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What is the relationship between early childhood teachers' training on the development of their teaching self-efficacy?
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What is the relationship between early childhood teachers' training on the development of their teaching self-efficacy?
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Content
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS 1
WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS’
TRAINING ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR TEACHING SELF-EFFICACY?
by
Nathalie Taloma Medina
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Nathalie Taloma Medina
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
2
Acknowledgements
For my grandmother, Candida Talledo Taloma; and in loving memory of my
grandparents, Pedro Gandeza Taloma, Marcelina Barrera Pugeda, and Andres Lacson Medina,
Sr. To my parents, family, friends, and all who participated in this study, I give you my
unending gratitude for your support and guidance. To all the students of my kindergarten and
pre-kindergarten classes, I give you my heartfelt appreciation for all the lessons you have taught
me about the life and love of teaching our youngest, most impressionable learners.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
3
Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Introduction 7
Background of the Problem 7
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 9
Methodology 11
Significance of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 13
Organization of the Study 14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 15
Benefits of Early Care and Education 16
Academic Benefits of Early Care and Education 16
Crime Reduction and Family Welfare 19
Economic Benefits of Early Care and Education 19
The State of Early Care and Education 21
Preschool Student Learning Expectations 22
Early Childhood Teachers 23
Theoretical Framework 25
Influences of Self-Efficacy 27
Pre-service Teachers’ Self-efficacy and Student Teaching 28
Pre-service Teachers’ Self-efficacy and Coursework 31
Research on Early Childhood Teacher Preparation 34
Needed Research on the Self-efficacy of Early Childhood Teachers 40
Summary 41
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 43
Research Design 44
Population and Sample 45
Instrumentation 48
Modified Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 48
Supplemental Questionnaire 50
Supplemental Interviews 52
Data Collection 53
Data Analysis 54
Independent and Dependent Variables 54
Research Question One 55
Research Question Two 55
Supplemental Interviews 56
Chapter Four: Results 57
Preliminary Analysis 58
Intercorrelations 65
Research Question One: Fieldwork Experience and Content Knowledge 67
Fieldwork Experience 67
Content Knowledge 69
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
4
Thematic Analyses 73
Connection between fieldwork and content knowledge 74
Mentor support during fieldwork experience 76
Summary of Results for Research Question One 79
Research Question Two: Teaching and Personal Experiences 81
Teaching Experiences 81
Co-teachers as mentors 84
Personal Experiences 86
Prior professional experiences in child-related programs 86
Summary of Results for Research Question Two 89
Summary 90
Chapter Five: Discussion 93
Discussion of Findings 93
Assumptions 99
Limitations 99
Delimitations 101
Recommendations for Practice 102
Recommendations for Future Research 104
Conclusion 107
References 108
Appendix A 117
Appendix B 118
Appendix C 121
Appendix D 123
Appendix E 124
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
5
List of Tables
Table 1: Description of the Variables 45
Table 2: Reliability of Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy and Its Subscales 60
Table 3: Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Teacher’s Sense of
Efficacy Scale 62
Table 4: Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for
Demographic Variables and Measured Variables 64
Table 5: Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy 67
Table 6: ANOVA Results for Six Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as
Measured by Fieldwork Hours Completed Prior to Current Teaching
Position 68
Table 7: ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as
Measured by Quality of Fieldwork in Relation to Impact on Teaching
Abilities 69
Table 8: Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy 70
Table 9: ANOVA Results for Four Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as
Measured by Content Knowledge Measured by Degrees 70
Table 10: ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as
Measured by Content Knowledge Measured by Majors 72
Table 11: ANOVA Results for Seven Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
as Measured by ECE Units Completed 73
Table 12: Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy 82
Table 13: ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Efficacy as Measured
by Current Teaching Position 82
Table 14: ANOVA Results for Four Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as
Measured by Years in Current Teaching Position 83
Table 15: ANOVA Results for Two Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy 83
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
6
Abstract
This study applies the Social Cognitive Concept of Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977) to understand
the impact of self-efficacy on the development of early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between early childhood teachers’
training and the development of their self-efficacy. Furthermore, this study explored possible
inputs for self-efficacy outside of teacher training. A mixed methods approach was used to
collect data from 79 participants nationwide. An online survey was administered to collect
quantitative data, and correlational analysis was used to determine whether relationships existed
between self-efficacy and participants’ fieldwork experience, content knowledge, and teaching
experience. Qualitative data was collected through 12 semi-structured interviews. The
interviews were transcribed, and open coding was conducted to identify themes. A statistically
significant finding from this study showed teachers with an Early Childhood major presented
higher self-efficacy, as compared to teachers with an education-related major. This finding was
supported by qualitative themes. Additional findings included themes of co-teachers as mentors
and teachers’ prior professional experiences in child-related programs. This study attempted to
bridge a gap in self-efficacy research between pre-service teacher training in the K-12 workforce
and the early childhood teachers’ workforce. It also explored what efficacy sources exist outside
of early childhood teacher training.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Early Care and Education (ECE) impacts a significant number of the nation’s youngest
learners. Preschools comprise a large part of ECE programs. More than 1.1 million children, or
80 percent of the nation’s four-year-olds, attend a public or private preschool program (National
Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER), 2008). Increasing participation in state-funded
pre-kindergartens (pre-K) boosts the total number of ECE program participants to 1.4 million
(NIEER, 2008). Effective preschool instruction influences children’s social development, later
academic performance, and future economic status (Barnett, Jung, Wong, Cook, & Lamy, 2007;
Gromley, Gayer, Phillips, & Dawson, 2005; Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2002).
Furthermore, reports from the Committee for Economic Development (2002, 2006), the National
Institute for Early Education Research (2004), and the RAND Corporation (2005) have
concluded that preschool educated children make contributions to society and decrease crime and
delinquency. Even though the benefits of preschool programs are important, the quality of
preschools within states and across the nation is mixed (NIEER, 2005; Porter, 1999). In fact,
most preschools fall short on key features that prepare children for kindergarten (Cannon &
Karoly, 2007). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 1995)
determined the quality of an early childhood program depends on teachers’ knowledge of child
development and the extent to which it is applied. A prominent problem in the early education
workforce, however, is the lack of qualified preschool teachers. The aim of this study was to
examine the relationship between early childhood teachers’ training and the development of their
self-efficacy. The proposed study explored how ECE teacher training impacts teachers’ self-
efficacy.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
8
Background of the Problem
A critical issue in preschool education is providing all students with competent teachers.
Teacher education and training play a pivotal role in the formation of effective teachers (Carey,
2004). Studies of ECE centers reveal teacher quality, as measured by degree attainment
(Bachelor of Arts degree or higher) and specialized early childhood training, is a strong predictor
of program quality (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber & Howes, 2001). However, the National Institute
for Early Education Research (2004) reported the number of preschool teachers who held a
bachelor’s degree was less than half. In contrast, schools require credentialed teachers in grades
kindergarten and above to obtain four years of college experience. Although there is no single
definition of effective teachers, good teaching is important because it is linked to high student
outcomes (Haycock, 2004).
The conceptual framework of this study was Bandura’s (1977) Social Cognitive Concept
of Self-Efficacy. This study concentrated on the development of self-efficacy during teachers’
training experiences. Bandura described general self-efficacy as one’s judgment of her own
competence at completing certain behaviors. Teachers’ self-efficacy is specific to how they
judge their capabilities to impact student outcomes (Ormrod, 2008). Self-efficacy was an
important issue to examine because highly efficacious teachers teach effectively (Enochs &
Riggs, 1990). Self-efficacy research has linked student outcomes with teachers’ self-efficacy
(Ashton & Webb, 1986). Teachers with high self-efficacy have been documented to provide
more academic guidance and higher student engagement than teachers who are less efficacious
(Gibson & Dembo, 1984).
The critical juncture between a teacher’s implementation of her training and her students’
achievement ultimately reflects the quality of her preparation, and, in turn, her teaching self-
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
9
efficacy (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Ross, 1992). Motivational
researchers have studied pre-service teachers’ competency through self-efficacy measures
(Fortman & Pontius, 2000; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990). Coursework in
pedagogy, fieldwork opportunities, and mentoring experiences are common elements in
kindergarten through twelfth grade (K-12) teacher preparation, and each contributes to building
teachers’ self-efficacy (Flores, Desjean-Perrotta, & Steinmetz, 2004; Hoy & Spero, 2005;
Hughes, 1999; Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008; Metzler & Reif, 1988). An area of interest is how the
self-efficacy of early childhood teachers is developed.
Statement of the Problem
Pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy has been studied extensively in the context of
preparation for teachers in the K-12 field (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Moseley, Reinke, &
Bookout, 2002; Plourde, 2006). However, there is little research about the impact teacher
preparation has on the formation of self-efficacy in preschool teachers. It is important to
examine the relationship between preschool teachers’ self-efficacy and preparation because well-
trained teachers are a significant component of a high-quality preschool education (Hyson,
2007). Approximately 36,000 certified teachers enter the national ECE workforce each year
(Hyson, 2007), but there is sparse literature on their efficacy development. We need to develop a
greater understanding of how highly efficacious, qualified teachers can be prepared for the ECE
workforce. It is essential to gain such information because concentrating on the quality of
preschool teachers is crucial to promoting the success of preschool children.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between early childhood
teachers’ training and the development of their self-efficacy. There is little research that
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
10
investigates specifically the components of ECE training programs that contribute to the self-
efficacy of these teachers. Are there elements of their preparation that impact their self-efficacy
development? Numerous efficacy studies in K-12 teacher preparation have established
connections between mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion as
sources of self-efficacy development within the coursework, fieldwork, and mentoring
components of those programs. This study made use of these understandings in order to find
what factors contribute to the efficaciousness of the ECE workforce. Furthermore, this study
explored possible inputs for self-efficacy outside of teacher training, in order to uncover
additional influences of self-efficacy in terms of teaching experiences and personal experiences.
The independent variables in this research design included the training preschool teachers
received prior to working in their field and the teaching experiences or personal experiences
teachers had following their training. Two specific training components were investigated: the
number of fieldwork hours completed and the amount of coursework units completed. These
components are necessary to complete the certification requirements of various teaching
positions in a preschool or pre-kindergarten. Self-efficacy was the only dependent variable in
this design.
Teacher preparation is an instrument for driving teacher outcomes, and teachers who exit
their preparation programs with high self-efficacy can influence successful student outcomes.
The proposed study examined what training experiences impacted preschool teachers’ self-
efficacy, thereby giving insight into the elements of ECE teacher preparation that can produce
the most effective teacher outcomes. In addition, this study also looked at what teaching or
personal experiences outside of teacher training may have influenced teacher’s self-efficacy
development.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
11
Two research questions were addressed to meet the purpose of this study. They were as
follows.
1. What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy of ECE teachers?
2. What teaching or personal experiences are related to the development of ECE teachers’
self-efficacy?
Methodology
A mixed methods approach was used to fulfill the purpose of this study. An online survey
was administered to preschool and pre-kindergarten teachers via ECE-related organizations. The
survey collected quantitative data, and it contained two parts, a self-efficacy scale and a
supplemental questionnaire. The self-efficacy scale evaluated Early Care and Education
teachers’ sense of self-efficacy using a 9-point Likert rating scale. The supplemental
questionnaire contained questions regarding participants’ characteristics, particular to their past
training experiences, current teaching experiences, and personal experiences. Specific questions
included participants’ teaching position, their highest degree of education, major, amount of
Early Childhood Education coursework units completed, and number of fieldwork hours
performed. The supplemental questionnaire also collected demographic information.
Correlational analysis was used to determine whether relationships existed between self-efficacy
and participants’ fieldwork experience, content knowledge, and teaching experience. Qualitative
data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Interviews were conducted with survey
respondents who volunteered to be interviewed. The interviews provided a deeper understanding
of how training experiences, teaching experiences, and personal experiences influenced ECE
teachers’ self-efficacy.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
12
Significance of the Study
This study of preschool teachers' self-efficacy may help advance the development of a
highly qualified, knowledgeable and skilled ECE workforce. Early childhood teachers need to
have the expertise, disposition, and resources to meet the challenges of educating today’s
students (Cannon & Karoly, 2007). A recent review of 692 pre-kindergarten classrooms in 11
states found nearly 20% of the classrooms fit the poorest quality profile, in which children
received a minimal amount of exposure to instructional practices that should lead to academic,
social, and emotional gains (LoCasale-Crouch, Konold, Pianta, Howes, Burchinal, Bryant, et al.,
2007). Adding to the alarm, the children who attended these pre-kindergarten programs already
met the risk factors for school difficulties, including poverty, low levels of maternal education,
and high rates of non-Caucasian families (LoCasale-Crouch, et al., 2007).
Children enter kindergarten with higher skills in reading, language, and math when they
have participated in quality preschool programs (Burchinal, Peisner-Feinberg, Bryant, &
Clifford, 2000; Pianta, La Paro, Payne, Cox, & Bradley, 2002), but the inequality of preschool
education has created a readiness gap (Cannon & Karoly, 2007). This gap describes children
from low socio-economic backgrounds and whose first language is not English. They are at a
sore disadvantage because they lack the academic readiness they should have received in
preschool or pre-kindergarten. Children in the readiness gap are already behind their
kindergarten peers, and they are not likely to catch up with them (Brownell, Noralou, Fransoo,
Guevremont, MacWilliam, Derksen, et al., 2004).
Early Care and Education programs provide the basis of longitudinal effects on students'
social-emotional and scholastic success (Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, & Mann, 2002;
Schweinhart, 2004), but a key factor in the significance and in the longevity of those benefits is
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
13
dependent on the quality of the preschool setting (Cannon & Karoly, 2007; Dickinson &
Sprague, 2002; Kelley & Camilli, 2007). With increasing, national awareness of the importance
of preschool education, it was imperative to investigate factors that contribute to the self-efficacy
of its workforce. However, it was difficult to suggest changes or improvements to ECE training
programs, due to scant knowledge about preschool teachers’ self-efficacy. This study suggested
program reforms in ways that will increase preschool teachers’ self-efficacy to facilitate effective
teaching of statewide early learning standards. It provided implications for building policies that
support improvements in ECE teacher training in order to create and maintain a well-qualified
ECE workforce. There are inherent social values tied to a focus on early childhood teacher
training. If the instruction of preschool-aged children is held at the same esteem as that of K-12
students, then the nation’s most impressionable learners should receive the best type of educators
who can yield the most favorable student outcomes.
Definition of Terms
Early Care and Education – ECE programs exist in many forms, including preschools,
childcare centers, and private nursery schools. In addition, there are federally funded programs,
like Head Start, Early Head Start, pre-kindergarten, and special education. For the purpose of
this study, we focused on preschool and pre-kindergarten.
Preschool Program – California’s state-funded preschool programs were opened in 1964 to
provide childcare and development programs for 3- to 5-year-olds from low-income families
(Mohler, Yun, Carter, & Kasak, 2009).
Pre-kindergarten (pre-K) – For this study, this term referred to center-based or school
programs with the goal of improving school readiness among 4-year-olds. Such programs are
funded by the state, either fully or partially (Early, 2006).
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
14
Self-efficacy – In general, self-efficacy is how one describes his or her competence for carrying
out specific behaviors (Bandura, 1977; Ormrod, 2008). For the purpose of this study, we
concentrated on the self-efficacy of teachers, a specific type of efficacy that describes how a
teacher reports his or her proficiency for impacting student outcomes (Berman, McLaughlin,
Bass, Pauly, & Zeliman, 1977; Ormrod, 2008).
Training experiences – This term referred to the working experience that ECE teachers had in
their education and contact with children in an ECE setting. Candidates prepare to work in the
field of ECE by completing coursework and fieldwork, as required of the early childhood
certificate or license they want to attain in their respective states. Contact with children includes
work with a lead teacher, teacher, specialized teacher, assistant teacher, or student teacher.
Early childhood – Describes the age span from infancy to age eight.
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study presented the introduction, the background of the problem, the
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, a brief
description of the methodology, the significance of the study, and the definitions of terms.
Chapter 2 is a review of relevant literature. It addresses the following topics: benefits of early
care and education; the state of early care and education; framework; influences of self-efficacy;
research on early childhood teacher preparation; needed research on the self-efficacy of early
childhood teachers. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the
research design, population and sampling procedure, and the instruments and their selection or
development, together with information on validity and reliability. Each of these sections
concludes with a rationale, including strengths and limitations of the design elements. The
chapter goes on to describe the procedures used for data collection and analysis.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
A critical issue in education is providing all students with qualified teachers. Students in
Early Care and Education programs, which include preschools and pre-kindergartens, require
well-trained teachers in order to achieve the best possible student outcomes (Hyson, 2007).
Teacher education and preparation play a pivotal role in the formation of effective teachers
(Carey, 2004). Motivational researchers have studied the field of teacher preparation by
measuring pre-service teachers’ competency through self-efficacy measures (Fortman & Pontius,
2000; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990). Teachers’ self-efficacy is how they
determine their influence on impacting student outcomes (Ormrod, 2008). Gibson and Dembo
(1984) found highly efficacious teachers are more engaged with their students and offer them
increased levels of academic support, as compared to teachers who have less efficacy. This
connection between high self-efficacy and effective instruction has been well researched in K-12
teacher preparation programs, but has not been studied as prominently among ECE teacher
training. Higher teacher self-efficacy may help the nation’s youngest learners achieve positive
academic and social competencies. Thus, the proposed study focused on the following research
questions:
1. What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy of ECE teachers?
2. What teaching or personal experiences are related to the development of ECE
teachers’ self-efficacy?
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature
about the relationship between the self-efficacy development of pre-service K-12 teachers and
their training. An understanding of this relationship underlines the aim of this study and informs
its design. The following literature review addresses these issues in four sections. The first
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
16
section examines the influence of Early Care and Education on student outcomes. The second
section explains the current state of ECE programs and teacher training. This is followed by an
explanation of the framework of this study and the influence of self-efficacy on student
achievement. The discussion that follows details the factors that can influence the development
of self-efficacy. This subsection describes research that connects the influences of self-efficacy
development within the context of teacher preparation and its impact on pre-service teachers.
The last section expresses the need for further self-efficacy research in the field of ECE teacher
training. Although each area is explained separately, these factors are best understood as a
whole supporting each other.
Benefits of Early Care and Education
Early Care and Education is vital for positive academic and social development of
children. High-quality ECE programs provide multiple ways in which participants can advance
cognitively and linguistically in a community of learners (Hyson, 2007). ECE settings include
childcare centers, nursery schools, family day cares, Head Start, preschools, and pre-
kindergartens. This section highlights the academic, social, and economic advantages that
children experience as a result of participating in high-quality ECE programs.
Academic Benefits of Early Care and Education
Preschool years provide learning experiences that pave the foundation for academic
success. The Chicago Longitudinal Study was conducted to examine the educational
development of 1,539 disadvantaged minority children who attended high-quality ECE programs
in Chicago (Reynolds, 2002). Born in 1980, the children either completed kindergarten in
Chicago Public Schools from 1985 to 1986, or they attended preschool in Chicago’s Child-
Parent Centers (CPC) from 1983 to 1985. The CPC was launched in 1967, and Reynolds
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
17
followed its participants for over 16 years. One prominent benefit of CPC participation was a
high school graduation rate. Reynolds reported 61% of the CPC group completed high school by
the time they were 21-years-old. This group was 30% more likely to finish high school than the
group who did not participate in CPC.
The HighScope Perry Preschool project opened in Michigan with a goal similar to that of
Chicago’s Child-Parent Centers (CPC). It provided high-quality ECE programs to disadvantaged
minority children. Schweinhart’s (2004) findings confirmed that Perry Preschool’s benefits
extended into the participants’ adulthood at age 40. According to his research, children’s
participation in the project remains the strongest explanation of their short- and long-term
performance because they were randomly assigned to receive the preschool treatment. Like the
CPC population, Perry Preschool participants outperformed their non-participant counterparts on
the highest level of schooling completed. Schweinhart stated that 65% of former preschoolers
graduated high school, whereas only 45% of the latter group finished high school.
The results of the Perry Preschool project were so successful that its curriculum was
implemented in a similar type of high-quality, early childhood setting for at-risk children called
Head Start. Head Start was created in 1965 as a national school readiness program for the
children of low-income families. There are about 2,600 Head Start programs in the United
States with an approximate workforce of 50,000 Head Start teachers (National Head Start
Association (NHSA), 2010). Families and children are provided with a variety of services,
including nutrition, health, parent involvement, and education. The HighScope curriculum was
incorporated into Head Start classrooms to enhance children’s test scores. Students who
experienced the HighScope educational approach achieved significantly higher grade point
averages throughout schooling, as compared to students who underwent standard Head Start
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
18
Curriculum (Oden, Schweinhart & Weikart, 2000). Today it is estimated that one-fifth or 37%
of Head Start’s preschool classrooms use the HighScope approach nationwide (HighScope
Educational Research Foundation, 2010).
Oden, Schweinhart, and Weikart (2000) performed a large-scale study of the effects of
Head Start. Their longitudinal study revealed evidence of the program’s influence on school
success. The researchers collected follow-up data from 22-year-old adults who attended and did
not attend Head Start programs in Florida and Colorado. The children were from low-income
families, and data was collected from 77% of the original 622-person sample. School success
was defined as completion of a high school or a General Equivalency Diploma (GED). Only 5%
of the female Head Start participants failed to attain a diploma, but a greater number (19%) of
females without a Head Start background failed to succeed.
Researchers from the Yale University Child Study Center also reported the academic
benefits of ECE in terms of state test results and grade repetition. A group of fourth graders who
attended pre-kindergarten passed Michigan’s literacy and math assessment tests at high rates, as
compared to students who did not attend pre-K (Comer, 1986). Fifth graders in Maryland were
44 % less likely to have repeated a grade if they attended pre-kindergarten (Comer, et al.1986).
The RAND Corporation conducted a study (Cannon & Karoly, 2007) about ECE
programs, supporting the findings from the Chicago Longitudinal Study, HighScope Perry
Preschool project, and Yale University Study Center. Children who attended high-quality pre-K
were more likely to graduate from high school, achieved significant gains on standardized
achievement tests in reading and math, and were less likely to be held back a grade. There are
many academic gains that children can realize as a result of attending ECE programs, regardless
of socio-economic background.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
19
Crime Reduction and Family Welfare
Preschool-educated children decrease rates of crime and delinquency. Reynolds (2002)
found that children who attended Child-Parent Centers were one-third less likely to get arrested
as juveniles and 41% fewer arrests for violent crime. The likelihood of CPC children to be
arrested for a violent crime by age 18 was 70% higher if they did not attend pre-K. Similarly,
Schweinhart (2004) reported one of the most significant, long-term outcomes of the HighScope
Perry Preschool project was a decrease in delinquency. Children who did not join Perry
Preschool were five times more likely to have multiple arrests by age 27, when contrasted with
children who joined the program (Schweinhart, 2004). Oden and his colleagues (2000) found
evidence of Head Start’s influence on crime. Only 5% of the Head Start female participants
were arrested for crimes, as compared to 15% of female nonparticipants. Reports from the
Committee for Economic Development (2002, 2006), the National Institute for Early Education
Research (2004), and the RAND Corporation (2005) also concluded preschool-educated children
decreased crime and delinquency.
Additional research has noted the stability of preschool participants’ futures.
Schweinhart (2004) reported 75% of adults reported the welfare of their families was better than
their peers who did not attend pre-K. The California Abecedarian Project found less North
Carolina children became teen parents (26%) if they attended pre-K (Cannon & Karoly, 2007).
The likelihood of teenage pregnancy among teens without pre-K experience was 45%. Adults
with a preschool background are more likely to be employed and have more stable families.
Economic Benefits of Early Care and Education
From an economic perspective, preschool education is a sound, national investment.
Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, and Mann (2002) conducted a cost-benefit analysis of Chicago’s
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
20
Child-Parent Centers. The preschool component of the CPC delivered the biggest financial
return, as $7.14 was returned for every $1.00 spent. Overall, the total per person benefit from
CPC participants was close to $48,000. This amount included increased job earnings, reduced
childcare and criminal justice costs, and savings on retention and special education funds.
Schweinhart (2004) also reported a $17.07 return on each dollar spent on the HighScope Perry
Preschool participants. This return also consisted of higher earnings, crime savings, and
education savings as a result of preschool attendance. At forty-years-old, Perry Preschool
participants were more likely to be employed and make 33% higher average income, as
compared to their counterparts who did not attend pre-K (Schweinhart, 2004).
Heckman (2000), a Nobel Laureate in Economics, wrote at length about high returns on
early investments through pre-K programs. The earlier a social policy is invested, the higher its
rate of return (Heckman, 2000). Heckman further commented how public investments in early
childhood programs increased the likelihood of school completion, while decreasing criminal
activities, reducing teen pregnancy, and lessening the need for welfare assistance.
In sum, high-quality ECE programs are a proven investment in success for school and in
life. The social benefits of ECE include reduced rates of crime, delinquency, and teenage
pregnancy. The benefits are so powerful that they extend into adulthood (Reynolds, 2002;
Schweinhart, 2004). However, the quality of programs across the nation and within states is
mixed (National Institute for Education Research (NIIER), 2005). A critical factor in raising the
quality of ECE programs is improving the preparation of its teachers (Hyson, 2007). The
following section will address this key issue.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
21
The State of Early Care and Education
When President George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act into law
on January 8, 2002, it transformed the role of federal government from kindergarten through
twelfth grade (K-12) education. The act contained four basic education principles with aims to
increase student success. Accountability is one significant principle, and the NCLB Act
mandated all states to measure achievement in terms of annual progress (Amrein-Beardsley,
2008). The 2002 U.S. Secretary of Education reported teacher preparation programs were not
producing the type of highly qualified teachers needed to meet the desired student outcomes
(Paige, 2002). For the purposes of this study, it is useful to understand the policies and practices
in ECE teacher training that may help improve those outcomes.
The ECE workforce contains the largest paraprofessional teacher population with 36,000
newly certified ECE teachers each year (Hyson, 2007). The Californian state government
developed two major systems for implementing statewide professional development for ECE
professionals in the year 2000. Assembly Bill (AB) 212 was passed, and the First 5 California
Commission opened Comprehensive Approaches to Raising Educational Standards (CARES)
was established. Both AB 212 and CARES were developed in order to increase ECE teacher
qualifications and compensation by rewarding ECE teachers for professional development and
educational attainment through various incentives and stipends. These government programs are
examples of the renewed focus on assisting young children to meet assessment-driven outcomes
in a period when pressures on student achievement continue to climb. Preschool and pre-K
program outcomes lay the foundation for student achievement.
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22
Preschool Student Learning Expectations
Today there is not only an achievement gap, but there is also a readiness gap. This gap
describes a deficit in early reading and social skills, cited among socio-economically
disadvantaged, African American and Latino students (Cannon & Karoly, 2007). Research
studies have reported significant academic gains among minority students when they participate
in high-quality preschool programs (NIEER, 2005; Reynolds, 2002, 2007; Schweinhart, 2004;
Ypsilanti, 2004). Therefore, expanding opportunities for all three- and four-year-olds to
experience learning in such settings are essential for closing the readiness gap.
The disadvantage of preschool children who are already affected by the readiness gap is
even more exaggerated by today’s focus on academic curriculum. The traditional view of the
kindergarten classroom has changed. It used to be a time and place for children to transition to
formal schooling (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). However, today’s kindergarten classroom has
an increasingly academic orientation (Hatch & Freeman, 1998). Kindergarten standards evolved
as a reaction to the era of accountability. As a result, the meaning and importance of preschool
education has been greatly affected, but 19% of preschools in a sample of 701 classrooms across
11 states have poor instructional quality (LoCasale-Crouch, et al., 2007). Equipping early
childhood teachers with the tools and training necessary to improve these learning environments
is critical for serving the children who need high-quality ECE the most (Pianta, Howes,
Burchinal, Bryant, Clifford, Early, et al., 2005).
The California State Department of Education released the first volume of the California
Preschool Learning Foundations in 2008. The foundations were written as a tool to aid teachers
and early care providers with preparing three- and four-year-olds for the academics of
kindergarten. The first volume of Learning Foundations contains four domains as follows:
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23
language and literacy, English-language development (for English learners), social-emotional
development and mathematics.
Literacy is a focal point in today’s academic climate. Students are expected to read
proficiently by third grade, according to the goals of NCLB (2002). The development of
language and literacy skills begins before formal reading and writing instruction in kindergarten.
The ability to read requires a foundation of skills, such as phonological sensitivity and alphabet
knowledge. Studies of preschool and kindergarten students revealed children’s deficits in these
areas predict their reading performance (Anthony & Francis, 2005; Scarborough, 2002; Wagner,
Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994). The first volume of the California Preschool Learning
Foundations contain measurable lists of early listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills for
children to meet at specific developmental levels in the language and literacy domain. Twenty-
one states have adopted similar language and literacy standards, according to the National
Institute for Early Education and Research (2010). Preschool participants can neither meet these
pre-reading standards, nor any of the standards in other domains, without highly effective
personnel at qualified program sites. In fact, the conjunction of a high-quality preschool
program with adequate teachers’ support in order to help children achieve goals is cited in the
Learning Foundations (California Department of Education (CDE), 2008). Preschool
experiences are imperative for future learning success (Reynolds, 2002). Therefore, it is crucial
to understand the policies and practices in ECE teacher training that will lead to the best student
outcomes.
Early Childhood Teachers
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) stated the
quality of a preschool program is determined by teachers’ knowledge of child development and
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24
the extent to which it is applied (NAEYC, 1995). When a teacher is well versed in a child’s
learning processes, she can implement developmentally appropriate practices (Bredekamp, 1987;
Willis, 1993). Moreover, well-prepared teachers have such an effect on student achievement that
it supersedes student background factors that would otherwise hinder academic outcomes
(Darling-Hammond, 2000). Highly qualified teachers are needed to promote pedagogically
sound curriculum and practices that will bring the academic rigor into the early childhood
classroom (Hyun, 1998), thereby helping to address the school readiness gap.
The NAEYC published criterion for the early childhood workforce because early
childhood is a period of development so distinct from children’s later years. The first guidelines
were produced in 1987, and they provided a theory-based approach for using developmentally
appropriate practices, grounded in early childhood education research (Bredekamp, 1987;
Bredekamp & Cropple, 1997). The current emphasis on standards and assessment-driven
education impacted the field of ECE with such force that the NAEYC revised professional
standards for ECE teachers and providers to help establish the conditions necessary for
preschoolers to succeed in the K-12 climate (NAEYC, 2002).
One method of determining a teacher’s capabilities is through certification. Early
childhood certification can be used to gauge how effective a preschool teacher or provider will
be. Developmentally appropriate pedagogy is provided through formal early childhood
certification (Buchanan, Burts, Bidner, White, & Charlesworth, 1998). Teachers holding early
childhood certificates hold more developmentally appropriate beliefs and implement those
practices, as compared to educators without such qualifications (File & Gullo, 2002; McMullen,
1999; Vartuli, 1999). If early childhood teachers have an in-depth understanding of what
children need to know and be able to do, then these young learners will have the readiness skills
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25
to acclimate to the formal school environment with the necessary social, emotional, and
cognitive tools.
The RAND Corporation (Cannon & Karoly, 2007) reports most preschools are engaging
and emotionally supportive, but fall short on key features that prepare children for kindergarten.
The National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER), a component of Rutgers
University’s Graduate School Education, published a recent report of the state of preschools
nationwide, called the State of Preschool Yearbook (NIEER, 2008). This nationwide study
revealed few states met quality standards as a result of insufficient funding per child. The
quality standards included a 10-item checklist to represent critical minimum standards of
effectiveness in pre-K programs. NIEER reported the states with the largest populations and
numbers of children in pre-K met less than half of those standards. The states included
California, Texas and Florida.
In sum, the expectations placed on the nation’s youngest learners have intensified as a
result of the accountability measures from NCLB. The nation’s preschool and pre-K programs
are only as valuable as its quality, and one of the salient components of a high-quality preschool
model is well-trained and qualified teachers. States must progress towards higher quality
standards with a renewed focus on the training of ECE teachers. The next section discusses the
framework of this study and defines teacher self-efficacy.
Theoretical Framework
This study was grounded in Bandura’s (1977) concept of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a
social cognitive factor through which individuals determine their action and influence on specific
tasks. The level of one’s efficacy can undermine or enhance her performance (Bandura, 1986).
Self-efficacy is divided into two elements: outcome expectancies and efficacy expectations
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(Ashton & Webb, 1986). Outcome expectancies describe the general sense that particular
behaviors influence certain results. Efficacy expectations describe an individual’s belief about
her ability to produce those results. The effects of efficacy perceptions can be quite influential in
a variety of activities, such as participation in politics, devotion to diet and exercise programs,
ending smoking, and academic achievement (Bandura, 1997).
The relationship between academic achievement and self-efficacy has been well
researched in the educational workforce. A body of research supports the connection between
personal teaching efficacy and K-12 student outcomes (Armor, Conroy-Oseguera, Cox, King,
McDonnell, Pascal, & Zellman, 1976; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Benz, 1992; Mujis & Reynolds,
2000). Personal teaching efficacy is how a teacher evaluates her individual teaching proficiency
(Ashton & Webb, 1986), and it has been connected to behaviors in the classroom. Personal
teaching efficacy affects student attitude and student growth (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy,
& Hoy, 1998). If a teacher is able to guide her students to achieve desired outcomes, then her
personal teaching efficacy is high. A teacher with high self-efficacy exhibits openness to new
ideas and methods (Stein & Wang, 1988), and students of highly efficacious teachers show
elevated perceptions of their academic skills (Ross, 1994). A less efficacious teacher exhibits
reduced degrees of effort and less persistence, which can result in poor teaching outcomes
(Tschannen-Moran, et al., 1998).
It is important to understand how teachers’ personal efficacy develops in order to
consider ways to increase it, thereby leading to more gains in students’ learning. The process
that prepares teachers for their profession is significant to their efficacy development. Many
efficacy studies have focused on preparation programs and pre-service teacher outcomes. This
section reviews specific research about the sources of efficacy development that exist in
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27
preparation programs. The influences of coursework and fieldwork on pre-service teacher
outcomes are particularly important.
Influences of Self-Efficacy
Bandura (1977) cited four sources of self-efficacy development. The first and most
powerful source is mastery experience. A person has a mastery experience when she performs a
task firsthand, thereby receiving personal and immediate feedback about her skill. In contrast,
vicarious experience occurs via observation. This second source of efficacy input describes
when a person watches a model fail or succeed at a task, and then uses that information to predict
her own performance. Verbal persuasion is a third source of efficacy. It is a type of feedback
that can affect how one perceives her abilities to accomplish a task. Emotional arousal is a
fourth source of efficacy. It involves the stimulation of feelings that changes one’s physiological
state. Self-efficacy is a complex mechanism through which mastery experiences, vicarious
experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal influence the level at which one feels
competent to execute particular tasks. Self-efficacy is the independent variable in the proposed
study.
Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy theory suggests that the earliest years of teaching
experience leave a lasting impression on teachers’ efficacy development. Ross (1995)
underlined the importance of developing strong efficacy beliefs in new teachers because their
individual beliefs about their abilities eventually stabilize, and these beliefs remain the same until
there is reason for them to reexamine their competency. It is important to understand how
teachers’ self-efficacy develops because levels of efficacy change during their first year of
teaching (Chester & Beaudin, 1996). In fact, Tschannen-Moran, et al., (1998) implied the inputs
novice teachers receive post-training actually impact them differently than those inputs they
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28
receive during training. Teacher preparation programs have a significant impact on pre-service
teachers’ self-efficacy development.
Researchers have examined how specific components of preparation programs contribute
to the growth of self-efficacy in pre-service teachers. This section reveals specific findings that
show how self-efficacy, student teaching, and coursework are related to pre-service teacher
outcomes. It is important to note that this research comes from the study of pre-service K-12
teachers. Less research of this kind has been conducted among teachers in the field of Early
Care and Education. Therefore, the studies presented in this section build a foundation upon
which this efficacy study was created.
Pre-service Teachers’ Self-efficacy and Student Teaching
Student teaching is important to the development of efficacy during the early teaching
years, and mastery experiences are key to its strength. Mastery experiences are the primary
sources of efficacy development. Student teaching is a critical component in K-12 teacher
preparation programs, and it serves as the culminating portion of pre-service teachers’ education.
Student teachers practice how to conduct lessons in an actual classroom or lab school under the
direction of an on-site mentor, a university-based fieldwork supervisor, or both. Student
teaching has the greatest impact on the development of personal teaching efficacy (Woolfolk &
Hoy, 1998) because it provides an opportunity for one to assess her capabilities to teach. The
role of mastery experiences in judging one’s efficacy has been articulated throughout the
following studies of student teaching experiences.
Hoy and Spero (2005) researched the impact of mastery experiences on the efficacy
development of 53 teacher candidates while they completed their student teaching. The authors
measured the candidates’ personal teaching efficacy and general teaching efficacy using Gibson
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29
and Dembo’s (1984) Teacher Efficacy Scale. They also used Bandura’s (1997) Teacher Self-
Efficacy Scale. The assessments were administered from the beginning of the preparation
program to the end of the teachers’ first year outside the program. The study revealed
connections between the level of support pre-service teachers received and changes in their
efficacy during their teaching experiences. Teachers’ efficacy increased during student teaching,
as recorded by significant scores on both assessment scales. However, efficacy scores declined
during the first year of teaching after exiting the program. Hoy and Spero explained the change
in efficacy was due to diminished support. The candidates had more successful mastery
experiences during their practice teaching, as opposed to the first year they taught solo.
The pre-service teachers in Metzler and Reif’s (1988) research reported a similar increase
in efficacy levels as student teachers. The study focused on 59 teachers from two teacher
preparation programs, each with a different student teaching design. One group taught at a
laboratory-based school on the university campus, while the other practiced in a traditional
classroom. The researchers created a teacher efficacy scale and collected data at four points of
the pre-service teachers’ training: at the beginning of their first course, one year before
graduation, before they started student teaching, and during student teaching. Even though the
field-based cohort initially underestimated their efficacy during the first and second efficacy
assessments, their efficacy strengthened once they began student teaching. The increase in
efficacy across both groups of teachers, who participated in different program designs, is
consistent with the findings from Hoy and Spero’s (2005) study. Mastery experiences are
critical to the formation of pre-service teachers’ competency. Teachers’ self-efficacy is
developed through student teaching.
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30
Student teachers practice under the guidance of mentor teachers, and the student-mentor
relationship provides opportunities for vicarious experiences, another source of building personal
teaching efficacy. Vicarious experiences are a guided modeling technique through which
qualified teachers provide a context for student teachers to acquire the internal imagery required
to succeed at a task vicariously (Bandura, 1995; Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). A mentor acts as a
model and navigator when student teachers attempt to connect theory and practice (Bey &
Holmes, 1992). Bandura (1997) commented how the competency of a model teacher impacts
how much a student teacher will learn vicariously. A teacher’s general teaching efficacy
increases when she perceives her mentor’s efficacy is high (Li & Zhang, 2000). In other words,
the more skilled the model, the greater impression she makes on the observer. It is essential that
new teachers know what to focus on when they observe models. Observing a model teacher
experience success will strengthen their efficacy, while observing a failure weakens their
efficacy (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2008). Therefore, student teachers should have opportunities to
observe highly efficacious teachers in real classroom settings because viewing effective models
influences self-efficacy (Schunk, 2008).
Knoblauch and Hoy (2008) investigated the relationship between the efficacy of pre-
service teachers and that of their model teachers by using the Perceived Cooperating Teachers’
Efficacy Scale (Li & Zhang, 2000). The pre-service teachers’ perceptions about their model
teachers’ efficacy was positively correlated with their own efficacy beliefs. This meant the
teachers who reported higher efficacy had a sense that their models were highly efficacious. In
fact, a regression analysis revealed the perceived mentor teachers’ efficacy was a significant
predictor of student teachers’ efficacy beliefs. Knoblauch and Hoy’s study contributed to the
limited information about cooperating teachers’ efficacy beliefs. The dynamic between student
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31
teachers and their mentors provide vicarious experiences that affect the growth of new teachers’
efficacy.
In addition to vicarious experiences, new teachers receive verbal persuasion when they
complete student teaching. Student teaching provides novices with information that is necessary
to perform instructional tasks. Model teachers and mentors provide student teachers with
feedback as they attempt these tasks. Encouraging words from mentors can impart persuasive
efficacy information that doubtful teachers need to hear. For example, a mentor who provides
feedback about a practice lesson encourages the practicing teacher to begin reflecting on and
building knowledge about her own teaching practices (Schunk, et. al, 2008). Feedback is a type
of verbal persuasion, and it can affect pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers are more
likely to accomplish a task when they hear positive messages, thereby strengthening self-
efficacy. Conversely, negative statements affect individuals’ efficacy by reducing it (Gurvitch &
Metzler, 2008). Qualitative research explains the most influential factor related to teacher
candidates’ perceived success of their preparation program was cooperative teacher support.
These experienced teachers act as mentors who guide new teachers’ understanding about how to
process their thoughts about instruction (Gallimore & Tharp, 1993). Teachers’ self-efficacy is
developed through student teaching experiences. Vicarious experiences and verbal feedback
influence teachers’ efficacy in their earliest stages of professional development. New teachers
can also receive efficacy input through the required coursework of their preparation program.
Pre-service Teachers’ Self-efficacy and Coursework
Coursework is an element of teacher education programs that can provide novices with
inputs for self-efficacy through vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion. Pre-service
teachers must rely on vicarious experiences because they do not have the number of teaching
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32
successes their experienced counterparts possess. The role of vicarious experiences in judging
one’s efficacy has been articulated through studies about coursework.
Hughes (1999) studied pre-service teachers’ mathematics efficacy as they completed
related methods coursework. He examined the following relationships: (1) how efficacy was
affected by coursework and related preparation experiences; (2) their level of knowledge
regarding mathematics curricula, assessment, and reforms; and (3) how the level of such
knowledge translated into their classroom practices. Hughes measured the mathematics teaching
efficacy of 15 teachers as they completed the last two semesters of their combined certification
and master’s program. The teachers were assessed regarding their mathematics knowledge and
efficacy at three points: pre-methods courses, post-methods courses, and after student teaching.
Teachers’ mathematics knowledge increased significantly between the points of entry and exit
from the course, but decreased slightly after student teaching. Classroom observations indicated
minimal application of mathematics knowledge into classroom practice.
The decrease of teachers’ efficacy in the knowledge and application of teaching
mathematics might have been due to the reality of classroom challenges they faced in authentic
teaching settings. In other words, taking a course about how to teach mathematics might not
have been what they expected when they actually practiced it. This is similar to how teachers’
efficacy decreased upon exiting their program in Hoy and Spero’s (2005) study. While Hoy and
Spero suggested the decline reflected the reduction of teachers’ mastery experiences, Hughes
(1999) explained the teachers in his study had only their coursework to rely on as efficacy input.
In this case, coursework served as a vicarious experience, a less effective source of efficacy than
mastery experiences.
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33
Shaw, Dvorak, and Bates (2007) found a similar increase in pre-service teachers’
instructional efficacy for literacy upon completion of a reading course that covered literacy
methods for K-8 students. The researchers measured the change in self-efficacy, literacy
knowledge, and beliefs of 52 teachers before and after they completed a reading methods course
as a requirement of their elementary education major at a Midwestern research university. Shaw
and her colleagues administered the Teacher Self-Efficacy Literacy Scale (TSELS, Johnson &
Tschannen-Moran, 2003), the Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile (TORP, De Ford,
1985), and a questionnaire designed by the course instructors. The TSELS was created
specifically to relate efficacy with literacy classroom practices. The quantitative results showed
significant changes in TSELS and TORP scores, as well as growth in teachers’ knowledge. The
knowledge gains aligned with the teachers’ shifts in beliefs, which bolstered support for studies
that have linked formal education with changes in beliefs (Grisham, 2000; Grossman et al.,
2000). Shaw, et al.’s study demonstrated how pre-service teachers’ beliefs about specific
literacy concepts changed.
It is important to note the course was designed to supplement teachers’ learning with
practicum experiences. The opportunity to apply course knowledge to direct interactions with
actual students and experience those results is in tandem with Bandura’s (1977) concept of
efficacy inputs. Pre-service teachers were assigned to work individually with primary and
intermediate readers and observe reading lessons in an elementary school setting. The reading
methods instructor supervised these visits and facilitated conversations with the teachers
afterwards. The teachers’ self-efficacy increased as a result of their course and practicum work.
They had vicarious experiences when they reviewed reading theories in their classes and
observed teachers in actual classrooms. The pre-service teachers had mastery experiences when
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34
they held one-on-one interactions with students. The dialogue between the pre-service teachers
and their course instructor during class meetings and after practicum visits provided the novice
teachers with verbal feedback.
In sum, programs designed to prepare the K-12 educational workforce have been studied
in terms of how teachers’ self-efficacy is constructed. The research in this section identified
mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion as sources of self-efficacy in
the context of two traditional preparation components, student teaching and coursework. The
influence of preparation on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy development is key to
understanding how to encourage the growth of highly effective teachers. However, this
connection has not been studied prominently in the field of Early Childcare and Education. The
next section reviews research that informs the current study of ECE teachers’ preparation and
underlines the need for highly efficacious teachers in preschools.
Research on Early Childhood Teacher Preparation
The relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement is particularly
important to this study because of the increased emphasis on preschool students’ learning
expectations. Highly efficacious teachers could strengthen the ECE workforce, and, in turn,
promote student success. The ECE teacher is an important driving force behind successful
preschool outcomes (CDE, 2008), such as achievement of language and literacy expectations.
Teacher preparation programs provide critical inputs for building the self-efficacy of pre-service
teachers. The previous section about K-12 teacher preparation connected mastery experiences,
vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion to such growth in pre-service teacher efficacy.
There is less research of this kind about ECE teachers’ training, but the studies that follow have
implications for creating this study.
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35
Lin and Gorrell (2001) examined the efficacy of pre-service early childhood and
elementary teachers. The 714 participants attended four teachers’ colleges and one polytechnical
institute in Taiwan. Students at the teachers’ colleges were prepared for classroom instruction in
kindergarten and elementary schools, while the polytechnical institute trained teachers, as well as
childcare specialists. The researchers adapted a version of the Gibson and Dembo (1984) scale
to measure teacher efficacy among groups of teachers as they entered and exited their programs.
The curriculum requirements of both early childhood and elementary teachers were
similar, and the data collected from both groups was compared. Teachers’ efficacy for
implementing instruction was similar, but there were differences in how each group perceived
their responsibility to teach, as well as their ideas about parental support. Elementary teachers
reported higher expectations of parental support than their ECE counterparts. Lin and Gorrell
(2001) thought this was due to a stronger focus on academic learning in elementary schools, as
compared to early childcare. Early childhood teachers, on the other hand, placed a greater
emphasis on social learning as a precursor to academic learning. The researchers proposed a
possible explanation of these differences was the translation of the teacher efficacy concept into
the modified version of Gibson and Dembo’s (1984) efficacy scale. Lin and Gorrell reported this
fact as a limitation of their study. Efficacy beliefs may reflect cultural and social differences
with regard to how teachers defined their role in education, students’ academic potential, and
how they interpreted parents’ involvement in education. The findings in this study show that
elementary teachers viewed parents as having more of an influence on their children’s academic
development. The ECE teachers, however, did not hold parents as accountable for their
students’ social development. Lin and Gorrell’s research has implications for the proposed study
because teachers’ efficacy was tied to the stress on academic learning. Will ECE teachers’
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36
efficacy change as they redefine their role as academic teachers with the advent of California’s
Preschool Learning Expectations?
Lin and Gorrell’s (2001) research is unique, not only because teacher efficacy reflected a
cultural definition of social and academic roles, but also because the curriculum requirements of
both early childhood and elementary teachers licensure were similar. This is not characteristic of
teacher education in the United States. The difference between the amount of coursework units
and student teaching hours required for ECE licensure is significantly less than what is required
to obtain a K-12 teacher credential. In fact, Malone (2008) conducted research about the role a
methods course played on the knowledge and beliefs of early childhood education students in a
large, urban-based university in the Midwestern United States. The results of his study indicate
the need for more efficacy research among America’s early childhood workforce.
Malone (2008) conducted a qualitative study about the influence of a learner-centered,
inquiry-based instructional method called Personal Learning Plans (PLPs) used in a mandatory
course for students in the university’s Early Childhood Education Program. The course
addressed the theory and practices related to the design of inclusive educational environments for
children with developmental issues. Malone collected data from 139 undergraduate students
who took this course over a period of four years. The students completed pre- and post-course
surveys, which measured their beliefs about using PLPs as an instructional method, students’
learning styles, and knowledge outcomes. The surveys produced both quantitative and
qualitative information, and Malone reported mainly descriptive and inferential data.
Malone’s (2008) study is important because it contributed to the limited body of
empirical evidence about teacher education in the field of early childhood. The findings are
meaningful with respect to the influence of teacher education on teachers’ self-efficacy. ECE
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37
students rated the values of certain course components to their understanding of its focus on
implementing PLPs in classrooms. The course components included readings, lectures,
reflections, quizzes, and PLP activities. The PLP activities received the highest rating of value
(91%) amongst all course components. Students indicated these activities were most useful in
connecting course content with educational needs in classrooms. The PLP activities included
active engagement and observation. Both methods were preferred methods of learning, and each
can be related to Bandura’s (1977) primary sources of self-efficacy development. Active
engagement, or learning by doing, is an example of mastery experience. Observation, or
learning by watching, is an example of vicarious experience.
There was also a difference between the students’ beliefs about their ability to plan and
execute a PLP before and after the taking the course. The mean rating was 2.71 (SD = 1.24) at
the beginning of the course, while the mean rating at the end of the course was 4.48 (SD =.87).
This finding was statistically significant. The increase of ECE students’ competency is similar to
that of pre-service teachers’ mathematics efficacy in Hughes’ (1992) research on the efficacy of
mathematics knowledge between the points of entry and exit from the course.
Malone (2008) suggested future research was needed to determine the replicability of his
results and explore, more directly, its connections with the self-efficacy construct. This is
important because teachers who are more efficacious about their ability to control their
classroom environment may choose instructional strategies that could help increase student
learning (Emmer & Hickman, 1991). Furthermore, teachers with high self-efficacy can deliver
content with a clarity and appeal that produces better student outcomes (Vartuli, 2005). Malone
discovered the ECE students’ preferences for learning were observation and active engagement.
These are examples of mastery and vicarious experiences, both of which are inputs for the
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38
development of self-efficacy. In addition, Malone discussed how the level of students’
engagement in the course material was related to their beliefs about how they perceived their
own success in actual instructional delivery. His findings have implications for the types of
experiences that can influence the self-efficacy of pre-service ECE teachers while they are
training. Malone recommended further exploration of a direct linkage between his results and
measureable indicators of self-efficacy. Shidler (2009) conducted one such study in which she
found a correlation between preschool teachers’ efficacy for instruction and student outcomes.
Shidler’s (2009) recent study provides insight about the impact of coaching on teachers’
instructional effectiveness. Shidler’s aims were to examine the relationships between the
number of coaching hours preschool teachers received and their instructional effectiveness, as
measured by student outcomes on alphabet recognition and vocabulary assessments. The
participants included 24 teachers and 360 students in 12 Head Start classrooms, located in
Central Florida. One of three coaches was randomly assigned to partner with teaching staff in
literacy instruction. Shidler collected data on the number of hours the coaches spent in the
classrooms, as well as data on student outcomes on an independent assessment for alphabet letter
recognition and on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. The coaches followed a three-year
coaching model. The first year combined teachers’ participation in a college-level, emergent
literacy course with classroom visits from their coaches. The coaches modeled instructional
practices, specific to the theories presented in the literacy course. The coaches also made
observations and offered advice to help the Head Start teachers translate literacy theories into
actual classroom practice. In the second and third year of coaching, the amount of coaching
hours increased, but there was less focus on literacy. Instead, coaches addressed general matters
of classroom management and instructional strategies for other curriculum areas.
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39
Student achievement was highest at the end of the first year of coaching partnerships.
There was a significant correlation between the numbers of hours spent in this initial year of
coaching and student performance on both letter recognition and vocabulary tests. The second
and third years of the coaching partnerships, however, did not yield such student gains. There
was no significant correlation between hours spent coaching per classroom and students’ test
scores. Even though the coaches spent more time in the classrooms during these last two years
of mentoring, there was less emphasis on literacy instruction. The initial focus on emergent
literacy that directed the Head Start teachers’ consultations with their coaches proved to have a
greater impact on student achievement, as compared to the quantity of coaching hours. The high
student outcomes reflected the significance of focusing mentoring experiences.
Although Shidler (2009) did not measure the Head Start teachers’ self-efficacy, her
research has implications for future self-efficacy research about educating preschool teachers.
The teacher training factors that led to the highest increase in preschool students’ achievement
can be related to two primary sources of inputs that build self-efficacy. First, coursework
provided self-efficacy information via vicarious experiences. The Head Start teachers took a
methods course, and the increased efficacy results were similar to Malone (2008), Hughes
(1999), and Shaw, et al.’s (2007) research. Second, the instructional coaches provided feedback,
another efficacy input. When the coaches consulted with Head Start teachers during the first year
of their partnership, it led to the best student outcomes. Such findings are supported by
Knoblauch and Hoy’s (2008) research that linked pre-service teachers’ efficacy with that of
cooperating teachers. The correlation between student outcomes, along with the paired
coursework and guided practice has implications for designing ECE teacher education. A
support system such as this was put into place for the literacy intervention program in Shaw, et
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
40
al.’s (2007) study of pre-service teachers, their instructional efficacy for literacy, and their
mentor models. Course content and facilitating the practice of bridging theory to practice within
a mentored relationship need to be targeted and specific to instruction.
In sum, the studies presented in this section support Bandura’s (1977) theory that
mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion can be significant sources of
self-efficacy in ECE teachers. The findings about the influence of K-12 teacher preparation on
pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy development are key to understanding how to encourage the
growth of highly effective teachers, who, in turn, can encourage student achievement. This body
of research can be used to explore the self-efficacy formation of ECE teachers.
Needed Research on the Self-efficacy of Early Childhood Teachers
Federal funding initiatives in early childhood are tied to a field that lacks sufficient
understanding of the relationship between teacher preparation and actual classroom practices.
The Institute of Education Sciences cited the need for a systematic approach to studying the
impact of ECE teacher training on teacher quality, child outcomes, and classroom quality (U.S.
Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 2005). Teacher preparation is
one factor that contributes to teacher quality, and the literature about high-quality preschools
show that what really matters is the instruction students receive, which is linked directly to
teachers’ knowledge (Cannon & Karoly, 2007; LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2007; Meyer, Wardrop,
Hastings & Linn, 1993; Peisner-Feinberg, Burchinal, Clifford, Culkin, Howes, Kagan, &
Yazajian, 2001). However, there is an incredible disparity between the educational requirements
of ECE teachers and K-12 teachers. An early childhood certification does not assure teacher
quality (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005). Even though California requires its state-funded
preschools to employ teachers with an Associate of Arts (AA) in child development, preschool
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
41
teachers might need an estimated 2 or 3 years of full-time coursework to supplement their 60
units of early childhood education, in order to match the level of knowledge their credentialed
kindergarten colleagues attain (Mohler, Yun, Carter, & Kasak, 2009). Moreover, it would take
8,000 teacher educators to administer these courses, so that every preschool student would have
the advantage of a high-quality preschool teacher (Early &Winton, 2001). Training competent
early childhood teachers is of utmost importance in order to support preschool students with the
best possible outcomes.
A child’s success in school and in life can be predicted by a quality preschool experience
(Schweinhart, Montie, Xiang, Barnett, Belfield, & Nores, 2005) and strong literacy development
(Hindson, Byrne, Field-Barnsley, Newman, Hine, & Shankweiler, 2005; National Research
Council, 1998). However, it is rare that community college coursework prepares preschool
teachers with the kind of early literacy methods they will need to plan for intentional literacy
intervention (Early & Winton, 2001; Mohler, et al., 2009). The NAEYC and International
Reading Association issued a joint statement that called for focused instruction, appropriate
assessments, and individualized intervention strategies to bolster preschool literacy outcomes
(NAEYC, 2005). The advent of the California Preschool Learning Foundations (CDE, 2008),
which contains measurable lists of language and literacy skills that children should attain,
bolstered the emphasis on high-quality preschool programs. Preschool children cannot achieve
these goals without skilled teachers. The current self-efficacy study focused on how training
experiences impact the development of the teachers who preschool children greatly need.
Summary
The impact of teacher preparation on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy development has
been studied at length in the K-12 sector. However, there have not been such extensive studies
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
42
related to the field of ECE. Coursework, fieldwork, and mentoring are not equivalent in terms of
the education and preparation of ECE educators, but they are very similar. Investigations about
K-12 teacher preparation components and how each element influences self-efficacy
development informed this study about the preparedness of the ECE workforce. In doing so,
ECE teacher preparation can be streamlined to meet NCLB’s goal to provide all students with
equitable access to highly trained teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2003) and the National
Association for the Education of Young Children’s (1995) goal to provide the nation’s
preschoolers with teachers who are equipped with cognitive understandings of ways to promote
successful student learning and motivation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact
ECE preparation has on the self-efficacy of early childhood educators to meet those ends.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
43
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The quality of early childhood education programs is dependent upon teacher knowledge,
and that knowledge can be attained through teacher training and teaching experience.
Identifying which training components contribute to the growth of self-efficacy can increase the
number of highly efficacious Early Care and Education teachers, hence more effective
instruction, at ECE sites. This study made use of these understandings in order to find which
teacher training factors contribute to the efficaciousness of the ECE workforce. Such efforts can
help decrease the readiness gap and provide better futures in the lives of our youngest student
population.
The purpose of this study was to draw from K-12 teacher preparation self-efficacy
research in order to explore sources of self-efficacy in the field of Early Care and Education.
There are four sources of self-efficacy development: mastery experience, vicarious experience,
verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy research in the field of
K-12 teacher preparation cites mastery experience, vicarious experience and verbal persuasion as
main inputs for self-efficacy development (Hoy & Spero, 2005; Hughes, 1999; Metzler & Reif,
1988). The current study focuses on these three inputs. Fieldwork and coursework present pre-
service K-12 teachers with inputs for increasing their self-efficacy in the forms of mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion. Two research questions were
addressed to meet the purpose of this study. They were as follows:
1. What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy of ECE teachers?
2. What teaching or personal experiences are related to the development of ECE teachers’
self-efficacy?
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
44
The current study aimed to explore the dependent variable of teachers’ sense of self-efficacy
with relation to fieldwork experiences and content knowledge in order to answer the first
research question. This study investigated teaching and personal experiences as possible inputs
for self-efficacy in order to answer the second research question. The specific type of self-
efficacy addressed in this study was teachers’ perceptions of their ability to accelerate student
achievement.
The hypothesis of this study was that ECE teacher training provided inputs for increasing
teachers’ self-efficacy. The goal was to see if there was a relationship between fieldwork
experiences and content knowledge with the efficacy development of current preschool and pre-
kindergarten teachers. Furthermore, this study posited that there were possible inputs for self-
efficacy outside of formal training programs, in terms of teaching experiences after completion
of training and personal experiences before training began. This chapter includes a description
of the research methodology, the sampling procedure and population, instrumentation, and
procedures for data collection and analysis.
Research Design
This mixed methods study was an attempt to find the relationships that exist between
early childhood teachers’ sense of self-efficacy and their training experiences, teaching
experiences, and personal experiences. The aim of research question one was to determine if
there were relationships between the specific training components of fieldwork experience and
content knowledge with self-efficacy. The aim of research question two was to uncover
additional influences of self-efficacy in terms of teaching experiences and personal experiences.
An online survey was utilized to examine correlations by quantifying these relationships. The
survey contained two parts, a self-efficacy scale and a supplemental questionnaire. Potential
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
45
participants were invited to participate in the study via e-mail, with a link to the URL of the
online survey. The survey was produced through Internet based technology because respondents
were located across the nation. Survey participants remained anonymous.
Qualitative data was also collected for this study, in order to provide a deeper
understanding of how training experiences, teaching experiences, and personal experiences
influenced ECE teachers’ self-efficacy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with survey
respondents who volunteered to be interviewed. Supplementing quantitative data with
qualitative data presented a more comprehensive picture of how teachers’ self-efficacy
developed. This mixed methods approach provided data to answer the research questions.
Population and Sample
The modified self-efficacy scale and supplemental questionnaire were distributed to
approximately 1000 ECE teachers who served in public and private preschools and pre-
kindergartens in the fall of 2012. 254 potential participants accessed the online scale and
questionnaire. The number of participants who returned completed surveys was 79. Table A
presents descriptive analyses of the participants’ characteristics, including frequencies and
percentages.
Table 1
Description of the Variables
Variable Number %
Current Teaching
Position
Lead teacher n = 42 53.2%
Teacher
Specialized teacher
Assistant teacher
Student teacher
n = 26
n = 4
n = 6
n = 1
32.9%
5.1%
7.6%
1.3%
Years of Current
Position
0-2 years n = 13 16.5%
3-5 years n = 13 16.5%
6-8 years n = 11 13.9%
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
46
Table 1, continued
Description of the Variables
Variable Number %
Type of Classroom
Preschool n = 35 44.3%
Pre-kindergarten
n = 44
55.7%
Type of Agency
For-profit
Non-profit
Type of Funding
State
Local
Federal
Highest Degree
High School or GED
Associate of Arts degree
Bachelor of Arts degree
Master of Arts degree
College Majors
High School or GED
Early childhood education
Child development
Education-related major
Other
ECE Coursework Units
Completed
0 units
3-9 units
12-18 units
21-27 units
30-45 units
48-60 units
More than 60 units
Fieldwork Hours Completed
0 hours
5-15 hours
16-25 hours
26-35 hours
36-45 hours
More than 45 hours
Parents
Yes
No
n = 16
n = 63
n = 41
n = 24
n = 14
n = 3
n = 9
n = 39
n = 28
n = 2
n = 15
n = 13
n = 19
n = 30
n = 6
n = 2
n = 12
n = 8
n = 16
n = 6
n = 29
n = 5
n = 3
n = 2
n = 8
n = 4
n = 57
n = 60
n = 19
20.3%
79.9%
51.9%
30.4%
17.7%
3.8%
11.4%
49.4%
35.4%
2.5%
19%
16.5%
24.1%
38%
7.6%
2.5%
15.2%
10.1%
20.3%
7.6%
36.7%
6.3%
3.8%
2.5%
10.1%
5.1%
72.2%
75.9%
24.1%
Interviews were conducted with 12 subjects. This group consisted of 10 preschool
teachers and two pre-kindergarten teachers. All teachers held the same teaching position,
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
47
meaning there were no specialized teachers, assistant teachers, or student teachers involved.
Seven teachers maintained their teaching position for nine years or more. Six teachers obtained
their highest degree in early childhood education or child development. In order to keep
confidentiality of the teachers, the researcher used pseudo names for the interview subjects.
Nine interview subjects are described here. Mrs. Nunez is a preschool teacher with 10
years of experience. She completed more than 60 units in Early Childhood coursework to date,
and she holds a high school degree. Mrs. Nunez has been a mentor teacher for eight years. Ms.
Denis has been a preschool teacher for 10 years. She completed nine units in Early Childhood
coursework, and she holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in Classical Civilization, with a minor in
Applied Behavioral Psychology. Mrs. Dwyer is a preschool teacher with nine years of
experience. She finished more than 60 units in Early Childhood coursework to date, and she
holds an Associate of Arts degree in Early Childhood Education. Ms. Marks has taught
preschool for nine years, and she holds a Bachelors of Arts degree in Psychology with a minor in
Applied Developmental Psychology, as well as a Masters of Arts in Early Childhood Education.
Ms. Plank is a preschool teacher with three years of experience. She has completed 27 units in
Early Childhood coursework to date, and has completed a Bachelor of Arts in Home Economics.
Mrs. Courtney has taught preschool for 18 years. She has taken over 60 units in Early Childhood
coursework to date, and she holds a high school degree. Mrs. Buruca is a preschool teacher with
nine years of experience. She had previous experience as a family day care provider and as an
assistant in a preschool. Ms. Delarkin has been teaching preschool for 24 years. Her past
experiences working with children include volunteering in her children’s schools and serving the
Boy and Girl Scouts as a troop leader. Ms. Salanave has taught preschool for two years. After
being a private nanny for many years, she stopped working so she could begin a family of her
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
48
own. Ms. Salanave stayed at home to raise her children for 10 years before entering her teaching
career.
Instrumentation
The dependent variable of this study was self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was assessed using
a modified version of the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale developed by researchers Anita
Woolfolk Hoy and Megan Tschannen-Moran (2001). The original 24-item scale was attached as
Appendix A. This scale is referred to commonly as the Ohio State Efficacy Scale (OSTES).
Choosing this scale fulfilled the purpose of the study because it has been used with pre-service
K-12 teacher candidates. The 24-item scale allows examination of three moderately correlated
subscales: efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional practices, and efficacy in
classroom management.
Modified Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale
Since the population being surveyed was early childhood teachers, rather than K-12
teachers, the items in each subscale were adjusted to be relative to the engagement, instruction,
and classroom management of early childhood environments. The modified 24-item scale was
attached as Appendix B. The 2008 research report from the Center for the Study of Child Care
Employment on Early Childhood Educator Competencies was used to guide the modification of
the statements. The Institute for Research on Labor and Employment at University of California,
Berkeley developed the report, based on a literature review of current best practices in early
childhood settings. The report focused on eight domains of early childhood educator
competencies. For the purpose of this study, two domains of educator competencies were
selected to inform the adjustment of the statements. The domains were: (1) child growth and
development and (2) child observation and assessment. Each numbered statement adjusted for
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
49
the modified early childhood educator efficacy scale corresponds to the numbered statement on
the original Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 2001). The modified
scale implemented the same rating system as the original. Efficacy items were scored with a 9-
point Likert rating scale (1= nothing; 3 = very little; 5 = some influence; 7 = quite a bit; and 9 = a
great deal).
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to select reliable items on the
modified scale. Among the modified 24-items in the scale, eight items were selected to be valid
and reliable after EFA. They were used to measure teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. The original
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 2001) was comprised of three
moderately correlated subscales: efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional
practices, and efficacy in classroom management. Six items on the modified scale fell into the
efficacy in student engagement subscale. Sample items included: “How much can you do to
design, adapt, and utilize learning centers to encourage learning and development through play?”
and “How much can you base planned and spontaneous interactions with children on the child’s
assessed interests and needs?” Three items on the modified scale fell into the efficacy in
instructional practices subscale. Sample items included: “How much do you use various
teaching approaches along a continuum from child-initiated exploration to adult-directed
activities or modeling?” and “How well can you respond to difficult questions from your
students?” Reliability indicated by Cronbach’s alphas for the modified teachers’ sense of
efficacy scale was .90 for the current study. Reliability indicated by Cronbach’s alpha for
efficacy in student engagement was .91, and it consisted of six items. Reliability indicated by
Cronbach’s alpha for efficacy in instructional practices was .67, and it consisted of three items.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
50
The subscale that was not used was efficacy in classroom management. It was eliminated
because it had only one item.
The strength of reliabilities for efficacy in student engagement and efficacy in
instructional practices is similar to a factor analysis conducted by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy
(2001) in which Cronbach’s alphas were .82 and .81, respectively. These Cronbach’s alphas
were higher than that for classroom management, .72. George and Mallery (2009) suggest the
following reliability scale ranges, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha: a > .8 to be good; .7 < a <
.8 to be acceptable. Although the current study did not use the classroom management subscale,
it seems to be a subscale that does not emerge as strong as the other two subscales in EFA.
Perhaps classroom management is an efficacy construct that is not as easily quantifiable for a
self-efficacy study. Moreover, the differences between K-12 and ECE classroom settings may
account for the difficulty in finding reliable statements that can capture classroom management
effectively.
Supplemental Questionnaire
The independent variables of this study were fieldwork experience, content knowledge,
teaching experience, and personal experience. Specific items in the supplemental questionnaire
were related directly to each of these variables. The questionnaire was attached as Appendix C.
Fieldwork experience can have a critical impact on ECE teachers’ instructional effectiveness
(Shidler, 2009). Two items addressed fieldwork experience in the supplemental questionnaire.
The participants were asked to approximate how many fieldwork hours they completed prior to
fulfilling their current teaching position. They were also asked to assess the quality of their
fieldwork on a 5-point Likert rating scale (1 = No influence to 5 = a great influence). Fieldwork
experience items were as follows: “Approximately how many fieldwork hours did you complete
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
51
prior to fulfilling your current teaching position?” and “On a scale of 1-5, how would you assess
the quality of your fieldwork in relation to its impact on your abilities to be an ECE teacher?” It
is important to note that the reported fieldwork hours varied in terms of supervision hours and
the number of mentored interactions, as dependent on the degree requirements of the individual
participants. The number reported was accumulated and represented numerically to meet the
needs of the quantitative methodology.
Content knowledge can provide inputs for efficacy through vicarious experiences
(Malone, 2008; Hughes, 1999). Three items were related to content knowledge in the
supplemental questionnaire. To measure prior knowledge of ECE teachers, participants were
asked to report their highest level of education and their major. In addition, participants were
asked to approximate how many Early Childhood and Education coursework units they
completed. The following items addressed content knowledge: “What is the highest degree of
education you completed?,” “Please answer if you attended college. What was your major?,”
and “Approximately how many Early Childhood and Education (ECE) coursework units have
you completed to date?”
Three teaching experience variable questions were also given in the supplemental
questionnaire. The first question asked participants to identify their teaching position. The
second question asked how many years of experience they had in their current position.
Teachers were asked to identify their classroom setting in the third question. The following
items pertained to teaching experience: “What is your current teaching position?,” “How many
years have you held your current position?,” and “What type of classroom do you currently teach
in?”
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
52
Demographic data was also collected on the supplemental questionnaire. There were
four demographic items. First, participants were asked to identify their school site as a for-profit
or non-profit agency. Next, they reported what type of funding their school received.
Participants were then asked if they were parents. The final question asked what types of
experiences they had working with children prior to their teaching profession. The demographic
items were as follows: “Is your school site a for-profit or non-profit agency?,” “Does your
school receive state, local, or federal funding?,” “Are you a parent?,” and “What types of
experiences did you have working with children prior to your teaching profession that you feel
contribute to your ability to working in early childhood education (i.e. nanny, summer camp)?”
Supplemental Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 subjects, in order to expand this
study on the influences of fieldwork experience, content knowledge, teaching experience and
personal experience on ECE teachers’ self-efficacy. Teachers were asked to provide their e-mail
address if they agreed to participate in the interview portion of the study. Fourteen participants
volunteered to be interviewed. The semi-structured interviews consisted of five questions,
attached as Appendix D. The first question was: “How did your teacher education and training
prepare you for your current position in the field of Early Childhood Education?” This question
addressed two independent variables, teaching experience and content knowledge. The second
interview question was associated with the independent variable of fieldwork experience: “What
attributes of your fieldwork led you to feel this way?” The remaining questions were related to
participants’ personal experiences: (a) “What kinds of experiences did you have working with
children prior to teaching?,” (b) “How do you feel these experiences led you to feel confident in
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
53
your ability to be an ECE teacher?,” (c) “What is your teaching philosophy as an ECE teacher?
What kinds of personal experiences have you had that influence those beliefs?”
Data Collection
Upon the completion of the IRB approval process, survey participants were recruited
through early childhood organizations, superintendents of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles and
Archdiocese of San Jose, and college and university professors of ECE teachers. More
specifically, participants were recruited through the following early childhood organizations:
National Kindergarten Alliance, California Kindergarten Association, Southern California
Kindergarten Conference, and Los Angeles Universal Preschool. The researcher contacted
higher educational institutions with graduate students who were current ECE teachers. These
institutions included Loyola Marymount University, California State University Northridge,
California State University Sacramento, and Santa Monica College.
The quantitative data collection for this study took place via the Internet. Participants
reported data via a Web-based survey, using research-approved software. They were provided
with the IRB approval letter (Appendix E) at the beginning of the survey. Participants were
given the choice to proceed with the survey following this letter. The data collected included
self-reported quantitative data, as well as demographic information contained in a supplemental,
online questionnaire. The data collection process took place from July 2012 to November 2012.
Participants were at varying stages of training experience. Therefore, the information
accumulated was specific to one period of time, and it was not definitive.
In addition, participants were asked to provide their e-mail addresses at the end of the
survey if they agreed to participate in an interview portion of the study. Volunteers who
provided their e-mail addresses were told that they would be contacted to schedule an interview.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
54
Volunteers were informed that they were not obligated to participate in the interview phase, even
after providing their e-mail addresses. The interviews were conducted via telephone from July
2012 to November 2012. Participants were asked the same five questions and were allowed the
flexibility to describe their experiences. All participants were provided with the researcher’s
contact information in case they had any questions relating to the study. Completed surveys,
participants’ e-mails, and participants’ contact information were stored to protect confidentiality.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data analysis for each of the research questions was conducted using the
SPSS-PC 19.0 program. As preliminary analyses, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was
conducted to select good items to measure teacher’s sense of efficacy, along with internal
consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) and Pearson product correlations to examine
intercorrelations between the observed variables.
Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent variables in this research design were as follows:
• Fieldwork experience, as measured by the number of fieldwork hours completed prior to
teaching and by the quality of fieldwork in relation to its impact on teaching
• Content knowledge of ECE teachers, as measured by highest level of education attained,
type of major, and the number of Early Childhood and Education units completed
• Teaching experience of ECE teachers, as measured by teaching position, number of years
in that position, and type of classroom setting
• Personal experience of ECE teachers, as reported in semi-structured interviews
There was one dependent variable: Teacher self-efficacy
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
The four independent variables were investigated in relation to the dependent variable of
self-efficacy to examine the relationships between each individual independent variable with
teacher self-efficacy. The combinations of individual independent variables and self
were also examined to compare their relationships.
quantitative data.
Research Question One
Research question one asked, “What past training experiences influence the self
of ECE teachers?” Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine if fieldwork
experiences and content knowledge
analyses were used to determine if there were statistical significances in the relationships
between (1) fieldwork experiences and self
The following diagram explains this relationship:
Descriptive statistics, including standard deviations, mean scores, and minimum and maximum
scores in the observed variables were examined. A series of analyses of variance (ANOVA)
were conducted to compare each of the independent variables, fieldwork experience and content
knowledge, to the dependent variable of self
were statistical differences between the interest of the groups in (1) fieldwork
content knowledge with self-efficacy as a dependent variable.
Research Question Two
Research question two asked, “What teaching or personal experiences are related to the
development of ECE teachers’ self
Fieldwork
Experience
Self
EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
variables were investigated in relation to the dependent variable of
y to examine the relationships between each individual independent variable with
efficacy. The combinations of individual independent variables and self
were also examined to compare their relationships. The following tests were use
Research question one asked, “What past training experiences influence the self
of ECE teachers?” Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine if fieldwork
owledge would influence teacher’s self-efficacy. Multiple regression
analyses were used to determine if there were statistical significances in the relationships
between (1) fieldwork experiences and self-efficacy and (2) content knowledge and self
The following diagram explains this relationship:
Descriptive statistics, including standard deviations, mean scores, and minimum and maximum
scores in the observed variables were examined. A series of analyses of variance (ANOVA)
to compare each of the independent variables, fieldwork experience and content
knowledge, to the dependent variable of self-efficacy. ANOVAs were used to determine if there
were statistical differences between the interest of the groups in (1) fieldwork experience and (2)
efficacy as a dependent variable.
Research question two asked, “What teaching or personal experiences are related to the
development of ECE teachers’ self-efficacy?” Multiple regression analyses were conducted to
Self-Effiacy
Content
Knowledge
Self-Effiacy
55
variables were investigated in relation to the dependent variable of
y to examine the relationships between each individual independent variable with
efficacy. The combinations of individual independent variables and self-efficacy
The following tests were used to analyze
Research question one asked, “What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy
of ECE teachers?” Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine if fieldwork
efficacy. Multiple regression
analyses were used to determine if there were statistical significances in the relationships
efficacy and (2) content knowledge and self-efficacy.
Descriptive statistics, including standard deviations, mean scores, and minimum and maximum
scores in the observed variables were examined. A series of analyses of variance (ANOVA)
to compare each of the independent variables, fieldwork experience and content
efficacy. ANOVAs were used to determine if there
experience and (2)
Research question two asked, “What teaching or personal experiences are related to the
analyses were conducted to
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
56
examine if teaching experiences would influence teacher’s self-efficacy. Multiple regression
analyses were used to determine if there were statistical significances in the relationship between
teaching experience and self-efficacy. An ANOVA analysis was performed to determine if there
were statistical differences between the interest of the groups in teaching experience with self-
efficacy as a dependent variable.
Supplemental Interviews
The semi-structured interviews were comprised of five questions (Appendix D). The first
two questions were related to Research Question 1: What past training experiences influence the
self-efficacy of ECE teachers? The first question also addressed Research Question 2: What
teaching or personal experiences are related to the development of ECE teachers’ self-efficacy?
The remaining three questions were related to personal experiences and connected directly with
Research Question 2. The primary focus of the interviews was to expand upon survey responses
related to teachers’ fieldwork experience, content knowledge, teaching experience, and personal
experience. Qualitative interviews were transcribed, and open coding was conducted to identify
four emerging themes (Creswell, 2008). Analysis included trends and patterns in the subjects’
responses. Quotations that supported each theme were identified from the interview
transcriptions and used to present qualitative data findings.
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
57
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between early childhood
teachers’ training and the development of their self-efficacy. This study sought to understand
how the fieldwork and coursework components of ECE training programs contributed to self-
efficacy development. In addition to training programs, this investigation explored how teaching
experiences and personal experiences may have also influenced ECE teachers’ efficacy.
The first research question focused on the impact of fieldwork experiences and
coursework on self-efficacy during teacher training, while the second research question
addressed teaching and personal experiences as possible inputs for self-efficacy. The survey
used to collect data was based on the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (Hoy & Tschannen-
Moran, 2001). Statements were revised to relate directly to early childhood teacher
competencies, rather than the K-12 teacher population it was originally intended for. The
modified efficacy scale was attached as Appendix B. The survey also included a supplemental
questionnaire, attached as Appendix C. This study utilized a mixed methods approach. Multiple
regression analyses were conducted to examine if content knowledge, fieldwork experiences,
teaching experiences, and personal experiences influenced teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. In
addition, a series of analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed to compare each of the
independent variables to the dependent variable of self-efficacy. Furthermore, semi-structured
interviews were conducted to expand upon survey responses. Semi-structured interview
questions were attached as Appendix D.
This chapter discusses the major results of this study. The first section describes a
preliminary analysis, followed by descriptive statistics. The next section reports quantitative
results, followed by qualitative results. Results are presented by each research question, and
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relevant studies in literature reviews are cited for reference. Themes that emerged from data
analysis, as well as insights about those themes, are also presented. Discussion of the results will
be addressed in chapter 5.
Preliminary Analysis
The following section presents the results of preliminary analyses through an exploratory
factor analysis, as well as intercorrelations between the observed variables. An exploratory
factor analysis was conducted because the statements from Hoy and Tschannen-Moran’s (2001)
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale were revised heavily for the purpose of distributing the survey
among early childhood teachers. The original teacher’s sense of efficacy scale was used with K-
12 teachers, and it included 24 items. The items were comprised of three subscales: efficacy in
student engagement (8 items), efficacy in instruction (8 items), and efficacy in classroom
management (8 items). Since all of the original items were modified, an exploratory factor
analysis was used to select only valid items and examine which items loaded onto each of the
three subscales of teacher’s sense of efficacy.
According to the results of the exploratory factor analysis, three factors were detected to
have eigenvalue greater than 1. Two factors had eigenvalues of 13.718 and 1.589. These values
were greater than the third factor, 1.086. Figure A presents the scree plot with eigenvalues and
component numbers.
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Figure A
Scree Plot of the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale
In the analysis, all three factors were examined to select the quality items using the
extract method of principal component analysis and rotation method of Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization. First, the quality of items within each factor was observed using two criteria,
acceptable loading and no cross loading. In this study, unique factor loading larger than .50 was
used to identify good items. In addition, cross-loading was identified with items that had a
unique factor loading size larger than .40 in two factors or more, and those items were not
selected as valid. Second, the quality of the three factors was examined. Accordingly to Lackey,
et al. (2003), factors with fewer than 2 items signified a poor quality. The third factor was
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eliminated because it had only one item. In the end, the first two factors with eigenvalue greater
than 1 were identified as valid. These two factors accounted for 63.78% of the variance in initial
eigenvalues. Table 1 summarizes the factors, factor loadings, communalities, and reliability
statistics.
Table 2
Reliability of Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy and Its Subscales
Factor Scale n a
Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy 9 .915
1. Efficacy in Student Engagement 6 .925
2. Efficacy in Instruction 3 .667
The first factor, teacher’s efficacy in student engagement, was explained by 57.16% of
the variance. This subscale consisted of six items, EST- 2, EST- 4, EST- 11, EST- 12, EST- 15,
and EST- 20. The second factor, teacher’s efficacy in instruction, accounted for 6.62% of the
variance. The second subscale was composed of three items, including EI- 6, EI-7, and EI-22.
The third factor included only one item, 14, and thus it was not considered to be the third
subscale.
Table 2 presents the numbers of the items in teacher’s sense of efficacy and its two
subscales and their reliabilities, as indicated by the internal consistency coefficients. Testing
reliabilities is an important statistical procedure to determine if Cronbach’s alpha falls into a
range that indicates whether or not the items on the scale are reliable. George and Mallery
(2009) suggest the following reliability scale ranges, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha: a > .8 to
be good; .7 < a < .8 to be acceptable; .6 < a < .7 is considered questionable; .5 < a < .6 to be
poor; and a < .5 to be unacceptable. When the Cronbach’s alpha of a particular scale is bigger
than .7, it is considered to be reliable. According to the reliability tests of the current study,
teacher’s sense of efficacy and its subscales were highly reliable: Teacher’s sense of efficacy, a
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= .915; efficacy in student engagement, a = .925. Efficacy in instruction’s alpha was 6.67, which
is close to .7. Therefore, teacher’s sense of efficacy and its subscales were used in the current
study.
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Table 3
Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale
Factor loadings
Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 M SD h2 α
EST-2 How much can you do to design, adapt, and utilize .847 .282 -.089 8.01 1.41 .805 .964
learning centers to encourage learning and development through play?
EST-4 How much can you base planned and spontaneous interactions with .819 .259 .162 7.45 1.49 .765 .963
children on the child’s assessed interests and needs?
EST-11 To what extent can you use individual patterns of development .653 .368 .360 7.32 1.39 .692 .962
among children in care to guide planning?
EST-12 How much can you do to elicit the creative spirit of each child by offering .694 .309 .357 7.59 1.63 .705 .963
opportunities for expression through artistic representation?
EST-15 How much can you do to moderate interactions with each child based .679 .250 .391 7.31 1.48 .675 .963
on the child’s specific characteristics, strengths, interests and needs?
EST-20 How well can you adapt the program to address each child’s needs, .769 .378 .243 7.43 1.43 .793 .962
temperament, interests and learning styles?
EI-6 How much do you use various teaching approaches along a continuum .235 .729 .100 7.93 1.30 .596 .964
from child-initiated exploration to adult-directed activities or modeling?
EI-7 How well can you respond to difficult questions from your students? .313 .542 .358 7.84 1.06 .520 .964
EI-22 How much can you provide information about the developmental stages .188 .615 .260 7.44 1.49 .481 .964
and milestones within the developmental domains to families?
Note. Unique factor loading > .50 are in bold. Analysis is based on 79 observations. Teacher’s sense of efficacy item scores range from 1 (very little) to 9
(a great deal). Internal consistency estimates for Factors 1 and 2 were .925 and .667, respectively.
EST = Efficacy in Student Engagement; EI= Efficacy in Instruction; Factor 1 = Efficacy in Student Engagement; Factor 2 = Efficacy in Instruction;
h2 = item communalities at extraction; α = Cronbach’s alpha coefficient if item deleted.
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Table 3, continued
Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale
Factor loadings
Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 M SD h2 α
1 How much can you adapt the program to address each child’s .666 .435 -.164 7.76 1.35 .660 .964
needs, temperament, interests and learning styles?
3 How much can you do to use strategies to assist children in learning .497 .721 .062 8.03 1.16 .770 .963
to express emotions in positive ways, solve problems, and make decisions?.
5 To what extent can you make your expectations clear about the principles .405 .719 .111 7.68 1.33 .694 .963
for intervention and conflict resolution in children’s play and learning?
8 How well can you develop an appropriate schedule that includes a balance of .467 .125 .592 7.76 1.76 .584 .965
active and quiet, child directed and teacher directed, individual and group,
indoor and outdoor activities?.
9 How much can you do to provide a responsive environment where children .701 .308 .441 7.59 1.60 .781 .962
initiate and extend their learning through play?
10 How much can you apply basic elements of child development theory to .487 .581 .309 7.69 1.27 .671 .963
observation to gauge student comprehension of what you have taught?
13 How well can you practice and model developmentally appropriate .429 .670 .301 7.98 1.29 .732 .962
guidance approaches that promote positive behaviors,
problem solving, and self-control?
14 How much can you do to recognize and make referrals for suspected .033 .237 .804 7.02 1.77 .704 .966
developmental delays?
16 How well can you establish a classroom management system that provides .395 .341 .414 8.00 1.31 .443 .964
consistent schedules and routines; alerts children to and facilitates transitions
from one activity to another; and provides interesting materials and activities;
and articulates how physical environment affects behavior?
17 How much can you do to adjust your lessons according to knowledge of .559 .478 .433 7.66 1.37 .729 .962
developmental theories to meet children’s individual needs in the group setting?
18 How much can you use a variety of appropriate assessment tools to record .080 .636 .497 7.31 1.53 .658 .964
child observations?
19 How well can you keep your behavior expectations based on children’s age .577 .500 .308 7.72 1.43 .678 .962
and developmental level?
21 How much can you do to recognize and respond to individual behavioral .485 .586 .427 7.47 1.38 .762 .962
problems related to developmental or emotional stress?
23 To what extent can you ensure that the environment facilitates learning for .372 .645 .405 7.74 1.31 .719 .962
all children in each developmental domain: cognitive, physical, language,
creative and social-emotional?
24 How well can you adapt interactions to include each child individually, .522 .563 .444 7.25 1.50 .787 .962
accommodating for his/her temperament, personality, strengths, interests
and development pattern?
Note. Unique factor loading > .50 are in bold. Analysis is based on 79 observations. Teacher’s sense of efficacy item scores range from 1 (very little) to 9
(a great deal). Internal consistency estimates for Factors 1 and 2 were .925 and .667, respectively.
EST = Efficacy in Student Engagement; EI= Efficacy in Instruction; Factor 1 = Efficacy in Student Engagement; Factor 2 = Efficacy in Instruction;
h2 = item communalities at extraction; α = Cronbach’s alpha coefficient if item deleted.
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Table 4
Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for Demographic Variables and Measured Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. TP 1.71 .96 --- -.26* -.16 -.09 .06 -.12 -.29* -.12 -.12 -.09 -.14
2. YP 3.04 1.17 --- .10 .11 .06 .23* .22
.04 -.30 -.08 .08
3. Classroom 1.56 .50 --- -.19 -.01 -.03 .07 .02 -.04 -.07 .03
4.
Degree 3.16 .76 ---
.33**
.04 .06 -.06 -.15 -.15 -.10
5. Major 3.76 1.22 --- -.24* -.06 -.15 -.22 -.21 -.16
6. CU 5.03 1.94 --- .43** .31** .11 .01 .29**
7. Fieldwork 5.20 1.51 --- .44** .01 -.05 .13
8. QF 4.09 1.18 --- .06 .01 .14
9. TSE 7.63 1.08 --- .97** .84**
10. ESE 7.56 1.27 --- .67**
11. EI 7.74 1.01 ---
Note. TP = Current Teaching Position (1 = Lead teacher, 2 = teacher, 3 = specialized teacher, 4 = assistant teacher, 5 = student teacher); YP = Years of Holding Current Position
(0-2 = 1, 3-5 = 2, 6-8 = 3, more than 9 = 4); Sex (1 = Male, 0 = Female); Classroom = Current Type of Classroom (1= For-profit, 2 = non-profit); Degree = Highest Degree
Earned (1 = High school or GED, 2 = Associate of Arts degree, 3 = Bachelor of Arts degree, 4 = Master of Arts degree); Major = College Major ( 1 = High school or GED, 2 =
Early childhood education (ECE), 3 = child development (CD) , 4 = education related major (i.e., liberal studies), 5 = others); CU = Completed Course Units in Early childhood
education (ECE) (1 = 0, 2 = 3-9, 3 = 12-18, 4 = 21-27, 5 = 30-45, 6 =48-60, 7 = more than 60 units); Fieldwork = Previous Fieldwork Completed Hours Prior to Current
Teaching Position (1 = 0, 2 = 5-15, 3 = 16-25, 4 = 26-35, 5 = 36-45, 6 = more than 45); QF = Quality Fieldwork; TSE = Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy (1 = No influence, 3 = some
influence, 5 = a great deal of influence); ESE = Efficacy in student engagement; EI= Efficacy in instruction
< .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
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Intercorrelations
Pearson Product Correlations analysis was conducted to examine intercorrelations
between all observed variables in this study. Table 3 summarizes the means, standard
deviations, and correlations of demographic variables and measured variables. Measured
variables include teacher’s sense of efficacy and two of its subscales: efficacy in student
engagement and efficacy in instruction.
Current teaching position was negatively correlated with the years of holding current
position, r = -.26, p < .05. This finding indicated that lead teachers had more years of holding
their current position than student teachers did. Current teaching position was also negatively
related to the number of fieldwork hours completed prior to their current teaching position, r =
-.29, p < .05. This means that lead teachers completed more hours of fieldwork than student
teachers did. Years of holding the current position was positively related to their completed
course units in early childhood education, r = .23, p < .05. This designated that teachers with 9
or more years of teaching experience completed more course units than teachers with less years
of teaching experience.
Information about teachers’ training was also collected for this study. The highest degree
earned and college major had a positive relationship, r = .33, p < .01, which indicated that
teachers who completed higher degrees held college majors in child development and education-
related majors, such as liberal studies. College major was negatively related to completed course
units in early childhood education, r = .24, p < .01. This finding presented that teachers with
child development and education-related majors completed more ECE course units than their
counterparts. Completed course units in early childhood education had a positive relationship
with fieldwork hours completed prior to current teaching position, r = .43, p < .01, designating
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that teachers who completed more ECE course units accomplished more fieldwork hours prior to
their current teaching positions than teachers with less units. Completed course units in early
childhood education was positively related to the quality of fieldwork, r = .31, p < .01. This
result presented that the teachers who achieved more course units in ECE ranked the quality of
their fieldwork higher than teachers with less course units. Fieldwork hours completed prior to
current teaching position was positively related to the quality of fieldwork, r = .44, p < .01,
designating that teachers who received more hours in the field prior to their current teaching
positions ranked the quality of fieldwork higher than teachers with less fieldwork hours.
Hoy and Tschannen-Moran’s (2001) original Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale consisted
of three subscales: student engagement, efficacy in instruction, and efficacy in classroom
management. Teacher’s sense of efficacy was related to its subscales, efficacy in student
engagement, r = .97, p < .01 and efficacy in instruction, r = .84, p < .01. This designated that
teachers who held a high level of teachers’ sense of efficacy also held high levels of efficacy in
engagement and efficacy in instruction, as compared to their counterparts. Efficacy in student
engagement and efficacy in instruction were related, r = .67, p < .01, indicating that teachers
with high efficacy in student engagement held higher efficacy in instruction, as compared to
teachers with low efficacy in student engagement. Completed course units in early childhood
education was positively related to efficacy in instruction, r = .29, p < .01. This indicated that as
participants completed more course units in early childhood education, they had higher efficacy
in instructing students. Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations, and Pearson Product
Correlations for demographic variables and measured variables.
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Research Question One: Fieldwork Experience and Content Knowledge
Research question one asked, “What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy
of ECE teachers?” Fieldwork and coursework experiences were investigated as specific training
components that could influence teachers’ self-efficacy. This section reports quantitative results
in fieldwork experience and content knowledge, followed by qualitative outcomes.
Fieldwork Experience
A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine if fieldwork experience
influenced teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. Fieldwork hours completed prior to fulfilling current
teaching position and the quality of fieldwork ratings were entered as independent variables.
Teacher’s sense of efficacy was entered as the dependent variable. The results of the multiple
regression analysis indicated that fieldwork hours completed prior to fulfilling current teaching
position (β= -.016, p = .840) and the quality of fieldwork (β = .065, p = .529) did not
significantly predict teacher’s sense of efficacy. According to the R square, the entire model
with independent variables including previously completed fieldwork hours prior to fulfilling
current teaching position and the quality of fieldwork predicted .5% of teachers’ sense of
efficacy among the teachers in the early childhood field. Table 4 presents the results of the
multiple regression analysis of the relationship between the observed independent variables and
teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 5
Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
β Beta t p
1. Constant 7.502 16.339 .000
2. Fieldwork hours -.016 -.026 -.202 .840
3. Quality Fieldwork .065 .080 .632 .529
4. R Square .005
Note. Dependent Variable: Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
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A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine if there were
statistically significant differences between the observed groups in fieldwork experience with
teacher’s sense of self-efficacy as a dependent variable. The results of the ANOVA analysis
indicated no significant mean difference in teacher’s sense of efficacy, F (5, 77) = .584, p = .712,
between groups as measured by the number of fieldwork hours the participants completed prior
to fulfilling their current teaching position. The number of fieldwork hours was comprised of six
groups: 0 hours, 5-15 hours 16-25 hours, 26-35 hours, 36-45 hours, and more than 45 hours.
Table 5 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value, degree of freedom and p-value for the
observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 6
ANOVA Results for Six Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by Fieldwork Hours Completed Prior to Current
Teaching Position
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
with 0 hours with 5 to with 16 to with 26 to with 36 to more than
15 hours 25 hours 35 hours 45 hours 45 hours
Dependent
Variable Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s 7.88 1.13 8.08 .144 7.31 .97 7.34 1.03 7.41 1.23 7.76 .88 5 .584 .712
Sense of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups in previous fieldwork completed hours prior to fulfilling current teaching position;
Dependent Variables = Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
The quality of fieldwork also showed no significant mean difference in teacher’s sense of
efficacy, F (4, 78) = 2.379, p = .059, between groups as measured by the participants’
assessment of the quality of their fieldwork in relation to its impact on their teaching abilities.
Participants assessed the quality of their fieldwork on a 5-point Likert rating scale (1= no
influence to 5 = a great deal of influence). Table 6 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value,
degree of freedom and p-value for the observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of
efficacy.
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Table 7
ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by Quality of Fieldwork in Relation to Impact on
Teaching Abilities
No Some A great deal of
influence influence influence
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Dependent
Variable Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s 8.40 .58 7.06 .26 7.24 1.10 7.66 .62 7.84 .90 4 2.379 p = .059
Sense of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups in the quality of fieldwork in relation to its impact on their abilities to be an ECE teachers;
Dependent Variables = Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
Content Knowledge
A multiple regression analysis was performed to find if content knowledge influenced
teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. The levels of degrees obtained, majors taken in colleges, and the
numbers of early childhood education units completed were entered as independent variables.
Teacher’s sense of efficacy was entered as the dependent variable. The results of the multiple
regression analysis presented that the levels of degrees obtained, (β = -.104 , p = .481), majors
taken in colleges, (β = -.137, p = .160), and the numbers of early childhood education units
completed, (β = .033, p = .563), did not significantly predict teacher’s sense of efficacy. The R
square indicated that the entire model with independent variables including levels of degrees
obtained, majors taken in colleges, and the numbers of early childhood education units
completed accounted for 5.7% of variance in teacher’s sense of efficacy. Table 7 presents the
results of the multiple regression analysis of the relationship between the observed independent
variables and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
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Table 8
Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
β Beta t p
1. Constant 8.359 14.196 .000
2. Degrees -.104 -.085 -.708 .481
3. Majors -.137 -.175 -1.420 .160
4. Course Units Completed .033 .068 .582 .563
5. R Square .057
Note. Dependent Variable: Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
ANOVA analysis was conducted to determine if there were statistically significant
differences between the observed groups in content knowledge with teacher’s sense of self-
efficacy as a dependent variable. The analysis showed that there was no significant mean
difference in teachers’ sense of efficacy, F (3, 77) = .673, p = .571, between groups measured by
the levels of degrees obtained. The levels of degrees obtained were comprised of four groups:
high school or GED, Associate of Arts degree, Bachelor of Arts degree, and Master of Arts
degree. Table 8 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value, degree of freedom and p-value for the
observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 9
ANOVA Results for Four Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by Content Knowledge Measured by
Degrees
High school Associate of Bachelor of Master of
or GED arts degree arts degree arts degree
Dependent
Variable Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s 8.25 .90 7.81 1.07 7.75 .81 7.56 .97 3 .673 .571
Sense of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups measured by the levels of degrees obtained; Dependent Variables =
Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
The results of the analysis showed that there was a significant mean difference in
teachers’ sense of efficacy between groups measured by different majors, F (4, 77) = 2.75, p =
.034. This result indicated that depending on which type of major an ECE teacher completed,
the levels of teacher’s self-efficacy varied. The types of majors and number of participants
reported in each major were as follows: high school or GED (n =2); early childhood education
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(n =15); child development (n =13); education-related major (i.e., liberal studies) (n =19); and
others (n =30). Table 9 presents the means, standard deviations, degree of freedom, F-value and
p value of all observed. The analysis showed that there was a significant mean difference in
teachers’ sense of efficacy between groups measured by the early childhood education
coursework completed units by the time the survey was given, F (6, 78) = 1.741, p = .124. The
teachers who completed early childhood education majors had a higher self-efficacy than the
teachers whose majors were education-related, such as liberal studies. In fact, the teachers in the
early childhood education major group presented a mean of .87 more than the teachers in the
education-related major group.
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Table 10
ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by Content Knowledge Measured by Majors
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Others
with with ECE with CD with ERM
HS or GED
Dependent
Variables Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s Sense 8.50 .70 8.09 .65 7.88 .92 7.22 .87 7.70 .94 4 2.754 .034
Of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups, teachers with different majors (HS = High school, ECE = Early childhood education, CD = child development, ERM =
education related major (i.e., liberal studies), others); Dependent Variables = Teacher’s sense of efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS 73
The analysis showed that there was no significant mean difference in teachers’ sense of
efficacy, F (6, 78) = 1.741, p = .124, between groups measured by the number of Early
Childhood and Education (ECE) coursework units completed. There were seven groups
measured by ECE units completed: 0 units, 3 to 9 units, 12 to 18 units, 21 to 27 units, 30 to 45
units, 48 to 60 units, and more than 60 units. Table 10 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value,
degree of freedom and p-value for the observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of
efficacy.
Table 11
ANOVA Results for Seven Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by ECE Units Completed
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
with 0 units with 3 to with 12 to with 21 to with 30 to with 48 to with more than
9 units 18 units 27 units 45 units 60 units 60 unts
Dependent
Variables Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s sense 7.15 .98 7.88 .18 7.73 .98 8.33 .67 7.32 1.13 7.67 .67 7.86 .75 6 1.741 .124
of efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups in early childhood education coursework completed units; Dependent Variables = Efficacy
in instruction; SD = Standard Deviation
Thematic Analyses
Research question one asked, “What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy
of ECE teachers?” Two themes emerged as a result of thematic analysis: (a) a connection
between fieldwork and content knowledge and (b) an emphasis of mentor support during
fieldwork experiences. These themes were evident in eight of the twelve teachers who were
interviewed. Analyses of both themes related to all three sources of self-efficacy: mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1977). Mastery experiences
describe a teacher’s understanding of how effective her teaching skills are when performing a
task firsthand. A teacher undergoes a vicarious experience when she is learning how to teach by
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observing others perform. Verbal persuasion is the feedback a teacher receives about a task she
has completed.
Mrs. Nunez, Ms. Denis, and Mrs. Dwyer provided evidence for the theme of connecting
fieldwork and content knowledge. It is noteworthy to report that of the twelve teachers who
were interviewed, these three teachers completed more than 45 hours of fieldwork experience in
their training program. They rated the quality of their fieldwork experiences to be higher than
the teachers who completed less fieldwork hours.
Connection between fieldwork and content knowledge. An early childhood teacher’s
training connects fieldwork experiences with content knowledge. Each type of experience
provides different efficacy inputs for the student teacher. A theme emerged about the
combination of coursework and fieldwork experiences. Mrs. Nunez recalled an assignment she
completed for a required child development class. After planning a preschool activity and
implementing it in an actual classroom, she did not expect what happened. She described her
experience: “I found that, on paper, the activity looked great … But then when you get in front
of a group of children and you actually do the activity … I realized what works and what does
not work because it’s completely different when you have an audience of, you know, three-year-
olds in front of you.” Woolfolk and Hoy (1998) found that student teaching has the greatest
influence on the development of personal teaching efficacy because teachers have the
opportunity to assess their actual teaching ability. Mrs. Nunez commented, “… the actual
working with the children – the hands-on experience – was vital.” Using coursework knowledge
to create a preschool activity was a vicarious experience, but Mrs. Nunez’s mastery experience
came with her real interaction with students. The combination of Mrs. Nunez’s coursework and
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
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interactive experience with students provided her with a connection between content knowledge
and fieldwork.
Ms. Denis made a strong connection between her coursework and fieldwork in a similar
way. She explained, “I really liked how we would be learning all of those things and all about
the development, and then we would go into the … child care centers and you’d see it in
action…” The source of Ms. Denis’ efficacy came from the vicarious experiences she had when
she visited a childcare center. She explained how her course instructor addressed the questions
she formulated while she completed her observations in the childcare field: “… you could say, ‘I
noticed this and that’s making me think … Why is that?’” These vicarious experiences provided
a context for an inexperienced teacher like Ms. Denis to acquire the internal imagery she needed
to succeed at a task vicariously (Bandura, 1995; Knowblauch & Hoy, 2008). Ms. Denis found
that the connections she was able to make between content knowledge and fieldwork
observations were vital: “… it just made a lot of sense.” Ms. Denis kept the notes and textbook
from her first child development course and still refers to them on the job.
Mrs. Dwyer noted the value of linking background knowledge with mastery experiences.
She described a preschool scenario in which one child appeared to behave negatively towards
another child. Mrs. Dwyer encouraged the child by saying, “Oh, it looks like you need
something. Did you need to ask something from him?” Taking a course in child development
informed the way she addressed this scenario. Coursework served as a vicarious source of
efficacy development, but it was not as powerful as having a mastery experience (Hughes, 1999).
Mrs. Dwyer commented, “You know, teachers don’t have a lot of experience with that…” in
reference to connecting content knowledge to actual practice. She continued, “If you don’t have
that background knowledge, you’re going to go in and say, ‘Hey, what are you bugging him for?
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
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Get away from him’ or something like that.” Providing early childhood teachers with both
vicarious and mastery experiences informs their practice of the reality in classroom scenarios.
Mentor support during fieldwork experience. Mentor support occurs during fieldwork
experience. Research shows that experienced teachers support teacher candidates to
understanding ways to process their thoughts about instruction (Gallimore & Tharp, 1993). Mrs.
Nunez, Mrs. Dwyer, and Ms. Marks provided evidence for the theme of mentor support during
fieldwork experience. It is interesting to note that of the eight teachers who commented on this
theme, six teachers had completed certification to mentor new teachers in the field.
Mrs. Nunez described a standard teacher training assignment in which she submitted
activity plans to her mentor. Her mentor reviewed the plans and then helped Mrs. Nunez revise
them. The next step involved Mrs. Nunez implementing the activity in a classroom while her
mentor observed. Finally, both Mrs. Nunez and her mentor completed evaluations about the
entire process. Mastery experiences through student teaching are critical to the formation of pre-
service teachers’ competency (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1998). Not only did this exercise provide Mrs.
Nunez with mastery experiences when she carried out planned activities, but it also equipped her
with a mentor who gave her positive feedback. Her mentor “was just very supportive … and
reminded me … to not have such high expectations of myself… That it’s okay to make mistakes,
and it’s going to happen.” Mrs. Nunez’ mentor encouraged her to reflect about her fieldwork
experiences in terms of opportunities for growth by asking her, “What can you learn from it?”
The encouragement Mrs. Nunez received from her mentor influenced her own mentoring
style. Mrs. Nunez believed that it was just as important to set student teachers up for successful
experiences, in the same manner as ECE teachers set up their young students for success. Mrs.
Nunez suggested that mentors could promote their student teachers’ success by giving them
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opportunities to repeat lessons after they have revised them with their mentors’ feedback: “if we
had them [student teachers] do it again with the little tweeks … and see ... what can we change?
How can we make it better? What would work better for the kids?” Mrs. Nunez cultivated
mastery experiences using this mentoring approach because it provides the student teacher with a
successful experience using a skill she has refined. Achieving positive outcomes can help boost
student teachers’ self-efficacy, while they receive support from their mentors (Hoy & Spero,
2005).
An important aspect of developing a novice teacher’s efficacy is how a mentor gives
feedback to her student teacher. This is the case with Mrs. Dwyer’s experience as a mentor. She
described how her student teachers used vicarious experiences as inputs for building their own
self-efficacy: “… they [student teachers] would observe and see things … and asked me for
suggestions.” The student teachers learned how Mrs. Dwyer succeeded or failed at a task by
observing her in action. This provided them with the efficacy inputs they needed to predict how
they would perform the same task. Mrs. Dwyer further explained the type of conversations she
would have with her student teachers. If a student teacher asked a question that Mrs. Dwyer
could not answer, she told them that she always wanted to find an answer for her: “If I don’t
know, I want to find the answer, and I just want to learn.” She encouraged her student teachers
by saying, “Tell me more, or what else do you have questions about?” This type of dialogue
between student teacher and mentor is verbal persuasion, feedback that can shape how a student
teacher perceives her teaching efficacy.
Mrs. Dwyer recalled being a student teacher herself. She felt more comfortable teaching
when she received constructive feedback from her mentor. Not only did her mentor point out
what went well during observation lessons, but Mrs. Dwyer’s mentor also gave her feedback
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about why she performed so well: “Like she would give me an example and [say], ‘Oh, You got
the children to communicate with each other, rather than solving the problem for them.’” If there
were teaching experiences that did not go well, Mrs. Dwyer’s mentor gave her feedback “in a
way where I never felt embarrassed or ashamed. I knew she was there to help me and bring out
the best teacher in me. And so I was fine with it.” The rapport between student teacher and
mentor guided the development of Mrs. Dwyer’s sense of competency. The higher a students
teacher’s perception of her models’ efficacy, the higher her own efficacy becomes (Knoblauch &
Hoy, 2008). Ms. Marks’ fieldwork experience illustrates the perception she had of her model.
Ms. Marks referred to her mentor as a “huge resource,” with whom she has maintained a
relationship with for professional support, even after several years have passed since her
fieldwork experience. Bandura (1997) noted that the competency of a model teacher affects how
a novice teacher learns vicariously. Ms. Marks received both written and oral feedback from her
mentor while she completed fieldwork. Her mentor was not only a professor in her
undergraduate coursework, but also the director of the childcare center where she completed her
fieldwork hours. Ms. Marks kept a weekly journal of her observations, and her mentor
commented and “challenged” her with feedback like, “Why do you think this? What makes you
think that?”
Ms. Marks made a point that “there was always the opportunity to debrief.” When Ms.
Marks had a question about approaching a child or how to help a child in the field, she received
feedback “on the spot” from her mentor. Ms. Marks explained how there was always someone
who checked in with her one-on-one when she arrived at the school site, as well as when she
departed. She was asked, “Is everything okay?” or “I noticed that … you had a particularly hard
time with this child. How are you feeling now?” A pre-service teacher’s efficacy is related to
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her perception of her mentor’s efficacy (Li & Zhang, 2000). A teacher’s general efficacy is
greater when she views her mentor is highly efficacious as well (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2008).
Ms. Marks felt her mentor was a reliable source to go to when she had questions about the
specific preschool program practices or about the philosophy of teaching. Ms. Marks’ mentor
made an impact on developing the kind of teacher she has become, as well as igniting her
interests in furthering her professional development.
Summary of Results for Research Question One
Research question one addressed ECE teachers’ self-efficacy by conducting multiple
regression and ANOVA analyses with two sources of self-efficacy in teacher training: fieldwork
experience and content knowledge. An unexpected finding was the non-existence of a
relationship between the two independent variables, fieldwork experience and content
knowledge, with the dependent variable, self-efficacy. There was an unexpected report of no
significant mean difference in teacher’s sense of efficacy between fieldwork experience groups
in the number of fieldwork hours participants completed prior to teaching. There was no
significant mean difference between groups in the participants’ rating of the quality of their
fieldwork experiences in relation to its impact on their teaching. Furthermore, there was no
significant mean difference in teachers’ sense of efficacy between content knowledge groups,
measured by the levels of degrees they obtained.
One statistically significant finding related teachers’ sense of efficacy with content
knowledge. ANOVA analysis reported a significant mean difference in teachers’ sense of
efficacy between groups, when measured by different majors. Teachers who completed majors
in early childhood presented higher self-efficacy than those who completed an education-related
major. This outcome suggests that content presented in ECE coursework provided a significant
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input for self-efficacy. This outcome was further explored through interviews. Thematic
analyses showed a connection between fieldwork and content knowledge, through which
coursework served as a vicarious input of self-efficacy for novice teachers before they received
mastery experiences during their student teaching. A total of eight out of twelve interview
participants commented on the theme connecting fieldwork and content knowledge. It is
noteworthy to report that of these eight participants, the three teachers who completed more than
45 hours of fieldwork experience in their training program also rated the quality of their
fieldwork experiences to be higher than the teachers who completed less fieldwork hours.
Regression data analysis neither presented a relationship between fieldwork experiences
and self-efficacy, nor did it report a relationship between groups with varying levels of fieldwork
hours, or between groups who rated their fieldwork experiences based on impact on their current
teaching. However, thematic analyses reported a trend among teachers who felt that their
mentors’ support during fieldwork provided them with constructive feedback that enhanced their
teaching. This type of feedback supplied the novice teachers with verbal feedback, an input for
their self-efficacy development. A total of eight out of twelve interview participants commented
on this theme of mentor support during fieldwork. It is interesting to report that of these eight
teachers, six had completed certification to mentor new teachers in the field.
The results from research question one tied into the overall aim of this study to examine
the relationship between early childhood teachers’ training and the development of their self-
efficacy. The results reported how the fieldwork and coursework elements of training programs
affect self-efficacy development. The second research question examined what may influence
self-efficacy outside of teacher training. The following section presents the results from research
question two, beginning with quantitative findings followed by qualitative findings.
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Research Question Two: Teaching and Personal Experiences
Research question two asked, “What teaching or personal experiences are related to the
development of ECE teachers’ self-efficacy?” Teaching experiences after training or personal
experiences prior to training may impact efficacy development. This section reports quantitative
results in teaching experiences, followed by qualitative outcomes. Data from personal
experiences was not measured quantitatively. Instead, it was collected through interviews.
Themes that emerged from data analysis, as well as insights about those themes are presented in
the last section.
Teaching Experiences
A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine if teaching experiences
influenced teachers’ sense of self-efficacy. Current teaching position, years of holding current
position, and type of classroom were entered as independent variables. Teacher’s sense of
efficacy was entered as the dependent variable. Results of the multiple regression analysis
showed that teaching position, (β = -.172, p = .149), years of holding current position, (β = -
.082, p = .395), and classroom type, (β = -.158, p = .476), did not significantly predict teacher’s
sense of efficacy. According to the R square, the entire model with independent variables
including current teaching position, years of holding current position, and type of classroom
accounted for 3.5% of variance in teacher’s sense of efficacy among the current ECE teacher
participants. Table 11 summarizes the results of the multiple regression analysis of the
relationship between the observed independent variables and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
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Table 12
Multiple Regression Results Predicting Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
β Beta t p
1. Constant 8.472 15.634 .000
2. Teaching Position -.172 -.173 -1.459 .149
3. Years of Current
Position -.082 -.101 -.855 .395
4. Classroom Type -.158 -.082 -.716 .476
5. R Square .035
Note. Dependent Variable: Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
An ANOVA analysis was performed to determine if there were statistically significant
differences between the observed groups in teaching experience with teacher’s sense of self-
efficacy as a dependent variable. The results of the ANOVA analysis indicated no significant
mean difference in teacher’s sense of efficacy, F (4, 77) = 1.434, p = .231, between groups in
teaching experience as measured by current teaching position. Teaching position was comprised
of five groups: lead teacher, teacher, specialized teacher, assistant teacher, and student teacher.
Table 12 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value, degree of freedom and p-value for the
observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 13
ANOVA Results for Five Groups in Teacher’s Efficacy as Measured by Current Teaching Position
Lead Teacher Specialized Assistant Student
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
Dependent
Variable Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s Sense 7.82. .87 7.62 .79 7.69 158 7.10 1.00 9.00 4 1.434 .231
Of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups, lead teachers, teacher, specialized teachers, assistant teachers, student teachers; Dependent
Variables = Teacher’s sense of efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation; Student Teachers (n =1)
An ANOVA analysis was performed to determine if there were statistically significant
differences between the categorical groups by years in current teaching position. The analysis
showed no significant difference between groups in terms of teacher’s sense of efficacy, F (3,
77) = .585, p = .627. Years of current position was comprised of four groups: 0-2 years, 3-5
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years, 6-8 years, and 9 years or more. Table 13 summarizes the means, the SDs, F-value, degree
of freedom and p-value for the observed independent variable and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 14
ANOVA Results for Four Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy as Measured by Years in Current Teaching Position
0-2 3-5 6-8 9 years or
years years years more
Dependent
Variables Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s Sense 7.83 .87 7.52 1.02 7.97 .95 7.66 .81 3 .585 .627
Of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups, 0-2 years, 3-5 years, 6-8 years, 9 years or more; Dependent Variables = Teacher’s sense of
efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
Type of classroom that the participants currently taught was not significantly different
between groups in terms of teacher’s sense of efficacy, F (1, 77) = .128, p = .721. Type of
classroom was comprised of two groups: preschool and pre-kindergarten. Table 14 summarizes
the means, the SDs, F-value, degree of freedom and p-value for the observed independent
variable and teacher’s sense of efficacy.
Table 15
ANOVA Results for Two Groups in Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy
Preschool Pre-Kindergarten
Dependent
Variable Mean SD Mean SD DF F P
Teacher’s Sense 7.75 1.03 7.68 .81 1 .128 .721
Of Efficacy
Note. Independent Variables = groups, preschool, pre-kindergarten; Dependent Variables = Teacher’s sense of
efficacy; SD = Standard Deviation
Although the quantitative data did not present statistically significant findings, the
qualitative data provided important themes. One theme emerged as a result of the thematic
analysis: the influence of co-teachers as mentors. This theme was evident in eight of the twelve
teachers who were interviewed. Analyses of this theme related to two sources of self-efficacy
development: vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1977). A vicarious
experience describes one teacher’s observation of another teacher’s performance. Verbal
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persuasion is the advice a teacher receives about her own performance. Evidence for this theme
is presented here, along with insight from the researcher about the significance of the results.
Co-teachers as mentors. Co-teachers can serve as mentors in the ECE workplace. Ms.
Plank, Mrs. Courtney, and Ms. Denis provided evidence for this theme. Ms. Plank described her
first year teaching as a “blur.” Instead, it was a “learning year.” She spoke highly of the
teaching staff at her site, calling them “competent teachers” who she has “always respected.”
She explained how she did not have the confidence to take on tasks involving large groups of
students at first, but her co-teachers helped her gain the confidence necessary to perform such
tasks once a week. Observing her co-teachers as models provided Ms. Plank with vicarious
inputs for her efficacy development. The higher a teacher views a model’s efficacy, the better
her general teaching efficacy becomes (Li & Zhang, 2000). Ms. Plank eventually “had much
more confidence” to lead group time regularly during her second year of teaching.
Ms. Plank emphasized the importance of teamwork as part of the hands-on training she
received after completing the necessary coursework to become a preschool teacher: “… you get
the education and I think it’s a good background, but when it comes to dealing with it and going
in … It really is kind of a trial by fire. And I think that if you have a group that is supportive,
that will help move you along.” Ms. Plank emphasized how she and her co-teachers “have to all
be on the same page” in order for students to receive a consistent message. She stated, “… you
really do support each other in this particular environment.” Observing model teachers
experience success strengthens novice teachers’ efficacy (Gurtvitch & Metzler, 2008), therefore
it is advantageous for new teachers to have many opportunities to observe highly efficacious
teachers.
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Mrs. Courtney also expressed how critical the influence of her co-teachers was in her
daily work. She explained that she was “constantly learning” from her peers, even though she
has been teaching for eighteen years. Mrs. Courtney commented how her “best teachers are the
women that have been here in the early childhood field longer than I have, and even [those who
have] not – just watching different ways of teaching has really been helpful.” This is an example
of highly she perceived her co-teachers’ efficacy, and how much she believed vicarious
influences impact her self-efficacy. The greater a teacher believes her model’s efficacy to be, the
better her general teaching efficacy becomes (Li & Zhang, 2000). Mrs. Courtney believed that a
critical component of learning how to teach came from “observing and watching… the kids and
teachers, and listening and just staying close.”
Ms. Denis shared similar vicarious learning experiences with her co-teachers. She has
worked with different sets of co-teachers for ten years at the same preschool site. Ms. Denis
reported how the combination of teachers “is helpful to the children” because each teacher has
her own strengths “to offer to the classroom.” Ms. Denis portrayed herself as the type of person
who asks, “What can I learn from those people?” Conversely, she asks herself, “What can I offer
to my team?” Ms. Denis gave an example of how her co-teachers’ influence enabled her to feel
more confident about setting up her classroom environment. Even though she thought had an
idea of how to approach the task, her co-teachers offered suggestions that she would not have
thought of on her own. Ms. Denis exclaimed, “If I was on my own, what would my classroom
have looked like? What kind of chaos would have ensued?” Ms. Denis received feedback from
her colleagues that influenced the way she teaches. This is a type of efficacy input called verbal
persuasion (Bandura, 1977). It was important that Ms. Denis received feedback because teachers
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who are more efficacious about their ability to control their classroom environment may choose
instructional strategies that could help increase student learning (Emmer & Hickman, 1991).
Envisioning co-teachers as models is significant to self-efficacy development because the
sources of building efficacy impact a teacher differently when she is completing her training and
after she is done (Tschannen-Moran, et. al, 1998). Learning from co-teachers is one example of
how learning continues to take place after training. In addition to actual teaching experiences
one receives post-training, personal experiences can also influence a teachers’ self-efficacy.
Personal Experiences
One theme emerged as a result of the thematic analysis of this data: past experiences of
working in child-related programs. This theme was evident in ten of the twelve teachers who
were interviewed. Analyses of this theme related to all three sources of self-efficacy: mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1977). A teacher has a
mastery experience when she understands her own ability to complete a task effectively by
performing it firsthand. A teacher has a vicarious experience when she observes other teachers
perform a task. When a teacher gets feedback about completing a task, she receives verbal
persuasion. Evidence for this theme is presented here, along with insight from the researcher
about the significance of the results.
Prior professional experiences in child-related programs. Ten teachers had prior
professional experiences in child-related programs prior to entering the ECE workforce. These
experiences included: day care provider, camp leader, babysitter, gym instructor, having a large
family with many children, community organization volunteer, church school teacher, volunteer
in a child’s school, scout leader, and mother. It is important to note that some interview subjects
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worked with children in a prior professional experience in more than one of the capacities listed
here.
Mrs. Buruca, Ms. Delarkin, and Ms. Salanave provided support for the theme of prior
professional experiences. It is noteworthy to report that all three subjects are mothers who raised
their children before they entered the teaching profession. Mrs. Buruca opened a family day care
when she was in her late twenties. She was only able to take one child development course
before running the family day care became a priority in order to provide for her two children.
Mrs. Buruca was able to shift her priorities when her children grew older, and the income from
the day care was no longer a pressing issue: “I closed it and decided that I was going to back to
school more fulltime and do the fieldwork classes and really try to focus on … the A.S. degree
because I felt like it was a small goal that I could achieve quickly.” It was not long after she
made this decision that Mrs. Buruca found work as a teacher’s aide in a preschool. She
eventually completed the requirements necessary to be a preschool teacher. When she reflected
on her experience with the day care, she admitted that she did not have a lot of confidence in her
work because “it was just me and the kids, and so I didn’t really have anybody watching what I
was doing … I don’t know that I would have been able to come out of my family day care and
just gone in and run a preschool and felt like I knew what I was doing.” Mrs. Buruca did not
have opportunities to get the type of feedback from early childhood professionals that would
increase her own self-efficacy through verbal persuasion. She did not have vicarious experiences
with model teachers who she could observe first, then try similar tasks firsthand. Although Mrs.
Buruca received hands-on training while she worked with children in a day care setting, she was
neither able to receive verbal persuasion, nor vicarious experiences.
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As Mrs. Buruca finished the steps to become an associate teacher and eventually qualify
to be a lead teacher in the state-funded preschool system, she felt that she gained the confidence
she needed. Mrs. Buruca reported that the professional development she received was critical to
bolstering her confidence. She worked with a mentor teacher as she completed child
development courses. She reflected, “… those were a very big deal for me, changing my
perspective on the teaching part of preschool because I always felt like the child development
was wonderful.” When Mrs. Buruca finished more training, she felt like she was able to
incorporate the education piece into her practice – something she described as “always kind of
missing.” Although Mrs. Buruca had past experiences working with children in day care, it was
the teacher training, verbal feedback, and vicarious experiences she received that led her to
finally feel like the competent teacher she wanted to become.
Ms. Delarkin started her career path by volunteering in her children’s extracurricular
activities. She was involved in their Boy and Girl Scout troops and assisted in their gym classes.
In addition, Ms. Delarkin volunteered to help in her children’s preschool. She commented, “That
got me really hooked on teaching, so then I went to get all my … necessary units.” Ms. Delarkin
received viciarious experiences in the teaching field as a classroom volunteer. As she gained
more knowledge about the field through coursework, it increased her confidence: “It broadened
my horizons and just made me grow into who I was…” Ms. Delarkin received feedback about
her growing interest in the teaching career from one of her friends who was already in the
education field. This type of feedback was verbal persuasion, and it is one of the sources of
increasing self-efficacy. This friend was opening a school and finally encouraged Ms. Delarkin
to become a teacher because she would hire her at the new school. Ms. Delarkin completed her
ECE units, and she has been teaching preschool ever since.
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Ms. Salanave viewed her role as a preschool teacher as one that works hand-in-hand with
her students’ family dynamics: “We’re not just coming here to … teach for a couple hours.
We’re invested in their lives….” She commented that being cognizant of family life plays a role
in understanding the children who attend her preschool. She described a “general openness and
awareness” that her preschool staff shared about knowing what a child is going through at home.
It helped her “be a better teacher to that child.”
Ms. Salanave’s interest in parenting and family dynamics began when she babysat, and it
grew stronger after taking more coursework on the topic. As she grew closer with the families
she babysat for, she became interested in the different types of parenting and family dynamics
she observed. Ms. Salanave recalled taking a particular college course about family stress, and
she was able to connect a lot of her course material with her babysitting experiences. Although
Ms. Salanave had past experience working with children, her professional training was more
critical in shaping the kind of teacher she wanted to become, rather than her past experiences. In
this way, Ms. Salanave had a similar experience as Mrs. Buruca. They both reported a greater
understanding of child development from coursework, even after working with children
previously.
Summary of Results for Research Question Two
Research question two addressed ECE teachers’ self-efficacy through multiple regression
and ANOVA analyses with teaching experiences and personal experiences. An unexpected
finding was the non-existence of a relationship between teaching experiences with the dependent
variable, self-efficacy. Furthermore, there was an unexpected report of no significant mean
difference in teacher’s sense of efficacy between groups in current teaching position, years of
holding current position, and classroom type.
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One theme emerged as a result of the thematic analysis of teaching experiences: the
influence of co-teachers as mentors. This theme was evident in eight of the twelve participants
who were interviewed. Analyses of this theme were related to two sources of self-efficacy
development: vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1977). All eight teachers
referred to their more experienced colleagues in the workplace as mentors. This was critical to
their ongoing self-efficacy development in the field because the kind of mentoring they received
during their training program no longer existed upon exiting their training.
Interview participants also provided insight about past personal experiences that were
outside of teacher training. Thematic analysis of personal experiences indicated one theme:
prior professional experiences in child-related programs. This theme was evident in ten of the
twelve teachers who were interviewed. Analyses of this theme related to all three sources of
self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion (Bandura,
1977). Although these ten teachers received vicarious and verbal inputs for developing their
efficacy working with children, it was not until they received formal teacher training that they
were able to understand what skills were necessary for effective teaching and how to implement
them. This underlined the importance of mastery experiences as the most effective source of
efficacy input.
Summary
The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between early childhood
teachers’ training and the development of their self-efficacy. The pre-service teacher preparation
components of fieldwork and coursework provide inputs for self-efficacy in the forms of mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion. Research question one addressed
teacher preparation: “What past training experiences influence the self-efficacy of ECE
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teachers?” The quantitative results suggested that content presented in ECE coursework
provided a significant input for self-efficacy. Qualitative data presented how the student teacher
connects content knowledge with fieldwork experiences. Qualitative analyses also reported a
considerable trend among teachers who felt that their mentors’ support during fieldwork
provided them with constructive feedback that enhanced their teaching. These findings
highlighted how crucial it is to expose student teachers to sources of efficacy during training
because it was during this time that their efficacy development was most impressionable
(Bandura, 1977).
Research question two explored sources of teachers’ self-efficacy that were outside the
scope of training programs: “What teaching or personal experiences are related to the
development of ECE teachers’ self-efficacy?” These experiences were investigated because the
sources of self-efficacy that teachers are exposed to after their training impact them differently
than those inputs they received during training (Tschannen-Moran, et al., 1998). Qualitative data
produced one theme about teaching experiences: the influence of co-teachers as mentors. This
outcome provided insight about the importance of developing on-going mentor support after
teachers have completed their training. Qualitative analyses also produced one theme about
personal experiences: prior professional experiences in child-related programs. This outcome
emphasized the value of ongoing, professional early childhood training that could give teachers
the mastery experiences they needed in order to feel competent once they were part of the early
childhood workforce.
The quantitative and qualitative evidence of this study led to three findings. The first
finding presented that teachers who held an early childhood major had higher self-efficacy, as
compared to teachers who held an education-related major, such as liberal studies. This finding
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was supported by two themes that emerged from the qualitative data. These themes were a
connection between content knowledge with fieldwork experiences and mentor support during
fieldwork. The second finding emerged from the qualitative data, and it linked co-teachers as
mentors in the ECE workforce. The third finding also emerged from the qualitative data,
connecting prior professional experiences in child-related programs with ECE teachers’ personal
experiences.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This study examined the sources of self-efficacy in a sample of preschool and pre-
kindergarten teachers. Numerous motivational researchers have examined the competency of
pre-service teachers in the kindergarten through twelfth grade (K-12) field, but there is a lack of
efficacy research in the field of Early Care and Education. This study adds to the literature by
using a mixed methods approach to investigate what factors contribute to the efficaciousness of
the ECE workforce. The quantitative method employed a self-efficacy scale to measure ECE
teachers’ efficacy and a supplemental questionnaire to quantify relationships between
independent variables and the dependent variable. Supplemental interviews provided a more
detailed picture of what types of training, teaching, and personal experiences provided inputs for
efficacy development. The first research question looked at teachers’ past training experiences,
while the second research question addressed teaching and personal experiences outside of
training. This chapter will discuss the major findings in the study, presented by research
question, and then suggest implications for practice, as well as future research in the field.
Discussion of Findings
This study provides three findings in response to the research questions. First, the
teachers with an early childhood major presented higher self-efficacy as compared to teachers
with an education-related major. Second, teachers described their co-teachers as mentors when
they entered the ECE workforce. Third, teachers who had prior professional experiences in
child-related programs reported their ECE training bolstered their confidence when they entered
the ECE workforce. These three findings addressed the research questions with regard to ECE
teacher training experiences, teaching experiences, personal experiences, and teacher self-
efficacy.
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The first finding reported an ECE teacher’s type of major showed a significant
relationship with self-efficacy of the quantitative analyses run for research question one: “What
past training experiences influence the self-efficacy of ECE teachers?” This was an expected
finding because it supports the literature asserting that teachers holding early childhood
certificates have more developmentally appropriate beliefs and implement those practices, as
compared to educators without such qualifications (File & Gullo, 2002; McMullen, 1999;
Vartuli, 1999). This first finding suggests that the content presented in ECE coursework gave
teachers the background knowledge and practice necessary for their field, thereby strengthening
their self-efficacy.
Identifying the specific type of major that will produce the best student outcomes is
critical, since the quality of an early childhood program depends on teachers’ knowledge of child
development and the extent to which it is applied (NAEYC, 1995). This first finding relates to
Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber and Howes’ (2001) research, linking ECE teachers’ degree attainment
with program quality. The researchers found that teacher quality, as measured by degree
attainment (Bachelor of Arts degree or higher) and specialized early childhood training, was a
strong predictor of program quality. Furthermore, the demographic of the sample from the
current study supports the literature. The sample consisted of teachers with college majors in
education-related fields and child development, 24.1% and 16.5% respectively.
This first finding is supported by two prominent themes that emerged in the qualitative
data. The first theme connected fieldwork with content knowledge, in that coursework served as
a vicarious input of self-efficacy for new teachers before they received mastery experiences
during their fieldwork. This qualitative finding was expected because it related to Woolfolk and
Hoy’s (1998) study, which found student teaching to be the greatest influence on the
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95
development of pre-service teachers’ personal teaching efficacy. Mastery experiences during
student teaching are critical to the formation of competency (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1998).
Therefore, student teaching experiences became opportunities for student teachers to not only
connect their content knowledge with student teaching, but also achieve mastery experiences. It
is worth mentioning that three of the eight teachers who provided evidence for the theme of
connecting fieldwork with content knowledge completed more than 45 hours of fieldwork. They
rated the quality of their fieldwork experiences to be higher than the remaining teachers who
reported this theme, but who had completed less fieldwork hours. These three teachers probably
experienced high-quality fieldwork that, in turn, impacted how well they felt prepared for the
classroom.
A second theme emerged in the qualitative data that linked mentor support with
fieldwork, in that teachers felt more successful in their student teaching with the combination of
both elements. This qualitative finding was expected because it supports the literature about
increasing student teachers’ self-efficacy. Hoy and Spero (2005) stated that the combination of
positive outcomes during student teaching and mentor support could strengthen pre-service
teachers’ efficacy. A mentor’s support during fieldwork is crucial because new teachers’
efficacy beliefs eventually stabilize, and these beliefs remain the same until there is reason for
them to reexamine their competency (Ross, 1995). It is interesting to report that of the eight
teachers who provided evidence for this theme of mentor support during fieldwork, six had
completed certification to mentor new teachers in the field. This is noteworthy because this
could possibly imply that teachers who had developed a positive rapport with their mentors were,
in turn, inspired to become mentors themselves. This finding can be explained by the research
about mentor-mentee relationships. Gallimore and Tharp (1993) found that seasoned teachers
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
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could guide teacher candidates to understanding ways to process their thoughts about instruction.
Furthermore, Bandura (1997) noted that a teacher’s general efficacy is greater when she views
her mentor is highly efficacious as well. The six teachers who contributed to this theme may
have viewed their mentors as highly efficacious, and their efficacy might have increased as a
result. Consequently, these teachers became mentors themselves.
This first finding is the strongest finding overall because it emerged from both
quantitative and qualitative data. This finding related directly to the context of teacher training
and to the research conducted in K-12 teacher preparation, which states that coursework in
pedagogy, fieldwork opportunities, and mentoring experiences each contributes to building
teacher efficacy (Flores, Desjean-Perrotta, & Steinmetz, 2004; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Hughes,
1999; Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008; Metzler & Reif, 1988). There is little research about the impact
teacher preparation has on the formation of self-efficacy in preschool teachers, as compared to
extensive studies of preparation for teachers in the K-12 field (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Moseley,
Reinke, & Bookout, 2002; Plourde, 2006). This first finding addresses the gap in literature
concerning the efficacy development of Early Care and Education teachers during their training.
Morevore, this first finding supports how crucial it is to expose new teachers to sources of
efficacy during training because it is during this time that their efficacy development is most
impressionable (Bandura, 1977).
The second finding emerged from the qualitative data, and it linked co-teachers with
mentor support. This finding was expected, given that a body of research supports mentors as
effective teacher models (Bandura, 1997; Gallimore & Tharp, 1993; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Li &
Zhang, 2000). Literature further describes how observing model teachers experience success
strengthens one’s own teaching efficacy (Li & Zhang, 2000; Gurtvitch & Metzler, 2008). The
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first finding and second finding are connected. The first finding takes place during ECE teacher
training, while the second finding takes place after one has already entered the profession. When
a student teacher loses her mentor support, the inputs for her self-efficacy may need to come
from elsewhere. The connection between the first and second findings is supported by Hoy and
Spero’s (2005) research about the impact of mastery experiences on the efficacy development of
teacher candidates at two intervals: while they completed their student teaching and at the end of
the teachers’ first year outside the program. Teacher’s efficacy increased during student
teaching, but the efficacy scores declined upon exiting the program. The researchers explained
the change in efficacy was due to diminished support. This may be explained by the need for
teachers to discover new mentor support after they have finished their training.
This second finding provided insight about the importance of developing on-going
mentor support after teachers have completed their training. The connection between mentor
support during training and professional support during post-training is imperative because the
sources of self-efficacy that teachers are exposed to after their training impact them differently
than those inputs they received during training (Tschannen-Moran, et al., 1998). Focus on
increasing sources of teachers’ self-efficacy post-training can be held with the same regard as the
focus on developing student teachers’ self-efficacy during training, in order to provide a highly
qualified ECE workforce.
The third finding emerged from the qualitative date. It addressed prior professional
experiences in child-related programs and ECE teacher training. Even with child-related
experiences in prior professions, teachers were not confident in understanding their interactions
with children. However, their confidence and understanding of child development deepened
when they completed formal coursework in early childhood. This finding was expected because
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98
research found teachers with early childhood certificates have more developmentally appropriate
beliefs and are able to implement those practices, as compared to educators without such
qualifications (File & Gullo, 2002; McMullen, 1999; Vartuli, 1999). This finding underscores
the importance of providing the kind of ECE teacher training that would provide the necessary
content and fieldwork experiences to give teachers the mastery experiences they need in order to
feel competent in the field. The teachers who commented on this finding recognized the
importance of receiving formal ECE teacher training in order to attain the skills necessary for
effective teaching. Therefore, this third finding links to the first finding, in that content
presented in ECE coursework provided a significant input for self-efficacy.
It is interesting to note that there was only one statistically significant finding in the
current study, even though quantitative analyses consisted of multiple regression and ANOVA
analyses for three independent variables and the interest groups within each of those variables.
The independent variables included fieldwork experience, content knowledge, and teaching
experience. It was unexpected to find no statistically significant relationships other than one
finding, reporting teachers with an early childhood major had a higher self-efficacy as compared
to teachers with an education-related major. Fieldwork experience was measured by the number
of fieldwork hours completed and a rating of the quality of fieldwork. Teachers with more hours
or higher ratings of fieldwork did not present higher self-efficacy to support the statistically
significant finding. Teaching experience was measured by teaching position and years of
holding current position. Teachers with lead teaching positions or more years in their current
position did not present higher self-efficacy to support the statistically significant finding. The
unexpected non-findings of the current study may reflect the nuances of the ECE teacher
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
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population that separate them from the K-12 population, thereby ushering recommendations for
future research that is unique to the ECE workforce.
Assumptions
For the purposes of this study, the researcher assumed that all participants offered truthful
answers for the data collection methods. The researcher assumed that participants’ answers were
honest during the period that the online survey was available, regardless of the time and place the
participants completed the survey. The researcher also assumed that interview subjects were
truthful in their responses to the interview questions.
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study. First, the findings were correlational, instead
of causational. The data and methodology were not an experimental design. Therefore, results
only proved the existence of a relationship and not causality. A second limitation was the
control of the environment in which the survey was administered. Since participants were asked
to take a survey online, the time and place the participants completed the survey varied. A third
limitation was the honesty of the answers derived for this study, as it was assumed participants
responded truthfully.
A fourth limitation was the number and type of participants who were willing to take the
online survey because the researcher had to find participants for this study. A sufficient number
of participants were necessary for a valid and reliable study. A raffle of two $25.00
Amazon.com gift cards was offered to the survey respondents as incentives for their
participation. The sample consisted of less than 100 teachers. The small sample size produced
results that cannot be generalizeable to all ECE populations.
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The sample consisted of a low response rate. The self-efficacy scale and questionnaire
was distributed to approximately 1000 teachers, with a return rate of 7.9% or 79 respondents. It
included a majority (53.2%) of teachers who had held their position for nine years or more. The
sample also included a majority (53.2%) of lead teachers. There was only one student teacher
who took the survey. These sample characteristics could reflect a self-selected sample of a
teaching group whose self-efficacy was already high. It is possible that more experienced
teachers chose to take the survey because they were already confident in their practices and they
had the intention to share their knowledge with less experienced or less confident teachers.
The teachers who held their position for nine years or more may have reflected past
training techniques, which might include practices or training components that have been
modified since the introduction of Assembly Bill (AB) 212 and First 5 California’s
Comprehensive Approaches to Raising Educational Standards (CARES). AB 212 and CARES
were developed in California in the year 2000 as major systems for implementing statewide
professional development for ECE professionals. Reponses from the group of seasoned teachers
may not have reflected current professional development practices in the ECE workforce.
The researcher only interviewed 12 teachers, all of who were the main teachers in their
respective classrooms. This could result in bias in their responses, thus preventing the researcher
from fully understanding the efficacy of the whole ECE workforce, which includes lead teachers,
specialized teachers, and assistant teachers.
A fifth limitation was the difficulty in measuring content knowledge. The current study
utilized the number of ECE course units as a measurement of content knowledge. However, a
quantified self-report of course units does not fully capture one’s actual understanding and
implementation of knowledge. There were variables for which this kind of self-reporting was
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not controlled for, such as means and sources of content delivery. For example, participants may
have completed their ECE units online or in a classroom. Participants may have attended
graduate school or a community college. An assessment to determine how well participants
retained content knowledge and demonstrated it was not addressed in the current study.
Finally, this study was limited by its instrumentation. Self-efficacy was assessed using a
modified version of Hoy and Tschannen-Moran’s (2001) Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale
because the sample being surveyed was early childhood teachers, rather than the original
population it was intended for, K-12 teachers. Consequently, an exploratory factor analysis
(EFA) was conducted to select reliable items on the modified scale. Only nine items of the
modified 24-items scale were selected to be valid and reliable after EFA. Six items on the
modified scale fell into the efficacy in student engagement subscale. Reliability indicated by
Cronbach’s alpha for this subscale was .91. Three items on the modified scale fell into the
efficacy in instructional practices subscale. Reliability indicated by Cronbach’s alpha for this
subscale was .67. The reliability for the instructional practices subscale was low, as compared to
the student engagement subscale. The modified instrument used in the current study may not
accurately measure ECE teachers’ self-efficacy, thereby affecting the validity of the study.
Delimitations
The survey was confined to a sample selection, with regard to participants’ connection to
the Early Care and Education workforce via ECE-related organizations. Only preschool and pre-
kindergarten teachers were included in the study. The online survey was accessible for a
controlled length of time.
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Recommendations for Practice
This study provides three recommendations for the ECE field based on the findings.
First, administrators of ECE training programs can further develop program components to build
teachers’ self-efficacy. Second, directors at ECE sites can create structured mentoring
partnerships in order to provide teachers with ongoing sources of efficacy. Third, parents or
guardians of the children at ECE sites can use the qualifications of a staff to make informed
decisions when selecting schools.
The first recommendation for practice provides implications for administrators of ECE
training programs. This is based on the finding of a significant relationship between the Early
Childhood major and higher self-efficacy, as compared to an education-related major, such as
liberal studies. This recommendation emphasizes that the coursework necessary to complete an
early childhood major can be compulsory for obtaining the certification required for being hired
in any position in the early childhood field. Further, the instructional delivery of the material in
the early childhood major can be adjusted to provide more opportunities for self-efficacy
development through mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and verbal persuasion. This
study provided information for how each source of efficacy could be accessed. Fieldwork
requirements can provide mastery and vicarious experiences. Mentoring relationships
established through student teaching could provide verbal persuasion. Giving ECE teachers
access to high-quality content, fieldwork and mentoring components within their training
program could improve their self-efficacy before they exit into the work field.
The second recommendation for practice provides implications for directors at ECE sites.
This is based on the finding that described co-teachers as mentors at the ECE worksite.
Providing a strategy for directors to support the self-efficacy development of their teachers is
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recommended. It is important to do so because the earliest years of teaching experience leave a
lasting impression on teachers’ efficacy development (Bandura, 1977). ECE site directors can be
recommended to assess their staff’s self-efficacy using Hoy and Tschannen-Moran’s (2001)
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale, then use that information to partner more highly efficacious
staff with teachers whose efficacy can be strengthened. This recommendation provides further
insights for directors, based on two findings: the relationship of early childhood majors and high
self-efficacy; and the need for teachers to have formal ECE training, even though they have prior
professional experiences in child-related programs. Directors can choose highly efficacious
teachers with an early childhood major as mentors for those teachers without this background.
Teachers with an early childhood major could provide sources of building their co-teachers’ self-
efficacy by modeling their successful teaching practices. In doing so, a seasoned mentor
provides a vicarious experience for a teacher, who, in turn, could carry out the same task and
have a mastery experience of her own. ECE site directors could create and maintain a well-
qualified ECE workforce by implementing such mentoring partnerships.
The third recommendation for practice provides implications for parents or guardians of
children who attend school at ECE sites. This is based on the finding of a significant relationship
between the Early Childhood major and higher self-efficacy. Parents and guardians have the
decision to choose ECE programs that deliver highly effective instruction for their children.
Effective preschool instruction impacts children’s social development, later academic
performance, and future economic status (Barnett, Jung, Wong, Cook, & Lamy, 2007; Gromley,
Gayer, Phillips, & Dawson, 2005; Reynolds, 2002). When considering programs, parents and
guardians can be recommended to look into the teachers’ educational background. The National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 1995) reported that the quality of an
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early childhood program is dependent on a teachers’ knowledge of child development and the
extent to which it is applied. It is important that the parents and guardians of young learners
know the criterion and reasoning for high-quality ECE programs.
Recommendations for Future Research
Past self-efficacy research on teacher preparation has focused heavily on teachers in the
K-12 field (Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Moseley, Reinke, & Bookout, 2002; Plourde, 2006). This
study contributed to the body of motivational research because it explored the impact of teacher
preparation on the formation of self-efficacy in early childhood teachers. This study provides
five recommendations for future research. First, a longitudinal study can examine ECE teachers’
self-efficacy and student outcomes. Second, a study can investigate ECE teachers’ self-efficacy
in terms of mentor-mentee partnerships. Third, a study can conduct the factor analyses necessary
for developing a valid and reliable self-efficacy scale for use with the ECE teacher workforce.
Fourth, an assessment for ECE content knowledge can be produced to better capture how content
knowledge is retained and delivered. Fifth, an exploratory study of the ECE workforce can lead
to new knowledge about the uniqueness of their field, distinguishing them from their K-12
counterparts.
The first research recommendation is to examine the longitudinal impact of ECE
teachers’ self-efficacy on student outcomes. Longitudinal studies are effective in measuring
early childhood student outcomes, such as the research conducted in the Chicago Longitudinal
Study (Reynolds, 2002), HighScope Perry Preschool project (Schweinhart, 2004), and Yale
University Study Center (Comer, 1986), mentioned in chapter two. Future research could
examine teacher self-efficacy and student outcomes, with regard to the types of early childhood
training programs that exist. Assessment of specific training programs created by Assembly Bill
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105
212 and First 5 California’s Comprehensive Approaches to Raising Educational Standards
(2000) could be particularly important places to start because they were developed in order to
increase ECE teacher qualifications and compensation. Pairing future research of these training
programs with the student outcomes particular to the Preschool Learning Foundations (CDE,
2008) could provide key longitudinal data about teacher self-efficacy and student learning. Such
data can further inform how highly efficacious ECE teachers may address the school readiness
gap.
The second research recommendation is to investigate how the self-efficacy of ECE
teachers who are already in the workforce is impacted by their co-teachers. This
recommendation is based on the finding that co-teachers serve as mentor models when teachers
exit their training program. Research describes how sources of self-efficacy impact teachers
differently when they are participating in a training program, as compared to when they have
exited the program (Tschannen-Moran, et al., 1998). Mentors are effective teacher models
(Bandura, 1997; Gallimore & Tharp, 1993; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Li & Zhang, 2000). A teacher’s
own teaching efficacy increases when observing model teachers experience success (Li &
Zhang, 2000; Gurtvitch & Metzler, 2008). More experienced teachers can guide less
experienced teachers to comprehend instruction (Gallimore & Tharp, 1993). Co-teachers as
mentor models, therefore, could impact the self-efficacy of other teachers in the workplace.
Looking into self-efficacy sources in the workplace can inform how ECE sites can increase their
staff’s self-efficacy.
The third research recommendation is to develop a valid and reliable self-efficacy scale
for use with the ECE teacher workforce. The self-efficacy tool used in this study was Hoy and
Tschannen-Moran’s (2001) Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale. Although the statements were
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adapted to the language used in early childhood programs, the scale could be refined even further
to match the different types of subscales Hoy and Tschannen-Moran originally constructed.
Their subscales addressed efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional practices, and
efficacy in classroom management. Future factor analyses are needed to create a self-efficacy
scale that will measure ECE teachers’ efficacy in each of these three subscales with validity and
reliability. Such a scale could be used in future self-efficacy research studies for specific use
with ECE student teachers and teachers.
The fourth research recommendation is to create a measuring tool for ECE content
knowledge that will more accurately reflect a teacher’s ability to deliver instructional content, as
compared to a self-report of ECE course units completed. It is difficult to use ECE course units
to measure content knowledge because it does not assess a teacher’s ability to apply that
knowledge. The NAEYC reports that teachers’ knowledge of child development and the extent
to which is applied is a salient component of an early childhood program’s quality (NAEYC,
1995). Therefore, it is important to develop an instrument that will not only measure an ECE
teacher’s child development knowledge, but also her application of it. The state of California
utilizes teacher certification exams such as the California Subject Examinations for Teachers
(CSET) and PRAXIS to measure teachers’ content knowledge. The ECE field has yet to create
such a measurement tool.
The fifth research recommendation is to generate new knowledge of the ECE workforce
that will distinguish it from the K-12 workforce. The statistically significant finding from the
current study supports what the K-12 self-efficacy research has already established, in terms of
identifying fieldwork experiences and content knowledge as inputs for building teachers’ self-
efficacy during their training. However, it is important to differentiate how the self-efficacy of
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ECE teachers is impacted by characteristics that have not been explored in the K-12 workforce.
For example, future research could focus on ECE teachers’ motivations for choosing the early
childhood field over the K-12 field. Research could also focus on the number of years an ECE
teacher stayed in the field. Such research could contribute new insights to the literature about
early childhood education.
Conclusion
The nation’s preschool and pre-kindergarten students deserve receive the best type of
educators who can nurture our youngest students’ social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes. A
key factor in the longevity of those outcomes is dependent on the quality of the preschool setting
(Cannon & Karoly, 2007; Dickinson & Sprague, 2002; Kelley & Camilli, 2007), but the quality
of preschools within states and across the nation is mixed (NIEER, 2005; Porter, 1999). With
increasing, national awareness of the importance of preschool education, it is imperative to focus
on ways to strengthen the self-efficacy of its workforce. Well-trained teachers are a significant
component of a high-quality preschool education (Hyson, 2007), and teacher preparation is an
instrument for driving teacher outcomes. The findings from this study can suggest training
program and early childhood site reforms in ways that will increase preschool teachers’ self-
efficacy, thus providing all of our youngest, most impressionable learners with the competent
teachers they deserve.
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SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
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APPENDIX A
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (Woolfolk Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 2001)
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale
1
(long form)
Teacher Beliefs
How much can you do?
Directions: This questionnaire is designed to help us gain a better understanding of the
kinds of things that create difficulties for teachers in their school activities. Please indicate
your opinion about each of the statements below. Your answers are confidential.
Nothing
Very Little
Some
Quite A Bit
A Great
1. How much can you do to get through to the most difficult students? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
2. How much can you do to help your students think critically? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
3. How much can you do to control disruptive behavior in the classroom? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
4. How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in school
work?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
5. To what extent can you make your expectations clear about student behavior? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
6. How much can you do to get students to believe they can do well in school work? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
7. How well can you respond to difficult questions from your students ? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
8. How well can you establish routines to keep activities running smoothly? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
9. How much can you do to help your students value learning? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
10. How much can you gauge student comprehension of what you have taught? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
11. To what extent can you craft good questions for your students? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
12. How much can you do to foster student creativity? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
13. How much can you do to get children to follow classroom rules? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
14. How much can you do to improve the understanding of a student who is failing? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
15. How much can you do to calm a student who is disruptive or noisy? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
16. How well can you establish a classroom management system with each group of
students?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
17. How much can you do to adjust your lessons to the proper level for individual
students?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
18. How much can you use a variety of assessment strategies? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
19. How well can you keep a few problem students form ruining an entire lesson? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
20. To what extent can you provide an alternative explanation or example when
students are confused?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
21. How well can you respond to defiant students? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
22. How much can you assist families in helping their children do well in school? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
23. How well can you implement alternative strategies in your classroom? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
24. How well can you provide appropriate challenges for very capable students? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
118
APPENDIX B
Modified Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale
Teacher Beliefs How much can you do?
Directions: This questionnaire is designed to help us
gain a better understanding of the kinds of things that
create difficulties for early childhood teachers in their
preschool and pre-K programs. Please indicate your
opinion about each of the statements below. Your
answers are confidential.
Nothing
Very Little
Some
Influence
Quite A Bit
A Great Deal
1. How much can you adapt the program to
address each child’s needs, temperament,
interests and learning styles?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
2. How much can you do to design, adapt, and
utilize learning centers to encourage learning
and development through play?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
3. How much can you do to use strategies to
assist children in learning to express
emotions in positive ways, solve problems,
and make decisions?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
4. How much can you base planned and
spontaneous interactions with children on the
child’s assessed interests and needs?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
5. To what extent can you make your
expectations clear about the principles for
intervention and conflict resolution in
children’s play and learning?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
6. How much do you use various teaching
approaches along a continuum from child-
initiated exploration to adult-directed
activities or modeling?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
7. How well can you respond to difficult
questions from your students?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
8. How well can you develop an appropriate
schedule that includes a balance of active
and quiet, child directed and teacher
directed, individual and group, indoor and
outdoor activities?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
9. How much can you do to provide a
responsive environment where children
initiate and extend their learning through
play?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
10. How much can you apply basic elements of
child development theory to observation to
gauge student comprehension of what you
have taught?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
119
11. To what extent can you use individual
patterns of development among children in
care to guide planning?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
12. How much can you do to elicit the creative
spirit of each child by offering opportunities
for expression through artistic
representation?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
13. How well can you practice and model
developmentally appropriate guidance
approaches that promote positive behaviors,
problem solving, and self-control?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
14. How much can you do to recognize and
make referrals for suspected developmental
delays?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
15. How much can you do to moderate
interactions with each child based on the
child’s specific characteristics, strengths,
interests and needs?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
16. How well can you establish a classroom
management system that provides consistent
schedules and routines; alerts children to and
facilitates transitions from one activity to
another; and provides interesting materials
and activities; and articulates how physical
environment affects behavior?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
17. How much can you do to adjust your lessons
according to knowledge of developmental
theories to meet children’s individual needs
in the group setting?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
18. How much can you use a variety of
appropriate assessment tools to record child
observations?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
19. How well can you keep your behavior
expectations based on children’s age and
developmental level?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
20. How well can you adapt the program to
address each child’s needs, temperament,
interests and learning styles?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
21. How much can you do to recognize and
respond to individual behavioral problems
related to developmental or emotional stress?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
22. How much can you provide information
about the developmental stages and
milestones within the developmental
domains to families?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
120
23. To what extent can you ensure that the
environment facilitates learning for all
children in each developmental domain:
cognitive, physical, language, creative and
social-emotional?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
24. How well can you adapt interactions to
include each child individually,
accommodating for his/her temperament,
personality, strengths, interests and
development pattern?
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
121
APPENDIX C
Supplemental Questionnaire
Question 25 (Teaching experience): What is your current teaching position?
(1) Lead teacher
(2) Teacher
(3) Specialized teacher
(4) Assistant teacher
(5) Student teacher
Question 26 (Teaching experience): How many years have you held your current position?
(1) 0-2 years
(2) 3-5 years
(3) 6-8 years
(4) 9 years or more
Question 27 (Teaching experience): What type of classroom do you currently teach in?
(1) Preschool
(2) Pre-kindergarten
Question 28 (Demographic data): Is your school site a for-profit or non-profit agency?
(1) For-profit
(2) Non-profit
Question 29 (Demographic data): Does your school receive state, local, or federal funding?
(1) State
(2) Local
(3) Federal
Question 30 (Content knowledge): What is the highest degree of education you completed?
(1) High school or GED
(2) Associate of Arts degree
(3) Bachelor of Arts degree
(4) Master of Arts degree
Question 31 (Content knowledge): Please answer if you attended college. What was your
major?
(1) High school or GED
(2) Early childhood education (ECE)
(3) Child development (CD)
(4) Education-related major (i.e., liberal studies)
(5) Other:
Question 32 (Content knowledge): Approximately how many Early Childhood and Education
(ECE) coursework units have you completed to date?
(1) 0 units
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
122
(2) 3-9 units
(3) 12-18 units
(4) 21-27 units
(5) 30-45 units
(6) 48-60 units
(7) More than 60 units
Question 33 (Fieldwork experience): Approximately how many fieldwork hours did you complete
prior to fulfilling your current teaching position?
(1) 0 hours
(2) 5-15 hours
(3) 16-25 hours
(4) 26-35 hours
(5) 36-45 hours
(6) More than 45 hours
Question 34 (Fieldwork experience): On a scale of 1-5, how would you assess the quality of your
fieldwork in relation to its impact on your abilities to be an ECE teacher?
(1) Rating 1: No influence
(2) Rating 2
(3) Rating 3: Some influence
(4) Rating 4
(5) Rating 5: A great deal of influence
Question 35 (Demographic data): Are you a parent?
(1) Yes
(2) No
Question 36 (Demographic data): What types of experiences did you have working with children
prior to your teaching profession that you feel contribute to your ability to working in early
childhood education (i.e. nanny, summer camp)?
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
123
APPENDIX D
Questions for Semi-Structured Interviews
1. Questions Related to Academic Experiences and Personal Experiences
a. How did your teacher education and training prepare you for your current position
in the field of Early Childhood Education? (Teaching experience, Content
knowledge)
b. What attributes of your fieldwork led you to feel this way? (Fieldwork
experience)
2. Questions Related to Personal Experiences
a. What kinds of experiences did you have working with children prior to teaching?
b. How do you feel these experiences led you to feel confident in your ability to be
an ECE teacher?
c. What is your teaching philosophy as an ECE teacher? What kinds of personal
experiences have you had that influence those beliefs?
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
124
APPENDIX E
Informed Consent for Survey
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
What is the Relationship Between Early Childhood Teachers’ Training on the
Development of Their Teaching Self-Efficacy?
You are asked to participate in a research study by Nathalie Medina from the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California. The results of this study will contribute to
the dissertation of Nathalie Medina. You were selected as a possible participant in this study
because you work in an early childhood program (preschool or pre-kindergarten). A total of 90
subjects, aged 18 or older, will be selected from to participate. Your participation is voluntary.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between ECE teachers’ academic,
professional, and personal experiences on the development of their self-efficacy. The results of
this study will help the researcher to examine the influences of a variety of teacher training
factors that can help advance the development of a highly qualified, knowledgeable and skilled
early childhood workforce.
Completion and return of the online survey or response to the interview questions will
constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you choose to participate in this study, you will be asked to:
• Participate in a 25-30-minute online survey regarding your demographics and past
academic, professional, and personal experiences pertaining to your work in a preschool
or pre-kindergarten program.
• During the survey you will be asked to rate your level of agreement or disagreement with
a variety of items, as well as indicate what types of statements are true about you.
• At the end of the survey, you will be asked whether you would like to volunteer in an
interview regarding your training experiences prior to becoming a preschool or pre-
kindergarten teacher. If you choose to volunteer for the interview phase, you will be
asked to provide your contact information. Providing your contact information does not
SELF-EFFICACY OF ECE TEACHERS
125
• guarantee that you will be selected to participate in the interview phase, but that you may
be contacted to participate.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
If you choose to participate in this research, you will be entered in a raffle to receive one of two
$25.00 gift cards from Amazon.com. The drawing will be held after the data collection period
has ended. If you decide not to participate in the interview portion of the study, you will still be
eligible to enter the raffle.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you
will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
Any information that is obtained in connection with this survey will be reported in an aggregated
form without any potentially identifiable descriptions connected to individual respondents.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will
be included that would reveal your identity.
Should you choose to provide your contact information for potential involvement in the
interviews related to this study, your contact information will remain confidential. Your contact
information will also be stored separately from this survey, and your name replaced with a
numerical code on the survey.
Data from this study will be kept in a secure and locked location, accessible by the Co-Principal
Investigator only. Data will be stored for five years following the completion of collection and
analysis, after which it will be destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will
be included that would reveal your identity.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Kim
Hirabayashi, Ph.D. at (213) 740-3470 or Nathalie Medina at (310) 903-6203 at the USC Rossier
School of Education, WPH 802, Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study applies the Social Cognitive Concept of Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977) to understand the impact of self-efficacy on the development of early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between early childhood teachers’ training and the development of their self-efficacy. Furthermore, this study explored possible inputs for self-efficacy outside of teacher training. A mixed methods approach was used to collect data from 79 participants nationwide. An online survey was administered to collect quantitative data, and correlational analysis was used to determine whether relationships existed between self-efficacy and participants’ fieldwork experience, content knowledge, and teaching experience. Qualitative data was collected through 12 semi-structured interviews. The interviews were transcribed, and open coding was conducted to identify themes. A statistically significant finding from this study showed teachers with an Early Childhood major presented higher self-efficacy, as compared to teachers with an education-related major. This finding was supported by qualitative themes. Additional findings included themes of co-teachers as mentors and teachers’ prior professional experiences in child-related programs. This study attempted to bridge a gap in self-efficacy research between pre-service teacher training in the K-12 workforce and the early childhood teachers’ workforce. It also explored what efficacy sources exist outside of early childhood teacher training.
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Medina, Nathalie Taloma
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Core Title
What is the relationship between early childhood teachers' training on the development of their teaching self-efficacy?
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
10/04/2013
Defense Date
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), Ponciano, Leslie (
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