, contributed to the conservation movement a work titled "The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States, which was for twenty-five years the principal educational instrument of the conservation move- 4 - 79 ment. All these actions by concerned and responsible persons, geologists, foresters, legislators, educators, soil conservationists culminated in President Theodore Roosevelt's White House Con ference of 1908 attended by governors, natural resource experts, state and federal legislators, cabinet members. Supreme Court judges and members of the Inland Waterways Commission. There it was announced by President Roosevelt that: We have become great because of the lavish use of our re sources . . . that it is ominously evident that these resources are in the course of rapid exhaustion . . . and that it is time for us not as a nation to exercise the same reasonable fore sight in dealing with our great natural resources that would 7 8 G. K. Gilbert, "Powell as a Geologist, " Proceedings, Washington Academy of Science, Lancaster, Penn. , New Era Printing I " * ! * ess, 19Ô3 , p. 116 . 7 9 George T. Renner, "Conservation as a Unit of Study in Geography," Education (Vol. LVlll, no. 5, 1938), p. 287. 103 be shown by any prudent man in conserving and wisely using the property which contains the assurance of well-being for himself and his children. Although the over zealousness of Roosevelt's conservation crusade was partially the cause of its early dissolution, legislation was passed which created the National Conservation Commission, com posed of forty-nine members with Gifford Pinchot as chairman; legislation concerning water resources was enacted in the form of the Cary Act which provided federal aid for irrigation in 1896. The Reclamation Act facilitated actual irrigation projects by the federal government in 1902; the Inland Waterways Commission was ap pointed in 1907 and the Federal Water Power Act created the Federal Power Commission which was given control of water power develop ment on navigable rivers in 192 0. These enactments together with the earlier legislation en acted to protect the forests required organization for their effective administration. This and other effects of the conservation movement have been said to have had an influence upon regionalism, regional planning, and may be summarized as follows; (1) March 7, 1907 the President appointed the Inland Water ways Commission, whose first report emphasized the interlocking character of the problems of natural resources. It pointed out that the control and use of water would conserve coal, iron and the soil 8 0 Addresses and Papers of Theodore Roosevelt, ed. Willis Fletcher Johnson (New York: Unit Book Publishing Company, 1909), pp. 445, 449, & 450. 10 4 and in order to control water, it is necessary to preserve the forests. Today, experts agree that water cannot be dealt with as a single entity. It is linked inseparably with the production, manu facture and use of numerous other commodities and enters into most conservation problems, notably those of forestry, soils, range man agement and wild life. It is becoming clear that more of the total precipitation must be retained where it falls. The problems arising out of the establishment of priorities, the equitable allocation of water supplies among the various competing demands, and the es tablishment of regulations regarding the use and reuse of water are as yet far from being solved. Although many agencies are concerned with water management they tend to have different objectives, operate under different laws and function within different administrative frameworks. Coordination is vital, regional policies mandatory. (2) The creation of six district offices of the Forest Ser vice in 1908 represented acknowledgment of the need for a rational approach to the administration of forest resources and was the fore runner of the nine regions established by the Department of Agri culture, which still operate today in the administration of United States Forest resources. (3) The Weeks Law (Act of March 1, 1 9 1 1 , 36 Statute 961) established a new national policy—the purchase by the Federal Government of forest lands necessary to the protection of the flow of navigable streams. It also established a program of Federal- State cooperation in fire protection, later expanded under the Clark- McNary Law of 1924. 105 (4) On May 15, 1930, the Secretary of Agriculture approved the substitution of the name "region" and "regional forester" for "district" and "district forester, " thereby linking forestry with re gional planning and acknowledging the region as its proper theatre. (5) On March 21, 1933, President Franklin D, Roosevelt sent to Congress his message on legislation to relieve distress, to build men, and to build up the Nation’s forest resources. Ten days later. Congress enacted legislation for the establishment of Em er gency Conservation work, later called the Civilian Conservation Corps. During its nine years of operation, the program rehabili tated more than two million men and facilitated vast forest protection through tree planting of more than 2. 25 billion seedlings, extensive 81 watershed restoration, and erosion control. Here, for the first time in the Nation's history, conservation of human and natural re sources were joined. Its influence continues today in President Johnson's Job Corps. (6) Congress gave its consent and the President approved a northeastern interstate forest fire protection compact on June 25, 1949 (63 Statute 271). The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York banded together to promote effective prevention and control of forest fires through development of integrated fire protection plans, provision 81 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, High lights in the History of Forest Conservation, Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 83 (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, June 1961), p. 19. 106 for mutual aid in fire fighting and the cooperative development of road systems within the interstate area. During the next few years interstate forest fire protection compacts were also authorized by Congress for the Southeastern, South Central, and Middle Atlantic ^ 82 State s. (7) Comprehensive interagency river basin planning, in which forestry plays an important part began with the establishment of the Federal Inter-Agency River Basin Committee in 1943, which permitted the Departments of War, Interior, Agriculture, the Federal Power Commission and the Department of Commerce and Federal Security Agency to cooperate more effectively in river basin plans for the New England-New York Region and for the Arkansas- White and Red River Basins. Early in 1944, there appeared reports of the Departments of War and Interior presenting a plan for flood control, reclamation and other conservation goals, in the Missouri River Basin. The approval of this plan, commonly referred to as the "Pick-Sloan Plan, " in the Flood Control Act of 1944 focused at tention on the need for a companion program of watershed improve ment work. The Department of Agriculture prepared the Missouri River Basin Agricultural Program, described in House Document Q O No. 373, 8lst Congress, October 5, 1949. The Multiple L ) se-Sustained Yield Act, Public Law 86-517 Q o Ibid. , p. 19. ^^bid. , p. 20. 107 signed June 12, I960 by President Eisenhower, declared that National Forests are to be administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed and wildlife and fish purposes. It gave congressional con firmation to the established policy of the Secretary of Agriculture to develop and administer renewable surface resources of the National Forests for multiple use and sustained yield of their several products and services. It stressed that consideration be given relative values of resources in particular areas and established wildernesses. Multiple use is management of all renewable surface re sources of the forests so that they are used in the combination that will best meet the needs of the American people. It provides for judicious use of the several land resources with adjustments and co ordinated management to conform with changing needs and conditions. Sustained yield is continuous achievement and maintenance of a high level output of forest resources without impairing the productivity of the land. The history of forest conservation reveals research, field work, scientific study, surveys and reports in the finest tradition of regionalism, which have provided continuing information resulting in a tremendous boost to the economic life of the nation. Some of the more important highlights follow: (1) Franklin B. Hough, first com missioner of fox es try, whose numerous reports were scientific and historical as well as classical on timber and forest products. Hough also founded the American Journal of Forestry; (2) J. W. Powell's 1878 monograph, "Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, " and his earlier paper before the American As so- 108 ciation for the Advancement of Science, which triggered the estab- 84 lishment of the Division of Forestry ; the 1908 "Inventory of the Nation's Natural Resources, " prepared by the National Conservation Commission—the first of its type, and the one which enabled Van Hise to write his classic, "The Conservation of Natural Resources In the United States (4) the first report of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907, which emphasized the interlocking character of the problems of natural resources and pointed out that the control and use of water would aid in the conservation of coal, iron and the soil, and in order to control water, it is necessary to preserve the forests; (5) the 1945-47 postwar reappraisal of the forest situation in the United States by the Forest Service, which showed that the volume of saw timber had declined some 43 per cent in thirty six years, that saw timber in the nation's forests had been depleted one and a half times as fast as it was being replaced by growth, and that there had been a marked deterioration in the quality of timber as well as in the quantity; (6) the prominent role of the Tennessee Valley Authority in resource conservation, which through research rapidly accumulated information and ideas on water control, farm practices, rural electrification, mineral resources, freight rates and other sub jects vital to the under standing tantamount to re solving the many in terrelated problems of the Tennessee Valley; (7) the 1 9 5 1 survey by 84 Supra, p. 101 - ^^Supra, p. 102. 109 the American Forestry Association covering the period from 1945 through 1950, which found that although some of the larger more pro gressive private industries which owned forest land had adopted forestry practices more than half of the Nation’s private forest land was still without management, the industry- sponsored ’’ tree farm ” program had spread, conservation education expanded and the num ber of forestry professionals had increased 125 per cent; and (8) the nationwide study, ’’The Timber Resource Review, ’’ conducted by the Forest Service and cooperating Federal, State and private agencies described the extent and conditions of the country’s timber re sources. National forests and other public holdings comprised twenty seven per cent of the country’s commercial forest land. Of the private lands thirteen per cent was in industrial holdings, sixty per cent divided among 4, 5 million farmers and other private owners averaging less than 100 acres. A comprehensive long term plan for improvement and development of public forests was developed in 1959, and submitted to the Congress by the Secretary of Agriculture. Thus, conservation may be construed to encompass the whole complex of man and nature in relation to each other. This in cludes atmosphere, soils, minerals, waters, fish, wildlife, crops, power, industry, forests, wilderness areas, nature study and the beauty of the lands cape--and man in all his manifold capabilities and needs. It is man’s relation to nature that is more significant in a broader perspective on conservation. Intimately related to each other on a basis of conservation, human resources and nature illu minate customs, politics, law, religion, the arts and science. 110 The principle of conservation crystallizes in the relationship between variable resource elements, in a word "ecology. " Basically, we may begin with soils--the chief historical source of man's suste nance. Each soil has its own inherent physical, chemical and bio logical properties, which when combined with climate and cultivation produces the necessities that make life possible for human resources. Some soils naturally have higher capabilities than others; some re spond more to fertilizers and good management than others. Each soil is further, a natural water reservior, having storage, replen ishment and depletion characteristics. It embodies nature's way of conserving water, but the key to soil management is capitalizing upon its capabilities. Watershed is included as well as the land area that drains into a single stream and the water resource that it holds. The natural properties of the many soils, waters, forests, fish and wildlife, and the beauty of the landscape can yield a broad combi nation of uses if properly conserved. Conservation of the watershed in terms of man and nature is much more complex than that of soil alone, because water, fish and wildlife are mobile resources—they contribute both use and resistance- -depending upon how the watershed is used and managed. Conservation of human resources fits into this picture too and the principle remains applicable, for when related to the natural and cultural environment, qualities of a high order emeige if resistances in the environment do not impair or arrest their ex pression. As soils have need of cultivation, so have human resources; as soils need treatment in terms of fertilizers, erosion protection, flood damage--human resources have physical, emotional and intel Ill lectual needs that must be fulfilled. Beyond this is the need for the coordination of all these needs for the fulfillment of the combined capabilities of man and of nature--which imply unity - - unity of pur pose, unity of organization, unity of action. Man's greatest waste stems from lack of understanding of his relation to nature--from con cepts of ethics, religion, law, economics and government, which are not natural, but unnatural or supernatural. Traditional values rooted in dogma, emanating from artificial beings, static and dog matic, are not productive of real values attuned to the dynamics of a social, economic, political and psychological order in rapid change. Our efforts in the conservation of natural resources have to some ex tent paralleled our efforts in the conservation of human resources, and although inadequate in both, history has not recorded our efforts in the latter in the same sense or detail. But, waste in both con tinue - -the flooding of our rivers, pollution of fresh waters and of the atmosphere, defacing the urban landscape and the waste of youth and aged, minorities and women continues — requiring the creative ideals of a regionally orientated conservation program to correct. Just as water as a resource occurs as fresh water in aquifiers and on the land as brooks, ponds, streams, lakes, quiet rivers and rapid waters which attract canoeists and sport fishermen, waters of irrigation, and municipal and industrial supplies and water used for the generation of electric power, there are brackish waters of bays and estuaries, the rich biological breeding grounds of marine life, which move into the open oceans to mature. There are the beaches and dunes, and sea cliffs of the shoreline and the shallow off-shore 112 waters which are ever more crowded by skiers, surfers, divers and fishermen. Then there is the hydrologie cycle itself, the mighty ocean, maker of climate, source of minerals and commercial fish eries, creater of hurricanes and tsunamis, and graveyard of ships. Water then, indispensable to life and industry is a complex resource and an environmental resistance as well--it floods valleys and cities, creates disease when polluted, erodes top soil, and is as hazardous a highway between continents as expressways between regions. Thus, many problems are associated with water — economic, political, functional and social. All other resources have similar complexi ties--their incidence, the diverse uses possible, the minerals, the animal life and the permutations possible, present limitless potential for use. This is because the many separate aspects of the environ ment are separate only when man focuses upon environmental fea tures singly, artifically abstracting from that feature its substance for exploitative purposes only. The environment is a unity. It is by nature an ecological system, intricate relationships exist which r e flect interaction, and change is the dominating feature. Therefore, conservation as approach, as concept, as ideal, is the vital resource management tool that regional planning must employ to convert and use the natural environment and its valuable resources to a living surround for man's progressing culture. This is confirmed by the fact that all life is dependent upon a continuous flow of energy and matter. The regional planner is concerned with the metabolism of the region, that is, the flow of energy and matter to, within, and from the regional ecosystem. There is economy here too, but beyond 113 the normal concerns of the business oriented economist, who often fails to recognize the inter-relationships between all the components of the regional ecosystem--the inputs, the human factor, the capital goods, the institutions through which they work, the outputs from natural resources and the factors that support the dignity as well as the life and culture of man as a super - organism and society as a human ecosystem. Influence of Depression and the New Deal The diverse programs of the "New Deal, " instituted during President Roosevelt's Administration, had their roots deep in the history of the nation and found their most articulate voice in the re form movements of the Muckrakers. The era between the depression of 1913wl4 and the severe recession of 1937**38 was in reality one long, coherent cycle, which recorded four significant economic downturns. In both cases, recovery came only through the boost provided by in volvement in war. These years also witnessed the continuation of the reform movement, protest against the excesses of the "big business" enterprises, the railroads, political corruption, industrial warfare, and saw the rise of unionism expressed in the expansion of the labor movement. After World War 1, the laissez faire attitude of the Harding, Coolidge and Hoover administrations and the conserva tism of the Supreme Court created an atmosphere in which monopoly flourished. The orgy of wastefulness of the nation's resources that followed, was a tribute to the carelessness of a government which administered the Federal domain in a way matched only by the indif 114 ference of the individual and the general public to the wasteful methods of mining, lumbering, grazing and farming. Then, late in October, 1929, the great securities markets developed panic, and the ensuing collapse of the stock market was prelude to widespread economic disaster. The processes of liquidation and deflation con tinued even in the face of a delayed effort by the recalcitrant Hoover administration to check the trend with emergency appropriations for public works and farm relief, modification in the rules of the Federal Reserve System in credit to farmers and businessmen, creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation with assets of two billion dollars for emergency loans to banks, insurance companies, rail roads and industrial enterprises, and formation of the National Credit Association to protect banks and assist in reopening those which had closed. All these emergency measures were soundly de feated by a stagnant, recalcitrant, laissez faire orientated Congress. The election of 193 2 witnessed the overwhelming defeat of that administration and of that Congress. Franklin D. Roosevelt 22.8 million ballots as against 15.7 million for President Hoover, and the voters broke Republican control over the executive and legis lative branches of government. The catastrophic events which oc curred between November, 1932 and Roosevelt's inauguration in March of 1933 hit with cyclonic force. Banks failed and closed their doors, hundreds went into bankruptcy on Inauguration Day. F inancial panic followed. The vital necessity for action and the immediate urgency of the times, together with the apparent mandate of the people facilitated the institution of the New Deal, and represented a 115 radical departure from the traditional principles of laissez faire. The climate of the times was expressed by many and can be described as an atmosphere in which the idea of a planned economy was not only desirable, but mandatory. Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes stated the case: Intelligent and comprehensive planning on a national scale fits into the social vision of the future. If, as 1 believe, we are now definitely committed to the testing of new social values; if we have turned our backs on the dreadful implications in the expression "rugged individualism"; if we have given over the feeling, not only our selves, but our women and our chil dren to the gluttony of "ruthless industrialism"; if it is our purpose to make industrialism serve humanity, then national planning will become a major government activity. A new day is coming--a day of greater lie sure for the average man and more intelligent use of that lie sure. The tremendous re creation, scenic and esthetic resources must be put to use. While some pile up sand bags to repair the breakthrough which the w aters have been rushing to our economic distress — it is sound statesmanship to designate a group of men to look into the future and plan for a happier day--for it will surely come -- and when it does, we must offer all people fuller ex port unity for happier lives than ever existed in the past. Arthur C. Comey, Fellow, American Society of Landscape Archi tecture, and regional planning theorist stated his view and his po sition on national planning: National planning is the equivalent of planning for the physical or material development of the nation for human use and en joyment. It seeks to relate cities and metropolitan areas as well as vast non-urban areas and to balance the relative merits of regions of all types and sizes in determining their appro priate development for the benefit of the greatest number the nation can advantageously accomodate. It is also concerned with those phases of world planning which may alter the nation’s welfare in the same way city planning has paid regard to regional and state planning which aTfect the city’s welfare. ^^Harold L, Ickes, "City Planning Merges Into National Planning," American City (November, 1933), p. 65. 116 In its simplest form, national planning is determining the various uses to which land and natural resources are to be put or locating the various activities to be carried out by man. It seeks to establish a population pattern and environ ment most favorable to the public welfare. National planning must consider existing trends and facts, in attempting to achieve goals, creative ability in many disciplines must be applied to the task. The scope of national planning changes. Out of the temper of the times the need for planning became obvious, and a sensitive new president, aware of the need instituted many new programs which became known as "The New Deal, " and found their organizational expression in the form of alphabetized names. Pertinent to our discussion was the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps (the CCC), in March, 1933 under the authority of the Reforestration Unemployment Act of 1933 and previously cited; the Public Works Administration, authorized under the National In dustrial Recovery Act of 1933, which authorized 3.3 billion dollars to finance a program of public works; the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, established under the National Industrial Recovery Act and many others. All these new organizations required for their ad ministration, decentralized offices, closer to the local scene, run, preferably, by local people. This need, together with the influence of the National Planning Board, established in July, 1933, by Ad ministrator Ickes, as part of the Public Works Administration of that time, saw clearly that any effective program for a better utili zation of our natural and human resources and any program of public works on which public funds could be expended wisely, would require Q -7 Arthur C. Comey, "What Is National Planning?" City Planning, Vol. IX, No. 4 (October 1933), p. 164. 117 an active state planning board in each state. Forty-six states, so stimulated, established such boards which not only administered the complicated and far reaching national recovery programs, but made progress in the development of the basic inventory of natural re- 88 sources within the state. Therefore it can be said that state plan ning boards were another consequence of the efforts by the federal government to carry out measures designed to counteract the con- sequencies of depression. However, the most significant event re sulting from these efforts was the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). President Roosevelt's message to Congress which asked for the creation of the Authority painted in broad strokes his conception of what might be done in the Valley. He viewed the Mus cle Shoals development as but a small part of the potential usefulness of the entire Tennessee River, while if envisioned in its entirety transcended the mere development of power, for it embraced the wide fields of fields of flood control, soil erosion, afforestation, elimination from agricultural use of marginal lands and distribution and diversification of industry. He pointed out that the power devel opment of war days tended logically to national planning for a com plete river watershed involving many states and the future lives and welfare of millions of people. The message was as far reaching in its implications for the nation as in the specific program for the Tennessee Valley, and for the concept of regional planning. From 88 Alfred Bettman, "Planning as a State Function," City and Regional Planning Papery, Arthur C. Comey, ed. (Cambridge: Harvard Üniversity P ress, 1946), p. 36. 118 the establishment of TVA in May of 1933 to the present it has had sig nificant influence upon regional planning as idea. Its first effect was to stimulate interest in other regions for similar projects and to pro mote the spread of the idea of regions, regionalism and regional planning. A few examples of that interest and the spread of that idea are set forth below: (1) Conference of Metropolitan Government at New York Uni versity advises elimination of state lines and the division of the nation into large unified regions, reported in the New York Times, October 20, 1932, p. 6. (2) Benton MacKaye, "Tennessee, Seed of a National Plan, " Survey Graphic (Vol. 22, No. 5, May, 1933), pp. 254. (3) E. M. Barrows, "U.R. A. (United Regions of America): A New American Nation, " New Outlook (May, 1933), pp. 12-21. (4) Burdette G. Lewis, "Regionalism, A Plan for Uniting the States More Effectively," Forum (March and May, 1933), p. 89 and 136-141 respectively. (5) Frederick Anton Gutheim, "Regional Planning by the Federal Government," Editorial Research Reports (Vol. II, No. 2, July 10, 1933). (6) Robert Eric Dickinson, "The Metropolitan Regions of the United States," Geographic Review (Vol. XXIV, 1934), p. 278. (7) Jacob Crane, "Large Scale Regional Planning, The Unit: Watersheds or States," American City (January, 1934), p. 60. The study concluded that large scale regional planning will take the form of planning by state and groups of states, working in collaboration with Federal agencies and dealing with an in creasingly large part of the whole field of social, economic, and physical planning. (8) Thomas Jackson Woofter, Jr. , "T. V. A. Regional Plan, " Social Forces (March, 1934), pp. 329-338. (9) National Planning Board, "Twelve Planning Regions Estab lished, " American City (April, 1934 and January, 1936). (10) E. Francis Brown, "The Tennessee Valley Idea," Current History (Vol. XL, July, 1934), pp. 410-417, 119 (1 1 ) Howard Washington Odum, "The Case for Regional- National Social Planning, " Social F or ce s (Vol. XIII, October, 1934), pp. 6-23. (12) Carol Aronovici, "Regional Planning vs. Metropolitan- ism, " Scholastic, (Vol. XXIV, March 17, 1934), p. 11-13. (13) New York Times, "National Resources Committee Urges Unity Among 108 Regions Used by Federal Agencies, " Decem ber 16, 1935, p. 15. (14) New York Times, "National Resources Committee E s tablishes Twelve Regional Capitals for Federal Activities," and "American Liberty League Scores Plan," December 28, 1935, p. 1. (15) William Bennett Munro, "Regional Governments for Regional Problem s, "Vital Speeches (Vol. II, July 1, 1936), pp. 626-627. (16) Carol Aronovici, "Regionalism: A New National Economy," Columbia University Quarterly (Vol. XXXVIII, December, 1936), pp. 268-278. (17) Herbert C. Pell, "Reorganizing These United States," North American Review (Vol. CCXL, December, 1936), pp. 4 6 0 - 46 ^ (18) Arthur Pound, "United States Redrawn," Review of Reviews (Vol. XCIV, October, 1936), pp. 28-31. (19) Karl Baptiste Lohmann, Regional Planning (Ann Arbor : Edwards Bros. , 1936). (20) Business Week, "Anti-Utility Moves: Norris Plan for 7 TVA's Alarms Companies," June 12, 1937, p. 20, (21) Clarence Levis Hodges, The Tennessee Valley Authority: A National Experiment in Regionalism (Washington: The American University P ress, 1938). These literary efforts, among others, produced by re sponsible governmental officials, educators, planners and the press helped promote a public awareness of regional planning. They, to gether with the almost immediate effects of the Tennessee Valley Authority's activities and the then current belief that hydroelectric 120 power was as truly a natural resource as soil and through public con trol could be used to benefit the entire American people, bolstered by the great series of disasters beginning with the Ohio and Mississippi River floods and continuing with alternating droughts and floods, pror« duced the public consern that created an interest in regional planning as in instrument, at least, of control. It heightened an interest in conservation and promoted other vast regional projects, such as Boulder Dam on the Colorado River, Bonneville and Grand Coulee Dams on the Columbia, and the proposal for the St, Lawrence Water way Treaty, rejected in 1934 by the Congress, but finally carried out some twenty-six years later. These, and other regional plans then being developed, represented, in terms of their scope, the unfolding of a national plan in the regional sense, for the development of the great watersheds guided by the principles of conservation, wider use of electric power and promotion of the development of local industry. TVA, the first of these programs, is however, the primary example, and is, in principle, a well integrated conservation program, which seeks to implement restoration of soil fertility, prevention of erosion, flood control, reforestration and timber control, recla mation of arid lands by irrigation and of swamplands by drainage, wild life preservation, conservation of mineral resources by greater efficiency and by the use of relatively illimitable materials and re sources such as stone, brick, cement, plastics, hydroelectric power in place of minerals and oil, the elimination of river and harbor pol lution, and the fullest development of water power sites to provide electricity and aid in the storage of water and control of floods. 121 The TVA, however, was more even than this. It was a philosophical and historical as well as a political and social laboratory. It was the first major attempt by Government to use multiple and experimental methods in securing and maintaining a continuing release of the human and natural powers of the nation in the service of a voluntary cooperative freedom. Moreover, it foreshadowed a series of at tempts only less notable, not only here, but abroad, for there have been proposals for "TVA's" in Scotland, India, China, South America, and Europe. In addition, TVA was a projection in fact of the ideas and theories of American regionalists, indeed, an experiment which tested those theories in the practical fires of American politics and administration, with modifications that made them work. Origi nating in the Muscle Shoals controversy, TVA was possible because of the regional theory that proceeded its establishment and continued because of the continuing and intense need to solve the massive pro blems that faced the Valley. Its philosophy was partially founded upon the visions of the idealistic engineers, planners and social scientists who chafed at the frustrations of America’s depression, and the statement of objectives, programs, policies, methods and procedures which they used in the early period of TVA’s existence may have been inexpedient, unrealistic or even unrelated to the facts, but had significant effect upon TVA as idea and its attraction to other regions of this nation and of the world. Its central principle, which is over riding in its importance to regional planning was stated by David Lilienthal: 122 There was nothing particularly novel about the individual tasks entrusted for execution to this new agency . . . The new thing about TVA was that one agency was entrusted with them all. The true regional planning nature of TVA was recognized by Gutheim, who considered it the first experiment in regional planning the President's intent in the establishment of the Authority, . . if we are successful here, we can march step by step in a like develop- 90 ment of other great natural territorial units within our borders. " The second singularly important event of the depression years was the establishment in July 1933 of the National Planning Board, which in 1934 was made a presidential board by executive order, and was composed of the Secretary of the Interior as chair man, the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, the Federal Emergency Relief Administrator and the three members of the old board, Frederic A. Delano, Wesley C. Mitchell and Charles E. Merriam. In 1939, the National Resources Planning Board was established by Congressional action as part of the executive office of the President, with three members (Messrs. Delano, Merriam and Y antis) appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Board's reports and publications were numerous and covered many aspects of planning at both the national and regional levels before its abolishment by act of Congress June, 1943. These reports are listed in the Guide to the Files of the National Resources Planning Board, 89 David Lilenthal, TV A; Democracy on the March (New York: Harper & Bros. , 1944), p. 53 90 Frederick Anton Gutheim, "Regional Planning by the Federal Government, " Editorial Research Reports (Vol. II, No. 2, July 10, 1933). 123 compiled by Eliot and M errill, December 31, 1943, A bibliography is also available from the American Society of Planning Officials, their publication number BB14, 1944. The reports and studies de veloped by the Board represent the most significant contribution to planning in general and regional planning in particular that the federal government has produced. Following is a list of reports ab- 91 stracted from the Subject Index of Reports published by the Board and are considered herein as those most related to regional planning : (1) A Plan for Planning, National Planning Board Report, I 9 3 3 T 3 T : (2) Regional Factors in National Planning and Development. Report deals with vitaPproblems of planning and development which overlap state lines or which involve federal, state or local interests of related jurisdictions. (3) State Planning: A Review of its Activities, 193 5, 310p. (4) Regions in America as a Basis of Planning: Findings and Principles, October, 1935. (5) State Planning: Programs and Accomplishments, 1936, 128p: (6) Future of the Great Plains, 1936. The report of the Great Plains Committee and proposed program of readjustment and development. (7) Technical Trends and National Policy, June 1937. F irst major attempt to show the kinds of new inventions which may affect working and living conditions in America within the ten to twenty five years following its publication. (8) Our Cities; Their Role in the National Economy, June, 193 T 7 ^ T ^ . (9) Research: A National Resource, 1938. 91 National Resources Planning Board, Subject Index of Reports (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Officel 194^7. 124 (10) The Problems of a Changing Population, May 1938. (1 1 ) Public Works Planning. The report analyzed the pro blems and recommended a policy for planning, program ming, timing, and division of costs of public works. (12) Twelve Supplementary Reports of the Land Planning Committee, five of which were: (a) "General Conditions and Tendencies Influencing the Nation's Land Requirements," (b)'Land Available for Agriculture Through Reclamation, " (c) "Soil Erosion, A Critical Problem in American Agricul ture, " (d) "Forest Land Resources Requirements," and (e) "Recreational Use of Land in the United States. " (13) The Future of State Planning, March, 1938, 117p. (14) Energy Resources and National Policy, January, 1939- Report contains recommendations for use and conservation of energy resources in relation to each other and to the national economic structure. (15) State Conservation of Resources, January, 1939. (16) Series of Regional Planning Reports, based on the twelve regional capitols established by the Board : Part I , Pacific Northwest, May, 1936; Part II, St. Louis Region, June, 1936; Part III, New England, July, 1930; P art IV, Baltimore-Wash ington-Annapolis Area, November, 1937; P art V, Red River of the North, August, 1937; P art VI, Upper Rio Grand, February, 1938; P art VII, Alaska, Its Resources and Deve lopment, December, 1937; Part VIII, Northern Lakes States, May, 1939; P art IX, The Southeast, 1942; P art X, The South west, 1942; P art XI, Pecos River Basin; and P art XII, The Arkansas Valley. (17) Water Pollution In the United States, February, 1939, The reports listed above represent a mere sampling of the work of the National Resources Planning Board, but set forth some of the more important concerns related to the region and L o regional planning. In summary, the work of the National Resources Planning 92 S u p r a , p . 118. 125 Board contributed the following, in terms of its importance to the art and science of regional planning: (1) the important function of coordi nation and integration of existing plans and its advice-function to the chief executive on long range planning policies based upon scientific research, powerful statistical analysis and synthesis; (2) the function of information bank and clearance of information, plans and projects within the federal government and between it and state and local government; (3) the stimulation of interest in national, state, city and regional planning, as well as the expansion of the scope of their work; (4) the example it established in its development plans for the co ordination of land use, w ater, power, mineral and other natural re source, waterr-power, and transportation plans on a regional and a long range basis ; (5) the recommendation by the Board that there be established a committee on administrative management, which in turn led to the creation in the White House of a staff level planning and ad visory body, which was instrumental in instituting many innovations in the executive office of the President which resulted in the improve ment of central administrative direction; (6) its effect, even upon its discontinuance, in that many of its important functions were distri buted among a wide variety of agencies, central and local, private and public. State and city planning organizations secured a portion of those functions and were thereby motivated into more constructive activities. Private agencies multiplied, such as the National Plan ning Association, The Committee for Economic Development, The Twentieth Century Fund and others. The "clearinghouse" activities of the Board are continued today by the American Society of Planning 126 Officials, and finally, the Council of State Covernments, the City Manager's Association and the American Municipal Association ela borate planning functions in their specialized fields ; (7) although con troversial and finally abolished, it established the fact that though still unaccepted by many, planning will not interfere with the deve lopment of a free industrial society, that it is vital to that society's development, and that the very purpose of planning is to release human abilities and broaden the field of opportunity which enlarges human liberty. Proliferation of Jurisdictions and Authorities The expansion of the city to metropolis and of some m etro polises to megalopolis has, upon closer look, been accompanied by a proliferation of political jurisdictions and tax assessing authorities. This growth has been as uncontrolled and sporadic as has the physi cal growth of megalopolis itself. Although the establishment of these jurisdictions has been, in many cases, tantamount to the main tenance of their autonomy, and has also facilitated a measure of de sired "home rule," their existence has expanded the basic urban problems and created new ones which depend upon more than mere cooperation to solve. The city is, by virtue, of its many juris dictions, in transition. It is undergoing change due to the dynamic factors created by a mobile people. The following tabulation illus trates the contrast in population increases in metropolitan areas as opposed to those in the central cities of the United States. The ten cities selected are those with the highest increases. 127 T A B L E 1 COMPARATIVE POPULATION INCREASES FOR TEN SELECTED METROPOLITAN AREAS UNITED STATES CENSUS, 1950 AND I9 6 O Metropolitan Area Inside Central City Outside Central City Number Per cent Number P er cent Los Angeles-Long Beach 559,889 24. 8 1,764,763 82. 2 New York -181,611 - 2.3 1, 2 2 9 ,968 73. 9 Detroit -193,887 -10. 5 9 2 2 ,234 79. 1 Philadelphia -111,569 - .4 729,715 45, 6 San Francis C O -Oakland - 83,241 -7.2 536,519 52. 1 Washington, D, C. - 55,220 - 6. 9 559,693 84. 6 St. Louis -116,372 -13. 6 437,237 50. 7 Buffalo - 51,745 - 8.9 266, 173 52.3 Pittsburgh - 76, 122 -11.2 258,135 16. 8 San Diego 212,907 63. 7 233,807 105. 1 The above data clearly illustrate that expansion in each case has oc- 93 curred to a much, greater extent outside the central city as within. In most cases there was a loss of population within the central city. A review of the growth of metropolitan regions of the United States reveals the increases in the growth of other regional elements resulting from the increases in population. For example, the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area in 1923 was comprised of thirty munici palities in an eight hundred square mile area, with a population of 817,655 people. According to studies made by the Los Angeles 93 Adapted from U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population, 1950, Vol. II, Part 1; and I960 Census of Population, Advance Reports, Final Population Counts, PC (A 1)-2 -52, 94 G . G o r d o n W h it n a ll, " R e g io n a l P la n n in g P r o g r e s s . . . ," p . 5 7 8 . 128 County Regional Planning Commission, there were seventy-three cities with a population of 5,316,701 in the Area, April, 1 9 6 2.The New York Region was found by the survey of the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs to be composed of 421 communities in a 5,528 96 square mile area, with a population of ten million in 1925, In I960 there were twenty-two contiguous counties in three states, in a region then considered to be 7, 000 square miles in area, with a population of sixteen million and 1,400 governments (including districts and 97 authorities). Although these examples are above the norm, other metropolitan regions would exhibit increases as significant to their bases as are the foregoing to theirs. Such increases in population and jurisdictions complicate the problems of the very special region, "the metropolis," and impose areal problems upon each regional ele ment, which must be met on a scale large enough to resolve them. The progress of metropolitan planning in practice, has seen trem en dous growth since 1918, when the first regional planning commission was established in Allegheny County Pennsylvania, to resolve the regional problems of an expanding urban area around Pittsburgh. By 1930 when John Nolen made his survey fourteen major regions had developed regional plans, and by 1935 there were 506 regional plan- 95 The Regional Planning Commission, Population and Cities, 1850-1962 (Los Angeles County, California, April, 1962). 96 R, L, Duffus, "Remaking New York to Order, " Survey (Vol. LXIII, November 1, 1929), pp. 142-47. 97 Raymond Vernon, Metropolis, 1985 (Cambridge: Harvard University P ress, I960). 129 98 ning agencies in the United States, 316 with official status. The quantitative growth of organizations of a regional planning orientation has therefore increased with the growth and development of regions, but represents only a feeble attempt to meet and resolve the pro blems of the urban region. As growth continues and problems in tensify, more effective means must be developed to resolve them. Interstate Compacts and Regionalism The evolution of the interstate compact had its origin in the compact clause of the Constitution of the United States, which fur nishes the legal contract that facilitates positive cooperation between the states of the union. The first comprehensive study of the com pact clause was made by Frankfurter and Landis, who attempted to 99 illustrate its potential use for state cooperation. This supurb work covers the history of the compact from colonial times to the early 1920’s. The creation of the Port of New York Authority and the Colo rado River Compact ushered in a new era with regard to the use of the compact clause, and that story is well told in publications of the Council of State Governments. The first takes up where Frankfurter and Landis left off and covers the making of compacts, the problems of enforcing them, their legal aspects, federal role and the relation- 98 Charles E. Merriam, "Planning Agencies in America, " American Political Science Review (Vol. XXXIX, No. 2, April, Ï935). 99 Felix Frankfurter and James M. Landis, "The Compact Clause of the Constitution: A Study in Interstate Adjustments, " Y a le L a w J o u r n a l (V o l. X X IV , M a y , 1 9 2 5 ), p . 6 8 8 . 130 ship between federalism and compacts. The second is a survey of all ratified compacts chronologically, up to the year 1956. The concern of most compacts prior to that which created the New York Port Authority was related to boundary m atters, but have involved many far more complicated matters since, such as fisheries, river development, navigation, water pollution, crime, flood control, labor and others. Interstate metropolitan areas represent a fertile field for compacts and as the National Resources Board pointed out in 193 7, where it was noted that twenty-two of our 96 metropolitan areas containing twenty-six million or one fifth of our population straddle state lines and call for a larger measure of interstate and 102 federal cooperation in certain fields than is now found. According to the 1950 Census, twenty three standard metropolitan areas with a population of forty three million people extended across state boun dary lines and another twenty eight bordered very closely on a state line. The Bollens and Schmandt study. The Metropolis delineates eighteen metropolitan areas encompassing land in two states, four with land in three states, two with land in four states and four with adjoining urban land in other nations, therefore international in ter- Frederick L. Zimmermann and Wendell Mitchell, The Interstate Compact Since 1925 (Chicago: Council of State Govern ments, 1950). ^^^Council of State Covernments, Interstate Compacts, 1783-1956 (Chicago, 1956). 102 National Resources Committee, Our Cities : Their Role In the National Economy (Washington: U. S. Government Printing T5ffice, June, 1937). 131 103 ritorial extent. These conditions, continually intensifying in the severity of the problems they create as population increases and as the metropolitan region grows, document ever more clearly the in effectiveness of existing organization to solve the problems involved. The difficulties confronting the central city are obvious since they early promoted planning efforts at the metropolitan scale. Some of the difficulties of the state are constitutional and would require amend ment of state constitutions, others are legal and would involve an ex tensive revision of state statutes, still others are fiscal and would involve new taxing authority, finally there are psychological, politi cal, and economic déterrants in the form of tradition, loyalties, emotions and vested interests in the status quo which are insur mountable in many cases. The interstate compact has often been used as a means of bridging the gap between the status quo and the necessary new organization without seriously disturbing the status quo, since, being in effect a kind of business contract, a business dominated nation has been receptive to its use when other means would have evoked resistance, because of a real or imagined threat to vested interests. Dominant forms of regionalism in practice are evidenced in interstate compacts, federal authorities, groups of states, re gional planning commissions, metropolitan regional planning asso ciations and intrastate planning commissions. As of 1938, when W. 103 John C. Bollens and Henry J. Schmandt, The Metropolis: Its People, Politics, and Economic Life (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1965), p. 19-22. 132 Russell Tylor wrote "Regionalism in Practice," the interstate com pact had not proved to be a satisfactory medium for continuous and progressive planning activity, although its limitations might have been overcome by a wiser coordination between state and federal 104 interests. Attempts have also been made on at least a theoretical basis to meet the limitations of the interstate compact as a means of establishing regional authorities such as that of C. H. Pritchett, who in 1935 proposed a comprehensive plan for using the compact as an 105 effective instrument of regional organization. A review of the pur poses for which interstate compacts have been instituted would yield the relationship that obtains between its use and regional planning, in as much as its criteria depends upon the existence of problems that transcend the superficial boundaries of states. Prior to the Colorado River and Port Authority compacts the compact had been employed prim arily in determination of boundary disputes and jurisdictional perogatives along them, and therefore have significance only with re lation to the evolution of the compact. However, the very first signi ficant use of the compact was its employment as a mechanism for re gional handling of a common problem in that it established basic prin ciples for the allocation of the waters of the Colorado to be used in irrigation—a problem not restricted to boundary areas but regional 104 W. Russell Tylor, "Regionalism in P ractice," American Journal of Sociology (Vol. XI_JV, November, 1938), p. 37 9-90. 105 C. H, Pritchett, "Regional Authorities through Interstate Compacts," Social Forces (Vol. XIV, December, 1935), p. 200-210. 133 in scope, because it involved not merely two, but three states for the first time in the history of the use of compacts. The New York Port Authority had significance in that it established a joint planning and administrative agency, designed to deal with the transportation problem of a great port and metropolitan area, transected by a state line and was an attack upon a common, major boundary problem on a broad front through a joint state agency. Moreover, both represen ted the complex scope of a multi-purpose agency, which addressed itself to problems which reflected the growth of the nation and the in tensification of production, communication and transportation, river and harbor channels, railroad lines, stations, bridges, tunnels, ferries, housing, water supply, fire and police protection and the disposal of sewerage. All these functions represent characteristics of a regional approach to planning. The growth of the use of com pacts illustrated an evolution broadening in concept and in the com plexity of its application. The Interstate Oil Compact marked the use of the compact device as a means for establishing formal inte grating and recommendatory machinery for state regulation in a field of economic production and was unique in that non-contiguous states were involved. The compact was designed to include all oil producing states, and membership has grown steadily since its in stitution. River basin compacts between two or more states were initiated by the Ohio River Valley Sanitation Compact, which was initiated in 1936 and ratified by the states of Indiana, Illinois, New p . 5. Z i m m e r m a n and W e n d e ll, T h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m p a c t . . . , 134 York, Ohio and West Virginia in 1939, Kentucky in 1940 and Pennsyl vania in 1945. Tennessee ratified in 1949, conditional upon subsequent 107 ratification by Alabama and North Carolina. The interstate com pact is classified by Zimmerman and Wendell as boundary-jurisdic tional, boundary-administrative, regional-administrative, and ad ministrative-regulatory, with a final category of administrative - 108 exploratory-re commendatory. The boundary-administrative com pact is significant in interstate metropolitan areas where several communities within the same metropolitan region, but in separate states can deal jointly with the regional aspects of health, sanitation, industrial waste regulation, the control of public utilities, planning, public safety and welfare, education, recreation and other govern mental functions of regional scope. The regional administrative com pact has served to some extent as a mechanism for regional adminis tration. The Colorado Compact, enacted by six states in 1925, ap proved by Congress in 1928 and finally ratified by the last state, Arizona, in 1944 is the earliest prominent example. Others have fol lowed, such as the Ohio River Valley Sanitation Compact with eight member states, and the Potomac Valley Pollution and Conservation Compact of 1940. Administrative compacts have also been used for joint administration of correctional and educational institutes, such as the Western Interstate Committee on Institutional Care in the first Zimmerman and Wendell, The Interstate Compact . . . , p. 7. 108 Z i m m e r m a n and W e n d e ll, T h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m p a c t . . . , p . 8 . 13 5 instance, and the Southern Regional Education Compact including twelve states in the second. The Interstate Administrative Compact has been used for multi-purpose employment such as the New Eng land Development Authority Compact which though never completely ratified would have administered the natural resources of the New England Region. It would have established a regional resources study and planning agency with the possibility of further development of the authority as an agency for other functions bordering on econo mic regionalism. Although only 24 acts of Congress approving interstate com pacts during the 192 years between 1789 and 1919 were enacted and thirty one between the years from 1918 to 1931, their use has indicated by their application, that some form of organization is necessary to resolve problems that demand the cooperation of two or more states for their solution. Although its success has been variable and com- and complicated by its problems of effective enforcement, it is as the National Planning Board indicated, ". . . their peculiar virtue — indeed their necessity — lies in their employment at those points where a problem is local in its incidence and its solution local in its 109 benefits, yet beyond the jurisdiction of a single state. " The Board recognized the fact that the chief danger in their employment, from the point of view of national development, is that they may be undertaken without adequate regard to the coordination of their pro- 109 . National Resources Planning Board, Regional Factors in National Planning and Development (Washington: U. S. Govern ment Printing Office, 1937), p. 49. 136 grams with those of the other units of government which share, in some measures and varying with the particular function, share also in the responsibility of dealing with problems in the area. The con cept of regionalism advocated by Howard W. Odum corroborates this view, as has been previously pointed out. Growth of Science and Technology The philosophy of planning suggested in the introduction in corporates science and technology as one of the major elements of the region. It is an undeniable fact that science has great impact upon environment, both in theory and in application, and it is largely upon its use and employment that man can shape his region to his own best use. History also records technology as the major catalyst for industrial revolution, which resulted in the vast institutional changes, extreme modification of previously immutable traditions, and wide spread social upheaval. The growth and development of the economy is based upon increasing the efficiency of satisfying human wants, and at the same time economizing on human effort. Science and techno logy represent the major instrument which will create new ways of developing resources, discover new resources and promote conti nuity in economic growth and development. The classical planners were of course aware of these facts, but ill-equipped to make the proper investigations, which our high speed digital computers could easily conduct today — given the proper information. However, the search in planning literature revealed only one attempt along the necessary lines, which not only acknowledged the significance of 137 science and technology as a force to be considered in any valid plan ning approach, but was the first major attempt to show the kinds of new inventions which may affect working and living conditions in the nation within the twenty five years following publication of the report. That report, published in 1937 by the National Resources Planning 110 Board supports the conclusion that such affects must be projected if regional, state and national plans are to have meaning and the most beneficial results gleaned from the new scientific advances in the interest of humanity. Other studies embracing that conclusion are necessary, and have been projected, such as that proposed by Frank R. Bacon, Jr. at the University of Michigan. ^ ^ ^ The proposed re search program represented a synthesis of various research tech niques and scientific disciplines to aid and promote the economic growth of the state by helping industry to make more effective use of developments in science and technology. The prediction of the future development of science is a very difficult but most useful task—if only for the purpose of economically and wisely investing our energies and resources, but serious concern for the future dictates that we project the potentials of science as well as its possible affects through technology upon environment. National Resources Planning Board, Technical Trends and National Policy (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, Junel 1937). ^^^Resources For The Future, Inc. , Urban and Regional Studies at U.S. Universities, Scott Keyes, edl ( Baltimore: Johns Hopkins P ress, 1964), p. TT 138 upon living conditions, upon ways of life and means of living. The four billion dollars spent annually by the Federal Government in ap plied and basic research in science, demands that we do so. The Sociological Approach to Regionalism Inherent in the concept implied by the above title is an inte gration between planning and the science of sociology, Gunnar Myrdal outlined five interrelated attributes essential to planning in his paper titled "The Theoretical Assumptions of Social Planning," given before the Fourth World Congress of Sociology, which are as follows : (1) planning must have explicit purposes, which are, in turn, based upon a set of coherent values, formulated by the political sys tem, (2) that those purposes must relate to a concept (or concepts) of public interest, and thus to the development of the society as a whole. The crucial distinction between social planning and the countless forms of private planning , (3) planning is not a mere pro jection of the status quo — anticipation and guidance of public develop ment on a moving time belt, imply assumptions both of the need for, and the mechanisms of, social change, (4) planning is an experiment in rationality: its purposes, the values which they express, and the methods by which they are to be achieved, have to be subject to ob jective verification in terms of existing and growing knowledge. It is only when planning proceeds that it has the chance of becoming in creasingly rational. The experience gained in the process, if re corded systematically, will modify and elaborate both the ends and the means of controlled development, and (5) planning has to be just 13 9 as manifold as the society and economy whose evolution it directs, segmented planning is a contradiction in terms. It is in this context that regional planning is related to sociology - -for, the kind of plan ning that does not deserve the title is of no use to sociology, and it is the above five characteristics which determine the actual and potential relationship between planning and sociology. It is currently acknowledged that many contemporary pro blems transcend state lines without thereby becoming essentially national, except in the sense that they, in conjunction with other pro blems do constitute the national fabric. The Tennessee Valley Authority is essentially regional, and primarily concerns a group of states, but is also beneficial to the nation as a whole. Conservation programs designed to insure intelligent use and preservation of our national resources are best organized on a regional basis, as any conservationist or geotechnist will attest; however, they are also in timately related to the national pattern, since none of our regions can be considered self-sufficient. The continuing and traditional organization of these United States is on the basis of states, and as the previous section on interstate compacts confirms, we still struggle with interstate problems, even in the face of an enormously expanding Federal Government. Although there is unity, there is also concern for that continuingly growing Leviathan in Washington which represents to many, a threat to the democratic process as well as to its effectiveness in implementing policies and programs designed to solve the complicated problems of so vast and diverse a nation. The evolution and development of the interstate compact has 140 in more instances than not, been hampered by limitations upon their powers as well as the difficulty of the enforcement of such agree ments, The ineffectiveness of the states in coping with interstate problems has often resulted in the responsibility falling to the national government by default. These reasons, more than any others, have promoted the idea of regionalism to integrate the nation by a reorganization which would employ a logical grouping of states, thereby maintaining the integrity of our traditional states, but at the same time creating a responsible level of government closer to the people and more effective than the state in solving the problems of region. Many forms of such organization other than the group-of- states region have been suggested over the period of evolution of regional planning, as was indicated in the section titled "The In fluence of Depression and the New Deal, " and many diverse disci plinarians elected to employ the concept of region in lending struc tural and spatial organization to their fields. Political and admini strative disciplinarians have proposed political and administrative regions as appropriate organization to cope with national problems on a regional basis. Geographers have delineated soil and climate regions, crop and river valley regions, Anthropoligists have de lineated culture regions. Ecologists have delineated plant and animal regions and have extended their implications into "human use regions. " Economists have delineated economic regions, and with 112 the publication of two scholarly works in 1938 sociologists stepped 112 Howard Washington Odum, Southern Regions of the United States, (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press); and Odum and Moore, American Regionalism, 1938. 141 boldly upon the stage of regionalism and stated conclusively the case for regionalism, and the necessity of a sociological approach. It follows that when planning is construed as the rational direction of multiple, yet coherent developments, sociological thought and know ledge become indispensable, and further that the mechanisms of social change must be identified and understood if proposals for solutions to problems are to be effectively implemented through new or existing institutions. Since sociology is a generalizing science allied to social philosophy and ethics and also empirically concerned with the study of human interactions and inter-relations, their con ditions and consequences, it should follow that it must share in the many and diverse responsibilities of planning. It is also patent to the case that regional realities are social as well as economic, physical, political, geographical and geotechnical as Benton MacKaye viewed them. Therefore, sociology is a vital discipline in any effort to plan for the development of the region or the direction of its growth. Finally, since regional sociology also includes study of all forms of human association within a given regional environment, their origin, development and functioning, as well as all forms of 113 human organization as Bertrand contends, it is indispensable to regional planning or to geotechnics, "the science of making the earth more habitable. " 113 Alvin L. Bertrand, "Regional Sociology as a Special Discipline," Social Forces (Vol. XXXI, December, 1952), p. 132 — 6. CHAPTER III CURRENT STATUS OF REGIONAL PLANNING During the month of September, 1962 an initial questionnaire was mailed to executive departments or planning offices of each of the fifty American states, and to the planning departments of thirty- five universities within the United States that offer studies leading to graduate degrees in city and regional planning. The former, a five- part questionnaire, was designed to yield information concerning the status of regional planning in practice throughout the United States, and resulted in thirty-five replies. The latter, a two-part question naire, designed to determine the status of regional planning in theory, resulted in eighteen responses. Review of the responses and re- evaluation of the que stionnair e resulted in the decision to re survey. In September of 1964, the revised que stionnair e was mailed. Re sponse in the first instance increased to forty-two states, and in the second to twenty-four institutions. Copies of the que stionnair e s and the letters forwarded with them may be referred to in Appendix G. Of the eight states from which no replies were received, other infor mation sources indicated that no significant regional planning under state jurisdiction was being carried out, nor had the state promoted or sponsored regional planning programs. Of the six institutions from which there were no replies, other sources indicated that no degree in city, regional or state planning was offered. The response 142 143 in both cases, however yielded sufficient information either in letters or reports, legislation, studies, or other documents to set forth the significant facts of the survey that represent rather a clear picture of regional planning in theory and practice as it exists in the United States in 1964, H H < H in W H CD i C fi C L > • rH U o a 0 ^ 0 P â I C O Pi g'S Q < ; ^ X J ( Ü C L > IÎ < o I— I H < H i in I —( Ü w h1 Ü HH h 1 C P < Z H (X) W p q < H h 1 < % o t—I Ü H "5 s l i h I O ^4 > 5 O h C O I 0) Ü ^ ■ s t j Î I C O I si C O r- LO IT) O ( J \ IT) lT) to o (I 4 s CO v D S S W H < H in C L > 0 Uj T - n 0 C T j A M d P I ÛJO - i > (tJ ^ (t 3 •M u +-> C O d u d II CD & § Q H C L > - 4 Q S < d) t d Q 'D CD +-) d . o < C O m u o m CO H H < H [ / ] < m < O J s O < X : < H i < IT) CT^ < O K ! I —I CD d Û J O d •rH i ü 5 P I CO nO lT) CO o < in in to o • S g d I I P L i -vO c r^ T ft iT ) m 0 0 i > - CO iT ) IT) C J N C T ^ O n U C ) CJ'^ C O m l T ) " " O QJ .s 0 O 1 1 P O p q I — I s t s l l & J 0 H < i n iri I — I iri Q < iri Û J D & J0 CO lO LO C T ' C T ' C T ' LO fO o I— I I — I O H C O o ’’d c CD d d C O ■4-3 I — t d o O M 1 o!i H Ü m 1 — 1 < H pq < W w H < H C O H B 1 — 1 ÎH CO CU d ) M 1 1 1 1 1 O i 0 ) P I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Q < : 1 I I 1 I 5 | Q " d < 1 1 1 1 1 < B 1 — 1 O w p < f-l CO <D (U M 1 1 p q L O 1 h I O ÎH CÜ T P 3 m â 1 1 a ^ s i 1 d b c n j d T — 4 • rH PM ^ I a ^ s i CO Æ d ) d ) ptb 1 1 c o L O l O s O (3 ^ (3 ^ (3 ^ 1 — 4 r — 4 r — 4 C O L O L O L O L O (3 ^ (3 ^ 1 " 4 1 " 4 1 " 4 1 T iJ (U <D + - ) - i- i 1 1 (3 ^ pq (3 ^ 1 " 4 P - C P - 1 " 4 >q3 (3 ^ 1 —4 H H < H C O <D ?H CO O O b C d • rH d S 1 I P M 1 k J i l l a Q b C d •rH § 1 I D h b J O d d d 1 " 4 PM Jifi ''d CÜ - 4 P - C T ' L O L O C T ' O r —1 1 — X I l O ^ L O s O < 3 ^ C 3 ^ r — 4 1 — 4 CO o - s f l O (3 ^ C 3 ^ r — 4 1 —4 C O p - L O L O C P - CT^ C 3 ^ r— H 1 —4 1 —4 1 0 0 if 4-1 P l | a o Q ^ < C O (3 ^ 1 4 L O L O (3 ^ 1 " 4 1 — 4 cO (3 ^ 1 " 4 i n CO (3 ^ 1 1 r q ' O 1 I H H < H C O < c X o 9 O S a X 1 — 1 < % < 1 — 1 Q X 1 — 1 < O 1 — 1 T ? 0 d d 0 U 1 I p q O I — I H < C O I — I O w 1 - 1 w a ^ 5 < Z H ^ (0 ^ -Ü S ' S s z ^ 1 1 1 1 1 w H c H CO P h H H 5 ■ ^ i s : g fL a . 1 1 1 d bJo C T j d E G 1 1 1 C O d ^ ^ § « d G T ? 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C D K O HK Z I C D H I ü C D CL > ü 1 - 4 d C D d r+ d u C D C I) d O J I G a M L i Z o G Z H O (— 4 § > Z z I-] w e n H > H Z Z M O I — I œ z > H t— I O Z PO 1 I o o g d d C D C L 4L v O O z z g o K > g T — t O O î! Z w M O z z s O ^ O CO H > H Z 1 1— ' q D en 1 1 —' v O e u 4 L I ^ O o d “ S . o C D d u CO H > H Z 1 1 1 1 — ' 1 — ' 1 — ' v O v O v O C P 4 L e u o ' en % If C D d u 1 | s | d d 5 • I ipsi ^ d d d C O o 1 r + 1 — ' r + " g ' t— ■ 1 II O O C O H C D 1 1 — ' q D en 4 L 1 1 —' q D C P T —' 1 H a "> Z Z o H -1 o z > z t 1 I 1 — ' q D C P PO I d u 2 C D d C O 1 5 . 2 d d * OQ d 1 1 d z l _ I . 1 — l d d OQ d 1 1 S d i-i o 1 a 1 1 1 1 — ' O 1 î P ï 1 1 1 1 1^1 1 it z H Z Z C O H > H Z t 1 1 C D C O t Eîl G C D I 1 1 a M ' C D C O 1 ir l I 1 1 OO 1 M C D d C O l-{ Z H O I — I C O Z > H 1 — I O Z P J I I o o R d d C D d u en o i l E S > œ Z Z Z O Z Z < z i l z ^ > z z 1 o Z Z o o z O > Z z o o z H H > Z C O > Z Z 1 — > q? eu O O 1 — > q? eu u n 1 — > q? u o 4 L q) eu q) 1 > d o z R d ^ d C O T — z ^ q) "2 q) u n ^ 4 L q) en 1 1 — ' 1 — ' q) q > 4 L tu q) ^ 1 — > q) q) en en -q en 1 i l d d H > Z Z 1 Z 1 — ' d g 1 Z 1 — ' d g. d O Q Z 1 — ' 1. d O Q 1 II o o m a d 1 1 1 q) en eu 1 II d 1 1 I 1 1 C l- > o d C O z z o T — 1 1 1 1 IÎ: 1 l ? { ' H o z > z 1 1 1 — ' C P P O 1 ^ g d O H d B i- K 1 1 1 1 — ' q) eu -q 1 II d 1 I 1 1 1 g-3 a d C O z z z z C O z > z z 1 I 1 1 I lîl ' H I t — ' 1 1 d O d d B i- r z z > z ^ z > t-, z z z o M Z Z o \— 1 en z > z 1 — 4 o z P O I I o o g d d d d. e n < z z K o z z z z X z z X > C O Z z z z Z C O C O Z Z X G > C O Z > Z Z 1 —' q D O O u n 1 1 l - T * q D O O un 1 —' q D C P 1 — ' > d ^ d C O Z > Z Z i— • ^ ^ L un I i 1 —> q D 4 L u n I g d z d d d œ C D d _ ^ 5. R S d ^ q d d ^ o S' I I i X 1 —' i d Q T Q Z ^ X a P - * o -J ^ g r l l d K H d î s d q D PO 1 — ■ 1 1 1 —> vO O O un 1 z z o t — I o z 1 —' 1 — ■ I — ' 1 — ' vû q D q D q D un un 4 L O O -q O O — q O O 1 1 i 1 l l l f | 1 1 1 f f 1 I -n ^ O Z d PO 1 1 1 ri I 1 1 1 1 % ü - 8 s . d ^ d z z z z CO Z > z z I I 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 o Z ^ œ p Z . d h i O I h i 1 1 1 1 1 Isi s ; z z > w z I —I z o z z o I— I CO z > z t — I o z z > z z z PO 1 I o o z. d d C D d u n PO z o z o œ O O Z en 1 —1 Z < Z ^ § 8 a z > i l 0 1 < 1 —1 z o 1 —1 s > en Z > Z Z 1 1 -- : q ) LU LU qD LU 1 —' qD un - q qD LU O O 1 = Z d cH - rH - C D C D d en Z > Z Z 1 1 -- : 1 -- : qD qD un un qD T — > t —■ t —■ q ) q ) qD CP < p un LU t — ' qD 1 —' qD CP LU 1 -- : 1 --: 1 --' q ) vO q ) CP un 4L 4L OO O O 3 ? C D rt- B C D d e n C D d I Z 1 d orq z g d d crq l l l ï I ; 1 1 S 8 ” ^ d R oS o 5. R 5' P L G C D d z orq d 1 --: I I O O en H C D 1 qD LU LU 1 1 —' qD LU un T — ■ qD 4L 4L | g C D C D d Z z o J —1 o z > z 1 1 I 1 —' 1 —' qD qD CP un q ) 1 —' 1 —' 1 —' q ) q ) q ) CP CP un r o CD CD " ‘ I l 1 5. z 1 1 s ? orq g 1 I f 1 I I I 1 LU 1 1 —' O - q î a i p . ^ C D C D en 4 -i 1 qD un qD 1 1 1 ^ O ^ R 1 —1 z z z z en Z > Z Z 1 1 1 1 1 g 3 ? 1 d z 1-1. 1 —1 d d orq d 1 1 1 d Z d d^ orq d 1 o % V8 1 1 t t ^ g 1 - 1 2 S M Z > W Z I— I z Q Z M Q 1 — 4 en Z > Z I — I O z z > w z z PO 1 I o o R d d C D d u n LU 15 4 T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y STATE FORM STATE ( 1 ) Number of Member s How Selected T erm ALABAMA (1) Board 14 Appointed by the Governor Tenure of Governor Board includes Governor as Chair man, Commissioners of Agri. , Indus. , Revenue, and Streets & Highways. ARIZONA (1) Board 14 Appointed by the Governor 5 Y ear s Board appointed by Governor, each member resident of different county -Chairman selected by vote, ARKANSAS (2) CALIFORNIA (1) Committee (2) Commission (3) Varies 1 1 Appointed by the Governor Pleasure of the Governor Five county; five city; one repre sentative of Supt. of Schools, one county administrative secty. , and one planning officer. COLORADO (1) Advisory Committee (2) Commission 11-15 Appointed by the Governor 6 Y ear s 155 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d E X E C U T I V E B O D Y REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm 5-12 Appointed by County J udee 4 Y ear s County Judge — ex-officio desig nates chairman. Members of the County Quorum Court ap prove all appointments. V arie s Set by juris, involved Set by Juris, involved V arie s Set by co op, States Set by co op. States Legislative bodies of cities and counties within region (area) comprise statutory authority Regional planning possible under Joint Exercise of Powers Agree ment with State Compact By Agree ment Appointed by County Com. By Agree ment Agreement between participating jurisdictions determines all con cerns, finalizes all decisions 156 T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y STATE F ORM STATE (1) Number of Member s How Selected T erm CONNECTICUT (1) Advisory Committee DELAWARE (1) Planning Council (2) Council 15 Appointed by the Governor Pleasure of the Governor County: New Castle - 5; Kent -5; Sussex -5. Two New Castle mem bers must be residents of the city of Wilmington. FLORIDA (2) Planning Council GEORGIA HAWAII (1) Council - director has cabinet rank 10 Plus Appointed by the Governor Pleasure of the Governor Council is composed of directors: Public Works, Budget, Economic Planning, Aeronautics, etc. 157 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY RE CION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s By co-op. Juris dictions By Agree ment Representation by two members from each city or county within the region, plus one for each ad ditional 50, 000 population. County Board Popular Election Law Two representatives from each city and coop, county. Chief planning officer - ex-officio V arie s Appointed by gover ning body 3 Years or as dir. Ex-officio members serve during term of public office V arie s Appointed by gover- ning bodv As estab lished by authoritv Ex-officio members serve during term of public office T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y 158 STATE FORM S TATE (1) Number of Member s How Selected T erm IDAHO (1) Council - Development & Publicity 14 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor Members equally divided between political parties and representing the several geographic areas. ILLINOIS (1) Board 9 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor Governor- - chair man. Directors of Aeronautics, Agri. , Conser vation, Insurance, Labor, Public Works, Health, Revenue INDIANA (1) Advisory Commis sion on Economic Development 16 Popular Election 4 Y ear s Lt. Governor Chairman « ap points all other members sub ject to approval by the General As sembly IOWA (1) Commission (2) Commission LOUISIANA (1) Commission 7 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor Directors of Dept, of Highways, Conservation, Engineering, Agri. , State Univ. , and one appointed by the Governor 159 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s By Agree ment By Agree ment V arie s By Agree ment By Agree ment Boundaries, term of office, num ber of members, etc. determined by co-operating governments involved. All arrangements in accordance with compact and by agreement between participating govern ments . V arie s By reso lution By reso lution V arie s By Agree ment By Agree ment Initiated by petition of 100 pro perty owners within the region or recommendation of executive director of state planning office Counties, cities or other juris dictions part of a logical region may be admitted into organization established under the compact. 5 Governing Bodie s 3-5 Yrs. Compensation, term, member ship, etc. determined by coop, governing bodies 5-9 Chief Ebæc. of Central City 5 Y ear s Monthly meeting required - City board may designate Plan Com mission as regional planning agency T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y 160 STATE FORM STATE (1) Number of Members How Selected T erm MAINE (1) Advisory Council Econ omie Deve lopment (2) Commission 7 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor Monthly meeting required - Governor appoints chairman MARYLAND (1) Commission (2) Planning Council 9 7 Gov. Ap- ptd. , 1 Sen.. 1 Hse. Me m 4 Ye ar s Minimum number of meetings two per year Governor appoints chairman MASSACHUSETR (1) Division of the Department . of Commerce (2) Commission - Civil Service - State planning office operates under the jurisdiction of the State Department of Commerce MICHIGAN (2) Commission MINNESOTA (2) Commission 161 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Members How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s By Munici- oalitv 4 Years Metropolitan type — two or more municipalities. Number of mem bers based on population: 20M-2, 20M-100M - 3, Above - 4. 20 By law 4 Years Metropolitan type membership complex « cities have represen tation based upon population 1 per city involved Elected by Planning Board Pleasure of Board V arie s By reso lution By reso lution Planning Boards of cities & towns elect a member to regional plan commis sion Massachusetts law requires similar legislation in partici pating states V aries Coop. Jurisd. By reso lution Commission establishes proce dures, meetings, rules, etc. V arie s Coop. Jurisd. By reso- lution Two members from central city mayor & member of governing body of cities involved plus seven additional members. 162 T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y STATE FORM STATE Number of Member s How Selected Term MISSISSIPPI (2) Commission MONTANA (1) Board 5 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor Membership included director of State Water Conservation Bd, , and Cities Advisory Council NEBRASKA (1) Division - - - Resources division of the State provides technical and advisory services on planning to cities within the state NEVADA (1) Board (2) Commission 9 Appointed Governor 4 Y ear s Board meets on call of the Governor NEW HAMPSHIRE (2) Commission 163 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERS TATE (3) Number of M e mb ers How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s 15 max. Coop. Govts. By re so lution Three members representing each county, two, each partici pating municipality -ex-officio Term: 4 yrs. and 3 yrs. re spec. Varie s By agree ment By reso lution Metropolitan type--law provides for inter-local planning co-oper- tively between municipalities 6-12 Appointed by Governor 4 Y ear s Legally defined regional plan ning districts represent the region for planning purposes V arie s By agree ment 4 Years Representation based upon popu lation: 10M-25M -3; 25M up -4 Counties may also be members 1 6 4 T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y STATE (1) STATE FORM Number of Member s How Selected T erm NEW JERSEY (1) Board 9 Appointed by Governor 5 Y ear s (2) Regional or area advisory council Five members - directors of departments of state. Four ap pointed by Governor, who also designates chairman (1) Planning Council (2) Council (3) Commission 5 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor NEW YORK As part of the Department of Commerce it is state research and advisory arm. NORTH CAROLINA (2) Commission (1) Development Advisory Council 25 Appointed by Governor 6 Y ear s OHIO Assists Governor and advises on economic growth, resource de velopment and cooperation be tween governmental levels (1) Advisory Committee Deter mined by Governor Appointed by Governor Deter - mined by Governor OREGON (2) Regional Council Governor appoints such advisory committees as deemed necessary Dir. of State Planning - Ex officio 165 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s Estab, by coop. mun. or cities By agree ment One representative - each governmental unit V arie s Elected by coop, g ovts. Pleasure of govt. V arie s Appointed by Govt. V arie s State also has office for regional development as planning arm to coordinate regional plans Of eight existing interstate or ganizations only three are re gional planning--balance are for specialized purposes V aries By agree ment By agree ment Varie s By agree ment By agree ment Establishment possible by two or more cities and/or counties - Members elect chairman State Division of Commerce plan ning participating informally with two Virginia and three N. C. countie s V arie s By agree ment By agree ment May be established by two or more municipalities and/or countie s V arie s By agree ment By agree ment One partly private, non-profit -- Other composed of chief exec, of counties and port district T A B L E 3 E X E C U T I V E B O D Y 166 STATE (1) STATE FORM Number of Member s How Selected Term (1) Planning Board 15 Appointed by Governor 4 Ye ar s P E NNS Y L V ANIA Three ex-officio members: Secretary of Commerce, High ways, Forests & Waters (1) Advisory - Appointed by Governor - RHODE ISLAND Authority An almost true "city-state" Providence metropolitan area has 82 per cent plus of total population SOUTH CAROLINA (2) Regional Planning Board (1) Commission 9 Appointed by Governor Co-term, w / Gvnr ’ s. term TENNESSEE (2) Commission The nine members include the Governor and chairman elected by vote (1) Commission 10 Appointed by Governor VERMONT (2) Commission 16 7 T A B L E 3 — C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected Term Number of Member s How Selected Term V arie s By agree ment By agree ment Bureau of Commercial Develop ment of the Department of Com merce assists regions and com munities in planning Varie s By agree ment By agree ment South Carolina has metropolitan type as well as city -county and county-county type of regional organization for planning 5-15 Set by the Southern Pliig. Coun, Coterm, w /term of office Appointed members have four year term V arie s By agree ment By agree ment Chairman elected. Two or more towns, cities or villages may create organization for regional planning 168 T A B L E 3 EXECUTIVE BODY STATE (1) STATE FORM Number of Member s How Selected T erm (1) Commission VIRGINIA WASHINGTON (2) Commission (1) Advisory Board (2) Advisory Commis s ion 7 Appointed by Governor 4 Years WEST VIRGINIA Planning & Research. Division in Department of Commerce (1) Advisory Committee 15 Appointed by Governor Pleasure of Governor WISCONSIN (2) Advisory Committee or Council Members represent eight fields: Community, fishing, forestry, land use, planning & zoning, water resources & m i n i n t r 16 9 T A B L E 3 - - C o n tin u e d EXECUTIVE BODY REGION (2) INTERSTATE (3) Number of Member s How Selected T erm Number of Member s How Selected T erm V arie s By agree ment By agree ment Regional planning commissions may perform planning services to non member jurisdictions on a contract basis 5-7-9 By ordinance By ordinance Ex-officio members: maximum one for five member commission two for seven; three for nine One-each coop, plan c omm. Appointed V aries City-county type of region with one representative from each jurisdiction V aries By Agreement By Agreement V aries By Agreement By Agreement Regional commission created by Governor of State upon petition of local governments involved Similar to intrastate — by state compact or informally by co operation 17 0 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Sour ce ARKANSAS Planning Purpose : The County Plan shall be made with the general purpose of guiding and accomplishing a coordinated, efficient, and economic development of the county, which will, in accordance with present and future needs and resources, best promote the health, safety, comfort, convenience, prosperity and welfare of the people of the county. CALIFORNIA Regional Planning D istricts: Include (a) natural physiographical regions containing complete watersheds of major stream sys tems and the land upon which the waters of such watersheds are put to beneficial use, (b) areas having mutual social and com m ercial interests as exemplified by radia ting and connecting routes of transportation, by trade, and by common use of recreation areas within the region. Regional Plan: A comprehensive, long- term general plan for the physical develop ment of a total area, which may include part or all of one or more geographic regions and any land outside its boundaries which bears relation to its planning. R egion: Includes (for physical planning purposes) at least a major part, if not all of any one county, but in most cases in cludes all or part of two or more counties. A region also includes at least one in- corporated city, but usually several._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Section 4, page 3 of House Bill No. 363, Act No. 246 of 1937, An Act Authorizing the Creation of County Planning Boards Laws Relating to Con< servation. Planning, Zoning . . . , par. 65018.3, page 10 Creating Regional Planning Agencies, prepared by the Coordinating Council on Urban Policy, F ebruary, 1964 Ibid. 171 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source COLORADO Planning Purpose: The regional planning commission shall have prim ary responsibi lity for those broad plans described in Section 106-2-5 (3) and surveys and studies described in Section 106-2-6, which clearly affect the physical development of two or more governmental units. Region: The area encompassed by a regional planning commission, being the combined land areas subject to the ju ris diction of the participating governmental unit s . CONNECTICUT Regional Planning : A coordinated, co operative approach by member municipa lities of a regional planning agency to area- wide problems to help local planning and zoning commissions and other bodies make the best decisions for local action in light of regional development. Authority: The Regional Planning Agency State Enabling Legislation, Chapter 127 of the General Statutes, 1948 Revised, as Amended. Region: An area composed of a group of municipalities with strong social, economic and physical ties, having readily identifiable objectives and problems. For the most part, these regions are located about a city or several cities constituting an ’’urban center. ” The region embraces the adjacent areas now urbanized or urbanizing and those currently rural areas where growth from the center is anticipated. Colorado Statutes, County Planning, Article 2, Chapter 106 CR, 1953, Amended 1959, page 6 Ibid. , page 7 Steps to the establish- ment of Regional Plan ning Agencies in Con- necticut, Connecticut Development Commis sion, July 1959, Re vised, 1962, p. 14 Ibid. , page 17 17 2 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source FLORIDA Planning Purpose: The consolidation of a factual base that will support the making of decisions and the activation of proce dures today that will enable succeeding generations to make the regional planning area an increasingly desirable, efficient, economical and profitable place to live, work, play and do business. Region: An area coextensive with the boundaries of any two or more counties and/or municipalities, which establish a regional planning council. GEORGIA Region: Factors influencing region de- lineation: natural environment including climate, topography, rivers, lakes, soil conditions ; cultural environment including transportation, communication, urban centers, political boundaries. Rules of Thumb: (1) entire planning region should lie within the borders of the state, (2) the county should be the basic building block, (3) state senatorial district should remain intact. ILLINOIS Planning — inherent right of state: . . the most important power tliat this or any other state has is an inherent one. State government does not exist in a vacuum; rather, it is a vital activity. A state can not exist in the past, nor can it live only Action Program of the East Central Florida Regional Planning Council, The Florida Development Commis sion, July 1 9 6 2. Definition implied by the wording of state enabling legislation. Determining Logical Region Boundaries for Area-Wide Planning and Development in Georgia, Planning Division, Georgia Department of Com m erce, Summer 1961 Letter from Richard E. Richman, General Counsel, State of 1 1 1 . , to Kenneth Green, Chief, Division of State & Local Planning 173 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L ANNÜN G I N F C R M A T IO N Planning Purposes and Definitions Sour ce ILLINOIS - Gontinued for the present. As a political entity, it must provide for future contingencies and to be able to provide properly and ade quately for the years ahead, it must engage in planning. To do otherwise would result in complete chaos. Lack of planning could well be the most irresponsible type of political action, ” June 26, 1962 Purpose of Planning: guiding and accom plishing a coordinated, adjusted and h ar monious development of the region, and of public improvements and utilities therein, in accordance with the present and future needs of the region and the State, so as best to provide for the health, safety, morals, order, convenience, prosperity, efficiency and economy in the process of development and the general welfare. The Illinois Regional Planning Enabling Act, Section 3001, Chapter 34, Revised 1961, p. iii. Region: May be as defined by a county board or boards of counties which may establish boundaries and create a regional planning commission for development of plans and policies for its growth. Ibid. , p. 2. INDIANA Regional Planning : A method for local units of government to cooperate in the solutions of regional planning problems, whose solutions are beyond their separate capabilities. As set forth in the Draft, Region means an area comprised of two or more adjoining political subdivisions which have joined in creating a regional planning commis sion. Draft No. 2, Regional Planning Bill, State of Indiana, July 15, 1964. 174 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N IN G I N F O R M A T IO N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source IOWA Region: An area whose boundaries are described by the governing bodies of two or more cities adjoining, or two or more counties, or the governing bodies of one or more cities and counties together. House File No. 77, An Interlocal Planning Act, 1964, p. 1. Regional Planning Purpose : To make Ibid., p. 3. comprehensive plans and studies for the development of the region which will guide the unified development of the area and which will eliminate planning duplication and promote economy and efficiency in the coordinated development of the area and the general welfare, convenience, safety and prosperity of its people. LOUISIANA Region: The legislative bodies of any municipalities and surrounding or con tiguous parishes of any two or more con tiguous municipalities, or of any one or more municipalities and one or more parishes all forming a single urbanized or sub urbanized area may create a regional planning area out of their combined territorie s . Louisiana Planning Legislation, Section 135, Acts 1956, No. 239, p. 4. MAINE Planning Function, Purpose: Guiding and carrying forth such coordinated, ef fective and economic development of the state with due respect to its topography, resources and its present needs and future possibilities, as will best promote the health Public Laws of 1955, Chapter 471 Amended, Chapter 38-A, Depart ment of Ecoiiom.ic De velopment, Sect. 4, par. VIII, p. 3. 17 5 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G IO N A T , P L A N N IN G I N F O R M A T IO N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source MAINE — Continued safety, order, convenience, welfare and prosperity of the people. Among other things, such master plan will bring into suitable relation the use of land, soil, water and natural resources; the location of and distribution of population and habitation; agriculture and forestry; recreational r e sources, facilities and opportunities; fishing and mining; trade and industry; ports, high ways, railways, airways and every form of transportation, travel and communication; public institutions of every description, whether publicly or privately supported; water supply and disposal of sewerage; and all such other developments and uses as will tend to avoid waste of the human, financial and physical resources of the state and to promote the above purposes. MASSACHUSETTS Region: That area described by the c ir cumferential boundaries of any group of cities, towns or cities and towns, whose respective city councils or town meetings vote to become members of and thus to establish a planning district which shall constitute a public body corporate and the area of which is coterminous with the area of the respective cities and towns which comprise it. Certification of the area by the Department of Commerce is an added legal requirement, in that the department must determine that the proposed group of cities and towns constitute an effective region for planning purposes. The Regional Planning Law, Massachusetts State Statutes, Chap ter 40B, Section 3. 176 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source MASSACHUSETTS--Continued Regional Planning: A co-ordinated, co operative approach by member communities of a planning district to area-wide problems to help local planning boards and other public and private organizations make the best decisions for local action in light of regional development trends. Regional Planning General Information Memorandum No. 6, "The Regional Plan ning Law With Ques tions and Answers. " MISSISSIPPI Region: That area coterminous with the boundaries of any two or more counties and municipalities which create and establish a regional planning commission to plan for the development of any area so defined. House Bill No. 393, Adopted in the Regular Session, 1964 of the Mississippi Legisla ture. NEVADA Region: The area so designated by one or more counties, or in collaboration with the governing bodies of the incorporated cities in the county, or any other similar collaboration with boards of county commis sions which establish a regional planning commis sion. Regional Planning Commission Creation, Nevada General Laws, Chapter 27 8, par. 278.090. NEW HAMPSHIRE Region: That area designated by two or more municipalities having planning boards and create by ordinance or resolution a planning commission, which shall plan for the area described by their boundaries. Chapter 36:37-44, An Act Authorizing the Creation of Regional Plan Commissions 17 7 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions NEW H AMP SHIRE - - C ontinued Types of Regions : (1) Geographic, (2) Political: boundary is a permanent arbitrary line, (3) Economic, (4) Social: boundary is a dynamic band. A planning region* s boundary is a static line extending beyond the boun dary of socio-economic regions. NEW JERSEY Region: An area established by the councils or corresponding administrative bodies of any group of municipalities, in dependently or together with the board(s) of freeholders of any county or counties in which such group of municipalities is located; or the board(s) of freeholders of any two or more adjoining counties. Also --see Chapter IV, The Development of Regional C riteria in "The Setting for Regional Planning in New Jersey. " Regional Planning: A mechanism for dealing with multi-governmental decision making — far from being a possible alter native to the existence of local governments, may be the means of postponing indefinitely the obsolescence of municipal government. NORTH CAROLINA Regional Planning & Development: State law provides for the creation of (1) Regional Planning Commissions, (2) Regional Deve lopment Commissions and (3) Regional Plan- Sour ce A Suggested Planning Program for the Pine lands Region, p. 2 New Jersey County and Regional Planning Act, Revised, 1962 Jersey P lans, Regional Planning Issue, V . XIII, No. 4, Spring, 1963 Senate Bill 309, Ses sion 1961, A Bill to Authorize Establish ment of Economic 178 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source NORTH CAROLINA--Continued ning and Economic Development Commis sions. Any one of the three types may be created by one or more municipalities or counties desiring to carry out the responsi bilities thereby established. It can define the region to be served in term s of partici pating governmental sub-divisions, and carry out programs directed toward ob jectives enumerated in the Act. Development Commis sions and Regional Planning Commissions by political Sub- Divisions OHIO Region: Any area defined as agreed upon by the planning commissions and boards of any municipality or municipal corporation or group of municipal corporations and the board of county commissioners of any county in which such municipal corporations or group of municipal corporations is located or any adjoining county or counties that have together established in accordance with law—a planning commission. Ohio Laws Relating to Planning, Chapter 713, Planning Commissions, page 6. TENNESSEE Planning Regions: The State Planning Commis sion is given the power to create planning regions and to define the boundaries respectively of such planning regions. Any such planning region may, in accordance with the boundary definition made by the state planning commission, be composed of the territory of a single county or of two or more contiguous whole counties or of a part of a county or of contiguous parts of two or Tennessee Planning Legislation, 1935- 1963, Publication No. 327, October, 1963 17 9 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source TENNESSEE — Continued more counties or of one or more counties together with a part or parts of another county or other counties or any other te r ritory as designated and defined by the State Planning Commission, whether the boundaries thereof conform to any existing boundary or boundaries of a county or counties or other political subdivision, or do not so conform. Planning Purpose (General): Guiding and accomplishing a coordinated, adjusted, ef ficient and economic development of the region which will, in accordance with present and future needs and resources, best promote the health, safety, morals, order, convenience, prosperity and welfare of the inhabitants as well as efficiency and economy in the process of development, including among other things such distri bution of population and of the uses of the land for urbanization, trade, industry, habitation, recreation, agriculture, forestry, and other uses as will tend to create favorable conditions for transportation, health, safety, civic activities and cultural and educational opportunities, reduce the wastes of financial and human resources which result from either excessive con gestion or excessive scattering of popu lation and tend toward an efficient and economic utilization, conservation and pro duction of the supply of food, water, m inerals, drainage, sanitary and other facilities and resources. Ibid 18 0 T A B L E 4 S T A T E A N D R E G I O N A L P T vA N N IN G I N F O R M A T IO N Planning Purposes and Definitions Source VERMONT Region: Is an area as defined by two or more towns or cities or villages cooperating in the creation of a regional plan commission. Planning Statutes, Sect. 2919, CPO Bull. No. 13, Dec. , 1963. VIRGINIA Region: Any area as defined by the governing bodies of two or more counties or municipalities which authorize the establish ment of a regional planning commission. Code of Virginia, Regional Planning, Art. 2, p. 15, Chap. 407. WASHINGTON Region: As defined by the commissions of two or more adjoining counties, two or more adjacent cities and towns and/or one or more counties, together with the boards of such counties and the councils of such cities and towns which have cooperatively established a regional plan commission. Washington State Code Chapter 44, Laws of 193 5: Planning Com missions: City, Town, County and Regional Planning WISCONSIN Region: Is as defined by a regional plan ning commission created by the governor upon petition in the form of resolution by the governing body of a local governmental unit and the holding of a public hearing on such petition, which may be dispensed with if the petition shall be joined in by the governing bodies of all the local units in the proposed The 1955 Wisconsin Planning Law, As Amended by the 1959 Legislative Session. region. 181 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N H H < H C Ü (1) Director (2) Assistant Director Administrative Staff Area How Chosen P ro ies sion (1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State u CD Ü n j C l. o 1 1 o a u o - w < - M CO B o f u o o H h o o a • iH CU D a H CO O . 2 •rH 4 -> 3 3 d o C l c 4 - ) O CD •tî rd o u < < S < Ç Q < (1) Apptd, (2) Apptd. State 10 Region Inter- State I N 1 — 1 (1) Apptd. by Board (1) Publicity Adver- tising P ro motion State Region Inter- State C Ü X : (1) Apptd. (2) Apptd. (1) Admi nistrator (2) City & Re - gional Planner State 2 3 Region 4 2 Inter- State c 1 — 1 g 3 < o (1) Apptd. by Dir. of Finance (1) City & Re - gional Planner State 12 1 Region Inter - State 18 2 T A B L E 5 — C o n tin u e d PLANNING ORGANIZATION Administrative Staff 4 -> Cfi • rH 1 1 d ?H d O (—3 % B (O 3 u Q o II CD .T h '- a B ^ Q < 4 -> CD c u o o o < D O 4 -> CD c u o 0 1 — 4 o o o c o ?H o j 4 -> CD U O CD c o r d 4 -> 1 1 d CD d o O g o 4 -> CD • iH 4 -> r d 4 -> e n u < D ê F inance Budget Source 2 8 1 $220,289 Appropriation 2 2 $ 40,000 State, Local & Federal 2 $205, 155 1962 Budget General Fund 183 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N (1) Director (2) Assistant Director Unit Area Admini str ativ e Staff ÎH H H < H e n How Chosen P ro ie s sion (1) State (2)Region (3) Inter state ÎH o d g r—4 P h td ÎH ■+-> CO 0 d • i — l t H 1 ^ d "O P h < > - < D d ÎH O CD •iH a O d O o W ÎH C D C D d •iH C U D d W CD d 0 . 2 3 3 d C D P h P C h 4 - » o C D 4 -> • r 4 -8 < - O Q (1) Civil Service (1) City and Regional Planner State 2 1 < g Q Region O o Inter- State H Q O (1) Civil Service (1) Public A-dmini — State H O W jz; strati on Region 2 g O Inter- State w (1) Apptd. (1) Planner Public State 4 1 c 1 (2) Apptd, by Adm. Region w Q D ir. Inter- State State < Q h— 1 O Region k Inter- State 184 T A B L E 5 - - C o n t in u e d P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S t a f f C Q •iH f— H rd d j- i d G S a C Q cd ÎH Q G II T f r d a cd u Q < 4-) C Q b û O O G O 4-> C Q b û O O •rH O O e n rd 4-> G ? H G G e n d cd 4-> d C Q d O O d cd o • p -f 4-) U] •iH 1d 4-) e n Î4 G •s o F i n a n c e B u d g e t S o u r c e 2 1 $ 4 2 , 2 6 5 F i v e a c t i v e a g e n c i e s r a n g e f r o m $ 3 0 - $ 5 4 $ 1 0 8 , 5 0 0 ' $ 1 5 3 , 0 0 0 185 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N H H < H en (1) Director (2) Assistant Director Administrative Staff Area How Chosen P ro ie s sion (1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State G 8 n j r — 4 p H u o Id u 4 - > C O 2 a 3 S d 13 Ph < >- G d o 4 - » C O a o d o u H u G G .a C U D d w C O d 3 a 3 3 d G Ph 4 - » o G < < 1 — 1 O p r i O w o (2) Apptd. by Com-T mis sion State Region 2 Inter - State (1) Apptd. by Gov. (2) Selected by Dire et or (1 ) Landscape Architect (2) Law State 8 2 1 4 1 Civ. Region Inter- State 3 z 3 Q 1 — 1 (1) i^3ptd. by Gov. fr. Civ. Ser. (2 ) Civil Service (1 ) Re source Planner ( 2 ) Admin. & Mgmt. State 6 1 Region 1 7 01 Adm Inter- State < t — 1 Q S (1 ) Apptd. by Gov. (2 ) Apptd. by Gov. (1 ) Public Admin. (2) E cono- mics State Region 3 1 1 Inter- State 186 T A B L E 5 - - C o n t in u e d PLANNING ORGANIZATION Administrative Staff + 4 e n • i H 1 H c d d 5 - 1 d o f - 3 g a e n c d 5 h Q G 1 1 e n - T h 1 3 dî a ^ c d 5 h Q c 4 - > e n b J O o f — 4 o G O 4 - > e n « i H b o 0 1 [ O • I - l o o e n > > 5 h c d + 4 G 5 - 1 U G e n g 4 - > 1 —1 d e n d o O d •rH Ü •4-> en • r 4 td H - » e n 5 h G a O F inance Budget Source 1 $128,577 Local sub scription and State grant 1 5 5 A r tist $167, 613 Appro priation 1 Adm. $642,000 F ederal Grant 2 1 Pending 'î'Geogr apher 187 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N H H < H e n ( 1 ) Director (2) Assistant Administrative Staff Area How Chosen P ro ies sion (1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State 54 G i I — 1 P h 5 4 o h CQ u d 3 a d 13 P h < > - G d 5 4 o -M - J J CQ a o d o o M 5 4 G G d • r 4 b jo d W CQ d o .2 3 ^ d G P h P C Î 4-> O G -M Id o < C < 3 Q O Q (1) Apptd. by Gov. (2) Selected by Director (1) Civil Engr. (2) City Planner State Region Inter- State W S S (1) Civil Service (2) Civil Service (1) Geo grapher (2) Planner State 1 1 1 Region Inter- State Q 1 > - 1 (1) Apptd. by Gov. 'î'Gov. Apptd. (1) Law & Engr. ':'Plan- ning State 3 3 3 Region 8 Inter- State en en en S| (1) Civil Service (2) Civil Service '‘ ■'Selected (1) Planning (2) Engr. & Planning '!'Geqgrphr. Planning State 5 1 Civ. '•Region 2 Inter - State 188 T A B L E 5 — C o n tin u e d P L A N N I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S t a f f 4-> C C cd d u d o 1-3 § a cc 3 d P G II 1 - cd 54 P < 4-> C Q •r4 bO O r— 4 O G O 4-> C Q • r4 bO O 1 1 O •r4 U O en 54 cd 4-> G 54 u G e n 1 3 C Q d o O g •r H o • p C Q P cd 4-> e n 54 G 5 o F i n a n c e B u d g e t S o u r c e $ 1 8 , 0 0 0 L o c a l S u b s c r i p t i o n 2 2 2 8 3 $ 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 7 0 1 G r a n t a n d G e n e r a l F u n d 2 $ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 L o c a l S u b s c r i p t i o n 3 $ 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 S t a t e B u d g e t 1 2 $ 1 2 , 0 0 0 1 7 , 0 0 0 2 0 , 0 0 0 L o c a l S u b s c r i p t i o n T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N IZ A T IO N 18 9 (1) Director (2) Assistant Director Unit Area Administrative Staff w H < H e n How Chosen P ro ie s sion ( 1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State u Q ) 1 Ph f - i o h CO .2 "d 1 — 1 • r H > - G d u 0 1 H - > CO a o d o u H d G G d • r 4 C ü O d W CQ d s '■ § 3 3 d G k P U H - » u G 3 O d < < H G (1) Civil Service (1) Planning State 3 en H 1 Region 2 Inter- State 1 — 1 P P (1) Admini stration State 2 en en 1 — 1 en en & Plan ning Region 3 Inter- State w z: (2)- (3) 'î'Plan- (2) Region ning Con sultant î N Inter- State 190 T A B L E 5 — C o n t in u e d PLANNING ORGANIZATION Administrative Staff 4 -) CQ P ( d d d d o t — 3 d ( d a CQ 3 d Q G II 1 - P < 4- > CQ C ü O o ,—I o G O 4-i CQ b £ ) 0 1 1 O o o c o > > d ( d 4-i G d O G e n d ( d 4-i 1 1 d CQ d o O g • r H U • rH 4-i CQ • r H td 4-i e n d G 3 O F inance Budget Source 1 $ 41, 000 General Fund $ 15,000 General Fund 2 3 $124,932 General Fund . . . . $70,500 Local Subs cription 191 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N H H < H c o (1) Director ( 2 ) Assistant Director ^ Administrative Staff Area How Chos en P r 0 “ fes sion ( 1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State d G g c d 1 ( P h d O 1 d d H -> CQ .2 'd II G d d o •+-> CQ a o d o G H d G G d • iH b jo d H CQ i l P h H -> G G •+-> I d G < H ^ P h < P ( 1 ) Civil Service (2) Civil Service ( 1 ) P lanning Law, Ergr. (2) P lanning State 1 1 Region Inter - State H en pH H 1 —3 H ( 1 ) Civil Service (2) Civil Service State 24 Region 3 Inter- State g O t x W S (2) Apptd. by Gov. (2) Arch. Planner State Region 1 1 Inter- State P i l O ( 1 ) Apptd. by Gov. (2) Apptd. by Gov. (1) Com. (2) Dir. Planner Planner State 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Region 5 Inter- State 192 T A B L E 5 — C o n t in u e d P L A N N I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N Administrative Staff 4 - > C f i • r H , — 1 c d d d d o g g C Q 3 d Q G II C Q rtn 1 3 rd a ^ c d d P < - M C Q • r H b J O O , — 1 o G O C Q b jo 0 1 1 o o o c o d r d 4 - > G d O G CO " d c d + j 1 1 d C Q d o O d G 6 O g • r H O - M C Q 1 d 4 - > c o F inance Budget Source $ 44,000 App rop riation '•Re s our ce Geographer 2 $ 38,000 State Budget 1 1 2 $300,000 General Fund Graphics 1 1 193 T A B L E 5 P B A N N I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N (1) Director (Z) Acsistant Director Unit Area Ad mini str ative Staff H H C H m How Chosen P ro ies sion (1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State ÎH CD a d d ,—I a, o 4 - 1 U3 II o d u o 4- > < 4 -1 CO a o d o o W u CD CD d • r 4 tuO d H CO i| 4- > o CD 4- > I d o < (1) Gov. Apptd. (1) Mgmt * State 7 2 G O W (2) Civil Service (1) Sel. By Com. (2) Plan ning Region O (1) Plan ning con sultant Inter - State 1 k I i n < î P (1) M erit ( 1 ) Planning State 12 (2) Merit (2) Planning Region Inter- State il ( 1 ) Apptd. by Gov. State Region e n 1 —1 Inter - State il Q (1) Merit (1) Public Adm. (2) Natural State 3 1 (2) M erit Region Resources Inter- State 194 T A B L E 5 - - C o n t in u e d PLANNING ORGANIZATION Administrative Staff 4 - 1 C Q • r H 1 1 c ô d d o t-3 § s c o u Q Q ) s i C O - tn d O d U C l < 4 - 1 C O • 1 — 1 b J O 0 1 o Q ) O 4 -1 C D * r 4 o 1 — 4 o • r — 1 u o e n > - u d 4 -1 C D J h O o e n d 4 -1 d c o d o O § • r H o • r H 4 - 1 C O 4 - 1 e n h ( D Ê F inance Budget Source 3 $150,000 HHFA and State Funds 1 $ 30,000 HHFA and State F und s $260,000 State F unds $160, 000 State F unds 195 T A B L E 5 P L A N N I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N (1) Director (Z) Assistant Director UniL Area Administrative Staff H H < H e n How Chos en P r o- f e s sion ( 1) State (2) Region (3) Inter- State - c u d u o 4 - > CO a o d o o W c Z w w 5 o z w CO d 3 3 d ( U 4 - > u ( U rd o Î 4 < Z O 2 - 4 (1) Apptd. by Gov. (2) Civil (1) Law State 7 0 1 (2) Region < Service Planning Inter- State < j State t-4 1 g > (1) By Com. (2) (1) Planner (2) Region 4 By Dir. Planner Inter- State H Z (1) Civil Service (2) Civil (1) Planning State 2 1 O S w (2) P lanning Region > Service Inter- State H H e n e n H Z (1) Merit (1) Planner State 74 (2) Merit (1) Merit (2) (2) Planning (1) Planning (2) Region 3 I Z W H Inter- State 196 T A B L E 5 - - C o n t in u e d P LANNING ORG ANIZ ATION Administrative Staff + - > co • T — t F — 4 d d d o t-3 d d a co "S h Q C D II 1 “ d h C < 4 - 1 C O to £ ) O I ' 1 O C D O 4 - 1 C O • 1 - 4 C ü O O 1 i o * iH o o m > - u d 4 - 1 C D f4 O C D en 1 d co d o O d • r - 4 O •r4 4 - 1 C O 3 4 - 1 en H C D g F inance Budget Source 1 Federal and State 'îGeogr apher 2 2 $103,000 701 & State 12 $975,000 F eder al, State & Local 197 T A B L E 5 PLANNING ORGANIZATION w H < H in (1) Director (2) Assistant Director Unit Area Administrative Staff How Cho sen P ro ies sion ( 1) State (2) Region (3) Inter state J h U C C =1 > - < D d u o 4 - > < 4 - 1 C O a o d o u W J h 0 ) Q ) .a dJD d W co il C L , p :j 4 - 1 U Q ) O < g o > (1) Apptd. (1) Public Adm. State Region Inter - State State Region Inter - State 198 T A B L E 5— C o n t in u e d PLANNING ORGANIZATION Administrative Staff 4 - 3 0 3 d d jH d o t — 3 03 3 U Q o 0 ^ 03 1 F d O h ÛJO 0 1 1 o C D O 03 b u D O O O en u d 4- 3 C D u u C D en d d 4 - 3 I 1 d 03 d o o 4- 3 03 "d 4 - 3 en J - 4 C D d! F inance Budget Source '•'Geographer T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 199 H H < H e n | s - c : d - - % •— * h C ü ( D - g - 1 ^ — Z e n o o E l e m e n t s o f t h e C o m p r e h e n s i v e , G e n e r a l o r M a s t e r P l a n ( D CO p d c d o 3 > h ( D CO d o O ^ ( D 3 1 3l i l a > O <D O Q 1 1 Î Ï b o P h ( g « 1 1 d o • rH d o d H 1 C D I I d CO d o • i H d " d P h o P h " d ( D a I I < e n ( 1 ) X X ( 2 ) X X X X (3) < P h O o k ( 1 ) X X X X X X X ( 2 ) X X X X X X (3) X O Q : S O o ( 1 ) ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X X (3) 1 o W H ^ G RR ( 1 ) X ( 2 ) X X X X X X (3) H < ( 1 ) X X X X X X X X < ( 2 ) 1 — 1 H O (3) 2 0 0 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan II li o U O H CO u O u •i-H r— 1 u • iH a o d < D O CO U d H pq 3 d u O ^ 4 rSD < U b ^ d •’ - * CO < u s g 4 _ ) CO d < u 2 d ^ d o II C O H Other Remarks X X X X X Flood pre vention Transportation in cludes airports X X X X X Flood pre vention X X X X F ore stry Mining Conservation in cludes Water Dev. X X X X Urban Renewal Law is "open ended" on elements X X X Power Utilitie s Town Sites, Forest & Water Development X X X Same Same X X X Drainage W ater Employment Plan Waste Disposal Plan X X X X Airports W ater Resources develop ment Urban Renewal T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 201 H H < H c o o T d o • r H ÜJD ( D ' — ' p - < 2 . - 4 ^ 1 — 1 d ' — ' + - > II E l e m e n t s o f t h e C o m p r e h e n s i v e , G e n e r a l o r M a s t e r P l a n <D CO D 3 d d o d > Î H <D CO d o o If § <D 21 3l ; d > o <D O Q 11 1 » d % P h 5 " II d o • i H d CJ d w CO <D o i ° d CO d <D P U d o • r H d ' d P h o O h " d CD a P h II Î H 5 î = > P < Q g ( 1 ) ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X ( 3 ) g g W O ( 1 ) ( 2 ) X X X X ( 3 ) 1 ( 1 ) X X X X X X X ( 2 ) ( 3 ) 3 a ( 1 ) X X X X X X ( 2 ) ( 3 ) c o 0 1 k P 1— 1 ( 1 ) X X X X X X ( 2 ) X X X X X ( 3 ) 2 0 2 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N Elements of the Comprehensive, General, or Master Plan d d o o d d ; â i iSh CO u o u d U O h C D CO d m o a o d o o w 1 I I P U CO D 1 i 4 _ ) CO d D D '— ' I I O D C O H Other Remarks X X X Sanitation X T ouri sm X X X Recla mation Flood Control X X X T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 2 0 3 W H < H co d o •iH b O ( D '— - ^ < D '— ' id •— H d 4 - 1 II Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan < D CO P 3 d P d o •r4 d > J h <D CO d o O ^ CD 21 3 1 O CD O Q ll CO CD J h J h O d D P h C Z > - 4-> ^ D d J h C O d ll ll d o % o d T 3 W CO CD IÏ d CD P U c Z d o •i-H d r t d & C M CD a P L , d d CD n > J h CD P Q < 1 — 1 Q g ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) < < 1 — 1 co 1 — 1 p O P ( 1 ) X X X X X ( 2 ) ( 3 ) W % s ( 1 ) X X X X ( 2 ) X X ( 3 ) Q 3 S ( 1 ) X X X ( 2 ) X X X ( 3 ) ii ( 1 ) ( 2 ) X X X X X X X O ( 3 ) 2 0 4 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General, or Master Plan !l i s C O rd U o o d a. 1 J h d > % p Z < D C O d pq u • iH a o d o o W C O C D l i 4 3 C O d C D ^ p Z 1 ï II O C D CO H Other Remarks X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Five Regions — cur rently the same elents, T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 2 0 5 H H C H co O v J 1= p u — ' 5# D h tu ( D (y 4-1 s a Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan <D CO p) "d d d o • rH d > J h <D CO d o O "d <D 6 II 3 1 if O <D O Q 1l CO <D J h J h O d <D p 4 P h -S ' 'S % 11 d o o d H co <D U d d d d d O ll d o ,—1 d O h O P h "d < D a O h d rS d < D n > J h < D G Q O S O 1 —1 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) (3) < < H Z : ( 1 ) X X X X X X ( 2 ) (3) H pu il < P U ( 1 ) X X X X X ( 2 ) (3) ^ H ii ( 1 ) X X X X X X X X ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X (3) II ( 1 ) X X X X X X X X X ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X X (3) X X X X X X X X X 2 0 6 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan II ll o u O H CO u o o P U C M • n § Jh fS % d > PU P h D CO d m o a o d o o W CO D o g II II O CD CO H Other Remarks X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Elements vary depend ing upon purposes T A B L E 6 - - C o n tin u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN 2 0 7 H H < H C O rv j d o • iH tu O • « — " » C D C O C Z C D • * 4 - 1 F — ? d ' — ' 4 - > - -- CO -2 S " 3 C O • ' H Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan C D CO p d d P d o > J 4 D CO d o O l l ^ C D 31 l l l l CO C D -Z J - , J 4 O d C D P c Z 4 - 1 C D C D 3 | â ^ i l d o d o d T ) W CO C D o s y I s K s, d o •rH d r — 4 d cr o P "d C D a A g - I I : = ) Q < P U S E h * - P p c î O O pU % < U O (1) (2) X X X X X X X X (3) O 3 O (1) (2) (3) z: O o w pU O (1) (2) X X X X X X X (3) « CO (1) (2) X X X X X X X X (3) W P S3 P i 5 (i) X X X X X X X X (2) (3) 208 T A B L E 6 - - C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan d d 0 o •rH "rH d d I I 1 ■3* CO J h o u p C M 1 Jh s.s D CO d p q u a o d o u W CO D 1 i 4 _ » CO d D 1 ^ I I U ( U CO H other Remarks X X X X X X X X X X T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 2 0 9 W H < H c o r v i d O •ïH bJO C D ' C rJ C . m , C L ) ' t u I— 1 '---' 4 - 1 II E l e m e n t s o f t h e C o m p r e h e n s i v e , G e n e r a l o r M a s t e r P l a n <D CO P 1 P d o • p H d > D CO d o O d 3 6 d C D R > d D Q 3l i l a > O C D O Q l l | s d o P p U d d C O «. CD â ^ d t J <D d P d d o •rH d o d W CO C D O § ° a “ p d (D a P h g ^ ag d o •rH d d C M W W c o c o w Z W H (1 ) X X X X X X X X X ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X X ( 3 ) c o w H (1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) < H P (1 ) X X X X X X X ( 2 ) ( 3 ) H % O pu H > (1 ) X X X X X X X X X ( 2 ) ( 3 ) < 1 —1 g o a > (1 ) ( 2 ) X X X X X X X X X ( 3 ) 210 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan d d o o V i L d d •as a ^ is C O J h o O P C M 't h § J h rO S s > P PU C O d C D P p U 1 « d o II ' o ^ CO H Other Remarks X X X X X X X X X X - X X X X X X T A B L E 6 S T A T U S A N D E L E M E N T S O F T H E G E N E R A L P L A N 2 1 1 W H < H co T H Ü S P < C 5g H O > co P O O co fS ] I- P U D J h tu ( L ) d H - > co 3 ( 1 ) ( 2) (3) (1 ) ( 2 ) (3) ( 1 ) (2 ) (3) D CO p 1 p X X X X Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan d o d > J h C D CO d o O X X X (—4 d d C D a J h O h H -> O C O 1— 4 d C D 1 3 > d 1 —1 C D Q X " d H -> d • iH D O J4| a (D P L , a O 1 4 a D > O CD O Q X X X W < D Jh Jh O d O P pU X X X H - > C D D S | 11 I s X X X d o •iH o d 1 3 H X X X CO ( V li d D P P U d o •iH d I— I d A o P X X X X H-> d D a p in d O 1 — 4 d D n > J-H (D P Q 212 T A B L E 6 — C o n t in u e d STATUS AND ELEMENTS OF THE GENERAL PLAN Elements of the Comprehensive, General or Master Plan ll It O jH OH CO u o o p P M 3 d ll P P U D CO d P u 1 o d o o H CO < D si 4 - 1 CO d D P P U d n ) g) II U C D C O H Other Remarks X X X X X X X X X X X 2 1 3 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H co P P O I — I H P H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses H o r—I C D U C D P ZI p u O 3 < O p 0 H H l- H C O p u W 1 p s i s P U p p O o W > P P Master of City Planning (MCP) Master of Science in Urban Planning (MS UP) Elective Courses Introduction To Regional Analysis and Planning: The concept of regions; emerging views of regional planning; review of United States and European r e gional planning. The Metropolitan Region: The social organi zation and spatial patterning of the large metropo litan area. Physical development problems and policie s. Planning Land-Use and Communication Systems Structure of urban systems; regional land-use, transportation and communication systems. Department Organization Since 1959 the Departments of Architecture, City and Regional Planning, and Landscape Archi tecture have been grouped together in the unique new College of Environmental Design, The Uni versity acknowledges their relationships by stating: "New problems evoke new answers and all insti tutions, including universities must change to meet the challenge of the new, " Required Courses Advanced Urban Design XII: Regional Planning: Research based general plan for a large region or an inter - community area. Theory and methodology of regional planning, including planning for under developed areas. Regional Analysis : Regional models for planning on a metropolitan or regional basis. An elective course available to planning students in the Econo- mics Department._________________________________________________ 214 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N % O I — I H G H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses H lis H o > H il ^ - t - 4 Oj H ^ Cu o O o J H S o J H D H co < H O O C l O S i O o H H O H Master of Regional Planning Master of City Planning Master of Civil Engi neering in Trans portation Elective Courses, Planning Seminar in Regional Planning Seminar in Integrated Resources Development Public Policy and Economic Development Water Resources Problems Soviet Regional and Urban Planning Elective Courses, Related Disciplines Farm Resource Allocation Economics Of Agricultural Development Agricultural Land Economics Sanitary Engineering Seminar General Note Although the degree offered in the Department of City and Regional Planning is "Master of Re gional Planning, " it is the equivalent of the MCRP degree in other institutions; however, students may effectively prepare for work in regional develop ment agencies by a concentration on electives avail able, such as those indicated. Required Course, Planning Resource Development: Emphasis on natural and human resources and with the activities of re gional planning and development agencies such as the Tennessee Valley Authority; planning of states and large regions ; organization and operation, pro grams of regional planning agencies. General Note In addition to the degree of Master of City Plan ning, the Institute offers a combined two-year Master ^ s program which includes transportation. 2 1 5 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H % % O I — I H G H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of P lanning C o ur ses D en 3 5 rh U a j en en c e j O bJO 1 3 U S a j O H H I — I co p u W > S G Q > P U Master of Regional Planning PhD. Regional Planning Required Courses, Regional Planning Regional and Metropolitan Areas Planning, (Studio): Studies concentrate on the theory and ap plication of the principles of planning to large natural regions, metropolitan areas, and clusters of metropolitan areas often termed "Urban Regions." While the focus is on the preparation of actual phy sical plans for the regions mentioned, conside ration is given to all economic, political, social, and cultural factors that bear on the physical plan ning of large areas. Regional Resources Planning: Lectures and seminar discussion on planning problems of con servation and development of resources. The course deals with experience, methods and or ganization of planning for regions, states, and districts, and the relationships among human, natural, man-made, and institutional resources. Emphasis is primarily placed upon the planning and resource problems of the United States. Spatial Economics Seminar : A course in tended to acquaint students with economic theory dealing with the spatial distribution of activities. Topics include industrial location, land rent and land use, organization of regional systems, re gional economic units, and social physics. Function and Structure of the Urban Community: An exploration at an advanced level of the economic, technological and social factors which underlie the ecology of and the planning for, urban areas and the location and distribution of urban settlement. The course stresses comparative analysis of urban be havior and its reflection in urban physical forms among various cultures in both economically de veloped and under-developed regions. 216 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N il Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses 1 3 O d d 3 o O H H C O P U H I G Q P U > < % c t 3 d c t 3 fQ Jh G H H . P U W > I — I G O s MRP PhD. Master of City & Regional Planning MCRP Elective Courses, Regional Planning Problems of Metropolitan Government in America Problems of Economie and Political Development Problems of Socio-Cultural Change Theory and Problems of Economic Development General Note The degree, "Master of Regional Planning, " has been offered since 1938, Requirements for the degree are beyond those required for city planning, and involve advanced studies in sociology, public administration, economics (especially) and others tailored to the needs of the individual student from anthropology and region history to comprehensive programming. The doctorate is also offered with courses and requirements established by the de partmental director and the candidate. Required Course, Regional Planning Regional Planning : Concept of region and plan ning "FFgT0nr~na/tuFF~imd history of regional planning ; river basin planning; state planning history, nature, functions, metropolitan planning, its nature, his tory, status ; regional science, metropolitan govt. Regional Economics - An elective course, open to p la n n in g s t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y . 217 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N § » — I H G H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses > S H O O 0 1 0 w C Q ^ o o g W È : o P P b J O 5 S |S s 1 W ^ 5 s SI O Master of City & Regional Planning PhD. Master cf Science in City & Regional Planning Elective Courses, Regional Planning Regional Planning: Factors determining a region. The nature of regions. Man and environ ment. The influence of natural and cultural ele ments: climate, soil, resources, population, land use, agriculture, industry, power, transportation. The distribution of communities. Effect of topo graphical and geographical conditions on regional development. Regional economy and regional order. The landscape. Theoretical and applied studie s. Theory of Regional Planning: Factors deter mining a region. Distribution of communities. Effect of topographical and geographical conditions, transportation routes, resources and soil con ditions on regional developments. Regional economy and regional order. Applied Regional Planning: Application of the theoretical principles to the development of a region. Elective Courses, Regional Planning Recreational and Regional Planning: Basic land use patterns and recreational aspects of land scape architecture including local, state and national parks, playgrounds, waterfronts, park ways , and public reservations. Regional Economics : Classification schemes for regional analysis; regional systems of social accounting ; social and private goals and preference structures; linear, programming and input-output analyses of intra and inter-regional linkages in economic activity; econometric models for esti- 218 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H % m % G t — I H H P lanning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses n i ( D S < H I— I en W > t — I S P W H < H en O Master c d Science in Ci ty & : Regional Planning Regional Economies — Continued mating regional behavioral and technical relation ships ; forecasts and projections of regional econo* mic growth and development. Economic Development and Growth; Deter minants of real income; resources and their pro ductivity in developed and under - developed areas. Capital formation and allocation. Investment cri teria; social marginal productivity; employment absorption. Economic growth models. Popu lation factors in economic development. Balance of payment problems of developing countries. Welfare Economics: Application of welfare economics to multi-purpose development of a river basin and to problem situations in taxation, international economics, location of industry, public utilities. Forest Conservation: Development of forest conservation, national, state and private. Forests in relation to human needs. Forestry as related to other conservation work. Land Use and Conservation: Meaning and im portance of conservation. Economic principles applied to conservation. Land resources classi fication and economic limits of exploitation and development. Appraisal of public controls and group action. Economics of Regional Farm Production: Theory of production location: regional production and adjustment problems in the Great Plains, Cot ton Belt, Dairy Region, Corn Belt and other regions; efficiency of resource use in agricultural industry. 219 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H § § t—I H P H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses 1 3 C D d d ■ ■ ë 0 O 1 1 > - 4 H i— i C O H > 2 H H < H en O Master of Science in City and Regional Planning Planning of Transportation Facilities: Deve lopment, regulation and interrelation of highway, rail, air, water and pipeline transportation. Or ganization and operation of highway, rail, air, water and pipeline transportation departments and railroads. Transportation planning analysis. P re liminary survey and plans for design. Principles of Soil Use and Management : Ap- plication of principles of soil physics and soil fer tility, and economics to the management of soils. Interrelationships of soil resources, land use and management systems. General Notes Correspondent ( John R. Fitzsimmons, P ro fessor, City & Regional Planning) defined regional planning : The definite and conscious effort on the part of representatives of elastic but contiguous areas and jurisdictions to guide and shape, through coordinated programs, the physical growth and de velopment of these areas for man^s best uses, and for the maximum beauty consistent with those uses. Correspondent's criterior for delimitation of the region: (1) Administrative convenience areas; (2) metropolitan influence, groups of states, cities, counties, boroughs, etc; (3) single function area; (4) homogeneous of social, economic and environ mental elements ; (5) economic and social unity of people inhabiting an area; (6) construction and maintenance limitation area. The University also offers the opportunity for major work leading to the degrees of Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy under a co operative arrangement with various departments in Water Resources. 2 2 0 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N 4 co H % P H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses O W Q j H b O S ï H c /] c d O H H I Master cf Regional Planning PhD. U - i O H g b O Master of City Planning S o H !i O Elective Courses, Regional Planning City (and Regional) Planning Problems Regional Planning Research Regional Planning Seminar Land Use Problems in Developing Areas General Note Regional planning courses could range from ten per cent to fifty per cent of a student's two year masters program. The main region of concern in the program is the Metropolis. Regional planning is also an option for the doctoral program. The graduate school as planned has a flexible program which may be adjusted to the main interests of the individual student. Required Course, Regional Planning Natural Resource Economics Elective Courses, Related Disciplines Natural Resource Economics Economic Geography Urban Geography General Note Correspondent (John W. Hyde, Professor) de fined region: Natural plus man-made definitions* Physiography plus economy, plus society, plus function, plus political boundaries — all these, integrated define region. The Department distin guishes area from region from urban planning for convenience. 2 2 1 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N il Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses il il H M H ' i en î3 Master of Science in Resource Develop ment Required Courses, Resources Development Conservation of Natural Resources: Develop ment of the conservation movement with broad treatment of basic natural resources (minerals, land, waters, forests, wildlife). Conservation practices and facilities, organizations and agen cies involved in their application. General intro duction to field, rather than specialized or pro fessional training. Water Resource Development: Illustrates the importance of water resources in all fields of natural resources with an introduction to the needs of industry, agriculture and recreation. New con cepts of development, use and conservation are critically reviewed and evaluated in terms of future needs. Parks and Recreation: Basic concepts of parks and recreation; their economic and social signifi cance in modern society and as a use of natural re sources. Evaluation of past and emerging develop ments. Survey of park and recreational area faci lities, administrative organizations and practices, and problems at various levels of government and in private commercial and agency operations. Multiple -Use Management of Resources : The reasons for multiple - use management. Problems in joint development and management of resources for agricultural, forestry, fisheries and wildlife, recreational, industrial, urban, watershed, and other uses and economic and noneconomic con siderations on resource use decisions. Combi nation and balancing of uses in area resource development programs. 222 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H § O I — I H 1 =) H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses x s o d d ë 0 O 1 I > - < H HH en p e î H > 2 P H H < H en O I— i % O Master of Science in Re s our ce Develop ment Land Economics; Principal economic and in- stitutional factors that affect man in his use of land, Supply, demand, and future requirements for land. Input-output relationships, income, costs, and en terprise location. Property rights, land planning, zoning and other controls. Rural and urban land development. Operations of land market. Resource Development Seminar : Current re source development problems and recent develop ments in public attitude and activities, state and federal legislation, administrative agencies and functions. Resource Development Policy: Analysis of past and present public resource development policies and programs in the United States. Em phasis on national policies. Area Resource Development: Examination of theoretical explanations of regional development with primary emphasis on natural resources. Sur vey of research techniques available for regional analysis. Study of selected regional development organizations and programs. Conservation Economy: Critical analysis of the conservation movement in the United States in cluding its moral, ethical, political, and economic dimensions. Conservation organizations and pro grams. Applications of theory to conservation. Examination of the roles of research, pressure groups, and the legislative process in public policy formulation on conservation matters. Area Resource Analysis: History, objectives, and principles used in area resource inventory, analysis, and development programs. Land Use, comparative advantage and economic base factors. 2 2 3 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N % O HH H P F Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses I ! > ^ H H H U 1 p c ; w I p w H c F ^ X 5 ii 0 6 < a ë O Ph h X H p Master of Science in Re sour ce Develop ment PhD. Master of Science in Regional Planning PhD. Conservation Law: Review of state and federal laws covering natural resources, including a study of treaties, police power and specific statutes now in effect. Current questions and problems of a con troversial nature, now pending, are reviewed in terms of current statutes and their adequacy. Water Pollution Law: Review of the state pol- lution prevention laws covering surface and under ground waters in Michigan, including a study of cur rent statutes. Court cases in which decrees and orders of the Water Resources Commission have been contested are reviewed to illustrate the effec tiveness of present laws. General Note The University has a Department of Resource Development which concentrates on the development and conservation of natural or undeveloped regions. The Department of Urban Planning places emphasis upon the urban region. Required Courses, Regional Planning Urban and Regional Base and Interaction: Con- sideration of the national economy and the traditional tools for economic analysis; the operation of inter - and intra-regional economic systems in terms of relevant economic goals. Honors Seminar in Urban and Regional Studies: An overview of the subject matters and methods of investigation of the several social science disci plines as these relate to the study of cities and sub national regions. Development of cross- disciplin ary and inter-disciplinary research methods re lated to problems of investigation. 2 2 4 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H S § I — I E -i P H P lanning Degree Off er ed Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses X I—H < D & O è H W g è X J [3 ( D il O nu H g Master of Science in Regional P lanning PhD. Techniques of Regional Planning:: Methods of planning for areas intermediate to the metropolis and the nation are developed, with special attention to relations between urban areas and regions of which they are components. The resources of planning method are outlined with emphasis on phy sical and economic aspects. Delineation of planning regions and the conduct of planning within them focuses upon "underdeveloped" and "depressed" areas in the United States and other countries. Additional Required Courses Regional Planning (Studio) National Development Seminar Theory of Regional Investment State and Regional Problems and Planning General Note The 1963-1965 Record of the University of North Carolina At Chapel Hill states: "City and regional planning represents the union of modern social science, design, and engineering. It uti lizes social science techniques to analyze the ad justments between men and their physical environ ment. By means of the planning process, ways and means of effecting these adjustments are developed through governmental and social organization, through the application of design and engineering techniques, and through planning legislation and administration. . . . A region may be a metropo litan or urban center together with the surrounding territory which is included in a particular scheme of planning for its future development. It may be a rural area in which there are one or more small centers of population. The term "regional" does not itself indicate any specific type or size of area; the only requisite making a particular area a 2 2 5 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H % § > — I H P H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses k O > - < H 5] H < S G < O X H O % Master of Science in Regional Planning 2 h > Master of City Planning General Note — Continued region in this sense is that there be a rational and practicable basis for making plans for its future as a unit. This basis may be physical, social, or political—or a combination of two or all three of these. The Department also offers in the core curri culum Regional Sociology of the South, a course probably based upon the massive work in this field by Howard W. Odum, Emphasis may also be placed upon the urban region. A project currently underway by the Department Faculty, "Interaction Regions and Regional Planning' will soon be published and emphasizes interaction rather than homogeneity in research for regional planning. Interaction includes, but is not confined to economic criteria. Particular attention is given the definition and delineation of "problem regions, " as opposed to "depressed areas," which are more limited in subject-matter. An attempt is also made to identify emerging problem regions through a statistical analysis of factors that may have "fore warned" the appearance of present problem regions. Regions are studied from the perspectives of system theory, and implications for regional planning prac tice are drawn. Guidelines for generalist, opera- tionalist, and specialist regional planners are to be incorporated in the study. Required Course — City & Regional Planning Core Introduction To Regional Planning : Course emphasis is upon the metropolitan region. Regional Planning (Laboratory): Problems of actual region studied and alternative physical solutions developed.________________________________________ _ _ 2 2 6 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H en Z Z O t— 1 H G H Planning Degr ee Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses x J o d d ë 0 O 1 I > 4 H en p c î ii = i e n Z O W X H Master of Science in City Planning Elective Courses — City & Regional Planning Agricultural Economies : Laboratory course in natural resources which emphasizes regional plan ning programs and policies and includes regional planning as well as conservation. Economic Planning : Discusses the methods of analyses embraced by "regional science," and con siders their application to questions of economic development. General Note Correspondent (Israel Stollman, Head, City & Regional Planning Division) in letters dated Septem ber 6, 1962 and September 23, 1964 stated: ". . . There is no demand for a definition of the region. The territorial limits of the region will differ from time to time in response to different statements of the problem. There are no fixed criteria for de limiting the region. There is no fixed desirable form for effective governmental organization at the metropolitan level. I do not think that the lack of these definitions is due to the "youth of these sciences. " While there are many ways in which they are indeed young, a lack of rigid definitions in these respects is reflective of maturity. " The curriculum emphasis is on metropolitan planning, which the Division does not distinguish from city planning. However, the region is dis tinguished and considered in terms of resources. Students interested in regional science enroll either in the Department of Geography or the Department of Economics. The latter also offers work in re gional development. Students interested in resources development enroll in an interdisciplinary program under the Natural Resources Institute. 22 7 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H Z § n H G H Planning Degr ee Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses o I— O f H O Z O > - » H I — I in W > Z P S < z z O Master of Science in City & Regional Planning Elective Courses Electronic Data Processing Data Processing and Analysis Economies of Natural Resources Field Studies (Geography) Research in Regional Geography Development of Political Thought Principles of Public Administration Regional Planning Social Planning General Note Correspondent (Lee Rodgers, Chairman of the Department of Regional and City Planning) advised in his letter dated September 18, 1962 that: ", , , Our faculty has been doubtful of the validity of fully differentiating between regional and city planning. The city cannot be understood without an equal knowledge of its area of nourishment. italics mine While areas of nourishment may not be entirely sy nonymous with the term region, it is adequate for general use. Consequently, the regional impli cations of urban planning are included in those courses devoted strictly to urban planning. In ad dition, we make available to the student, courses in resources development, regional geography, re gional economic resources theory, state govern ment theory, state planning and regional planning. . . . The term region has literally dozens of de finitions— there are differences of interpretations, but this need not be an invalidation of regional plan ning concepts and there is perhaps room for many more. The type of regional delineation used is largely dependent on whether one views it from the standpoint of a sociologist, economist, geographer or other discipline. Perhaps it is not so necessary that we fully agree on definition except for statis- 2 2 8 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H en Z Z O t—4 H X F P lanning Degr ee Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses "3 0 - Ii Master cf Science in City & Regional Planning Master of Science in Urban Planning U - i d o o < D H z O o Z Ü < D H H d < D > Z bC z O d w > 5 z en Z il <D i ' 4 d X Master of Arts in Regional Planning Master cf Arts in Regional Science General Note — Continued tical purposes, but rather that we recognize the in ter -relationships between peoples inhabiting a given area and that we attempt to understand the forces which give these people vitality for fruitful production In this connection, the study of the New York Metro politan Region and of the Southwest are equally valid and yet the criteria for delineation of each are entirely different. " Required Course, Urban Planning Theory and Methods in Population and Ecology Elective Courses Urbanization and the City Education, Welfare and the National Security Cultural Anthropology Social Change General Note The degree is only granted as Master of Urban Planning, but may be earned with a concentration upon regional planning. Required Courses, City and Regional Planning Regional and Social Science Theory Gravity, Potential and Interaction Models Regional Systems Analysis Welfare, Strategy and Social Decision in Regional Development Resource Problems and Policy: Regional and National Industrial Location and Regional Development 2 2 9 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N Z O I — I H G H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses •iH O f “ 1 Z o H Ü Q 1 3 Z g d H > Z G i Z § ( 1 4 d O O Master of Arts in Regional Planning Master of Arts in Regional Science Required Courses, Regional Planning Regional Planning Research Seminar Resource Problems and Policy Industrial Location and Regional Development Independent Research in Regional Planning Seminar in Governmental Aspects of Regional Planning Regional Landscape Planning Required Courses, Related Disciplines Regional and Inter - Regional Social Accounts Industrial Location and Regional Development Problems National Economic and Regional Spatial P lanning Seminar in Regional Science Advanced Regional and Social Science Theory Professional Seminar on City Planning and Regional Science General Note The University offers a program leading to the degree of Master of Arts in Regional Planning and Master of Arts in Regional Science. A joint pro gram has been designed which will yield both de grees to the student in three years. The planning programs are administered by the Department of City Planning, The Department of Regional Science, and the Institute for Urban Studies which sponsors research projects supported by grants from foun dations, Highly qualified students who excell in the masters program may be permitted to proceed toward the Ph. D, degree in either City Planning or Regional Science with advanced credit toward course requirements. 2 3 0 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H C O Z § t— j H X H P lanning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of P lanning C o ur ses ctî 1 CO g < D o. b J O h d X i CO 4 - 1 •iH P h k O H 1 — 1 C Q Z H > Z Z » X O g m en H H 1 — 1 Z Master of Urban and Regional Planning Required Courses, City and Regional Planning Theory and Practice of Urban and Regional Planning Urban and Regional Development Law Urban and Regional Development Systems Theory and Practice of Urban and Regional P lanning Required Courses, Regional Planning Quantitative Urban Research Methods Urban Policy Analysis Urbanization and Land Policy Administrative Problems of the Metropolitan Community Urban and Regional Planning Administration Elective Courses, Related Disciplines Regional Planning and Programming in Low Income Countries Economic Development Planning and Organization for Economic and Social Development Decision Models in National Economic Planning General Note The program is titled Urban and Regional Plan ning, and the Department also offers a degree in metropolitan studies interrelated with urban de velopment and renewal and urban management. The degree may be earned in either. 231 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H en Z § ( — i H Q H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses W H S - I I e l SÆ z g k 3 0 5 < d Î H o O Z z H a i O X i | O < 3 o z w z Master of Science (Planning) Master of Sci ence in City and Regional Planning Required Course, City and Regional Planning Regional Analysis and Planning General Note The Department offers a single course in regional planning as indicated, which is required for fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Science degree. Elective Course, City and Regional Planning Seminar in Regional Planning: Problems of effecting orderly development and resource usage on a regional basis; analytical approaches; re lationships with urban, metropolitan issues. General Note City and Regional Planning is concerned with the rational organization of the use of land, based on a knowledge of man's history, institutions, and technology and an insight into his aspirations and opportunities. It is practiced at the scale of the neighborhood, the city, the metropolis and the region. It is served by the professions of design and of management and the disciplines of the social s cience s. The professional degree Master of Science in City and Regional Planning is conferred jointly by the School of Architecture and Fine Arts and the School of Public Administration. 2 3 2 T A B L E 7 E D U C A T I O N A L I N S T I T U T I O N S R E G I O N A L P L A N N I N G I N F O R M A T I O N H in Z Z O 1 — 4 H P H Planning Degree Offered Name, Type and Description of Planning Courses X O s t— I J o E h ^ iil ü o ë d o 4 - > b J O d • H rd C f i n j < D < D C O ë 1 P Z O H O Z 2 < > i s w si <i o Master of Urban & Regional Planning Master of Science in City & Regional Planning Master of Science in Urban Planning Required Course, Urban and Regional Planning Regional and Resource Planning: Problems of natural resources, industrialization, and popu lation considered from the scale of water-shed area planning to that of the international level. Elective Courses, Related Disciplines Cultural Regions Economic Growth and Development Required Course, City and Regional Planning Regional Planning and Development Elective Courses, Related Disciplines Regional Income Analysis Problems in Metropolitan Planning Conservation of Natural Resources Metropolitan Area Government Geography and Development Seminar in Regional Economics Geography of Water Resources Elective Courses, Urban Planning Regional Planning and Development Urban Regional Economics Seminar in Regional Geography Seminar in Urban Regional Economics C H A P T E R IV REGIONAL PLANNING A PERSPECTIVE BY INFERENCE It has been shown in the foregoing history that regional plan ning as concept emerged out of a complexity of ideas associated with activities in other arenas ; regional planning as process grew out of procedures applied in other pursuits; regional planning scope varied, sometimes limited by the perceived extent of a regional problem, at others by the assumption of jurisdictional responsibility for regional problems; regional planning objectives emerged out of goals defined in other dimension at other planning levels; regional planning prin ciples and theory evolved from synthesis of principles related to other planning endeavors; regional planning necessity developed from the growing pressure of imponderables associated with efforts to solve local problems that had their origins in regional factors and forces; regional planning rationale had its essence in the reality of the relationships between the elements of region; regional planning practice embraces many disciplines which by their application il luminate the comprehensiveness of regional planning; and regional planning as composite tool of regionalism connotes design, specific technical, workable processes set in priority schedules of time, spatial schedules of relationships, economic schedules of resource need and availability and social and political schedules of compre- 2 3 3 234 hension. It was also demonstrated that regional planning principles and practices are characterized by specifications based upon facts which involve standards, specify the work to be carried out and the resources with which to accomplish it. It was further demonstrated that effective regional planning depended upon the integrated, co ordinated effort of all entities concerned at all levels of government and by the skills and techniques, in terms of research and science, methodology and process available and applicable to the effort. And, finally that the long term view of regional planning dictated by the long term program designed to direct the development and growth of region depends upon reasonable projections based upon accurate in terpretations of regional history as well as its current nature and trends. In addition to these generalized views of the nature of re gional planning as it developed in history there were also some specific characteristics that emerged. These are set forth in the sections that follow. Region As Planning Unit The varying concepts of region set forth in Chapter I repre sent a sampling of the attempts by many of the foremost thinkers who have struggled to formulate a visual image of this nebulous idea that would serve to delimit the territory within which area dynamics could be surveyed, studied, analyzed, synthesized, planned and phy sically developed. In a generalized sense, region may be defined, not so much in the sense of a delimitation, as in the sense of refer ring to its nature and its dominating characteristics. First, region 2 3 5 is a physical reality, an areal or spatial generalization, or a geo graphical unit possessed with the geographer's physiographic de terminants of region which include atmosphere, lithosphere, hrdro- sphere and biosphere. The inference here is that a general homo geneity exists such as would provide a basis for delineation of region, even though many regions exhibit wide variations in their physio graphic characteristics, It is also implied that any boundary de scribed by these determinants would be a zone due to the gradual change in climate, soil types, land configuration and other charac teristics associated with physiographic determinants of region. Secondly, region is an economic reality, or a spatial gener alization describable by the nature and extent of economic activities that are conducted within its limits and also delimited by the extent of those activities. Here again, boundaries are zones, for the in cidence and strength of economic activities do not end at a line, even though that line may be historical, traditional, and firmly estab lished by law. Third, the region is a cultural reality, which, like region as an economic reality, phases out over a zonal boundary and thereby affects delimitation, rather than by exhibiting abrupt change at a jurisdictional boundary. Politically, the region is not an entity, nor can it become one without political organization that would create it, and in this instance, in contrast with the other determinants, re gional boundaries would be coincident with the boundaries of the political jurisdictions of which it is composed. Fourth, the region is to a degree a homogeneous reality, at least in some selected characteristics, and these lend it the dis- 2 3 6 tinguishing features that help contrast it with neighboring regions, and give it its own identity. Fifth, the region is characterized by the nature of its primary and secondary resources, their quality and quantity and the extent to which they have been exploited, their accessibility, and the power available to render them and the systems available to transport them to points of production and distribution. Sixth, the region is an operational or structural reality that has as its purpose the facilitation of the functional realities of the region. These functions are dynamically related to the other charac teristics of region and determine the quality and quantity of economic activities extant, as well as whether many economic activities may be pursued at all. They embrace fuel and power, public utilities and services, tifansportation and communication, and the level and extent of science and technology within the region, that relates its elements and determines its progress. Seventh, as Howard W. Odum pointed out, there must be a limit to the multiplicity of regions, so that in general there is an attribute in the relative, composite homogeniety of the largest num ber of factors for the largest number of purposes in view, to the end that the region may be a practical, workable unit, susceptible of both definition and utilization. As example, the administrative regions of a nation must have a reasonable limit as parts of a whole, regardless of academic delineation through evident homogeneity of a very few characteristics. Eighth, the generalized region may be divided into sub- 2 3 7 regions, which though they exhibit the characteristics of the gener alized region in the larger sense, also exhibit sub-regional charac teristics which distinguish them from other territories within the region. Ninth, the region is not a self-supporting entity, independent, isolated or separate. It must be a constituent unit in an aggregate whole or totality, and although diversity exists and gives it vitality, its essence is unity, an element of a larger social, political and economic whole. It is further an organism that has grown and evolved out of its own unities of natural resources, cultural base and the factors and forces that are its heritage and make it region. It should be pointed out that no one of the major or minor determinants set forth above would represent an adequate basis for delimiting an area and establish it as a region, but the massive force of all together, with the many inter-dependencies, correlations, contingencies, co ordinations and relations as might be revealed by a comprehensive statistical analysis could establish a zonal boundary that would be adequate for regional planning purposes, in the event comprehensive planning is contemplated. If one wishes to seek them out he could discover natural regions of soil, topography, climate, lake and river valley; he could educe cultural regions of urban, rural and metropolitan areas; he could disclose regions of literary and architectural aesthetics; he could detect regions of folkways and folk music; he could impose the disciplines related and reveal the geographer's, the ecologist's, the economist's and the sociologist's region, but none of these alone 238 would constitute the region as a planning unit, A distinction between regional planning and development planning as an analogy might aid in clarifying the point. Large scale development planning, such as a vast and complicated "multiversity, " which may serve five counties and two metropolitan regions is not regional planning. It is actually a mesochoric element within a regional plan—development, rather than regional planning. Examples of development planning are count less, but of regional planning are few, but their description as such persist, with the distinctive title "regional planner, " being mistaken ly assigned to architects who master -plan such developments. An other example that may be cited is the recently completed St, Law rence Seaway, a mammoth water transportation route, which con nects 8,300 miles of Great Lakes' shore line, a vast geographical surgery and a huge regional development as well, which involved the taming of the turbulent St. Lawrence River, which drains an area larger than Great Britain and France combined, and carries to the sea more water than the Seine, the Danube and the Thames; employed as many as 22, 000 men and fleets of machines for four years; cost 1. 9 billion dollars; and will accomodate 80 per cent of the world's cargo ships for passage through its series of locks and canals. Another example that may be cited is the 17.6 mile Chesa peake Bay Bridge-Tunnel, completed a year ago and cost eight mil lion dollars a mile or some 140 million dollars in all; spans and for two miles goes under a treacherous portion of the open sea where Chesapeake Bay merges with the Atlantic Ocean, and incorporates trestles, bridges and tunnels which connect the Delmarva Peninsula 239 a 160 mile land spot that is isolated from the mainland by the Chesa peake with the so-called Tidewater area of Virginia, the southern and western shores of the Bay including the harbors of Norfolk and New Port News. In the first instance, the economic impact of the con struction is immeasurable and is stimulating the increase of tourist trade and recreational facilities for its region as well as industrial development. In the latter example, the land values on the Delmarva Pennisula have skyrocketed. New hotels and tourist apartments are under construction with building contracts rising forty per cent to thirty-three million dollars, and the new route represents a saving of eighty miles and eighty cents over the distance and cost of traveling the old route past Washington and Baltimore to New York, Although these constructions in both instances are regional in scope, and in the first cut across international as well as state boundaries, and al though their construction has resulted in economic growth and stimu lated industrial and other development — they are not regional plan ning— they are regional development. Several criteria are deter minants here, but two should be adequate at this juncture. The first is that the elements of region are quite different from the elements of a regional development, for in the former the element of region would be the multiversity or the sea-way, while in the latter, the ele- ijrieiil could be the neuclear physics department or one of the bridges. The second criterion is simply that they deal with a single resource or facility, such as education in the first instance and transportation in the second, and their planning was not part of a comprehensive plan for the region in which they v/ere developed, which would 2 4 0 include all the elements of region and involve planning the develop ment of each in terms of the relationships to all the others and of all to the whole. In addition to those who attempted to define region in the past. Berry and Hankins attempt to identify three regional concepts : (1) the generalized region, which may simply be an area selected by an investigation for study; (2) the homogeneous, uniform or formal region, which is an area within which the variations and co-variations of one or more selected characteristics fall within some specified range of variability around a norm, in contrast with other areas that fall outside the range; and (3) a region of "coherent organization, " or a "functional region, " which is an area in which one or more selected phenomena of movement connect the localities within it into a func tionally organized whole, with a sub-class being a "nodal region," where the organization centers on some focus or node.^ The survey of educational institutions yielded several definitions of the region and identified several regions which are related to their academic orientation toward regional planning. Some of these were as follows : (1) administrative convenience regions, (2) regions of metropolitan influence, (3) functional, social, economic and political entities, (4) natural plus man-made, physiography plus economy, plus society, plus function, plus political boundaries — all of these, integrated de fine the region. Brian J. L. Berry and Thomas D. Hankins, A Bibliographic Guide to the Economic Regions of the United States (Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1963), pr~x~ 2 4 1 The survey of state and regional planning agencies revealed concensus that the definition of region for planning purposes is re lated to the boundaries of the jurisdictions which establish, under en abling legislation, a regional planning commission. Here, the boun daries of region are by law coincident with the boundaries of the co operating jurisdictions. As set forth in the laws and statutes of the states, this definition applies both to state approved or established intrastate regions and to interstate regions which require Congres sional approval and an executed interstate compact as well. In attempts to define region, the essence of the question is, "define region for what purpose. " The answer pertinent to regional planning is related to the purpose of regional planning. In this light, and in the presence of legal precedent, the region for all practical planning purposes, within the current scope of regional planning is defined within the context of law, and is employed by today's regional planner as the territory within which he can develop plans and policies and expect some desirable measure of implementation. History il luminates the growth of regional elements as lending growth to re gional planning as concept. This growth continues and it is self- evident that region for planning purposes will expand, legal definitions of region enlarge and the concept of regional planning broaden until it will effectively encompass those regional problems that must be planned in relation to each other and are not confined within the cur rent legal definition of region. Further, it is patent that many func tions and problems regional in nature demand for any real measure of resolution a regional approach more in keeping with the zonal 2 4 2 boundaries of the natural region. These would require regional plan ning of an intrinsic nature, which would necessitate the creation of adequate organization to develop and implement the plans and policies required to resolve interrelated problems of regional scale. It follows that region for planning purposes may be (1) a te r ritory of natural extent described by the zonal boundary of its physio graphic limits ; (2) a complex of cities, and one or more counties whose physical extent is described by the limits coincident with the jurisdictional boundaries of the governmental units of which it is com posed; (3) and finally, in the generalized sense, a territorial expanse inhabited by a population exhibiting political, social, economic and technical organization, of such interdependence and integration that it is integrated with itself and bound to other territories that not only augment, but make possible its life force. In the first instance, the region illustrated is a natural region; in the second, a cultural region and in the third, which may be applicable to both, the region is an organic entity. In each there is a degree of homogeniety and a de finite ecology, so that any change in one of its elements whether natural or man-made, induce changes in all other elements. Conse quently, the regional planner develops his plans and policies giving due consideration to this principle, the essence of the regional ap proach to planning and the acknowledgement of the dynamics of region. Finally, regional planning embraces the territory described above as region in its most comprehensive sense, and pursues solutions to its problems in the light of its elements, functions and the forces of interaction between them. 243 Major Regional Elements, Functions, Problems The foregoing descriptions of regions, as well as planning regions estant in national reality, are diverse in character, culture, resources, and physiographic features, as we observe each in turn, but all are related to each other by economic, political, social, cul tural and communicational bonds and to the nation by interrelations that create national bond and fabric. Therefore, regional problems, elements, functions and forces would also vary in diverse degree from region to region. Regional planning is concerned with and en compasses those regional problems, elements and functions that exist in every region, although in varying degree. All are regional in scope and ignore superficial boundaries. All are inter-related with each other and form the bond and fabric of region. These are they that are of major concern to this study and will be set forth in this section. As declared in the Introduction, this study has humanity as its most important concern and all the issues pertaining to human opportunities for growth and development central to that concern as its criteria. Therefore, the primary element of region is humanity, and this element exhibits relationships between its manifestation in number (population), and the quality of its physical, psychological, and cultural condition. Numerous other characteristics are here in volved, which include density, and dispersion, opportunities for education, occupation, recreation and the maintenance of health, safety and welfare. These require the physical surround which will facilitate those opportunities and the systems of technology, com- 2 4 4 muni cation, and organization that make them possible. These oppor tunities are primarily concentrated in urban places, which have their existence in the reality of humanity as population, which occurs within their boundaries, or as one worthy expressed it, ". . . the city is the people. " Therefore, concentrations of population are the primary element of region that is of concern to the regional planner. They are viewed together with distributional modifications within the region as imposing significant influence upon any regional plans and policies he may develop, which must also be dynamic if they are to be meaning ful plans for such populations. These concentrations of population are usually delimited physically by those jurisdictional boundaries established by law which represent political subdivisions (communi ties) of the region, and these, also acknowledged by many regional (metropolitan) plans developed, are considered the second major element of region. The life of region population and of community is exhibited in the activities pursued in occupation, education and recreation, and these manifest themselves physically in creating three additional elements of region which are confirmed by the classical regional plans developed. The first embraces commerce and industry, and were incorporated in the plan in the physical sense (land use) and in the productive, distribution and consumption sense (economic analy sis). The second embraces institutionalization and is represented by physical facilities occurring as schools, colleges, libraries, art galleries, museums and the like, both public and private. The third is expressed in terms of parks, wilderness areas, open space and 2 4 5 other outdoor and indoor facilities, both public and private of a re creational nature that regional population thrives upon. The above manifestations of human activity within the region require effective communication if adequate bond for fruitful living and conduct of business is to be established. And the regional plans reviewed partially confirm this need by the survey and analysis of transportation and communication facilities. These, in the first instance were surveyed and planned in terms of railway facilities, bus and street car lines, water ways (where applicable), and street and highway systems for automotive transport; and in the second were treated lightly, if at all, in terms of mail routes and telephone facilities, with the latter occurring more often in theoretical studies of the "extent of region, " together with newspaper circulation as one criterion. Population manifested in concentrations of its mass (com munity), as primary element of region, and the activities it pursues for occupation, education and recreation manifested in private and public organization (institutions), requiring communicational systems to facilitate those activities also require service and functional ele ments of region to augment its life and make its activities safe, its welfare and health secure. The functional elements of region encom pass those facilities and activities pursued to provide adequate water, light, power, fuel, sewerage and garbage disposal. The service ele ments of region include those facilities and activities pursued to lend it protection and safeguard its health and safety and find their phy sical manifestation in law enforcement agencies, the fire department. 2 4 6 health department, hospitals and the courts. These too, were sur veyed and studied by regional planning organizations, and the pro jected needs of them based on projections of populations. The above elements of region represent the major concerns of regional planning as expressed in the numerous studies and plans de veloped from the time of the establishment of the first regional plan ning commission (Allegheny County Planning Commission) in 1918, to the establishment of the National Resources Committee in the early 1930's. The following represent comments on regional studies de veloped and theories of regionalism which document the above and il luminate the areas of concentration during the "classical" period of the development of regional planning. The Philadelphia Tri-State Plan recognized two classes of re gional planning: (1) metropolitan, with interest centered on the cen tral city, and (2) that which deals with the interrelations of cities and the logical development of intervening space. Concerns rooted in social and economic goals were focused upon: (1) distribution of popu lation, (2) land use (agricultural, forests, industries, urban develop ment, housing), (3) transportation (highways, railways, waterways, airways and landing fields), (4) parks, parkways and playgrounds, 2 (5) sanitation and water supply, and (6) public works. The Plan of the Chicago Region developed by Daniel H. Burn ham, established the policy of merging the plans of village, city. 2 Russell Van Nest Black, "Theory of Planning the Region as Exemplified by the Philadelphia Tri-State Plan, " City Planning (Vol. VI, No. 3, July 1930), p. 185-190. 2 4 7 3 county and state into a composite whole. Thomas Adams summarized the elements of the regional plan in 1929, when he wrote: ". . . The recognition of the degree of interrelation between the physical, social and economic problems involving the co-ordinated study of economic factors in industrial distri bution and space requirements, land values, population dis tribution, government, transportation and transit, traffic, public recreation, buildings and the spaces surrounding them, the planning and development of land for building purposes, the unity of neighborhoods, the zoning of building in relation to light, air and movement, the general sanitary arrangements of communities and the natural conditions underlying all urban expansion. ^ Drawing from the regional plans developed for Philadelphia, Boston and New York, American City published an editorial and pro jected the following as representative of the elements of region which each survey had incorporated: (1) traffic and transportation, (2) high way and communication, industrial distribution, growth and future requirements, commercial needs, public service, population distri- 5 bution, and public building construction. The advent of the depression saw the creation of the Tennes see Valley Authority and the National Resources Committee. Ele ments of region brought into focus by the Tennessee Valley Authority 3 Theodora K. Hubbard, "Brief Survey of City and Regional Planning in the United States, 1929, " City Planning (July 1929), p. 199 ^Thomas Adams, "New York Blazes a National Trail," Survey (November 1, 1929), p. 150. 5 "The What, Why and How of Regional Planning, " American City (Vol. XXXIV, No. 5, May, 1926). 248 were clarified by the development goals established by its policies and were as follows : (1) flood control, navigation and the production of cheap and abundent electric power (water and waterways), (2) agriculture, soil conservation, (3) forests, development and conser vation, (4) resource conservation and development (minerals , forests , etc.), (5) commercial and industrial development, (6) recreational lands and open space, (7) railroads and other transportation facili ties, (8) educational facilities, and (9) social and economic planning The comprehensive elements of region as well as significant relationships between them were set forth in the many studies of region developed by the National Resources committee and later the National Resources Planning Board. A review of the studies would illustrate the diversities of region and the differences in regional characteristics existing from region to region. The following repre sent a brief look at elements of region revealed by regional studies of that most remarkable planning agency. The St. Louis Region, June 1936: (1) natural resources, (2) political jurisdictions, (3) principal physical improvements, (4) pub lic improvements, (5) ports, (6) railroads, (7) river crossings (bridges), (8) flood control and water conservation, (9) dams, lakes, and recreational facilities, (10) public health and sanitation. The New England Region, July 1936: (1) population, (2) land resources, (3) recreation (4) transportation, (5) industry, (6) plan- ^K. S. Lomax, "The Tennessee Valley: An Experiment in Regionalism," Nature (Vol. 151, May 22, 1943), p. 592. 2 4 9 ning agencies in the region, (7) conservation and development of water resources, (8) land use, (9) forest and wild life conservation. The Baltimore-Washington-Annapolis Region, November, 1937: (1) land uses, (2) farming, (3) suburban growth, (4) com mercial and industrial development, (5) public and semi-public open spaces, (6) public services (transportation, utilities, etc.), (7) popu lation, (8) soil and manufacturing. The study was developed in co operation with the Maryland State Planning Commission. Red River of the North, 1937: (1) physical characteristics, (2) economic history, (3) water problems and water plan, (4) pro jects and program, (5) water conservation and flood prevention, (6) stream flow necessary for dilution of treated sewerage, (7) losses in discharge of the Red River. Pacific Northwest: (1) resources, (2) physiography, (3) cli matology, (4) water resources, (5) land resources, (6) mineral re sources, (7) industries, (8) commerce, (9) transportation, (10) re creation, (11) public works, (12) population. This regional planning study illustrates the depth of the analysis undertaken by the National Resources Committee in its investigations generally, and the table of 7 contents of the study confirms that fact. Finally, the elements of region as revealed by the state and regional planning survey included herein indicate the following in summary, and are taken from that survey. 7 For a copy of Regional Planning—Part 1, Pacific Northwest, Table of Contents, please see Appendix H. 2 5 0 T A B L E 8 STATE AND REGIONAL PLANNING ELEMENTS Adapted From State and Regional Planning Survey Incidence of Regional Planning Element Human Resources Natur al Resources Communitie s Land Use Industrial Development 24 12 1 32 25 Health, Wel fare & Safety Educational F acilitie s Recreational F acilitie s Public W orks Conservation 24 30 34 23 34 Water Develop ment ■ Private F acilitie s Trans- portation Com- muni c ation Commercial Development 8 12 24 24 19 It follows from the foregoing that there are problems related to the elements of region which may be categorized as follows : (1) physical, which relate to their location and distribution throughout the region; (2) functional, which may be viewed in two senses, (a) in terms of relationships which may exist between the parts of a re gional element, and (b) in terms of relationships which exist between the elements of region. In both, the relational factor, quality, force or characteristic is so related (or correlated) that its degree, mag nitude, quality, is dependent upon and varies with changes in degree, magnitude, quality, of other regional or sub-regional elements; (3) 2 5 1 structural, such as the maintenance of an economic equilibrium based upon a sustainable relation between the expansion of production capacity arising largely from investment in plant and equipment, and the expansion of the ultimate demand for goods and services, which is a product of the size and composition of private incomes and the level of government spending. Structural problems may also be or ganizational, but are basically those which relate to the organic sys tem (whether political or economic) which may require modification, if desired objectives are to be reached. The cycle of development, maintenance, decline to obsolescence, and redevelopment or renewal, which embraces three other major regional problems: (4) develop ment; (5) conservation; and (6) renewal; and finally (7) social and psychological problems of region which facilitate regional identity and promote or impair the regional bond necessary for creation of organization and the application of technology necessary to solve the other problems of region. The history of regional planning reveals an awareness of these theoretical problems of region in plans pre pared for the development of the region and these were manifested as outlined in the following sections. Physical Problems of Region. The physical problems of region which were the major concern of the classical regional plan ner remain even today to color the thinking and dominate the orien tation of the regional planner. They can be generally classified under land use and would include water front development, industrial, commercial, educational, recreational, civic, agricultural, traffic and transportation and residential land uses. All of the surveys de- 2 5 2 veloped by the classical regional planner began with a study of these uses, their distribution and the patterns of highways that connected them. The resultant plans were based primarily upon what was con sidered to be desirable relationships between elements based upon estimations of population and economic growth within the region. The concern with the emphasis of planning upon physical elements of region was discussed by Warren Jay Vinton in his paper presented to a planning conference in 1937 titled, "Has Physical Planning Been Over-Emphasized ? " Vinton acknowledged the concentration of planning upon the physical realities of the state and considered it to be rightly so, in as much as, our economy, dominated as it is by private enterprise leaves only those physical elements of region to public planning such as bridges, harbors, parks, water systems, national defense, education, public health and social insurance, which though once operated by private initiative, having become un profitable were quickly relinquished and "discovered" to be appro priate fields for government ownership. More recently the trolley systems of our great cities passed into public ownership as well as the vast areas of land de spoiled by reckless exploitation, the cut over ranges, eroded bad lands, dust bowl farms and abandoned mining areas were all found to be very proper objects for govern ment acquisition, because "their custody by the community as a whole is more efficient and better meets our social needs. " Vinton also recognized an intermediate sphere where the public interest demands control, operation is increasingly subject to governmental regulation and restriction and public ownership tends to increase. 2 5 3 Utilities, "privately owned ^public^ utilities, " (electricity, gas, tele phones, telegraphs, radio) all fall in this category, as do railroads and the merchant marine, which are increasingly subject to futile, but ever more necessary regulation and restriction. Vinton con cluded that physical planning had not been over - emphasized, but is rather the tool appropriate to the sphere of public initiative, the only sphere where positive planning can be pursued and plans can be carried to fruition, and ended with a plea for more physical planning imbued with social and economic validity and a warning that econo mic and social planning must content itself with seeing that our legislative rules of the game make economic sense. Russell Van Nest Black, at the same conference, presented an examination of the question, "Is Social and Economic Planning Over-Emphasized in State Planning Programs?" He defined physical planning as that aspect of planning directed toward the shaping of man^ s environment and the utilization of natural resources to ac complish a maximum of social, economic, and physical well-being over an indefinite period of time. He defined social and economic planning as that aspect of planning concerned with directing man* s individual and collective social and governmental purposes toward a maximum of social, economic and spiritual well being over an in definite future period of time. He stated that good physical planning must proceed within social and economic limitations, to achieve a socially desirable and economically feasible purpose. Good social and economic planning must proceed within physical limitations to assure to mankind the maximum of good living and the maximum of 2 54 of security permissible under the limitations of man* s intellect and his natural resources. That physical planning finds ultimate ex pression in material things like houses, roads, and parks and that social and economic planning hastens the realization of such things and increases man*s enjoyment of them and his security in them when acquired. Consequently, he concluded that social and economic planning and physical planning are corollary undertakings, neither of which may come to full fruition without the simultaneous pursuit of both. In addressing the question, "Are State Planning Programs Over-Emphasizing Social and Economic Planning?" Black admitted that he did not know and would not venture a guess, since he would as soon, "estimate the speed and the endurance powers of a hobbled horse. " He questioned whether there was a single state planning board in the country that is proceeding with full freedom of action in a completely self-determined direction and stated that until such really free-agent boards enter the field, any effort to appraise the established direction and content of state planning is likely to be un successful and unfair. The depression of the 1930*s, with its varying rehabilitation programs expanded the physical elements of region and addressed its energies to the related problems which encompassed physical problems related to primary resources and added the dimension of conservation to that of development, the major orientation of the early regional (metropolitan) plans. The creation of the National Resources Planning Board and the work it developed, further ex panded the purview of regional planning as well as the understanding 25 5 of the extent of i‘egion, since the physical problems it addressed its work to approached the physiographic limits of the natural region, rather than the superficial limits of city region. Functional Problems of Region. The functional problems of region, which were also of concern to the classical r egionalists, were water supply and distribution, sewerage disposal, health, safety and welfare, electrical power supply and distribution, public transportation facilities, public utilities, and as a group can be called regional services. The concern here was never the actual administration of these facilities, but the relationships between them and the goal of eliminating conflicts, duplication and attaining the economies of scale which would result from coordination. Structural Problems of Region. The structural problems of region which are primarily social and economic and are concerned with directing man*s individual and collective social and organi zational pursuits toward a maximum of social, economic and psy chological well-being over an indefinite future period of time, were problems which in a larger sense include the stablization of national economy, the keying of production with consumption, the safeguarding of human resources against exploitation, the equitable distribution of income and wealth, the establishment of broad social security measures, the protection through conservation of natural resources, and the improvement of the processes of government. These con cerns were clearly manifested as problems of region with the advent of the depression and the measures instituted by the federal govern ment on a regional basis, to resolve them. Controversial from the 2 5 6 outset, they remain so even today and found their planning home in in federal agencies rather than the states, which even though there existed some forty six state planning boards at one time during the depression, they had neither the machinery nor the clear definition of the role of state planning that would have enabled the state to assume responsibility for these problems. Therefore, the National Resources Planning Board, The National Resources Committee and the various alphabetized agencies of the New Deal zeroed in on these problems and history records them as being tackled on a regional basis, if only primarily for administrative convenience. The surveys and plans of these agencies were all developed in terms of natural regions, which a review of them will confirm. Development Problems of Region. The development problems of region manifested themselves in the need to regulate and control public as well as private development to coordinate them and to pre vent the conflicts that would otherwise occur. Zoning was the pri mary device employed to effect this end, and other means such as sub-division controls instituted as regulatory means to supplement it. The attack upon these problems was pioneered by specialists in urban planning legislation such as Alfred Bettman, Edward Bas - g sets and Frank B. Williams. These men translated the needs of their times into a system of legal controls which remain to influence g Alfred Bettman, "Legal and Practical Difficulties in Carrying Out Regional Plans, " and "How To Lay Out Regions for Planning P ur poses, " ^ityan^_R^gion^dJPda2222&_5.2:^^ A.. C. Comey, ed. (Cam bridge: Harvard Univ. Pres s, 1946); Edward JV I. Bassett, Zoning dur - ing the first twenty years (New York, 1936); Frank B. Williams, ’Recent Discussions on Regional Zoning, " American City (June, 1924). 257 the current planning practices, unfortunately by negative means, through application of the police power imposed by building codes, building height limits, housing laws, zoning and sub-division regu lations. Their purpose was the protection of property values, im provement of public service, density controls, congestion limitations and the separation of conflicting land uses to prevent the noxious odors, distracting sounds, traffic congestion, air pollution and other undesirable characteristics which rendered different developments incompatible. Conservation and Renewal Problems of Region, The conser vation and renewal problems of region are the primary example of regional responsibility assumed by government when reckless ex ploitation laid waste to the land and destroyed primary or secondary resources. The cause has always been the failure of the enterprise to yield an acceptable profit. When canals ceased to be profitable they were speedily transferred to government ownership. Urban transportation systems throughout the nation have and are being con tinually transferred to public ownership due to decreasing profits and increasing costs of operation. The vast agricultural lands which were once ab undent producers, despoiled by a resource exploitation which sought profits now (cut over ranges, eroded badlands, dust bowl-far ms and abandoned mining areas), all became proper objects for government acquisition for reclamation, conservation and con version to useful productive resources again, at which time the pro fit makers scored "an oppressive, socialistic government," which encroached upon the perogatives of private enterprise and the lands 258 were, in many cases returned to private enterprise for r e-exploitation, but this time with some measure of control and regulation in use and conservation developed by national and regional planning organizations which had in the interim developed positive aids to development and conservation of natural resources. On the urban front, low income housing was early abandoned to public responsibility. Therefore, renewal of residential slums has traditionally depended upon govern ment for its implementation, if not for its actual development. It can be concluded that in the physical areas of planning, that involve roads, harbors, parks, utilities, urban transportation, public housing, problem lands, water supply and sewerage disposal which are considered traditionally appropriate fields for public initiative, since they are not controlled and planned automatically by the mechanism of the market or by price, the problems they represent in terms of planning and development became appropriate and suitable fields of concern for public planning by government in the best in terest of the community at large. Comprehensive Nature of Regional Planning Effort has been exercised herein to prevent escalation of in ferences, but it is obvious that inferences potent enough, naturally escalate. It is also apparent that regional planning as it developed throughout history has exhibited, in terms of its growth, even at its metropolitan or urban-region stage, an increasing necessity for the comprehensive approach, if not in all instances of its application the employment of that approach. However, there have been, in every 25 9 instance reviewed by the writer, several major regional elements that consistently occur and reoccur in comprehensive regional plans for any area designated "region, " as was indicated in the previous Chapter. These indicated that regionalists are generally aware of certain elements that are basic to all regional planning efforts and must be included in any valid regional plan, but this inference alone is not adequate to a strong case for the comprehensive nature of regional planning, therefore we must resort again to history for the evidence. Initially, the expansion of this nation saw unrestricted ex ploitation of its natural resources by men motivated by a self-ag grandisement that depleted its lush forests, polluted its streams, wantonly destroyed its wildlife and laid waste to its most prescious resources. These practices were not only tolerated but encouraged by a laisse faire government until the forest and conservationist movements were initiated by courageous and dedicated citizens, who in the face of accusation by powerful vested interests, tantamount to treason, struggled and won the fight to carry out programs designed to protect America* s natural resources and thereby, America* s future. Significant to the evolution of regional planning and the com prehensive nature of its process, was the emergence of the inter relationships between its elements. For those who pursued the goal of water conservation discovered the relationships of water to soil, water to forest, water to grassland, water to wildlife, and all of these to each other. Those who concentrated on forest conservation discovered similar relationships, and those who were concerned 2 60 about recreational spaces and wilderness areas and resources ex perienced similar enlightenment. Therefore, the economies of multi-purpose and multi-use and the principle of inter-relationships between resource elements of region were established out of the conservation movement, whether it focused on wildlife, fisheries, water, soil or forest, and natural resources were established as one of the major elements of region with their interrelationships a prin ciple of regional planning. By the late 1890* s and the early 1900* s when forty per cent of Americans population lived in the cities and the art and science of city planning was growing in theory as well as incidence, and im ponderables in the form of problems related to expansion of the city resisted the best efforts at resolution, it began to be recognized that solution demanded a broader view. A quarter of a century later, a city planning which previously had focused upon civic center design and the "city beautiful, " saw expansion of its concern to city region, and the evolution of its development to metropolitan planning. The Plan of New York and Its Environs exemplifies that stage in the de velopment of regional planning, for its initial studies and its re sultant elements of region for planning purposes dealt not merely with population, transit and traffic, industries, residential areas, recreational areas, commercial centers and economic conditions, 9 but with the relationships between them. Another, The Philadelphia ^R. L. Duff us, "Remaking New York To Order," Survey (Vol. LXni, November 1, 1929), p. 142-147. 261 Tri-State Plan, also recognized those relationships, as well as the interrelations between cities within the region as an important aspect of regional planning. It further, as part and parcel of its principles, stipulated that all elements of the plan are interrelated and together represent the whole — a chief function of regional planning being the co-ordination of all development problems as opposed to the special ized approach, and finally recognized the existence of a great body of information available which only needed correlation and intelligent application to planned development of cities and regions, and that not the least of the present difficulties lay in the failure to interpret and apply the vast fund of scientific knowledge to the control and building of man’s physical environment. ^ ^ The theorists were also at work and Andrew Wright Crawford set forth the nature of the regional planner as well as regional plan ning, listed its elements, cited their relationships and projected cul tural advancement as the purpose of planning. ^ ^ Lewis Mumford was, of course, one of the original inter-relationists, and a protagonist for the comprehensive approach as well. In 1927 he published a tirade against improper use of land, scored the exploiters who raped the forests, understood and set forth regional elements and their re - ^^Black, "Theory of Planning the Region . . . , " City Plan ning, Vol. VI (July, 1930), p. 185-198. ^ ^Andrew Wright Crawford, "Regional Planning in a New Light, " The American Magazine of Art , Vol. XVIII (February, 1927), p. 70-75. 2 6 2 lationships, and tied in population density, economic factors and cul- 12 tural goals as well. Having surveyed the progress and status of city planning, George B. Ford declared the need of a "next step" in city planning, and among his series of conclusions, representing specifications of that "next step, " he asserted that all projects within any city in the region that affected any other regional community should have the approval of a regional planning commission prior to their construction; that a way of controlling and directing the deve lopment of the whole contributary region should be developed; and that quantitative and qualitative analysis of all regional elements should be undertaken on a scientific basis to facilitate co-ordination 13 of all regional elements that affect.more than one community. Benton Mac Kaye, early classical regionalist was well aware of the comprehensiveness of regional planning vital to the development of interrelated regional elements and also keenly sensitive to the dyna mics of the region. His natural resource approach to regional plan ning, his concern for resource conservation, his dual concept of highway le s s towns and townie ss highways, and his attention to the urban cultural complex, all acknowledged the comprehensiveness of 14 regional planning and the interrelationships between its elements. 12 Lewis Mumford, "Regionalism and Irregionalism, " Sociological Review, Vol. XVIV (October, 1927), p. 277-288. 13 George B. Ford, "Regional and Metropolitan Planning," American City (June, 1923), p. 614. ^^Benton MacKaye, "Tennessee, Seed of A National Plan, " Survey Graphic, Vol. XXII, No. 5 (May, 1933), p. 251-254. 263 There were, of course, many others, but enough have been cited to confirm the case for the comprehensiveness of regional planning and the interrelationships between its elements that are vital if regional plans are to be of value in directing the course of region. During the 1930*s when the nation suffered its most serious of a series of depressions. The Tennessee Valley Authority, the National Resources Board and the various programs of the New Deal elevated regional planning to its next level of development and in the process, expanded the scope of regional planning, the number of regional planning elements and the perception of the complexities of the interrelationships between them. Here, resources on a regional scale were brought into focus as the major concern of regional plan ning. Here, environment as a whole was projected as the planning region, with each condition studied in relation to other conditions, and dynamics was discovered to be the nature of the region, inter relation between its elements the principle, and interaction and change was considered the norm in a dynamic ecology. The case of the Tennessee Valley Authority, which was ori ginally conceived as a vast regional planning project, became an effort toward development and conservation of human as well as natural resources and was pre-eminently successful in controlling mighty rivers, producing cheap electric power, promoting the deve lopment of profitable farms and businesses, and in the process ex panding the freedoms and opportunities of a large population. Al though TVA’s original performance was regional planning in the best sense, it deteriorated much below this, when as Caudill, in his 26 4 Night Comes to the Cumberland observed, . . the TVA, mighty benefactor of the Tennessee Valley has become a gigantic co-partner in the destruction of the Cumberland Plateau. Only strip and auger mining can produce fuel cheaply enough to satisfy the TV A. These circumstances are sustaining an industrial tiger which is devouring the Cumberland Plateau and the Southern coal fields in general. " This, of course, represented the erosion of a great multiple-purpose organization which became trapped into a single resource exploitation and the economic and social costs have been enormous. So, the les son that TVA taught for regional planning at its peak, as well as in its eroded form is clear. The multi-purpose nature of regional planning is its essence, the relationships between its elements in escapable, its comprehensiveness inherent in its meaning and single resource exploitation its antithesis. The natural and man**made en vironment is replete with examples of the disastrous effects of single-purpose resource exploitation. In the natural environment, there is the lumberman who, ignoring the principles of sustained yield for renewable forest resources denudes the land, destroying its natural cover and in the process lowering the watershed, depleting the reproductive powers of the soil and unleashing the destructive onslaught of uncontrolled flood waters. There is the sub-marginal farmer, struggling to eke out a living from sub-marginal land, bankrupting the land and himself and finally succumbing with his numerous kind to the governmental dole, depleting the nation as well. There is the industry which pollutes soil, air and water through single resource exploitation such as the paper mill, which 265 pollutes the river with its acid rich effluent and finds it "economically more feasible" to relocate and continue his crime elsewhere than as sume the costs of correcting the offense as required by local law. There is finally, the municipality whose efforts to solve the trans portation and traffic problem center upon expressways as an answer to the need of a teeming population to communicate and is frustrated by imponderables that do not yield to a single purpose approach, which neglects other vital elements and factors that must be ac counted for in arriving at an effective and more lasting solution. The relationships here are self-evident, but it should be pointed out that there exists a further relationship, which has to do with human life. The concern here is that of the direct relationship between wasted natural resources to damaged and impoverished human life. The logic here is related to the fact that contempt for conservation of earth, water and air is demonstrative of contempt for human life, since the pre-condition for man*s sustenance and the continuity of habitation on this planet is the proper use and wise conservation of its natural resources. The depression, as previously indicated spawned effects as well as made contributions to regional planning, and in this vein one of the most significant was the integration of the conservation and development of both human and natural resources join in the same program. Therefore, New Deal programs, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps were established and conservation of human and natural resources joined and planning with humanity as its central concern emerged, although weakly, as a principle of planning, finally including in its growing comprehensiveness the most important 266 element that is of concern to planning, and the purpose of the entire process as well. Regional Planning Procedure : The Scientific Method Many works have been written on the scientific method, and have emerged out of attempts in the physical as well as the social sciences to develop a methodology which would yield the facts re quired to develop further a known concept or to create a new system or machine. The scientific method is essentially a logical process of thinking that reflects specialized techniques and perspectives in the various sciences which do however share in common the basic principles of the method. It embraces objective inquiry and rational experiment, has vital utility based upon the intelligence it reveals through methodical investigation, and its acid test is its ability through analysis and synthesis to project accurate predictions of future behavior and events. It is characteristic of science that what one accomplishes today is eclipsed by new developments within a generation or less. Thus, the nature of science is continual ad vancement based upon the progress made by others, which neces sitate application and reapplication of the method to ever expanding scientific accomplishment, which raises new questions, creates new problems, and thereby exhibits a life of its own and expresses a continuous process of development. Science is further characterized by two major orientations : (1) the generalized or comprehensive, which recognizes science as singular, encompassing all its branches and their relationships to each other, analysis of which would ad 267 vance the vast frontier of science in the generalized sense; and (2) the incremental or specialized, which, vital to the advancement of the frontier of all science, permits its isolated practicloner an un derstanding of a single element alone. Though the latter is by far the most pursued, the former could conceivably advance science 100 years in the next ten if properly pursued. Both orientations require supposition, presupposition, pre diction, imagination, interpretation and value schemata. Both en tail the search for facts that through synthesis will yield the greater knowledge necessary for invention of new methods, new systems, new machines, new technology, and new science. In application, science proceeds from observations, imagination, and philosophy, which yields supposition, and presupposition that may be tested by rational experiment, facilitated by facts gained from research which clarifies by analysis the problem and facilitates by synthesis possible courses of action, which may themselves be subjected to evaluation for the purpose of making decisions. This process is commonly referred to as the scientific method, and may be more clearly set forth in the following stages: (1) formulation of a working hypothesis, the first stage, gives direction to the inquiry, delimits the necessary elements, facts, relationships, and determines forces and factors involved; (2) research and analysis, secures the know ledge, both qualitative and quantative which represent verifiable interrelated facts, which upon analysis yield variables, relation ships, conditions and the qualities of all these for the purpose of arriving at scientific generalizations; (3) synthesis, seeks through 268 combination or union of separate elements in their quantitative as well as qualitative degrees resulting from analysis of comprehen sive sets of generalizations based on adequate specific analyses to construct a conceptualization of the whole and the relationships of its elements that facilitate efficient function, elevate existing con ditions, enhance existing systems, or renew old or create new en vironment, which resolves or abolishes those problems natural to the old; (4) scientific generalization and concept formulation, the fourth stage is the development of concepts and the establishment of standardized definitions that will insure correct interpretation of concepts. This facilitates too, the sequences, principles and cau sation underlying function, relationships, problems, and promotes the development and extension of theory, which may be tested to establish within significant spatial scales and time dimensions the scientific laws which apply as well as the basis for projection which yield reliable predictions of future events upon which valid alter natives may be determined; and (5) conclusions and recommendations, the final stage of the scientific method is the logical end of the cycle, which thereafter repeats itself and thereby facilitates the continuous development of science. Here, the alternatives yielded through syn thesis are evaluated on a basis of projected effects and permit the establishment of criteria for valid decisions as well as a scientific structure within which meaningful solutions may be formulated. Regional planning as a science has reflected the scientific method in application from its inception. Drawing heavily upon the practices and principles which emerged out of city planning, and 269 drawing too from the works of theoreticians in sociology, geography, history, economics, political science and the cultural philosophies which attempt to interpret these sciences, it early established as imperitive to its plans, the facts yielded by survey and research. This story is told in the presidential address to the Regional Survey Section of the South Eastern Union of Scientific Societies and later published by the South Eastern Naturalist and Antiquary for 1928, by C. C. Fagg, and entitled The History of The Regional Survey Move ment. In 1930 Fagg in collaboration with G. E. Hutchins published 1 5 the first text book on regional surveying. It is to be expected that those who played active roles in the evolution of regional planning would develop procedures that would facilitate the development of plans and in their broader concern for others attempting the same goals, prepare works which would illuminate those procedures. That those procedures mirrored the logical steps of the scientific method outlined above, is tribute to the recognition of the need for such an approach and helps in large measure to establish regional planning as a science as well as an art. One such planner was Thomas Adams, the Director of Flans and Surveys for The Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs . His work with the regional plan documented the scientific method as proper approach, in that of the ten volumes of the report, eight came under the title of "Regional Survey of New York and its Environs, " 15 C. C . F a g g and G. E . H u t c h i n s , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n to R e g i o n a l Surveying, 193 0. 270 and only two volumes, designated "The Regional Plan of New York and its Environs. " The titles of the volumes representing "The Regional Survey," were as follows : Volume I, "Major Economic Factors in Metropolitan Growth and Arrangement, " Volume II, "Popu lation, Land Values and Government," Volume III, "Highway Traf fic," Volumes IV and V, "Recreation," Volume VI, "Buildings: Their Uses and Spaces About Them," Volume VII, "Neighborhood and Com munity Planning, and Volume VIII, "Physical Conditions and Public Services, " The titles of volumes representing the Regional Plan were as follows : Volume I, "The Graphic Regional Plan, " and Volume II, "The Building of the City, Lewis Mumford acknowledged the validity of the scientific method in 1927, when he wrote : The Regional Survey is now widely accepted and practised, especially in England and America, as the necessary means of diagnosing urban and rural ills before treating them. It is also coming into vogue amongst teachers and education ists as an open-air training in observation, and as a means of unifying the dispersive studies of the modern curriculum. But, everywhere, as yet, such surveys, alike in the hands of teachers and City and Regional Planners, tend to be de fective in systematic character, and consequently somewhat arid in fruition, for the reason that the sociological theory of which they are the method, is inadequately (if at all) grasped. And indeed, until specialised institutes of obser vation and research (in continuity and development of Geddes’ experimental initiative, the Outlook Tower, Edin burgh), come to be regarded as an essential part of the equipment for social science. Regional Surveys, whether of geographers, sociologists, or civic and rural planners, will remain empirical, and, so far ineffective. In other words. Regional Surveys can only yield data for action. ^^Robert W. deF or est, "The City Livable," Survey, Vol. LXUI, (November 1, 1929), p. 141. 271 when, by means of the Laboratory Method, they lead on to Regional Service. And the laboratory method implies, of course, that the city and its region (i.e. town and country) be brought thoroughly within its range. In 1943 L, B. Escritt published his outline for planning and set forth the procedures for planning under Part I, which was titled "Scienti fic Planning. Many other regional plans such as those outlined in the pro ceeding section on Major Regional Elements, Functions, Problems, document the scientific method as approach to regional planning, as well as those metropolitan regional studies which took the same ap proach. The process throughout embraces regionalism as the science of region, which employes all those lesser sciences in its function of delimiting and analyzing the region. This pursuit by such eminent regionalists from Kropotkin through Geddes to the late Howard W, Odum, has today been transformed from "regionalism, " a term related to the era of the 1930' s and its vogue of "isms, " to the term used today, "regional science. " The Constitution of the Re gional Science Association sets forth its objectives as being the ad vancement of regional analysis and related spatial and areal studies, foster exchange of ideas and promote studies focusing on the region and utilizing tools, methods, and theoretical frameworks specifically designed for regional analysis as well as concepts, procedures, and 17 Lewis Mumford, "The Theory and Practice of Regionalism, Sociological Review, Vol. XX (November, 1927), p. 29-30. 18 Escritt, L. B., Regional Planning : An Outline of the Scien tific Data Relating to Planning in Great Britain (New York: W. W. Norton & Co. , Inc. , 1^43). 27 2 analytical techniques of the various social and other sciences. Highly technical, the Regional Science Association is an international asso ciation concerned with the scientific analysis of regional phenomena rather than actual planning. Their techniques and methods, however represent the maturation of the scientific method as it relates to re gional planning, and since the method of an art determines whether it is or is not a science, the establishment of an association entirely de voted to the scientific study of the region, makes the final case for regional planning as art and as science. Incentives And Objectives of Regional Planning Numerous incentives and objectives exist for regional planning, some urgent and compelling, as those related to destructive floods such as that of the Mississippi River this year that caused more than $200 million property damage, others long term, but necessary, such as the geometric increases in population that demand rational plan ning on a long term basis if desirable standards of living are to be available for these ever-increasing millions. The history of regional planning reveals many incentives and numerous objectives as well for its institution, but a limited number of major examples occur which are as follows: (1) the continuous growth of population and its ten dency to concentrate in metropolitan regions which create a con tinually increasing complexity of society, demanding a constantly ex panding service of government which requires aid in the problems of control which disregard jurisdictional boundaries. This generalized major incentive has related to it the numerous political, economic, social, health and other problems, regional in nature, that demand a 273 regional approach for their solution; (2) resource development and conservation programs are now and were recognized early in their application to be essentially regional, that is the planning and exe cution of conservation programs and resource development were meaningless, except in a regional context; (3) social and economic planning as pursued by the federal government during the depression demanded a regional approach as was obvious in the administrative organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps, the National Re covery Administration, the National Youth Administration, the Works Projects Administration and other programs designed to defeat the depression and promote economic growth; (4) the proliferation of jurisdictions in metropolitan areas which continue to demand co operation for solving numerous problems regional in nature; (5) the continuing fear of the ever expanding leviathan in Washington, D. C. and the threat that many consider its expansion to represent that cause some to view the regional approach superior to the control of a remote government and less costly as well, in terms of taxation; (6) the explosion of the use of the automobile as a major means of transportation, which requires vast systems of expressways to ac comodate their ever increasing numbers and that physically cut across numerous jurisdictions, demanding a regional and often a state and national approach to develop adequate and comprehensive systems; (7) large scale physical development, such as the St. Law rence Seaway, which require agreement between states and in the instant case, between nations and the impact of such developments that demand a regional approach, if the related problems they evoke 2 7 4 are to be resolved; (8) the growth and expansion of the metropolis, which as previously indicated expands across the legal boundaries of two or three states in more than twenty five instances; (9) the in creasing intensity of regional consciousness, promoted by the ex pansion of socio-economic and political elements of region, which by increase of communication, help define the region; (10) the policy of the federal government in the establishment of administrative regions to efficiently implement programs regional in nature; (11) the pro motion of regional planning on the part of sociologically oriented regionalists, who like Howard W. Odum considered regionalism as a process involving analysis of regional problems and the formulation and implementation of programs designed to solve them (12) the pro motion of regionalism by geographers such as Blanchard of Grenoble, Colby of Chicago, and Bowman of Johns Hopkins, whose studies en courage a regional approach to solving regional problems; and (13) and city planners generally and regional planners specifically, who early recognized the necessity of solving certain problems on a re gional basis. It follows that the objectives of regional planning are directly related to the solving of problems of region. The problems of region are a consequence of the problems of its elements and the dynamic relalionships between them. The major element of region is the concentration of people in communities and the objective associated with this element is concerned with the coordinated development of healthy, thriving individual communities in relation to a family of other communities which share in and must be protected from the 27 5 the negative physiographic characteristics of region. Further, there is a communicational relationship which exists between the com munities of region that require the facilities necessary to permit the establishment of new and the maintenance of existing relationships be tween elements of region. Primary resources and their development are a second objective of regional planning. Their incidence, quality and quantity are the concern of regional planning as well as their pro per use and effective conservation. Secondary resources, as well are elements of region that provoke regional problems, their main tenance for effective and continuing service and function are the ob jective of regional planning as is their distribution throughout the region. Representing as they do the use of land manifested in in dustrial, commercial, recreational, residential, educational and other uses of the land, they represent the concern to which traditional regional planning has addressed itself. The functional problems of region evoke functional objectives and encompass provision of ade quate water supply, effective waste disposal, health and sanitation facilities, and those other public works which provide utilities vital for the maintenance of life in the region. Organization For Regional Planning Constitutionally, the sovereignty of the American people resides in the several States, whose boundaries, as have been pre viously indicated, do not correspond to any feasible delimitations based upon criteria related to social, economic, physiographic or other realities which define areas suitable for planning. History re 276 cords the numerous instances in which the joint action of States was requisite for constructive action, and the use of many devices for obtaining cooperation. Interstate co-operation began with the creation of the Federal Government, which was simply the need for organi zation of the states to do collectively, that which they could not ef fectively accomplish separately. Today, however, the great fear of a leviathan which dominates to many aspects of local and state re sponsibility, if even by default, permeates the basic resistance to "federal intervention, " which is commonly referred to as "states rights. " This position by state and local authorities gave early birth to the use of the interstate compact as a device for retaining state powers and exercising state perogatives. The population growth, together with concomitant economic growth and expansion and the problems it creates has fostered an increasing need for planning, resource conservation and large-scale engineering development which often ignores local and state boundaries. A comprehensive survey would reveal the many forms of organization, temporary and permanent, that have been created to effect implementation of pro grams designed to solve problems that transcend jurisdictional boundaries. There have been annexations to existing cities and city- city and city-county mergers. There have been districts and co operating commis sions formed by contiguous cities to solve single function problems that neither could resolve alone. There have been consolidations, special districts, incorporations, and authorities which have saturated the region with governmental units that often overlap in the areas of their jurisdiction as well as the areas of 27 7 their authority. Add to this the basic forms of local government and the complexity of its structure with its bureaus, departments, units, administrative offices, service arms, divisions, ad infinitum and a perspective complex in nature and vast in extent emerges. Add to this the county and its complex structure and superimpose upon all this the federal government and its numerous regional administrative offices and a picture of utter confusion is complete. Any proposal therefore to even suggest the addition of another level of government in this complex picture would appear absurd, but upon closer look might represent a possible simplification of the organizational struc ture of region and serve to render that organization less costly and more efficient. Planning theorists and practictioners have long felt the need of effective organization to carry out the responsibilities of regional scope. It is possible to tell the story of regional planning in their efforts, both theoretical and practical to create such organi zation. T. H, Reed early recognized the need for a regional autho rity to assume responsibility for the solution to regional problems and proposed a regional unit capable of handling planning and zoning, forest and shoreline development and conservation, transportation and traffic, water supply and electric power, drainage and aspects of police, health and safety. He proposed a council of nine, financed by special assessment and state appropriation to equalize local bur dens. He concluded that if it is worthwhile to plan for streets and parks, it is worthwhile to plan for instutions of government to carry them out, and asserted, ". . . specialists seem to take for granted everything outside their specialty. It will not do to assume arterial 27 8 1 9 highways must be planned, but government just happens, " Con vinced that some form of regional government was necessary for the metropolis, he further asserted, . . many attempts have been made at organization, annexation has been proposed, interposition by some department of state or federal government, ad hoc autho rities," and dismissed them all as being no thorough or permanent solution. He proposed a new local government unit, the Region, whose size should vary with conditions, whose authority should be centered upon some relatively large urban community, and whose territory should include the socially and economically dependent area dependent upon the central community with regard for the historic 20 origins and sentimental tie s. In the following year Reed proposed a "Regional Government of Limited Powers, " made up of a council of from nine to twenty-five members elected at large by proportional representation or by districts with administrative functions entrusted to a professional manager, to assume responsibility for those pro- 2 1 blems with which local government is inadequate to deal. Although commissioned by the Russell Sage Foundation to develop the Plan of New York and its Environs, Thomas Adams was also concerned ^^T. H. Reed, "How Shall the Planned Region Be Governed?" Am eric an C it y (July, 1925), p. 20, 7 O T. H. Reed, "Region, A New Governmental Unit: The Problem of Metropolitan Areas, " National Municipal Review (Vol. XIV, July, 1925), p. 417-23. ^^T. H. Reed, "What Government Should a Region Have?" National Municipal Review (Vol. XV, February, 1926), p. 92-99. 2 7 9 about implementation of regional plans, but recommended co-operation between local government authorities in regional planning assisted by advisory agencies established by the various states as appropriate 22 and adequate organization. Rowland A. Egger, political scientist at Princeton University added his thought on organization for regional planning: . . ten years ago Dr. Maxey launched his polemic against government disintegration of metropolitan areas, . . . fif teen years ago the first regional charter in the United States was drafted. The Alameda County Charter of 1916 (drafted by Dr. Reed at the citizen's organization request--it was not adopted as published in American Political Science Review Vol. XXIII, p. 124, February, 1929), . . . it has been five years since Prof. T. H. Reed, the protagonist of regionalism in the United States made the initial statement of the case for regional government (The Region A New Governmental Unit) . . . twelve months ago Allegheny County Pennsylvania re jected a charter setting up regional government for her metropolitan area--but regional planning inspired by Burn ham* s *make no little plans—they have no magic . . . * has continued apace. Egger concluded that the recent act of the New Jersey Legislature, An Act Sub-dividing the State of New Jersey Into Regional Districts for Governmental Purposes incorporated these districts as bodies politic and corporate, provided for their government and granted and defined the powers thereof. Each district is governed by district district commissions composed of one member from each district or county in the region, popularly elected, they serve four year 22 Thomas Adams, "Regional Planning In Relation to Public Administration," National Municipal Review (Vol. XV, January, 1926), p. 35-42. 23 Rowland A. Egger, "A New Proposal for Regional Govern ment and Planning, " American City (August, 1930), p. 115-16. 280 over lapping terms. Each, commissioner receives $5,000 annually plus expenses, with the chairman receiving $1, 000 additionally. A technically trained director and staff carries out substantive admin- 24 istration functions and is appointed by the Commission. The prin ciple here, as further clarified by Egger was the vital necessity for subdividing the State into regional incorporations vested with juris dictional powers over an area corresponding in size with the extent of the regional need for improvements and public works. That such organization was necessary for securing the major improvements which are the principle reason for annexation or consolidation, which would in effect destroy the major arguments in favor of consolidation and relieve smaller municipalities of the fear of being forcibly annexed. The Director of the Regional Plan Association, George B. Ford commented that the measure should prove of utmost importance in the realization of a regional plan, and that special problems such as reclamation, flood control, water supply, sewerage disposal and rapid transit could now be efficiently carried out. Burdette G. Lewis presented his case for regionalism in 1933 when he stated that: The American system of government originally devised for a small homogeneous nation has been stretched out of pro portion. Its duplication and repetitious structure and of ficials have made it expensive and burdensome. Compare : at the time of independence, the United States population of four million was concentrated along the Atlantic in a strip of land 250 miles wide. Since 17 90, the continental area of the United States increased 342 per cent, not in cluding Alaska, the population 3,120 per cent, yet we ^^Egger, "A New Proposal . . . , " p. 116. 281 cling to the original structure of government only adding to it to meet the needs of half a continent of many races. . . .if we were starting from scratch it would seem de sirable to use natural, rather than arbitrary boundaries — but state boundaries exist, and existing sovereignty de mands its retention--the solution--Regionalism, the or ganized cooperation between states. . . . Regionalism-- the natural medium between uncontrolled state individua lism and complete centralization of administration in Washington. The latter is being favored less and less and is a poor structure to hang regional development of government powers upon, because experience proves it unresponsive to regional and local interests and also in effective. State boundaries often interfere with economic and social development just as unnatural attempts to plant regionalism upon the federal government. Lack of uniform legislation in states also handicaps business ventures. Economy in government operation is the strongest argu ment for regionalism. The compact clause of the Consti tution permits regional agreements between the states, in fact, the cooperation between the United Colonies of New England founded in l643 led directly to the Constitution of the United States in 1789. Since that time 53 treaties regional in character have been established between two or more states, eleven others have been agreed upon and though not ratified, have approval of the U. S. Supreme Court and are therefore effective by implication. In the balance of the article Lewis cited many examples of the regional application of the compact clause, proposed six regional areas for dividing the nation, and suggested regional councils as the administrative organization, regional courts of appeal as the juridi cal system, rotation of the seat of government from one state to the next annually, with the Governor of the host state acting as chairman and finally a third house of Congress composed of the Regional Councils which would act as an advisory body to the National Congress thereby eliminating lobbies, which would probably then direct their pressures upon regional councils. 25 Burdette G. Lewis, "Regionalism, A Plan for Uniting the States More Effectively," ; Forum (March, sup 9, May, 1933), p. 8 9 and 13 6 — 141. 2 8 2 Selden Cowles Menefee proposed regional districts composed of counties, within the state, and seeing the region as a constellation of communities with similar activities and resources, considered them a logical basis for political administration. He assumed that such consolidation would yield the necessary larger local units of government necessary to assume responsibility for regional problems. He reasoned upon his own investigation of the facts that since the largest counties have much lower per capita cost of county govern ment despite added functions, there is an obvious need for reduction in the number of counties. He recommended a restructuring of governmental responsibilities with the region assuming some powers of the state and some of the local government, and thereby economies and efficiencies resulting from coordination of all problems regional 2 6 in nature would accrue to the people of the region. William Bennett Munro, professor of history and government at Carnegie Institute of Technology was also a protagonist for re gional government and in a National Broadcasting Company address on their "You and Your Government Series, " presented the following questions and made the following statements : Has the United States become too big for its existing machinery of government? The United States is nearly as large as the entire continent of Europe, Italy, smaller than the single state of California, Texas larger than France and England, Indiana larger than Austria, Belgium the size of Maryland. The old arrangements of the 48 states ineffective, additional machinery is necessary. 2 6 Selden Cowles Menefee, Plan For Regional Administrative Districts in the State of Washington (Seattle: University of Washing ton Pr e s s, 195 5)1 283 The founding fathers saw only state and national problems, the nation was predominantly agricultural with small in dustrial concerns and small interstate commerce and transportation. There were no great corporations, no sys tems of banking, no large cities. Today, many problems are too big for individual states, yet not within the cons titutional powers of the federal government. The threat of further extension of federal power may lead to authority over many things that do not lend themselves readily to national regulation. States, while attempting to meet problems economic and social that ramify beyond state boundaries are ineffective, state regulation breaks down, and people call for federal regulation. People will not suffer continued injustice nor tolerate economic inequities in the name of states rights or division of powers. . . . administrative regionalization is publicly known and ac cepted, but the great regions require more than mere ad ministrative units of the federal government—they should have their own power and function just as states have, and moreover should lighten the present responsibilities of federal government. . • .the relationship of the federal government to nine or ten regional governments instead of 48 state legislatures would greatly simplify the entire ad ministrative process. . . . regional problems are evident to everyone — they are too big for a single state and not big enough for national attention. Regional governments can handle them. Many others addressed themselves to the problem of organi zation for the implementation of regional plans to solve regional pro blems, but only the following will be listed to supplement the above and document the concern of those who struggled with regional pro blems without adequate organization to implement plans and policies developed to solve them. (1) T. A. Logue, "Regional Machinery for Regional Planning" State Government, (Vol. X, June, 1937), p. 109-10. (2) Elwyn A. Mauck, "Interregional Relations," Annals of the American Academy, (Vol. 209, January, 1940), pl[ 124-Z91 27 William Bennett Munro, "Regional Governments for Regional Problems," Vital Speeches (July 1, 1936), p. 626-627. 284 (3) William Anderson, The Nation and the States, Rivals or Partners (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 4955). (4) American City, Metropolitan Government That Works (Vol. 74, Septemberÿ 195 9), p. T. Article cites growth of metropolitan government in Seattle Metropolitan Region, which is step by step being endowed with responsibilities found regional in nature. Although the people vetoed metro politan government because they wanted "government they could reach, " they bought regional sanitation, sewerage dis posal and drainage, and other functions and services are being added as the need arises. (5) American City, Unique Planning Organization Proposed for Counties (Vol. 72% April, 1957), p "^ 207. (6) Edward C, Banfield, 'The Politics of Metropolitan Area Organization, " Midwest Journal of Political Science (May, 1957),p. 77-91. (7) Alfred Bettman, "Legal and Practical Difficulties in Carrying Out Regional Plans, " City and Regional Planning Papers, A. C, Comey, ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University P re ss, 1946). Cognizant of the difficult obstacles to the im plementation of regional planning due to the fact that two or more governmental bodies always exist in a region, Bettman stated that, "effective regional planning can be brought about only through a regional planning agency and the execution of the plan only through legislative and executive authority covering the region. The practical political principle that cannot be ignored is that there can be no planning without representation. " (8) Ledyard T, Blake man and Robert D. Carpenter, "Why Development Area Councils : In The Detroit Region Munici palities Team Up for Joint Planning, " American City (Vol. 67, August, 1952), p. 102-104. (9) Arthur W, Bromage, Political Representation in Metro politan Agencies (Ann Arbor : Institute of Public Adminis- tration. University of Michigan, 1962). (10) Verney V. Douglas, "The Great City: the Case for Metro- political Theory," Town Planning Review (Vol. 26, p. 171-82, October, 1955). (11) Webb S. E iser, Mastery of the Metropolis (Englewood- Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc. , 1962). 285 (12) Victor Jones, Metropolitan Government (Chicago: Uni versity of Chicago Press, 1942). (13) Jerry Landauer, "Shaping the Cities, Administration's Call for 'Metro' Planning Sparks a Controversy, " Wall Street Journal, (February 17, 1965). (14) Ronald Lippett, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change : A Comparative Study of Prin- ciples and Techniques^ ( New Vork: Har court, Brace & Co. , 1958). (15) Alpheus Thomas Mason, The States Rights Debate : Anti federalism and the Constitution (Englewood: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955). (16) Roscoe C. Martin, Metropolis in Transition: Local Government Adaptation to Changing Urban Needs (Washing ton: Housing and Home Finance Agency, September, 1963). (17) Howard W. Odum, In Search of the Regional Balance of America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1945). (18) V. Ostrum, "Organization of Government in Metropo litan Areas, A Theoretical Inquiry, " American Political Science Review (Vol. 55, December, 1961), p. 831-42. (19) Charles H. Prichett, "Organization for Regional Plan ning, " Social Forces (Vol. 23, March, 1945), p. 387-394. (20) Public Administration Service, The Government of Metropolitan Miami, (Chicago, 1954). (21) David Rowlands , 'Government Cooperation Promotes Regional Planning," (Public Management (Vol. 43, April, i9 6 0), p. 8 1 . (22) Paul Studenski, "The Government of Metropolitan Areas in the United States," National Municipal League, New York, 1930. (23) Betty Tableman, Governmental Organization in Metro politan Areas (Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press, V W T ------------------- (24) U. S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Re lations, Alternative Approaches to Governmental Reorgani zation in Metropolitan Areas (Washington: U. S. Govt. Printing Office, June, 1962). 286 (25) U .S.., Congress, House, Committee on Government Operations, Governmental Structure, Organization and Planning in Metropolitan Areas, 87th Cong. , 1st Ses s. , 1961. (26) Robert C. Wood, 1400 Governments : the Political Economy of the New York Metropolitan Region (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961). (27) "Proposals for the Orgcunization and Operation of Regional Councils in Metropolitan Areas, " American City (June, 1943), p. 7 9. In 1943 the American Society of Plan- ning Officials sponsored a Regional Council Contest. Ab stracts from the four winning submissions were published under the above title. The winning authors were Harvey F. Pinney, Ph. D. , Municipal Administrative Analyst, Organization Planning Division, Office of Price Adminis tration; O’Brien Boldt; Norman J. Gordon; and Frederick P. Clark and Charles McKim Norton, of the Regional Plan Association, Inc., New York. The foregoing clearly illustrate the historical and continuing problem of organization for planning both the region in general and that very special region, "the metropolis, " in particular. The more recent literature on the subject appears to illustrate a more compli cated problem than the classical literature of the 1920's and 1930* s, but a closer look would reveal the same problems that existed then, but on a larger scale. It would also appear that the plea of the classists for simplification of the intricate network of government in regions is still a valid one and would yield economies of scale and efficiencies of function that remain to plague the regional planner as imponderables in their continuing complexity. C H A P T E R V REGIONAL PLANNING A PERSPECTIVE BY PROJECTION Employing as a base the documentary history of regional plan ning and the evidence revealed by the two surveys, this Chapter will project a perspective of regional planning as it might develop in the foreseeable future. The history of this nation records the paradox of a continually increasing power over environment paralleled with in adequate application of that power to convert that environment to an effective surround conducive to the highest development of mankind. Therefore, our cities remain congested, our traffic is impossible, our municipal services and facilities inadequate, our water and air resources polluted, our landscape despoiled, our unemployment pro blem an anachronism, and continuing poverty and deprivation an anathema. These conditions are well documented in planning, socio logical and economic literature, and although progressive reduction in their extent and intensity is in some measure being accomplished, the percentage of change in proportion to the total condition is minor. As urban growth expands to the limits of the natural region, economic and social, physical and functional problems expand with that growth, and demand planning regional in scale to cope with them. Since these are continuing phenomena, it is reasonable that a planning methodo logy or process equal to the challenge they represent be projected. 287 288 This Chapter is oriented toward that objective, and views regional planning as a process as well as a methodology designed to eliminate environmental resistances and secure those priorities of progress which measure the advance of civilization. The preceeding history of regional planning illustrated its evolution as having been marked by several distinct stages. The first was the growth and incidence of city planning, promoted by the growth and development of the city. The two major effects of this stage were: (1) recognition of the existence of regional elements (sys tems of transportation and traffic which bind regional elements to gether, cities within the region, recreational facilities, industrial and commercial complexes, water supply and waste disposal systems, and systems of organization, presumably designed to facilitate the effective functioning of regional elements ; and (2) a methodology and an approach to planning, taken from city planning, but expanded and adapted to the requirements of regional planning. ^ The climax of the influence of city planning was reached when the growth of the city evolved into the complex city-region, or metropolis and the process of planning for its development was erroneously labeled "regional planning. " This stage saw the emergence of the "founders of regional planning. " Today, that process is identified as metropolitan planning. The second, was the emergence of resource conservation and use programs, which recognized the existence of renewable and non renewable resources, discovered the advantages of sustained yield. ^Supra, p. 6 8 - 9 9 . 289 and the economies of multiple-use. Conservation principles and ideas crystallized in the relationships between variable resource elements and the concept of regional ecology emerged to lend a new 2 and vital dimension to region. The climax of the influence of con servation was reached when during the depression of the 1930's the NYA, the CCC, and other similar agencies developed programs in which conservation of natural resources was joined with that of human resources. It was however, not until 1950 that concern for human resources in terms of their qualitative characteristics was expressed by an investigation of scale initiated by Dwight David Eisenhower at Columbia University in the form of the "Conservation of Human Resources Project. " In 1958, its director published a work 3 which set forth the findings and recommendations of the project. The work was based upon the principle that had been earlier affirmed by Adam Smith in his classic, "The Wealth of Nations, " that the key to a nation's wealth lies in the skill, dexterity and judgment with which its labor is generally applied. By the year 1957, the Area Man power Cuidebook was published by the Federal Covernment. This guidebook, now a periodical, presents background data, comparative statistics and summary labor market facts regarding the economic and manpower resources of 174 of the Nation's more active growth centers or metropolitan labor market areas. This publication and ^Supra, p. 100-113. 3 Eli Cinzberg, Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation (New York: Simon and Schusterl 1958). 290 others such as the Manpower Reports of the United States Labor De partment and the National Science Foundation followed, and a litera- 4 ture is developing on a basis of Adam Smith's affirmation. Since 1951, when the Ford Foundation established the National Manpower Council at Columbia University, a series of studies have been pub lished based upon the Smith principle and concerned with the training, skills, capacities, competances and creativeness of the American people — that is, with the quality of the manpower resources of the United States. Some of these are: Manpower Policies for a Demo cratic Society; Public Policies and Manpower Resources; Govern ment and Manpower; A Policy for Scientific and Professional Man power ; Education and Manpower ; Work in the Lives of Married Women; A Policy for Skilled Manpower; and Womanpower. These publications , national in scope, are often developed on a regional basis and confirm the principle that the wealth of a nation is in its people, and that they are that nation's most important resource, adding yet another dimension to regional planning and another stage to its development. The third stage of regional planning was marked by events which emerged from the depression of the 1930's. First among these was the creation of recovery agencies of the Federal Govern ment, established on a regional basis, such as the Civilian Conser- 4 U. S. Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, I%4); National Science Foundation, Scientists, Engineers and Technicians in the I960 ' s : Requirements and Supply, A Report Prepared by the U. SI ^Department of Labor for the National Science Foundation (Washington: Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1964). 291 vation Corps, the National Youth Administration and others as indi cated above, and which represented concern for human resources of the nation. The second was the establishment of the Tennessee Val ley Authority, which though not concerned with new tasks, was en trusted with regional planning responsibilities as a whole and dealt with them in terms of their relationships to each other. Although its history is marked by stormy controversy (there were forty-one law suits in its first five years of operation) it was a bold, imagi- 5 native comprehensive planning approach to a vast region. The con tribution of the TVA to regional planning is of great significance, and its major contributions may be summarized as follows: (1) it repre sented geographic unity and geographic logic. Although physically rooted in the valley, it operated through a decentralized adminis tration in steady contact with the population and every phase of its problems, (2) it used hydroelectric power as a key resource to de velop all other resources and thereby stimulated the entire Valley's agricultural and industrial development, (3) the TVA was an auto nomous authority and rightfully ignored, in the non-political field in which it acted the meaningless political boundaries long ago estab lished on the basis of entirely obsolete criteria, (4) TVA was based on the development of the human resources of the region, which was confirmed by its policy of fitting all its activities into existing trends, of preserving the continuity of local life and traditions by acting 5 K. S. Lomax, "The Tennessee Valley Authority: An Experiment in Regionalism," Nature (Vol. CLI, No. 383, May 22, 1943), p. 592. 292 through, the people themselves. The well-being of the population was not merely the measure of TVA's success, it was its condition, A free-enterprise society can make almost unlimited investments in capital goods, provided such investments conform to minimum re quirements for profit making. That same society can also produce an unlimited quantity of consumer goods, provided that society can purchase them. The TVA showed the way of enabling the region’s population to become consumers, thereby expanding the market of a potent economy and permitting the region itself to absorb the greater part of the increase of its own production, (5) TV A was a co-ordi nated comprehensive development of all the resources of the Tennes see Valley Region, It promoted development of all the resources of region as one entity based upon the realization that the resources of nature do not exist in a single-purpose vacuum, but rely upon a mul tiple-purpose approach, if economies of scale in resource develop ment are to be taken advantage of, and (6) its concern with resource conservation as well as development established the basic principle and the primary objective of regional planning. The history of the United States generally and the brief out line presented herein confirm the fact that every stage of its develop ment was marked by revolution against the human condition which de manded the changes necessary to effect improvement. These same stages witnessed the multiplication of population in urban concen trations where little effort was exerted to develop a surround con ducive to that population's qualitative growth. The evolution of many forms of organization as cited in the previous Chapter, both in 293 theory and in practice, marked attempts of men to develop a metho dology and create organization which would effect the establishment of the policies and the implementation of programs to solve the social, economic, political, and technological problems which were rapidly expanding to regional extent. History also records continuing revo lution against the wanton waste and ruthless exploitation of natural resources and the evolution of use and conservation programs to pro tect them and thereby augment the continuity of nation. Finally, his tory records social revolution coupled with the evolution of a more socially oriented ethic of an advancing civilization and a slowly ma turing culture, with limited and therefore impotent attempts to in tegrate the goals and objectives related to the revitalization of human resource development with programs developed for the use and con servation of natural resources. The evolutions and revolutions which are the tour de force of these trends had numerous by-products and produced many reactions. Chief among the reactions was the growth and incidence of regional planning as the major effort of scale to comprehend the problems and develop policies and programs de signed for their solution. A look at the daily news media confirms the fact that these trends continue, their intensities increase, and their social and physical base broadens. That base is now expanding to the physiographic limits of the natural region and revitalizing the importance of the classical region conceived by the planners of the National Resources Planning Board. Although there are those today, such as John Friedmann of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Harvard Joint Center for Urban Studies, who insists that. 294 Two interesting conclusions emerge from an examination of the pertinent literature": first, that the concept of the region as a natural unit capable of being defined unambiguously in space has been abandoned, and second, that as the concept of "region" has receded into the background of academic dis cussion, its place has been taken by the more neutral concept of "space, such literature also reveals that current human occupance patterns are expanding to the limits of the natural region and imply that a re gional solution or approach is vital if the problems they portend are to yield to a more lasting solution. We can therefore dismiss the al legations of the theoretician who can only detect "neutral space, " and is unaware of the complex diversities of terrestrial space with its unlimited forms, dimensions, physical and psychological climates, internal and external realities, public and private delimitations and the delimited spaces of villages, towns and cities that have created the need for metropolitan planning at one end of the scale of regional planning and national planning at the other. We recognize no insur mountable difficulties with region as to its delimitation, nor the need to linear ally delimit it, for we accept a zonal boundary as adequate and its nature as dynamic, having numerous dimensions of a physical, social, economic, political, physiographic, and psychological nature Friedman cites the following as "pertinent literature": Der went Whittlesey's "The Regional Concept and the Regional Method," in James E, Preston* s and Clarence F, Jones* American Geography: Inventory and Prospect (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1954); Harvey Perloff * s Regions, Resources and Economic Growth (Balti more: Johns Hopkins Press'^ 196Ü); and Walter Isard^ Regional Science, The Concept of Region and Regional Structure, Regional Science Association Papers and Proceedings, II, 1956, p. 13-26. ^John Friedman, "Regional Planning As A Field of Study, " Journal of the American Institute of Planners (Vol. XXIX, No. 3, August, 1963), 168-175, 295 and construe it to be a complex, dynamic entity which encompasses those problems related to human and natural resources which are ecologically interrelated* We further consider it to be the significant planning unit, for much of the effort of the city planner will be inef fectual, especially in such instances as transportation, metropolitan and area development, utilities and public works, air and water pol lution and water supply and sewerage disposal, if not proceeded by responsible regional planning. The Nature of Regional Planning Comprehensive in nature and concerned with dynamic en vironmental, technological, political, social, economic and psycho logical problems as they exist and change in time as well as place throughout the region, regional planning is best defined in terms of the problems it seeks to solve, its approaches to those problems and the relationships between them which it views to be as vital an aspect of reality as regional problems themselves. Its central con cern is the development and conservation of its resources and the qualitative progress of its population. It encompasses the elements of region, their growth and change, and the resulting spatial and functional relationships. Finally, it is oriented to the process in volved in formulating and clarifying social objectives by empathetical extrapolation, employing regional science techniques of search and research, analysis and synthesis and a projection of these goals in terms of primary and secondary resource needs to attain them. A philosophical approach could yield numerous categories of 296 region, which the foregoing history of regional planning adequately confirms; however, for the purpose of clarification, four major types of region, from an evolutionary standpoint may be identified: (1) pri mitive regions, or territories little affected by an equally primitive man, or undeveloped regions where natural resources are largely un exploited, its physical characteristics little explored, and human set tlement of a permanent nature non-existent; (2) frontier regions, or pioneer territories, which are natural areas where man and nature are associated, but without cultural antecedents relative to permanent human occupance, which may have mere outposts of civilization oc curring infrequently along transportation routes; (3) partially deve loped regions, which are territories characterized by forms of human culture manifested by lightly populated settlements where urbani zation and city development are in a stage of infancy; (4) developed regions, which are territories dominated by human culture, where natural and cultural elements are extensively and intensively asso ciated and in which evolutionary forces and sequential occupance have had significant impact, often leaving impress that plagues re development. In a developing nation, there may exist regions which fall into each of these categories, and which are, moreover, continually developing themselves, thereby in sum, lending strength and unity to that nation. Regional planning of the future will promote that strength and unity of nation and achieve qualitative cultural develop ment even beyond region by promoting constructive national inte gration by means of interregional adjustments, which a functional 297 national planning, based upon a regional analysis and synthesis, in corporating logical and factual regional differentials and distributions will complement. The planning process outlined below would be the same for each of these regions, regardless of state of evolution, with however, projected objectives directly related to the stage of development. The planning process of regional planning then, with region as base, will view its problems on a continuing basis in terms of its elements, the relationships between them, its resources and their development in terms of their relationship to elements and pro blems of region, and finally the interrelationships between problems, elements, and resources of region which it considers to be the es sential reality of the regional planning process, which facilitates the synthesis tantamount to the comprehensive perspective of the region upon which all responsible planning depends. It goes further and ex tends those relationships horizontally to include those realities (eco nomic, social, physiographic, political) of region which encompass lateral relevancies and vertically to include those realities of region that relate to public and private organization, both local and national. Regional planning also encompasses those relationships that extend beyond nation and relate to world patterns of resource endowment and resource flow, information exchange and cultural interchange, pat terns of need and communicative and regenerative processes. For the region is not only subject to those forces which relate it to other regions and the nation, but also to those bonds that tie it to the world at large. It is patent that region is not therefore, isolated, neither is it independent or self-sufficient, nor does it exist in a local or a 298 national vacuum, but is part of an international pattern of resource flows, scientific and technological development, political, economic and communicational integrators and an emergent international ethic (witness the increasing effects of newly independent nations of Asia and Africa, long dominated by imperialistic exploitation, upon which Western nations still depend for much of the resources that support their high standard of living — and that these nations are now deman ding their fair share of their own resources, thereby imposing a new ethic in the international relationships between nations), that both de termines the quality of its existence and shapes its potential for future development. With the above orientation as background, it is possible to present a "perspective of regional planning by projection. " Given the massive dynamics of a civilization and a world in rapid change as de scribed in Chapter I, it is rational to project a planning methodology based upon these dynamics that can not only grasp the patterns of change and the consequencies they imply, but project in terms of them an approach which will yield positive affects in terms of solutions to the attendent problems on a scale equal to their di mensions. It is also possible to project a regional planning process that incorporates a more effective application of our advanced tech nology to problems physical in nature that demand such approach for solution, as well as a broader application of existing scientific know ledge to expand more rapidly the developing technology. It is also possible to project a perspective of regional planning that compre hends the scale and intensity of the human and social revolutions 299 underway and integrates into its plans solutions to the problems re lated thereto which create revolt. It is possible to perceive a re gional planning of the future which comprehends an accelerating series of technologies and incorporates into its plans political, social, economic and physical affects that may result from their application thereby increasing the alternatives available for planned development of the physical environment. It is possible too, to project a regional planning which employs both mathematical and physical models to create environment and test it against patterns of living for the pur pose of determining sociological, psychological, and physical affects of environment upon the family, the group and the individual. It is possible to project a perspective of regional planning which is sup ported by effective organization to implement the policies and pro grams that it develops and create such organization within the spirit of constitutionally defined principles and in keeping with the highest standards of democratic principles, which should expand rather than limit the freedoms of all the people. It is further, possible to con ceive a regional planning which augments a vital balance between local and federal responsibilities for problems of a regional nature, now often ill served due to current fractionalized approaches. Finally, it is possible to envision an effective regional organization which through regional planning would assume responsibilities asso ciated with the formulation of policies and programs to solve pro blems that individual communities now struggle unsuccessfully, against massive imponderables of a regional nature. 300 In the light of these perspectives of regional planning of the future and of the imperitives which make such a projection necessary, regional planning of the future may be defined as planning by a legally constituted planning organization under the authority of a represen tative regionally organized government, of a natural region, to de velop and conserve its resources in terms of their interrelated im peritives for the purpose of advancing the welfare and security of its population, thereby to eliminate environmental resistances and secure those priorities of progress which measure the advance of civilization. Regional planning is not limited, as is city, county and local area or even state planning by the imposition of archaic, mean ingless (in terms of regional planning objectives) political boundaries, for these jurisdictional boundaries have only limited goals and can reach ultimate objectives only if planning within their limits is inte grated with the planning of the natural region, of which the local jurisdictions are elements. Regional planning which focuses upon the broad objectives of region previously outlined will approach those objectives in terms of the long range view and will pursue its goals free of extraneous incentives and pressures arising from exploitative vested interests ensuing either from public or private elements of region, especially when not representing the best interests of the region as a whole. The increase of old problems previously outlined associated with the continuation of the evolution of civilization and the intensifi cation of multiple revolutions related thereto, demand new approaches on old levels of organization and new organizational levels capable of 301 confronting regional realities as they now exist with respect to re gional elements and regional problems and the relationships between them. The pertinent planning level is the region, and the methodo logy vital to the implementation of regional objectives commences in regional planning and is effectuated through regional government, and the process illustrative of what regional planning of the future may become is described as outlined below. Regional planning of the future will as in the past employ the scientific method as the structure of its planning methodology. That method, as outlined in Chapter IV, employs five major stages: (1) the formulation of working hypotheses; (2) research and analysis; (3) synthesis; (4) scientific generalization and concept formulation; and (5) conclusions and recommendations. The foundation of this ap proach lies in the fact that regional planning is an art and a science. The history of regional planning and the survey herein lend adequate support to this assertion. The methodology outlined above confirms that fact with relation to the verity of regional planning as a science in terms of the first four stages, which are common to all sciences. The fifth stage, which is made possible by the fourth, comprises to gether with the fourth the "art" of regional planning. As an art, re gional planning is only as good as the science which facilitates its practice. Pervading the whole art and science of regional planning is a dynamic philosophy, founded upon principles and based upon laws which validate its scientific existence as a discipline which investi gates the facts and principles of reality and of human nature and con duct, to the end that necessary modifications may be effectuated to 302 enhance the qualitative advancement of civilization. Some of the major laws and principles of regional planning follow and further es tablish regional planning as a generalized discipline: (1) that region exists, and has physiographical, sociological, economic and resource characteristics which confirm that existence; (2) that the region con sists of several major elements, ecologically related, which in sum constitute the whole; (3) that functional realities of region exist and may be scientifically analyzed and modified to facilitate more ef ficient regional operation; (4) that the region is a natural planning unit, divisible into sub-regions which though they exhibit characteris tics of the generalized region in the larger sense, also exhibit sub regional characteristics, which distinguish them from other te rri tories within the region; (5) that within a given nation there is a logi cal number of regions that exist, so that in general there is a context within which the maximum number of factors for the largest number of objectives exhibit a relative composite homogeniety, to the end that the region is a practical, workable unit, susceptible of both de finition and utilization; (6) that the region is not a self-supporting en tity, independent, isolated or separate, but rather a constituent unit in an aggregate whole, with vitality because of its diversity, but es sentially an element of a larger social, political and economic whole ; (7) that the natural region as a planning unit recognizes no artificial or arbitrary jurisdictional boundaries, for its concerns do not re spect those boundaries, nor are its objectives limited by them. Al though regional planning of the future will be conducted under the authority of regional government, which will be representative of 303 local and state jurisdictions as major elements of the region, the pro blems with which it deals will be regional in scale and transcend superficial demarkations; (8) regional planning as a science recog nizes that principle which pervades science and nature alike and is tantamount to inevitable change. That law establishes the evolu tionary nature of regional planning as a discipline and thereby per mits its continuous development and further, frees the region from the limitations imposed by rigidly defined boundaries, which, as his tory clearly instructs us divide as well as unite, thereby lending dis advantage which must be overcome as well as advantages which may be converted to benefits. The next logical step in projecting a perspective of regional planning as it m.ay exist in the foreseeable future is recognition of the fact that a theory of regional planning will develop. Regional planning requires, like any other discipline, a philosophy based upon theory as well as principles, in order to establish unity, form a basis for ef fective planning education and lend direction to planning as a profes sion. The Scope of this study does not permit elaboration of this con tention nor of the theory of regional planning, but does require some word concerning the role that theory will play in regional planning of the future. Theory will first facilitate the development of general principles — a continuing pursuit which will add to the principles out lined above and thereby extend the frontiers of regional planning. Secondly, theory will augment abstraction of vital forces, factors, elements and realities, regional in nature which must be considered in developing comprehensive policy and physical plans for the deve 3 04 lopment of region. Third, theory will act as basic determinant of procedure and augment the development of productive methodologies tantamount to planning itself. Fourth, theory will play a dynamic role in identifying as well as evaluating alternatives projected from analysis and formulated through synthesis. Fifth, theory will be in dispensable to the development of assumptions and in formulating unifying concepts. Sixth, theory will facilitate the establishment of deciderata necessary for analysis, and the conceptualization neces sary for synthesis. Seventh, theory is vital to the function of pro jection and facilitates the calculation of relatively reliable prediction of feasible regional developments. And, finally, theory is imperitive in the development of design structure for testing purposes. Concommitant with the various roles of theory in regional planning, there are also types or categories of theory, sequentially applicable to regional research, regional analysis, regional synthesis and regional design. First, there is a category of theory which re lates to theory and/or theories of the regional pattern. These pre suppose the existance of physical regional patterns, social regional patterns, political regional patterns and economic regional patterns. Their analysis and synthesis illuminate regional realities which must be considered in any effort to develop policies and plans for regional development. Directly related to this category is theory associated g with location and space economy represented by the work of Isard. Walter Isard, Location and Space Economy; A General Theory Relating to Industrial Location, Market Areas, Land Use, Trade and Urban” ~STtructure (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , Ti^6). 30 5 Louis Lefeber's work was published two years later, but a much ear - 9 study was published by Hoover in 1948. Second, there is a category of regional theory related to resource development, dynamically ap proached in Harvey Perloff*s Regions, Resources and Economic Growth, published in I960, Regional resource utilization and conser vation theory constitutes another category and the theory of regional relativity still another. Theories of regional analysis, regional growth and change, regional ecology and inter-regional relationships will also be developed as pertinent to planning with region as planning unit. In addition to these categories of regional theory, regional planning theory is time oriented, comprehensive and dynamic. As a generalizing science and art, regional planning encom passes certain major concerns and has certain orientations which confirm its generalizing characteristics as well as designate its sub stantive interests. This step is vital to any science, for it specifies the areas of its concentration. These areas are outlined as follows : A Resource Oriented Regional Planning The initial concern of regional planning is resources, which recognizes two main categories of resources, but distinguishes be tween them in kind only, since secondary resources are essential for the development of primary resources. Primary resources need not be locally available for development to take place, but rely upon 9 Louis Lefeber, Allocation in Space (Amsterdam: North Hol land Publishing Co. , 1958; E. M I Hoover, The Location of Economic Activity (New York: McGraw-Hill Co. , 1948. 306 organization, skilled entrepreneurship, regional economics, and ef fective functional as well as service facilities within the region. Primary Resources. Those resources existing in nature and which include light, air, water, soil, minerals, forests, solar energy, forests and so forth are in general considered natural resources and exhibit a further classification in terms of (1) natural resources, (2) locational resources (climate, topography, etc.), and (3) the resource of geographical position, which includes existing as well as potential relationships between native resources and concentrations of popu lation within the region under study and neighboring regions. An ad ditional classification would include : (1) incr ement resources, or those which develop naturally to a state of equilibrium or climax and encompass organic soils, vegetation, animal life, organic fuel and the like, (2) limited resources, available in specific annual allot ments, including water (rainfall), solar energy, wind, etc. as modi fied by topography and by me so-climates, (3) irreplaceable or inert resources, which include inorganic soils, minerals, and mineral fuels, and (4) unlimited resources which are available in great abun dance, which include certain minerals and macro-nutrients. Secondary Resources. These resources, generally considered to be man's contribution include the following: (1) the skills of the popu lation labor force, (2) cultural and institutional resources (urban re sources, organizational resources, entrepreneurial resources (li quid capital), and capital resources (industrial plant, transportation facilities, energy or power resources, forestry, mining, etc.). Other categories of secondary resources might be classified as fol- 307 lows: (1) population distribution as an indicator of land value and land use, (2) population education and cultural levels as indicators of the potential of the people to progress and of its capacity to produce leadership, (3) population occupations and skills as an indicator of its productive capacity and wealth potential, (4) housing as an indi cator of physical health and population vitality, (5) communication facilities (including transportation) as an additional indicator of cul tural advancement, (6) and recreational facilities and activities as an indicator of population cohesion and psychological health. In this orientation, natural resources are not available as a given quantity, nor do singular resources maintain the same value over long run periods, but vary in both, with the need of the popu lation, the capabilities of technology, discovery, the cost of acqui sition and economic utilization and the interrelation between organi zation for development, the economics of acquisition, the level of technology, the political economy, and the demand for the finished products which depend upon the natural resources for production. Therefore, natural resources are also dynamic, and change in terms of use, availability, need, technology, and value, and all are modi fied by the relationships between these factors, for regional econo mics demands that resources be developed in terms of an integrated approach, confirming the historical imperitive imposed by a dyna mic ecology which requires a multi-use approach to resource deve- ment, resulting in the benefits of sustained yield (for renewable re sources), economies of scale in the development and use of non-re newable resources, and the advantages resulting from interrelated 308 development of resources, in a word, the advantages which accrue to the region from a rational development of its resources, A resource orientation to regional planning would also imply evaluation of use of resources, which would involve assignment of priorities, the deter mination of criteria, and a regional cost-benefit analysis, ordered by goals and set against a background of regional planning theory which embraces production, the distribution of income, between consumption, saving and investment, the composition of investment, the develop ment within sectors of the regional economy, and market, political and planning decisions at the regional level. A resource oriented regional planning would finally focus upon human occupance patterns and the density and distribution of population, but more importantly upon the quality of human resources, for it is essential that the quality of the region's people be evaluated and prac tical programs developed to enhance that quality, because the quality of the region's people is directly related to the quality of the region, which depends upon the opportunities the region affords for human de velopment and the growth and economic health of the region is depen dent upon the quality of its human resources, A Goal-Oriented Regional Planning The first requisites of a resource-oriented regional planning are the purposes and objectives of the human beings within the region. These goals proceed from economic, social, political and technolo gical realities of region, which regional planning must confront as issues reflecting the basic needs and aspirations of human beings. 309 For the central goal of planning is directly related to the promotion of a citizenry equal to the challenge of democracy, which not only de termines the progress and development of the nation, but the qualita- advancement of civilization. In a developing culture such as that ex tant in the United States, which is characterized by social and econo mic stratification, there exists a "goal continuum" with demarkations directly related to the existing, but somewhat flexible caste and class system. Regional planning of the future will plan within such a goal continuum, or goal universe, which will recognize the necessity for formulating goal oriented programs and policies within the vast spectrum of individual and group differences. It will promote a qualitative diversity and an expanding variety of opportunities in con trast with the trend toward mediocrity and uniformity. It will, through its programs and policies encourage those diverse excel lencies which issue from the maximum variety of opportunity for ad venture, enjoyment, creative work, disciplined freedom, increased under standing, increased exercise of talent, challenging occupation and the opportunity to meet the challenges and fulfill self through adequate educational resources. Several major tenants of a goal- oriented regional planning exist, but only a few will be listed to lend structure and direction to regional planning in a democratic and free society. First, goals are dynamic, they modify before attainment, expand and often contract during pursuit, and when attained are im mediately replaced by other goals which may have been in ascendency even while the former was being sought. Second, the interrelation ships between goals, which demand analysis and synthesis to insure 310 attainment of each as well as prevent the overlapping of efforts and waste of energies resulting from a fragmented approach. Third, continuing periodic reappraisal of goals pursued will be made, to gether with a technique of re-evaluation, supported by a philosophy of objectives which will yield the intelligence necessary to predict change, which will require new programs and policies, and modifi cation of existing policies. Finally, regional planning goals, extra polated from all segments of the "goal continuum, " will expand the concept of democracy as well as fortify the democratic process, crystallizing in the ultimate goal of not merely preserving, but aug menting the extension of that process toward greater and greater perfection. A goal oriented regional planning will also encompass quali tative criteria and pursue the illumination of values as a concomitant of goals. That America has been eminently successful in attaining quantitative goals as the gross national product well confirms, and that continuing economic progress is evident even in the face of serious deficiencies, reveals no inkling of the quality of the social and physical environment which is the major goal of regional planning. A Scientifically and Technologically Oriented Regional Planning Regional planning embraces science and technology as a unity and as a dichotomy. As a unity regional planning views science and technology in a dual sense. First, as a unity with other regional phenomena which together constitute a dynamic regional reality, and 311 second, as a unity in which technology and science are integrated. That is, it is difficult to draw a line which separates the two, which even if theoretically drawn, the backlash and the frontlash would render such demarkation meaningless. Or put another way, the pro motion of technology by means of advances in science is paralleled with a concomittant promotion of the development of science through a process of feedback from technology. Regional planning embraces science and technology as a dichotomy in terms, first, of its use in the planning process itself, and second, in terms of recommendation for use in policies and programs developed for guiding the physical growth of the region itself. It follows as a corolary, that regional planning of the future will employ the most advanced techniques of science generally and technology particularly in its research and survey functions, where it will automatically yield the necessary facts and facilitate efficient, expeditious analysis of regional pheno mena. It also follows that the regional planning organization will be come the storehouse of scientific and technological knowledge, and will employ linked systems of automation which will facilitate storage as well as instantaneous retrieval of that knowledge. The roles of science and technology in regional planning are several, but some major tenants relative to science and technology in ecological dyna- mics with other regional phenomena are appropriate at this juncture. First, there is a generalized science of region, quite distinct from the specialized physical and social sciences, whose knowledge must be stored for use in the development of the region. That science has as its practicioner, the regional scientist, who will ul- 3 12 timately emerge as "regional physicist, " or "geotechnist, " and the physics of the region, or "geotechnics," as a true regional science. As a discipline, regional science will have its several specializations, among them will be regional economics, regional sociology, regional political science and regional technical and cultural disciplines (re lated to regional engineering in the first instance and regional art (landscaping) in the second. Regional science as a distinct genera lizing science will be concerned with the synthesis of these discip lines for the purpose of developing a concept of region as a whole, thereby to plan. Second, regional science considers engineering and the arts to be directly related, not only because aesthetics is essential to man* s humanity and engineering facilitates its creation, but art is essential to our knowledge of man as is science and our advancement of self-knowledge is significantly related to our capabilities for dealing with the world about us. The accelerating change in the pat terns of human settlement and the increasing densities accompanying that change are producing problems of new dimensions impossible of solution by the traditional disciplines such as city planning, and re gional planning, powerfully and reliably supported by regional science will emerge to satisfy that need. Third, regional science, which began with E. M. Hoover's economic location studies, reinforced by the later studies of Walter Isard in location and space economy, and concentrated primarily upon the economics of production and transportation, is even now maturing into a more comprehensive science of region concerned 313 with the problems of human settlement and the various political, social, economic and functional systems vital to the development of the region as a qualitatively effective habitat for the continued ad vancement of civilization. The several roles of science and technology in regional plan ning may be summarized as follows: (1) science and technology will play a continuing role in facilitating the all-important function of pre diction and forecast. This function, a most difficult one, as con firmed by the efforts of the National Resources Planning Board which completely missed nuclear energy, antibiotics, radar and jet pro pulsion, is notwithstanding, possible of much more accurate attain ment in the future, given the comprehensive storage of all available scientific and technological knowledge that relate directly to regional development. This eventuality is possible even in a democratic society, but depends upon and presupposes a much more advanced political and administrative organization than exists anywhere at present, and is already underway today as is confirmed by the con trol of such scientific developments as nuclear energy and space tech nology. Control by government is not however predicted here, rather the comprehensive storage of knowledge concerning certain scientific developments pertinent to regional development, therefore pertinent also to regional planning, (2) the comprehensive knowledge available in one location to those concerned with the qualitative development of the environment will facilitate the equally important role of the plan ning organization as an advisory body to private and public develop ment agencies alike, thereby enabling them to employ the most ad 314 vanced fruits of science and products of technology in a more logical and economic development of regional elements, (3) that that know ledge will be made available to the general public and to industrial organization alike, facilitating a more rapid acceleration of the ad vance of science and technology as well, (4) the comprehensive de velopment of the region will demand the incorporation of science and technology as well as the potentials of science must be seen in terms of the long run if long range plans are to be valid and waste of pri mary and secondary resources avoided, (5) the level of development of science and technology, one of the indices of cultural development, has the additional qualification of the extent and quality of its use in modifying the environment to satisfy man*s needs for a surround con ducive to a more rapid cultural advancement, (6) regional planning encompasses science and technology in terms of its relationship to all other regional elements, forces, factors, and resources, there fore, its plans, both long and short run will be based upon an inte gration of the affects and potentials as well as existing capacities of both in the policies and programs designed for development of the region, (7) there must be a limit to the storage function of the re gional organization with respect to scientific and technological know ledge and potential, so that the major concentration would embrace its extent and capacity within the region, with a comprehensive storage bank of the information from all regions and the world at large assumed at the national level. Each region could make with drawals from that bank when it is necessary to obtain information vital to a further development within the region, and deposit inf or- 315 relation as it becomes available at the regional bank. This relation ship would facilitate the strengthening of national bonds or ties, a basic goal of regional planning philosophy, and finally, (8) the scien tific method is considered tantamount to planning methodology, and will become a highly developed procedure in regional planning of the future, mandatory to the planning process. Vital to the research processes of all disciplines, the scientific method is the basis of planning, but the intricacies of its application and the variety of its procedures will be limited only by the ability and the imagination of the regional scientist of the future, who will add his own procedures to an ever expanding methodology, which enjoys qualitative progress in its own right and augments planning principles and expands re gional planning theory. Notwithstanding the thin line that separates science and tech nology in a limited number of disciplines, there exists within the majority of the approximately 1,150 sciences an ever-widening gap between specialists in science and the related technology. The necessary comprehensive development of all the sciences with an integrative approach as well as the need for closing the gap between science and technology, has long been recognized by the more ad vanced thinkers in science and in technology. Their ideas gave materialization to the International Geophysical Year, the creation of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the concept of bionics (unit of life), as well as other efforts designed to effect those ends. Regional planning will in the future, carry this trend to its ultimate development, first facilitating the development 3 16 of a comprehensive generalizing science, which will augment the ad vancement of all the specializing sciences, and second, effectuating continued progress of the concept bionics, as well as its expansion to include all the sciences and the technologies which are their hand maidens, thereby augmenting a much more rapid translation of scientific theories and findings into technological realities. Regional planning will then go beyond and project, in terms of the relationships of these developments, future development of the region and en vironmental potentials possible through their implications. It will also determine through the exigency of regional science, the social, economic and political effects related thereto, thereby facilitating an understanding of the comprehensive imperitives that planning the region requires. The above orientations represent predictions for the function of planning the region in the future. If it appears that they imply drastic political change for their attainment, that implication is ac curate, for the present political system is hardly sufficiently ad vanced to implement a scientifically and technologically oriented re gional planning, a goal-oriented regional planning, or a resource- oriented regional planning. Such inferences do not however repre sent a political change from our current highly inadequate democracy to some form of communism, for such an assumption would lend far more significance to communism than it could possibly rate, and would further imply that communism is superior to democracy in that democracy in its more advanced development would become com munism. Such is hardly the case, for no political system exists any 317 where that i s capable of carrying out these ends, and the much more logical inference is that a far more politically advanced system will develop from the immature form extant in the United States today. It also implies a more advanced economic and social system than that which exists today, for those systems too can easily be documented as highly inadequate for the effectuation of policies and programs de signed to secure regional planning objectives. The emergent systems will free themselves from much of the myth and folklore of current times as a vital prequisite to their full emergence, thereby creating the means as well as the atmosphere in which regional planning can take place. The scope of this thesis does not permit an exposition of thes myths, but a brief treatment of the organization necessary to conduct regional planning is here appropriate and follows in the next section. An Organizationally Oriented Regional Planning Since the history of regional planning presents a picture of a struggle between organizations and institutions, public and private when attempts to solve problems regional in nature were being pur sued; and since the struggle apparently continues, inasmuch as many regional problems remain unsolved and the proliferation of juris dictions goes on unabated; and since the argument continues against the persistent expansion of the leviathan in Washington, D. C, ; and since debate continues concerning the perogatives of private industry and government; and finally, since there remain advocates of "rug ged individualism, " confused by the "myth of the individual, " it is 318 vital that the necessity for and the nature of effective organization for regional planning be clarified. Analysis of the history of regional planning would reveal several central desiderata which recommend the institution of organization charged with the responsibility for solving those problems of a regional nature which are not large enough for federal attention, nor small enough for local solution. It is fur ther a tenant of an organizationally oriented regional planning that organization itself be subjected to the planning process and contin ually analyzed for the promotion of progressively developing organi zation, for it is folly to scientifically develop a transportation system and leave organization to an arbitrary evolution, enslaved by tradition and chained by the rigid conservatism which refuses to face the im- peritives of necessary social, economic and political change. That a political system exists is immaterial to this principle, for it is axio matic that even the most advanced political system in the world has little value if it is incapable of resolving those urgent problems that face it and threaten to destroy it if timely solution is not effectuated. The central deciderata pertinent to the above orientation are as fol lows: (1) there is a serious need to integrate within a single juris dictional boundary the people, resources and territories which share related problems, (2) existing boundaries, once meaningful and sig nificant have, through new dynamic patterns of occupance, become meaningless in terms of numerous criteria, (3) geographic, econo mic and social comprehensiveness is vital for formulating the pro grams and policies necessary to plan the region, and solve its pro blems, (4) the need for comprehensive analysis on a regional basis 319 balanced planning, comprehensive development based on policy and program determination, executive management and implementation must be met where individual jurisdictions liave proved themselves incapable of solving regional problems and providing the services more economically established on a regional basis, (5) an organi zation of regional authority is necessary, which if representative of the entire region, with the legal responsibility to consider manor re gional problems on an integrated basis, solution is possible, (6) an organization of regional authority is necessary to conter act the real threat of loss of autonomy and control of community destiny as well as home rule and legal identity, that the multiplying jurisdictions most fear and were created to protect, (7) the proliferation of special districts, which assume responsibility for many problems that local governments cannot handle because of area, fiscal, legal, functional or other inadequacies, which often complicate, rather than solve regional problems by a fractionated approach, and certainly create excessive costs that regional government merely by virtue of its comprehensive approach would reduce, (8) unincorporated areas between cities which may be further complicated by existing in two or more counties could be efficiently served by a regional govern ment, (9) a more efficient fiscal system instituted on a regional basis could consolidate funds now impaired in their effectiveness by a distribution so fine that no community can meet the costs alone, which would result in economies of scale not otherwise possible, (10) the dynamic urban expansion in several major instances beyond the city, beyond the state, to the outer limits of the natural region. 320 creating in its sweep the vast conurbation now referred to as "mega lopolis," and encompassing numerous problems regional in nature that yield only to regional solution. The foregoing and other reasons recommend the establish ment of some form of political organization designed to assume re sponsibility for and implement programs to solve the problems of region. The history of regional planning herein alluded to several approaches, including those projected by the contestants in the 1943 American Society of Planning Officials' Competition, so the cultural lag expresses itself again—now in the arena of organization. The major forms of organization established by communities to assume regional problems are as follows: (1) a state department of local af fairs, (2) reorganization of the county to become the metropolitan or regional government, (3) a new limited purpose (open ended) re gional organization with the flexibility to expand to encompass other emergent regional functions, services, and fiscal responsibilities, and (4) a new level of local government above existing localities and below the state, but having authority and fiscal power to deal with broad but specified regional problems. The continuing evolution of culture and the multiple revo lutions of society demand effective organization to meet the dynamic needs of a rapidly changing culture. The plea for individualism is an anachronism in the face of these demands, and society is no longer misled by its myth. The demand that private industry, or the pri vate sector of the economy assume the responsibility will not be ac- accepted either, for those problems and urgent needs of society 321 being created by the massive changes in technology, science and the exploding population have been and continue to be avoided by "private enterprise. " The emergent concept of the public sector of the econ omy will go beyond old concepts of government, individual and pri vate enterprise and a new comprehensive, integrated organ will be instituted, comprised of representation from all sectors of the econ omy, all political sovereignties within the region and all other ap propriate agencies of society to assume responsibility for mutual problems of regionaT scale and significance. The form this organi zation will take will be carefully developed by the representatives of all agencies of society as was the Constitution of the United States of America, by men of stature, motivated by ambitions for the region comparable to those conceived by the founding fathers for the nation. The difference in their deliberations will be represented by the sup port of the intelligence that regional science will make available. Regional Research and Survey The history of regional planning reveals a partial employ ment of the scientific method in terms of its approach rooted in the classic regionalism of such planners as Thomas Adams and re- gionalists as Howard W. Odum. A projection of regional planning methodology as it will emerge in the future predicts an extension of the use of the scientific method, both in terms of research, survey and experimentation, testing and application. The projected metho dology and the philosophy related thereto might be briefly set forth as follows. 322 The essential purpose of the scientific method in regional plan ning is to secure and analyze for the purpose of synthesis the know ledge tantamount to understanding the problems of region and vital to the resolution of those problems. Pursuit of this objective is guided by two complementary principles which permeate regional planning methodology. First, synthesis, which is the unification of the major physical, social, economic and political elements and forces of region to constitute a whole, and includes the linking and interrelation of knowledge relative to the elements of region as well as the relation ships between them necessary to resolve problems which result from functional, compositional, or structural disorder, and further in cludes a structure of the interlocking disciplines vital to an objective, logical and systematic analysis of regional phenomena and the inter relations between these phenomena. Second, universality, which is the unlimited extension of knowledge as it relates to a continually evolving and dynamic region. Therefore, the science of region is operational in terms of the processes or operations performed in practice ; analytical in terms of its distinctive attributes; compre hensive in terms of physical, social, political and economic regional realities; and functional in terms of the services it performs. These basic projections will go further and embrace a dynamic conceptuali zation of the time-role s , space-roles, structural roles and re lational roles that the numerous primary disciplines directly related to regional planning will play in the organizational process of planning. Basic to the expanded use of the scientific method of regional planning of the future is regional research and survey, or the explo 323 ratory, investigatory, descriptive and analytical studies necessary to respectively ascertain the significant elements of region prerequisite to the resolution of the regional problem at hand; describe those ele ments together with the significant relationships between them; and determine causality, whether simple or complex. Principles of re search which include research design, hypothesis, the role of fact and theory and their relationships, sampling and the delimitation of data are well known and extensively employed by social and physical scientists today. They, together with their more specialized col leagues in economics, sociology and other related sciences are de veloping a body of knowledge requisite to the development of theories vital to the evolution of a valid science of region. Regional science of the future will draw on that body of knowledge, expand its appli cation to the scale of region and promote thereby the development of a valid science of region. The current practices, especially in the disciplines of economics and sociology appear to exhibit a dominance of mere empiricism and operationism, the games of describing, ob serving, classifying and measuring the million phenomena of the urban complex; however, regional planning of the future will prove their work vital to the establishment of unifying concepts, principles, and theories upon which a science of region may be based. The rapid development of such a science, which is possibly the key to the effective solution of difficult and complex problems of the region, will be augmented by a more extensive use of electronic data proces sing and automated systems of analysis, which even in their imma ture current stage of development are facilitating analysis of many 324 urban problems. Regional Analysis and Synthesis Analysis has traditionally been a step in the standard ap proach to regional planning ; however, the future will record a much more effective use of the logical next step, synthesis. The objective of its institution will be the facilitation of the necessary unification of elements of the region to enable the effective relational analysis vital to solving those problems which originate from structural or functional disorganization. Synthesis would also yield the under standing of the time-roles, structural roles and relational roles that the various disciplines would play in the organizational process of planning as previously noted. Further, regional science of the future will seek knowledge of the region through analysis of the qualitative as well as the quantitative determinants of cultural growth. It would on the one hand analyze region in terms of the quantitative and quali tative state of its elements and on the other, through relational ana lysis or synthesis determine the degree of its existing cohesiveness or unity compared with that necessary for cultural and economic progress. It would further determine the increments of qualitative change as a measure of the potential of the region for economic de velopment and requisite for promoting cultural advancement. It will employ structural, relational, organizational and residual ana lysis to evaluate and relate elements of region and determine the modifications in each necessary for the promotion of qualitative progrès s. 325 In a culture dominated by concentration upon the quantitative, the organizational elements of that culture and often individuals which are a part of it, find the qualitative to be rather an elusive concept. Cities expand to ever increasing horizontal and vertical dimensions, with little thought given to the quality of life their inhuman dimensions impose, or to their structural organization, which if ordered, might improve the quality of that life. The tools of the economist are pri marily quantitative, and although their dictum that "we must quantify where ever possible to facilitate the making of difficult qualitative judgements, " reflects reason and has truth, that position is not in dispute here. It merely represents the dominance of the quantitative, even in qualitative evaluations. The transportation system of Los Angeles, pervaded by an ever increasing network of freeways, is a case in point. That Los Angeles has the best system of freeways in the world, may be an indisputable fact, but does not necessarily validate that system as an adequate nor efficient system for the Los Angeles area. Zoning regulations often allocate to commercial land uses far more land than is necessary to serve the needs of the popu lation of an area, even if that population should increase two or three fold within the next fifty years, giving at the same time very little thought to the distribution nor to the quality of the physical aspects of the commercial facilities which exist in such areas or which are proposed for construction in such areas. In our culture, examples of the phenomenon of the dominance of the quantitative are endless, but enough have been cited to prove the contention. 326 Regional planning of the future, in contrast with prevailing practices in many disciplines today, will neither be dominated by the quantitative nor the qualitative, but will consider the one to be as vital a determinant of regional growth and development as the other. In its comprehensive analysis of regional realities and regional pro blems, it will appraise and evaluate the qualitative as well as the quantitative aspects of those phenomena. Regional planning assumes that no real separation can be made between the qualitative and the quantitative determinants of regional growth, they are interrelated, interdependent and integral parts of the necessary analysis and syn thesis prerequisite for valid planning at any level. In regional planning of the future, the qualitative aspects of regional realities will be considered directly related to cultural growth, and cultural growth is its major objective. With humanity as its central concern, regional planning will focus upon the environ ment as the vessel of civilization, and the qualitative growth and de velopment of the environment as a major measure of cultural pro gress. Measures of cultural growth are central to qualitative evalu ations of regional realities. Measurement of quantitative aspects of physical and social phenomena, even with its long history, remains a difficult undertaking; therefore, it is to be expected that the more elusive qualitative measurement will be no less difficult. It follows that the formidable, laborious, and creative development of valid measurement of regional growth, representing as it does the com plexity of an integrated employment of both approaches, will be even more difficult. However, regional planning of the future will employ 327 just such an approach in its necessary function of evaluating the status of the existing region and the incremental changes in that environment resulting from other forces of social, economic and political change, as well as the affect of the planning process upon all of these. This aspect of the planning process is a specialization within itself, and with the propensity toward an ever increasing specialization in our society, may well become a discipline in its own right, therefore it will not be presented in full in this study; however, since the quali tative aspects of regional development are of great importance herein and measures of cultural growth directly related to any evaluation of the qualitative, the following brief treatment should provide the necessary insight. As set forth in Chapter IV, the major elements of region are: (1) human resources, viewed quantitatively as population and qualita tively as humanity, (2) science and technology, viewed quantitatively in terms of their number, their extent and the volume of their pro duction, and qualitatively, in terms of their diversity, capacity, po tential, dynamics, attributes, the extent to which these qualities are employed in further development and the effectiveness of the relation ships between science and technology and between these and other major elements of the region, (3) organization, viewed quantitatively in terms of their number, extent of capital resources, their physical distribution, size and entreprenuerial resources, and viewed qualita tively in terms of their power, effectiveness, extent of communi cation, degree of participation in activities designed to promote cul tural progress, degree of cross-sectional participation of the popu 328 lation in the activities of the organization, transitional abilities, cen tral concerns, level of attainment of goals established and the degree to which the subject organization relates to other organizations which share the same, or some of the objectives to which it lends its re sources, (4) and environment, quantitatively measured in terms of the number of its resources, elements, problems, functions, faci lities, etc. , and qualitatively measured in terms of its aesthetics, the value of its resources and the cost of acquisition, the intensity of its problems, the effectiveness and adequacy of its facilities, the state of the region's sanitation, the variety and diversity of its in ternal and external space, the organization of its elements, the use of its land area, the relationships between regional elements and the extent to which the region as an entity augments cultural progress. These major regional realities are in sum, the culture of the region, and can be measured both qualitatively and quantitatively in terms of "unit-ageor one of the more advanced techniques which will be developed by future professionals in this field. Therefore, quanti tative measurement of human resources as population would be con cerned with such interests as age, sex, birth, death, race, m ar riage, migration, density, mortality and fertility rates, mobility, etc. , while qualitative evaluation of human resources would be con cerned with the health composition of the population, its quality of education, its level of skills, its creative capacities, its disposition ^^Thomas Parsons, "A Longitudinal Approach To The Study of Cultural Growth," Social Forces (October, 1955), p. 34. 329 and ability to put forth economically productive effort, its inclusive - ness of the concept, "we the people," and the cultural equipment of the population, together with the opportunity of access of the population to that culture. Quantitative measurement of science and technology would be concerned with the number of sciences and specializations within each, the related technologies and the divisions of work or labor within each, the resource allocations made to each in terms of re search as well as design and production activities, the number of research facilities, their distribution and the number of production facilities and their distribution throughout the region, the number and type of communication facilities, and other considerations too nu merous to list here. Qualitative measurement of science and techno logy would be concerned with categories of science and technology and the central concerns of these categories, their diversity, capacity and potential, the degree of communication between directly and indirect ly related categories, the rate of translation of scientific theories and findings into technological realities, evaluation of the degree to which human society is changed or may be changed by scientific and techno logical advances, determination of the degree to which and the direc tion in which scientific and technological advances such as cybernation demand changes in the principles of organization and the economic and social system, and the interrelationships between science and techno logy and all the other elements of region. Finally, regional science of the future will develop a "science of values, " designed to facilitate objective inquiry to remove encrusted prejudices and promote a more 330 rapid psycho-social evolutionary progress. High speed digital com puters will be employed to set up experiments in series in the social sciences as is now done in the physical and biological sciences to test the consequencies of human action, whether in engineering a dam, market evaluations, or problems involving decision making and ethi cal practices. Such a course would be based upon the values which have accrued for centuries and which have contributed significantly to the advance of civilization as well as values revealed through em- pathetical research and relational analysis. Quantitative measurement of organization would be concerned with determining the number and types of organizations, their size distribution throughout the region, their resources, organizational, entr epr enuerial and capital, the number of functions assumed by the organizations, the number of structural categories of organization, the number of forms of organization and the organizational structure of public and private corporate bodies which, complex themselves, are composed of several participating organizations which may be institutions in their own right. Qualitative measurement of organi zation would be concerned with the degree and range of organizational power and the extent to which that power is employed in influencing public decisions, as well as other perogatives of other organizations, the degree to which its energies and resources satisfy the goals es tablished by the organization, the effectiveness of the organization in contributing to cultural advancement, the capacity of the organization to adapt to changing economic and social conditions, the communica- tional effectiveness of the organization in its relationship with other 331 organizations and the several publics it serves, the degree to which the organization provides opportunities for all sectors of the popu lation for participation in its activities at all levels, the degree to which the organization employs new developments in technology in the attainment of its goals, the degree to which it develops new organiza tional principles and structures to augment efficient operation and the extent to which it promotes the elimination of environmental resis tances and aids in securing those priorities of progress which measure the cultural advance of civilization. A principle of the phi losophy of organization as it relates to the planning process is that scientific, technological, economic and social changes demand tran sition and reorganization of institutions, that our economic, social, and political institutions exist for the use of man, that man has never in his history created the perfect system, that man does not exist to serve or maintain established economic, political or social systems, but on the contrary those systems are established to serve man, and finally that both government and private institutions are organized by man for the purpose of making possible the life, liberty and pursuit of happiness constitutionally established as a basic goal, and that our organizations, both public and private should be employed as a creative force and positive instrument to effect these ends. Environment as the dominant physical element of region was in the past the central concern of the classical regional planner as is attested by the elements of the master plans developed in the 1920's and 1930’s as well as the survey of current regional planning pre sented in Chapter III. However, regional planning of the future will 332 develop a comprehensive conceptualization of environment which will include not merely its physical manifestations, but its political, psy chological and social climate. It is within this context that the re gional planner of the future will measure the quality of the environ ment. His quantitative concerns will be centered upon the primary and secondary elements of the environment in terms of their numbers, their distribution in space, their facilities and the geographical dis tribution of social, economic, political and natural resources through out the region. His concern will also center upon the number and types of industries, the number and types of trade, services, the uses of land, the number and types of communication (and transpor tation) systems within the region, communities within the region and their spatial location, public and private cultural facilities within the region (of regional significance), and the interstices between deve loped areas. Qualitative measurement of the environment would be concerned with the evaluation of primary and secondary regional re sources, regional elements and open areas which demark or separate major regional elements and determine the ecological relationships between man and himself, man and group and man and environment. It would determine ecological relationships between economic, social, political and physiographic regional factors and in turn their relation ships to environment. Qualitative measurement of the environment would determine the degree to which it affects the psychological cli mate of the region and therefore its effectiveness as a social sur round for community development and growth. It would evaluate the region as a three dimensional form of architecture in a much ex 333 panded conceptualization and determine how structural reorganization of its form might enhance its aesthetics and promote its qualitative development. It would evaluate functional interrelationships of vil lages, towns, cities and other major elements of region, and deter mine the modifications necessary in terms of additions, removals, relocations, pursuant to developing a qualitative structural organi zation of regional elements. And, evaluate in terms of synthesis the region seen as a whole, in terms of its total reality; physically, measured by socio-economic determinants, and functional, aesthetic and structural measurements; economically, in terms of measures related to the principles of conservation as applied to primary and secondary resources ; socially, in terms of the degree to which the regional environment promotes cultural advancement; and politically, in terms of the degree to which regional institutions promote the ad vancement of civilization. Numerous considerations recommend the above approach in regional planning of the future and a few will be listed here to illu minate those considerations. Rapid social change and man in ex plosive social revolution creates an environment fraught with danger and laced with dilemma, but on the other hand abundent with oppor tunities for meeting the challenge that social change represents to the benefit of man and civilization. The rapid social changes now underway and the threat as well as the promise of scientific and technological revolution demand a comprehensive picture of the realities of the past as well as of the present time. For the first time in history this comprehensive view is possible through the ad 3 34 vances in science and technology. These advances must be brought to bear upon environment in sufficient scale to reveal negative and positive trends underway which must be promoted or checked to faci litate the qualitative advancement of civilization, Concommitant with these considerations is the hypothesis that the future of the region is not shaped by blind forces or inevitable trends, nor irreversible evo lutions, but by man’s volitions. There are choices and not only be tween radical extremes, but highly reasonable within widely accepted goals of the existing social system and consistent with constitutional ly defined freedoms may represent limits to man’s further develop ment, for freedom is also the condition in which we can set and re vise the governors which we establish and by which we live, and pro vides one of the conditions for our liberation from chains which pre vent change and progress and the freedom of choice to decide the action necessary for qualitative change. These freedoms and de cisions which relate to them demand qualification based upon a theory of goals and a science of values as a guide to planning. Therefore, the qualitative approach is a vital supplement to the quantitative and will facilitate the determination of answers to such questions as the following: What quality of population is neces sary to rise to the effective use of existing scientific and technolo gical developmfcUit in attaining the ultimate goals mankind has set for himself? How is such quality obtainable? What is progress in the qualitative sense? What does it profit a nation to concentrate on rate of growth of its economic elements if that growth is not neces sarily desirable nor qualitatively sound? What essential profit 335 accrues to a civilization if massive increase of production is induced at the high cost of cultural impoverishment? How does time relate to the process of the disintegration of a civilization whose growth quan titatively continues, but qualitatively declines? How does an en trenched socio-economic-political system sufficiently free itself from its inherent inflexibilities to meet those qualitative challenges it must face or accept an arrested civilization ? What incentives are neces sary to induce qualitative economic growth ? What forces act to sup press the free participation in the existing socio-economic-political system and thereby restrict the qualitative progress of that system ? A valid qualitative analysis of the economic feasibility of regional de velopment and renewal would encompass such an approach and pro vide answers to such questions. The consequencies and the costs, as well as the economic factors and social forces that produce them must be appraised qualitatively if analysis is to yield results of a qualitative value gain superior to the money profit motive and more related to the essential functions of the regional complex as a faci lity for promoting community and regional planning goals. There fore analysis followed by synthesis would determine the increments qualitative change as a measure of the potential of the region for economic development and requisite for promoting cultural advance- me I I I , Human resources are central to the concerns of the quali tative approach to regional planning, and the opportunities the region provides for the promotion of human development the major criteria of the proposed science of values. Qualitative evaluation of human 336 resources result in numerous advantages. In the short run, econo mic enterprise, both private and public has continually available an inventory of skills, abilities and capacities of the population, and an estimate as well, of critical needs for skills in demand. In the long run, projection of future need for skills could be made and thus serve enterprise by promoting preparation for occupations that will be in demand and discouraging preparation for occupations that have de creasing demand, or are being phased out because of technological or organizational advancement. The benefits are reciprocal, since in dividuals will avoid the waste of their time and talent by preparation for occupations which may not exist when the training is complete. The trend toward a human resource approach to development, oriented toward the qualitative characteristics of the population is manifested in the new manpower policies being developed by the United States Department of Labor. Although the approach is highly statistical and predominantly analytical, with meaningful synthesis yet to come, there is a compilation of research data on "manpower, " by the federal government, developed from information provided by the several state employment agencies.This trend was reinforced and strengthened in March of 1964 with the publication of President 12 Johnson’s manpower report, which set forth policies based on the U. S. Department of Labor, Area Manpower Guide Book: 174 Metropolitan Labor Market Areas (Industrial Characteristics, Employment Trends and Labor Supply (Washington: U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, 1957). 12 U, S. Department of Labor, Man Power Report of the President and A Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization and~Training (Washington: U.S. Govt. Printing Off. , 1964). 337 following principles: (1) we must focus on how far we can go — and on how better to get there — rather than on how far we have come; (2) we must raise our sights and strive to realize each person's highest pro ductive and earning capability and seek to develop more completely our people's talents and to employ those talents fully—to fulfill the rich promise of technological advance and to enable all to share in its benefits; (3) rapid change in the economy demands new and better training, skill and adaptability; (4) finally, although the nation is prosperous, strong and materially richer than any in history — this is so largely because of the knowledge, skills, competance and creati vity of its people ; however, we are far short of our potential—many of the people do not adequately participate in the national well-being and much human capability is not either developed or used. The President then acknowledge that the responsibility is not the federal government’s alone, that business, labor and all private groups and institutions along with state and local groups and institutions have vital roles to play; that this is a long range task requiring more than onetime or short-run efforts ; and that no narrow approach will suf fice- -policy must blend and coordinate efforts in terms of manpower, resources and needs, including educational, economic, scientific, health, social welfare and other basic policies. Obviously, proposed in sinceriLy and with good intent, here again is a mishmash, devoid of the synthesis that would reveal those relationships between organi zations which have roles to play, the time schedules related to long- range tasks requiring more than one-time or short term efforts, and the relationships between policies which must be identified and 338 ordered before coordination is possible. In other words, synthesis would yield the intelligence indispensible for first delimiting the area for comprehensive planning, and second, relating the elements of that area to each other and identifying relationships vital to co-ordination, determining the problems of the regional elements and the relation ships between them of an organizational nature vital to their solution. A second example that might be cited is that of conservation. This problem and its comprehensive nature were set forth in the pre- ceeding history; however, the continuing need for conservation as well as its growth in incidence and progress in development have yielded evidence of even more powerful relationships than classical conservation ever revealed. Scientists are now convinced that con tamination in the food we eat, the water we drink and the air we breath suggests close connection with the soil, that thin layer of the earth’s surface which is an intensive collector, as well as trans former of all waste, by hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, and mole cular rearrangement. These create, nourish, protect, and sustain all forms of life, which vary in physiological complexity from the simplest microbial cell to man. Man, of course, equipped with an evolution-evolved mind is able to comprehend as well as modify en vironment, but unfortunately, also contaminates it. Contamination in organic forms of life has also been found to exhibit relationships, in that the wastes of one population may be the poison or life support of another. In nature, science has discovered a high degree of co operation through evolution and adaptation, which characterizes the management of environment by nature, but the emergence of man 339 into the natural environment, with his concentration upon benefits to man alone, often disrupts nature for all other biotic populations (mi crobes, plants, and animals) thereby impairing that surround for man himself, who continues with arrogant abuse to mismanage environ ment with technologies designed for mere "economic" advantage. All forms of life depend upon the soil for support and synthesis of those dynamics which relate life to forms with soil, air, and water will re veal the ecological relationships vital to maintaining life on this planet, and indispensible for man’s survival. The life of man in the epochal cycles of geologic time is but a minute segment of the oc cupance patterns of earth’s populations. Man has reoriented his pur suits from those of the rugged individualist of the raw frontier to the artificial environment of congested cities which are assumed to re quire monocultures and chemicalized agricultures. His technical and economic approach to the environment of those cities often not only ignores man’s own biological origins, characteristics and needs, but disregards nature’s immutable laws which impose ecological limi tations whose "justice" will come if compliance is not met. Man can not continue to disrupt the pattern of evolution and destroy the various natural populations which support human life and through witless and uninformed management and development of environment continue the contamination of soil, air and water upon which that life depends for survival. Regional planning of the future will seek out those relation ships, determine the laws of nature that demand obedience, and de sign and develop the environment in terms of an ecological balance which will facilitate the continuity of life on earth, vital to the ex- 340 tension of man’s epoch on that planet. It is then reasonable to assume that ecology as a science will become vitally important in the arena of regional planning and that its revelations will augment the develop ment of programs and policies which will facilitate solutions to urban and regional problems which do not yield to an approach which creates imponderables because of its neglect of those ecological relationships. A final example of relational analysis, or synthesis might be found in the problem of organization necessary for the resolution of regional problems. Problems of pollution, whether of earth, soil, water or air are completely unaware of man’s meaningless jurisdic tional boundaries, but any attempt at solution of these problems, whether it is smog in the Los Angeles basin, wholesale pollution of many of America’s river systems, or the wanton destruction of the landscape, will require the cooperation of related public and private organizations within the region or a combination of both to institute the necessary conservation measures that will ameliorate these ad verse conditions. Through synthesis, regional planning will not only determine the cause, but also place the responsibility in the hands of the necessary representative organization to effect a more lasting solution. Regional And Policies Plan Preparation Comprehensive planning at the regional level is essentially concerned with the coordination of the policies of the several major organizational elements of region through the application of the scientific method, which requires disciplined research and analysis and through extensive and intensive synthesis yield the intelligence 34 1 upon which regional plans and policies may be based, and facilitates the development of physical plans, fiscal policies, organizational pro grams and priority schedules. At the regional level of planning, the major elements in a generalized sense are physical, social, econo mic and political and require integration of the policies of the insti tutions representing each where one may have affect upon one or more of the others. Physical elements of region may be cities, vil lages, towns, counties or other jurisdictional entities described by law; regional parks or recreational facilities; regional water supply and waste disposal systems; regional power systems; regional com munication systems, including transportation; regional commercial or industrial systems or complexes; regional educational complexes and other extensive systems or complexes which require a regional base for their support. Regional social, political and economic ele ments manifest themselves through organization in institutional re ality, and through the preceeding physical elements of region in phy sical reality, and express their impact upon region by the execution of organization-centered power. Coordination of the power of re gional organization in the interest of the region is the essence of regional planning, and since power is executed through the policies of organization, a policies plan would integrate the policies of all regional organizations to effect co-ordination of all regional develop ment. For example, a physical plan incorporating the construction of a bridge by a local jurisdiction would not conflict with a national plan for damming up a river which would place the bridge under water ; or a local plan designed to protect the beauty of the landscape 3 4 2 by requiring power lines to be installed underground rather than on power poles, would not be in conflict with a federal policy of using such poles in installations by a federal agency. It follows that regional planning encompasses research and survey, and analysis and synthesis. The first (research and survey) yields the elements and knowledge about the elements of region and the related problems which require planning for their solution. The second yields the under standing of the elements and their relationships and the under standing of the problems of region and their relationships which are indispensible to the development of plans to resolve them. Plans are herein considered a comprehensive co-ordinated system developed as a guide to decision making and to action, and may be related to the elements of region so that there could be developed a physical or master development plan, an organizational plan, a fiscal or financial plan and in terms of time a priority schedule or plan. A regional policies plan would encompass fiscal relationships, phy sical relationships, program relationships and time relationships, and based upon the preceeding synthesis, would lend the direction necessary for the economic development of the region to its highest level, at the least cost and greatest benefit, in the shortest amount of time. Finally, such a plan would have to be based upon goals and, goal formulation is a major as well as a basic function of planning. Regional Goal F ormulation The generalized purpose of regional planning is the facili tation of rational, coherent decisions relative to the physical, social. 343 economic and political growth or evolution of region. The dynamic forces related to these major elements of region which are at work within the region and the far-reaching time and physical affects of these forces left uncontrolled can destroy the region as an effective living environment for man and his culture. Regional planning is the generalized art and science which contributes to the establishment of objectives regional in nature and which augments their attainment over time. It may consist of functional regional planning which focuses upon the organic relationships between elements; or it may involve structural regional planning which focuses upon the charac teristics and arrangements of the physical elements of region; or it may be fiscal and consist of resource allocations, budget or capital programs or financial plans; or it may be a coordinated system of activities or a program for action; or it may be comprehensive in nature including all of these and manifestly the continued establish ment of objectives for a consolidated regional organization and the direction of its affairs to maximize the attainment of these goals. The above generalized goals of region are supplemented with other generalized goals which proceed from the institutionalized ele ments of region. These elements of region in their institutionalized form represent a system of interactions which create regional goals, cL iid such goals of region are made manifest by the expressed demands made upon regional organization by the institutions of region through their representatives. Barring the existence of regional organi zation they may be expressed in ventures cooperative in nature pur sued by separate elements of region to resolve mutual problems or 3 4 4 secure mutual goals which extend beyond or are influenced by forces beyond their boundaries. Additional generalized goals of region would be revealed by the analysis which follows research, and by the synthesis which follows analysis. Synthesis would also reveal those specialized goals of region which ensue from region itself and are re presentative of regional bond, such as communication and transpor tation systems, or non-institutionalized elements of region. The formulation of goals of regional planning would be based upon: (1) the functional relationships of the elements of region; (2) structural relationships of elements of region; (3) resource alloca tions to elements of region; (4) comprehensive development of region; (5) expressed and revealed goals of regional elements ; (6) goals re vealed by research, analysis and synthesis. It is self-evident that the present socio-economic-political system is not sufficiently advanced to facilitate the effectuation of regional goals. However, the implementation of regional goals of the future presupposes a much more advanced system. That system, a further development of the present democratic system will repre sent an extension which if properly instituted will result in the evo lution of a far more effective organizational structure than that existing and will further enhance the democratic process. The pro cess of planning here presented suggests such organization, for it is not possible when administered by a loose-knit regional organization without the legal responsibility to develop plans and implement pro grams, nor is it possible by the fractionalized approach of the existing numerous political jurisdictions of region, nor yet is it 3 4 5 possible with a voluntary approach, for the fact remains that there are co-ordinated regional problems that are not of sufficient scale to require the attention of the federal government, nor possible of reso lution by local or state government, but demand unified regional government with full collaboration with other public and private or ganizations for solution. Organization For Regional Planning The history of regional planning reveals that much work has been done with respect to projecting some form of metropolitan or urban government to assume responsibility for areawide problems. These forms fall into several major categories which are as follows : (1) annexation, (2) special districts, (3) informal intergovernmental co-operation, (4) consolidation of governments, (5) the contract sys tem, (6) the borough system, (7) the federal plan, (8) a new layer of local government above existing localities and below the state, such as a council, with authority and financial ability to deal with broad, but specified areawide problems, (9) reorganization of the county or consolidation of two or more counties to become the areawide autho rity, (10) a limited purpose or open-ended commission with built-in power to expand as to function, finance, and representation, and finally (11) a state department of local affairs, or a cabinet level department, under direct authority of the governor of the state. These findings were supplemented with a twelth general form, which usually has its origin in state enabling legislation and may take the form of council, commission, or board. Normally referred to as a 3 4 6 regional planning agency, it usually has no authority, but acts as an advisory body to the governor or state governnaent in its program ming and policy making responsibilities. Although some of these or ganizations have done and are doing a commendable job within the context of their responsibilities, and although some have been suc cessful in creating a regional consciousness that has aided in cemen ting the elements of region into an effective unit for the purpose of securing economies of scale that normally result from co-ordination of related regional developments, none are essentially regional government in nature, nor represent the creation of a new govern- of sufficient scope in terms of authority to resolve interrelated re gional problems. Therefore, in view of the expanding social, physi cal, economic, technological and political realities of region, we can project in broad outline, if not in detail, the form that regional or ganization of the future will take. As previously indicated, the creation of the federal government was essentially motivated by the need of several states to create the organization necessary to as sume responsibilities for problems that the separate states could not individually handle. Today, an entirely new and far more complex community of regional elements, with a much more complicated en vironmental pattern is frustrated by problems that neither frac tionated government, nor remote federal government, nor yet a combination of private organizations can solve by themselves. It is logical, therefore, to predict the emergence of a government of scale, whose jurisdiction is the region and whose authority will be comprised of responsibility for problems too small for the federal 347 government to handle and too large for local jurisdictions. It will therefore not represent an additional arm of government created merely to frustrate further the taxpaying citizen and existing cor porate bodies, but will effectively assume responsibility for many regional problems now inadequately handled by a continually expan ding leviathan in Washington, or attempted but not handled at all by local jurisdictions, which cannot now or ever singlehandedly assume responsibility for regional problems. Some advantages are immedi ately observable. The expanding federal government would have a means of contraction — returning to the localities responsibility for local problems. The federal tax could be immediately reduced. The local governments could dissolve those departments now burdened with responsibilities historically proved to be impossible of solution at the municipal level. The role of the state would be more de cisively established, and the region emerge as representative of the larger territories which would deal directly with the federal govern ment in inter-regional matters. Those problems which transcend state boundaries, previously tackled by cumbersome state compacts, which are not national but regional in scope would be attacked more effectively by regional government and relationships between regions would become national concerns rather than those between fifty stales. There would be economies of scale resultant, because the several regions (six to a maximum of twelve) would be far more ef ficiently dealth with by the federal government than with the fifty states. Numerous other advantages remain and have been discussed in the literature — but the persistent resistance to change, and the 34 8 tendency of "men to suffer evil while evils are sufferable" continue to prevent the social, cultural and political change that is necessary to confront the realities of an entirely new dynamics of environmental occupance patterns. Add to this the massive deterrance to change supported by the monstrous myths of our time, such as the "myth of the individual, " the "myth of free enterprise, " the "myth of the prac tical as opposed to the theoretical, " the "myth that all threats to the ’American way of life’ emanate from some foreign source and that all criticisms of the existing state of affairs or suggestions for change are related to that threat, " the myth that private investment alone and the American economy by itself can correct its sorry 2.8 per cent in crease in the gross national product over the 1953-1963 decade and dissolve to insignificance the expanding millions of unemployed, while consumption continues at a rate less than one-third that of in vestment, and the "myth that economic goals are cure-alls and that ethical and social objectives are somehow subversive." In such a climate the projection of any organizational change which is essentially political faces attack in the form of charges that may range from pink to treason, but the projection must be made, for a culture which faces threat of extinction far more real than any projection for necessary change to meet impending problems needs the revolutionary thinking that will produce the organization as well as the methodology to meet the challenge. However, since the first principle of the regional planner as generalist is to avoid excursions in depth into the specialized disciplines which are part and parcel of planning, no attempt will be made to project the constitutition, form. 3 4 9 structure, organization, or representation of the political organi zation necessary to assume regional responsibility. That occupation is the special concern of political scientists and public and private corporate administrators. The ever evolving democratic form of government has been subjected to change from its inception, with the writing of the Bill of Rights, to the most recent Twenty-third Amend ment which provided for the appointment of electors for the District of Columbia. The judicial and the executive branches have also undergone change with revision in structure as well as degree of authority. The legislative continually experiences change as the flow of population revises the number of representatives, and pending legislation oriented to "one citizen—one vote," will result in even greater changes. However, one of the goals of planning is to effect more rapid progress in the attainment of objectives. Rapid progress means rapid change. Rapid change may require much more rapid revision of organizational structure to effectuate planned objectives. It is vital that qualified political scientists project rational and ef fective alternatives within the basic democratic concept to meet and resolve the problems which today are evoking massive revolution. Finally, it is also self evident that there are limitations to what can be accomplished by organization. Any projected new or ganizational form should allow for exceptions and for the flexibility which is conducive not only to desirable change, but to promotion of the creative qualities of free men, lest it crush all that is best in man. CHAPTER VI EDUCATION FOR REUIOJNAE PLANNING In the light of the foregoing perspectives of regional planning, both inferred and projected, it is possible to draw a philosophy of education for regional planning, however, such a dissertation is be yond the scope of this thesis. Therefore, only a broad outline of education for regional planning will be presented with projected prin ciples sketched and main objectives indicated. Finally, an idealized core of studies will be set forth as the recommended minimum, which is herein considered basic to the effective education of a qualified regional planner. The philosophy of regional planning which ensues from the history presented herein projects two major elements which are cen tral to the concerns of planning, human resources and natural re sources. It views these as intimately interrelated, each dependent upon the other for survival as well as for development. All elements of region fall into one of these categories. Another approach is through the categories of primary and secondary resources, wherein the first encompasses environment and the second, man’s contri bution. Environment may be viewed as the vessel of civilization and in its more important sense is more a phenomena of the mind than of purely physical realities. Consequently, it is vital that the regional planner be aware of the minuteness of man and the region itself in 3 5 0 3 5 1 relation to the world and the universe in time and space. He must see and understand his region in relation to the national unity as well as regional diversity. He must further see that national unity in terms of its relation to other countries of the world, which have equal right to development and advancement. He must also under stand his time in relation to the past and to the future. Beyond this, the regional planner must be aware of the vastness of geological time and astronomical infinities which should facilitate the expansion of mind vital to approaching regional problems from an objective and from the empathetical point of view, rather than from merely a per sonal, ethnocentric, or sectional perspective. The regional planner is also predominantly a generalist. He has, by nature, the spirit of the revolutionist. His is a continual re volution against the static ideas that issue from isolated disciplines or separate branches of science or of art, which at best can per ceive only that segment of reality that the subject discipline, by vir tue of its specialization can only appraise in part. His is not, how ever, the attempt to inculcate a large number of subjects, or master an impossible number of disciplines, resulting in the mastery of inert, disconnected ideas, but is rather the purpose of drawing from each discipline which is of necessity related to the dynamics of region in terms of the insistent present, the main ideas that each has to offer and by a synthetical combination in every possible re lationship impose them upon the region to understand its systems of reality and the flow of events that constitute its life, thereby to plan. He must also journey further and employ the scientific method in its 3 5 2 best possible sense to utilize the knowledge that proceeds from this approach by projecting ideas based upon it and by proving these ideas through that method. Proof is of course related to the proving of the worth of the idea based upon that dynamic interrelation of truths dis covered by the synthesis of knowledge of region issuing from the separate disciplines. These interrelated truths of region finally un derstood in mass, constitute the realities of region with which the re gional planner is essentially concerned. Therefore, regional planning research and survey are undertaken through the many related disci plines, for the purpose of securing the truths related to regional ele ments ; regional analysis is conducted for the purpose of acquiring an understanding of the truths related to the realities of regional ele ments ; and regional synthesis is pursued for the purpose of under standing the relationships of regional elements pursuant to compre hending the region as a whole and indispensible for development of comprehensive plans for the growth and development of region over time. In other words, the intellectual pursuits of regionalism as science are addressed to securing knowledge of region, and its pur pose is the acquisition of the art of the utilization of that knowledge for planning the region. Further, the mass, complexity and dyna mics of region can only be perceived through the means of under standing its elements and the relationships between them, which re quires elimination of the discontinuities of disciplines which destroy the vitality of region as a unity, while not effectively revealing an adequate understanding of the elements of region themselves. It fol lows that the subjects which are to be pursued to develop a comp étant 3 53 generalist are specialized disciplines which will yield the sensitive sense of the power of ideas which flow from the relationships between the findings of the separate disciplines ; which yield a structure of ideas which can be tested for their worth in the real world of the region; which yield the utility and beauty of regional surround in terms of physical and functional aspect and effectiveness; and which yield a body of knowledge related to the region which is fundamental to promoting the advancement of the life it represents and contains, and the development of its physical growth in a way which will be con ducive to creating an environment of regional scale which will pro mote a more rapid cultural evolution. The ideas which issue from the generalist’s integration of the specialists' disciplines are triggered by synthesis from which flows the imagination which transforms knowledge into use, its truths into possibilities and its utility into valid and reliable application. This imagination not only clarifies facts but illuminates the general prin ciples which are related to the facts, which are then, through synthe sis, subjected to the intellectual evaluation in terms of the whole which yield alternatives consistent with the principles. In other words, the regional planner not only synthesizes the knowledge which issues from the interrelated disciplines, but integrates that know ledge with imagination and with experience, thereby eliminating the pitfalls of acting upon imagination without knowledge, or upon know ledge without imagination. Therefore, in a complex and dynamic region, the regionalist must have a knowledgeable as well as an imaginative comprehension 3 54 of the qualitative and quantitative aspects of human resources which would include their ecologies as well as their psychologies; he must have an understanding of the resources that sustain man and his cul ture, their quantity and quality, their sources and the cost of ac quiring them; he must have an understanding of the politics of econo mics and the economics of politics; he must have that insight into po litical and social organization on a regional basis which lend under standing of the forces that bind human organization within the region as well as the forces which tend to sever them; he must have a know ledgeable as well as an imaginative comprehension of the science and technology of the region and the political, social and economic conse- quencies of the evolution of science and the changes in technology; he must have an understanding of time scales, relational scales, struc tural scales and residual scales which impose themselves upon re gional realities; he must finally have the imagination as well as the knowledge to project from an imaginative as well as a knowledgeable base a valid and reliable series of relevant alternatives, as well as an effective evaluation of each which sets forth the consequencie s in terms of long-run and short-term costs and benefits. The role of the regional planner set forth above must be faci litated by an education which prepares him to assume the responsibi lities indicated and must be one in scale with the dimensions of re gional realities. The history of planning education is a relatively short one and of education for regional planning even shorter. Both have developed since the turn of the century, therefore the works on planning education are limited, but some do exist due to the concern 3 5 5 of several serious planners and professional organizations for this vital aspect of planning in general. The following represent some of the significant works in planning education which are pertinent to education for regional planning: (1) Adams, Frederick J. Urban Planning Education in the United States. Cincinnati: The Alfred Bettman Foundation, (2) Adams, Frederick J. , and Hodge, Gerald. "City Plan ning Instruction in the United States: The Pioneering Days, 1900-1930, " Journal of the American Institute of Architects, XXXI, No. 1 (February, 1965), pp. 43-51. (3) American Institute of Planners, California Chapter. "A Planning Education Report, " Journal of the American Insti tute of Planners, XXIV, No. 1 (February, 1958), pp. 28-3 2. (4) American Society of Planning Officials and the American Institute of Planners. Professional Planning Education in the United States and Canada, Chicago, 1959. (5) Branch, Melville C. , Jr. "Comprehensive Planning : A New Field of Study." Journal of the American Institute of Planners, XXV, No. 3 (August, 19^9). (6) Bradley, Donald Wayne. "A Comprehensive Study of the Educational Institutions Offering Academic Degrees in Plan ning in the United States, United Kingdom, and Selected Foreign Programs. " Unpublished Master’s thesis. Schools of Public Administration and Architecture, University of Southern California, Eos Angeles, June 1962. (7) Friedman, John. "Introduction to the Study and Practice of Planning. " International Social Science Journal, IX , 1959, pp. 327-340. (8) Friedman, John. "Regional Planning as a Field of Study." Journal of the American Institute of Planners, XXIX, No. 3 (August, 1963), pp. 168-175. Comments on "Regional Planning As A Field Of Study Harris, Britton, Ibid., pp. 17 5-17 6. Johnson, Walter K. , Ibid. , pp. 176-178. Ackerman, Edward A. , Ibid. , pp. 178-17 9. 1 1 . 35 6 (9) Gaus, John M. Education For Planners. Cambridge: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, 1943. (10) Howard, John T. "The Content of Professional Curricula in Planning. " Journal of the American Institute of Planners, XIV, No. 1, 1948, pp. 4-19. (11) Lee, James E. "The Role of the Planner in the Present: A Problem of Identification, " Journal of the American Insti- tute of Planning , XXIV (1958), pp. 151-157. (12) Morrison, Hugh S. Education for Planners. Boston: National Resources Planning Board, 1942. (13) Oberlander, H. Peter. 'Planning Education for Newly Independent Countries." Journal of the American Institute of Planners, XXVIII, No. 2 (May, 1962), pp. 116-123. (14) Perloff, Harvey. Education For Planning: City, State and Regional. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1957. (15) United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Training for Town and Country Planning, Housing, Building and Planning, No. IT ] 1957, New York. (16) United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Regional Planning, Housing, Building and Planning, Nos. 12 and 13. New York, 1959. (17) Webber, Melvin. "Comprehensive Planning and Social Responsibility: Toward an AIP Consensus on the Profession's Roles and Purposes. " Journal of the American Institute of Planners, XXIX, No. 4 (November, 1963), pp. 23 2- 241. (18) Williams, Frank Backus. "City Planning Instruction in Urban Schools and Colleges. " American City, XVI (March, I9I7), pp. 248-250. The evolution of city planning as a field of study and as a profession has been documented partially herein and a wealth of in formation is available to enable study in depth by the serious student. There has been a similar development in the field of education for planners, although that story is less well documented. The above studies do however, lend some insight to its development, as well as its present status, which is as would be expected, continually 357 changing. The history of regional planning as an action-oriented pro fession and as a field of study has not enjoyed either the growth or in cidence of city planning, as a review of our survey confirms. His tory records, and the survey indicates that regional planning has been organized to deal with public problems related to economics, urban development, conservation, resource development and use, public management, parks and recreation, public works, and others as in dicated in Table 6 of the survey. History also records that the rise incidence of regional planning has been related to the expansion of city planning, which experienced the need to appraise elements and measure forces that extended beyond the city, but had significant af fect upon the city. In a larger sense, a region more extensive than the "city region" emerged into the consciousness of those who pur sued solutions to problems of conservation and development of human and natural resources. Their pursuits and discoveries are elabo rated upon in the foregoing history. The purposes of regional plan ning are essentially the incentive for education to pursue it and im pose upon that pursuit the order and the elements that facilitates re search and the imagination that draws from the knowledge produced by many disciplines, the synthesis necessary to plan. The regional planner goes beyond, and after having struggled with the realm of natural and man-made law, journeys into the region of wonder. Therefore, the regional planner must in general have the capacity to think effectively, the ability to communicate, the facility to make re levant judgements, and the scientifically developed techniques of evaluating values and systems of values. The potential regional 3 5 8 planner should have a background in some general professional or scientific field and should have the equivalent of a masters degree in city planning. The discipline from which he comes should be one that subjected him to constant challenge and stimulus, demanded his at tention to the solution of difficult problems which developed his power of logic and reason and which demanded that he question his reasoning and the values being employed at every stage of development. The regional planner should have originality and inventive capacities, as well as the love for experiment which leads to invention and to dis covery. The aspiring regional planner should be brought into con tact with those eminent intellectuals, powerful of mind in those re lated disciplines that will play important roles in the regional plan ning process. State and national organizations and the university should provide these opportunities for the developing regional planner, for in them exist the basis for the creation of the generalist capable of comprehending the region and able to develop meaningful plans for its development. It is not unlikely that the skeptic will challenge this projection of the regional planner as generalist-- some will split hairs and label the regional planner as a specialist. In the first instance, he will charge that the role of regional planner as generalist is itself a spe cialization because as a co-ordinator he is a specialist in inter relationships and interactions or systems, but this is mere seman tics and a play on words. In the second, he might project the di lemma of "which came first, the chicken or the egg?" To this the answer is that the regional planner is and must first be a city planner. 3 5 9 and a specialist in the art and science of city planning--by education and training, as well as by experience. So the specialist qualification exists prior to pursuit of the generalist classification, although the city planner himself is essentially a generalist at the level of urban planning. The regional planner is therefore a specialist in terms of city planning and capable of solving particular problems and develo ping precise plans for their solution. Therefore, regional planning is partially an extension of city planning and expands its horizon from the specific problems of the city which include the specializations of transportation, law, municipal finance and fiscal policies, engineering, intra-governmental relations, urban renewal, development problems related to the allocation of space, etc. to the much broader and more generalized problems of region which encompass primary and secon dary resources, horizontal and vertical intra and inter-governmental relationships, communication and transportation systems, physical elements of regions in terms of their relationships, including cities within the region, both existing and proposed, which determine the region’s evolutionary status and the relationships between all these which determine the quality of the life the region makes possible. In other words, both city and regional planning are essentially genera list professions, although each has its specializations. Both are specializing disciplines when the concentration is upon specific ele ments within their environmental reality. Both become generalizing disciplines when the concentration is upon the whole and the concern, upon the relationships of the elements to the whole. Therefore city planning is a specializing discipline, when it addresses itself to traos- 360 portation, civic center development, parks and recreational systems, subdivision for residential, commercial or industrial land uses, etc., as microchoric elements of the city, but becomes a generalizing dis cipline when it addresses itself to the city as a whole, or as a me so - choric environmental reality and its concern becomes the relation ships between its microchoric elements. Similarly, regional planning is a specializing discipline when it addresses itself to regional econo mic development, analysis of metropolitan and inter-metropolitan ecological structure, economic location theory, central place study, the spatial structure of decisions and political authority, the role of cities in the development of regions, conservation, public works de velopment, development and use of natural resources, etc. , as meso- choric elements or problems of region, but becomes a generalizing discipline when it addresses itself to the region as a whole, or as a maxichoric environmental reality and its concern becomes the re lationships between its me so choric elements. The occupation of each determines whether its practictioner is a specialist or a generalist, and the distinction between the two is clear. The city planner who concentrates upon the microchoric elements, problems, develop ments, etc. of the city is a specialist, but if his concern is the en tire city, and he specializes in the relationships between microchoric elements of the city, he is a generalist. The regional planner who concentrates upon mesochoric elements, problems, developments, etc. of region is a specialist, but if his concern is the entire region and he specializes in the relationships between me so choric elements of the region, he is a generalist. 361 The following is a recommended curriculum for the Master of Science program in City Planning which would qualify the candidate for admission to candidacy for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Regional Planning. Prior to admission to the master’s program it is assumed that the candidate has successfully completed basic courses in economics, sociology, state and municipal government, elementary calculus, graphic representation, history of architec ture, statistics, city planning, principles of law of real estate, human geography, taxation and municipal finance, landscape archi tecture, American government, metropolitan government and anthro pology or demography. RECOMMENDED PREREQUISITE MASTER’S PROGRAM IN CITY PLANNING Summer Preceeding First Semester In-Service work experience in a recommended state or regional planning organization, or selected county or private regional planning agency. First Year First Semester Human Ecology History and Analysis of Cities Statistical Analysis Theory of City Planning History of Political Theory Urban Land Economics Elective Second Semester Urban Geography History of City Planning Statistical Inference Urban Communications Systems Landscape Planning Laboratory Planning and Zoning Law Elective Summer Following First Year Introduction to the Digital Computer and Programming The Digital Computer, or continuation of In-Service work experience with a concentration on computer use. 3 6 2 RECOMMENDED PREREQUISITE MASTER'S PROGRAM IN CITY PLANNING Continued Third Semester Sub-Division and Site Planning Urban Renewal and Housing Planning Analysis and Research Metropolitan Government City Planning Laboratory Regional Planning Theory and History Thesis Fourth Semester Introduction to Conservation Professional Practice Introduction to Regional Analysis Advanced Seminar in City Planning City Planning Laboratory Applied Regional Planning The sis The above program which deviates somewhat from the normal program for city planning, which is actually theoretical due to the wide variations from university to university, is oriented toward pre paring the student for admission to the doctoral program in regional planning, which although it might be less rigid in its requirements would be developed primarily in accordance with the candidate's ob jectives, would, non the less, require satisfactory completion of some basic core courses with a compensatory wider latitude in elective courses. The recommended basic core curriculum for the doctorate in regional planning is as follows : RECOMMENDED DOCTORAL PROGRAM IN REGIONAL PLANNING Human Resource Theory Advanced Theory of Regional Planning Regional Systems Analysis, Elementary & Advanced Models National Economic and Regional Spatial Planning Inter and Intra-Regional Political Theory and National Planning Electives (3) Conservation and Natural Resource Development Regional and Social Science Theory and Physical Science Relationships Regional Location Theory Regional and Inter-Regional Economic Theory Regional Development Law Electives (3) 363 RECOMMENDED DOCTORAL PROGRAM IN REGIONAL PLANNING Continued Regional Planning Laboratory: Regional Planning Laboratory: The Urban Region An Under-developed Region Foreign Language Foreign Language Dissertation Dissertation The above program should have a qualifying examination which would consist of an evaluation of the candidate's previous work as well as an oral and written examination. The dissertation should represent a contribution to the field of regional planning. Publication of the dissertation would be required and should be sponsored by the university. The program should at a minimum consume three years, with the first two devoted to the core curriculum and the last to writing the dissertation, which should have been researched during the second year. The final year should also require the candidate to conduct graduate seminars for students in the city planning program. C H A P T E R VII S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S IO N The work presented herein is primarily historical in nature and represented as much a need on the part of the author to extend to greater depth his understanding of the planning process as it did the fulfillment of a formal academic requirement for the degree. Since history has the value of establishing a perspective on the nature of reality and of illuminating the questions that arise from apparent contradictions and paradoxes, the study has attempted to illustrate the historical development of regional planning in the light of the re volutionary and evolutionary events which delineate the growth of nation. It first presented a view of those dynamic positive and ne gative national and regional realities which offer a possible future of incomparable cultural advancement while at the same time threate ning complete disaster. It painted a picture of the dynamics of popu lation growth and change and the diverse revolutions and evolutions which established a mandate for planning in scale with its dimensions The second theme involved the history of the rise and inci dence of regional planning set against the background of revolution and evolution at the turn of the century. The highlights of that his tory were well documented by the growth and incidence of city plan ning, the efforts of conservationists to preserve and insure proper use of our natural resources, the dynamic growth and development 3 6 4 3 6 5 of the American city and the conflicts between legally established jurisdictions, which saw the rise and incidence of metropolitan plan ning, then referred to erroneously as regional planning. The de pression which was boon to the critic, the reformer, the propagan dist and to lovers of confusion, strife and turmoil, was also an era which saw creative efforts launched to meet the economic disaster which was marked by the paradox of a massive technological capa city to produce three times the maximum output of the 1920's lying idle and billions of dollars of uncirculated money and surplus wealth in control of an extraordinary few people and corporations held im potent as against the widespread unemployment and deprivations re sulting therefrom. Those efforts resulted in the creation of the Ten nessee Valley Authority, which not only transformed the region and its people, but was internationally hailed as a prototype for develop ment of river valley regions all over the world. The depression also saw the emergence of national and regional planning at a level of re search and analysis that was unprecedented in the history of the nation. The work performed by the National Resources Planning Board, the National Resources Committee and the National Planning Board, all now defunct, established standards of research and plan ning and concepts and principles which remain today as valid guides L o planning. The era was also marked by numerous contributions by practictioners and theoreticians in the field who produced an ex tensive regional planning literature. The earliest and a classic yet to be discovered by many planners who are regional planners by cir cumstance, was The New Exploration; A Philosophy of Regional 3 6 6 P 1 aiming by Benton MacKaye. Another, American Regionalism , by the late giant sociologist Howard W. Odum, represents yet another classic whose value is yet to be discovered by planners in general and regional planners in particular. Numerous others made signifi cant contributions which have established a rich regional planning literature, not only illuminating the struggles of dedicated men to project a methodology equal to the tremendous challenges of a rapidly evolving culture, but also productive of humility, as those men made decisions and produced new approaches to problems in the light of considered consequencies of their own values and methods and the confrontation with the disparity between existing patterns of thought and a reality to which they were no longer révélant. Therefore, the depression, which held a prosperous nation on the brink of disinte gration and chaos for a decade or more and only found release in the second world war, made its contribution to regional planning. The expansion of the city region in terms of jurisdictions and authorities intensified the problems of region and saw the evolution of numerous means, mostly ineffective, instituted to solve essen tially regional problems. Some of these were annexation, co-oper ation, the contract system, county reorganization, etc. , but history records that none of these methods have proved sufficiently lasting or effective to assume the responsibility of solving regional planning problems. The interstate compact was reviewed and its history sketched and it was found to have been employed extensively in many single-purpose matters, but little in planning of a comprehensive nature. It was projected as a possible organizational means for 36 7 solution to such problems as metropolitan regions expand to the limits of natural regions and encompass territories within the boun daries of two or more states. In Chapter III the findings of two surveys were presented in tabulated form, which illustrated the status of regional and state planning in practice as it exists throughout the fifty states and the academic status of regional planning as revealed by thirty-five insti tutions of higher learning. From the historical base of the evolution of planning in terms of the region and from the surveys. Chapter IV set forth a perspective of regional planning by inference; and from that base. Chapter V presented a perspective of regional planning by projection. The former established the region as a valid planning unit, since it was first an areal or spatial reality with identifying characteristics of a physio graphical, economic, and cultural nature expressing a degree of homogeniety in all these as well as charac teristics imposed by the type and nature of its resources and the structural realities of its functions. The region was also found to be externally related to other regions through bonds which create the strength and unity of nation and through diversity which lends color, variety and dynamic growth to the nation. It was also discovered to be internally composed of sub-regions, or large elements meso choric in nature, that contribute to the unity and diversity of region as do regions as maxichoric elements contribute to the unity and diversity of nation. Therefore, the region was found to be neither self-sustaining, nor independent, but part of a greater reality whose potential it could well contribute to in terms of a more realistic in 3 6 8 tegration of national diversities. It further elaborated upon regional functions, elements and problems and clarified the relationships be tween them that were at once the bond of region and the concern of the planner who desired to resolve regional problems. This led, of course to the comprehensive nature of regional planning and a philo sophy related thereto, which rejects as invalid a regional planning other than comprehensive in nature. It was further deducted from historical evidence that the scientific method was part and parcel of the regional planning approach, even from the outset, since regional plans predominantly exhibited that method for their fact finding, ana lysis, test, and projected plans based upon thesis subjected to analy sis, and analysis subjected to synthesis. There followed the enumeration of incentives and objectives of regional planning which were related to the levels of planning, the resources of region, the elements of region and the problems asso ciated therewith. Here regional planning was again viewed in a com prehensive sense, in that though it was concerned with the speciali zations of land planning, water development and planning, conser vation of natural resources, transportation and communication plan ning, general economic and social planning and the planning of cul tural facilities as well, it was more concerned with the relationships between these and this proved to be the major objective of planning, in that its concern with water is in itself comprehensive, since it involves navigation, flood control, rivers and harbors, coast line, water supply, pollution, and the economics of freight rates as well. Water development and conservation also involves dams for power 3 6 9 and the recreational lakes resultant therefrom, as well as the pro vision for irrigation and the control of erosion, the conservation of soil and the conservation of fish and wildlife. These relationships can be carried further to encompass all elements of region in criti cal ecology, which the regional planner assumes man must under stand and plan his own developments within, if he is not to destroy the relationships which make life possible on this earth. It followed that necessary organization must be established to effectuate these objectives, and it was shown that regional political theorists pro posed many forms that that organization might take; however, their efforts did little more than illuminate the need for organization to assume responsibility for regional problems. The Chapter ended on a note which occurred in the Wall Street Journal, which indicated a trend toward the revival of regions as a result of the recent Appa lachia legislation. Chapter V, Regional Planning: A Perspective by Projection, attempted to illustrate regional planning of the future against a back ground of rapid social, economic, technological and political change. It first projected a re source-oriented regional planning and pre dicted a goal-oriented regional planning. This was followed by the projection of a scientifically and technologically oriented regional planning, which would employ the best of scientific and technological development in its analytical and synthetical approaches to planning, and also advise the rational use of its fruits in more effectively con verting the physical surround to an environment on a regional scale that is more conducive to the promotion of a more rapid cultural 370 advancement. It suggested the need for reorganization of new insti tutions to assume responsibility for regional problems. Indicating that the important concern was not whether private industry should do it or whether government should, but that demands of the present and the potential of the future are a challenge to both, and both should share in the responsibilities as well as the benefits which will result from positive roles open to them. Not merely the evolution of existing forms of organization, but new forms of both private and public organization must be developed within the democratic fram e work to meet the challenge or face at best an arrested civilization, or worse, cultural impoverishment. It finally predicted a science of region, which would not only survey and research the millions of regional phenomena and create occupation out of analysis, but would advance its methodology to synthesis and through the necessary or ganization predicted above, establish the policies and programs that systhesis demands, and that a scientifically determined goal priority schedule based on the aspirations of the people as individuals and as groups and the analysis and synthesis of region reveal as pertinent to the qualitative development of region. The following chapter set forth the characteristics desirable in the regional planner of the future, inferred that in some respects he must be a specialist, but is primarily a generalist who must deal with the many complex elements of the region and understand them through the eyes of those disciplines which have historically concen trated upon scientific investigations of specialized phenomena, whether social, physical, economic, or political, but of regional 371 scope. It is through, them he is able to view the region as unity, and discern the relationships which bind it together as well as the forces that tend to divide it. It is also through them he is able to bring into focus the similarities of regional reality which create regional consciousness, and the diversities which give it richness. Through this approach, the regional planner gains the understanding necessary to develop imaginative plans for the future growth and development of the region. It was recommended that the regional planner be a quali fied city planner prior to admission to the program for the doctorate in regional planning, and illustrated a recommended curriculum of studies which would qualify the candidate for admission to the doc toral program. It finally formulated a program for the doctorate in regional planning. The qualifications would prepare the practitioner to assume the responsibilities that would be placed in the hands of the regional planner; however, such a man could work effectively today in such regions as Southern California, or megalopolitan regions as exists along the East coast of the United States, extending from Southern New Hampshire to Northern Virginia, and from the Atlantic shore to the Appalachain foothills. Such professionals should, how ever be educated now, so that when the demand for their services develops, they will be available. Conclusions The foregoing history of regional planning set against the background of social, cultural and economic evolution of a nation reveals a cyclical pattern which is dramatically related to that 372 evolution. Its strongest manifestations appear to occur during the cycles of peak economic growth which is accompanied by urbanization and during periods of economic recession or depression when the chief concern of nation becomes the welfare of its people. It appears that only during periods of war, planning concerned with economic growth and social welfare is abandoned. The moral force emergent in the world today, which expresses widespread abhorrence of war and an increasing demand for peace at a time when a nation still at tuned to an economy of scarcity manages the production and distri bution of abundance through the agencies of the former. The results are appalling: poverty in the midst of plenty, two-fifths of the nation’s people living in poverty and deprivation; our cities ugly ghettoized blights on the landscape; a potent technology straining at the bit of obsolete economic reins, prostituting its virtuosity upon the mass production of junk; slow economic growth at a rate three per cent less than that required to absorb the annual increase in the civilian labor force; a forty-two per cent gain in the segment of the population on public relief rolls over the 1954-1964 decade, while the population in crease for the same decade was only eighteen per cent; $10 billion per year spent on highways, an amount almost equal to that spent on education, and a unitized transportation system which costs $80 bil lion annually, exacting immeasurable human costs, while adding to the pollution of air and the congestion of traffic in cities, where sup plementary transportation facilities such as railroads are increas ingly abandoned, while airlines, even less used, draw huge subsidies for operation and for the building of aircraft and airports; the pro 373 liferation of tax assessing jurisdictions, diffusing the tax base and destroying its effectiveness in solving area or regional problems; social, economic and political myths that militate against the more rapid evolution of the democratic form of government vital for con fronting twentieth century challenges or inviting cultural impoverish ment; multiple revolutions that evoke issues which current organi zation often denies or even more often is ill equipped to face; an ex ploding population which may reach 255 millions by the year 2000 — more than a fifty per cent increase over the I960 urban population, which will require forty-one million acres of land for urban use if current uncontrolled patterns of growth are allowed to continue; superficial division between government and so-called private enter prise, which in its more massive and formidable form is not unlike government in many respects; the regional integration vital to national growth and strength and the imponderable problems at the national level which depend upon regional solution for their cure; the continued waste of human resources that weakens the nation and promotes cultural impoverishment at a time which demands an edu cated electorate to promote the further evolution of the culture, ca pitalize upon scientific and technological advancement, and augment the growth and development of the nation. These and numerous other characteristics of the nation represent problems which exist p ri marily on a regional basis and must be solved if a more satisfactory cultural advancement is to be accomplished and the destructive ten dencies of revolution are to be controlled and directed toward more constructive short-run and long-run goals. 37 4 A critical analysis of the history of regional planning reveals a vast panorama of areal problems expanding with the growth of popu lation and intensifying as that population developed its secondary re sources and exploited its prim ary resources to create an environ ment conducive to promoting cultural and economic advancement; in stitutionalization in continual evolution as men attempted to develop organization to cope with the problems of urbanization and the needs of an increasingly urbanized society; dynamic evolution of science and revolution of technology, further complicating that urbanization, but only partially employed in the solution of critical problems that depend upon its more rational application to solve; intensifying social revolution which saw the evolution of periferal and remedial efforts to resolve issues that create it; and a sluggish economic system sup ported by an equally ineffective political system produce a population only three-fifths affluent and continually incapable of re solving the problems which maintain the plight of the remaining two-fifths of the nation. The history of the rise and incidence of regional planning admist all these paradoxical phenomena is pre-eminently marked by the development of a rich literature of regional planning which at tempts to attack manifestations of these problems that cut across jurisdictional boundaries, and to develop a philosophy as well which would promote confrontation by society of the issues and promote the formulation of policies and the development of programs designed to attack the cause. Therefore, the thesis herewith presented is not the normal "tight argument," characterized by a simple hypothesis- oriented, research design approach which leads to specialized clear^ 375 cut conclusions, but is rather an attempt to grasp through the his torical approach an evolution, comprehensive in hature which illu minates the stages of its development and the ideas that promoted it. A valid historical approach would require rather a scientific metho dology, with extensive research and analysis of the events that con stitute regional planning history and a synthesis of the knowledge dis covered, which after resolution of questions of relevancy, reliability, and validity, would be interpreted to yield an understanding which would point the way or at least suggest ways to a positive future, thus avoiding the mistakes of the past. The vastness of the literature and the numerous contributors make such an approach prohibitive, there fore, it was decided that an exhaustive compilation of the works of the contributors to the literature would present a history and a source of historical information which could serve as a valuable tool to planners. This approach, it was felt, would not only present the case for regional planning at a scale commensurate with today's realities and tomorrow's potentials, but record man’s efforts to meet those realities as history unfolded. Any attempt to enumerate specialized conclusions to so vast a history might be considered a r rogantly presumptive, because innumerable conclusions are possible, but a few generalized conclusions, characteristic of regional planning itself will be set forth to illuminate principles of regional planning that any valid history should yield. F irst, planning is not merely an inherent right of the state, but a responsibility of all the institutions of society. The institutions which represent the vital organization of society cannot exist in a 376 vacuum, cannot live in the past, nor can they live only for the p re sent. As agencies through which men secure the major goals of the continued evolution of culture and the advancement of civilization, the most irresponsible procedure would be the development of poli cies, plans and programs without planning. History confirms this principle and current practices as illustrated by the state and r e gional planning survey included herein document it. Second, planning is concerned with a dynamic rather than a static reality, for not only the earth’s population is dynamic, but the use of the earth by that population is dynamic as is the earth itself. Man’s secondary resources exhibit cycles of birth, aging and death and require conservation and renewal if they are to most economi cally serve man’s ends. Valid planning at the regional level becomes intimately aware of this process and approaches its task in the light of this principle. Third, planning is a comprehensive discipline and is only valid in the light of economic, social, political, physical and scien tific realities, and extends its concern to the dynamic relationships between all these in its efforts to project valid plans and formulate effective policies for the development of region and thereby advance the development of civilization. These realities must be approached at many levels and understood in several senses to be employed in the planning process. For example, the economics of the business firm is totally inadequate for determining feasibility of vast inter related regional projects that the existence of the business firm may depend upon. Here, qualitative as well as quantitative determinants 377 of feasibility must be analyzed if valid decisions are to be made. The character of much planning may be physical, but its criteria are eco nomic and social, and implementation is through political or other responsible organization. Fourth, planning employs the scientific method in its ap proach to decision making, and goes beyond into synthesis as a basis for decision. This approach goes far beyond the mere data-collec ting and analysis of the million phenomena of the urban or natural region into the relationships between its social, economic, political, physical, and scientific realities and the forces and processes that act upon and occur between them and which determine economic growth as well as social disorganization. Fifth, unity and diversity are companion characteristics of nation, region, state, and city. The first creates the bond that con tributes to continuity of each; the second creates the variety that gives it richness. At each level, planning is significant and neces sary, but each level has limits in terms of the effectiveness with which it can plan. There are problems and functions municipal in scope that the federal government, the regional organization and the state should not attempt to solve. Similarly, there are problems national, regional or statewide that are not remotely within the range of solution by the municipality. Valid regional plans should be developed in term s of the problems and functions which are regional in scope. Some of these are now being handled by either local or national government. A more effective ordering of re sponsibility should be developed to prevent the pursuit of problems 378 by organization too weak fiscally or otherwise to handle them, as well as prevent the assumption by the federal government of pro blems not truly national in scope. An adequate concept of region and effective regional organization must be developed to assume respon sibility for regional problems. The emerging regions, created by unification of counties do not represent the most effective solution to the problems of region. There must also be developed a structure and a limit to regions so that a rational relationship between each planning level for the purpose of coordination can be developed. Sixth, regional planning as a profession will be developed out of the imperitives that demand planning at the regional level, and existing institutions of an educational as well as functional nature must assume the responsibility of educating planners to tackle the problems of region which even now are intensifying. The need for specialization is clear, but the dangers arising from excessive specialization on the part of the regional planner are great. The directive force of reason is impaired, the leading planners lack balance, they see this or that set of circumstances, but not all to gether. The task of co-ordination is often left to those who lack either the force or character to succeed in some definite speciali zation. The specialized functions of planning are performed better and more progressively, but the generalized direction lacks vision. The progressiveness of specialization only adds to the danger pro duced by the weakness of coordination. Therefore the regional plan ner as generalist must be prepared to assume those responsibilities which concern relationships between regional elements, problems. 379 cU id functions, which facilitate the comprehensive view that is tanta mount to planning. Seventh, planning at all levels should develop a priority structured goal system, oriented to the welfare and progress of human beings and based upon a valid social ethic, which should guide all decisions, but which itself should be considered dynamic, for a goal pursued is an objective, but attained is an opportunity, there- periodic reappraisal of goals in the light of rapidly changing social, political and economic realities, must be made to permit modifi cation as well as the reassignment of resources to new goals. Eighth, planning at all levels must construct a scientifically developed value system, oriented to the welfare and progress of the nation, and this principle, dynamically related to the priority struc tured goal system will facilitate the elimination of environmental re sistances and secure those priorities of progress which measure the advance of civilization. Finally, the region is a valid planning level, for it is of suf ficient scale to encompass a territory of sufficient dimension to em brace adequate forces and relationships of the vital elements that shape the city and the metropolis as the major elements of region, where they come into sharp enough focus to facilitate analysis, syn thesis and the development of plans for the qualitative evolution of that complex. In conclusion, it can be said that the fountain head of a creative federalism is a dynamic regionalism. Policies planning at the national level will find its fruition in a vital regional base, which 380 is the co-ordinative level of planning for the several levels of govern ment, for both the natural and the urban region. Ultimately, the greatest hope for America’s cities and complexes of American cities, as the vital centers of cultural evolution, is a regional approach to development and renewal, which facilitates the implementation of broad unified plans that will effect the cooperation of jurisdictions and private institutions within the region, which is prerequisite to resolving environmental resistances and securing those priorities of progress which measure the advancement of civilization, Lewis Mumford has often said, "the function of the city is to convert power into form, energy into culture, dead matter into living symbols of art, and biological reproduction into social crea tivity, " As cities of the urban complex expand to the limits of the natural region, that philosophy is equally applicable to the region, but demands a dynamic and creative regional planning to bring it into being. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Adams, Brooks. The Law of Civilization and Decay: An Essay on History. 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A P P E N D I X A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS United Nations 411 U N I V E R S A L D E C L A R A T I O N OF H U M A N R IG H T S P r e a m b le W h e r e a s r e c o g n itio n o f th e in h e r e n t d ig n ity a n d o f th e e q u a l a n d in a lie n a b le rig h ts of a ll m e m b e r s o f th e h u m a n fa m ily is th e fo u n d a tio n o f fr e e d o m , ju stic e a n d p e a c e in th e w o rld . W h e r e a s d isreg a rd an d c o n te m p t for h u m a n rig h ts h a v e r e su lte d in b a rb a ro u s a c ts w h ic h h a v e o u tr a g e d th e c o n s c ie n c e o f m a n k in d , a n d th e a d v e n t o f a w o r ld in w h ic h h u m a n b e in g s sh a ll e n jo y fr e e d o m o f s p e e c h a n d b e lie f a n d fr e e d o m fro m fe a r a n d w a n t h as b e e n p r o c la im e d a s th e h ig h e st a sp ir a tio n o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le , W h e r e a s it is e sse n tia l, if m a n is n o t to b e c o m p e lle d to h a v e reco u rse, a s la s t resort, to r e b e llio n a g a in st ty r a n n y a n d o p p ressio n , th a; h u m a n rig h ts sh o u ld b e p r o te c te d b y th e ru le o f law , W h e r e a s it is essen tia^ to p r o m o te th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f fr ie n d ly r e la tio n s betw <'en n a tio n s. W h e r e a s tl.e p e o p le s o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s h a v e in th e C h a rter rea ffirm ed th e ir fa ith in fu n d a m e n ta l h u m a n righ ts, in th e d ig n ity an d w o r th o f th e h u m a n p erso n a n d in th e e q u a l rig h ts o f m e n a n d w o m e n a n d h a v e d e te r m in e d to p r o m o te so c ia l p ro g ress a n d b e tte r sta n d a r d s of life in larger fr e e d o m . W h e r e a s M e m b e r S ta te s h a v e p le d g e d th e m s e lv e s to a c h ie v e , in c o -o p e r a tio n w ith th e U n ite d N a tio n s, th e p r o m o tio n o f u n iv e r sa l r e s p e c t for a n d o b se r v a n c e o f h u m a n rig h ts a n d fu n d a m e n ta l fr e e d o m s, W h e r e a s a c o m m o n u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e s e rig h ts a n d fr e e d o m s is o f th e g r e a te st im p o r ta n c e for th e fu ll r e a lisa tio n o f th is p le d g e , 412 N o w t h e r e fo r e T H E G E N E R A L A S S E M B L Y p r o c la im s T h is U n iv e rsa l D e c la ra tio n o f H u m a n R ig h ts as a c o m m o n sta n d a r d o f a c h ie v e m e n t for a ll p e o p le s a n d a ll n a tio n s, to th e en d th a t e v e r y in d iv id u a l an d e v e r y o rgan o f s o c ie ty , k e e p in g th is D e c la r a tio n c o n s ta n tly in m in d , sh a ll str iv e b y te a c h in g a n d e d u c a tio n to p r o m o te r e sp e c t for th e se rig h ts a n d fr e e d o m s an d b y p r o g r e ssiv e m e a su r e s, n a tio n a l a n d in te r n a tio n a l, to se c u r e th e ir u n iv e r sa l a n d e ffe c tiv e r e c o g n itio n a n d o b se r v a n c e , b o th a m o n g th e p e o p le s o f M e m b e r S ta te s th e m s e lv e s a n d a m o n g th e p e o p le s o f te r r ito rie s u n d er th e ir ju r isd ic tio n . A r tic le 1. A ll h u m a n b e in g s a re b o rn free a n d e q u a l in d ig n ity a n d rig h ts. T h e y are e n d o w e d w ith r ea so n a n d c o n s c ie n c e a n d sh o u ld a c t to w a r d s o n e a n o th e r in a sp ir it o f b r o th erh o o d . A r tic le 2. E v e r y o n e is e n title d to a ll th e rig h ts a n d fr e e d o m s se t fo r th in th is D e c la r a tio n , w ith o u t d istin c tio n o f a n y k in d , su c h as race, co lo u r, sex , la n g u a g e , r e lig io n , p o litic a l or o th e r o p in io n , n a tio n a l or so c ia l origin , p r o p e r ty , b irth or o th er sta tu s. F u r th e r m ore, n o d istin c tio n sh a ll b e m a d e on th e b a sis o f th e p o litic a l, ju r isd ic tio n a l or in te r n a tio n a l sta tu s o f th e c o u n tr y or territo ry to w h ic h a p e r so n b e lo n g s, w h e th e r it b e in d e p e n d e n t, tru st, n o n se lf-g o v e r n in g or u n d er a n y o th er lim ita tio n o f s o v e r e ig n ty . A r tic le 3. E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to life, lib e r ty a n d s e c u r ity o f p erso n . A r tic le 4. N o o n e sh a ll b e h e ld in s la v e r y or se r v itu d e ; s la v e r y a n d th e s la v e tr a d e sh a ll b e p r o h ib ite d in a ll th e ir form s. A r tic le 5. N o o n e sh a ll b e su b je c te d to to r tu r e or to cru el, in h u m a n or d e g r a d in g tr e a tm e n t or p u n ish m e n t. A r tic le 6. E v e r y o n e h as th e rig h t to r e c o g n itio n e v e r y w h e r e as a p erso n b e fo r e th e la w . A r tic le 7. A ll are e q u a l b e fo r e th e la w a n d a re e n title d w ith o u t a n y d isc r im in a tio n to e q u a l p r o te c tio n o f th e la w . A ll a re en - 413 title d to e q u a l p r o te c tio n a g a in st a n y d isc r im in a tio n in v io la tio n o f th is D e c la r a tio n an d a g a in st a n y in c ite m e n t t su ch d isc r im i n a tio n . A rtic le 8. E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to a n e ffe c tiv e r e m e d y b y th e c o m p e te n t n a tio n a l tr ib u n a ls for a c ts v io la tin g th e fu n d a m e n ta l rig h ts g ra n te d h im b y th e c o n stitu tio n or b y la w . A r tic le 9. N o o n e sh a ll b e su b je c te d to a r b itr a r y a rrest, d e te n tio n or e x ile . A r tic le 10. E v e r y o n e is e n titb n . ui n .ll e q u a lity to a fa ir a n d p u b lic h e a r in g b y a n in d e p e n d e n t an d im p a r tia l trib u n a l, in th e d e te r m in a tio n o f h is rig h ts a n d o b lig a tio n s a n d o f a n y cr im in a l ch a rg e a g a in st h im . A rtic le 11. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e ch a rg ed w ith a p e n a l o ffe n c e h a s th e rig h t to b e p r e su m e d in n o c e n t u n til p r o v e d g u ilty a c c o r d in g to la w in a p u b lic tria l a t w h ic h h e h a s h a d a ll th e g u a r a n te e s n e c e s sa r y for h is d e fe n c e . ( 2 ) N o o n e sh a ll b e h e ld g u ilty o f a n y p e n a l o ffe n c e o n a c c o u n t of a n y a c t or o m issio n w h ic h d id n o t c o n s titu te a p e n a l o ffen ce, u n d er n a tio n a l or in te r n a tio n a l law , a t th e tim e w h e n it w a s c o m m itte d . N o r sh a ll a h e a v ie r p e n a lty b e im p o s e d th a n th e o n e th a t w a s a p p lic a b le a t th e tim e th e p e n a l o ffe n c e w a s c o m m itte d . A r tic le 12. N o o n e sh a ll b e s u b je c te d to a r b itr a r y in te r fe r e n c e w ith h is p r iv a c y , fa m ily , h o m e or c o r r e sp o n d e n c e , n o r to a tta c k s u p o n h is h o n o u r a n d r e p u ta tio n . E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to th e p r o te c tio n o f th e la w a g a in st su c h in te r fe r e n c e or a tta c k s. A r tic le 13. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to fr e e d o m o f m o v e m e n t an d r e sid e n c e w ith in th e b o rd ers o f e a c h sta te . ( 2 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to le a v e a n y c o u n tr y , in c lu d in g h is ow n , a n d to retu rn to h is co u n try . A r tic le 14. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to s e e k a n d to e n jo y in o th er c o u n tr ie s a sy lu m from p e r se c u tio n . ( 2 ) T h is rig h t m a y n o t b e in v o k e d in th e c a se o f p r o se c u tio n s g e n u in e ly a r isin g fro m n o n -p o litic a l c r im e s or from a c ts c o n tr a r y to th e p u r p o se s a n d p r in c ip le s o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s. 414 A rtic le 15. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to a n a tio n a lity . ( 2 ) N o o n e sh a ll b e a rb itra rily d e p r iv e d o f h is n a tio n a lity nor d e n ie d th e rig h t to ch a n g e h is n a tio n a lity . A rtic le 16. ( 1 ) M e n an d w o m e n o f fu ll age, w ith o u t a n y lim ita tio n d u e to race, n a tio n a lity or religion , h a v e th e righ t to m a rry an d to fo u n d a fa m ily . T h e y are e n title d to eq u a l rig h ts as to m arriage, d u rin g m arriage an d at its d isso lu tio n . ( 2 ) M a rria g e sh a ll b e e n te r e d in to o n ly w ith th e free an d fu ll c o n se n t o f th e in te n d in g sp o u ses. ( 3 ) T h e fa m ily is th e n a tu ra l an d fu n d a m e n ta l g rou p u n it o f s o c ie ty an d is e n title d to p r o te c tio n b y s o c ie ty an d th e S ta te. A rticle 17. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e righ t to o w n p ro p erty a lo n e as w e ll as in a sso c ia tio n w ith oth ers. ( 2 ) N o o n e sh a ll b e a rb itra rily d e p r iv e d o f his p ro p erty . A rtic le 18. E v e r y o n e h as th e rig h t to freed o m o f th o u g h t, c o n sc ie n c e an d religion ; th is rig h t in c lu d e s freed o m to ch a n g e h is relig io n or b e lie f, an d freed o m , e ith er a lo n e or in c o m m u n ity w ith o th ers an d in p u b lic or p riv a te, to m a n ife st h is relig io n or b e lie f in tea ch in g , p ra ctice, w o rsh ip an d o b serv a n ce. A rticle 19. E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to freed o m o f o p in io n a n d ex p ression ; th is rig h t in c lu d e s freed o m to h o ld o p in io n s w ith o u t in te r fe r en ce an d to seek , r e c e iv e an d im p a rt in fo rm a tio n a n d id e a s th rou gh a n y m e d ia an d reg a rd less o f fron tiers. A rtic le 20. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e righ t to freed o m o f p e a c e fu l a sse m b ly a n d a sso cia tio n . ( 2 ) N o o n e m a y b e c o m p e lle d to b e lo n g to an a sso cia tio n . A rtic le 21. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e rig h t to ta k e p art in th e g o v e rn m en t o f h is co u n try , d ir e c tly or th ro u g h fr e e ly c h o se n rep re se n ta tiv e s. ( 2 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t o f eq u a l a c c e ss to p u b lic se r v ic e in h is co u n try . ( 3 ) T h e w ill o f th e p e o p le sh a ll b e th e b a sis o f th e a u th o r ity o f go v ern m en t; th is w ill sh a ll b e ex p r e sse d in p erio d ic an d g en u in e e le c tio n s w h ic h sh a ll b e b y u n iv e r sa l an d eq u a l su ffrage an d sh a ll b e h e ld b y se c r e t v o te or b y e q u iv a le n t free v o tin g p roced u res. 415 A rtic le 22. E v e r y o n e , as a m em b er of so ciety , h as th e righ t to so c ia l se c u r ity an d is e n title d to rea lisa tio n , th rou gh n a tio n a l effort an d in tern a tio n a l co -o p era tio n and in a cco rd a n ce w ith th e o r g a n isa tio n an d resou rces o f ea ch S ta te, o f th e eco n o m ic, so c ia l an d cu ltu ra l righ ts in d isp e n sa b le for h is d ig n ity an d th e free d e v e lo p m e n t of h is p erso n a lity . A rtic le 23. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to w ork, to free ch o ice of e m p lo y m e n t, to ju st an d fa v o u ra b le c o n d itio n s of w ork an d to p r o tectio n a g a in st u n e m p lo y m e n t. ( 2 ) E v e r y o n e , w ith o u t ,iny d iscrim in a tio n , h as th e righ t to eq u a l p a y for eq u a l w ork. ( 3 ) E v e r y o n e w h o w ork s h as th e righ t to ju st an d fa v o u r a b le rem u n era tio n in su rin g for h im se lf and h is fa m ily an e x iste n c e w o r th y o f h u m an d ig n ity , an d su p p le m e n te d , if n ecessa ry , b y o th er m e a n s of so c ia l p ro tectio n . ( 4 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to form an d to jo in tra d e u n io n s for th e p r o tectio n o f h is in terests. A rtic le 24. E v e r y o n e h a s th e righ t to rest an d leisu re, in c lu d in g r ea so n a b le lim ita tio n o f w o rk in g h ou rs an d p erio d ic h o lid a y s w ith p ay. A rtic le 25. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to a sta n d a rd o f liv in g a d e q u a te for th e h e a lth an d w e ll-b e in g of h im se lf an d o f h is fa m ily , in clu d in g food, clo th in g , h o u sin g a n d m e d ic a l care and n e c e ssa r y so c ia l serv ices, an d th e rig h t to se c u r ity in th e e v e n t of u n e m p lo y m e n t, sick n ess, d isa b ility , w id o w h o o d , o ld a g e or o th er la ck of liv e lih o o d in cir c u m sta n c e s b e y o n d h is con trol. ( 2 ) M o th e r h o o d an d c h ild h o o d are e n title d to sp e c ia l care an d a ssista n ce. A ll ch ild ren , w h eth er b orn in or o u t o f w ed lo ck , sh a ll e n jo y th e sa m e so cia l p ro tectio n . A rticle 26. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e righ t to ed u ca tio n . E d u c a tio n sh a ll b e free, at le a st in th e e le m e n ta r y an d fu n d a m e n ta l sta g es. E le m e n ta r y e d u c a tio n sh a ll b e co m p u lso ry . T e c h n ic a l an d pro fe ssio n a l e d u c a tio n sh a ll b e m a d e g e n e r a lly a v a ila b le an d h ig h er e d u c a tio n sh a ll b e e q u a lly a c c e ssib le to a ll on th e b a sis of m erit. ( 2 ) E d u c a tio n sh a ll b e d ir e c te d to th e fu ll d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e 416 h u m an p e r so n a lity and to tl:c str e n g th e n in g of resp ect for h u m a n righ ts an d fu n d a m e n ta l freed o m s. It sh a ll p ro m o te u n d ersta n d in g , to le r a n c e an d frien d sh ip a m o n g all n a tion s, racial or r e lig io u s groups, an d sh a ll further th e a c tiv itie s o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s for th e m a in te n a n c e o f p ea ce. ( 3 ) P a r e n ts h a v e a prior rig h t to c h o o se th e k in d o f ed u c a tio n th a t sh a ll b e g iv en to th eir ch ild ren . A rtic le 27. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h a s th e righ t fr e e ly to p a r tic ip a te in th e cu ltu ra l life of th e c o m m u n ity , to e n jo y th e arts an d to sh are in scien tific a d v a n c e m e n t an d its b en efits. ( 2 ) E v e r y o n e h as th e righ t to th e p ro tectio n o f th e m o ra l an d m a teria l in terests resu ltin g from a n y scien tific, litera ry or a rtistic p ro d u ctio n o f w h ich h e is th e au th or. A rtic le 28. E v e r y o n e is e n title d to a so c ia l an d in te r n a tio n a l order in w h ich th e righ ts an d freed o m s se t forth in th is D e c la r a tio n can b e fu lly rea lised . A rtic le 29. ( 1 ) E v e r y o n e h as d u tie s to th e c o m m u n ity in w h ich a lo n e th e free an d fu ll d e v e lo p m e n t o f h is p e r so n a lity is p o ssib le. ( 2 ) In th e e x e r c ise o f h is righ ts an d freed o m s, e v e r y o n e sh a ll b e s u b je c t o n ly to su ch lim ita tio n s as are d e te r m in e d b y la w s o le ly for th e p u rp o se o f secu rin g d u e reco g n itio n an d r e sp e c t for th e righ ts an d freed o m s o f o th ers a n d of m e e tin g th e ju st req u ire m e n ts o f m o ra lity , p u b lic order an d th e g en era l w e lfa r e in a d em o cra tic so c ie ty . ( 3 ) T h e s e righ ts an d freed o m s m a y in n o ca se b e e x e r c ise d c o n tra ry to th e p u rp o ses an d p r in c ip le s o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s. A rticle 30. N o th in g in th is D e c la r a tio n m a y b e in te r p r e te d as im p ly in g for a n y S ta te, grou p or p erso n a n y rig h t to e n g a g e in a n y a c tiv ity or to p erform a n y a c t a im e d a t th e d e str u c tio n o f a n y o f th e righ ts an d freed o m s se t forth h erein . A P P E N D I X B SELECTIONS OF LITERATURE RELATED TO THE REVOLUTION OF WOMEN A P P E N D I X B SELECTIONS OF LITERATURE RELATED TO THE REVOLUTION OF WOMEN Bunting, Mary I. "A Huge Waste; Educated Wonaanpower, " The New York Times Magazine, May 7, 1961, Dingwall, Eric John, The American Woman; An Historical Study. New York: The New American Library of World Literature, Inc. , 1956. Farber, Seymour M, and Wilson, Roger H. L. The Potential of Woman, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. , 1963. Field, Helen Colton, "I Am A Selfish Mother, " McCall's, Septem ber, 1949; Reader's Digest, January, 1950. Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. , 1 9 6 3. The work has several excellent references to which the reader is referred, among them: Flexner, Elea nor. Century of Struggle: The Woman*s Rights Movement in the United States, Cambridge, 1959. Harper's Magazine, A Special Supplement, The American Female, October, 1962. Hays, H, R. The Dangerous Sex: The Myth of Feminine Evil, New York: G. P, Putnam's Sons, 1964, Hunt, Morton M, Her Infinite Variety, The American Woman as Lover, Mate and Rival, New York: Harper & Row, Pub- lisher s. Inman, Mary. In Woman*s Defense. Published by the Committee to Organize the Advancement of Women, Los Angeles, California. Los Angeles: Mercury Printing Co, , 1940, The Two Forms of Production Under Capitalism. Pub- lished by the Author, Long Beach, California: 1964. Ladies Home Journal, Special Issue, Woman, The Fourth D i m e n s i o n , J u n e , 1 9 6 4 . 4 1 8 4 1 9 Levine, Lena and Loth, David. The Emotional Sex; Why Women Are the Way They Are Today. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1964. M e r r i a m , Eve. After Nora Slammed The Door. New York: World Publishing Company. Redbook Magazine, February, 1964. The Problem That Plagues Thoughtful Women, Time Magazine. Women In Politics. September, 5, I960, Special Issue. Turpin, Dick. "Woman Bypassed in High Teaching Levels, " The Los Angeles Times, March 7, 1965. United States Department of Labor. Women In The World Today. Washington: U, S. Government Printing Ullice: Women in High-Level Elective and Appointive Positions in National Governments, International Report No. 1, February, 1963. Political Rights of Women in Member Nations of the United Nations, International Report No. 2, August, 1963. Policies of National Governments on Employing Women, In ternational Report No. 3, April 1963. Equal Pay in Member Nations of the International Labor Or ganization, International Report No. 4, May 1963. Protective Labor Legislation for Women in 91 Countries, In ternational Report No, 5, March, 1963. Notes on Women*s Employment in the United States and Nine European Countries, International Report No. 7, January, iw r .---------------- Report of the Governor's Commissions on the Status of WomenI Leaflet No, 38 Revised, October, 1964, Presidents Commission on the Status of Women, American Women, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963. . Progress Report on the Status of Women, October, 1963 thro ugh October 1964. U. S. Department of Labor. Negro Women VJorkers in I960. Bul letin 287, Washington: U, S, Government Printing Office, I960, 4 2 0 U. S. Department of Labor. Women of the 8 9th Congress. (In cludes Committee Assignments and a tabulation of Women in Congress, 1917-1965, In the Spring of 1964 The Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences published its issue of Daedalus entitled "The Woman in America. " Its several contributing authors were as follows: Eriks on, Erik H, "Inner and Outer Space: Reflections on Woman hood. " Rossi, Alice S, "Equality Between the Sexes : An Immodest Proposal. " Degler, Carl N. "Revolution without Ideology: The Changing Place of Women in America, " Peterson, Esther, "Working Women, " Bailyn, Lotte. "Notes on the Role of Choice in the Psychology of Professional Women, " Riesman, David. "Two Generations." Rostow, Edna G, "Conflict and Accommodation, " Conway, Jill, "Jane Add am s: An American Heroine, " Erikson, Joan M, "Nothing to Fear: Notes on the Life of Eleanor Roosevelt. " A P P E N D I X C STRUCTURE AND MEMBERSHIP OF THE UNITED NATIONS 422 L ." j : — - 1:1 L r ? ~ n/; U .4 O [ L U ■ L U P Ü P P ‘ .— - i ? o Il 423 8 S S C - \ C - \ i .-s M ^ ^ ^ Os XJ^ LO c \ a s Os o \ O s i / ^ a s o o o |11e.. a o V u ^ ^ w u u u u u o ^ Tr ^ ® « o u ZOQQc)^ C A % o o o o o OOc«Q^c«OQ O N ' ^ X ' ^ v ô O O O C4 ^ Lr "rfi ^ T f T f œ O ô t / a I —l e s j i —( I —I I —I e s j i —l e s j c ^ c s j e s j e s csi e s cm —' —' Os C 'J es - Î 3 ' z ^ . a - ? m i l ^ o ^ -ill ^ ^ ^ ,a ,a > 2 2 2 2 2 1 < G < to S "5 .9 a c .2 a a C 3 u CD CD CD CD CD CO 13 C iL lill C / 2 c a E h E h & h E h •o •« a g ^ - 3 : 2 III cri a P P | ü l 111 “Il ^ 'è'I H s M Ifl II” ! ce b • H it s-a b 1 • i- a ;:§ II O s < o a s O s I i G G «a ^ II 'a > » 5 2 > G G \S T f S G O s a a a 2 B O4 a a 0 CO CD CD 1 1 1 1 O iz: O % M M 3 i S d s O s O s \ n 11 o ü G G T ? œ r S ,a "g y y A s 0 0(^5 0 11 IIIj g g II 11 O O O G G .— . ^ e o CM S S S I s. .i l l il. .S o -s 5 4i _a o a | # = % c /] rS II s g v n o\ ■i fS s ü i- £ f e 111 mQ c % O C G C 2; l l l l ■ n ^ o > c o v n e s e s e s ■il a a o ^ 11 l î i p a a ZGOGG^OcrtOGG 5 2 3I # o 0 - a 'W II il fi ? p 2 e s II VO S 3 2 H 0 H 3 G a 2 2 2 a Si « CD CD CO CM £ £ ! iz 2 G M C D CD < h J < g < M % H O il . . c î= ü % p ^1 II o cr, es i.'s S - S S % G c o 0 \ I»? c o sas lil I — i Tf< C ^ ^ S u c C ïC îliJÎl O s c o I —I e s 1 —4 e s I—I I —I 1 — 4 e s i—i e s i ii h c ; i 1 11 5 0 0 s " " ^ ^ ^ % o A G CD o o 2 CD ^ ^ O I— < CM CM CM CM O ^ li e s il < 5 < •Ê 11 . H P V ail. .2 3 .2 III < G G E 3 s a A H ljp a 5 re e s K M G U V O .Il o V d U O U * * * I |ê ô lî G II APPENDIX D VARYING CONCEPTS OF THE REGION V a r y i n g C o n c e p t s o f t h e R e g i o n 425 A rc,;iijn m ay be rer^.'ifded as a syontanecus ex- prcàsjoj'. of ica! a:ui ijaychuIoi;ical id a c r c u c c s P arc Keimir.c ci'.lities, each of^wh.ich cx- prc.s.'A-s, Ijülh n atu ral a n d c n d n ; kl dilïcreiui.iiiun n uni us neij-rhboraP A n area within which ti-.e combination of en v iro n mental .'I'.ul dcm.o.çi ic factors ha\'c created a liu;'.'.o.ceneuy of ecot'.ontic an d social siructitreP I n an area like F r a n c e \viih. an aiicieitt civili.ra- tion, a xeo,': a;d'dcal région is .'.efn.ed by an ctisi-ntOU- dc r^it’ports between m a n an d the natural niillieup A n y one part of a national dontain sudieiently unified ;di\ aioxraydncally an d socially, to have a tru e conseiou-.ness of its own euslmn.s an d iileals, and to possess a sense of distinction front other parts of the country.* A re.;ion is an area . . . delineated on a basis of rtenera! homogeneity of land ch aracter an d general honiugencity of occu^iance.^ Regions arc areas within tvhich there is signifi ca nt homogeneity in one or several respects.' A region is a natural-econom ic unit, and is an e x pression of areal tiiffcrenliatiun in the physical a n d cultural landscapes.^ A n area or u nit in which the economic an d social activities of tile imputation are integrated arou n d a focal and a d m in is tra tiv e ce nter.' Physical regions, like organic regions, are of m a n y different kinds and m a y be classified by their in.'.ividua! ch aracte ristics such as geologic, geographic, climatic, or écologie.* A governm ent.d region is an area in which the people are objectively b ou n d together by ties of g ov ern m en tal authority. Its limits have been set by law. * . . . organic regions m a y be defined r ou g hly as areas within which a higher degree of mutual de p e nd e ncy exists th a n in relationships outside tha t area.* A “ region” is the geogrr.pherks te r m for an “ e n vironm ental ty p e” in w hie it “ the geographic ele- ment.s are combined in certain dclinite and constant relations.” ^ * . . . an area, w herein th ere has gro w n up one characte ristic p attern of lium.an ad j u s t m e n t to e n v iron m en t, one general class of h u m a n use of re sources a n d locus,— is a region. ^ x E v e r y region is a dom ain w here m a n y dissimilar beings, artihcially brought together, have subse- (lucntly ada p ted themselves to a c o m m o n exist ence, ' * E v e r y region has its u n iqu e chara cter to w hich contribute the fetitures of the soil, atmosphere, plants a n d man. ' ' _. . . an area th r o u g h o u t w h ich a particu lar set of p'lysical ctmditions will lead to a particular type of ccor.omic life.x* . . . geographic area.s w hich have become unitied culturt.lly, u nihed at first cconontic;dly an d later by consensus of thought, social patterns of e d u c a tion, recreation, an d oth.er fo rm s of action w hich serve to distinguish it f r o m oilier area s.* ' Tl'.e d o m in a n t the m e i.s th e expression of the in- dividu.'d.ity of the region as the site of a p articular group of people an d their work.** . . . .a complex of land, wate r, air, plant, an i mal tii'.d m a n reg ard e d in their special relationship as tu,:etl'.er constituting a definite, characteristic portion of the E a r th 's surface. * ' A regdon m ay be described loosely as an area of wltich ilic inhabitants instinctively feel themselves a p..rt.* 1 O u r person,al region is b o u n d ed by the e n v ir o n s of our vlaily i.ie." ;■ O u r region is a fam iliar place, w here we know , to some extent, ti'.c lay of tlie hand, the traits of ..the pet,pie a n d their resources, neetls and jiroblems." Region is a n a m e for m a n 's concept of the entity of tin are.i. * T h e regional concept is based on natural or u n restricted relationships between places a nd jieople, as distil.guishcd from political or governm ental r e lationships.* I n its inherent natu re, an d in the com m o n m e a n ing of tl'.e w ord, a region is a territory of indefi nite extent. * T h e regional concept thus embraces two distinct kind.s of areas— geologic, geographic, climatic a nd other phy.sieal charaeteri.stics a n d organic regions or area s of h u m a n life an d movem ent." An organic region m a y tlius he described as an area wiiose people are boumi to.getlier by m u tu al depe ndencie s arising fro m co m m o n interests." Geo-physical re.gions m a y be described as areas b o u nd ed by definite ]diysical Coiif ormtitions or a re.as having similar physical characte ris tics, such as r a in fall, teiniierature, eliimite." . . . tile region is d istinguished by the use to w hich it is put by its o c c u p a n ts .‘ * A naturtd region m a y be d e n n e d as a n y portion of the earth's s u rface whose physical conditions are lioniogci.cous. ^ * . . . tiie region as a cu lture area, “ an assemblage of such fo rm s as h.ive interde|iendence and is f u n c tionally differentiated f r o m oth er areas.** . . . an area which i.s characterized tltrnugh.out b y similar or closely related surface fe.atures, and which i.s contrasted in these respects with neigh b or in g areas. . . . those areas th at .show w ithin their b o u n d a ries essentia! u n if o r m ity in d om inant physical co n ditions an d co nsequently in d o m in a n t life r e sponses. * ” It is this ten d en cy of all tribal traits of culture to coincide with economic traits tliat gives a r e gional ch aracter to culture as a whole. f . . . the region is com prised of a constellation of f co m m un ities.* " A region is generally consid ered to be an area e x hibiting h o m o g e n eity in one or more of its tis’iects, a nd tl.us it rep res en ts a n areal or spatial gen e ra li zation. * * . . . a n area w here ir.any dissim ilar species of in habitants adajit tl.emselves to a com m o n existence so that the ecological c o m m u n i t y as a whole keeps on.** A region m ay be detln ed as an area w h ere n a tu re acts in a roughly u n if o r m m a n n e r . *' Between the continent a n d the historic village is an area sometim es Itm.gcr, sometimes smaller th a n the political state. It is th e h u m a n region. * ' M y conception of a region is one in which tlie vegetation, animal an d h u m a n life have ac quired a ch aracter d ie to a p e r m a n e n t association ; to the fact th.-it the s truggle for existence had b r o u g h t ab ou t some .sort o: equilibrium a m o n g tlie c o m peting and CG-opcrating organism . * ' ! , 'I he above concepts indicate both diversity an d a rert'.in agri.-er.ient w ith rcfci-i_i.ee to the m,-.. :-. i of I egioiial isin. '1 lie authors are : 1. George T. R en n e r, 2. T. J. \Sd.ofter, Jr., 3. Is.aiah B o w m an , 4. J ..-.lali Roy ce, S. R. S. Platt, 6. W . D. Jones, 7. G. H. S m ith, S .'R . D. .McKen/ie, 9. V . B. S t a u b e r y . 10. B. .\. Botkin, 11. A m e r ic a n Society of P la n n in g Officials, 12. P. \'id:d d.e la Blache, 1 .b R. E. D ickinson and J. R. Ilo w arth, 14. R. il. \Vhitbeck, 15. W o l f g a n g I,. G. Joerg, 17. X ev in M. i-'enneman, I.S. Mabel C. Stark. 19. Cla rk W issle r, 20. Carl A. Da-.v.son a n d W a r n er E. Getty s, 21. N.ational R esources Bo.ard, 22. Radh.'ikamal M n kerje e, 2.1. Kimball Y oung, 24. Carl O. S auer, 25. A . J. ll c r b e r ts o n , 26. S tu a r t Chase, 27. Lewis -Mumford, 28. R o bert E. P ark. A PPENDIX E SOME SELECTED REGIONS J C n J C Ï " IZ b tji 427 c o 428 to C J 5 Q J * — • £ 2 22 ca to U j H - to G 2 L U 429 C i J o s p o I ; v - 4 © 430 CO G ■ f c û o 0 O r d f - i . - w s • T 3 < C O ( D u .'H 0 ) C O c d ! - i < D C h - o -r" U J o M L Ü o > — O C c O Ü J Ü J C O o r — V U J O ; CO Q CO O C Q CO 433 O b .-i b g < î g 6 «2 434 0 - o L u O O • r i X O c a o o \ \ o n . O C Q 435 o o o UJ L L <: o o O C j c : C \ J E4- O O Q O O NATURAL L A m A R E A S O F TH E U N IT E D ST A T E S AFTER SR BARNES A M D F. J.MARSeHNEB % I C £ £ W ;• ]’ ■ Vvi* B g u l f L X T R R t 'K l lS a M A A '- ' f 5 \ C ' .t l S S lS S I P P ) .. C A L . " . T \ , / ^ > ' / 0 r i£ D v .c r j T ( > n o u P a s iu ^ o a ;t t r j WESTERN GRAZING LANDS C j r o u g h f o r e s t l a n d s V 'i ,, „ L ] DESERTS ■ " \ U k f E 3 ea stern UPLANDSai 0 3 SEWIARID PL AIN S V ® W LAKE^STATES E 3 COASTAL PLAIN FLATWOODS E Z I CUT OVER SAND LANDS O V E R C ] SOUTHEASTERN ROLLING SANOY LA N D S 0 V 2ÏÏ .'L® ! E3 NORTH PACIFIC CUT-QVER Û F O F tW LA%DS m . SIERRA CASCAGE FO O TH ILLS L A M O ^ U ^ P to S L E A i R É G I O N S . ' L A N P ^ C T T . R K T IW A L . R E S O l â t ^ S - ^ A f t O E-^û/? m m m I' # # # # # # KEY TO LAND-USE PRORI.EMS ------— - ' ' " • ' * Vf/vy « ' f 1 s u . MARGINAL LAND IZO 1 0 0 * ) 2 FARM LAND NEEDED FOR OTHER HSi 3 a b FARMS TOO SMALL J e d POOR LAND-HOLDING ST A T U S. , ? 6 a u x il i a r y SOURCES OF F A -fiiC O M E .NEEDED % % 3 f rvLRC APIT/M Z'^O ''.« IM E D LA NS < ■ ■ 4 SE P". .'J I - " :N . 8 R E C L A B f tT lO » H E E I Ç O « 'f d i e b t - l a m M i s u s e 7 'R A N G M A N d S M lSU SC i t f J O P S ( Î B « ÿ \ . N A T U R A L R E G IO N S ■FTER A.J.HERGERTSON 1 9 0 5 L M E N O 0 M E 5IE FN M/.RC N CFCONTINENTS !, EASTERN MARGIN OF CONTINENTS C CENTRAL LOWLAND 4 li:.:-t'.A N O CR PLATEAU c LLf IT MOO.-.TAINS AND PLATEAUS 2 COOL 3 WARM 4 HOT ?» V ^3. . N A T U R A L R ESIG N S AFTER W L .G .JP E R G (9 1 5 l E G E N D \ 1 V/ESfERN m o u n t a in B O R D ER -/ 2 CENTRAL PLATEAUS 3 SOUCRAN DESERT REGION 5 MEXICAN PLATEAU I H L I n i l M T S I 6 EASTERNMOUNTAIM BORDER (ROCKY MOUNTAIN SYSTEM ) 9 GREAT LAKES REGION 10 PRAIRIE REGION 11 GREAT PL AIN S 12 OZARK HIGHLAND 13 GULF AND ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 14 APPA LAC HIAN HIGHLAND , 437 PH YSICAL DIV ISIO N S OF T H E U N IT E D ST A TES A F T E R N E V IN M .fE N N E M A N - A . . 2 A T L A X T iC PL: ‘I 3 A P P A L A C H IA ', , ICHIA'.D 4 r'.'E: .C R PLA",3 6 RCCF vCJ.TAiN S iC F E M 7 iH T E ri'.i'.P laiE A lS 8 P A C iF iC M O U N T A IN '«STEM M AJOR DRAINAGE B A SIN S O F T H E UNIT E D S T A T E S after the U .S. CEOL.Sua 13-R :0 GRANDE 1 4 -C O L O R A D O 15'G R E A T O A S a j 16 -C Û L l;:,V ',IA -5 flA K 17 -S O U T H P A C iF iC 1 8-N O R T H P A C IF IC LEGEND 1 -A T L A N T IC 2 -G R E A T L A K E S 3 -O H lO 4-T E N N E S S E E 5 -U P P E R M IS S IS S IP P I 6 -L O W E R M IS S IS S IP P I 7 -E A S T E R .N G U L F 3-w;S T E R H G U L F 9 -R E D R IV E R O F T H E N O R T H 1 0 -V IS S O U R I n -A R K A H S A S -W H ITE 1 2 -R E D -O U A C H IT A ^ e r < ^ r e :i < /» C L IM A T E S €F TH E UNIT ED ST A TE S -A F T E R G .T R E N N E R ■ A .. r-'l T R O P IC A L Z O N E TYPES Cgf 7-APlO TROPi:.'L y O -V O 'IS C C N T F .L 'P IL A L M-HIGHL.'ND C L'V A TE S U .N C iriL R E H T lA TE O Q T HE CLIM A TIC R EG IO N S OF TH E U NITED S T A T E S A F T E R W .K O P P E N A N D R . G E IG E R J V ) Cfa j M ETR O PO LITAN REGIONS IN TH E UNITED ST A TES AS DEFINED GY D A IY NEWSPAPER CIRCULATION. 1 92 9 A f T i n R . D . M A K Î N Z i e S l .? c u l C .T ic h a \ 5 c i f r t . n C i 5 C 0 M D c n v fir ifonscsC ^ I 11 V I ''o '''/ " O tx -S c r -.A c , i y ^ U t i l e J L e s A - " ( l e : I I El P o :a - 1 - L f — E R S ' JG A L L C I T I E S T C .' .: .5 I .E C E I V I V G 5 9 P E R C E N T O R M O R E C F I T S M E T R O P O L I T A N t C I .'C U L A T I O N F R O M G IV E -1 T E N T E R 1 9 2 9 . N O T E : T H E M O C U I N G D T H ' r . - v : \ 0 T : S T 05 E X T E N S I V E C I R C U L . ' . : . . V W / .S L a f E C T E D F O R E A C H t . T E T R O P O L I i A N A l l c n i o ( D o l l a s 0 V E T à C P C L l T J c c h i o n v i l R E G ION,ALISM IN P O L I T IC S BY HELEN M .STRONG [ .‘1 C O f iS I G T E t lT L Y • I N D L P E N L E N T - V y ' ' \ . 1 * . % I l I f S E Q U E N T L Y " iN D E P E M O E flT " [ D S O M E T IM E S T h O E P E N D E N T " ............ ( 3 " l l i O E P E N O E t l l " 1 9 1 2 (R O O S E V E L T ^ (Ctn.p:ie(i frt-'n A"oî of Hilt G?oy.'. .( U3.J ; C'f ri > f T h s H J is fis I " I N D E P E N D E N T ' I 3 8 4 - B U T L E R ,G R E E K Q A C K - L A B 0 R ,E T C ; ' 1 8 3 2 W E A V E R . P O P U L I S T 1 9 0 0 B R Y A N ,F U S I O N P O P U L I S T E T C , 1 9 1 2 R O O S E V E L T , P R O G R E S S I V E 1 9 2 4 L A F O L L E T T E , P .R O G R E S S I V E P O PU L A T IO N R E S IG N S O F TH E U N IT E D S T A T E S T fT E R U . S . C E N S U S < - ^ { ) ///'/ L L G c . N O DENSE HEAVY 1 ,'tC lU M i M ETR OPO LITA N D IS T R IC T S O F TH E U N IT ED S T A T E S . 1 9 3 0 . A F T E R R. 0 . M C K E N Z IE I P O P U L A T I O N 1 9 3 0 0 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 0 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 9 2 3 0 , 0 0 0 • 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 O O U t.C A R Y C F N O R ' -I I E - , s t e r n IN D U S T R IA L R E G IO N I \ 439 A GRICULTURE REGIONS OF TH E UNITED S T A T E S A F T t R O.E.BAKER LE G E N D l - l ' . V J D S U 5 T K : - Ü - 7 -H A Y -1V.NG I I - CCLL'I.'.EIA P iA T E A U 8 - S : V .H E /.r 12-P A C S 'o G iH O ^ C A L C R 0 P 5 \ l j l 3 - f O K E S T A .S O HAY IJ -f.'O .P A C .O A lR Y A M O F O R E S T i O -o r :A Z ; :i 3 A I .D lR R l G /J I O N lA -N O R T K E iT N r O îE S T A f i O B R U S H A G R IC U LT U RA L R E G IO N S O F T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S AFTER R. HARTSHORNE AND S . N . DICK EN lE Ç f# 1 l lE O I T L .T R A r .E M I A C h lC U L lU R E 2 C O R ü .W h E A T A N D L I V E S T O C K 3 S I-'A L L C R .1 II IS A N D L I V E S T O C K 4 H A Y , P A S T U R E A fiO L IV i T TO C K 5 E X T L I .'S I V E C O M M E R C IA L C R A IN 6 T R U C K F A R M S A R O C O M M E R C IA L O R C H A R D 7 S T O C K R A N C H E S A N D IR R IG A T IO N 8 C O T T O N B E L T A G R IC U L T U R E 9 agriculturally U N P R O D U C T IV E 1 0 D E S E R T R A N G E A N O I R R IG A T IO N M A M U F’g T URA L R E GIO N S OF TH E U N IT E D S T A T E S A F T E R R . H A R T S H O R N E Konscs Cl! s ic r x M inncopoli ! ___ niài M s m i « a E .V.SAAA-; l A ' .L E Y - C .T T A K I O F E L ' ^ r A L O - m ; . g ; . h a - t o r : h t o o i s ; = c t \ G T i r i S T j C C H - C L F v E l '. 'I O C . S I R I C T H S C J F f E A S T E P 'I ( . 'I C H I S A N J C L I O - | - ; : v , A I M A I O 0 , S T R I C T K L A K E !■ ' I :-:.T A N T . b T f . i c r - u y ^ M IN O R C J T L Y I L G O i S T R l C T S ' INDUSTRIAL REGIONS O F T H E U NITED S T A T E S B Y H E L E N M .S T R O N G m # # IG U S T P H A L C C N C E I I T R A m ' * ^ V , ( . TO-S M I j a .'.-j'J 'fl D E L T A 2.C0iVLir;-f.U'i_AV;ET’ E i.P U S ET G O U N O •• ..L O S A N G E L E S 5 . f c r : ; h i i . ' j . r - h o u s t o n E .H E M P H IS 7 S T L C U IS 8 T V .I.N C IT IE S 12. C lE VE LA N O -PlTTS G .C H iC A S O 1 3 . S O U V H E S 'J P IF D .M C H Ï ll.lC :i:C !N N TTI 1 4 . B J .' T A L G - M O H A 'A 'K E G O - :? T P O IT 1 5 ..E ,'S T O N - G A '-T IU O P .i .Y 'A. / : / ' y '• . '• • v . . . r i'.L r i . \ -V / V - i l l f g d i o 2 U Ù S H E '7 !-IN D 'JS rR -L '.L R E G ,C l, i-O I S T W C T S O F I.N0U5T ,RIAL C O N - C E N T IIA T IO H . C Z f- N O N - I M O U S T R lA L R E G IO N S 440 MAJOR ë O lL D IV IS IO N S O F T H E U N IT E D ST A TE S AFTER LA A C L FA N G E R I ' t l * lilB ® i l i i i i i l ' V l : ! ! L J \ -i C ■ .ilîU T E firn S C n y - T * 1 G P i i E H T H S , . J CRAY B.W A NER TH S [ □ reoano-yellowerths L _ ) f'RAISYERTHS A PODSOLS B FERRUGINOUS LATERITES C r o u g h BROKEN LA NO -UK CIFFEREN TIATttt A'/J C/u cd^/t 6% 'JU g/ A vffTPj fir^rd S E I E C T E 0 )(|NE8AL R E SdU R G ES O F T H E U N IT E D STA TES B f e . t RENNER L A U R E INTERI/OUNTAINJ }. M ID-CONTINENT, LEGEND ^ PETROLEUM F IE L D S i p COAL FIELD S 0 COPPER 0 LEAD OR ZINC A BAUXITE + IRON ^avaKS* O ^ / ^ i t f T h & & ' » f k f M t i r e t s B o v é . EAUNAL REGIO NS O F T H E UNIT E D AFTER C.H. MERRIAM V E G E T A T ION R E G IO N S O F TH E UNITED ST A TES AFTER H. L. SHANTZ ANO R . ZCN ItK C o S fCRCST D OAK F.NE L 'F F I Q r s i t f i N CO 'ilFERCUS CCNIFERCUS FOREST L E Ç E N O 1 . A L L E G i E M Â N [FRANSIJ^i) 2. C A R O L IM A N (UPPER AuflRAL) 3. A U S T f i C R iP A R I A N (L O K 'E R A U S T R A Ü 3 ( i .A U S T R 0 R : P A n iA N (G U L F S T R I P O F LO'.VEH A U S T f l f l ) n B O R E A L a T R O P IC A L C-VLSIE T F A A IG IE a 'V O C C L A fiO 3 t:.LCN-;jMPER W O O O L A N B •L I'A P A K R A L i c v ü c n r G R A S S II DESERT GRASS 12-ClN CH GRASS I3 SAGE CUSH II CREOSOTE BU SH lb . TRANSITION 2b . UPPER SOKCRAH Tb.LO.YER SCLORAN A P P E N D I X F VARYING CONCEPTS OF REGIONALISM V a i î y i x g C o n c e p t s o r R e g i o n a l i s m 442 ! ; I A t a period w h en t!ie uniforniities of the m a chine civh.ie.aiou Were Leiro; over.strcbiicil. repiunal- iiin r.i-rvcLl to cinpl’ .asize c.,:;i;.ci'.;.atory organic clc- r.-.cntbi aLuVc all, ihobo Jifh r.ces that a.rise out of KCu;;iaiph.ic, hiiti.ric, and cultural peculiarities. In its rccujtnitioii of the rc^tion i.s a basic Cu:.r'i^;nration in hvtiuan life; in us acceptance of natur.i: diversi ties as well as naturi.l associe.'ions an d luiifonr.i- lies; in its recoi-;i.11ion of tlic as a perrn.anciit sp! ere of cult'.ira I influences an d .is a center of eco no mic .activities, as well as an implicit p'eup'raphic : .let— here lies the vit.d com mon elemerU in the re;cion.a!ist r.ieivcment. So far fro m hein;; archaic a n d reactionary , regionalism belongs to the fut'urc. ^ W h e n one searches for unity, the Ituinan race is obviously one. Wh.en one looks for d in e rences one discovers not only national types and regional types, one lii.icovers likewise im p o rtan t differences between a l-'lorentinc and. a N eapolitan, between a Cda.sguw m an and an I'ldinburgh man, even duterences in langua.ge, accent, gesture, feeling between villages that are but a d a y ’s walk apart.'- Iee,;ional!s:n has been idenlitied with sectionalism or separatism ; an d even the regionalists th.emselves have often hiid toO great stress upon the formation of fr.ictiona! .sovereign states, as if the evils of over-eentralization a n d the sup-.-rstitions of ;\ustin- ian sovereignty were to be d tn'.in ished by multiply ing the opportunities for petty despotism. A t the v ery beginning ot the region.ilist moveinei'it. intelli gent observers like A u g u s t e C omte and still later, Iwi Play, not merely observed that it was bound to take pl.ace, because it satlslicd the ultimate condi tions of p.olitical existence; but C omte indeed p re dicted that within a c e n tu ry or so there would be a h u n d r e d a n d sixty su ch regional entities in E u ro p e . ' Regionalism , as one of th e F r e n c h observers of the m ov em ent has pointed out, te nds to pass tlirough a regular cycle. I t begins with a revival of poetry an d lang u age: it ends with plans for the economic invigor.ition of regional ag ricultu re and ind u stry , with prop'osals for a more auton o m ou s political life, with an effort to build up local centers of learning a n d cu ltu r e .' , Regional p la n n in g is the conscious direction and collective ii.tegr..lion of all tlio.se activities which rest upon the use of the earth as site, as re- !.ourcc, as stru ctu re, as theater. T o the extent that such activities are focused within definite regions, consciously delimited an d utilized, the opportunities for effective co-ordination are increased. H en ce re- gionid planning is a f u r th e r stage in the mure spe- ciidized or isolated processes of ag riculture p lan ning, in d u s try pla n n ing , or city ])!anning.' T h e rc-animatio n an d re-building of regions, as deliberate wo. ks of collective art, is the g r a n d task of politics f o r the o pening generiition. It raises anew, in a fo rm that now has fuller h u m a n sig nificance, the f u n d a m e n ta l questions of hu m a n interrelationship across the ethnic, ideological, an d cultural b o un d aries that have been carried over from the p-ast. A n d as the n e w tasks of region- butlding im ply shifts in th.e population, inigri.tion into m o re tav ored areas, and tlie building up or reconstruction of a m u ltitu d e of new urban co m plexes, the politics of regional development become of critical im p ortan ce.' Re.:ion:ilism m u s t be dis tinguis hed from national ism in that it recognizes a higher n.ational unity a nd superior national interests tr a n sc e n d in g the at- tacliment to the local region." It m u st be di.stingui.shed also fro m m e re section alism in that it i.s not bttsed c.xc!u-.ivcly on regional economic or ela.ss interests, but involves ce rtain et a- . nic factors, such as cultural, traditional or Unguis- ' tic peeuli.irities wltich pro vide a basis for w hat is often term ed a subn ationality." Regionalism is a clustering of geographic, eco nomic, S'-ri n- Ogica I, iiinl govcftiinenlai f .u: tors to such an extern that a distinct consciousness, tltc iceugt.ition of a separate i'lcn»-fy within th.e whole and the desirability of au to n om ou s pla nning, cul tural peculiarities a n d adm inistrative freedom arc th.corctically recognized a n d actually p u t into ef fect.* W h e t h e r regionalism results f r o m the growth of a sense of com munity, in tu r n d ep e n d en t upon cominori traditions, interests an d aspirations, or whet Iter it results fro m m a n ’s rational an.alysis of economic an d governm ental problems needing solu tion, it is no ne the less reg io n alism .* Regional ism strikes an ctTcctive a n d natural me d ium between uncontro lled individualism am ong the states and complete centralization of administration at Washingto n.* Regionalism is the aittithesis of false cosmopoli ta nism ; the genius of the c o m m u nity symbolized by R atriek G ed des’ trilogy of place, work, folk.* Regionalism is the economic and cultural ap proach to the same set of facts w hich sectionalism -approaches politically.* . . . regionalism is th e basis for the encourage ment of a richer an d m o re varied life for tlte Nation, w hereby the peculiar characteristics, re sources, an d contributions of th e m a jo r sections of the co u ntry can be protected fro m invasions, exploi tation, an d suppression by ill-considered and hasty national policies.' Regionalism . . . stands som ew here between ad m inistrativ e decentralization a n d federalism. It touches on both; an d if a more rigid logic envisages th ree schools of tho u gh t and three movements, a basic similarity none the less exists an d a common principle underlies all three." Regionalism can th erefore be defined as the s tu d y of the relation of m a n to geographic areas, an d the potentialities which this relation represents in te rm s of h u m a n w elfare an d progress.® Tltc te rm “ regionalism ” is used in its broadest implications— nanicîy, that of a geographic area or areas which a given civilization-standard of a people seems to require for the fultillment of its aspir..- tions th ro ug h the material resources believed essen tial in attaining economic well-being.® . . . regionalism an d regional p la n n in g should em b race the s tu d y an d development of all gee- graphic entities, the n a t u r e of w hich would lend themselves to the best pos.sible development along specitic lines and does not necessarily imply any past Settlements or exploitation.® F u n d a m e n ta l ly , the regionalism of the future rnust be evolved out of economic concepts in which the^ geographic e n v i r o n m e n t w ould be capable ct regio:..il integration in te rm s of the most advanced apjilication of m od e rn technology w ithin the liittits of legal a n d ad m inistrativ e expediency.® T h e above concepts indicate both diversity an d a certain agr e e m e n t with reference to th e mcaning.s of regionalism. T h e a u th o rs are : 1. Ixtwis M um fo rd , 2. I.b-.lwig Hintz e, 3. Marshal! E. Diiuock, 4. Burdette G. Ixrw is, S. C. S. zbscher, 6. D o n a ld D avidson, 7. A m e r ic a n Society of P la n n i n g Officials, S. it. K. Gooch, 9 . Carol zbronovici. A P P E N D I X G LETTERS AND QUESTIONNAIRES OF THE SURVEYS 444 1208 South Tremaine Avenue Los Angeles 19, California September 1, 1964 Dear Sir: I am in process of preparing a thesis on Regional Planning, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in City and Regional Planning at the University of Southern California. As part of the research being undertaken I am conducting a sur vey to determine the status of Regional Planning throughout the United States. I therefore respectfully include herewith the fol lowing requests: 1, That copies of any and all enabling legislation for the estab lishment of any form of regional planning agency within the state or in cooperation with any other state be forwarded. 2, That if the State has, through such an agency or otherwise, established regions, a copy of a map illustrating their boundaries and a statement of the criterior for their delimitation be forwarded. 3, That the enclosed questionnaire be filled in as completely as possible and returned with the above items. Since several other States with which I have communicated have expressed interest in the findings of such a survey, this compilation will be of value to the States generally in their regional planning ef forts and thereby serve a dual purpose. Your cooperation in this matter at your earliest convenience will be greatly appreciated. V ery 445 S T A T E S T A T E P L A N N IN G Q U E ST IO N N A IR E P A R T I STATE PLANNING OFFICE If your State has passed enabling legislation for the establishment of a state planning office, please answer the following questions. Please forward, with the questionnaire a copy of the legislation. A. Date enabling legislation adopted B. Date (s) legislation amended C. Major purposes of legislation D. Major purpose(s) of amendment F. G. H. I. J. Date State Planning Office established Name of Office Address of Office Composition of Staff POSITION TITLE How Professional Specialty Number Selec Services rendered local governments or regional planning agen cies by State Planning Office: Technical ; Financial Current Fiscal Budget $ Status of Master Plan: ; Source(s) In Process; Continuing None Elements of Master Plan: K. Additional Comment: 446 S T A T E INTRASTATE REGIONAL PLANNING QUESTIONNAIRE_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ P A R T II Intrastate Regional Planning Agencies If your State has passed enabling legislation for the establishment of regional planning agencies within the State, please answer the following questions. Please forward with the completed questionnaire a copy of the legislation. A. Date enabling legislation was adopted B. Date(s) legislation amended: C. Major purposes of legislation: D. Major purpose(s) of Amendment(s) E. Names, Addresses & Other Data on established Agencies : 1. 3. 5. Date Estab; Date Estab, Date Estab. Annual Budget Annual Budget Annual Budget Master Plan Master Plan Master Plan 2. 4, 6, Date Estab, Date Estab. Date Estab. Annual Budget Annual Budget Annual Budget Master Plan Master Plan Master Plan Composition of Typical Staff Position Title Profession Number How Selected Master Plan Elements : ; j » i j 447 S T A T E IN T E R S T A T E R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G Q U E ST IO N N A IR E PART lU Interstate Regional Planning Agencies F. If your State has passed enabling legislation for the establishment of regional planning agencies requiring interstate compacts, please answer the following questions. Please include copies of the state and federal legislation establishing such organizations. A. Date enabling legislation was adopted B. Major purpose(s) of legislation: C. Dates legislation was amended: D. Major purpose(s) of Amendment(s): E. Names and Addresses of Agencies Established: 1. 2 . Date Established Annual Budget Master Plan Date Established Annual Budget Master Plan Staff Composition Position Profes sion Number How Selected Master Plan Elements: H. Additional Comment 448 S T A T E S T A T E A N D R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G QUESTIO NNAIRE! P A R T IV States w ith*» out State or Regional Planning Agencies If your State has not passed enabling legislation for the establishment of State or regional planning agencies, please answer the following questions. A. B, Has the proposal for the establishment of State Regional Plan ning Agencies (Intra or Interstate) or a State Planning Office been discussed in the State Legislature? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Yes No If the answer to "A" is Yes, , • , V/hat major arguments were advanced in opposition to the proposal? 1. 2. C. What major arguments were advanced in support of the proposal? 1. 2. PRIVATELY SPONSORED REGIONAL PLANNING PART V A, B, Is there, within the State, a privately endowed or privately sponsored Regional Planning Organization? Yes No If Yes, please indicate the following: Name of Executive Director _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Name of Organization _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Address of Organization _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ What relationship, if any, exists between the State Government and this privately sponsored regional planning agency ? 44 9 1208 South Tremaine Avenue Los Angeles 19, California September 1, 1964 Department of City & Regional Planning Gentlemen: I am in process of preparing a thesis on Regional Planning, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in City and Regional Planning at the University of Southern California. As part of the research being undertaken I am conducting a sur vey to determine the status of regional planning with respect to edu cation throughout the United States, I therefore respectfully make the following requests: 1. That a catalogue of the planning program be forwarded. 2. That as a supplement to course briefs in regional planning in the catalogue, a more definitive description of the courses of in struction be forwarded, in statement form or preferably an outline of the course prepared by the professor in charge and any related bibliography. 3. That the enclosed questionnaire be filled out as completely as possible and returned with the above items. Research has revealed no such survey of record, and since several other universities with which I have communicated have ex pressed interest in the findings of such an investigation, successful results with respect to response should be of value to researchers generally and thereby serve a dual purpose. Your cooperation in this matter at your earliest convenience will be greatly appreciated. V ery VJ^GIL A. MEEDS IN S T IT U T IO N R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G Q U E ST IO N N A IR E E D U C A T IO N 4 5 0 P A R T I If your Institution DOES offer a Masters and/or a Doctorate in Regional Planning, Regional Science, or Regional Economic Deve- lopment & Resources Planning please answer the following questions. ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE GRADUATE DEGREES OFFERED MS Current Enroll- ment No. of Grads PhD. Current Enroll- ment_ _ _ _ No, of Grads Regional Planning Regional Science Regional Economic D e < ^ velopmt & Res. Ping. B. Please enclose the current official program of requirements for graduate degrees in any of the above disciplines. C. Since these disciplines are of a multi-disciplined nature, please indicate the academic structure of the program, D. Notwithstanding the youth of these sciences, their progress and development as well as their academic pursuit demand at least a tentative agreement on some basic aspects. Within this context, please indicate the following as established at your institution. 1. The Region Defined 2^ Criterior for Delimitation of the Region IN S T IT U T IO N R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G Q UESTIO N- N A IR E - E D U C A T IO N 451 P A R T I C on tin u ed E. Political scientists have wrestled with the theoretical problems inherent in development of effective governmental organization to carry out planning at the metropolitan level. Within the academic structure of regional planning at yonr institution, if forms have been developed to facilitate regional planning, please list in order of cur rent preference the forms considered feasible, 1. 2 , 3, 4, 5, F, Please list below, the authors, titles and publication information: if such exists, for any theses or dissertations produced in partial fulfillment of the requirements for degrees in regional planning, regional science, or regional economic and development of re- sources planning at vour institution._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 5 2 IN S T IT U T IO N R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G Q U E ST IO N N A IR E E D U C A T IO N P A R T II If your Institution DOES NOT offer a graduate degree in Regional Planning, Regional Science, or Regional Economic Development and Resources Planning, please answer the following questions. If a basic or introductory course is offered in any of the above disciplines, please enclose a prospectus or the outline of the course as developed by its professor. A. B. List the courses of instruction offered in Regional Planning or any of the above disciplines that constitute requirements for the graduate degrees in City and Regional Planning, and enclose the course outlines for each. 1. 2 , 3, 4, C, If there have been theses or dissertations developed in any of the above disciplines for the degrees conferred in city and re gional planning, please list the titles, authors, and publishers if the work has been published. A P P E N D I X H REGIONAL PLANNING--PART I PACIFIC NORTHWEST TABLE OF CONTENTS REGIONAL P LA N N IN G—F ART I PACI FI C N O R T H W E S T Contents Foreword— Recommendations of the National Resources Committee Page 1. T h e P ro b lem v u 2. M e th o d of th e R e p o rt v u 3. F in d in g s a n d P rin cip les Vil 4. R eco m m en d atio n s x ix Report of the Pacific Northwest Regional Planning Commission 1. In tro d u c tio n 3 2. F in d in g s a n d R e co m m en d atio n s 4 3. C onclusion 15 Report of the Special Staff Assigned to the Columbia Basin Study S ection I.— D igest 1. In tro d u c tio n 20 2. S ynopsis 22 S ection I I .— T h e R egion: I ts R esources, P roblem s, an d N eeds; a n d its F u tu re 1. In tro d u c tio n ^ 30 2. C o n d itio n s, resources, an d ac tiv itie s 31 P h y sio g rap h y — C lim atology— W a te r R esources— L a n d R esources— M ineral R esources— In d u strie s— C om m erce— T ra n sp o rta tio n — R e crea tio n — P u b lic W orks 3. P o p u la tio n 73 4. T h e fu tu re of th e region— general su m m ary , analyses, a n d rec o m m en d a tio n s 91 S ectio n I I I .— D efinition a n d R cg io n ality of Pacific N o rth w e st 1. In tro d u c tio n 96 2. P o te n tia l p la n n in g p roblem areas in th e Pacific N o rth w e st 98 3. H o m o g en eity as a basis for reg io n ality 99 4. T h e C o lu m b ia R iv er— A unifying b o n d an d a su b je c t for regional p la n n in g 101 5. O th e r te s ts of regional hom ogeneity in th e Pacific N o rth w e st 103 6. T e sts of p o litica l h o m ogeneity 121 7. C u ltu ra l h isto ry a n d regional hom ogeneity 124 8. P ro p o sed b o u n d arie s for regional p la n n in g in th e Pacific N o rth w e st 127 9. C om m ercial co m p etitio n as a d e te rre n t to regionalism 130 S ection IV .— P lan s for R egional O rg an izatio n 1. O rg a n iz atio n for p la n n in g in th e Pacific N o rth w e st 135 P la n n in g a c tiv itie s u n d e rta k e n 135 F u n c tio n s th a t sh o u ld be em b raced in p la n n in g 146 P la n n in g o rg an iz atio n a n d s tru c tu re 153 R e la tio n of Pacific N o rth w e st R egional P la n n in g C om m ission to a n a tio n a l p la n n in g agency 167 C onclusion 170 2. O rg an izatio n for co n stru c tio n of p u b lic w orks In tro d u c tio n 171 P u b lic w orks p la n n in g 171 C onclusion 174 3. O rg a n iz atio n for o p e ra tio n of p u b lic w orks In tro d u c tio n 175 C o n stru c tio n agency to o p e ra te a fte r com pletion 176 R e la tiv e a d v a n ta g e s of b u rea u , co rp o ratio n , a n d com m ission 177 U nified o p e ra tio n u n d er an existing agency 183 P ro p o sed o p era tin g o rg an iz atio n 186

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Asset Metadata

Creator Meeds, Virgil Alfred (author)

Core Title Origins and nature of regional planning, U.S.A.: An history, an evaluation, and a projection

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-135215

Unique identifier UC11311541

Identifier EP64775.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-135215 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP64775.pdf

Dmrecord 135215

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Meeds, Virgil Alfred

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA