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American relations with China from 1895 to 1925

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American relations with China from 1895 to 1925

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AMERICAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA
IROM 1895 TO 1925
A T hesis
P re sen te d to th e Department of
P o l i t i c a l Science
U n iv e r s ity of Southern C a lif o r n ia
In p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f the
R equirem ents fo r the
Degree of M aster o f A rts
By
H a r rie t E. Wilson
J u ly 30, 1930.
UMI Number; EP63656
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This thesis, having been approved by the
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for the degree of ..Ar.ts.....................
Secretary
'^Dean
D ate... .. .7 ..» . ..l.?.?.P .
PREFACE
During the t h i r t y y e a rs from 1895 to 1985, the d ip
lo m atic r e l a t i o n s between th e U nited S ta te s and China were
f r i e n d l y . Through diplom acy, the U nited S t a t e s , sometimes
sin g le -h a n d e d ly a g a in s t th e w orld, aid ed China in m eeting
the overwhelming problems and c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s c re a te d
by the impact o f Western im p e rialism on the a n c ie n t i n
s t i t u t i o n s , custom s, and c u l tu r e of China*
11
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
I . THE OPEN DOOR P O L IC Y ...................................... 1
^ ^ tr u g g le f o r c o n c e s s io n s ...................................................
KJohn Hay’s n o te s to th e P o w e r s . . . . .
The R usso-Japanese W ar.................. ..................................
y^The Boxer R e b e llio n and i t s r e s u l t s .........................
/
^R em ission of the Boxer Indem nity....................
I I . ........LOANS AND RAILROAD DIPLOMACY.............................. 12
The U.S. and the Canton-Hankovj R a ilr o a d . . . . . . .
The Hukuang Loan......................................................................
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Banking C onsortium ......................
Withdrawal of th e U nited S ta te s from th e
C o n so rtiu m . ..........................................................................
I I I . CHINA, THE UNITED STATES AND THE W ORLD WAR............... 20
Twenty-one demands o f Ja p a n ............................................
Entrance of China in to the War.....................................
L a n s i n g - I s h ii Agreement......................................................
C hina’ s claim s a t th e Peace C o n feren ce.............
New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Banking C onsortium .................
IV. '.THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.................... 50
The Four Power t r e a t y ............................. .. ................. ....
The Nine Power t r e a t y ............................................
The Shantung t r e a t y . ............................................................
ill
CHAPTER Page
The t r e a t y on th e Chinese customs t a r i f f ..........
D e c la ra tio n s concerning C hina ...............
Views re g a rd in g the r e s u l t s of the C onfer
ence ................................................... ................
V. INTERNATIONAL EVEfTTS OF 1925.................. 37
The Shanghai A f f a i r ....................................
The Chinese demand f o r t r e a t y r e v i s i o n . . . . . . .
The S p e c ia l T a r i f f C o n f e r e n c e . . . . ...........................
The Commission on E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y ..................
VI. CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGBAPHY. ........................................... 49
I V
INTRODUCTION
In o rd e r to u nderstand the American d ip lo m atic r e
l a t i o n s w ith China from 1895 to 1925, a background o f Chin
ese h i s t o r y and f o re ig n in te rc o u r s e i s e s s e n t i a l .
The fo re ig n r e l a t i o n s of China have been d iv id ed in to
fo u r p e rio d s . In the f i r s t p e rio d from 1689 to 1860, China
was opened to tr a d e a n d ' in te r c o u r s e w ith W estern n a tio n s .
The second period from 1860 to 1895 was marked by l o s s of
dependencies and v a s s a l s t a t e s by China. The t h i r d p e rio d
f rom 1895 to 19%1, or from th e S in o -Jap an ese War to the
Chinese R evolution c o n s i s t s in a t ta c k s on Chinese so v er
e ig n ty which alm ost brought about th e "b rea k -u p ” of China
among th e W estern n a t i o n s . The f o u r th p erio d from 1911 to
th e p re se n t day i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooper
a t io n in a f f a i r s r e g a rd in g C h in a.1
China was a f f e c t e d g r e a t l y by the c o n ta c ts w ith Euro
pean n a t io n s . The ag e-lo n g i s o l a t i o n was broken, and a
s tr u g g le f o r re ad ju stm e n t between an a n c ie n t and modern
c i v i l i z a t i o n began.
China, (says Stephen D ouglas), has been fo rc ed to face in
th r e e decades the s i t u a t i o n s and problems t h a t have r e
q u ire d th r e e c e n tu r ie s fo r Europe to s o lv e , namely, the
re n a is s a n c e or new le a r n in g , the n a tio n a lis m and democracy
th e p ro d u cts of th e French r e v o lu tio n , and th e i n d u s t r i a l
r e v o l u t i o n .^
^M.J. Bau, The F oreign R e la tio n s o f C h in a, p. 37.
^S.P. D o u g la s,"F a c to rs in the Chinese S i t u a t i o n ,"
P o l i t i c a l Science Q u a r te r ly . Vol. 379, S e p t., 1929.
Although the U nited S ta te s had made t r e a t i e s w ith China
as e a r l y as 1844, i t was not u n t i l a f t e r 1895 t h a t th e i n
flu e n c e of th e U nited S ta te s was im p o rta n t. By th e t r e a t y
o f peace w ith Spain on F ebruary 6, 1699, the U nited S ta te s
gained the P h ilip p in e s and th e re b y became an A s ia tic power,
and in a very r e a l sense a world pow er,^ T h en cefo rth , th e
s i t u a t i o n in the Far E a st was changed, and America was ab le
to m ain ta in the open door in China and p r o te c t A sia from
European a g g r e s s io n ,^
The d ip lo m atic r e l a t i o n s of China and the U nited S ta te s
have been very complex co v erin g every f i e l d o f human endeavor,
th e p o l i t i c a l , economic, j u d i c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , commercial and
s c i e n t i f i c . Moreover, in the p erio d from 1895 to 1925, many
c r i t i c a l ev e n ts o ccu rred in China, in c lu d in g th e B a t t l e f o r
C oncessions, the H uso-Japanese War, th e Chinese R ev o lu tio n ,
the World War, the Peace Conference and the W ashington Con
f e re n c e ,
In a l l th e se s i t u a t i o n s , (d e c la re s îÆr. Kho), America a lo n e
has never taken advantage o f C hinais weakness to s a t i s f y h er
own am bition and has always stood f o r th e h ig h e s t id e a ls of
j u s t i c e and r ig h te o u s n e s s ,^
Because of th e com plexity o f the s u b j e c t , th e m a te r ia l
fo r t h i s t h e s i s has been gained from many and v a rie d so u rc e s,
^ P ,I . T re a t, The Far E a s t , p. 320.
2
H.B, Morse and H.F. M acnair, Far E a ste rn I n t e r
n a t io n a l R e l a t i o n s , p, 633.
^P.W. Kîio, Oriental Interpretations of the Far Eastern
Q u e stio n , p. 175.
V I
in c lu d in g t r e a t i e s , d ip lo m atic n o te s , pam phlets o f v a rio u s
o r g a n iz a tio n s , r e p o r t s of C onferences and Commissions,
o f f i c i a l b u l l e t i n s , contem porary magazines and books w r i t t e n
from American and Chinese v ie w p o in ts. I t i s my purpose in
t h i s t h e s i s to s t a t e th e fin d in g s of my i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e g a r d
ing the d ip lo m atic problems of China, and the r o l e played by
the U nited S ta te s in t h e i r s o l u t i o n .
CHAPTER I
THE OPEN DOOR POLICY
American r e l a t i o n s w ith China did not become im portant
u n t i l th e famous "Open Door" p o lic y s e t f o r t h in 1899. In
th e p e rio d from 1895 to 1899, the Far E ast was in a s t a t e of
tu rm o il. In 1894, th e war between China and Japan broke out
and l i k e a f l a s h o f li g h t e n i n g r a p i d l y came t o an end. Ger
many, England and France g ath e re d th e s p o i l s of war and
a r r e s t e d th e v i c to r i o u s young Empire o f Jap an , acco rd in g to
F. C r is p i , fo rm erly Prime M in is te r o f I t a l y l ^ Japan re q u ir e d
th e vanquished China to reco g n ize the independence of Korea
and cede the L ioatung P e n in s u la . ^ F rance, R u s s ia , and Ger
many se n t id e n tic n o te s to Japan a d v is in g Japan t o relin q u ish }
the L ioatung P e n in s u la . Being unable to w ith s ta n d th e th r e e
powers, Japan ag reed . Then began the p e rio d in C hina’s
h i s t o r y known as the " B a ttle f o r Concession" by European
powers.
R u s s ia , France and Germany had in te rv e n e d p r o fe s s e d ly
f o r th e p r o te c tio n o f China, but in r e a l i t y f o r t h e i r own
b e n e f i t , and to g ain c o n c e ssio n s from the d e fe a te d China.
^F. C r is p i, "China and World P ow ers," N orth American
Review. Vol. 171, p. 692, (J u ly 1900).
^J.V.A. MacMurrayi T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and
Concerning C hina.
^ P .I . T re a t, op. c i t . , p. 304.
2
F ollow ing th e Japanese t r e a t y ending the war, France gained
c o n t r o l o f Y iinnan, Kwangsi and Kwangtung. R u ssia o b ta in e d
th e r i g h t to c o n s tr u c t th e Chinese E a ste rn ra ilw a y , and to
make a loan o f 400,000,000 f r a n c s . The murder o f two m is s io n
a r i e s fu rn is h e d th e excuse f o r th e o ccu p atio n and f i n a l le a s e
o f Kioachow on March 6, 1898. In creased demands were made
upon China. R u ssia le a se d P o rt A rth u r; France gained Kwang-
chowan; and Great B r i t a i n o b ta in ed Weihaiwei and* Kowloon.^
These l e a s e s became known as "Spheres of in flu e n c e " main
ta in e d by the r e s p e c t o f o th e r powers and the co n sen t of
China nev er to cede th e a re a to any o th e r power..
These c o n c e ssio n s, (acc o rd in g to Wong Ching Wai, le a d e r o f
the Kuomingtong or N a t i o n a l i s t P a r t y ) , were gained by
v io le n c e and the use of m i l i t a r y power in the i n t e r e s t o f
i m p e r i a l i s t i c encroachm ent.^
In th e words o f M .J. Bau, an a u t h o r i t y on Chinese diplom acy,
"C hina’s independence was doomed.
Even in the U nited S t a t e s th e re was a g i t a t i o n f o r a
sh are in th e p a r t i t i o n o f China» Says D.C. B ougler:
The p a r t i t i o n of China which r e c e n t ev e n ts have ren d ered
p r a c t i c a l l y c e r t a i n i s not a s form idable a co n tin g en cy as
has been imagined, pro v id ed America ag re e s to ta k e her
l e g itim a te share in i t
^ P .I . T re a t, op. c i t . p. 335.
^Wong-Ghing Wai, China and the N a tio n s , p. 51.
^M.J. Bau, op. c i t . . p . 36.
^D.C. B ougler, "America’s Share in th e P a r t i t i o n o f
C h in a," N orth American. Review . Vol. 171, p. 3i45, (Aug., 1900).
Such was the d e p lo ra b le c o n d itio n o f China which the
U nited S ta te s was fo rc ed t o fa c e in 1899, The American
people were opposed to the p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the s p o i l s a t
th e expense o f C hina’s weakness, and the p a r t i t i o n of China
by t h e .European c o n c e rt o f powers as had o ccurred in A fric a
a s h o r t time before* Our form er m in is te r to Siam, Mr. Bar
r e t t , proposed the fo llo w in g American p la tfo rm f o r h er r e
l a t i o n s w ith China:
The U nited S ta te s should a c q u ire no ’sphere o f i n f l u e n c e ’
and should oppose w ith a l l i t s p o l i t i c a l , m oral, and d ip lo
m atic in flu e n c e the p a r t i t i o n o f China by Europe.-^
In 1698, th e U nited S ta te s gained the P h ilip p in e s and
was a b le to in flu e n c e the a f f a i r s o f China. "H enceforth, the
U nited S ta te s was a world pov/er and a l s o , " acco rd in g to Mac-
N a i r , "an A s ia tic power.
Some p r o te c tio n was re q u ir e d f o r American commerce in
China, f o r an Empire which exceeded in e x te n t and p o p u la tio n
th e whole o f Europe o f fe re d the U nited S ta te s a v a lu a b le
m arket.
S e c re ta ry o f S ta te Hay of the U nited S ta te s was p e r
plexed a t the problems of China as may be seen from h i s
l e t t e r .
We a re opposed, of c o u r s e , to th e dismemberment of th e Em
p i r e . W e do not th in k th e p u b lic o p in io n would j u s t i f y t h i s
government in ta k in g p a r t in th e s p o l i a t i o n now going on*
^John B a r r e t t , "America’s Duty in C h in a," North Amer
ican Review. Vol. 171, p. 147.
^H.E. MacNair, op. c i t . , p. 321.
At th e same tim e we are keenly a l i v e to th e im portance of
s a fe -g u a rd in g our g re a t commercial r e l a t i o n s in th a t Em
p i r e . ^
The main American f o re ig n p o lic y decided upon, (accord
ing t o H.K, N o rto n ), has been t h a t American c i t i z e n s should
have equal r i g h t s to t r a d e , t r a v e l and preach t h a t o th e r
f o r e ig n e r s have. The means of achievem ent has been to p rese rv e
th e i n t e g r i t y and independence of C hina.^
In the ex ecu tio n of the above p o lic y , John Hay se n t c i r
c u la r n o te s to Great B r i t a i n , Germany, R u s sia , Japan, I t a l y
and F r a n c e T h e n o te s were s i m i l a r t o th e German note which
follo7/s :
The government o f th e U nited S ta te s would be p le ase d i f Ger
many make foim al d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t :
(1) I t w i l l in no wise i n t e r f e r e w ith any t r e a t y p o rt or
v e ste d i n t e r e s t or le a s e d t e r r i t o r y i t may have in China.
(8) The Chinese t r e a t y t a r i f f o f the tim e being s h a l l apply
to a l l m erchandise landed or shipped t o a l l such p o r ts w ith
in such sp h eres o f in f lu e n c e , no m a tte r to what n a t i o n a l i t y
i t may belong, and th a t the d u tie s so le v ia b l e s h a l l be c o l
le c te d by th e Chinese government.
(3) I t w i l l levy no h ig h e r h a rb o r dues on v e s s e ls o f an o th er
n a t i o n a l i t y fre q u e n tin g any p o rt in such "sphere" than s h a l l
be le v ie d on v e s s e ls o f i t s own n a t i o n a l i t y , and no h ig h er
r a i l r o a d charges over l i n e s b u i l t , c o n t r o ll e d or o p erated
w ith in i t s "sp h ere" on m erchandise b elo n g in g to c i t i z e n s or
s u b je c ts o f o th e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s tr a n s p o r te d through such
"sphere" than s h a l l be le v ie d upon s im ila r m erchandise be
lo n g in g to i t s own n a t io n a l s tr a n s p o r te d over e q u a l d i s t a n
c e s .
The fiv e powers ad d ressed r e p l i e d in fa v o r of the dec
l a r a t i o n provided the o th e r powers should c o n c u r.^
^U.S. F oreign A f f a i r s . App. on Chinese A f f a i r s , (1900)
^H.K. N orton, China and the Powers, p. 131.
^MacMurray, op. c i t . , p. 221-35, 1 9 0 0 /2 .^
^ I b l d . . p. 221.
R u s s ia , however, was s i l e n t on r a i l r o a d ch arg es and harbor
d u e s .
John Hay informed the powers on March 20, 1900, t h a t
sin c e the c o n d itio n a tta c h e d to the accep tan ce t h a t o th e r
powers concur has been com plied w ith , the government o f the
U nited S ta te s w i l l t h e r e f o r e c o n s id e r the a s s e n t given to i t
as f i n a l and d e f i n i t i v e . 1
The f i r s t p r in c ip l e of th e Open Door p o lic y th u s enun
c i a t e d provided equal o p p o rtu n ity fo r tra d e in China fo r a l l
n a t i o n s . P a r t i t i o n of China would have excluded the U nited
S ta te s from tra d e in China. The Open Door p o lic y , which
p rev en ted t h i s , d id so as much in American i n t e r e s t s as in
th o se of China.
The second phase of the Open Door p o lic y , namely, the
i n t e g r i t y of China, was not s t a t e d u n t i l the Boxer Movement
th re a te n e d to d is r u p t China.
The Boxer u p r is in g may be reg ard ed as a c u lm in a tio n o f m is
u n d ersta n d in g s between the powers and China, (states^I^tr.
C le m e n ts), in ev ery phase of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . ^
I^îr. S tle g e r c h a r a c te r iz e d the movement as r e s i s t a n c e t o
p r o g re s s .^
The Chinese people v/ith o f f i c i a l approval poured on h e l p le s s
m is s io n a r ie s and the f o r e ig n le g a tio n s t h e i r accum ulated
b i t t e r n e s s and rage a g a in s t fo re ig n aggressions."^
%IacMurray, op. c i t . , 1900/2.
^P.H. Clements, The Boxer R e b e llio n , p. 196.
^G.N. S tie g e r , China and th e O c c id e n t, p. 282.
^A.H. Smith, "Anti F oreign R io ts in China, O utlook,
Vol. 171, p. 113, ( J a n ., 1901).
5
The Boxer slogan was: "Overthrow the Mane has and th e F o re ig n
e r s . " As a r e s u l t many f o r e ig n e r s were k i l l e d and the
le g a ti o n s s e iz e d , and many Chinese l o s t t h e i r l i v e s .
M il ita r y and n av al a id was se n t by the U nited S ta te s
and o th e r powers to resc u e the b esieg e d l e g a t i o n s . P re s id e n t
McKinley sa id when sending a id e from the P h ilip p in e s :
Our aims involved no war w ith China. We a c te d to secu re the
s a f e ty o f American l i f e a n d .p r o p e r ty and to p rev en t the
spread o f d is o r d e r s .^
At the h e ig h t o f the tr o u b le , John Hay se n t a c i r c u l a r
note to th e powers which s t a t e d :
The p o lic y o f th e U nited S ta te s i s to seek a s o lu t io n which
may b rin g ab o u t permanent s a f e ty and peace to China and to
p re se rv e Chinese t e r r i t o r i a l and a d m in is tr a tiv e e n t i t y , p ro
t e c t a l l r i g h t s guaranteed to f r i e n d l y powers by t r e a t y or
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, and safeg u ard f o r th e world th e p r i n c i p l e
of unim paired tr a d e w ith th e Chinese E m pire. ^
A n o te to Great B r i t a i n su b se q u en tly s t a t e d th e two
phases of th e Open Door D o c trin e . John Bay w rote:
This government had the g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f knowing t h a t a l l
powers agreed to the p o lic y re g a rd in g im p a r t ia l tra d e and
th e i n t e g r i t y of C hina.^
A fte r th e f a i l u r e o f th e Boxer r e b e l l i o n in every way,
i t was n e c e ss a ry fo r China to resume f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s
w ith the o th e r n a tio n s . The U nited S ta te s opposed th e p a r
t i t i o n of China and the burden o f indem nity which would make
^F oreign R e l a t i o n s , p. X III, Annual Message, 1900.
^MacMurray, o p . c i t . . p. 308, n o te 1, '1.9.00/3^ . 1 “ .
^U.S. F oreign R e l a t i o n s , App*, p. 12, (1901), a ls o
Moore’s D igest of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law, Vol. V, p. 476.
7
China the economic v a s s a l o f th e powers. Li Hung Chang,
who n e g o tia te d the Boxer S ettlem e n t t r e a t y f o r China s a id ,
" I trem ble a t v/hat might have been C h in a’s f a t e , but f o r the
stand taken by the American governm ent."
In a J o in t n o te o f December 22, 1900, th e powers, in
c lu d in g the U nited S t a t e s , a s s e r te d t h e i r demands on China
r e s u l t i n g from th e Boxer R e b e llio n .C rim e s , unprecedented in
human h i s t o r y , a g a in s t the law o f n a tio n s and c i v i l i z a t i o n
were co,mmitted under odious c o n d itio n s , s t a t e d th e n o te
Demands fo r punishment and indem nity were included I
The f i n a l p r o to c o l f o r s e ttle m e n t of the d is tu rb a n c e s
o f 1900 was signed by the powers and China on September 7,
1901. This p ro to c o l e s ta b li s h e d new r e l a t i o n s between the
powers and c r e a te d problems which are as y e t u n so lv e d .^
The tw elve a r t i c l e s may be d iv id e d in to fo u r p a r t s :
(1 )P u n i t Ive m easures were the r e p a r a t i o n f o r th e a s s a s s i n
a t io n of Baron von R e t t 1 er and Mr. Suguyama; punishment o f
a u th o rs of crim es and e r e c t i o n o f monuments in d e secrated
c e rn etarie s.
(2) P re v e n ta tiv e m easures were the c r e a tio n of l e g a ti o n
q u a r te r s w ith adequate guards, m aintenance of communication
between Peking and the sea through o c c u p a tio n of tw elve
s p e c if ie d p la c e s by a l l i e d tr o o p s , p r o h i b i t i o n of im p o rta tio n
of arms and r a z in g o f Taku f o r t s .
(3) Measures f o r improvement of r e l a t i o n s were the promise
to amend commercial t r e a t i e s and improve th e Fei-Ho and th e
Wangpu r i v e r , and th e p r o s c r ip tio n of c o u rt ceremony.
(4) Measures fo r the indem nity provided f o r 450,000,000
t a e l s t o be paid in t h i r t y - n i n e y e a rs w ith i n t e r e s t a t fo u r
p e r c e n t T h e U nited S ta te s re c e iv e d 32,939,055 t a e l s or
MacMurray, op. c i t . . p. 310, iH O l/^.l
^American I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law J o u rn a l, S u p p l., 1907, p. 388.
^MacMurray), cit., note 6, 1901/3,
8
$24,440,000 A
In 1902 R ussia a ttem p ted to monopolize the economic
development o f Manchuria through the B usso-C hinese Bank. John
Hay d e c la re d t h i s to be a v i o l a t i o n o f th e Open Door p o lic y ,
and s a id ,
Any agreem ent by which China cedes to any c o r p o r a tio n th e
e x c lu s iv e r i g h t o f opening mines and e s t a b l i s h i n g r a i l r o a d s
can but be viewed w ith g ra v e s t concern by th e U nited S ta te s
R u ssia promised to evacuate Manchuria in s i x months, but
f a i l e d to do so . As a u r e s u l t , the R usso-Japanese War of 1904-5
was fought on Chinese s o i l . The n e u t r a l i t y and i n t e g r i t y o f
China, and l i m i t a t i o n of th e a r e a of b e l lig e r e n c e were main
ta in e d by a note se n t by John Hay on F ebruary 10, 1904 to
R u ssia and Japan.® The peace m eeting which c lo se d th e war
occurred a t Portsm outh, New Hampshire a t th e i n v i t a t i o n o f
P re s id e n t R o o sev elt who had o f fe r e d h is good o f f i c e s . In th e
T re aty o f Portsm outh, September 5, 1905, Japan and R ussia
agreed to m a in ta in equal o p p o rtu n ity f o r tr a d e in M anchuria.
A fte r th e w ar, Japan was charged w ith v i o l a t i n g the
Open Door D o ctrin e in M anchuria. In o rd e r to d e fin e the
p o lic y of Japan and th e U nited S ta te s in th e F ar E a s t, th e
R oot-T akahira n o te s were exchanged on November 30, 1908
They were as fo llo w s:
^U. S. F oreign R e l a t i o n s , 1905^p,156.
^ I b l d . . 1902.
^ I b i d . . 1904,p.ll8.
^MacMurray, op.clt.. 1908/I4,p,759.
9
The aim and purpose o f th e U nited S ta te s and Japan i s
to encourage f re e and p e a c e fu l development of commerce in the
P a c i f i c , to m a in ta in th e s t a t u s quo in the P a c i f i c and reX- '
p e c t the t e r r i t o r i a l p o sse ssio n s in the s a id re g io n , to de
fend th e p r i n c i p l e of equal o p p o rtu n ity f o r commerce and th e
independence and i n t e g r i t y of China, and in case any event
should th r e a te n the above p r i n c i p l e s , the two governments
should communicate w ith each o th e r as to what m easures to
ta k e .
The Open Door p o lic y of th e U nited S ta te s p rev en ted the
"Break-up" o f China and became th e e s ta b li s h e d p o lic y o f the
w orld.
In the same y e a r, 1908, two o th e r p o l i c i e s of th e
U nited S ta te s were e s ta b li s h e d , namely, the r e t u r n o f indem
n i t y money to China in th e i n t e r e s t of ed u c atio n and th e s e t
tle m e n t of a l l d is p u te s by a r b i t r a t i o n fo r th e advancement of
peace.
There was evidence of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s between the
U nited S ta te s and China. An a r b i t r a t i o n convention was signed
on O ctober 8, 1908 by E lih u Root a n d V fu Ting Fang. I t was
b r i e f l y : The agreement to submit to a r b i t r a t i o n a l l q u e s tio n s
c o n sid ere d p o s s ib le to submit to such tre a tm e n t; and to sub
m it any d i f f i c u l t y of a l e g a l n a tu re to th e permanent c o u rt of
a r b i t r a t i o n provided th e y did n o t a f f e c t v i t a l i n t e r e s t s , i n
dependence, honor or concern t h i r d p a r t i e s
F u rth e r, i n t e r e s t in th e a f f a i r s of China was shown in
1912 when th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Opium Conference convened a t th e
Hague a t th e p ro p o sa l of th e U nited S t a t e s . An I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Opium Convention was signed in January 1912 by th e U nited
S t a t e s , China, G reat B r i t i a n , Japan, France, Germany, R u ssia
H", A. MacMurray.'^U. 3. Treaty Series. 1908-14^.522.
10
and Siam.^ I t r e g u la te d the p ro d u c tio n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , manu
f a c t u r e , im p o rta tio n and e x p o r ta tio n and use of opium to and
by China. Opium co n feren ces have been h eld a t r e g u la r i n t e r
v a ls s i n c e .
On October 8, 1908 when th e sum o f #32,939,055 was
found to exceed th e a c tu a l lo s s e s tc American i n t e r e s t s and
p ro p e rty in th e Boxer R e b e llio n the sum o f #10,785,286 was
re m itte d by th e government of th e U nited S t a t e s . ^
We f e a r (wrote Mr. E lih u Root to th e Chinese m in is te r a t
Washington) t h a t should th e U nited S ta te s re m it th e e n t i r e
sum a t once, o th e r powers may d iv id e i t among th em selv es.
T h erefo re , China continued to pay the r e g u l a r amounts a n n u a lly ,
e x tr a amounts b ein g r e tu r n e d to China each y e a r.
In b e h a lf o f the Chinese government, P rin c e Ching in a
n ote to th e American m in i s te r , W. W. R o c k h ill d e c la re d :
The Im p erial Government w ishes to give e x p re s sio n to
the high v a lu e i t p la c e s on th e f r ie n d s h ip o f th e U nited S ta te s
I t i s h e n c e fo rth th e i n t e n t i o n to send y e a rly to th e U nited
S ta te s a c o n s id e ra b le number of s tu d e n ts th e re to r e c e iv e edu
cation."^
A m erica’s g r e a t e s t c o n t r ib u t io n to China ( s t a t e s S ta n le y
Hornbeck) i s e d u c a tio n . The U nited S t a t e s has e s ta b li s h e d a
school system t h a t i s a model f o r China, as w e ll as p ro v id in g
more money, sc h o o ls and te a c h e rs th a n any o th e r power.®
In a j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n of Congress May 21, 1924, the b a l
ance of th e Boxer indem nity due th e U nited S ta te s amounting to
^MacMurray, , 1912/2.
^î/îacM urray, o p . c i t . .p j S ll.
® U. S. F oreign R e l a t i o n s , 1907,p J7 4 .
. 1 908,p .68.
^S. Hornbeck, Contemporary P o l i t i c s In th e Far E a s t ,ri^86.
11
#6,137,332 was a u th o riz e d to be re m itte d to C hina.^ By th e
e x e c u tiv e o rd er o f th e P re s id e n t on J u ly 16, 1925, t h i s was
d o n e P r e s i d e n t Coolidge d e c la re d :
The Chinese m in i s te r has informed the S e c re ta ry of
S ta te th a t h i s government proposed to devote th e funds thus
made a v a i l a b l e to e d u c a tio n a l and c u l t u r a l p u rp o ses, paying
s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n to s c i e n t i f i c re q u ire m e n ts.
The t r e a s u r e r was d ir e c te d to rem it funds re c e iv e d s in c e
O c to b e r.1, 1917 to the Foundation fo r Promotion of E ducation
and C u ltu re , d e s ig n a te d by the Chinese government to re c e iv e
them.
A mandate o f September 17, 1924 c re a te d a Board composed
o f f iv e Americans and nine Chinese to a d m in is te r the fu n d s.
The Board re s o lv e d on June 3, 1925 to devote the funds to
te c h n ic a l t r a i n i n g , s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , and c u l t u r a l e n t e r
p ris e s .®
According to a r e p o r t o f th e Board made in 1924, th e re
were e ig h t c o lle g e s , te n te c h n ic a l i n s t i t u t e s , elev en second-
aciiy sch o o ls and v a rio u s e d u c a tio n a l and s c i e n t i f i c b o d ie s.
The fa v o ra b le r e s u l t s of the American re m is s io n were
w id ely re c o g n iz e d . By 1925, the m a jo rity of th e Powers had
r e m itte d t h e i r share o f the Boxer indem nity, alth o u g h in every
case China continued to pay amounts due, th e sums were re tu rn e d
to be used f o r the purposes d e s ig n a te d by th e r e s p e c tiv e powers
^MacMurray, o p . c i t ., 1 9 2 4 ,p l4 7 .
^ I b l d . .P 1 5 6 .
2
Chinese Foundation f o r the Promotion of E ducation and
C u ltu re ,n J .
12
CHAPTER I I
DOLLAR AND RAILROAD DIPLOMACY
The "Open Door" p o lic y did not s e t t l e a l l of th e d i f f i
c u l t i e s in China, The s t r u g g l e fo r co n cessio n s began anew,
e s p e c i a l l y the c o n f l i c t re g a rd in g railw a y c o n s tr u c tio n , R a il-
wasy become a re a s f o r c o n t r o l o f lands a d ja c e n t t o them and
develop in to sp h eres of in f lu e n c e .^
Moreover, once b u i l t w ith honesty and o p erated w ith a m in i
mum of e f f i c i e n c y (says Mr. MacMurray) a r a i l r o a d pays f o r
i t s e l f from the b eg in n in g , f o r i t s course l i e s through a
re g io n a lre a d y under in te n s iv e c u l t i v a t i o n and w ith a popu-
lation«^neater th a n any o th e r r e g io n in th e w orld.
A p ril 14, 1898 and l a t e r in June, 1900, an agreement
was made in Washington in v e s tin g the U nited S ta te s w ith the
power to c o n s tru c t and o p era te a r a i l r o a d from Hankow to Can
ton.® But in 1905, the Chinese government which had d e t e r
mined to b u ild th e l i n e i t s e l f , c a n c e lle d th e two agreem ents.
Compensation o f #6,750,000 was p a id .
France and England then agreed to c o n s tru c t th e canton-
Hankow r a i l r o a d ; Germany was to b u ild a Hankow and Szechuan
lin e * A loan o f #5,500,000 was signed by them on June 6, 1909.
With the su p p o rt o f th e u n ite d S ta te s , th e American Banking
Group claim ed a r i g h t to p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e lo a n , b asin g the
^Wong Ching Wai, op. c i t . , p. 54.
^J.V.A. MacMurray, "The Problem o f F o reig n c a p i t a l in
C h in a." Foreign A f f a i r s . I l l , p. 418, (A p ril, 1925.)
^MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina. 1905/7, p. 519.
13
claim on d ip lo m atic n o te s which Wai W o Pu had ad d ressed to
Mr. Conger, American M in is te r to China in 1903 and 1904.
The n o te s s t a t e d : "E nglish and American c a p i t a l w i l l be
used to b u ild th e Hankow-Szechuen l i n e i f Chinese c a p i t a l i s
i n s u f f i c i e n t . " In 1909, a p e rs o n a l c a b le from P re s id e n t T a ft
changed the a t t i t u d e o f th e Chinese government. The U nited
S ta te s was adm itted to eq u al p a r t i c i p a t i o n . ^ The f i n a l a g re e
ment was signed on May 20, 1911 fo r a lo a n o f 6,000,000 pounds
d iv id e d e q u a lly between th e U nited S ta te s , G reat B r i t a i n ,
France and Germany. ^ I t became known as th e Hukuang Loan.
A loan f o r 10,000,000 pounds f o r currency reform was
i n i t i a t e d by China and o ffe re d to th e American Banking Group.
A p re lim in a ry agreement was sig n ed on October 27, 1910, but
c o n s id e rin g th e p r o je c t too g re a t f o r one n a tio n , F rance,
G reat B r i t a i n and Germany were i n v it e d to p a r t i c i p a t e e q u a lly
in the loan.® The f i n a l agreement was signed by th e fo u r
powers on A p ril 15, 1911, but was never consummated due to
th e Chinese R evolution o f 1911.^ The fo rm a tio n o f the Con
so rtiu m c o n s is tin g o f Banking groups from F rance, Germany,
Great B r i t a i n and the U nited S ta te s r e s u lte d .® At an i n t e r
bank co n feren ce in P a r is a s i x t r i p l e group a l l i a n c e was
^U.S. F oreign R e l a t i o n s , p. 17.
^MacMurray, T r e a tie s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina. 1911/5.
^ I b l d . . 1911/2/
"^Ching-lin H sia, S tu d ie s in Chinese D iplom atic H i s t o r y , p. 145,
^Ma c Mur r a y , T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and C oncerning
C h in a . 1913/5.
14
formed on June 18, 1912 p ro v id in g f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in lo a n s
to China on the b a s is of e q u a l i t y . Japan and R ussia were i n
cluded in t h i s agreement alo n g w ith the fo u r o r i g i n a l powers.
The f i r s t s u b je c t of th e Consortium was a r e o r g a n iz a tio n
loan o f 25,000,000 pounds to Yuan-Shi-Kai, p r o v is io n a l p r e s i
dent o f th e newly e s ta b lis h e d Chinese R e p u b l i c A f t e r r e
c e iv in g 3,100,000 t a e l s , he g ra n te d the Consortium an o p tio n
on a l l f u tu r e lo a n s . In s p i t e of t h i s , he concluded a loan
Vi/ith Belgium. As a r e s u l t a co n feren ce of bankers was h eld
in London in May 1913, a t which .the r i g h t to manage th e lo a n s ,
fin a n c e s and s a l t g a b e lle was demanded. China re fu s e d and
concluded a lo a n w ith an independent E n g lish banker, Mr. C risp .
The C risp lo a n was c a n c e lle d in fa v o r o f th e Consortium . Nego
t i a t i o n s co n tin u e d , but the powers became involved in a c o n tro
v e rsy over appointm ent on th e b a s is of n a tio n a lity .® During
the d ead lo ck , P re s id e n t Wilson withdrew th e support of th e
United S ta te s government from the American banking group. In
a pro clam atio n o f March 18, 1913, P re s id e n t Wilson d e c la re d :
The c o n d itio n s o f the loan seem t o us t o touch v ery n e a rly
th e a d m in is t r a tiv e i n t e g r i t y o f China i t s e l f , and t h i s admin
i s t r a t i o n does n o t f e e l i t ought even by im p lic a tio n to be a
p a rty t o th e s e c o n d itio n s ; The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on i t s p a r t
could be im plied in re q u e s tin g the bankers to u n d ertak e the
lo a n and might conceivable^ go th e le n g th o f f o r c i b l e i n t e r
fe re n c e in th e f i n a n c i a l and even th e p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f
^MacMurray, T re a tie s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C h in a. 1912/9, p. 1024.
^F.H. Huang, P u b lic Debts in C h in a, p. 56-71.
®China Year Book, 1913, p. 379.
15
t h a t o r i e n t a l s t a t e
In a note to a member o f th e banking group, White and
Company, S e c re ta ry L ansing sa id ,
The departm ent i s e a r n e s t l y d e s iro u s o f prom oting American
tr a d e in f o re ig n c o u n t r ie s by a l l proper means b u t cannot
give i t s su p p o rt t o e n t e r p r i s e s which imply th e e x c lu siv e
r i g h t to b u ild r a i l r o a d s in any p a r t of th e w o rld .^
The American banking group w ithdrew -from th e Consortium.
W ithout th e U nited S ta te s to uphold the d o c trin e of equal
o p p o rtu n ity o f tr a d e , and the i n t e g r i t y o f China (according
to Mr. Bau) th e powers f e l l in to a s tr u g g le f o r c o n c e ss io n s.
Many lo an s were g ra n te d by American companies to China,
fo llo w in g the w ithdravm l o f th e American group from th e Con
so rtiu m . The S tandard O il Company o b tain ed th e r i g h t to p ro s
p e c t in th e p ro v in ce s o f C h ih li and Shensi.® The Bethlehem
S t e e l C o rp o ratio n o b ta in e d a c o n t r a c t to b u ild docks and f o r
t i f i c a t i o n s in Mamoi.^ The American I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o rp o ratio n
agreed to a gold loan f o r th e improvement o f th e Southern
Grand Canal in Shantung.® The Siems and Carey Company o b ta in ed
a c o n tr a c t f o r r a i l r o a d c o n s tru c tio n .® The C o n tin e n ta l and
Commercial T rust and Savings Bank agreed to loan China 5,000-
000 g o l d . T h e s e lo a n s were made by the Chinese government
and th e companies, but in the name o f th e U nited S t a t e s .
^U.S. F o reig n R e l a t i o n s , 1913, p. 170.
^"Background of th e C o n so rtiu m ," F ar E a s te r n Review, May
1922, p. 265.
®MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina, p . 1109.
^ I b i d . . p. 1236.
®I b l d . . p. 1287.
®I b l d . . p. 1313.
'^ Ib ld ., p. 1337.
1 6
In the meanwhile Mr. Harrim an, an American magnate con
ceiv ed th e p la n f o r a round th e world r a i l r o a d system and in
1905 concluded a p r e lim in a ry agreem ent w ith Japan f o r th e con
s t r u c t i o n of a s e c tio n o f the r a i l r o a d in M anchuria.^ The
Chinese government informed Mr, Harriman t h a t i t would not
perm it American p a r t i c i p a t i o n in Manchurian r a i l r o a d c o n tro l»
Again, in 1907, W illa rd S t r a i g h t , American m i n i s t e r ,
asked Mr. E. H. Harriman to fin a n c e a 20,000,000 pound loan
f o r a government bank. Due to a f i n a n c i a l p a n ic , îÆr. Harriman
2
r e f u s e d . The Boxer indem nity which was re m itte d in 1908, f u r
n ish e d an excuse f o r G eneral Wang to v i s i t W ashington, o s te n
s i b l y to express the g r a t i t u d e o f China, b u t r e a l l y t o nego
t i a t e a Manchurian lo a n . The R oot-T akahira n o te s caused the
f a i l u r e of th e s e plans.® The p ro p o sa l t h a t China b u ild w ith
American c a p i t a l a l i n e from Ai gun to Chinchow was made by
Ivîr. Harrim an. In August 1909, R u ssia o ffe re d him th e Chinese
E a ste rn R a ilr o a d . Before the s a le was concluded, Mr, Har
riman d ie d , thus ending h is dream o f a w orld-w ide system o f
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
On November 9, 1909 S e c re ta ry Knox of th e U nited S ta te s
se n t h is p la n fo r th e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n of Manchurian r a i l r o a d s
to th e B r i t i s h fo re ig n o f f i c e S e c r e t a r y Knox proposed t h a t
^Morse and MacNair, op. c i t ., p. 781.
^T.L. M illa rd , "Americans in C hina," Forum, XLIV,
p. 67, (1910).
®MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina, 1909/12, p. 802.
"%.S. F oreign R e la tio n s , 1910, p. 234.
17
China purchase the Japanese and R u ssian r a i l r o a d s in Manchuria
by means of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l lo a n . He in v ite d o th e r powers to
a id in th e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f IVIfenchuria by su p p ly in g funds f o r
the purchase o f the r o a d s . G reat B r i t a i n re fu s e d to ta k e a
1
d e f i n i t e sta n d a g a in s t th e A nglo-Japanese a l l i a n c e . R u ssia
and Japan re fu s e d to ac ce p t th e p la n on January 20, 1910. The
P
r e s u l t was a com plete f a i l u r e of th e Knox p la n . As Mr.
MacNair observed, "In diplom acy, i t i s b e s t to fa c e hard f a c t s
th an to wander in to a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e s . "
The r e a c t i o n to th e f o r e ig n lo an s and f o re ig n r a i l r o a d
c o n s tru c tio n in China was the overthrow o f the Manehu Dynasty
and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e Chinese R e p u b lic . The le a d e r .
Sun Y at-se n , en u n ciated the Chinese d e c l a r a t i o n of independence.
The Son o f Heaven (Emperor) i s incom petent.
He s h a l l give way t o th e w i l l o f th e people,
Ho lo n g e r s h a l l we rev eren c e the th r o n e .^
Dr. Sun Yatpsen had planned and le d a f u t i l e r e v o l t in
Canton which r e s u l t e d in h is e x i l e f o r f i f t e e n y e a rs . During
t h i s tim e, he trav eled th e w orld over o rg a n iz in g s o c i e t i e s
among f o r e ig n Chinese, and r a is i n g funds e x p e c ia lly in the
U nited S t a t e s . Huang Hsing org an ized s i m ila r s o c i e t i e s in
China and Japan. The Im p e ria l army and a d m in is tr a tio n had been
4 -
perm eated by r e v o l u t i o n i s t s .
^ T re a t, o p . c i t . ,p.404.
^Bau, o p . G i t . jjjSQ.
Paul iC-ineberger, Sun Yat Sen and th e Chinese R epublic ,p.20
^Hornbeck, o p . c i t ^.jp;15.
1 8
On the n in th of October 1911, a bomb exploded in a
Chinese house in Hankow, a R ussian c o n c e ssio n . The V iceroy
in v e s tig a te d and d isco v ered a r e v o lu tio n a r y p lo t sponsored
by s e v e r a l l o c a l o f f i c i a l s . These men when th re a te n e d w ith
e x e c u tio n s t a r t e d a r e b e l l i o n in th e Yanglse V a lle y w ith in
two days. Li Yuan-hung became the le a d e r of th e r e b e l s a t
Hankow and o th e r so u th e rn p ro v in c e s. The Manchus became
f rig h te n e d and r e c a l l e d t h e i r a b l e s t sta tesm an Yuan S h ih -k a i
to defend them. Yuan agreed to n e g o tia te w ith th e r e b e l s .
He appointed Tang S h ao -y i, an American educated o f f i c i a l ; and
th e r e b e l s ap p o in ted ¥u Ting-f;ang, tw ice m in i s te r t o th e U nited
S t a t e s .
Dr. Sun Y at-sen oh h is a r r i v a l in China was made p r e s i
dent of the so u th e rn r e b e l confederacy w ith i t s h e a d q u a rte rs
a t Nanking. F in a ll y the Manchus agreed to a b d ic a te in fa v o r
o f Yuan S h ih -k a i. Sun Y at-sen re s ig n e d th e p re sid e n c y of
R epublican China in fa v o r o f Yuan. An E d ict o f A b d icatio n
o f February 12, 1912 iss u e d by the Manchus s t a t e d :
L et Yuan S h ih -k a i o rg an iz e w ith f u l l powers a government and
a s s u re th e people peace and th e Empire t r a n q u i l i t y .
The e n t i r e r e s u l t of th e r e v o lu tio n was a compromise. The
Manchus had no a l t e r n a t i v e but a b d ic a tio n ; Dr. Sun Y at-sen
knew he was not th e man to le a d China; the r e b e l s p r e f e r re d
Yuan, a form er r o y a l i s t , to a prolonged c i v i l war. The r e
b e l l i o n was not p r im a r ily a r e p u b lic a n movement, b u t a r e v o l t
a g a in s t the Manchu Dynasty whose c o r r u p tio n , m isru le and in a b il-
i:t'.y to l i m i t th e f o r e ig n a g g re s sio n s was menacing the e x i s
tence of the nation..
19
Yuan began th e work o f r e c o n s tr u c tio n , c e n t r a l i z a t i o n
and o r g a n iz a tio n of government. This ta s k i s not y e t accomr"-
plished f o r China is ru le d by war lo r d s , who owe only nominal
a l le g i a n c e to any c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y .
20
CHAPTER I I I
CHINA AND THE W ORLD W A R
With th e outbreak of th e World War, the European n a tio n s
were too engrossed to c o n tin u e th e s tr u g g le fo r co n c essio n s in
China. Japan took t h i s o p p o rtu n ity to e x e rc is e a f r e e hand in
the F ar E ast and on January 18, 1915 p re se n te d the "Twenty-One
Demands" to China. They were in f iv e s e c tio n s d e a lin g w ith :
1, Shantung, 2, S outhern M anchuria, 8, Hanyjehing Company,
4, h o n - a lie n a ti o n o f th e Chinese c o a s t, and 5, Japanese s o l d i e r s
a d v is e r s , ownership o f la n d by Japan f o r h o s p i t a l s , churches
and schools
On May 7, 1915 an ultim atum was given by Japan demanding
accep tan ce of th e f i r s t fo u r s e c t i o n s . Two t r e a t i e s and t h i r -
2
te e n n o te s were signed on May 25, 1917 by Japan and China.
A fte r Chinese s o l d i e r s had r e s i s t e d f u r t h e r demands in August
1916, Japan adopted a more f r i e n d l y a t t i t u d e toward China. In
F
d efense of Japan, T^.Iyenagta s a id : "For s e l f p r o te c tio n , t h e r e
f o r e , Japan cannot remain i d l e w hile C hina’s weakness c o n s t i
t u t e s a c o n s ta n t source of tr o u b le in the F ar E a s t .
On May 4, 1915, the U nited S t a t e s sen t id e n tic n o te s to
Japan and China d .e d a rin g t h a t th e U nited S ta te s would not
^C hino-Japanese T r e a tie s and Exchange of N o te s .
rz
T. lyenaga. The New C hino-Japanese T r e a t i e s , " American
Review of Reviews, Vol. 52,p.338.
S I
reco g n ize any agreement im p airin g the r i g h t s o f i t s c i t i z e n s
in China, th e p o l i t i c a l or t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y o f China or
the Open Door p o l i c y . 1 "N othing," sa id P re s id e n t W ilson,
"must be co n stru e d as acq u iescen ce on the p a rt o f the U nited
S ta te s in the p o lic y of the n o te s exchanged by China and Japan.
P re s id e n t Wilson en u n ciated h is famous fo u rte e n p o in ts
on January 3, 1917. S.A. Cheng s t a t e d :
China cannot b u t show s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith the views o f the
government and people of the U nited S ta te s who d e c la re them
s e lv e s eag er when the war i s o v er, to in s u re and re s p e c t the
e q u a lit y o f n a tio n s w hatever t h e i r power s h a l l be and r e l i e v e
them from v io le n c e p e r i l and wrong. China i s ready to jo in
e f f o r t s w ith t h e i r s to a t t a i n such r e s u l t s . ^
P re s id e n t Wilson issu ed a c i r c u l a r note i n v i t i n g n e u t r a l
powers to jo in d ip lo m atic severance w ith Germany:. China broke
o f f her r e l a t i o n s w ith Germany on March 14, 1914. When
America d e c la re d war a g a in s t Germany, china decided to follow
h er re v e re d f r ie n d alth o u g h the causes of the war d id n o t
e f f e c t h e r n a t io n a l a f f a i r s .
Japan p r o te s te d a g a in s t the e n tra n c e of China in to the
War. The a l l i e s , in c lu d in g Great B r i t a i n , F rance, R u ssia and
I t a l y , gave t h e i r s e c r e t pledge t h a t Japan would p o sse ss th e
German I s la n d s of the P a c if ic and th e German t e r r i t o r y in
Shantung, China. Japan withdrew her o p p o s itio n . Thereupon,
China d e c la re d war a g a in s t Germany on August 14, 1917.
^W.W. W illoughby, The Peace C o n feren ce, p. 290.
^C ongressional R eco rd , August 20, 1919.
^ 8 .A. Cheng, "China a t th e Peace C o n feren ce," Contem
porary Review , Vol. 115, p. 289;
%IacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements vjlth and Concerning
C h in a, p. 1361.
22
P re s id e n t W ilson in a note of June 7, 1917 ad v ised the
Chinese government t h a t the e n try in the World War was of
secondary im portance, w h ile the es ta b lish m e n t of c e n t r a l
u n if ie d and re s p o n s ib le government was of prime im p o rtan ce,^
The World War plunged China in to a c i v i l war between
n o rth e rn and so u th e rn tuchuns or m i l i t a r y governors of prov-
r:hiees v/hich s t i l l c o n tin u e s .
These war lo r d s (acco rd in g to Mr. E. F. M e r r ill) owe nominal
a l le g ia n c e to the c e n t r a l government, but by r a i s i n g la rg e
arm ies c o n tro lle d to se rv e t h e i r own ends, th e y usurp com
p l e t e a u t o c r a t i c l o c a l power in the p ro v in c e s .^
China se n t not one s o l d i e r to th e f r o n t , b u t d e c la r a t io n of
war stre n g th e n e d her p o s i t i o n a t th e Peace C onference. The
s i t u a t i o n i s a p t ly d e s c rib e d by Wong Ching Wai th u s: "De
c l a r a t i o n w ithout war abroad. War w ith o u t d e c la r a t io n a t
home. "5
R e la tio n s between th e U nited S ta te s and Japan became
s tr a i n e d over t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e p o l i c i e s in China. At th e
tim e, th e a l l i e s were sen d in g war m issio n s to the U nited
S t a t e s . Japan decided to send a s p e c ia l m issio n to gain the
r e c o g n itio n of J a p a n ’s paramount i n t e r e s t s in China. V is
count I s h i i a t th e head of th e m issio n a r r iv e d in August, 1917.
An agreement between V iscount I s h i i and S e c r e ta r y Lansing was
concluded on November 2, 1917.
^W. R. W heller, China and th e World War,p.95.
F. M e r r i l l , "P re se n t C onditions in C h in a," P o l i t i c a l
Science Q .uarterly, Vol. 36,p.645, (Dec. 1921) .
% ong Ching Wai, o p . c i t . ,p.98.
^ Im p erial Japanese M ission to th e U nited S t a t e s . 1917,p.l0.
23
Both Japan and the U nited S ta te s re a ffirm e d the "Open
Door" p o lic y , and d e c la re d t h a t n e i t h e r d e s ire d to in f r in g e
on the t e r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y or independence o f China. The
U nited S ta te s reco g n ized J a p a n ’s s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t s in China
due to p ro p in q u ity , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th o se s e c tio n s where t e r
r i t o r i e s were c o n tig u o u s.^
The r e s u l t o f the agreement in China was u n fa v o ra b le
to the U nited S t a t e s .
The L a n s in g - I s h ii Agreement (according to Henry Cabot Lodge)
was th e cause of grave d is p u t e s , and a th r e a te n in g f e a tu r e
as w ell as a stum bling block in the Far East.*^
China had always c o n sid e red th e United S ta te s h er b e s t f r i e n d .
In the words o f P.W. Kuo, "America has endeavored to p r a c t ic e
th e h ig h e s t id e a ls o f j u s t i c e and r ig h te o u s n e s s towards China.
How she f e l t th e U nited S ta te s was a s s i s t i n g th e encouchment
o f Japan which the "Twenty-One Demands" had begun. The
German fo re ig n o f f i c e was c o n fid e n t th a t r e l a t i o n s between
Washington and Peking might be made more d i f f i c u l t due to
th e agreement
China se n t a d e c la r a t io n to the governments o f th e U nited
S ta te s and Japan s t a t i n g t h a t she would not be bound by any
agreement en te re d in to by o th e r c o u n tr ie s , and would r e s p e c t
^MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C h in a. p. 1394. '
^H.C. L odge,^"F oreign R e la tio n s of the U nited S t a t e s , "
F o reig n A f f a i r s . Vol. I I , p. 529,
^P.W. Kuo and M. Soyesluim a, O rie n ta l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
o f th e Far E a ste rn Q u e stio n , p . IVUT
^"C hina’ s P e r p le x ity between Japan and th e U .S .,"
C urrent Opinion, Vol. 113, p. 366. (1917).
24
s p e c ia l I n t e r e s t s only i n s o f a r as th e y were provided f o r in
t r e a t i e s .
There was much adverse c r i t i c i s m of the agreement in
th e U nited .S ta te s. S e c re ta ry L ansing sa id he deemed i t m erely
a Monroe D octrine fo r th e Far E ast
A frank statem en t on the p a r t of the two governments of the
U nited S ta te s and Japan was e s s e n t i a l due to t h e i r growing
s u sp ic io n of each o t h e r ’s m otives in China, (Lansing de
c la r e d b efo re th e Senate F oreign R e la tio n s Com m ittee).^
The agreem ent r e s u l t e d in in c re a s in g r a t h e r than le s s e n
ing f r i c t i o n between the two governm ents. , The c h i e f d i f f i
c u l t y la y in the use o f d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c te r s to re p r e s e n t
" s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t s . " The Japanese v e r s io n in d ic a te d v este d
o r ownership i n t e r e s t s ; the American v e rs io n meant a gen
e r a l i n t e r e s t in th e w e lfa re o f China. U n til th e U nited
S ta te s r e f u s e d . t o a c c e p t th e Japanese v e r s io n , V iscount I s
h i i - b e lie v e d he had gained a d ip lo m atic viotc^ry.S
On A p ril 23, 1923, th e Lansing I s h i i agreement was can
c e lle d by an exchange of n o te s between the U nited S ta te s and
Japan, and signed by S e c re ta ry Hughes and Ambassador Han-
i b a r i o f Ja p a n .^ The agreement served th e purpose b u t in
cre a sed the d i f f i c u l t i e s of th e c r i t i c a l p e rio d of the World
^iDhifying American I n t e r e s t s in China," Far E a ste rn
Review, O ct. 1 9 2 2 ^ 6 0 7 .
^ S ix ty - s ix th Congress, F i r s t S e ssio n , 225-6. Committee
of F oreign R e la tio n s of the U nited S t a t e s ' S e n a te .
^ .W . W illoughby, Foreign R ig h ts and I n t e r e s t s in C hina.pj495.
%IacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina. I l l , p. 130.
E5
War.
Although China took no a c t i v e p a r t in the World War,
she was ad m itted a s a minor s t a t e to th e P a r is Peace Con
fere n c e in 1919.
E a rly in the C onference, China claim ed th e r e s t o r a t i n n
o f the German r i g h t s in Shantung, in c lu d in g th e le a se d t e r
r i t o r y o f Kiochow, th e T sin g tso Tsinan R a ilro a d and mines
a d jo in in g . China claim ed t h a t sin c e th e d e c la r a t io n o f war
ab ro g ated the t r e a t i e s w ith Germany p ro v id in g f o r th e s e con
c e s s io n s , they should be r e tu r n e d t o China. Japan claim ed
the German p o sse ssio n s through conquest and the s e c r e t p ledges
o f th e A llie d Powers of G reat B r i t a i n , F rance, I t a l y and
R u s s ia .^
The f i n a l d e c is io n la y w ith P re s id e n t Wilson who, u n t i l
th e Peace Conference, may have been ig n o ran t o f th e s e c r e t
p le d g e s . P re s id e n t W ilson awarded the d e c is io n t o Japan on
A p ril 30 in o rd er to save th e League o f N ations which he was
determ ined to o rg a n iz e a t a l l c o s t s . Members of th e Amer
ican D ele g atio n , in c lu d in g S e c re ta ry L ansing, General B l is s
and Mr. White ad v ised P re s id e n t Wilson not to grant th e de
mands of China, but t o no a v a il,
M. Clemenceau, Chairman of the 'Peace Conference, ad-
^Shantung Q u e stio n , p re se n te d to th e P a r is Peace Con
fe re n c e by the Chinese Dele g ate sr;
^T.F. M illa rd , "C hina’s Case a t th e Peace C onference,"
Review Supplem ent, J u ly 17, 1920.
26
d re sse d a note to the Chinese d e le g a tio n s t a t i n g :
The Conference s u f f i c i e n t l y re c o g n iz e s th e im portance o f
th e problem but cannot re g a rd i t as w ith in i t s sc o p e . I t
should be s e t t l e d by the League of N ations a t some l a t e r
d a t e .^ .
The Chinese D eleg ates d e s ire d to sig n th e t r e a t y of
peace w ith r e s e r v a tio n s on the s t a t u s of German r i g h t s in
China. This was d e c la re d im p o ssib le , and the d e le g a te s r e
fu sed to s ig n th e t r e a t y w ith Germany in June, 1919. The
Shantung Q uestion was s t i l l a menace to th e peace in the
Far E a s t.
China, (said S.A. Cheng), i s more I n te r e s t e d in a world
s e ttle m e n t th an in any g a in o r l o s s to any p a r t i c u l a r coun
t r y . I t i s in th e ad h e sio n to the League o f N atio n s t h a t
she can give p roof o f the s i n c e r i t y o f her s ta te m e n t. ^
By s ig n in g the t r e a t y o f peace w ith A u stria China did be
come a member o f the League o f N a tio n s . ^
The f i n a l t r e a t y o f peace w ith Germany and th e A llie d
Powers co n tain e d th r e e p ro v is io n s r e l a t i n g to Shantung. In
a r t i c l e s 156, Î57 and 158, Germany renounced in fav o r o f
Japan a l l r i g h t s ac q u ire d in Shantung, and in favor o f th e
A l l i e s a l l o th e r r i g h t s w hatever t h e i r o rig in .'^
The Chinese f a i l u r e a t th e Peace Conference caused a
s tu d e n t movement t o a r i s e w ith th e slo g an , "Down w ith
^Wong Ching Wai, op. c i t ., p. 94.
^S.A. Cheng, op. c i t . , p . 288, (May, 1919).
^Ma c Mur r a y , T r e a tie s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina, p. 1486.
. p. 1485.
27
F oreign M i l i t a r i s t s and I m p e r i a l i s t s . " An ab so lu te boy
c o t t of Japanese goods a ls o r e s u l t e d . The U nited S ta te s
should have co n tin u ed as China’s p r o t e c t o r , champion and
f r i e n d . In t h a t c a se , the Shantung Q uestion would have
been s e t t l e d j u s t l y .
The rem aining work of the Peace Conference in re g a rd
to China was the fo rm a tio n of a new Consortium o f b an k e rs.
The way c a p i t a l m eets i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w i l l determ ine
the s o lu tio n o f th e g r e a t e s t problem c o n fro n tin g man, the
r e l a t i o n s h i p of the c i v i l i z a t i o n s of E ast and West. The
o ld "Consortium o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bankers" in China ended
in 1915 as a r e s u l t o f the w ithdraw al o f th e U nited S ta te s
from p a r t i c i p a t i o n . S tra n g e ly enough, th e U nited S ta te s
was th e i n i t i a t o r o f th e "New Consortium o f B an k ers." At
th e i n v i t a t i o n of th e U nited S ta te s , bankers from G reat
B r i t a i n , F rance, Japan and the U nited S ta te s met on May 13,
1919 a t th e P a ris Peace C onference.^
The f i r s t s t e p had been taken in June 1918, when Amer
ic a n bankers convened a t Washington a t th e re q u e s t of th e
Department o f S ta te to c o n s id e r a Chinese v/ar lo an d e s ire d
by th e Chinese Government. The conference a t P a r i s r e s u l t
ed from th e d e s ire of American bankers to co o p e ra te w ith
o th e r n a tio n s in lo a n s a f f e c t i n g China. The t e n t a t i v e f o r
m ation of an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Banking Consortium was acoom-r
^ Correspondence R eputing th e New F in a n c ia l Consortium ,
H.M. S ta tio n a r y O ffic e .
28
p lls h e d in P a r i s T h e req u irem en t f o r membership was the
re lin q u ish m e n t o f a l l p r i o r o p tio n s on lo a n s to China in
fav o r of th e Consortium . The fo u r powers o f th e U nited
S t a t e s , G reat B r i t a i n , F rance, and Japan were to be re p
re s e n te d by banking groups organized on a n a t i o n a l b a s i s .
Eqch^was to p a r t i c i p a t e on a b a s i s o f e q u a l i t y and f u l l p a r t
n ership,/ The Consortium was lim ite d to lo a n s o f a p u b lic
and fundam ental c h a r a c te r ex clu d in g commercial lo a n s . The
f i n a l agreement was signed on October 15, 1 9 2 0 .^
Japan i n s i s t e d , however, th a t South Manchuria and In n er
M ongolia, being her t e r r i t o r y o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t , should
be excluded from the Consortium . The powers re fu se d and
d e c la re d Japan was v i o l a t i n g th e p r i n c i p l e of the "Open Door"
in r e l a t i o n to th e s e t e r r i t o r i e s . The f i n a l fo rm a tio n of
the Consortium was d e la y ed .
At th e re q u e st o f th e Banking Group o f th e Powers,
Thomas Lamont, an American, v i s i t e d Japan in March, 1920.
Through h i s e f f o r t s , Japan withdrew h er r e s e r v a t i o n s and
e n te re d the Consortium on a b a s is of e q u a l i t y w ith o th e r
members.^
The head o f the B r i t i s h Banking Group and th e g r e a t e s t
a u t h o r i t y on Chinese fin a n c e say s;
^Thomas Lamont, P re lim in a ry R eport on th e New Con
so rtiu m fo r China, p i *60.
% acM urray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina, I I I , p. 32.
29
There i s n o th in g t h a t s ta n d s between China and th e p o l i c i e s
o f sp h e res o f in flu e n c e s and c o n c e ssio n s except th e Con
so rtiu m . No one who r e c a l l s th e B a t t l e of Concessions w i l l
c o n s id e r any s a c r i f i c e too g r e a t to a v e rt such a ca la m ity
to China and the peace of th e w o rld .^
The value of the Consortium c o n s is ts in th e e lim in a tio n
o f sp h e re s of in flu e n c e and th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
p
c o o p e ra tio n . The Chinese bond w ith a fo u r power g u aran tee
a tta c h e d becomes a s a fe in v e stm e n t. The su c c e ss o f th e Con
so rtiu m ap p eals s tr o n g ly to American b u sin e ss f o r t h i s reason.
American b u sin e ss r e p r e s e n ts an investm ent of 30,000,000
gold in China. S e c re ta ry o f Commerce Hoover ap p o in ted a com
m issio n to u n if y th e se i n t e r e s t s in order to p la c e th e Amer
ican Banking Group on an eq u a l f o o tin g w ith o th e r n a t i o n a l
groups in the Consortium.®
The Consortium aims to end the s tr u g g le f o r lo an s and
co n cessio n s in China which c h a r a c te r iz e d th e p e rio d of 1898
to 1911, and to s u b s t i t u t e c o o p e ra tio n .
^ . R . Addis, "Addis Advocates th e New C onsortium ,"
Far E a s te rn Review, May, 1922, p .\2 6 5 .
^"The Consortium , an A n a ly sis of i t s U s e f u ln e s s ," Far
E a ste rn Review, May, 1922, p. .'263.
3
"U nifying American I n t e r e s t s in C hina," F ar E a ste rn
Review, O c t., 1922, p, '607.
30
CHAPTER IV
CHINA AND THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
The Washington Conference was c a lle d by P re s id e n t
Harding in b e h a lf o f the U nited S ta te s f o r th e purpose of
l i m i t a t i o n o f armament and the d is c u s s io n of P a c ific and
Far E a ste rn Q u e stio n s,^ China, to g e th e r w ith G reat B r i t a i n ,
F ran ce, I t a l y , Belgium, P o rtu g a l and the N eth e rlan d s were
in v it e d to a tte n d the Conference on August 11, 1921.^
The Conference convened on November 12, 1921. I t was
im m ediately organized in to two com m ittees of the whole, one
on armament q u e s tio n s , the o th e r on problems o f th e Far E a s t.
Committees and sub-com m ittees did th e work and re p o r te d t h e i r
f in d in g s to th e p le n a ry s e s s io n s fo r confirm ation.®
The f i r s t agreement was reached on December 13, 1921,
by..France, Japan, G reat B r i t a i n and the U nited S t a t e s . Each
agreed to r e s p e c t each o th e rs p o sse ssio n s in the P a c i f i c ,
s e t t l e by conference any d is p u te between them, and c o n fe r
as to a means of d ê c id in g a d is p u te between a member and
non-member.'^ This a r t i c l e stre n g th e n e d Japan by making i t
^Conference on the L im ita tio n of Armament.
IVilloughby, The Washington C onference, p. £31. T his
i s the most a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f C hina’s p a r t a t the
Conference. Mr. W illoughby was te c h n ic a l a d v is e r to the
Chinese D ele g atio n .
^MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina, I I I , , p. 58.
31
d i f f i c u l t f o r o th e r n a tio n s to i n t e r f e r e in the f a r E a s t.
The Four power t r e a t y superseded the A nglo-Japanese Al
l i a n c e .
At th e f i r s t m eeting o f th e Committee o f th e Whole on
Far E a ste rn Q uestions, A lfre d Sze, Chinese M in is te r to the
U nited S t a t e s , and head of the Chinese d e le g a tio n , p re se n te d
the p r i n c i p l e s h is government wished a p p lie d to the Chinese
s e t t l e m e n t . ^ They were b r i e f l y :
The a b ro g a tio n of a l l arrangem ents t h a t hamper C hina’s f r e e
dom or encroach on h er s o v e re ig n ty ; a b o l i t i o n of f o re ig n
customs c o n tr o l and po st o f f i c e co n tro l* abandohment_of Jap
anese r i g h t s in M anchuria; removal of f o re ig n tro o p s ; guaran
te e of Chinese n e u t r a l i t y in f u tu r e w ars; c o n t r o l of her
n a t u r a l re s o u r c e s ; management o f her own a f f a i r s ; r e s p e c t
f o r her t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y ; and ending th e system of ex
p l o i t a t i o n and co n q u est.
In the p a s t , (to quote îlr. S z e ), China has been a p la y
th in g , of the powers f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , but today, th e re can
be no s e ttle m e n t w ith o u t China, once the England of the Far
E ast
Although denied by the Chinese d e le g a tio n , e x - s e c r e ta r y
Lansing and e x - m in is te r R einch, American h ig h - a d v is e r s o f
th e Chinese d e le g a tio n , v/ere sa id to have d ra f te d th e Chinese
demands.
On November 21, îvîr. E lih u Root p re se n te d th e s e p r i n
c i p l e s in a n o th e r form.® The R o o t- p r in c ip le s became p a rt
A. Sze, "C hina’s Claims a t the Peace C o n fe ren c e ," Far
E aste rn Review. XVIII, P*3Q, ( J a n ., 1921.) A lso, _Sjê£U_
126, 67-2, p. 441-445.
2
D.H. M acartney, "China and the Washington C onference,"
Contemporary Review, Vol. 120, p.3 0 8 ,(S e p t. , 1921).
®H.F. MacNair, op. c i t ., p. 996.
32
of th e nine power t r e a t y which s t a t e d t h a t :
The powers aim to r e s p e c t th e so v e re ig n ty , independence,
and a d m in is tr a tiv e i n t e g r i t y of China ; to p rovide th e
f u l l e s t o p p o rtu n ity to China to develop and m a in ta in a
s ta b le government; and to use J h e i r in flu e n c e to m a in ta in
equal o p p o rtu n ity fo r commerce of a l l n a tio n s throughout
China.
The Shantung Q uestion was not s e t t l e d in th e Conference
p ro p e r, but in c o n v e rs a tio n s w ith the "good o f f i c e s " of
p
S e c r e ta r y Hughes and Ivir. B a lfo u r. Senator Underwood ex
p la in e d th a t i t was n e c e ss a ry f o r Japan and China to) s e t t l e
the m a tte r w ith each o t h e r , sin c e seven of th e powers were
s ig n a to r y to the T re aty of Y e r s a ille which in clu d ed th e
Shantung p r o v is io n s .
Japan claim ed th e German r i g h t s fo r the two le g a l
re a s o n s: (1) th a t China had accep ted the t r e a t i e s o f 1915;
(2) th a t th e powers had pledged them selves to g ra n t Shan
tung to h e r . The Chinese d e le g a tio n advanced th e two prop
o s i t i o n s t h a t : (1) the German t r e a t i e s w ith China were ab
ro g a te d when war was d e c la re d ; (2) the t r e a t i e s of 1915
were void because of the circu m stan ces under which they
were g a in e d . ^ China hoped f o r the su p p o rt of th e American
d e le g a tio n sin c e su p p o rt from o th e r powers was im p o ssib le .
The U nited S ta te s Senate had re fu s e d t o sig n th e T re aty of
Y e r s a ille m ainly because of th e Shantung p ro v is io n s and
th e League of N ations p r o to c o l. In a p ro c la m a tio n by Dr.
^Senate Document, 124, 67-2, p.29,or MacMurray, T r e a ti e s
w ith and concerning C h in a, pi .89.
%/.W. W illoughby, Washington C o n feren c e, p; 230.
23
Sun Yat Sen on May 15, 1921, the U nited S ta te s was app ealed
to as th e f r ie n d of Democratic C h in a.^ The Japanese, who
a ls o d e s ire d American su p p o rt, d e c la re d : "We do n o t ask
China to s u rre n d e r one i o t a of s o v e re ig n ty , except what she
w i l l i n g l y p a rte d w ith to Germany and R u s s ia .
F in a ll y , S e c re ta ry Hughes announced a t the Conference
p ro p er t h a t China and Japan had reached an agreement and t h a t
th e Shantung t r e a t y would be sig n e d on February 4, 1922.
The t r e a t y s t i p u l a t e d t h a t :
Japan would r e t u r n Kiaochow; s e l l th e T singtan and Tsinan
r a i l r o a d s to China; r e s t o r e p u b lic p ro p e rty t o China w ith
out com pensation except f o r improvements made by Japan;
withdraw Japanese tro o p s; c h a r t e r Japanese mines to China;
and t r a n s f e r p u b lic p ro p e rty and a d m in is t r a tio n o f Kiao
chow to a J o in t commission.®
On November 23, Mr. Koo asked f o r the r i g h t to f i x and
d i f f e r e n t i a t e the t a r i f f r a t e s , r a i s i n g th e t a r i f f t o tw elve
and a h a l f p e rc e n t on January 1, 1922. In o rd er to develop
China and to m a in ta in a s ta b le government, the powers agreed
to an immediate r e v is io n o f th e t a r i f f to make th e r a t e s
f iv e p e rc e n t ad valorem e f f e c t i v e . A s p e c ia l t a r i f f con
fe re n c e t o be composed of s ig n a to ry and ad h erin g powers was
to be arran g ed to a b o l i s h l i k i n , an in la n d tr a n s p o r t ta x ,
and to ap p ly th e f iv e per cen t ad valorem ta x . Uniform r a t e s
^"Documents B earing on C h in a 's D e s tin y ," C urrent H i s t o r y ,
ZIV, p . {750.
^ " J a p a n 's Cards on th e T a b le ," F ar E a stefn Review, p.
31, ( J a n ., 1922).
®Senate Document, 126, 67-2, p. 125.
34
were r e q u ir e d a t a l l f r o n t i e r p o r t s . The nine powers signed
a t r e a t y on th e Chinese Customs T a r i f f on F ebruary 6, 1922.
Upholding th e American p o lic y o f the "Open Door P o lic y "
in China, the powers sig n ed the Nine Power T re aty on Feb-
1 ■ '
ru a ry 6, 1922. Equal o p p o rtu n ity f o r tra d e was d efin e d as
fo llo w s :
The Powers should not seek to su p p o rt t h e i r n a t i o n a l s in
seek in g an arrangem ent to e s t a b l i s h in fav o r of t h e i r p a r t i c
u l a r i n t e r e s t s any g e n e ra l s u p e r i o r i t y o f i n t e r e s t s w i t h
r e s p e c t to commercial o r economic development in any d e s ig
n a te d re g io n in China.
Dr. Wang on December 14 re q u e s te d in b e h a lf o f China
t h a t the powers disavow a l l claim s to "spheres o f I n t e r e s t .
The r e s u l t was a d e f i n i t i o n of t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y in the
nine power t r e a t y as f ollow s :
The: powers ag ree not to support t h e i r n a t io n a l s in a g r e e
ments by which to c r e a te "sp h eres o f i n t e r e s t " o r provide
f o r enjoyment' of e x c lu s iv e o p p o r tu n itie s in d e s ig n a te d
p o r ts in China.®
Other agreem ents re g a rd in g China were in th e form of
r e s o l u t i o n s adopted by the pow ers.^ With re f e r e n c e to f o r
e ig n tro o p s in China a u th o riz e d by the t r e a t y o f 1901 and
^Senate Document, 126, 67-2, p. 125.
^Conference on the L im ita tio n of Armaments, 1630.
®M a c Murra y , T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C hina. I l l , p. 89.
^Conference on the Limitation of Armaments, 1594.
55
those whose presence was u n w arra n ted ,^ th e powers agreed to
withdraw as soon a s China could a s su re p r o t e c t i o n o f l i v e s
and p ro p e rty of f o r e i g n e r s , and re so lv e d to i n s t r u c t t h e i r
d ip lo m atic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a t Peking t o form a commission
to in q u ire t h e r e i n . ^
On F ebruary 11, th e powers re so lv e d t o l i m i t th e mes
sages tr a n s m itte d by le g a tio n ra d io s t a t i o n s to o f f i c i a l
b u s in e s s , and to tu r n over w ith due com pensation a l l un
a u th o riz e d ra d io s t a t i o n s to China.®
The fo u r powers of F rance, Japan, G reat B r i t a i n and
the U nited S ta te s agreed to withdraw t h e i r po st o f f i c e s
from China not l a t e r th a n January 1, 1922, save in le a s e d
t e r r i t o r y and on th e c o n d itio n t h a t China m a in ta in e f f i c i e n t
p o s ta l s e r v ic e .^
In the Far E a s t, in China and th e P a c i f ic I s la n d s ,
(said- Henry Cabot Lodge in review ing th e work o f the Wash
in g to n C o n fe re n c e ), r e s u l t s of p r a c t i c a l im portance have
been ac h iev ed . The Conference made s ix t r e a t i e s and passed
a number of r e s o l u t i o n s d i r e c t l y fo r th e b e n e f i t o f China.
Opinions d i f f e r re g a rd in g th e su c cess o f th e C onference.
Never b e fo re in the h i s t o r y of th e w orld, ( s t a t e s an Amer
ican) , has a b an k ru p t, c h a o tic and h o p e le s s ly d iso rg a n iz e d
government re c e iv e d such a s s u ra n c e s o f f r i e n d s h i p , and
^C. H sia, op. c i t . , p. 173.
^Senate Document, 126, 67-2, p. 116.
® Ibid. , p. 125.
^ I b i d . , p. 115.
^H.C. Lodge, Op. c i t . . I I , p. 586, (J u ly , 1924).
d e s ir e to a s s i s t i t as did t h a t of China a t W ashington.
56
1
D esp ite p a r t i a l com pensation, China was b i t t e r l y d i s
ap p o in te d , (according to Wong Ching Wai, P re s id e n t of the
N a t i o n a l i s t P a r ty ) , e s p e c i a l l y by sh e lv in g o f f the q u e s tio n s
re g a rd in g th e r e t u r n of c o n c e ssio n s and s e t t l e m e n t s , the
a b o l i t i o n of e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y and the g ra n tin g o f t a r i f f
autonomy, China was r u in o u s ly c h e a te d .^
The f a c t s seem to in d ic a te t h a t China was s u c c e s s f u l in
b rin g in g t o the n o tic e o f th e world her problem s, and in
p a r t i a l l y so lv in g a few.
^ " C h in a 's V ic to ry ," F ar E a s te rn Review, Vol. 18, p. 73.
(F e b .,.1 9 2 2 ) .
^Wong Ching Wai, op. c i t . , p. 105.
37
CHAPTER Y
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS OF 1925
The Shanghai A f f a i r of 1925 concerned the sh o o tin g of
unarmed Chinese c i t i z e n s in th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l se ttle m e n t
which had been gained as a r e s u l t of the Opium War. In t h i s
a r e a , f o r e ig n e r s p o ssessed home r u l e , and a d m in iste red the
m u n ic ip a lity and the p o lic e .
The tre a tm e n t of Japanese la b o r in Japanese c o tto n
m il ls led up to th e Shanghai a f f a i r . The wages averaged
f i f t e e n ce n ts a day f o r tw elve hours o f la b o r . The d i s c i p l i n e
was rig o ro u s w ith fre q u e n t b e a tin g s , f i n e s and t o r t u r e .
There was no law to provide p r o t e c t i o n fo r the w o rk e rs. ^
A ccording t o a Commission on Child Labor in Shanghai, c h i l d
re n were employed in c o tto n m i l l s f o r tw elve hours a day
under c o n d itio n s c o n sid ered in d e fe n s ib le .® Modernized China
of the t r e a t y p o r ts resem bles I n d u s t r i a l i z e d England of a
hundred y e a rs ago
A s t r i k e of th e w orkers r e s u l t e d from th e se c o n d itio n s ,
but due to a d e p re s sio n i t was ig n o red . On May 15, 1925,
^China Year Book, 1925, p. 945.
^ I b i d .
®"China," The Annual R e g i s t e r , 1925, Vol. 167, p . ; 252.
^S. Douglas, op. cit.
38
when d e le g a te s o f th e w orkers asked the r i g h t to resume
work, a Japanese m i l l a u t h o r i t y k i l l e d a d e le g a te . The
Chinese sought r e d r e s s from th e m un icip al c o u n c il of the
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e ttle m e n t. The la b o r le a d e r s were a r r e s t
ed and th e Japanese s e t f r e e . ^
A stu d e n t movement began, w ith th e corpse o f the dead
man as t h e i r symbol. A crov/d of Chinese c o l le c te d in
f ro n t of th e S e ttle m e n t Gate. The B r i t i s h P o lic e Com
m is sio n e r ordered h is men to sh o o t, k i l l i n g elev en Chinese
and wounding s c o re s . Ten days of t e r r o r fo llo w ed .
The Shanghai R io t, th e Lexington o f China, so a f f e c t e d
th e n a t io n a l o u tlo o k and r e l a t i o n s of China w ith th e
powers t h a t they may be s a id to have ushered in a new e r a .
The natiomr was a f i r e w ith n a tio n a lis m .^
The Chinese M in is te r of F oreign A f f a i r s p r o te s te d to
th e D iplom atic C orps. The powers r e p l i e d defen d in g th e
sh o o tin g as n e c e ss a ry to peace and o rd e r, and proposed an
in v e s tig a tio n .®
A commission was formed composed of s i x r e p r e s e n t
a t i v e s of th e powers and th r e e Chinese to s e t t l e the a f f a i r .
The Chinese s ta te d t h a t th e adoption of t h i r t e e n p o in ts was
n e c e ss a ry to e s t a b l i s h f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s . These were:
C a n c e lla tio n of a s t a t e of emergency, r e l e a s e of C hinese,
^China Year Book, 1926, p. 941.
^"G hina," The Annual R e g i s t e r , Vol. 157, p'.’ 251.
®M.J. Bau, China and World Peace, p. 40.
39
punishment of o ffe n d e rs , compensation f o r the dead and
wounded, b e t t e r la b o r c o n d itio n s , Chinese r e p r e s e n ta ti o n
in the m unicipal c o u n c il, w ithdraw al of r e g u la tio n s r e
g a rd in g p r in te d m a tte r and l i b e r t y o f speech and p re s s in
the s e t t l e m e n t T h e Diplom atic Gorp r e fu s e d to g ran t th e s e
demands.
The M in is te r of F oreign A f f a i r s then p re se n te d th e
t h i r t e e n p o in ts to th e powers. They r e p lie d on September
15, su g g e stin g a j u d i c i a l in q u iry in to th e Shanghai a f f a i r
by a Commission o f J u r i s t s from the U nited S t a t e s , G reat
B r i t a i n , China and Japan. China r e fu s e d to appoint a Chi-^
nese j u r i s t , but th e in q u iry p ro ceed ed .^
On November 17, 1925 th e in q u ir y was com plete. Each
judge, in g iv in g h is own op in io n , exo n erated the powers
from blame in the a f f a i r . The American j u r i s t added the
c r i t i c i s m t h a t the p o lic e fo rc e was i n s u f f i c i e n t and t h a t
the p o lic e commissioner was n e g l ig e n t . As a r e s u l t th e
p o lic e o f f i c e r s concerned were asked t o r e s ig n . The Shang
h a i M unicipal C ouncil o ffe re d $75,000 com pensation fo r
Chinese k i l l e d and wounded. The Chinese government ignored
both th e f in d in g s and the compensation.®
On June 24, 1925, as a r e s u l t of th e Shanghai a f f a i r ,
th e Chinese M in is te r of F oreign A f f a i r s p re se n te d n o te s to
th e D iplom atic Corps demanding r e v i s i o n and a b ro g a tio n of
unequal t r e a t i e s , re g a rd in g e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y , t a r i f f
^V.M. B o u lte r, "Survey of I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , "
R oyal I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1928., p. 22.
^China Year Book, 1926, p. 941-5.
®V.M. Boulter, op. cit., p. 25.
40
autonomy and s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s on th e b a s i s o f m utual
e q u a l i t y .^
To t h i s note the U nited S ta te s r e p l i e d to China and
th e Washington t r e a t y powers.
T re a ty r e v i s i o n or a b ro g a tio n r e q u ire d the c a p a c ity to p ro
t e c t f o re ig n r i g h t s and i n t e r e s t s now safeguarded by t r e a t i e s .
With re g a rd to t a r i f f autonomy and e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y the
U nited S ta te s and th e Washington t r e a t y powers agreed to
send d e le g a te s to s p e c i a l co n feren ces on th e s e m a tte r s .^
On August 19, the Chinese government in v ite d th e Wash
in g to n t r e a t y powers to a T a r i f f Conference t o c o n sid e r
t a r i f f autonomy or r e v i s i o n in accordance w ith the Mine
Power T reaty on th e Chinese Customs T a r if f.® The U nited
S ta te s government r e p l i e d .
We are ready to appoint d e le g a te s to th e conference and
are ready to d is c u s s any re a so n a b le p ro p o sal f o r the
r e v i s i o n o f t a r i f f t r e a t i e s .
The Conference opened a t Shanghai on October 26,
1925. The powers p re se n t were China, th e U nited S ta te s , and
o th e r Washington t r e a t y powers.®
A b r i e f review o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e Chinese t a r i f f
i s n e c e ss a ry to a com plete u n d ersta n d in g o f th e problems
c o n sid e red by the c o n fe ren c e . China i s th e only g r e a t
^J.Y . MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and Con
c e rn in g C hina, 1925, I I I , p. 153.
^ I b i d . , p. 157.
^ O f f i c i a l B u l le t in o f the S p ec ia l T a r i f f Conf., 1925,
p. 1.
4
Mac Murra y , op. c i t .
®Chlna Year Book, 1926, p. 1112.
41
s t a t e t h a t does not manage i t s t a r i f f . A fte r th e Opium War
in 1844,^ G reat B r i t a i n e s ta b li s h e d a uniform t a r i f f r a t e of
f iv e per cent on Chinese p ro d u c ts . Under th e m ost-favoredo
n a tio n c la u s e , the p r i v i l e g e was extended to o th e r n a t io n s ,
in c lu d in g th e U nited S ta te s In 1844. By the P ro to c o l o f 1901
th e Chinese Customs were given as s e c u r i t y f o r th e Boxer i n -
p
dem nity. In the com mercial t r e a t y of 1902 w ith G reat B r i t
a i n , and of 1903 w ith th e U nited S ta te s and Japan a f i v e per
cent e f f e c t i v e ad valorem r a t e was e s ta b lis h e d .®
At th e P a r is Peace C onference, China f o r th e f i r s t time
e n te re d her claim s fo r t a r i f f autonomy, or th e r i g h t to re g
u l a t e h er ovm t a r i f f r a t e s . Iv £ r . Koo asked th e powers fo r
t a r i f f autonomy a t the Washington c o n fe re n c e .^ •
No power would agree to t a r i f f autonomy, (sa id S en a to r Under
wood in r e p l y to Koo), u n t i l one government was in a b s o lu te
c o n tr o l and e x e rc is e d com plete s o v e re ig n ty in China.®
The Nine Power t r e a t y provided f o r a t a r i f f r e v i s i o n com
m issio n which met in 1922 and p u b lis h e d a re v is e d schedule o f
d u tie s g ra n tin g a f iv e per ce n t e f f e c t i v e ad valorem based on
c u rre n t p ric e s.® F in a ll y th e Nine Power T reaty in A r t i c l e s
^MacMurray, op. c i t . , 1901, p. 310.
^I b l d . . 1903, p. 423.
^W.W. W illoughby, The Washington C onference, p. 780.
^ Ib ia.
^Sen. Doc. . 126, 67-2, p. 1589.
^Chlna Year Book, 1925, p. 460.
42
I l and I I I provided fo r the Conference of 1925.
At the f i r s t s e s s io n of the co n feren ce, the Chinese
d e le g a te asked f o r com plete t a r i f f autonomy by January 1,
1929, d e s p ite the f a c t th a t the Conference was lim ite d to
f u l f i l l i n g the t r e a t i e s o f 1902 and 1905. The American d e l
egate r e p l i e d t h a t the U nited S ta te s would agree to t a r i f f
autonomy on th a t d a te , p ro v id in g China would a b o lis h l i k i n
and apply in te rim ta x e s in the p ro v in c e s, refund unsecured
d eb ts and expenses o f the Chinese government, and hold
a n o th e r Conference in May, 1928, to determ ine i f the con
d i t i o n s had been f u l f i l l e d . ^
The only accomplishment o f the Conference was a r e s o
l u t i o n passed on November 19 which d e c la re d :
The c o n tra c tin g p a r t i e s o th e r th an China hereby reco g n ize
C hina’s r i g h t to t a r i f f autonomy; agree to remove t a r i f f
r e s t r i c t i o n s which are co n tain ed in e x i s tin g t r e a t i e s w ith
China; and consent to the going in to e f f e c t of a Chinese
N a tio n a l t a r i f f law on January 1, 1929. The government of
China a g re e s t h a t lik e n v fill be ab o lish ed and c a r r ie d out
on th e above d a t e . ^
The co n feren ce adjourned w ithout f i n a l d ec isio n s in
J u ly , 1926, due to c i v i l war and the d e p a rtu re of Chinese
d e le g a te s . The d e le g a te s expressed a d e s ire to co ntinue
the conference as soon as c o n d itio n s in China p e rm itte d .
Moreover, the Nanking government re fu s e d to honor any a g re e
ment a r r iv e d a t by the Chinese d e le g a te a t the C onference,
p. 78
^ O f f ic ia l B u l le t in o f th e S p ecial T a r i f f C onference. 1925,
2
^ I b i d ,, p. 197-8.
43
who r e p re s e n te d the Peking governm ent.^
A Conference on E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y was a ls o th e r e
s u l t o f th e n o te s e n t by the Chinese M in is te r o f F oreign
A f f a i r s to th e Washington t r e a t y powers on June 24, 1925.
In a r e s o lu t io n made on December 10, 1921, a t the Washing
ton C onference, a commission c o n s is tin g o f one member from
each government was a u th o riz e d to in q u ir e in to th e j u d i c i a l
methods and laws o f China, r e p o r t t h e i r f in d in g s and recom
mend improvements w a rra n tin g th e powers in r e l i n q u i s h i n g
e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . ^ ’^
The commission should have met May 6, 1922. The Chi
nese government re q u e s te d a d e la y u n t i l May, 1923, in o rd e r
to p rep are f o r th e c o n fe re n c e . The government o f th e U nited
S t a t e s ^ t h a t the Conference might meet in November, 1923.
The U nited S ta te s r e p l i e d t h a t c e r t a i n powers d id not fin d
t h i s d ate f e a s i b l e . Dr. Sze, Chinese m in is te r to th e U nited
S ta te s d e c la re d :
France informed the American government t h a t th e m eeting
o f th e commission depended on th e se ttle m e n t o f th e g o ld -
fran c q u e s tio n w holly ex tra n eo u s to the E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l
C onference.
The Conference was again'conivoked by the U nited S ta te s
^ ’’C h in a ,” The Annual R e g i s t e r , p. 256.
^N ote. On Jan u ary 25, 1928, th e U.S. g ra n te d China t a r
i f f autonomy, th e only g r e a t power to do so. MacMurray,
T r e a tie s and Agreements w ith and Concerning China, p. 230.
^MacMurray, T r e a t i e s and Agreements w ith and Concerning
C h in a. 1921, p. 51.
"^A. Sze, A d d re sse s, p. 82.
44
f o r December 18, 1925. This too was postponed u n t i l Jan
uary 12^, 1926, when the conference f i n a l l y m e t.1
China i s the only rem aining country in which e x t r a
t e r r i t o r i a l i t y s t i l l e x i s t s . By the t r e a t y o f J u ly 3,
1844, th e U nited S ta te s gained e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s in
China. E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y means the exemption from t e r
r i t o r i a l law. In g e n e ra l, t r e a t y powers a re a u th o riz e d to
e x e rc is e e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n in c o n s u la r c o u r ts ,
ap p ly in g the law of the n a tio n e s t a b l i s h i n g th e c o u r t.^
The American co n su l has the r i g h t t o hear and determ ine
a l l d is p u te s between American c i t i z e n s and a l l in v^hich Amer
ic a n s are d e fe n d a n ts .
E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y was e s ta b li s h e d in the beg in n in g
because C hina’s laws were below the sta n d a rd s of o th e r
n a t io n s . The main p r i n c i p l e o f law was r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
Someone was judged r e s p o n s ib le f o r every unlaw ful a c t ,
w hether g u i l t y o r innocent
Consular j u r i s d i c t i o n f a i l e d in th e case of the U nited
S t a t e s , ac co rd in g to S e c re ta ry Root, who urged Congress to
put American i n t e r e s t s in charge of a judge. As a r e s u l t
the U nited S ta te s Court fo r China was e s ta b li s h e d June 30,
^Report o f the Commission on E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y in
C h in a, p. 2.
^J.M. Mathews, Conduct of American F oreign R e l a t i o n s .
p. 110.
^C. Denby, ’’E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y in C h in a ,” American
J o u rn a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law, Vol. XVIII, p. 268^ (1924).
45
1906.^ The Court had J u r i s d i c t i o n in a l l but minor ca ses
which c o n su ls fo rm e rly e x e rc is e d . Appeals may be tak en to
th e Supreme Court o f th e U nited S ta te s in c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
p
c a s e s , and to the C i r c u it Court o f Appeals in o th e r c a s e s .
In the t r e a t y o f October 8, 1903, th e U nited S ta te s
consented to the relin q u ish m e n t o f e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y v/hen
China had s u c c e s s f u l ly reform ed h e r j u d i c i a l sy stem .^ Since
th e n , the Chinese government has co n tin u ed i t s demands f o r
e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . At th e Peace C onference, Chinese d e l
e g a te s a s s e r te d th a t much p ro g re ss had been made s in c e 1903
in th e prom ulgation o f f iv e codes, th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th re e
g rad es of c o u r ts , and improvement in le g a l req u irem en ts and
p o lic e and p r is o n s . At th e Washington Conference, th e ab
o l i t i o n of e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y was ag ain demanded. The
r e s u l t w as, as a lre a d y e x p la in e d , the Conference on E x tra
t e r r i t o r i a l i t y in China. The Conference ended in 1926 w ith
out coming to a f i n a l agreement, but is s u in g a s e r i e s of
recommendations
At a m eeting o f th e Anglo-American A sso c ia tio n in Pek
ing on January 20, 1925, Dr. Schurman, American M in is te r to
China, made th e fo llo w in g p lan f o r th e g ra d u a l s u rre n d e r o f
^ T h ir ty -fo u r S t a t u t e s a t L arge, P. I , p. 814.
^ ”U.S. Court fo r C h in a ,” N a tio n . LXXXIII, p. 26.
^MacMurray, T r e a ti e s and Agreements w ith and co n cern in g
C hina. 1903, p. 423.
^Report on th e Commission on E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . As
th e se were made in 1926, o u ts id e o f th e scope of t h i s t h e s i s
p ro p e r.
46
e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s :
(1) C o d ific a tio n o f Chinese law fo r c o u rts to ap p ly .
(2) E stab lish m en t o f C ourts by China c o n s is tin g o f th r e e
j u s t i c e s , one of which would be f o r e ig n ,
(3) Withdrawal o f f o r e ig n judges as the system succeeded,
th u s a b o lis h in g e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . ^
This plan seems th e most f e a s i b l e and p r a c t i c a l plan
f o r the g ra d u a l re lin q u ish m e n t o f e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y .
China i s not in an encouraging c o n d itio n fo r a b o l i t i o n ,
(according to W. Mah), u n t i l th e power o f th e c e n t r a l gov
ernment i s r e e s t a b l i s h e d throughout C hina.^
The U nited S t a t e s , being the f i r s t g re a t pov/er to reco g
n iz e t a r i f f autonomy f o r China, should take th e f i r s t ste p
in the g rad u al a b o l i t i o n o f e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y , and the
e s ta b lish m e n t o f a s tro n g C e n tra l Government in China.
^Conference on Chinese American R e l a t i o n s . 1925, p. 60.
%v. Mah, "Foreign J u r i s d i c t i o n in C h in a ,” American
Jo u rn a l of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Law. XVIII, p. 276. (O c t., 1924).
47
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
Throughout th e y e a rs , American r e l a t i o n s w ith China
have been f r i e n d l y . The U nited S ta te s prevented th e d i s
memberment o f China by upholding th e Open Door P o lic y and
m a in ta in in g the t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y of China, E ducation
has been e s ta b lis h e d in China, due to th e rem issio n of the
Boxer Indem nity, During the war, a t th e P a ris Peace Con
fe r e n c e , a t the Vfashington Conference and a t th e C onfer
ences on T a r i f f Autonomy and E x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y th e U nited
S ta te s advocated f a i r n e s s and J u s t i c e toward China,
At the p r e s e n t tim e, China and th e U nited S ta te s a re
becoming in c r e a s in g l y in tim a te , p o l i t i c a l l y , com m ercially,
and r e l i g i o u s l y . This i s due to our in c re a se d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
f e e l i n g for our neighbor on the o th e r sid e of the P a c i f i c .
Confucius once s a id , " Is n o t r e c i p r o c i t y a word to a c t as
the g u id in g p r in c ip l e through l i f e ? " R e c ip ro c ity based on
f r ie n d s h ip and p e r f e c t confidence sh o u ld be th e g u id in g
p r i n c i p l e in f u tu re Chino-American r e l a t i o n s .
The problems of China are world problem s. The U nited
S ta te s has become a world power and i s th e r e f o r e funda
m e n ta lly involved in th e a f f a i r s of the world and of China.
H V . ^ A
A co u n try composed o f fo u r^ m illio n p eo p le, and four m il lio n
square m ile s o f t e r r i t o r y in c o n s ta n t tu rm o il and war i s
a menace to world peace.
48
The i n t e r n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l problems o f China hinge
on the development of a s tro n g , independent n a t io n . The
U n ited S ta te s has stood f o r and m aintained " th e i n t e g r i t y
of Chinese t e r r i t o r y " sin c e th e days of John Hay. Is i t
im possible f o r t h e U nited S ta te s to a id China in e s t a b l i s h i n g
a s ta b le government? In the f i r s t p la c e , e d u c a tio n i s e sse n
t i a l o f democracy. The U nited S ta te s has and i s prom oting
e d u c a tio n . In p a r t i c u l a r , p a t r i o t i c le a d e r s o f the Chinese
people must be d e v e lo p ed .to re p la c e th e war lo r d s and m il
i t a r y g e n e ra ls . When a s tro n g government i s e s t a b l i s h e d ,
China can demand and o b ta in t r e a t y - e q u a l i t y , t a r i f f-autonom y,
th e a b o l i t i o n o f e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y and the em ancipation
from fo re ig n commercial c o n t r o l . U n til th e n , th e powers w ill
r e p ly to a l l her demands t h a t i n e q u a li ty in tr e a tm e n t i s
n e c e s s a ry f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n , .u n t i l China can prove she i s
an e q u a l of the o th e r n a t i o n s .
I t i s a source of p le a s u re to the people o f th e U nited
S t a t e s , (says James Brown S c o tt, head of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Law D iv is io n o f the C arnegie Foundation f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l
P eace), t h a t the p o lic y of t h e i r government has in v a r ia b ly
been one of sym pathetic i n t e r e s t in and toward th e Far E a s t.
I t has never sought to make the needs of China a s o u r c e , o f
p r o f i t
In f u tu r e r e l a t i o n s , may the U nited S ta te s h elp China b rin g
about a p e a c e fu l, r e s p o n s ib le and dem ocratic government so
t h a t China may tak e h e r r i g h t f u l p lace as one of th e g re a t
n a tio n s o f th e w orld.
^MaclMrray, T r e a t i e s and Agreements w ith and co n cern in g
China, p.
49
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Asset Metadata

Creator Wilson, Harriet E. (author)

Core Title American relations with China from 1895 to 1925

Degree Master of Arts

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-3085

Unique identifier UC11311396

Identifier EP63656.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-3085 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP63656-0.pdf

Dmrecord 3085

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Wilson, Harriet E.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA