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Strategies employed by middle school principals successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American students

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Strategies employed by middle school principals successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American students

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Content Running head: LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT

STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY MIDDLE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SUCCESSFUL IN
INCREASING AND SUSTAINING THE MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRICAN
AMERICAN STUDENTS

by
Rebecca Clark

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Rebecca Clark
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 2

Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated in memory of my godson, Aramis Dion Joyner. I am a
better person for having known and loved you – you are dearly missed.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 3

Acknowledgements
This study would not have been completed without the love and support of many
important people. First of all, I would like to thank my family. Whether we are related by blood,
or simply by love, I am very blessed to have such a wonderful group of people in my life. Thank
you to my parents, Jack and Betty, for always encouraging me to pursue my education. I would
like to thank my siblings, Debbie, Pam, and Mike, and all my nieces, nephews, aunts, uncles,
cousins, and extended family. I appreciate your understanding all the times I had to miss events
because I was busy writing and studying. Thank you Ginny for always encouraging me to
become Dr. Clark. Also, thank you to my nephew and future Trojan, Payton, for always keeping
me up to date on USC football when I was too busy to watch the games!
Thank you to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Castruita and Dr. Bowman, for
your guidance and especially to my chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia, for providing me with the structure
and support to finish my dissertation on time and as painlessly as possible. Your assistance has
been invaluable to me.
I appreciate the professional connections and personal relationships I have cultivated
during my studies at USC, including my original weekend cohort – you were all so much fun to
learn and work with. And to my writing partner, Jacqueline Williams, I have enjoyed this process
so much more because of your friendship and support. Thank you for being my carpool buddy
and for all our work sessions over lunch. It has truly been a pleasure getting to know you and
your family. I look forward to remaining friends for years to come, especially now that we can
spend our time doing things more fun than studying.
Thank you to all my friends for encouraging me to go back to school and for your
continued support throughout the past three years. You have made it much easier to complete
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 4

this process due to your cheering me on both in person and through social networking. Thank
you for encouraging me to focus and get back to work, but also for being there when I needed to
take a break from studying and relax. I would also like to express my appreciation to my
colleagues, many of whom are also my friends, for supporting me and being so understanding
during the times I needed to make changes to my schedule to complete my research. Thank you
Danielle for being willing to look over my work and for always being my first volunteer to try
out my research tools. Also, thank you to my secretary, Blanca, for being so helpful and making
sure I leave work to get to class on time. I consider myself very lucky to work with such
wonderful people.
Last but not least, thank you to all the principals who took time from their busy schedules
to participate in my research. I obviously could not have completed this process without your
input and I appreciate your willingness to share your practices in an effort to improve education
for all students.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 5

Table of Contents

Dedication 2

Acknowledgements 3

List of Tables 7

List of Figures 9

Abstract 10

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 11
Introduction 11
Background 11
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations 16
Delimitations 16
Definition of Terms 17
Organization of Study 18

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 19
Introduction 19
Mathematics Achievement of African American Students 20
The Importance of Mathematics in a Global Economy 23
Principal Leadership and Student Achievement 25
Conclusion 34

Chapter Three: Methodology 35
Purpose of the Study 35
Research Questions 35
Design Summary 36
Sample and Population 37
Criteria for Selection 37
Instruments and Data Collection 39
Data Analysis and Reporting 41
Summary 42

Chapter Four: Results 44
Introduction 44
Research Questions 45
Response Rates 45
Demographic Data 46
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 6

Research Findings 57
Research Question Number One 57
Research Question Number Two 65
Research Question Number Three 71
Summary 81

Chapter Five: Conclusions 82
Purpose of the Study 82
Research Questions 83
Methodology 83
Summary of Findings 84
Implications for Practice 88
Recommendations for Future Research 89
Conclusion 89

References 91

Appendices 98
Appendix A: Participant Recruitment Letter 98
Appendix B: Principal Survey 99
Appendix C: Interview Guide 104

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 7

List of Tables

Table 1: The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader 27
Table 2: Comparison of Sample Schools vs. California Averages 38
Table 3: Timeline of Data Collection Process 41
Table 4: Sample and Respondent Comparison 46
Table 5: Gender of Survey Respondents 47
Table 6: Age of Survey Respondents 48
Table 7: Ethnicity of Survey Respondents 49
Table 8: Education Level of Survey Respondents 49
Table 9: Years of Experience of Survey Respondents 50
Table 10: Subject(s) in Which Survey Respondents Hold a Teaching Credential 51
Table 11: School Classification 52
Table 12: Grade Span Served 52
Table 13: Student Population Data 53
Table 14: Average Experience of Mathematics Teachers 54
Table 15: Personal Characteristics of Interview Participants 55
Table 16: Education and Professional Experience of Interview Participants 56
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 8

Table 17: Student Populations at Schools of Interview Participants 56
Table 18: School-Wide Practices 58
Table 19: Composition of Leadership Teams 58
Table 20: Structured Teacher Collaboration 60
Table 21: Student Practice Opportunities 62
Table 22: Professional Development to Increase Mathematics Achievement 64
Table 23: Culturally Responsive Lesson Design 67
Table 24: Culturally Responsive Professional Development 69
Table 25: Formative Assessment in Mathematics 72
Table 26: Data Analysis and Disaggregation 73
Table 27: Progress Monitoring of Mathematics Achievement 77
Table 28: Use of Incentives and Celebrations 79
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 9

List of Figures

Figure 1: Instructional Leadership Model 32
Figure 2: Sequential Explanatory Design 37
Figure 3: Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis 42

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 10

Abstract
This study approaches the problem of African American mathematics achievement from
a strength-based perspective, identifying practices implemented by middle school principals
successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American
students. The study was designed to answer questions regarding both school-wide practices and
those targeted directly toward achievement of African American students. Quantitative data was
collected and analyzed for descriptive statistics through the use of a survey instrument sent to a
purposeful sample of 67 middle school principals in California, followed by the collection of
qualitative data through interviews with 4 principals. Several themes emerged from the data,
including the use of structured teacher collaboration in several areas: the development of school
culture and consistent expectations, pacing and planning of lessons and student products,
developing formative assessments, and analysis of data. The development of positive
relationships was another commonality, with principals indicating such relationships aided in the
increase of student achievement through developing positive school culture, honest collaboration
between teachers, and a feeling of inclusion for students in the instructional process. Although
principals were selected for the study based upon above-average performance of African
American students in mathematics, few of the strategies employed were targeted directly toward
this group, with principals focusing instead on quality first instruction and high expectations for
all students. The findings of the study provide a framework of effective practices to be utilized
by middle schools currently not experiencing similar levels of success in increasing mathematics
achievement and closing gaps for African American students.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 11

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Introduction
Success in mathematics coursework is commonly known as the gatekeeper to accessing
higher education opportunities and lucrative careers in sciences and technology. Although
proficiency in mathematics is widely recognized as serving an important role in the future
economic success of both individuals and the nation, the United States still lags behind several
highly technological Asian and European countries in mathematics performance, as measured by
the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Gonzales et al., 2008).
More alarming than the gap in achievement between America and other countries is the racially
based gap in mathematics achievement within the United States, with African American students
consistently scoring below all other ethnic groups. The intersection of the known importance of
mathematics literacy in future economic success with the persistent underperformance of African
American students in the subject has led mathematics access and performance to be viewed as a
civil rights issue (Schoenfeld, 2002).
Background
The underperformance of African American students in the area of mathematics is not a
new phenomenon, nor is it one that appears to be diminishing. Data from the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) confirm that African Americans have consistently
been the lowest performing group of students in mathematics on a national level. Although
mathematics scores for students of all racial and ethnic groups have increased significantly
throughout the last 20 years, the gap in performance between African American students and
their white counterparts has narrowed at a slower pace, and has not had any significant reduction
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 12

within the past three years (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Additionally, African
Americans are disproportionately represented within both the highest- and lowest-performing
groups on the NAEP in mathematics. Although African American students make up
approximately 15% of total students in elementary and secondary education, within the group of
4
th
graders scoring above the 75
th
percentile, only 5% were African American; while within the
group scoring below the 25
th
percentile, 28% were African American students (National Center
for Education Statistics).
In California, the underperformance of African American students in comparison to other
student groups mirrors the alarming trends throughout the rest of the country. Although African
American students make up less of the California student population than the national average, at
just 6.7%, their academic outcomes are similar to those of African American students
nationwide, with a cohort graduation rate under 60%, the lowest of any racial or ethnic group
(California Department of Education, 2012). The data for African American students in
California parallels the patterns shown on the NAEP, with student performance rising as a whole
across student groups, but without any narrowing of gaps in achievement. On California’s
Academic Performance Index (API), the state-wide score of African American students is
currently 696, compared to an overall score of 778 for all students. This gap of 82 points reflects
only a one point decrease from the gap five years ago (California Department of Education).
While African American students are underperforming other student groups in many
areas, the largest discrepancies exist in mathematics. As measured by the federal accountability
system of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), 41.4% of African American students score at
proficient or advanced levels in mathematics on the California Standards Test (CST), compared
to 70.1% of white students, and 58.4% of students overall. As is the case with API, these gaps
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 13

remain relatively unchanged throughout the past five years (California Department of Education,
2012).
Although a gap in mathematics achievement of African American students is evident at
all grade levels, the middle school level is particularly concerning, as these are the grades when
performance declines significantly for all groups, in addition to a widening of the mathematics
achievement gap of African Americans. Performance in middle grades mathematics has many
implications for students’ future success, including math and science placement in high school,
which ultimately affects completion of college preparatory coursework (Williams, Kirst, Haertel,
2010). Focusing on practices of schools showing success with African American students in
middle grades mathematics will allow for replication of these practices on a broader scale to
improve performance in other schools. Expanding these practices beyond pockets of success to
other groups of African American students is essential because ―whenever we can improve the
schooling experiences for African American students, we have an opportunity to reverse their
life chances‖ (Ladson-Billings, 1997, p. 697).
Because of the focus on school-wide achievement, the emphasis of this study was placed
on the role of the middle school principal in increasing mathematics achievement. Waters,
Marzano, and McNulty (2004) have found a significant, positive correlation between effective
school leadership and increases in student achievement, and emphasize the importance of
knowing the right things to do to improve instructional practices on a school-wide level. While
teachers have a far more direct impact on instruction and student learning, principals affect
student achievement through indirect, school-level factors relating to increasing teacher
effectiveness. Mills, McDowelle, and Rouse (2011) list these school-level factors as: the school’s
vision and mission, teachers’ pedagogical and content knowledge, teachers’ instructional
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 14

practices, and school culture. Examining practices of principals who effectively lead schools
toward higher levels of achievement provides more information to expand successful practices to
principals of lower-achieving schools.
Statement of the Problem
Mathematics proficiency of African American students, particularly at the middle school
level, is clearly a struggle for many schools across the state of California, as indicated by
multiple measures, including the California Standards Test. Because mathematics achievement
plays a significant role in high school completion, college admissions, and future career options,
it is imperative that schools improve achievement in this area. A number of California’s middle
schools have proven to be successful in increasing and sustaining African American students’
mathematics achievement. This study identifies leadership practices of school principals within
the successful schools that relate directly to this increased achievement. Identification of such
practices provides a foundation of knowledge for other principals in improving the mathematics
achievement of African American students in schools that have not previously experienced the
same levels of success.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine strategies used by middle school principals in
the state of California who have shown to be successful in increasing and sustaining the
achievement of African American students on the CST in mathematics in the years 2009-2011.
Using CST performance as a guide provided the researcher with a common frame of reference to
compare performance between schools across the state, as it is the test administered within
California public schools as a measure for both state and federal accountability systems.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 15

Determining the practices implemented by principals of successful middle schools allows for
replication of these practices in schools in which African American students have not exhibited
similar levels of success in increasing mathematics achievement.
Research Questions
The research questions that guide the study are:
1. What systems and practices do middle school principals implement to promote
mathematics achievement school-wide?
2. How do middle school principals stimulate mathematics achievement of African
American students in particular?
3. What are the expectations of middle school principals for the monitoring and assessment
of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?

Significance of the Study
African American students have consistently been the lowest performing group in
mathematics in both state- and nation-wide measures. Although their performance has increased
in recent years, it has not been at a higher rate than that of their peers of other races, therefore the
gap in achievement has remained steady between African Americans and other groups. Because
mathematics achievement plays such a large role in future academic and career successes, this
gap in achievement is affecting African Americans in areas such as high school graduation,
college admissions, and future earnings potential.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 16

While measures of accountability show that the middle school mathematics achievement
of African American students is a concern state-wide, there are individual schools making large
gains in increasing and sustaining the achievement of this student group. The focus of this study
is to identify leadership practices of middle school principals within successful schools that
directly address the increases in performance. Addressing this issue from a strengths-based
perspective allows for the identification of effective practices that may be able to be replicated in
other schools. This adds to the research base of effective leadership practices related to student
achievement, highlighting those directly related to increases in mathematics performance both
school-wide and of African American students.
Limitations
In this study, the following limitations are known to exist:
1. The study was limited geographically to California.
2. The study was limited to the 67 principals who were invited to participate in the survey
and the 4 who were interviewed.
3. The purposeful sampling of principals for participation may decrease the generalizability
of findings.
4. Validity of the study is limited to the reliability of the data collection instruments used.
Delimitations
The following delimitations were used to narrow the focus of this study:
1. The schools selected for this study were public middle schools with populations of no
less than 100 students.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 17

2. The middle schools selected for this study had significantly sized populations of African
American students, making up at least 9% of the total school population.
3. The principals of the schools selected demonstrated success in increasing and sustaining
the mathematics proficiency of African American students, as indicated by results on the
California Standards Test.
Definition of Terms
Within this study, the following terms are used extensively and are defined as follows:
Academic Performance Index (API): California’s state accountability system. It is used to
measure academic performance and growth of schools and school districts in multiple subject
areas.
Accountability System: A method of tracking and holding schools and districts responsible for
growth in academic performance.
Achievement Gap: The difference in achievement levels between African American students and
white students of the same grade level.
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The federal accountability system of the United States. It
measures the percent of students scoring at or above proficient levels in English-Language Arts
and Mathematics.
California Standards Test (CST): The standardized test given in California. The results are used
in the calculation of both API and AYP.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): The largest nation-wide assessment of
student performance in various subject areas.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 18

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), established frameworks of standards, testing, and accountability to be
reported by student subgroups.
Student Achievement: The performance of students on standardized assessments.
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS): Provides data on mathematics
and science achievement of American students in comparison with students of other countries.
Organization of the Study
This study is divided into five distinct chapters. Chapter one provides an overview of the
study, including an introduction and background, the statement of the problem being
investigated, the purpose of the study and research questions to be answered, the significance of
the study, the study’s limitations and delimitations, and a definition of terms used throughout the
study. Chapter two is a review of literature relevant to the focus of the study. Chapter three
presents the research methodology used in the study, including the research design, sampling and
data collection and analysis procedures. Chapter four provides an analysis of the data gathered
and presents the findings resulting from that data. Finally, chapter five summarizes the study,
conclusions, and implications for practice, as well as recommendations for future research.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 19

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Introduction
Throughout history in the United States, African Americans have struggled for equality
in all aspects of life. Though great strides have been made in many areas such as political access,
equality in economic access still lags behind due in part to a lack of mathematics literacy of
African American students and the necessity of those skills in 21
st
century employment (Moses
& Cobb, 2002; Schoenfeld, 2002). It has been over 50 years since the ground-breaking decision
in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education which desegregated American schools with the
hope of educational equality, but African American students continue to underperform grade-
level peers of other ethnicities on standardized assessments, particularly in the area of
mathematics (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Kao & Thompson, 2003; Darling-Hammond,
2007; Miranda, Webb, Brigman & Peluso, 2007).
In an effort to improve both educational and life outcomes of African American students,
an emphasis must be placed on improving mathematics performance to increase access to post-
secondary education and lucrative career opportunities (Ladson-Billings, 1997; Schoenfeld,
2002). This is particularly important at the middle school level, where the completion of gateway
courses in Algebra sets the stage for college preparedness. To begin to close the mathematics
achievement gap for African American students, educators must examine pockets of success
where African American students are making great gains in mathematics proficiency (Williams
et al., 2010). Studying these schools from a leadership perspective can provide principals with
practical strategies and leadership behaviors shown to be successful in increasing student
achievement.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 20

The review of the literature will focus on two primary areas, beginning with a look at the
trends in mathematics achievement of African American students compared with their ethnic
peers, including the importance of mathematics in competing in a global economy. This will be
followed by literature regarding the role of the school leader in increasing student achievement,
highlighted by the work of Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005).
Mathematics Achievement of African American Students
With the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002 as an amendment
of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) under the leadership of
President George W. Bush, came a push to increase the level of accountability for public schools
and districts in increasing the achievement of all students and to eliminate the gap in
achievement of students from different backgrounds (Ryan, 2004), culminating in all students
reaching proficiency by the 2013-2014 school year. This meant that, in addition to focusing on
school-wide achievement levels, schools and districts would also be held accountable for the
proficiency of students in ethnic subgroups, depending on the size of their population. In many
cases, the gaps in achievement of African American students were now highlighted in ways they
had not been before. This legislation initiated the federal accountability measure of Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP), with annual proficiency goals to be met by students of all subgroups.
A comprehensive search of literature relating to the performance of African American
students in mathematics reveals disheartening statistics, particularly at the middle school level
and when compared to grade-level white peers (Haycock, 2001; Zhang & Cowen, 2005; West-
Olatunji et al., 2010). Mathematics achievement among American students in general is
concerning, with the United States still lagging behind Asian and European countries in
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 21

mathematics performance, as measured by the Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) (Gonzales et al., 2008). However, when gaps in achievement are factored in, the
performance of African American students in mathematics is dismal. While 7 in 10 white
students have mastered computation using fractions, percents, and averages, this number drops to
only 3 out of 10 for African American students (Haycock). Flores (2007) reports that by 8
th

grade, 91% of African American students are not proficient in mathematics as shown by the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), as compared to 63% of white students not
scoring at the proficient level. This statistic is particularly alarming considering mathematics in
the middle grades builds the foundation for higher level mathematics which is essential for
success in both high school and college (Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007).
As concerning as these gaps in achievement are, the underperformance of African
American students in the area of mathematics is not a new phenomenon. It is also not one that
appears to be diminishing on a state or national level. Although gains were made in closing the
achievement gap for African American students from the 1970s-1980s, gaps have not
significantly narrowed since then and in some cases have widened (Haycock, 2001). Data from
the NAEP confirm that African Americans have been the lowest performing group of students in
mathematics for decades on a national level. While mathematics scores for students of all racial
and ethnic groups have increased significantly and steadily throughout the last 20 years, the
differences in performance between African American students and their white counterparts has
remained relatively unchanged (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011), doing nothing to
eliminate the achievement gap as expected under the NCLB legislation. The performance of 12
th

grade African American students on the NAEP in mathematics is commensurate with the
performance of 8
th
grade white students (Haycock; Wilkins, et al., 2006). When accounting for
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 22

depth of understanding in mathematics, the disparity is even greater: on the 2000 NAEP
mathematics test, the average score of African American eighth grade students on multiple
choice questions was 72% of that of white students on the same questions. However, for
extended constructed-response questions, the average score of African American students was
only 32% of the score of white students (Strutchens, Lubienski, McGraw, & Westbrook, 2004).
In addition to lower scores on average, the representation of African American students is greatly
disproportionate within both the highest- and lowest-performing groups on the NAEP in
mathematics. Although African American students make up approximately 15% of total students
in education, within the group of 4
th
graders scoring above the 75
th
percentile, only 5% were
African American; while within the group scoring below the 25
th
percentile, 28% were African
American students (National Center for Education Statistics).
On both state and federal accountability measures, the gap in performance of African
American students in California mirrors that of performance on the NAEP, with student
performance rising as a whole across student groups, but without any narrowing of gaps in
achievement. On California’s Academic Performance Index (API), the state measure of overall
student growth in multiple subject areas, the state-wide score of African American students is
currently 696, compared to an overall score of 778 for all students. This gap of 82 points reflects
only a one point decrease from the gap five years ago (California Department of Education,
2012). While African American students are underperforming other student groups in many
areas under the measure of API, the largest discrepancies exist in mathematics. As measured by
the federal accountability system of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), 41.4% of African
American students score at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics on the California
Standards Test (CST), compared to 70.1% of white students, and 58.4% of students overall. As
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 23

was the case with both API and NAEP scores, these gaps remain relatively unchanged
throughout the past five years (California Department of Education).
An alarming aspect of this gap in achievement for African American students is that the
gap widens throughout the time spent in the education system, rather than narrowing with each
year of instruction. African American students enter school cognitively equal to their white
counterparts (White & Parham, 1990). However, as years pass, African American students fall
drastically behind the achievement of their grade-level white counterparts, in many cases being
years behind by the middle grades (Haycock, 2001; Zhang & Cowen, 2005; Darling-Hammond,
2007; West-Olatunji et al., 2010). This is concerning considering logical reasoning would expect
gaps to close with more years of education, not to widen. This pattern of decreasing achievement
in mathematics makes it challenging, if not impossible, for students to be adequately prepared for
higher level mathematics such as Algebra 1 in 8
th
grade. Without access to a foundation in
Algebra 1, African American students begin high school at a disadvantage and are then far less
likely to access the higher level mathematics courses needed to meet requirements for university
admission (Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007). Opportunities for college choices are then limited for
African American students, being that higher level mathematics is the gatekeeper to college
(Rech & Harrington, 2000). This lack of opportunity for post-secondary education then
undoubtedly affects the future career prospects of African American students, putting them at a
disadvantage to compete in today’s global economy.
The Importance of Mathematics in a Global Economy
A primary responsibility of school systems, especially at the secondary level, is to create
a competent labor force (Salamon, 1991). To accomplish this, California has created and
implemented some of the most rigorous mathematics content standards in the country under the
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 24

NCLB authorization (Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission, 2005).
However, as evidenced through the previously discussed achievement data, African American
students are not achieving at levels commensurate with the expectations set forth by the
standards and therefore continue to be unprepared to meet the challenges presented in the
modern-day workforce (Haycock, 2001; Zhang & Cowen, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2007;
West-Olatunji et al., 2010).
With mathematics being an integral part of understanding science and technology, it is
not surprising that African American adults are underrepresented in careers in these fields (Tsui,
2007; Brand, Glasson & Green, 2006). Because a solid foundation in mathematics is
fundamental in decision-making as both a consumer and voter and a key aspect of improving
one’s economic status, African Americans are struggling to participate and compete in today’s
global economy (Lubienski, 2001). While a college education is becoming more of a necessity to
find work in many lucrative career areas (Karoly & Panis, 2004), current achievement levels
suggest that African Americans will neither have the skills nor the opportunity to fill those
vacancies (Tsui).
Tobias (1987) suggests that often it is African American students who exclude
themselves from these career fields with the intrinsic belief that because these are professions
dominated by white Americans, they would be unable to enter them successfully. Although
African American students conveyed that it was their desire to enter careers in science and
mathematics, they made no mention of taking the necessary courses in high school (Brand,
Glasson, & Green, 2006). Whether this is because of lack of knowledge of the importance of
these courses or lack of adequate preparation to succeed in them academically, participation
levels of African American students in higher-level courses must increase in order to improve
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 25

their economic standing in society. As it has been clearly established that African American
children are not intellectually inferior to their age-level peers (White & Parham, 1990; Wiggan,
2007; Hartford, 2008), and the gaps in achievement are developing during their time in the
educational system, educational leaders must begin to be critical in the examination of the
quality of instruction that African American children are receiving rather than solely the quantity
of instruction (Hale, 2001).
Principal Leadership and Student Achievement
To improve the quality of mathematics instruction for African American students at a
school-wide level, leaders must examine practices shown to be effective in schools where
African American students are excelling in mathematics and focus on the role leadership plays in
that success (Gutierrez, 2000). Williams et al. (2010) express that school leadership is a
determining factor in the success of African American students in mathematics and that when
school leaders made improvement in this area a priority, achievement levels increased. With this
knowledge of the importance of school leadership in improving student achievement, it is
prudent to examine practices shown to be exemplary in an effort to expand these practices to
other school settings.
Defining Effective Leadership
Literature abounds regarding the definition of leadership, however it is a concept so
multifaceted and complex that a simple definition is not easily attained (Northouse, 2012; Yukl,
2002). In synthesizing multiple definitions, Yukl describes leadership overall as the influence
one has on others to perform and achieve a task collectively. Effective leadership ―requires
courage, commitment, risk and empathy. It builds on concentrated dedication and constructive
participation‖ (McGowan & Miller, 2001, p. 2). While an effective school is always moving and
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 26

changing to maintain positive momentum (Fink, 2005), ―an effective principal is thought to be a
necessary precondition for an effective school‖ (Marzano et al., 2005, p. 5). To lead effectively
in increasing achievement of African American students, it is helpful to have a leadership frame
to serve as a guide. A frame can be summarized as a model to understand and navigate situations
as one moves toward a goal (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Effective Principal Leadership
The role of a principal involves numerous responsibilities (O’Donnell & White, 2005),
one of the most important being serving as a leader for increasing student achievement. In an
effort to assist school principals in this effort and provide them with a sort of leadership frame,
Marzano et al. (2005) performed a meta-analysis of over 300 studies on school leadership and its
connection to student achievement between the years 1978-2001, finding that leadership can
have profound effects on achievement in schools. In synthesizing the findings of these studies,
Marzano et al. identified the behaviors of school leaders shown to be most effective in increasing
student achievement. They then labeled these practices The 21 Responsibilities of a School
Leader and provided correlations of these behaviors with student achievement. These 21
responsibilities defined the role of an effective school leader and were compiled as specific
practices to be implemented by school leaders to improve student outcomes. The responsibilities
are outlined in table 1.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 27

Table 1
The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader (Marzano et al., 2005)
# Responsibility The Extent to Which the Principal…
1 Affirmation Recognizes and celebrates accomplishments and acknowledges
failures
2 Change Agent Is willing to challenge and actively challenges the status quo
3 Contingent Rewards Recognizes and rewards individual accomplishments
4 Communication Establishes strong lines of communication with and among
teachers and students
5 Culture Fosters shared beliefs and a sense of community and cooperation
6 Discipline Protects teachers from issues and influences that would detract
from their teaching time or focus
7 Flexibility Adapts his or her leadership behavior to the needs of the current
situation and is comfortable with dissent
8 Focus Establishes clear goals and keeps those goals in the forefront of
the school’s attention
9 Ideals/Beliefs Communicates and operates from strong ideals and beliefs about
schooling
10 Input Involves teachers in the design and implementation of important
decisions and policies
11 Intellectual
Stimulation
Ensures faculty and staff are aware of the most current theories
and practices and makes the discussion of these a regular aspect
of the school’s culture
12 Involvement in
Curriculum,
Instruction, and
Assessment
Is directly involved in the design and implementation of
curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices
13 Knowledge of
Curriculum,
Instruction, and
Assessment
Is knowledgeable about current curriculum, instruction, and
assessment practices
14 Monitoring/
Evaluating
Monitors the effectiveness of school practices and their impact
on student learning

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 28

Table 1, Continued
The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader (Marzano et al., 2005)
15 Optimizer Inspires and leads new and challenging innovations
16 Order Establishes a set of standard operating procedures and routines
17 Outreach Is an advocate and spokesperson for the school to all
stakeholders
18 Relationships Demonstrates an awareness of the personal aspects of teachers
and staff
19 Resources Provides teachers with materials and professional development
necessary for the successful execution of their jobs
20 Situational
Awareness
Is aware of the details and undercurrents in the running of the
school and uses this information to address current and potential
problems
21 Visibility Has quality contact and interactions with teachers and students

While the 21 responsibilities outlined by Marzano et al. (2005) help school leaders in
understanding school leadership and behaviors critical to success as a school leader, they do not
constitute a plan of action. To enable leaders to put these behaviors into practice, Marzano et al.
also outlined a plan of action to achieve implementation of the school leader’s vision. This plan
includes the following five action steps (p. 98):
1. Develop a strong leadership team – shift the focus of leadership from one person to a
team of people, share some of the responsibilities;
2. Distribute some responsibilities throughout the leadership team – share the
responsibilities with various group members, make it a team effort;
3. Select the right work – choose work that has a high probability of increasing student
achievement;
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 29

4. Identify the order of magnitude implied by the selected work – identify a specific area of
work on which to focus; and
5. Match the management style to the order of magnitude of the change initiative – align
style appropriately with order of change.
Leadership Teams
As reflected in Marzano et al.’s (2005) action steps, building a strong leadership team is
essential to effective school leadership. With the level of change and work required to
accomplish student learning goals and meet current measures of accountability, it would be
challenging for a school leader to be able to implement these tasks alone (Lambert, 2002). A
principal must build leadership capacity within the school’s community to accomplish the
multitude of tasks placed upon school leaders in the effort to increase student achievement
(O’Donnell & White, 2005).
A leadership team typically consists of 8-10 grade level chairpersons, department heads,
and/or other stakeholders at the school site serving in informal leadership roles (Pounder &
Crow, 2005). Distributing or sharing leadership allows a school leader to accomplish many tasks
that may otherwise be overwhelming while creating a strong school culture of individuals who
are able to implement the leader’s vision throughout the school (O’Donnell & White, 2005). This
allows the positive work of the school to carry on even in the absence of the school leader.
Distributing and sharing leadership as well as building a strong culture are both major catalysts
in the push for increased student achievement (O’Donnell & White; Pepper & Hamilton-
Thomas, 2002; Eilers & Camacho, 2007). Everyone shares responsibility and accountability for
increasing student achievement.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 30

School Culture
One benefit described in the building of a leadership team is the positive effect shared
leadership has on school culture, giving everyone a shared sense of responsibility for increasing
student achievement. The ability to create a positive school culture consistently emerges from the
literature as essential in increasing achievement among students (Pepper & Hamilton-Thomas,
2002; O’Donnell & White, 2005; Eilers & Camacho, 2007). Cultures that are most effective in
increasing student achievement reflect the following characteristics: collaboration, communal
support among teachers, professionalism, collaboration, productive feedback, judicious
achievement goals, and a shared vision (Pepper & Hamilton-Thomas). Marzano et al.’s (2005)
meta-analysis revealed that a culture is best suited for raising levels of student achievement when
it reflects cohesion, sense of well-being, understanding of purpose, and shared vision. Positive
school cultures are free from competition, with all stakeholders focused on the common goals
and shared vision of the school. This change encourages professionalism and collaboration
among teachers for the benefit of students (Littrell, Billingsley & Cross, 1994; Eilers &
Camacho). Positive changes in culture have also shown to be a catalyst for increasing student
achievement with African American students in particular (Denbo & Beaulieu, 2002).
Instructional Leadership
It is imperative for a school leader to have a strong foundation in effective instruction and
assessment, as teachers often view the school leader as an expert in curriculum matters, and may
use the leader as a resource for dealing with instructional concerns (Friedkin & Slater, 1994).
The school principal must possess knowledge of the school’s curriculum and assessment
practices in addition to the business practices of the school in order to lead the school in the
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 31

positive direction of increased achievement for all students (Friedkin and Slater; Gaziel, 2007;
Alvy & Robbins, 2005). School leaders must be able to assist teachers with effective lesson
planning (O’Donnell & White, 2005) and share best practices for instruction. Heck (1992)
posited that academic outcomes are the result of a principal’s instructional leadership. Having
expertise in the school’s curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices allows teachers to
have pride in their school leader and confidence in the direction in which the leader will take the
school (Alvy & Robbins).
While school leaders are faced with multiple management tasks each day, the school’s
instruction and assessment practices should stay at the forefront of their leadership agenda, as
student achievement should top the list of school goals (Alvy & Robbins, 2005). To assist school
leaders with maintaining a focus on instruction and becoming effective instructional leaders,
Hallinger (2005) framed an Instructional Leadership Model based on research of effective
practices in instructional leadership. Figure 1 is a representation of Hallinger’s Instructional
Leadership Model.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 32

Figure 1. Summary of Hallinger’s Instructional Leadership Model (2005)

Data-Driven Decision Making and Goal Setting
With high-stakes testing and accountability systems at the forefront of educational
agendas since the authorization of the No Child Left Behind Act, data-driven decision making
has become another important responsibility of principals in the effort to increase student
achievement (Bernhardt, 2004; Mednick, 2003). With both state and federal accountability
measures being used to assess the success of a school and its leader, effective school leaders
have no choice but to use data to make instructional decisions (Bernhardt). Mednick explains
that data-driven decision making is an important tool to for school leaders because implementing
Instructional
Leadership
Creating a shared
sense of purpose
in the school
with clear goals
focused on
student learning
Fostering
continuous
improvement of
the school
through cyclical
school
development
planning
Developing a
climate of high
expectations and
a school culture
aimed at
innovation and
improvement
Coordinating the
curriculum and
monitoring
student learning
outcomes
Shaping the
reward structure
to reflect the
school’s mission
Organizing and
monitoring a
wide range of
activities aimed
at continuous
staff
development
Being a visible
presence in the
school, modeling
desired values
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 33

this process with the use of formative assessment data creates multiple opportunities for growth
in student achievement. Goal-setting for students provides opportunities to celebrate success in
both proficiency and growth in achievement, and multiple opportunities for assessment provide
students with various pathways to demonstrate standard mastery. Frequent analysis of
achievement data provides for identification of at-risk students and the opportunities to provide
them with intervention. The creation of school-wide goals assists in providing indicators of
student learning and teacher effectiveness prior to high-stakes testing (Creighton, 2001).
Professional Development
Effective school leaders recognize the needs of their teachers to build knowledge in
effective instructional strategies and in content knowledge in the area of mathematics (Burch &
Spillane, 2003). To effectively increase student achievement, school principals must provide
opportunities for teachers to obtain the professional growth needed to improve instructional
practice. Leaders must be proactive in creating appropriate and useful adult learning
opportunities in order for teachers to secure the knowledge and skills necessary to effectively
increase student achievement (DuFour, 2001). Not only should school leaders provide teachers
with professional development to improve effectiveness, but to be effective as a leader, one must
recognize that they must also commit to being a life-long learner and model this behavior for the
staff (Alvy & Robbins, 2005). This is especially true for school leaders at the middle school
level. O’Donnell & White (2005) suggest that in middle schools, professional development be
designed and conducted in areas that will assist the staff in a better understanding of student
needs unique to that level.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 34

Conclusion
While NCLB was designed to ensure that no child in America would be left behind, a
review of achievement data demonstrates that America is in fact leaving thousands of African
American students behind in their quest to receive a quality and equal education, particularly in
the area of mathematics. Without improving student achievement in this area, students will be
unable to compete in universities or the workforce with the skills needed to navigate a global
economy infused with careers in math, science, and technology. Public schools overall have
proven ineffective in closing the gap in student achievement plaguing African American students
in the K-12 public education setting.
To improve achievement on a school-wide level and begin to close gaps for
underperforming students, principals must take on the role of instructional leader and implement
proven effective leadership behaviors. This includes adopting leadership strategies of other
principals who have shown to be successful in increasing student achievement. Building
effective leadership is essential at the middle school level, as this is where gaps begin to widen
and students miss skills necessary to build a foundation for continuing education. By improving
leadership skills and implementing proven effective practices, school leaders can make the
positive changes African American students require to be successful both in education and in
society.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 35

Chapter Three: Methodology
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine strategies used by middle school principals in
the state of California who have shown to be successful in increasing and sustaining the
achievement of African American students on the CST in mathematics in the years 2009-2011.
Using CST performance as a guide provided the researcher with a common frame of reference to
compare performance between schools across the state, as it is the test administered within all
California public schools as a measure for both state and federal accountability systems.
Determining the practices implemented by principals of successful middle schools allows for
replication of these practices in schools in which African American students have not exhibited
similar levels of success in increasing mathematics achievement.
Research Questions
In exploring leadership practices of principals successful in increasing and sustaining
African American students’ achievement in mathematics, the following research questions were
used to guide the study:
1. What systems and practices do middle school principals implement to promote
mathematics achievement school-wide?
2. How do middle school principals stimulate mathematics achievement of African
American students in particular?
3. What are the expectations of middle school principals for the monitoring and assessment
of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 36

The first research question provides information related to practices implemented to
increase mathematics achievement on a school-wide level, while the second question addresses
any practices that may be focused specifically within the subgroup of African American students.
Separating these topics into two research questions allowed the researcher to differentiate
whether a practice was implemented to increase overall mathematics achievement or to narrow
the gap in mathematics achievement between African American students and their classmates of
other ethnic backgrounds. The third question describes expectations set forth by the principal for
ongoing formative assessment and progress monitoring of students throughout the year in
preparation for the CST.
Design Summary
This was a mixed method study in which the researcher collected data both quantitatively
and qualitatively. The study was designed as a sequential procedure, which uses one method to
elaborate on the findings of another method (Creswell, 2003). In this case, the researcher chose a
sequential explanatory strategy, beginning with a quantitative method of administering surveys
to the larger sample, and followed by a qualitative method involving more detailed exploration
of a smaller sample through the use of interviews. This allowed the researcher to begin with a
broad picture of the strategies being implemented by a larger population of middle school
principals who have been successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement
of African American students then go further into the details of these strategies with a smaller
sample of principals. The steps of this type of design are pictured in figure 2.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 37

Figure 2. Sequential Explanatory Design of Mixed Methods Research (Creswell, 2003)

Sample and Population
The selected study population consisted of 67 middle school principals in California who
have been successful in increasing and sustaining African American students’ mathematics
achievement on the CST in the years 2009-2011. Purposeful sampling was used in selecting the
middle school principals for participation in the study. The use of purposeful sampling allows
researchers to select information-rich cases which provide a great deal of information regarding
issues of central importance to the study (Patton, 2002). The type of purposeful sampling used by
the researcher in this study is categorized as intensity sampling, seeking excellent examples of
principals succeeding in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African
American students, but not cases so extreme that they may not be applicable to other settings.
Criteria for Selection
In selecting the sample population, the researcher selected principals of California middle
schools which had above-average size populations of African American students as well as
African American subgroups with above-average performance in mathematics. To determine the
sample, public enrollment and performance data was obtained from the California Department of
Education (2012).
Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative
Data Collection
Quantitative
Data Analysis
Qualitative
Data Collection
Qualitative
Data Analysis
Interpretation of
Entire Analysis
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 38

To be included in the study, schools met both of the following demographic criteria:
 Student population of at least 100 students; and
 African American students make up at least 9% of total student population
Additionally, all schools selected met one of the following two achievement criteria:
 In 2011, at least 33% of African American students scored at proficient or advanced
proficient levels on the mathematics CST in addition to at least a 10 percentage point
growth in African American student proficiency from 2009-2011; or
 In 2011, at least 50% of the school site’s African American students scored at proficient
or advanced proficient levels on the mathematics CST which reflected a positive growth
in proficiency from 2009-2011.
Table 2 shows a comparison of the schools included in the sample population with the
averages of California middle schools.
Table 2
Comparison of Sample Schools vs. California Averages
Selection Criteria Selection Sample Averages California Averages Grades 6-8
% African American Student
Enrollment
19.2% 6.9%
African American % Proficient
in Mathematics 2011
49.2% 31.3%
Percentage Points Growth in
African American Mathematics
Proficiency 2009-2011
14.3% 4.7%

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 39

Instruments and Data Collection
Initial data collection began with public data being collected from the California
Department of Education’s DataQuest website to identify schools shown to be successful in
increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American students in the
years 2009-2011. Demographic data was obtained for all California public middle schools and
schools were identified with African American students making up 9% or more of total student
enrollment. California Standards Test results and Adequate Yearly Progress data were then
compiled for each of these schools. Schools were identified as part of the sample population if
either 50% or more of African American students scored at the proficient or advanced proficient
level in mathematics, or 33% or more scored at the proficient or advanced proficient levels,
which included at least 10 percentage points growth in the last two years.
Using these schools as the identified sample, an application was submitted to and
approved by the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) for
approval to begin the research study. This is required for any study involving human subjects to
protect the rights and welfare of participants. This application included both a survey instrument
and interview protocol which would later be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data
for analysis in the study.
With the study and instruments approved, the researcher began recruitment of
participants from the identified sample of middle school principals. A letter was sent out by mail
and email to the principals of the 67 schools identified through the initial data explaining the
purpose and requesting their participation in the study by completing a survey. A copy of this
letter can be found in Appendix A.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 40

The recruitment letter emailed to principals was accompanied by a link directing
participants to the survey instrument created by the researcher (see Appendix B). The letter that
was mailed included a printed copy to be completed and returned to the researcher. The survey
instrument included introductory questions regarding demographic information on the
professional and educational background of the principals. Following the demographic
information, principals were asked to provide quantitative responses to 24 questions related to
the occurrence of leadership practices at their school sites. These questions were designed to
provide detail in response to the three research questions being used to guide the study. Each
question regarding leadership behaviors used a 7-point Likert scale indicating the frequency with
which each practice was utilized in their school, with a response of ―1‖ meaning never and a ―7‖
meaning daily.
As part of the survey, participants indicated their willingness to later participate in a more
detailed follow-up interview with the researcher. Of the willing participants, four were selected
by the researcher to participate in a face-to-face interview which was tape-recorded. These
interviews provided qualitative data related to leadership practices being implemented by the
principals in the efforts to both increase mathematics achievement school-wide as well as to
close the gap in achievement for African American students in particular. An interview guide
was used by the researcher to provide structure for the interviews and to ensure all necessary
questions were asked. This guide was also used to develop continuity and standardization among
the interviews. A copy of the interview guide can be found in Appendix C.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 41

Table 3
Timeline of Data Collection Process
Date Action
February, 2012 Data collected from California Department of Education for purposeful
sampling of participants

March, 2012 Development of survey and interview instruments
April, 2012 Application for study submitted to and approved by University of
Southern California’s Institutional Review Board

July, 2012 Recruitment letter sent out by mail and email to selected sample of
middle school principals

August, 2012 Collection of survey responses from participating principals
October, 2012 Follow-up interviews conducted with selected principals

Data Analysis and Reporting
The data collected in the study was analyzed by the researcher in relation to the three
guiding research questions identified prior to data collection. The survey responses were
analyzed to provide a broad picture of leadership strategies being implemented across the 67
schools in the study. The quantitative responses to the survey questions were analyzed using
SPSS Student Version 15.0 statistical analysis software. This provided the researcher with
descriptive statistics including the mean, variability, and frequency of scores for each item
contained in the survey instrument.
Following quantitative analysis, qualitative data was collected and analyzed by the
researcher, providing more detailed information regarding leadership strategies employed by the
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 42

smaller group of principals participating in the interview portion of the study. Notes were taken
along with a tape-recording which was later transcribed to provide the researcher with qualitative
data for analysis. This qualitative data was used to identify common themes across the schools in
their efforts to increase mathematics achievement school-wide and of African American
students, as this was the primary purpose of the study. The analysis of qualitative data took place
utilizing Creswell’s (2003) six steps of qualitative data analysis. These steps are shown in figure
3.

Figure 3. Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis

Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to identify and explain the methods used in collecting
and analyzing data as part of this study describing leadership practices of middle school
principals who have been successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement
1
• Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
2
• Read through all the data to get a general sense of the information.
3
• Organize the material through a coding process.
4
• Use the coding process to develop categories and themes for analysis.
5
• Convey the findings through narrative passages.
6
• Make an interpretation of the data.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 43

of African American students. Public data was collected to identify principals of 67 public
middle schools for participation in this mixed methods study. Each of the 67 principals was then
invited to participate in the study through responses to a survey instrument developed by the
researcher. Survey responses were analyzed for descriptive statistics using SPSS software. This
was followed by an in-depth interview with four selected principals to provide the researcher
with qualitative data regarding the leadership practices being implemented within these schools.
Research findings and an in-depth analysis are presented in the following chapter.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 44

Chapter Four: Results
Introduction
Chapter four discusses the findings of the mixed methods study investigating practices
used by principals in increasing mathematics achievement of African American students.
Quantitative data was obtained through responses to a survey instrument composed of 45
questions. The survey began with both multiple choice and open-ended questions regarding
demographics of the principals and their school sites. These were followed by questions
regarding the frequency of practices implemented at the school site to increase mathematics
performance. Respondents indicated frequency using a Likert scale of 1-7, indicating the practice
occurs: never (1), less than once a month (2), once a month (3), 2-3 times a month (4), once a
week (5), 2-3 times a week (6), or daily (7). A copy of the survey instrument can be found in
Appendix B. The survey concluded with the respondents indicating their willingness to
participate in an interview to provide more in-depth information regarding practices employed at
their school site. Qualitative data was then obtained through the interviews of four principals
using open-ended questions regarding practices implemented to improve mathematics
achievement both school-wide and with a specific focus on African American students. The
interview questions are included in Appendix C.
This chapter is divided into several sections including the response rate of the
quantitative surveys, demographic information of both the survey respondents and interview
participants, and a discussion of the research findings from the quantitative and qualitative
measures. The discussion of research findings is focused around the three research questions
which were used to guide the study.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 45

Research Questions
The quantitative and qualitative research data has been analyzed to answer the following
research questions:
1. What systems and practices do middle school principals implement to promote
mathematics achievement school-wide?
2. How do middle school principals stimulate mathematics achievement of African
American students in particular?
3. What are the expectations of middle school principals for the monitoring and assessment
of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?

Response Rates
The survey instrument was sent both electronically and by mail to principals of the 67
California middle schools with student populations meeting the following demographic and
achievement criteria:
 Demographics:
o Student population of at least 100 students; and
o African American students make up at least 9% of total student population
 Achievement:
o In 2011, at least 33% of AA students scored Proficient or Advanced Proficient on
the mathematics CST in addition to at least a 10 percentage point growth in
African American student proficiency from 2009-2011; or
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 46

o In 2011, at least 50% of the school site’s AA students scored Proficient or
Advanced Proficient on the mathematics CST which reflected a positive growth
in proficiency from 2009-2011.
Of the 67 surveys distributed, 35 were completed and returned for a response rate of 52%. Table
4 shows the performance data of survey respondents’ schools relative to the data of the entire
selection sample.
Table 4
Sample and Respondent Comparison
Selection Criteria Mean of Selection Sample Mean of Survey
Respondents
% African American Student
Enrollment

19.2% 18.8%
African American % Proficient in
Mathematics 2011

49.2% 48.6%
Percentage Points Growth in African
American Mathematics Proficiency
2009-2011

14.3% 12.6%

Demographic Data: Description of Principals and Schools
As part of the mixed methods study, demographic information was collected from the
respondents of the quantitative survey as well as those principals selected for qualitative
interviews. This section outlines the demographics of all study participants, including descriptive
statistics of the 35 study participants as a group and more specific information regarding the four
principals participating in the interview portion of the study.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 47

Quantitative Survey Respondents
The first section of the quantitative survey instrument asked several questions regarding
both demographics of the principal and demographic information of the school site in which they
lead. Personal demographic questions included information such as age, ethnicity, and gender, in
addition to professional characteristics such as education level and years of professional
experience. School demographic questions included information related to student enrollment,
socio-economic status, and participation in Algebra 1, in addition to the number of mathematics
teachers in the school, and their years of experience in teaching mathematics.
Personal characteristics. As shown in Table 5, the majority of principals responding to
the quantitative survey were female. Of the 35 respondents, 22 classified themselves as female
and 13 indicated they were male. The age of principal respondents ranged from 30-62 years, with
the average age of all respondents at 45 years. The most common age range was 35-39 years,
with 24% of respondents falling in this range, followed by 21% indicating they were between 45-
49 years old. One respondent did not provide an age, making this the only question with 34
responses rather than 35. Data relating to the age of participants is shown in Table 6.
Table 5
Gender of Survey Respondents
Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count
Female

63% 22
Male

37% 13

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 48

Table 6
Age of Survey Respondents
Age Range

Response Percent Response Count
Under 30

0% 0
30-34

9% 3
35-39 24% 8
40-44 15% 5
45-49 21% 7
50-54 15% 5
55-59

12% 4
60 or Above

6% 2

Table 7 indicates the ethnicities of responding principals, who predominantly identified
themselves as Caucasian, with 57% selecting this response. Twenty-six percent identified as
African American, 14% as Asian, and 3% as Hispanic or Latino. These responses vary from the
ethnicities of California’s school administrators overall, with 64% of administrators throughout
the state identifying as Caucasian, 7% African American, 4% Asian, and 19% Hispanic
(California Department of Education, 2012).

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 49

Table 7
Ethnicity of Survey Respondents
Answer Options

Survey Respondents California School
Administrators
African American

26% 7%
Asian

14% 4%
Caucasian

57% 64%
Hispanic/Latino

3% 19%

Education and professional experience. As shown in Table 8, all 35 survey respondents
indicated they had completed a graduate level degree. Seventy-four percent indicated their
highest level of education completed as a Master’s degree, while 26% had also gone on to
complete doctoral level degrees.
Table 8
Education Level of Survey Respondents
Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count
Bachelor’s Degree

0% 0
Master’s Degree

74% 26
Doctoral Degree

26% 9

As with the ages of survey respondents, there is variation within the years of experience
respondents have, both as principals and as teachers prior to becoming principals. Experience as
a principal at any school ranged from 1-15 years, with the average experience as a school
principal being 7.74 years. The average tenure as principal at the respondents’ current schools
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 50

was 4.31 years, with responses ranging from 1-12 years. The average years of teaching
experience prior to becoming a school administrator was 7.29 years and ranged from 2-15 years.
Although the range of teaching experience was similar to the range in experience as principal,
there was less variation from the mean in teaching experience, as indicated by the smaller
standard deviation in the data represented in Table 9. Seventy-four percent of respondents
reported between 5-9 years of teaching experience.
Table 9
Years of Experience of Survey Respondents
Experience

Mean Number of Years Standard Deviation
As a Teacher

7.29 2.90
As a Principal

7.74 4.26
As Principal of Current School

4.31 4.31

While the schools chosen for the study were selected based on mathematics achievement
data, the majority of principals do not have a background in teaching single-subject mathematics.
Only 2 out of 35 respondents indicated having a mathematics credential. The most common
credential reported was multiple subjects, held by 15 respondents. Twelve held a credential in
English/Language Arts; one was credentialed in science, eight in social studies, and four each in
physical education or another area. Due to several respondents holding teaching credentials in
more than one subject area, these responses total more than 35. This data is illustrated in Table
10.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 51

Table 10
Subject(s) in Which Survey Respondents Hold a Teaching Credential
Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count
Multiple Subject

43% 15
English/Language Arts

34% 12
Mathematics 6% 2
Science 3% 1
Social Studies 23% 8
Physical Education

11% 4
Other

11% 4

Student and teacher populations. In identifying the type of school in which they serve
as principal, 89% of respondents reported leading a regular public school. As shown in Table 11,
only four principals categorized their schools in other categories, with two being public charter
schools, one magnet school, and one classified as other. Table 12 indicates the grade spans
served in each of the 35 responding schools. Two schools begin at fourth grade, one at fifth
grade, 27 begin at sixth grade, and the remaining five begin at seventh grade. All of the schools
serve students through the eighth grade.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 52

Table 11
School Classification
Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count
Regular Public School

89% 31
Magnet School

3% 1
Public Charter School

6% 2
Other

3% 1

Table 12
Grade Span Served
Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count
4-8

6% 2
5-8

3% 1
6-8

77% 27
7-8

14% 5

The size of student populations at the responding principals’ schools ranged from a low
of approximately 275 up to approximately 2,200, with an average population of 980 students.
Table 13 outlines some specific characteristics of those student populations in comparison with
state averages (California Department of Education, 2012). The average percent of African
American students in respondents’ schools is almost three times that of the state average (19%
compared to 7%). This is to be expected as above-average enrollment of African American
students was part of the criteria used for school selection. The responding schools also exceeded
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 53

state averages in the numbers of students qualifying for free or reduced lunch, with an average of
67% qualifying compared to the state average of 60%. Responding principals indicate
approximately 73% of eighth graders being enrolled in Algebra 1, which is also above the state
average of 65%.
Table 13
Student Population Data
Demographics

Respondents Average State Average
% African American

19% 7%
% Receiving Free/Reduced
Lunch

67% 60%
% of 8
th
Graders in Algebra 1

73% 65%

With an average student population of 980 students, responding principals reported
having an average of nine mathematics teachers in their schools. In estimating the average
experience levels of the mathematics teachers at their sites, Table 14 indicates 26% of principals
reported math teachers having 4-6 years teaching experience, 34% estimated their teachers to
have 7-9 years teaching experience, and 40% of principals reported their mathematics teachers
having an average of 10 or more years teaching experience.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 54

Table 14
Average Experience of Mathematics Teachers

Answer Options

Response Percent Response Count

1-3 years

0%

0
4-6 years

26% 9
7-9 years

34% 12
10 or more years 40% 14

Qualitative Interview Participants
As the final step before submission of the quantitative survey, respondents indicated
whether they would be willing to participate in a more in-depth, qualitative interview to provide
further detail regarding the practices implemented within their schools sites that may have
contributed to the gains made in mathematics achievement, including those that are focused
primarily towards the achievement of African American students. From the respondents who
indicated willingness to further participate in the study, four were chosen and interviews were
scheduled and conducted. They will be referred to as Principals A, B, C, and D throughout this
chapter, leading Schools A, B, C, and D, respectively. Each interview was conducted using the
same series of questions and lasted 35-45 minutes.
Personal characteristics. Of the principals selected to participate in qualitative
interviews, three out of four, or 75%, were female, a slightly higher rate than the 63% of survey
respondents identifying themselves as female. The ages of interview participants ranged from
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 55

35-45 years old, with two identifying themselves as Caucasian and two as African American.
Data on the personal characteristics of these principals can be found in Table 15.
Table 15
Personal Characteristics of Interview Participants
Participant

Age Ethnicity Gender
Principal A

35 Caucasian Male
Principal B

38 Caucasian Female
Principal C

45 African American Female
Principal D

43 African American Female

Education and professional experience. Education levels completed by the
participating principals were split evenly, with two having obtained a Master’s degree and two
having completed a Doctorate. Their range of teaching experience was similar, one having taught
six years prior to entering administration and the remaining three serving as teachers for eight
years each. As shown in Table 16, principal experience among the four participants ranged from
1-10 years, with the principal having ten years’ experience being the only one with experience as
principal at more than one school.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 56

Table 16
Education and Professional Experience of Interview Participants
Participant

Education Level Years as
Teacher
Years as
Principal
Years at Current
School
Principal A

Doctorate 8 1 1
Principal B

Masters 6 4 4
Principal C

Masters 8 3 3
Principal D

Doctorate 8 10 2

Student populations. All of the interview participants classified their schools as being
regular public schools. The average student enrollment of the four schools was 1,188 total
students, with African American students comprising 9.2%, 10%, 11.6%, and 25.7% of the
student populations at Schools A-D, respectively (Table 17). At least 50% of students receive
free or reduced lunch at each school, with a high of 95%. Three out of the four schools exceed
the state average of 65% of eighth graders enrolled in Algebra 1, with the exception of School D,
in which half of eighth graders are currently taking Algebra 1.
Table 17
Student Populations at Schools of Interview Participants
School

% African
American
% Receiving Free/
Reduced Lunch
% of 8
th
Graders in
Algebra 1
School A

9.2% 50% 100%
School B

10.0% 85% 98%
School C

11.6% 75% 75%
School D

25.7% 95% 50%

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 57

Research Findings
The findings of both the quantitative and qualitative portions of the study along with
supporting literature are discussed in the following sections to answer each of the three research
questions. The quantitative results of the survey responses are presented to give statistical
information regarding the frequency of various practices across 35 school sites that have been
successful in increasing mathematics achievement. Qualitative data is also included to provide
further explanation behind the statistics and to clarify details regarding practices that principals
view as having been particularly effective for increasing achievement, both school-wide and for
the African American student group.
Research Question Number One: School-wide Mathematics Achievement
The first question posed by the researcher asks, ―What systems and practices do middle
school principals implement to promote mathematics achievement school-wide?‖ Table 18
illustrates the implementation rates of several school-wide practices. According to survey results,
the most common of these practices implemented by respondents is the establishment of a
leadership team, with 94% of principals reporting the existence of this type of group within the
school. O’Donnell and White (2005) explain the importance of a leadership team as allowing
school leaders to create a strong culture of shared beliefs and accomplish tasks that could be
overwhelming for the leader alone. The type of shared leadership and school culture developed
within a leadership team spurs increases in student achievement (O’Donnell & White; Pepper &
Hamilton-Thomas, 2002; Eilers & Camacho, 2007). Although the existence of a leadership team
is common throughout the surveyed schools, the composition of the team varies across schools
as indicated by the data in Table 19.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 58

Another practice commonly implemented in schools within the survey sample is the use
of a common grading scale across the mathematics department. Interviewed principals indicate
the importance of consistency of teacher expectations school-wide and the use of common
grading practices aids in developing this consistency. A majority of surveyed principals, 60%,
report assigning mentors for new mathematics teachers, but few schools, 17%, have an academic
coach to aid in increasing mathematics achievement. Principal C explains that she believes in the
importance of an academic coach, but had to eliminate that practice ―due to ongoing state budget
cuts‖.
Table 18
School-Wide Practices
School-Wide Practice

Yes No
Use of Common Grading Scale

83% 17%
Academic Coach for Mathematics

17% 83%
Mentors for New Math Teachers

60% 40%
Leadership Team

94% 6%

Table 19
Composition of Leadership Teams
Position

Mean Number Standard Deviation
Administrators

2.17 1.20
Teachers

9.57 7.23
Counselors 0.64 0.74
Other

0.83 0.95
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 59

Teacher Collaboration
Another practice used in increasing consistency across classrooms is teacher
collaboration, which takes place in various forms at all schools participating in the study. Two
focus areas of teacher collaboration are common lesson planning and collaboratively analyzing
student work samples. Collaboratively planning lessons around essential learning targets gives
all students access to the same content regardless of the class they are in (DuFour, DuFour,
Eaker, & Many, 2006) and collaboration around the analysis of student work improves decision
making by teachers as well as student learning (Langer, Colton, & Goff, 2003). As shown in
Table 20, all 35 principals responding to the survey indicate the use of collaborative lesson
planning by mathematics teachers, with the average frequency occurring about once per week.
Forty-two percent of respondents indicate the occurrence of common planning to be multiple
times per week or daily. Though slightly less frequent, all but one surveyed principal indicate
that collaboration around the analysis of student work samples occurs at least once per month to
develop common definitions of proficiency among mathematics teachers.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 60

Table 20
Structured Teacher Collaboration
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Mathematics
teachers meet to
collaboratively plan
lessons.
(Mean = 4.91)

0% 9% 9% 20% 20% 31% 11%
Mathematics
teachers
collaboratively
analyze student
work samples to
determine a
common definition
of proficiency.
(Mean = 4.43)

3% 0% 31% 17% 20% 23% 6%

While the expectation of teacher collaboration is of clear importance to principals and is
consistent across schools, the systems put in place to allow time for these activities varies at the
schools of interview participants. Principals A and B report having time built into their school
schedule with an early release or late start day for students once a week. Principals C and D do
not have time built into the bell schedule, so they provide collaboration time in different ways,
with Principal C building it into her weekly staff meetings and D providing substitutes for
teachers to be released four times per year. None of the principals interviewed view this as being
enough time for collaboration, so they also seek out additional opportunities for collaboration, as
do their teachers. Principal C explains, ―I would say collaboration at least once a month is
structured through their department meetings, but they probably do almost on a weekly basis just
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 61

informally getting together and collaborating, not structured by me.‖ Principal B has also
modified the master schedule to provide teachers with two daily conference periods, one for the
traditional preparation activities such as meeting with parents and grading papers, and another
shared among the entire department to allow for this collaboration on a daily basis.
Despite differences in how they are able to schedule collaboration time, the principals
agree that it must be well-structured for teachers to use it effectively. Some of the specific tasks
expected to be completed during this time include:
 Collaborative lesson planning to keep all teachers on track with the district-provide scope
and sequence pacing guides;
 Setting common learning goals for each lesson and developing measurable products to
demonstrate mastery of those goals;
 Calibrating what high-level work looks like, comparing what a proficient product looks
like in one class versus another; and
 Inclusion of the administrative team in teacher collaboration to provide clarity of
expectations and keep all stakeholders informed.

Exposure to Test Format and Strategies
In order to increase student achievement on standardized tests, many school leaders
incorporate time into the school day for instruction and practice of test-taking strategies as well
as opportunities throughout the year for students to solve problems presented in formats similar
to what will be measured by the California Standards Test. Ninety-four percent of survey
respondents report students practicing test-taking skills and strategies at least once per month,
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 62

with the mean frequency just under once per week. Providing problems in formats similar to
those on the state test is an even more common occurrence in schools shown to be successful in
increasing mathematics achievement of African American students. Surveyed principals indicate
that, on average, students are provided practice with these types of problems multiple times per
week, with 23% of schools providing these opportunities on a daily basis. This data is shown in
Table 21.
Table 21
Student Practice Opportunities
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Time is set aside
during the school
day to practice test-
taking skills and
strategies.
(Mean = 4.86)

3% 3% 14% 23% 14% 29% 14%
Students are given
opportunities to
solve mathematics
problems in formats
similar to the CST.
(Mean = 5.71)

0% 3% 3% 6% 20% 46% 23%

While none of the principals interviewed stress to their teachers the expectation to
include any explicit instruction of test-taking strategies during instructional time, three out of
four mentioned having test-preparation programs in place after school prior to state testing which
target groups of students previously scoring below the proficient level. All of them, however, do
acknowledge the importance of practice with problems in similar formats to the California
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 63

Standards Test and expect teachers to incorporate them in multiple ways, including as warm-up
problems for students and as major parts of the schools’ common formative assessment systems.
Principal B explains that using them in this way allows teachers to discuss test-taking skills such
as elimination in context rather than as an isolated lesson:
We do not do any specific test practice as far as, ―These are the skills. Always choose C
if you don’t know.‖ We don’t do that. Within that are the multiple choice assessments
which often come in the place of formative assessments or common assessments…
They’re almost always multiple choice, the majority, with maybe one or two open ended
questions at the end. Within that context, as teachers go over that feedback with the
students, they’re constantly going over things like, ―Now you should have known that it
couldn’t be B because you have a negative times a negative which is going to be a
positive so you should have been able to eliminate.‖ Those strategies are taught but
they’re taught within the context of what the students are actually doing.
Professional Development
One of the many roles of a principal as instructional leader is organizing and monitoring
the range of activities offered for professional development of the school’s teaching staff
(Hallinger, 2005). Professional development for mathematics teachers often includes topics such
as effective instructional strategies and mathematics content knowledge. As illustrated in Table
22, professional development in each of these areas occurs on approximately a monthly basis,
according to responding principals, with teachers receiving training on instructional strategies
slightly more often than they do on content knowledge.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 64

Table 22
Professional Development to Increase Mathematics Achievement
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Teachers participate
in professional
development related
to effective
instructional
strategies in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.00)

3% 26% 43% 26% 3% 0% 0%
Teachers participate
in professional
development related
to increasing their
mathematics
content knowledge.
(Mean = 2.86)

6% 34% 34% 20% 6% 0% 0%

In the case of all four schools whose principals participated in the qualitative interview,
the professional development that teachers receive relating to mathematics content knowledge is
provided by a source outside of the school, with Schools A, C, and D receiving training in this
area from their respective school districts, and School B receiving content knowledge training as
part of a grant the school was awarded to assist teachers in advancing their pedagogical skills
specifically in teaching mathematics. Principal C explains the training in content knowledge her
teachers receive is through a district coaching model in which 6
th
and 7
th
grade teachers receive
training after school then are given time to practice and implement the new strategies in their
classrooms. After a few weeks of implementation, the district coaches visit the classrooms with
Principal C, observe, take notes, and debrief. The coaches then develop follow-up training to
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 65

work with the teachers in areas in which they may still need improvement. Principal B has
implemented an additional practice within her school of requiring any new mathematics teachers
to teach Algebra 1 for at least one year prior to moving to 6
th
or 7
th
grade. She feels that this
exposes the teachers to the skills for which they need to prepare students in the lower grades and
she has seen high levels of growth in achievement once these teachers move down to teach lower
grade levels.
The professional development provided to teachers from within the school tends to focus
more on effective instructional strategies, with all four principals indicating a higher level of
comfort in training teachers in this area than in mathematics content knowledge. They provide
professional development training for their teachers in meetings both before and after the school
day and encourage teachers to share effective practices with the staff as well. Principal D has
identified specific lead teachers that attend off-site professional development with the
expectation that they return to share the new strategies with the remainder of the staff during
professional development meetings held at the site. Principal A has developed another
collaborative training approach where teachers volunteer to be part of an ―instruction cadre‖ in
which teachers come together to discuss best practices as well as observe these practices being
implemented in the classrooms of cadre members with the opportunity to debrief on the
effectiveness of the practices in action.
Research Question Number Two: Focus on African American Students
Research question number two queries, ―How do middle school principals stimulate
mathematics achievement of African American students in particular?‖ While many practices
designed to increase mathematics achievement school-wide also greatly benefit the achievement
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 66

of African American students, researchers are also interested in strategies implemented with the
specific intention of increasing performance for this historically underperforming student group.
This research question examines the efforts of school leaders to improve achievement with this
group in mind and with a specific focus on closing the gaps in achievement that exist both state-
and nation-wide.
Instructional Resources and Lesson Design
Although schools were selected for participation in the study based on above average
mathematics achievement of African American students, Table 23 shows survey respondents
indicated much lower frequencies of practices specifically targeted toward African American
students than the frequency of practices designed to increase achievement school-wide. When
asked about lesson design and instructional resource selection based on the needs or interests of
African American students, the largest percentage of respondents indicate that these practices
never occur within their schools. In the schools where these practices do take place, it is
infrequently, with 26% of responding principals reporting that each practice occurs less than
once per month.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 67

Table 23
Culturally Responsive Lesson Design
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Teachers design
mathematics lessons
based on the
interests of African
American students.
(Mean = 2.77)

37% 26% 9% 3% 9% 11% 6%
Mathematics
resources are
selected specifically
to meet the needs
and interests of
African American
students.
(Mean = 2.29)

46% 26% 11% 0% 9% 6% 3%

Although the African American student group is among the highest achieving students at
School A, the school’s principal explains that there have been no specific strategies put in place
to spur achievement of this group:
Good teaching is good teaching. It all starts with the philosophy of high levels of learning
for all kids, and that belief that every single kid can get there with the supports that we
provide them, and falling into place when they're on their own.
Principals C and D agree with this, stating that it is uncommon for teachers within their
school to design lessons with any particular group in mind, but Principal C does encourage
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 68

teachers to incorporate activities that allow for active engagement, which she finds particularly
effective for African American boys:
I think when we look at good instruction, good instruction is good instruction. I think it
works for all kids, but one thing I found was African American boys for sure need to be
moving around and they need to be busy. They can’t just sit there and listen to your
lecture. That’s not going to work for them. When we say active participation, the core
response, the whiteboards, let them talk to a partner so you make sure they’re on task,
you monitor, but they need an opportunity to do that.
In addition to also emphasizing those types of active engagement strategies, Principal D
encourages teachers to add relevance to mathematics lessons, indicating that increases in
mathematics achievement take place for all students when levels of problem-solving and critical
thinking are increased. While she indicates that this is good for all students, she adds that she has
seen particular gains with African American students when they are able to see a purpose in the
types of problems they are solving. Overall, she feels that universal high expectations are a key
in the high achievement at her school. She explains, ―Another practice that is beneficial is
holding them to the same level of expectation, that there is no difference, the expected level of
performance is the same for all. And that begins to change the dynamic too.‖
Culturally Responsive Professional Development
Although the majority of survey respondents reported monthly professional development
opportunities for mathematics teachers in the areas of instructional strategies and content
knowledge, the frequency of professional development related directly to African American
students is much lower, as indicated by the data in Table 24. While a majority of principals do
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 69

report professional development being provided in this area, the average frequency is less than
once per month, with 31% of principals indicating their teachers have never participated in
professional development in this area.
Table 24
Culturally Responsive Professional Development
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Teachers participate
in professional
development
activities directly
related to culturally
relevant instruction
for African
American students.
(Mean = 1.91)

31% 51% 14% 0% 3% 0% 0%

Of the four principals interviewed, two report their teachers participating in professional
development related directly to culturally relevant instruction and achievement of African
American students. The teachers at School C have done this through voluntary book study
groups with the intention of developing a greater level of understanding of students’ cultures.
The teachers at School B participate in more in-depth professional development relating
to African American students, both through mandatory district training and through trainings at
the school site presented by the administrative staff. The site-based professional development
takes place two to three times per year and the focus includes culturally responsive learning
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 70

environments, building relationships and rapport with students, and actively engaging diverse
students.
Other Targeted Practices
In addition to the practices asked about as part of the quantitative survey, the interviews
gave participating principals the opportunity to share any other practices they have implemented
specifically targeting African American students. Both Principals A and B reported making
targeted efforts to ensure that African American students were highly represented in the
advanced mathematics courses offered within their school sites, with the specific intention of
making those programs more reflective of the student population as a whole. Principal B
explains:
One of the things that we have really worked on is we have an advanced and accelerated
geometry program on our campus where seventh graders are able to take algebra and then
eighth graders are able to take geometry. One of the things that we did when we first
instituted that program is we wanted to make sure that that class was representative of our
groups. We wanted to make sure that we were identifying high achieving African
American students who could be a part of that class as well.
Another common practice discussed by all four principals was encouraging relationship-
building between staff members and African American students, with the belief that better
relationships provide a greater sense of belonging within the school culture. This was done both
formally and informally, with Principal C discussing a formal mentoring group she was
establishing between African American boys and some of the male staff members, and the other
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 71

three principals discussing the encouragement of teachers to build these relationships as well as
this type of positive relationships being modeled by administrators.
Research Question Number Three: Monitoring and Assessment of Learning
In research question number three, the researcher inquires, ―What are the expectations of
middle school principals for the monitoring and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the
California Standards Test?‖ Creating and administering common formative assessments as a
staff and analyzing and using the resulting data are key components of developing Professional
Learning Communities (PLCs) within a school (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2006). PLCs
focus on increasing consistency in instruction and goals for student learning, leading to increases
in student achievement. The quantitative and qualitative data obtained in this study indicate that
the majority of responding school leaders has incorporated these PLC components into their
practices.
Formative Assessment
The use of common formative assessment is a popular practice among the principals
responding to the quantitative survey, with only one respondent indicating these types of
assessments are not currently administered in their school. The mean frequency of
administration falls between monthly and 2-3 times per month, with the most frequent response
being monthly administration. All survey respondents indicated that mathematics teachers
administer periodic district assessments, with the majority, 74%, reporting that this occurs less
than once per month. This information is shown in Table 25.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 72

Table 25
Formative Assessment in Mathematics
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Teachers administer
school-wide
common formative
assessments in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.57)

3% 14% 34% 29% 11% 9% 0%
Teachers administer
periodic district
assessments (i.e.
benchmarks).
(Mean = 2.37)

0% 74% 20% 0% 6% 0% 0%

All four of the interviewed principals reported that their mathematics department
administers both common formative assessments as well as periodic district assessments. The
district assessments are given once per quarter at each of the four schools, and while they do use
the information from these, they put more focus on the site-based common formative
assessments which are more frequently administered. The mathematics teachers at all four
schools administer the common assessments no less than once per month and often administer
them twice per month.
Use of Assessment Data
Following the administration of common formative assessments, survey respondents
indicate that teachers participate in the analysis and disaggregation of assessment data to
improve instruction and increase student achievement. Participants were asked about both using
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 73

data to identify best practices for instruction as well as disaggregating and analyzing data by
ethnic subgroups to monitor performance of African American students. The responses indicate
that while both practices take place at the majority of schools, data is used more frequently for
the purposes of identifying best instructional practices. The mean frequency of this practice is
very close to the frequency of administering common assessments, slightly more than once per
month, indicating that this data is analyzed for the majority of common assessments
administered. All but one respondent indicated that data at the school is disaggregated by
ethnicity, with the majority of respondents, 51%, reporting that this occurs less than once per
month. Table 26 indicates the frequency of teachers’ analysis and disaggregation of common
assessment data.
Table 26
Data Analysis and Disaggregation
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Teachers analyze
common assessment
data to determine
best practices in
mathematics
instruction.
(Mean = 3.69)

3% 9% 37% 26% 20% 6% 0%
Data is
disaggregated and
analyzed by ethnic
subgroup.
(Mean = 2.71)

3% 51% 26% 11% 9% 0% 0%

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 74

While Principals A, B, C, and D believe that frequent common formative assessment is
an important practice, they all agree that the analysis and use of the resulting data is what makes
the assessment cycle effective. The four principals all report the use of data by their schools’
mathematics department both to identify best practices in instruction as well as to monitor the
achievement of targeted students groups, such as African American students. Analyzing data can
be an uncomfortable practice for teachers at first, especially when they are sharing that data with
others to strengthen the instructional program school-wide. Principal A describes the growth his
teachers are making toward using the data as part of a Professional Learning Community:
What happens in those meetings is focusing on the four questions of the PLC: What do
we want kids to know? How do we know if they've learned it? What do we do if they
haven’t learned it? What do we do if they have learned it? Basically, using those four
questions to guide us. Some of our PLC teams are not there yet. They're still talking
about, ―What's wrong with question number 37 on the test?‖ A lot of them are starting to
get it, and they're starting to get on the path where every single conversation they have
should be about reflection, it should be about teaching, and that's the road we're heading
down.
Principal C explained that the point when her school began to see a large increase in
mathematics achievement coincided with teachers beginning to look at data together, analyze it,
and use it to make improvements to their instruction. Her teachers began to examine the
problems with which students were having the most difficulty and began reviewing and re-
teaching those types of problems through warm-ups each day rather than just randomly selecting
a problem for students to complete at the beginning of the period. Reviewing these types of
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 75

problems also allowed for them to lead discussions with the students regarding their
misconceptions and specific errors they were making when solving problems.
Principal D also has teachers meeting together to analyze data, discussing which practices
were most successful and which were not, but she also likes to be directly involved in the
conversations around assessment data and how it will be used to improve instructional practices:
We were having one-to-one conversations with the teachers about their formative and
summative assessment data. And with that, we then began to talk about what are some of
the strengths as it relates to how students are performing, and we were able to look at
what are some of the areas of cyclical review that the students may need, and how that
was going to be embedded into their teaching.
All of the interviewed principals also report using data systems that allow for formative
assessment data to be disaggregated by subgroup and use this information to target specific
students as well as to examine trends among groups of students to make adjustments to
instruction.
In addition to analyzing achievement data by ethnic subgroup, Principal B utilizes the
same practice for discipline data as well, with the explanation that it is a good indicator of
academic success:
We take a look at that and when we see some things that are being skewed in one
particular classroom where there may be a high level of African American students
referred out of that teacher’s classroom, we pull that teacher in and we talk about it.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 76

Principal B makes sure to approach these conversations based solely on the data so
teachers do not feel like they are being personally attacked. She feels that these types of honest
conversations help her to build rapport with staff members and ultimately help students be
successful.
Ongoing Student Progress Monitoring
Leading a school’s teachers in setting clear goals for student learning and monitoring
student learning outcomes are both practices included in Hallinger’s (2005) Instructional
Leadership Model. Data from the quantitative survey indicates that goal setting takes place with
the large majority of schools setting goals for students individually as well as for classroom
achievement. The mean frequency of both of these practices is about once per month. Ninety-
four percent of responding principals also indicate that students track their own progress toward
meeting their mathematics achievement goals during the school year. This data is shown in Table
27.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 77

Table 27
Progress Monitoring of Mathematics Achievement
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Individual student
goals are set and
monitored for
performance on
common
assessments in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.14)

3% 31% 31% 17% 17% 0% 0%
Students track their
own progress in
meeting
mathematics
performance goals.
(Mean = 3.31)

6% 29% 31% 17% 6% 3% 9%
Classroom goals are
set and monitored
for performance on
common
assessments in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.23)

9% 23% 37% 17% 6% 0% 9%

Annual goals for school achievement are set by the state and federal governments as part
of Adequate Yearly Progress and Academic Performance Index goals, but the principals
participating in the study also set goals with staff for interim performance. This process varies by
school, with Schools A and C setting goals within the mathematics department, School B setting
them through a whole staff exercise, and School D’s goals being set through the site’s leadership
team. The commonality between the schools exists in the use of formative assessment data
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 78

serving as an indicator throughout the year of progress toward the goals, rather than solely
waiting for the next year’s standardized test data to be released.
Principals A, B, C, and D also report that their teachers work with students to set their
own goals for performance, which students monitor through their common formative assessment
results. As part of this, teachers meet individually with students to review their previous
achievement on the California Standards Test and students then set goals for this years’
achievement. Students at School A do this in the form of a brochure, School B students graph
their progress and School C uses a portfolio for each student, all of which are re-visited
throughout the year for students to monitor progress toward their set goals. Principal D also
mentioned making an effort to keep track of students’ assessment data herself to interact directly
with students, encouraging them to keep making progress toward their goals.
Incentives, Celebrations, and Accountability
Another component of the Instructional Leadership Model outlined by Hallinger (2005)
is shaping a school’s reward structure to be reflective of the school’s mission and values. As
shown in Table 28, 83% of quantitative survey respondents indicate that students are offered
some type of incentive for increasing their performance level in mathematics. In addition to
offering incentives for students, over 90% of respondents indicate that students and teachers are
celebrated for increases in student achievement, with celebration of students occurring more
frequently than that of teachers.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 79

Table 28
Use of Incentives and Celebrations
Practice

(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month

(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week

(6)
2-3
Times a
Week

(7)
Daily

Students are offered
incentives for
increasing their
performance in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.09)

17% 26% 29% 11% 3% 6% 9%
Students are
celebrated for
increasing their
achievement in
mathematics.
(Mean = 3.11)

6% 37% 31% 11% 3% 3% 9%
Teachers are
celebrated for
increasing student
achievement in
mathematics.
(Mean = 2.43)

3% 66% 23% 3% 6% 0% 0%

The interviewed principals stress that while they do provide incentives for students to
increase achievement in mathematics, the incentives they use are low-cost or free. Principals A
and B explain that one of the biggest incentives for students to obtain proficiency in mathematics
is that they will be able to participate in an elective course the next school year rather than
spending an additional period in a math support class. Principals C and D, whose schools have a
uniform policy, offer free-dress passes for students showing improvement in achievement.
Principals B and C also use a similar free incentive, a front-of-the-lunch-line pass. The principals
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 80

explain that these types of incentives have been very successful, as the state’s budget cuts have
had no effect on their ability to provide them.
Students and teachers are also celebrated for gains in achievement on standardized
testing. The principals report celebrating gains in student achievement through school-wide
activities such as barbeques, dances, and carnivals after gains in state test scores, as well as
interim student celebrations such as award assemblies. They also celebrate teachers by
acknowledging their effort both by verbally thanking them as well as with small staff
celebrations.
In addition to celebrating successes, the interviewed principals also believe in holding
teachers accountable for student performance, but try to approach this from a positive
perspective. All four hold individual discussions with teachers regarding student achievement
data, in which the teachers lead the majority of the discussion. In general, they report that
teachers take responsibility for the achievement of their students, and for those who are not doing
well, the principals try to offer support, rather than a form of punishment. Principal B explains
that she approaches accountability measures by first giving teachers the benefit of the doubt and
believing they are working with good intentions:
We work from the belief as an administrative team that, with our teachers and our
students, if you’re doing something incorrectly we’re assuming it’s because you don’t
know how to do it correctly. We will teach you and we will show you, because we were
teachers first, how to do that. Then we will hold you accountable. That’s kind of the way
that we approach it.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 81

Summary
This chapter reviewed the findings of the mixed methods study focused on practices
implemented by principals shown to be successful in increasing mathematics achievement of
African American students. It included discussion connecting the findings to the three research
questions identified by the researcher as well as making connections to the research presented in
chapter two. Collaboration between teachers was a theme woven throughout the quantitative and
qualitative data relative to all three research questions. Principals indicated the importance of
collaboration in several areas, including: the development of school culture and consistent
expectations for student performance, pacing and planning of lessons and student products,
developing and administering formative assessments, and analysis of data to establish best
practices. The development of positive relationships was another commonality across research
questions, including administrator-teacher, teacher-teacher, and teacher-student relationships,
especially with African American students. As reported by participating principals, these
relationships helped spur student achievement through several avenues including the culture of
celebration and accountability, comfort in honest collaboration, and the feeling of inclusion for
students in the instructional process. The conclusions, implications, and recommendations for
further research will be presented in chapter five.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 82

Chapter Five: Conclusions
The underperformance of African American students in mathematics has been a problem
for many years, both state- and nation-wide. Data from the National Assessment of Educational
Progress confirm that African Americans have consistently been the lowest performing group of
students in mathematics on a national level and the gap in achievement between African
American students and their white peers has shown no sign of narrowing in recent years
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). In California, the achievement of African
American students in mathematics mirrors that of the national data, with 41.4% of African
American students scoring at proficient or advanced levels in mathematics on the California
Standards Test (CST), compared to 70.1% of white students, and 58.4% of students overall
(California Department of Education, 2012).
While African American students have, on average, underperformed their peers of other
ethnicities in mathematics, a number of California’s middle schools have proven to be successful
in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of this student group. This study
identified the practices of school principals within successful schools as they relate to increased
mathematics achievement. Identification of such practices provides a foundation of knowledge
for other principals in improving the mathematics achievement of African American students in
schools that have not previously experienced the same levels of success.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine strategies used by middle school principals in
the state of California who have shown to be successful in increasing and sustaining the
achievement of African American students on the CST in mathematics in the years 2009-2011.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 83

Using CST performance as a guide provided the researcher with a common frame of reference to
compare performance between schools across the state, as it is the test administered within
California public schools as a measure for both state and federal accountability systems.
Determining the practices implemented by principals of successful middle schools allows for
replication of these practices in schools in which African American students have not exhibited
similar levels of success in increasing mathematics achievement.
Research Questions
In exploring leadership practices of principals successful in increasing and sustaining
African American students’ achievement in mathematics, the following research questions were
used to guide the study:
1. What systems and practices do middle school principals implement to promote
mathematics achievement school-wide?
2. How do middle school principals stimulate mathematics achievement of African
American students in particular?
3. What are the expectations of middle school principals for the monitoring and assessment
of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?

Methodology
This was a mixed methods study in which the researcher collected both quantitative data
through the use of a survey instrument and qualitative data through interviews with selected
principals. The study was designed using a sequential explanatory strategy (Creswell, 2003),
which uses one method to elaborate on the findings of another method. In this case the researcher
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 84

began with the administration of surveys to the larger sample, followed by a more detailed
exploration of the practices identified by the surveys through the use of interviews with a smaller
sample selected from survey respondents.
The quantitative surveys were sent to a sample of 67 middle school principals throughout
the state of California who were leading schools with both above-average enrollment and above-
average achievement of African American students. Thirty-five surveys were completed and
returned for a response rate of 52%. Upon completion of analysis of the quantitative data, the
researcher selected four principals with whom to conduct qualitative interviews to give further
explanation of the practices identified.
Summary of Findings
The mixed methods data collection process yielded several key findings regarding the
improvement of student achievement in mathematics, both school-wide and for students in the
African American subgroup. Quantitative survey data indicated the frequency of various
practices to improve student achievement and the qualitative interviews provided more specific
information regarding the rationale behind and implementation of these practices. The findings
are summarized in this section in relation to the three questions posed by the researcher.
Research Question One
Research question number one asks, ―What systems and practices do middle school
principals implement to promote mathematics achievement school-wide?‖ As part of achieving
school-wide improvement, principals emphasize the importance of practices that develop
consistency across the school in regard to expectations for student learning as well as quality
instruction. One of the most common school-wide practices was the establishment of leadership
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 85

teams within the schools. Leadership teams were implemented to develop a shared leadership
system, relieving the principal of being the sole decision maker and building a strong school
culture of shared beliefs and expectations.
Another practice principals report as being paramount to increases in student
achievement is providing time for structured teacher collaboration. Effective collaboration
increases consistency in instruction and expectations across the mathematics department. One
way this is done is through collaboratively analyzing student work products to develop consistent
goals and establish common definitions of achievement levels. The most common practice
principals indicate teachers using collaboration time for is collaborative lesson planning, which
occurs on at least a weekly basis at schools participating in the study. Collaborative planning
allows for teachers to discuss effective strategies for various standards and ensure common
pacing of lessons across classrooms.
Professional development also plays a role in increasing student achievement in
mathematics, with participating principals indicating that math teachers participate in
professional development activities monthly in the areas of effective instructional strategies and
mathematics content knowledge. With few principals having an instructional background in
mathematics, most are not comfortable in training teachers in content knowledge, so this type of
professional development is typically provided by district personnel. The principals explained
that they are more comfortable in their knowledge of effective instructional strategies, and
therefore conduct professional development in that area primarily through staff training at the
school site during scheduled meeting times.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 86

Research Question Two
Research question number two asks, ―How do middle school principals stimulate
mathematics achievement of African American students in particular?‖ Although the schools in
the study were selected based on high levels of mathematics achievement for African American
students, the study revealed that few of the practices implemented by principals were focused
directly on this group of students. Rather than target a particular group of students, principals
reported focusing on good instruction for all students. As part of this, they included the
expectation of teachers using strategies to keep students actively engaged and participating,
which they agreed that, while beneficial to all students, was especially effective for African
American boys.
Another practice the principals reported encouraging with their staff members focused on
building relationships with African American students. While this is not specifically an
instructional practice, the principals felt that building these positive relationships gives African
American students a greater feeling of connectedness to the school, increasing their level of
involvement in the instructional process.
Research Question Three
Research question number three asks, ―What are the expectations of middle school
principals for the monitoring and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the California
Standards Test?‖ Establishing consistency in practices was also important to principals in the
monitoring and assessment of student mathematics learning, particularly through the use of
common formative assessments and analysis of the data resulting from their administration. The
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 87

majority of principals report that mathematics teachers administer common formative
assessments on at least a monthly basis, in addition to periodic district assessments.
Although common formative assessment is a key practice used by principals to increase
mathematics achievement, principals indicate that the data analysis that occurs after
administration of the assessment is what actually makes changes to instructional practices.
Principals of schools successful in increasing mathematics achievement of African American
students require teachers to analyze data both to determine effective practices in mathematics
instruction as well as to monitor the achievement of student subgroups. Principals provide time
for teachers to collaboratively analyze assessment data, determining which instructional practices
were successful and which were not, what concepts need to be included in cyclical review, and
how to intervene for students who have not yet met learning targets. Data is also disaggregated
by subgroup to monitor achievement and improve instruction for targeted groups such as African
American students prior to state testing.
Participating principals also indicate the importance of building a positive school culture.
One strategy they employ to create this is the use of celebration for both students and faculty
when progress is made toward meeting student achievement goals. In addition to celebration,
principals report the importance of accountability for student achievement, but also approach this
in a positive manner. While holding individual meetings with teachers regarding student
achievement data, principals find it helpful to let the teacher guide the discussion and offer
support to teachers in need. This encourages teachers to take responsibility for achievement and
builds a collaborative coaching relationship for instructional improvement rather than a system
of punishment.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 88

Implications for Practice
The findings from this study can provide useful guidance to other school leaders in their
efforts to increase mathematics achievement, both of African American students and school-
wide. To increase student achievement as the principals participating in the study were able to,
school leaders must:
1. Increase consistency through collaboration. To achieve consistent student achievement
results across student groups, students in all classes must be provided with the same level
of instruction and held to the same learning goals. In order for this to happen, teachers
must be provided opportunities to discuss essential learning goals, commonly plan
lessons and develop student products, and create assessments to evaluate achievement
toward the set learning goals.
2. Use data to inform instructional decision-making. Data is an essential tool for teachers
and school leaders to evaluate a school’s progress toward meeting expected levels of
achievement. It should be used to evaluate the overall effectiveness of instruction,
identify best practices, monitor achievement of student subgroups, and plan intervention
for students or groups not meeting expected learning goals.
3. Develop a positive culture of relationships and high expectations. Successful principals
have described the importance of building a positive school culture. This includes
building positive relationships between administrators, staff, and students so everyone
feels equally included as part of the school community. Consistent expectations must be
set for student achievement of all student groups, with opportunities for celebration when
these expectations are met.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 89

Recommendations for Future Research
While this study resulted in several findings relating to practices that can be implemented
by school principals to improve mathematics achievement for African American students, a need
remains for future research in this area. Suggestions for future research include:
1. How do principals evaluate which practices are most impactful in increasing student
achievement school-wide and for African American students?
2. How do districts support principals in increasing the mathematics achievement of African
American students?
3. How do principals collaborate to develop consistency across schools and share best
practices for increasing African American achievement in mathematics?

Conclusion
While increasing mathematics achievement and closing the gap between African
American students and other student groups continues to be a struggle in many schools,
numerous California middle schools have had success in this area. In schools that have not
experienced similarly high levels of success, it is essential to investigate and implement best
practices for increasing student achievement. As the site’s instructional leader, the principal
plays a significant role in developing a culture of both high expectations and high student
achievement, and must actively seek to develop a cache of strategies to improve student
performance. This study provides a framework for middle school principals outlining specific
practices that have proven effective in similar schools, allowing for implementation of
comparable strategies in schools with underperforming student populations. Findings of the
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 90

study indicate that increasing consistency in expectations and instructional practices is key to
improving mathematics achievement for all students, including the African American subgroup,
and that the use of assessment and the resulting data play a large role in guiding effective
instructional practices. Participating principals indicate that while they are concerned about the
performance of African American students, the gains achieved have not been a result of
developing a different or additional set of practices targeting this specific student group; rather it
has been done through the building of positive relationships and equally high expectations of all
students.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 91

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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 98

Appendix A
Participant Recruitment Letter
Dear [Name],
Our names are Rebecca Clark and Jacqueline Williams. We are doctoral candidates in the
Rossier School of Education at University of Southern California, completing our dissertations
under the guidance of Drs. Pedro Garcia and Rudy Castruita. We are conducting a research study
focusing on leadership strategies exhibited by middle school principals in increasing and
sustaining African American students’ achievement in mathematics. Because of the growth in
achievement of African American students in your school, you are invited to participate in the
study by completing an online survey.
The survey is anticipated to take 15-20 minutes to complete. By completing the survey, you are
giving your consent to participate in this study. Participation is voluntary and your identity as a
participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the study. During the survey,
please indicate whether you may also be willing to participate in a more in-depth interview to
further discuss these successful leadership strategies.
The link to the survey can be found at the bottom of this email. If you have questions, please
contact us by replying to this email.

Thank you for your participation,

Rebecca Clark
University of Southern California

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 99

Appendix B

Principal Survey

Dissertation Survey- African American Mathematics Achievement
How many years have you been in the position of principal at any school?

__________ years

How many years have you been principal of your current school?

__________ years

How many years did you serve as a teacher prior to becoming an administrator?

__________ years

In what subject(s) do you hold a teaching credential? Select all that apply.

 Multiple Subject
 English/Language Arts
 Mathematics
 Science
 Social Studies
 Physical Education
 Fine Arts/Music
 Other

What is your highest level of education completed?

 Bachelor’s Degree
 Master’s Degree
 Doctoral Degree

What is your gender?

 Male
 Female

What is your ethnicity? Select all that apply.

 Caucasian
 Hispanic/Latino
 African American
 Asian
 Other

What is your age?

__________ years

How would you classify your school?

 Regular public school
 Magnet school
 Public charter school
 Other

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 100

What grade levels does your school serve? Select all that apply.

 4th
 5th
 6th
 7th
 8th

What is your approximate student population?

__________ students

Approximately what percent of your student population qualifies for free or reduced lunch?

__________ percent

How many mathematics teachers do you currently have in your school?

__________ mathematics teachers

On average, how many years teaching experience do your mathematics teachers have?

 1-3 years
 4-6 years
 7-9 years
 10 or more years

Approximately what percent of your 8th grade students take Algebra 1?

__________ percent

Does your mathematics department use a common grading scale?

 Yes
 No

Do you have a leadership team at your school?

 Yes
 No

If yes, how many of each of the following people serves on the leadership team?

__________ Administrators

__________ Teachers

__________ Counselors

__________ Other

Does your school have an academic coach for mathematics?

 Yes
 No

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 101

Do you assign mentors for new mathematics teachers?

 Yes
 No

Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each practice occurs
at your school.

Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3 Times
a Week Daily
Teachers design mathematics
lessons based on the interests
of African American students.
      
Mathematics resources are
selected specifically to meet
the needs and interests of
African American students.
      
Mathematics teachers meet to
collaboratively plan lessons.
      
Time is set aside during the
school day to practice test-
taking skills and strategies.
      
Students are given
opportunities to solve
mathematics problems in
formats similar to the CST.
      
Mathematics teachers
collaboratively analyze student
work samples to determine a
common definition of
proficiency.
      

Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each practice occurs
at your school.

Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3 Times
a Week Daily
Teachers administer school-
wide common formative
assessments in mathematics.
      
Teachers administer periodic
district assessments (i.e.
benchmarks).
      
Teachers keep a record of
individual student
performance growth on
common assessments.
      
Parents are informed of
students' performance on
mathematics assessments.
      
Teachers analyze common
assessment data to determine
best practices in mathematics
      
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 102

instruction.
Data is disaggregated and
analyzed by ethnic subgroup.
      

Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each practice occurs
at your school.

Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3 Times
a Week Daily
Goals are set for the
mathematics achievement of
African American students
school-wide.
      
Goals are set by each teacher for
the mathematics achievement of
African American students in
their classes.
      
Individual student goals are set
and monitored for performance
on common assessments in
mathematics.
      
Students track their own
progress in meeting
mathematics performance goals.
      
Students are offered incentives
for increasing their performance
in mathematics.
      
Students are celebrated for
increasing their achievement in
mathematics.
      
Classroom goals are set and
monitored for performance on
common assessments in
mathematics.
      
Teachers are celebrated for
increasing student achievement
in mathematics.
      

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 103

Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each practice occurs
at your school.

Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3 Times
a Week Daily
Teachers participate in
professional development
activities directly related to
culturally relevant instruction for
African American students.
      
Teachers participate in
professional development
related to effective instructional
strategies in mathematics.
      
Teachers participate in
professional development
related to increasing their
mathematics content
knowledge.
      
Evening activities are held for
parents to understand the
importance of mathematics
achievement (i.e. math nights).
      

Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview with the researcher?

 Yes
 No

If yes, please provide the best phone number or email address to contact you for scheduling.

_______________________________________________________
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 104

Appendix C
Interview Guide

1) What strengths do you see in your school?
a) What challenges has the school overcome? How?
b) What are some challenges that remain?

2) Describe the practices at your site that you believe have contributed to the gains in
mathematics achievement.
a) Which 3-5 things have you implemented that you consider the most effective in
increasing performance in this area?
i) How do these practices benefit African American students in particular?
ii) If you are new to this school (1-2 years), what practices did your predecessor
implement that you consider most effective?
b) What made you implement these practices? What was your rationale?

3) Describe your site’s professional development program.
a) As it relates to mathematics instruction?
b) As it relates to mathematics content knowledge?
c) As it relates to learning styles and preferences of African American students (culturally
responsive instruction)?

4) How (and how often) do teachers collaborate to improve mathematics instruction?
a) Common planning?
b) Sharing of best practices?

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 105

5) How are students prepared with test-taking skills and strategies prior to the CST?
a) In what ways are they exposed to problems in formats similar to the CST?

6) How are goals for mathematics achievement set at your school site?
a) School-wide?
b) By subgroup?
c) Individual students?

7) What, if any, incentives are offered to students for increasing their mathematics
performance?

8) How is achievement monitored and assessed throughout the school year?
a) Classroom assessments?
b) Common formative assessments?
c) District assessments?

9) How is growth in achievement communicated and celebrated throughout the year?
a) With staff?
b) With students?
c) With parents?

10) In what ways is data analyzed and used to improve mathematics achievement?
a) By classroom?
b) By subgroup?
c) For individual students?
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT 106

11) How are teachers held accountable for increasing mathematics achievement?
a) Overall?
b) By subgroup?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study approaches the problem of African American mathematics achievement from a strength-based perspective, identifying practices implemented by middle school principals successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American students. The study was designed to answer questions regarding both school-wide practices and those targeted directly toward achievement of African American students. Quantitative data was collected and analyzed for descriptive statistics through the use of a survey instrument sent to a purposeful sample of 67 middle school principals in California, followed by the collection of qualitative data through interviews with 4 principals. Several themes emerged from the data, including the use of structured teacher collaboration in several areas: the development of school culture and consistent expectations, pacing and planning of lessons and student products, developing formative assessments, and analysis of data. The development of positive relationships was another commonality, with principals indicating such relationships aided in the increase of student achievement through developing positive school culture, honest collaboration between teachers, and a feeling of inclusion for students in the instructional process. Although principals were selected for the study based upon above-average performance of African American students in mathematics, few of the strategies employed were targeted directly toward this group, with principals focusing instead on quality first instruction and high expectations for all students. The findings of the study provide a framework of effective practices to be utilized by middle schools currently not experiencing similar levels of success in increasing mathematics achievement and closing gaps for African American students.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Clark, Rebecca (author)

Core Title Strategies employed by middle school principals successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African American students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Defense Date 02/11/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement,African American,mathematics,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Bowman, Gregory (committee member), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member)

Creator Email clarkr@usc.edu,rebeccaclark333@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-224630

Unique identifier UC11295175

Identifier usctheses-c3-224630 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ClarkRebec-1468-0.pdf

Dmrecord 224630

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Clark, Rebecca

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA