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College readiness in California high schools: access, opportunities, guidance, and barriers

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College readiness in California high schools: access, opportunities, guidance, and barriers

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Content Running head: COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 1

College Readiness in California High Schools:
Access, Opportunities, Guidance, and Barriers

by

Shanda L. Smoot

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2013

Dr. Hentschke, PhD
Dr. Hocevar, PhD
Dr. Dexter, EdD

Copyright 2013 Shanda L. Smoot

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 2
Abstract
This dissertation explores California’s current A-G requirements and investigates whether or not
students are more college ready now than they were in previous years. This study also
investigates whether or not students have adequate opportunities to access the rigorous
coursework in an urban high school largely populated by minority students. The purpose of this
study was to explore if students are provided with the information necessary to make informed
decisions that may lead to fulfillment of the requirements and for eligibility into either the
California State University or University of California college system. This study focused on
student college readiness from 1994-2012 to see if California was graduating students from high
school that were college ready through exploring course taking patterns, reviewing student
characteristic data, and looking at college readiness as defined by the number of students eligible
to attend a California State University or University of California school. Findings from this
study indicate that while there have been improvements in the overall college readiness of
students the gains are slight. The findings also show that African American students are falling
behind Caucasian students with regard to college readiness.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 3
Dedication

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to Alice “Mama Jeanette” Brown-McBeth. Mama
Jeanette though you are no longer here with us I know that you are smiling down on me and are
so proud of my accomplishment. Thank you for believing in me always. I am a more selfless
and loving person because of your example. I love and will always miss you. Till we meet
again…

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 4
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank and acknowledge all the USC Professors in the Rossier School of
Education, who have each handed down their wisdom in an effort to help me become a better
leader. I would like to take this time to acknowledge and thank my dissertation chair,
Dr. Hentschke for painstakingly reading all of my many, many drafts and helping to shape my
thoughts into a coherent dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. Hocevar. Without his help
and support with the statistical analysis of the data in this paper, I would have never been able to
complete this dissertation. I will forever be in his debt for his encouragement, kind words, and
unwavering support. Thank you, Dr. Dexter, for serving as a committee member. I appreciate
the time you dedicated along with your thought provoking questions and feedback. Your help
and support are greatly appreciated and for that I will be eternally grateful. Terry “Mama” and
Benjamin “Moon” Hiller words cannot express the gratitude that I feel in my heart for you. You
were there for me throughout my entire college career supporting, loving, and encouraging.
Thank you for making me believe that I was special and could do anything that I put my mind to.
Because of your kindness and love early on I was able to realize my dream of becoming
Dr. Shanda L. Smoot. A simple thank you is not enough but I will offer it any way. Thank you
! I would also like to thank my family, friends, and classmates that took this exciting journey
with me. Your love, support, and constant encouragement when I needed it most made all the
difference in the world to me.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 5
Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 2
Dedication ....................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 9

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ............................................................................. 10

Background of the Problem ............................................................................... 10
Statement of the Problem ................................................................................... 15
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................... 17
Research Questions ........................................................................................... 18
Limitations, Assumptions, and Design Controls ................................................. 18
Definition of Key Term ..................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2: Introduction ................................................................................................ 21
High School Dropout Rates ............................................................................... 24
National Dropout Rates ............................................................................. 24
Dropout Student Characteristics ................................................................ 25
Dropout Consequences ............................................................................. 27
Pathways to College: Challenges and Supports .................................................. 28
College Readiness .................................................................................. 28
California’s High School Graduation Requirements versus the
A-G Requirements ................................................................................. 31
UC and CSU Course Approval Process.............................................................. 35
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 6
Roadblocks to Students Having Access to A-G Requirements ........................... 35
Importance of 9th Grade on Graduation Rates and Post-Secondary
Education ............................................................................................... 40
Guidance Counseling ......................................................................................... 43
Summary ........................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology .............................................................. 48
Research Questions ........................................................................................... 48
Justification for Research Questions and Data Analysis ..................................... 49
Justification for Research Question 1 ........................................................ 49
Justification for Research Question 2 ........................................................ 49
Justification for Research Question 3 ........................................................ 50
Sample .............................................................................................................. 51
Data Collection and Instrumentation .................................................................. 51
Summary ........................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 4: Results ........................................................................................................ 55
Results for Research Question 1 ........................................................................ 55
Results for Research Question 2 ........................................................................ 56
Results for Research Question 3 ........................................................................ 61
Summary ........................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 5: Summary and Discussion ............................................................................ 65
Discussion ......................................................................................................... 65
Implications for Practice .................................................................................... 70
Future Research ................................................................................................. 73
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 7
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 74
References .................................................................................................................... 75
Appendix A: Green Valley Union High School District Graduation
Requirements ......................................................................................... 80

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 8
List of Tables
Tables
1. Top Performing GVUHSD School Staff ............................................................ 53
2. Poverty Tier Descriptive .................................................................................... 54
3. Mean Poverty Levels by Tier ............................................................................. 57
4. College Readiness – African American and Caucasian Students ........................ 61
5. The Number of High Performing Schools in GVUHSD with the
Highest Poverty Rates ............................................................................... 62

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 9
List of Figures
Figure
1. College Readiness Rates .................................................................................... 56
2. Histogram of SES Rankings in 600 GVUHSD Schools ...................................... 58
3. University of California and California State University College
Readiness by SES ..................................................................................... 59
4. University of California College Admissions Rate Histogram ............................ 60

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 10
Chapter 1

Introduction to the Study

Background of the Problem
According to the most recent data on California high schools only 75.2 % of the students
in California are graduating (California Department of Education, DataQuest, 2010). That
number shrinks in size when reviewing the graduation rates of minority students. Only 68.8% of
Latino students and 59.7 % of African American students graduate in the State of California
annually (California Department of Education, DataQuest, 2010). With the US unemployment
rate being at an all-time high nationally the need for earning a high school diploma and
advancing on to post-secondary education has never been greater and the stakes have never been
higher. This data demonstrates that it is now more important than ever for students to find ways
to ensure that they not only complete the graduation requirements for a diploma but that they
also need to master the required course work for California’s A-G graduation requirements as
well so that they are prepared to attend a four year university upon completing high school.
The A-G requirements consist of course work that must be completed by students during
their four years of high school attendance. Course requirements that meet the A-G track criteria
include content specific courses in History/Social Sciences, English, Mathematics, Laboratory
Science, Language other than English, Visual and Performing Arts, and College Preparatory
Electives. The A-G requirements are specific to students not only meeting the high school
graduation requirements but ensure that students are eligible to attend a four year college as well.
California’s A-G requirements are courses that all high school graduates must complete in order
to be eligible to attend a four year California public university. Without taking and passing
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 11
select classes in various categories in the A-G requirement list, students will not be admitted to a
public university in California.
To be eligible to attend any public four-year university in the state students, must take a
minimum of 15 A-G courses–approximately two-thirds of their high school courses.
Accordingly, to provide every student with the opportunity to satisfy these college
eligibility requirements, California high schools must ensure that at least two-thirds of
their courses meet the A-G requirements. (Fanelli, Bertrand, Rogers, Medina, & Freelon,
2010, p. 7)
The A-G courses offer a direct pathway for students to be college ready and provide the skills
necessary to meet the eligibility requirements for the California State University and University
of California systems.
Some of the issues that seem to be barriers to students being able to complete the A-G
requirements are misalignment of course requirements, lack of opportunity for all students to
take A-G required courses, inadequate counseling, and a general lack of knowledge by parents
and students about which courses will help students advance on to higher education. Research
shows that a disproportionate number of minority students are affected by lack of knowledge and
resources. The literature shows that for some students “reaching college remains a challenge for
many low income and potentially first-generation students who (a) are not academically prepared
or (b) lack the knowledge about how to apply to, and pay for, college” (Tierney, Bailey,
Constantine, Finkelstein, & Farmer Hurd, 2009, p. 5). This means that many students are not
given the opportunity or do not know which courses to take at their school sites to complete a
full sequence of A-G required courses and therefore are ineligible to attend a public university in
California. Another issue facing students is California’s looming budget crisis, which has made
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 12
completing the A-G graduation requirements difficult for students who may have had to repeat
courses due to low or failing grades. Many districts in the state are no longer offering summer
school courses or have just simply cut some A-G compliant courses from their schedules which
makes it very difficult for students to make up these classes, compete for eligibility, and gain
entrance into a university. In my opinion this is a problem of access. According to the US
Department of Education,
In 81.4% of California high schools, less than 50% of students enroll in high-level math
classes. Students in schools serving majority African American and Latino students are
more likely than those in majority white and Asian schools to experience this problem.
These shortages mean that it is far more difficult for African American and Latino
students to complete the A-G math and science requirements during their four years of
high school. (Fanelli et al., 2010, p. 7)
While completing the A-G requirements does not automatically qualify students for
admission into a California public university it does give them the opportunity to compete.
Students that do not complete the required number of A-G courses will automatically not be
admitted to the university system. A student’s cumulative grade point average is another factor
that that must be taken into consideration. Students must have at the minimum a 2.0 GPA to be
admitted into the California State University system. If students would like consideration for a
University of California campus then the GPA requirements are even higher, 3.0. As a result,
many students are turning to alternative methods to earn back credits such as online credit
recovery programs. These programs are designed to allow students the opportunity to repeat
courses at their own pace through computer based learning. These courses can be a lifeline to
students who are struggling to complete the A-G sequence at their school sites. Online credit
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 13
recovery programs enable students to access curriculum virtually from the convenience of home
so they can complete courses that their school is not currently offering or recover credits that
they may be missing from the A-G sequence of classes. Students are turning to these alternative
methods to fulfill some of the A-G requirements because in many instances their high school
may not be offering a full sequence of A-G approved courses. As previously mentioned, all
California high schools are required to offer a full sequence of approved course but the data
show that as many as half of the high schools in the state are not offering a full sequence of A-G
requirements. In order to provide a sense of scale, in 2003
more than half a million students enrolled as 9th graders in California public high schools
in . . . June 2007, fewer than 360,000 students graduated. . . . California graduates a
smaller portion of its 9th graders than any other states. The number of students that
graduated having successfully completed the A-G course sequence required for
admission to California’s four-year public universities was one fourth of the original size
of the class . . . roughly 70,000. (Rogers et al., 2009, pp. 2-3)
To put this problem into perspective we need only to look at the data on the number of
students not meeting the A-G requirements as well as those who drop out of high school before
they earn diplomas altogether. In 2007, California had the largest number of dropouts in the
country. The data reflected a staggering 14.4% or 710,000 students drop out of high school in
the state annually (Northeastern University – Center for Labor Market Studies and Alternative
Schools Network in Chicago, 2009, p. 2). This suggests that students in California are dropping
out and are not completing the high school graduation requirements at an alarmingly high rate.
To illustrate this epidemic even further, “An estimated 25 percent of public school students who
entered the high school . . . failed to earn a diploma four years later” (Laird, Kienzi, DeBell, &
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 14
Chapman, 2007, Table 12 as cited in Rumberger & Lim, 2008, p. 1). After dropping out of high
school these students have limited options and without a high school diploma will have a very
difficult time finding sustainable employment. This reflects that California students are dropping
out of school at an alarming rate.
Researchers suggest that it is imperative we identify students who may drop out of school
early so that we can provide additional and preemptive support to students who exhibit early
signs of drop out characteristics. I will posit here that students placed on a college going track in
the 9th grade stand a better chance of completing high school, which will open the door for
students to acquire post-secondary education. The college going track is a plan for coursework
that consists of classes that will meet the eligibility requirements for University admission.
Many of these are A-G approved courses. The U.S. Department of Education asserts that
the high school program for college preparation begins in 9th grade, and making up
missed courses and academic content is likely to be difficult for students who put off
college-preparatory work until later in their high school career. (Finkelstein & Fong,
2008, p. 20).
Additionally, I would like to posit that educators must also conduct research to find ways to help
more students in California and across the country to graduate high school college ready, assist
students in meeting college admissions criteria, and find alternative pathways for students to
access rigorous course curriculum to prepare them for post-secondary education and meet the
demands of a global work force.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 15
Statement of the Problem
California students are facing diminished opportunities to be college ready and have the
skills necessary to compete in an ever growing global job market. Research shows that
California
colleges that previously accepted all qualified students are becoming selective, while
selective schools are becoming more so. Most community colleges have open access
policies, but demand for classes is so intense that many students can’t get the courses
they need . . . (Northstarmom, 2010, para. 4)
if they are accepted
Many of these students lack a clear pathway toward college for a myriad of reasons that
will be discussed later in this paper. To put this issue in perspective, “more than half a million
students enrolled as 9th graders in California . . . in the fall of 2003 . . . fewer than 360,000
graduated” (Rogers et al., 2009, pp. 2-3) in the spring of 2007. And of the reported 360,000
graduates, only a fraction of them will have completed the required A-G coursework necessary
for them to go on to a four year university. “In fall of 2007, roughly 70,000 California public
high school graduates enrolled as first-year students at a California State University or
University of California Campus. This figure represents about 14% of the original size of the
class . . . ” (Rogers et al., 2009, p. 3). I believe that in many instances the number of college
ready graduates continues to be low due to lack of counseling, limited resources, inequitable
access to A-G required coursework, and lack of information for students and their families.
In recent years, budget cuts to the California education system have severely impacted
the education programs that students receive in high school as well as in college.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 16
The public higher education systems have received significant budget cuts in the 2009-10
fiscal year, with the University of California receiving $813 million less than in 2007-08,
California State University receiving $625 million less, and the community college
system receiving $812 million less. (Newell, 2009, p. 1)
Due to budgetary constraints, schools in the University of California system as well as
the California State University system have reduced enrollment of new freshman significantly.
This reduction of enrollment
increased class sizes, faculty furloughs, and cuts in support services will threaten the
quality of a UC education and increase the time taken for students to complete their
degree when they cannot enroll in the classes or receive the support services they need.
(Newell, 2009, p. 1)
It is now more important than ever for students to ensure that they take the necessary
course work in high school to be able to compete with a more academically elite applicant pool
for coveted spots. Without completing a full sequence of A-G required courses many students
will not have a chance to be admitted to a California university.
In recent years there have been studies by the U.S. Department of Education, California
Department of Education (CDE), the Institute for Educational Sciences, and the UCLA Institute
for Democracy examining the importance of students being able to complete the California High
School graduation requirements, inequalities in the educational system for minority students, and
the lack of counseling available to students and their families but few have explored the direct
impact of failing to complete the A-G requirements on student outcomes. This study addressed
the gap of information surrounding the A-G requirements and explored issues of access to
rigorous A-G approved course for minority students. I explored this topic by examining student
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 17
course-taking patterns, exploring algebra completion, and comparing/contrasting high and low
socio-economic schools (SES) to ensure that students have the necessary course work to have a
clear pathway toward college admission to the California State University or University of
California system.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to review California’s current A-G requirements and
investigate whether or not students have adequate opportunities to access the rigorous
coursework in an urban high school largely populated by minority students, schools that offer
more A-G approved courses to the student body, and to explore if students are provided with the
information necessary to make informed decisions that may lead to fulfillment of the
requirements and for eligibility into either the California State University or University of
California college system. In my research, I have noticed that barriers exist that may prevent
high school students from completing the A-G requirements. Some of the barriers include, but
are not limited to, student’s involvement in special programs such as (i.e., special education or
ELD) which may leave little room in their schedules to take courses, availability of A-G
approved courses at the school site, and lack of access to academically rigorous courses for all
students.
Through exploring course taking patterns, reviewing student characteristic data, and
looking at college readiness as defined by the number of students eligible to attend a California
State University or University of California school, I uncovered how urban high schools can
work to improve college readiness and decrease the achievement gap. This study examined the
degree to which students have access to A-G approved coursework at their school site, how
course-taking patterns affect students’ chances of meeting college admission requirements, and
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 18
what barriers, if any, exist that may prevent students from meeting the requirements for CSU or
UC admissions eligibility.
Research Questions
This study will seek to answer the following research questions:
1. What are the 1994-2012 trends in college readiness rates in California high schools?
2. Has the college readiness gap between low and high SES schools and the African
American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or decreased?
3. Controlling for SES, to what extent do high schools in the Green Valley Union High
School District differ in terms of college readiness?
Limitations, Assumptions, and Design Controls
This study is necessary to investigate student course taking patterns and increase the
number of students completing the California A-G requirements but it has a number of built-in
limitations. For the purposes of this study, I focused on 600 schools in the Green Valley Union
High School District (pseudonym used). Four years were sampled: 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2012.
In addition, only schools with 300 or more graduating seniors were included in the sample. I will
not be looking at other neighboring districts in the state of California. Schools that had
significant numbers of special education students were flagged for testing anomalies,
continuation schools, or schools with less than 300 graduating seniors were not used in the data
for this study.
Definition of Key Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms were operationally defined as follows:
• Academic Achievement: This will be defined as completing the expected level of credits
per semester to be on-track for graduation (30 credits per semester).
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 19
• At-Risk Students: "At-risk" students means students enrolled in high school who are at
risk of dropping out of school, as indicated by at least three of the following criteria:
1. Past record of irregular attendance, defined as students that have been classified by
the State of California as being truant by having three or more full day unexcused
absences.
2. Past record of underachievement in which the student is at least one year behind the
respective grade level. As measured by the number of credits that students have
successfully amassed.
3. Disadvantaged economically: defined as being eligible for free and reduced lunch
• California A-G College Admissions Requirements: The A-G requirements are specific
courses that students must complete in order to be eligible to attend a California State
University or the University of California.
• California State Universities (CSU): Is a public university system in the state of
California. The CSU system is composed of 23 campuses and has over 400,000 students.
This public university system is the largest in the country.
• College Readiness: For the purposes of this study, I will be using the College Board’s
definition of college readiness. Students are “college ready” when they have the
knowledge, skills, and behaviors to complete a college course of study successfully
without remediation.
• Course Taking Patterns: A look at a set of courses that students are taking that will show
if students are on a college, career, or graduation only track
• Credit Deficient: Any student who is at least one year behind in academic progress
toward graduation will be placed in this category.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 20
• Dropout: This term will be a student who was enrolled in high school at the beginning of
one year but did not return the following year without earning a diploma or equivalency
test degree (NCES, 2009).
• Economically Disadvantaged: Any student who receives or is eligible for free or reduced
lunch will fall under this category.
• University of California (UC): Is a public university system in the state of California.
The UC system is composed of 10 campuses and has over 234,464 students.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 21
Chapter 2
Introduction
On average,
less than a quarter of students (23.5 percent) fulfilled both the CSU GPA and subject
requirements by the end of high school, and more than half (52.3 percent) failed to meet
both requirements, which suggests a problem in the preparation of high school students
for college . . .. (Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. 9)
California’s A-G requirements are the set of courses that students must take in high school in
order to be eligible for admission into a four year university. In many districts, these
requirements differ from the graduation requirements which indicate that students who are
eligible for graduation may not be eligible to attend a university after graduation.
In California that curriculum is the A-G requirements . . ., first established by the
University of California and subsequently embraced by California State University,
which accounts for approximately three-fifths of a student’s total high school program
and, depending on the student’s grades in the courses, are seen as evidence of core
academic preparation. A student who has a high GPA but who has not taken all of the A-
G requirements will not be eligible for admission to either university system. (Finkelstein
& Fong, 2008, p. 2)
Often it is the case that many of the students do not know that the requirements necessary for
graduation may not match those for college admissions until it is too late.
Due to the two tiered graduation system in California students have to take a minimum of
15 A-G certified courses in which they earn a C or better to be eligible to meet the college
admission requirements. In California, students can graduate with a high school diploma without
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 22
taking a full sequence of A-G required courses. Students that do not complete in minimum the
required number of A-G classes are ineligible for the California State University or University of
California colleges. In an effort to ensure that more students complete a full A-G sequence of
coursework, California high schools must ensure that at least 2/3 of their courses satisfy the
requirements so that all students have equal access to the college preparatory courses necessary
to fulfill the A-G requirements. Though this is a mandate from the state, many schools still do
not have a vast array of courses that will satisfy the requirements or do not open access to all
students.
Over a million (1,049,414) California high school students attend schools that do not
offer enough A-G courses for all students to take the college preparatory curriculum . . .
more than two thirds of the high schools with a majority of underrepresented students
[African American & Latino] face this problem. (Rogers et al., 2010, p. 14)
Reasons for limited access to these courses include tracking, being included in a special
program (i.e., special education, ELD, etc.) or due to the way that students are programmed to
either be on the college preparatory track or not. Many of the decisions that affect the trajectory
of student’s high school careers began as early as the 9th grade. “According to a U.S.
Department of Education study, enrolling in a rigorous high school curriculum is vital to
increasing a student’s chances of earning a bachelor’s degree” (Fanelli et al., 2010, p. 7). Due to
lack of counseling, guidance, and planning. these students often have no choice but to attend a
community college if they go on to continue their education. “In 2004, California sent a smaller
proportion of its students to four-year colleges than all states but one–Mississippi. In
comparison to California, New York and Massachusetts sent twice the proportion of high school
seniors to four-year colleges” (Oakes et al., 2006, p. 8).
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 23
Barriers to students completing the A-G requirements are more pronounced in urban
school districts with large numbers of students with low socio economic status, larger
populations of minority students, and larger populations of English Learners. Traditionally these
schools seem to be understaffed as compared to more affluent schools. The student’s in
underserved schools usually have a larger number of students that do not get the vital guidance
counseling that is necessary for them to succeed in post-secondary education. In this review of
literature, I explored some of those issues to gain better insight into this problem. The following
review explored the literature related to high school dropout rates and consequences, as well as
issues surrounding high school students’ access to A-G college entrance requirements.
Additionally, I examined steps that high school educators can take to improve student outcomes
and increase the college going rate of all students.
Research related to dropout rates, causes, and consequences was explored to
contextualize and frame the importance of revealing the consequences of students failing to meet
the basic requirements for graduation. Examining the research surrounding this issue will help to
paint a picture of the reality of what these students are facing which will explain the need for
students to fulfill the graduation requirements to be educated and productive members of the
community at large. This review also explored California’s A-G requirements to provide
definition of what the requirements are and review the requirements in juxtaposition to the
standard California High School requirements to show that they are closely related and that
subtle differences in the requirements keep students from advancing on to higher education.
Additionally, this review investigated the impact early intervention can have on A-G course
completion and how course-taking patterns that begin in the 9th grade can have lasting effects on
the decisions, options, and choices that students have later in their high school careers. Finally,
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 24
this review looked at the role of the high school guidance counselor and the influence that they
have to gently guide students toward college-readiness curriculum or guide them toward a course
of study that will only allow them to earn a high school diploma which limits the student’s
options for post-secondary education to trade schools or community college.
My literature review began with exploring both the California and national dropout rates.
Research shows that students drop out of high school for a myriad of reasons and I believe that
those reasons are of relative importance to understanding why the students that do graduate fail
to meet the A-G requirements. In many instances the reasons for dropping out of school mirror
those of students that fail to meet the college admissions requirements. I would also like to posit
that in a small number of cases the strenuous nature of the A-G courses may influence the
dropout rate as well. It is important to mention that while the literature will explore the dropout
rates to paint a picture to the reader the focus of this study will only explore students that
graduate from high school that either may or may not fulfill the A-G requirements at the
completion of their four years in high school.
High School Dropout Rates
National dropout rates. In order for students to be eligible to attend a university, they
must first graduate from high school. Nationally, 16 %, or over six million students, ages 16-24
drop out of school each year. Many of these students never return to high school to graduate or
earn a GED. “Noting that nearly one in three students fails to graduate high school each year,
President Obama called this ‘a problem we cannot afford to ignore’ (Almeida, Steinberg, Santos
& Le, 2008, Executive Summary, p. v). The demographics show that a disproportionate number
of these dropouts nationwide are African American and Latino students. The data illustrate that
“nearly three out of 10 Hispanics have dropped out of school (27.5%) . . . more than one of five
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 25
Blacks dropped out of school (21%) . . . [versus] for Whites, the dropout rate was 12.2%”
(Northeastern University - Center for Labor Market Studies, 2009, p. 9). When looking at the
sheer number of students that dropout of school nationwide, the numbers are astounding. These
numbers indicate a crisis that is not only an issue at the state level but a national problem that
needs to be addressed to ensure students are given every opportunity to fulfill the graduation
requirements and earn a diploma.
The effects of dropping out of high school can have wide reaching effects later in life.
“Over a working lifetime . . . high school dropouts are estimated to earn $400,000 less than those
that graduated from high school” (Northeastern University - Center for Labor Market Studies,
2009, p. 3). This number can be significant over the course of a lifetime. Additionally, many of
these students do not earn enough money to pay into the income tax system and can cause a
financial drain on state and federal fiscal resources over time. Other effects include poor health
care, poor projected earnings, and poverty. With today’s looming economic crisis, it is now
more important than ever that students finish school to maximize their earning potential and be
able to compete in a fast paced global society. On average students that did not earn a high
school diploma only earned $11,000 per year as compared to students with a high school
diploma that made more than twice that amount on average by earning $23,000 by comparison.
It is crucial that all students regardless of socio-economic status and family back ground
complete high school and go on to attain post-secondary education.
Dropout student characteristics. In looking at the data to investigate which students
are completing California’s A-G requirements, it is important to closely examine specific
dropout characteristics. Many students reported that they dropped out of school because of
uninteresting classes, lack of motivation, failing key courses, and attendance related issues. All,
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 26
or a combination of these factors combined, may lead to students dropping out of high school.
Other factors for dropping out of high school include becoming a parent at an early age and
having to drop out because they needed to enter the work force. Most researchers agree that, “as
complex as these individual circumstances may be, for almost all young people, dropping out of
high school is not a sudden act, but a gradual process of disengagement” (Bridgeland, Dilulio, &
Morison, 2006, p. iv). Having this information as a high school administrator is critical to
student’s success. When school officials know what the warning signs are, they can look at the
at-risk student populations that they currently have on their campus and create additional support
systems to prevent students from dropping out of school.
The greatest predictor of student graduation success can be found by looking at 9th grade
students. By looking closely at the reasons that these students may fall behind, we gain
significant insights into specific student characteristics in an effort to prevent future drop outs.
Research has shown that students who fail courses in 9th grade and have to subsequently recover
those credits are more likely to fall more behind and ultimately drop out of school. Studies show
that “high school dropouts earned fewer credits than did on-time graduates within each academic
year, and the cumulative course credit accrual gap increased with each subsequent year”
(Hampden-Thompson, Warkentien, & Daniel, 2009, p. 10). For many of these students dropping
out of school may seem like the most salient option because they have fallen so far behind their
peers.
Other characteristics that predict whether students drop out or graduate from high school
are background, socio-economic factors, student behaviors, and educational performance. On
average
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 27
Dropout rates for Whites and Hispanics varied by sex . . .. Among White students, 6.3
percent of males were status dropouts in 2009 compared to 4.1 percent of females. Black
males also had higher status dropout rates than their female counterparts (10.6 vs. 8.1
percent, respectively). No differences by sex were detected in status dropout rates for
Hispanics, Asians/Pacific Islanders, American Indians/Alaska Natives, or persons of two
or more races. (Chapman, Laird, Ifill, & KewalRamani, 2011, p. 9)
Minorities make up more than half of the population of the United States. The effects of
students in this demographic not receiving a high school diploma at the minimum may be
catastrophic for society in the future.
Dropout consequences. Research shows that, “dropouts are much more likely than their
peers who graduate to be unemployed, living in poverty, receiving public assistance, in prison,
on death row, unhealthy, divorced, and single parents with children who drop out from high
school” (Bridgeland et al., 2006, p. i). These unintended consequences are likely to prevail for
the entirety of a high school dropout’s life if they do not go back to school and earn a GED or
high school diploma. These conditions are 100% avoidable in many instances by continuing
their education through reenrolling in school. Studies show that dropping out of high school has
serious repercussions for students and their families both present and future. These individuals
are less likely to find stable work that pays adequate amounts to sustain their households.
The national joblessness rate for individuals who did not complete high school in 2008
was a whopping 54%. Due to the current economic climate and financial challenges that most
Americans are facing that number has increased dramatically. Studies conducted on high school
dropouts illustrate the vast disparity between the joblessness rate of students who complete high
school and those who do not. Researchers found that,
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 28
their employment rate was 22 percentage points below that of high school graduates,
33 percentage points below that of young adults who had completed 1-3 years of post-
secondary schooling, and 41 percentage points below that of their peers who held a four
year college degree. (Sum, Khatiwada, & McLaughlin, 2009, p. 1)
With a nationwide jobless rate of 8% which represents millions of families in the US, these
statistics paint a very grim picture of the fiscal impact that dropping out of high school can have
on students and their families.
The data reflect that “year-round joblessness rate of 40% among these young high school
dropouts” (Sum, Khatiwada, & McLaughlin, 2009, p. 5). These students have a fiscal impact
that ultimately affects all taxpayers. “The average high school dropout will cost taxpayers over
$292,000 in lower tax revenues” (Sum et al., 2009, The Lifetime Net Fiscal Contributions of
Adults 18 to 64 Years Old, U.S., 2007). Not surprisingly some of these students and their
families live below the poverty line and become dependent on public assistance for survival.
These unintended consequences trickle down to the average citizen whose taxpayer dollars must
go toward social services to support these students. These consequences are wide reaching and
affect the quality of life for not only the non-graduate but also the high school graduates as well.
The actions of dropouts create a domino effect that affects us all.
Pathways to College: Challenges and Supports
College readiness. The literature suggests that students need more guidance in high
school about course selection, college admissions criteria, and the importance of post-secondary
education. “College readiness is measured by the number and percentage of 12th grade
graduates who complete all the courses required for entrance to the University of California (UC)
and/or California State University (CSU) with a grade of ‘C’ or better” (Lucile Packard
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 29
Foundation, 2008, p. 1). Minority students or students from low-income families are more likely
to need additional assistance and counseling about college requirements because in many
instances they may be the first family member to go on to college. Research has shown that
historically these students lack the information and access to resources that may help them.
In Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns,
Christensen, Horn, & Johnson note that we have moved the goalposts of success from
needing one third of our students to graduate from college to needing two thirds of our
students to compete higher education to be qualified for the jobs that will exist. (CDE,
2011, p. 1)
With the number of students dropping out of high school steadily rising it should come as no
surprise that California is now faced with a shortage of four year college graduates in the next 10
years which may cause turmoil. The need to produce more highly educated students has become
very necessary because of new advancements in technology that requires a more diverse list of
skill sets.
Statistics show that Californians under 35 have less education than previous generations.
For Californians under 35, the attainment level drops to 35.9 percent . . . This decline is
occurring primarily because of declining high school graduation and college-going rates;
it does not yet take into account additional declines that will soon show up because of
budget-related enrollment rollbacks and tuition increases. (CDE, 2011, p. 1).
If the projections continue on the same trajectory, by the year 2025 California could be
short as many as one million college educated workers, which only highlights the need for
increased college readiness among high school students. Recent forecasts by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics show that “the largest proportional increases in employment are
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 30
expected in jobs that require at least an associate’s degree, and most require a bachelor’s degree
or more” (CDE, Higher Education and Secondary Alignment, 2012, p. 1). Knowing this it is
now more imperative than ever that students not only take the steps necessary to complete the
graduation requirements but also begin preparing for post-secondary education in order to satisfy
current and future labor demands.
The data show that many of the California high school students are not ready or have not
taken the course work required to be eligible to attend a four year university upon completing
high school. “In 2008, 33.9% of California’s public high school graduates had completed the
courses required for University of California (UC) and/or California State University (CSU)
entrance” (Lucile Packard Foundation, 2008, p. 1). This number decreases significantly when
you disaggregate the data and look at the demographics of students it is easy to see which
students are attending these universities. The research illustrated that “Asian American high
school graduates were most likely to be ready for college (59.2% in 2008), followed by Filipino
graduates (44.8%). Latino/Hispanic and African American graduates were least likely to be
college ready (22.5% and 23% respectively)” (Lucile Packard Foundation, 2008, p. 1). These
numbers reflect the need to discuss the importance of post-secondary education to ensure more
opportunities and the need to better prepare high school students for college admission and
college readiness to ensure success once they get there. Being college ready here does not mean
that all students will go on to attend college after graduation, it simply means that students will
have a greater number of opportunities available to them should they decide to pursue post-
secondary education.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 31
California’s High School Graduation Requirements Versus the A-G Requirements
California has developed a two-tiered system for graduation from high school. The first
tier encompasses the state required coursework to be eligible for graduation. These courses are
considered to be the state minimum requirement courses that students must take in order to be
deemed eligible for a high school diploma.
Section 51225.3 [of the California Education Code] states that commencing with the
1998-99 school year, all pupils receiving a diploma of graduation from high school must
complete all of the following while in grades nine to twelve, inclusive:
 Courses in the subjects specified, each course having a duration of one year, unless
otherwise specified
 Three courses in English
 Two courses in mathematics, including one year of Algebra 1 beginning in 2003-
04 (California Education Code Section 51224.5)
 Two courses in science, including biological and physical sciences
 Three courses in social studies, including United States history and geography;
world history, culture, and geography; a one-semester course in American
government and civics, and a one-semester course in economics
 One course in visual or performing arts or foreign language . . .
 Two courses in physical education, unless the pupil has been exempted pursuant
to the provisions of Ed Code Section 51241. (CDE, 2009, p. 1)
These courses in many cases are similar if not identical in some cases to the A-G course
requirements. In many instances the difference between an A-G course can be described as the
rigorous nature of the course itself or can be defined by the length of time that a student is
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 32
enrolled in a specific set of courses. For instance, to be eligible for graduation all students need
to take four years of English, two years of math, two years of a foreign language, two years of
history / social sciences, electives, and science. The difference between the courses required for
graduation from high school and the A-G requirements is small but very distinctive. If students
do not complete the aligned courses as outlined in the universal A-G requirements list they will
be deemed ineligible for admission to universities in the California State University system as
well as the University of California system.
An alternative post-secondary option for students who have not completed the required
courses is to enroll in the state’s community college system; students can work toward an
Associate’s degree or, after meeting transfer requirements, apply to the four-year public
institution at a later time. (Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. 2)
Many students that do not complete the A-G requirements go on to attend community colleges
but the data overwhelmingly suggests that meeting the requirements to attend a four-year
university in high school and attending a four year university have greater completion rates and
are more likely to earn a Bachelor’s degree.
The second tier of graduation is commonly referred to as the A-G requirements. These
requirements consist of course work that must be completed by students during their four years
in residence in a high school. Course requirements that meet the A-G track criteria include
content specific courses in history/social sciences, English, mathematics, laboratory science,
language other than English, visual and performing arts and college preparatory electives. The
A-G requirements are specific to students not only meeting the high school graduation
requirements but ensure that students are eligible to attend a four year college as well.
According to the Academic Senate of the University of California system,
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 33
the purposes of the ‘A-G’ subject area requirements is to ensure that entering students:
 Can participate fully in the first year program at the University in a broad variety of
fields of study
 Have attained the necessary preparation for courses, majors, and programs offered at
the University
 Have attained a body of knowledge that will provide breadth and perspective to new,
more advances studies, and
 Have attained essential critical thinking and study skills. (Creative Connections Arts
Academy, n.d., p. 1)
The major differences between most high school graduation requirements and the A-G
requirements are in math and foreign (world) languages. Most high schools require two
years of math while A-G requires three years . . . and specifically includes Algebra II.
(Nichols, Bob, 2010, para. 7)
Additionally, students are required to take two-three years of the same foreign language
whereas most standard high school graduation requirements only require one year for credit
towards graduation. Unfortunately, many students are unaware that in order to be eligible for
college they have to take more than the minimum courses that their school has required for a
diploma but must also take rigorous course work as outlined in the A-G requirements as well to
be eligible for college admissions. Many district graduation requirements are usually less
demanding in terms of the number of rigorous academic courses but usually have a minimum
number of units. For the purposes of this study, I have provided a sample of Green Valley Union
High School District’s course requirements to illustrate how they differ from the A-G required
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 34
courses that students will need to complete to be deemed eligible to attend a four year university
(see Appendix A).
Some scholars in education argue that the California’s two tier graduation system is
antiquated and needs to be restructured to make college more accessible to all students. “For
example, because of the twin sets of constraints, California students–unlike their peers across the
country–cannot typically take courses in technology and engineering, marine science or
biotechnology, statistics, or career and technical fields, except as electives, primarily in their
senior year” (CDE, 2011, p. 2). The inflexibility of the course requirements makes it difficult to
pique student’s interests until the 12th grade if students have all of the other credits necessary in
the given categories or not at all for students that are struggling to still attain the necessary
credits to graduate with their class. Many believe that with the move toward common core
standards across the country in 2014, California’s two tier system will become more equitable
for all students and place them on equal footing with other students around the country ensuring
that all students have the opportunity to be college ready upon completion of the graduation
requirements. “The newly-adopted Common Core Standards initiative . . . provide an
opportunity for the higher education and K-12 system to collaboratively design a more
thoughtful and streamlined curriculum and assessment system that connects high school to
postsecondary learning and employment opportunities” (CDE, 2011, p. 2). Since the California
Common Core Standards are currently in the final stages of development educators have not had
the opportunity to see the overarching effects of overhauling the assessment and course
alignment systems. Only time will tell if the inclusions of these new standards will be successful
in ensuring that more students have access to the A-G requirements and go on to attend a four
year university.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 35
UC and CSU Course Approval Process
In order for a course to be deemed A-G compliant high schools must undergo a rigorous
approval process to meet the criterion set by the CSU and UC admissions requirements. In order
for high schools to demonstrate that the new course that they are proposing meet CSU/UC
standards they must first create a course description that integrates academic content with career-
related content for students. Once the course description is created then high schools must
submit the description to the Undergraduate Admissions staff. There, staff members look
particularly at the academic rigor of the course, which includes the number and level of
prerequisites, the level of student work required, how the subject specific questions were
addressed, the depth of key assignments, etc. (University of California, n.d.). After the course is
properly evaluated the course is then submitted to the University of California to see if the course
work meets the requirements of college preparatory curriculum known as the A-G requirements.
Once this process is complete the high school can begin offering this new course selection to
students.
Roadblocks to Students Having Access to A-G Requirements
There are several roadblocks to students having adequate access to A-G required courses
on high school campuses in California. In order to fully delve into this issue it is important to
provide some history to place this issue into perspective. California has one of the most
comprehensive and complex community college and university systems in the country.
According to the state’s 1960 Master Plan for Higher Education in California, the state’s
vast system of community colleges should provide the first two years of college to many
of the state’s young people, who upon completion of their Associate’s degree would
transfer to four-year colleges. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. II)
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 36
The states master plan for education clearly states that all California high school students should
be given adequate opportunities and access to higher education after graduation. In 1996 that
opportunity diminished for many students of color due to a ballot initiative to equalize education
for all students.
In November of 1996, California voters approved Proposition 209, which prohibited the
state from discriminating against or granting preferential treatment to any individual or
group on the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of
public employment, public education, or public contracting. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. I)
This law essentially eradicated affirmative action in California institutions for higher education.
As a direct result of this law, California universities and community colleges no longer were
required to ensure that minority students were admitted into the university system in equal
proportions. The law aimed to achieve greater social equality and foster equal opportunities and
fairness, which did not happen.
Ten years later; the representation of Latino, African American, and American Indian
students in the University of California (UC), and particularly at the UC’s most selective
campuses, has decreased, even as these groups make up a larger share of California high
school graduates. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. I)
Proposition 209 drastically changed the landscape of California’s higher education system and
has had many lasting unintended consequences for minority high school graduates as a result.
When asked, the majority of California parents state that they want their children to go on
to attend a university after graduation. These parents want the best opportunities possible for
their child, which include post-secondary options after graduation from high school. “The
college chances of every student–wealthy or poor; regardless of ethnicity–will be affected by
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 37
whether he or she has access to essential college-going conditions, including access to
curriculum, high-quality teaching, counseling, and opportunities for extra academic support”
(Oakes et al., 2006, p. IV). Students not having access to A- G requirements, a direct pathway to
post-secondary education, is an issue that affects all Californians. When students’ opportunities
are limited as a society, we all suffer the consequences whether they are comprised of higher
taxes or students not being able to compete in a global job market–the effects are far reaching.
In this section, I will argue that there are several barriers that prevent students from accessing
and completing the A-G requirement. Some of these barriers include but are not limited to:
access to rigorous college preparatory curriculum, access to educators who make the curriculum
accessible, and access to information and counselors for guidance.
One of the barriers that prevent students from moving on to higher education is limited
access/opportunities to complete the A-G requirements. “For every 100 of California’s Latino,
African American, and American Indian 9th graders in 2000, only 15 graduated in 2004 having
passed the courses required for CSU and UC [admissions] (Oakes et al., 2006, p. III). This rate
of completion, or lack thereof, is astounding. This number indicates that over 80% of
California’s minority students who graduated left high school without the tools/skills necessary
to go on to a four-year university. When looking at the numbers using racial disaggregation, it is
clear that the large majority of students that do not complete the requirements for university
admission are minority students. Studies show that White and Asian students have greater
access to college-preparatory curriculum and A-G courses than their minority counterparts.
According to researchers
fewer than half (45%) of the state’s comprehensive high schools provide all students a
sufficiently rigorous academic curriculum . . . Shortages of A-G college preparatory
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 38
classes and advanced A-G classes are much more likely in schools where African
American and Latino students are in the majority. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. IV)
This illustrated the point that almost 30% of students are enrolled in California high schools are
attending schools that do not offer enough courses for them to successfully complete the A-G
sequence of courses to be eligible to attend a four year university after graduation.
In many instances. simply having access to taking A-G courses is not enough. In some of
the most sought after UC and CSU schools, students have been known to take upwards of 25 or
more courses in order to meet the admissions requirements. This is an opportunity that the
students in the 45% of high schools in the state do not have because their schools are not offering
the number of college preparatory courses needed to ensure that they have adequate
opportunities to take rigorous classes. After graduation many of the students who graduate from
high school without successfully completed the 15 A-G college preparatory classes go on to
attend community colleges. Attending community college can be a good pathway for students to
begin their college career if they are knowledgeable about the system and have an articulation
plan in mind. The only issue here is that many of these students who go on to attend community
colleges either do not go on to graduate with a two year degree (AA) or they fail to transfer to a
four year university to earn a Bachelor’s degree.
Less than half of those entering two-year colleges (47% in 2002) as first-time freshmen
return for a second year . . . only about six percent . . . transfer [to four year universities] within
three years of entering as freshman. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. 9)
These numbers emphasize the need for greater college and career counseling. Students
need to know that they have options and the earlier they have guidance from a knowledgeable
counselor the better.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 39
Another barrier that limits student’s ability to complete the A-G requirements are lack of
highly qualified teachers and inadequate access to higher level A-G courses. Higher level
mathematics courses are a tremendous barrier to some students being able to complete the A-G
sequence. Research shows that Algebra I can serve as a gateway to students completing the
proper math sequence before graduation. In order to complete the A-G sequence, students need
to take three A-G approved mathematics courses and if students want to attend a UC then four
years of math is recommended. This “means that all students must take at least one advanced
math class beyond Algebra I or Integrated Mathematics I and . . . and Geometry” (Oakes et al.,
2006, p. 22). Studies show that although schools know that students will need this sequence of
math to complete the A-G requirements not all schools offer these courses equally. “Schools
comprised almost entirely of African American and Latino students provide enough advanced
math courses to accommodate only one of every three 10th, 11th, & 12th graders” (Oakes et al.,
2006, p. 22). In contrast, more affluent schools offer these courses in abundance, which
increases students chances of completing a full four years of mathematics as outlined in the UC
requirements for admissions. In addition, the findings indicate that students in less-affluent
communities are more likely to have a teacher who is not highly qualified to teach math..
While the abovementioned set of barriers to students completing the A-G requirements is
not exhaustive, it does create a picture of some of the problems that students face when trying to
complete the college preparatory sequence. More highly qualified teachers, skilled counselors,
greater access to rigorous college preparatory curriculum, and a greater offering of courses is
needed in California schools in order for high schools to live up to the Master Plan’s goals of
providing access and an attainable pathway for all students in the state to be eligible to attend a
University after graduation from high school.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 40
Importance of 9th Grade on Graduation Rates and Post-Secondary Education
Most high school administrators will agree that 9th grade is a make or break year for
many high school students. According to the U.S. Department of Education and UCLA Institute
for Democracy, 9th grade is the year that determines whether or not students remain on track to
complete the A-G requirements or if they will get off track. Ninth grade is an important year
because if students do not pass all of their classes during their first year of high school they will
either continue on to take A-G required classes or they may struggle to get back on track by
retaking courses that they previously failed. “Statistically, and regardless of new requirements,
not all incoming freshmen will graduate in four or even five years of high school, and even more
daunting, some will not graduate at all” (Wheelock & Miao, 2005 as cited in McCallumore &
Sparapani, 2010, p. 448). Ninth grade is a critical grade level for students and their families
because mistakes made in the 9th grade can have a lasting impact on graduation and college
readiness.
A new report on high school course-taking patterns among California’s minority and low-
income youth by WestEd’s Neal Finkelstein and Anthony Fong finds that many high
school graduates who fail to meet admission requirements for the state’s universities fall
off the college-preparatory track as early as ninth grade. (WestEd, n.d. p. 1)
Unlike middle school, when students arrive at high school in the 9th grade they are faced with a
new set of obstacles and challenges that they did not have to deal with in elementary or middle
school. For some students, “transferring to a new school creates a transition period that is
marked by declining academic performance, increased absences, and increased behavior
disturbances. These factors put freshmen more ‘at risk’ than any other school-aged group”
(Fritzer & Herbst, 1996 as cited in Bardwell & Thompson, 2012, slide 3). As a result, it is
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 41
critical that ninth grade students get support early from counselors and administrators to ensure
that they will graduate from high school and go on to postsecondary education.
One of these obstacles is the issue of students earning “credits” toward graduation. In
middle school, students do not earn credits for courses that they successfully complete whereas
in high school each class is equal to a credit amount that adds to your overall total. For many
students this is a new concept and when they get to the ninth grade they are not fully cognizant
of the repercussions that can occur from failing classes or being enrolled in classes that will not
count toward college. Researchers agree that, “increased graduation requirements and rocky
transitions from middle school to high school seem to comprise a majority of the reasons for
students struggling, failing, and dropping out” (McCallumore & Sparapani, 2010, p. 447). Many
schools are creating ninth grade academies or allowing students to arrive on campus earlier than
their 10th- 12
th
-grade counterparts so that they can get acquainted with office staff, familiarize
themselves with additional supports services, and to pair them up with peer mentors that they can
talk to and get additional support. Adding in these support systems can be the catalyst to success
in high school.
Finding academic success in the 9th grade is key to students being placed in rigorous
academic classes that propel them toward college readiness. “Researchers at Johns Hopkins
University found that up to 40% of ninth grade students in cities with the highest dropout rates
repeat the ninth grade, but only 10-15% of those repeaters go on to graduate” (Balfanz &
Letgers, 2004 as cited in Kennelly & Monrod, 2007, p. 2). In 2008, a study was conducted by
the United Stated Department of Education about the decline of college admission rates among
minority students across California. The study, Course-taking Patterns and Preparation for
Postsecondary Education in California’s Public University Systems among Minority Youth,
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 42
analyzed course taking patterns of thousands of California high school seniors for the 2003-04
and 2004-05 school years. “They found that, students who complete key college-preparatory
courses in ninth grade begin a clear trajectory that continues through high school. And they have
a greater probability than students who postpone these courses of meeting the complete set of A-
G requirements” (West Ed, n.d., p. 1). These findings suggest that once students enter high
school in the 9th grade they must make every effort to successfully complete their assigned
courses to ensure that they satisfy all of the requirements for postsecondary education in the four
years.
An early and complete sequence of courses raises a student’s chance of attending a four-
year California public college over a two-year California Community college after high
school. Students who take algebra 1 or higher, English, and a language other than
English in the 9th grade are more likely to attend a CSU or UC institution than a two-year
community college. (Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. iv)
These findings illustrate how decisions that students make in the 9th grade can be devastating or
will help propel them toward the college-going track and help them to be successful by providing
them with a clear pathway toward post-secondary education at a university.
When students get off track or fail courses in the 9th grade, their course taking patterns
change significantly. These students are usually struggling to find ways to make up courses that
they previously failed over the course of the next three years, which makes it difficult for them to
take the rigorous course work necessary to meet A-G requirements. The findings indicate that,
“An early and complete sequence of courses raises a student’s chance of attending a four-year
California public college over a two-year California community college after high school”
(Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. iv). Educators need to have conversations early and often with 9th
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 43
graders and their families so that they are aware of their progress toward the college admission
requirements and suggest corrective actions that they can take immediately to get them back on
track/ college ready.
Guidance Counseling
Guidance counseling is the key to success for many high school students to get the
information that they need to go on to post-secondary education. “High schools play a critical
role in preparing students academically for college and assisting students through the steps to
college entry” (Tierney et al., 2009, p. 5). Students who receive guidance in high school have a
much better chance of success than students that do not. Many researchers agree that students
need to fully understand the college entrance requirements as early as 9th grade to ensure that
they are taking rigorous course work that is college approved. A recent study conducted by
UCLA revealed that
In 81.4% of California high schools, less than 50% of students enroll in high-level math
classes. Students in schools serving majority African American and Latino are more
likely than those in majority White and Asian schools to experience this problem. (Fanelli
et al., 2008, p. 7)
The data show that to increase the number of students graduating from high school and attending
college especially in schools with large minority populations “high schools should clearly
communicate with students and families to ensure that they understand the courses needed for
college (and that students are on track to complete them)” (Tierney et al., p 15). Having this
information will enable students and their parents the opportunity to make more informed
educational decisions with regard to course scheduling, extra-curricular activities, and, additional
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 44
requirements such as exams: SAT, ACT, High School Exit Exam, and/or college entrance exam
requirements.
Counselors play a key role in disseminating this information to families. The more
actively involved a student’s counselor the greater chance that student has at future success.
Unfortunately, many students in California are not getting the attention and support they need.
California currently has 474 high school students for every counselor–almost twice as
many students as the national average of 249. . . . California ranks next to last of all states
in providing high school students with access to counselors. (Rogers et al., 2009, p. 10)
This shortage of counselors directly impact some students chances of attaining college readiness
upon the completion of their four years of high school because they lack to guidance of a highly
qualified counselor to help guide them toward the pathway to college.
As previously mentioned one way for students to get the guidance that they need is by
having discussions often with students and their parents about the progress that they are making
or the lack thereof. In addition, providing students with different options will help them make
more informed decisions about the curriculum they need to prepare themselves for postsecondary
education. When students get off course it is important for guidance counselors to have the
necessary conversations with students and parents to help them explore all of their options.
Counselors need to conference with “students who are not making progress toward completing
graduation or college preparatory requirements should be notified of possible interventions that
can help them get back on track (e.g., summer school, remediation programs)” (Tierney et al.,
2009, p. 23).
It is crucial that students be afforded the opportunity to take classes that are academically
challenging so that they have the best chance possible of meeting the eligibility requirements for
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 45
post-secondary education and have the guidance of counselors to help guide them in rigorous
course work. Unfortunately research shows that,
Students who come from families that have little or no experience with higher education
must rely on their high school counselors for information. But many counselors lack a
solid understanding of university eligibility requirements or have too little knowledge
about individual students’ course-taking history to counsel them appropriately.
(Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. 2)
High school guidance counselors must do more to assist students with college readiness
and provide better guidance with regard to assisting students select courses that will fulfill the A-
G requirements.
Although some people assume that school counselors do college advising, many
counselors do not have adequate training. Moreover, high school counselors are assigned
many other categories of work that take precedence over college counseling, such as
scheduling, testing, discipline, dropout prevention, drug use, pregnancy, suicide
prevention, personal crisis counseling, attendance, lunch supervision, and so forth.
(Oakes et al., 2006, p. 31)
The U.S. Department of Education recommends that “schools and districts also should
provide continuing professional development or counseling for counselors, registrars, teachers,
and other staff on college prep course requirements, so that they can serve as informative
resources for students” (Austin Independent School District, Office of Program Evaluation,
2002, and Perna et al., 2008 as cited in Tierney et al., 2009, p. 15). Knowing that low-income
students are at a disadvantage with being provided the resources and information necessary to
meet the requirements for post-secondary education, the need for looking at students and how
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 46
they perform in the 9th grade has never been more important. The research suggests that it is
very important that high school guidance counselors and administrators provide families with the
tools and information necessary for students to be successful in high school and beyond.
Additional steps need to be taken to ensure that students are receiving the best possible
information to help guide them in future planning for high school graduation and foster the skills
necessary to help them fulfill the admission requirements to go on to attend a university.
Summary
In conclusion, my major findings are that California’s two tier system for graduation
from a public high school in many instances hurt students’ chances of meeting the admissions
requirements for a public university in California. Often is the case that many students and
parents are unaware that some of the classes that students take for credit toward graduation are
not CSU or UC approved and therefore will not fulfill the A-G requirements. Another finding
that resonated with me was the shocking lack or access or equity/distribution of A-G approved
courses. Less than half of public high schools in California have a full offering of A-G approved
courses. According to researchers,
fewer than half (45%) of the state’s comprehensive high schools provide all students a
sufficiently rigorous academic curriculum . . . Shortages of A-G college preparatory
classes and advanced A-G classes are much more likely in schools where African
American and Latino students are in the majority. (Oakes et al., 2006, p. IV)
This suggests that even if students are on track and want to take A-G required classes
they still may not be able to complete a full sequence of A-G approved classes because their
school site is not offering it. It was also surprising to learn that many high school counselors are
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 47
inadequately trained to accurately counsel families about which courses to take or advise
students about their post-secondary schooling options. Research shows that,
Students who come from families that have little or no experience with higher education
must rely on their high school counselors for information. But many counselors lack a
solid understanding of university eligibility requirements or have too little knowledge
about individual students’ course-taking history to counsel them appropriately.
(Finkelstein & Fong, 2008, p. 2)
These findings raise the question of what steps California educators can take to improve
the number of students that meet the eligibility requirements for college admissions?
Specifically, I investigated to gain answers to the following research questions:
1. What are the 1994-2012 trends in college readiness rates in California high schools?
2. Has the college readiness gap between low and high SES schools and the African
American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or decreased?
3. Controlling for SES, to what extent do high schools in the Green Valley Union High
School District differ in terms of college readiness?
By exploring these questions I was able to better understand the limitations that keep students
from going on to complete the A-G requirements, thereby limiting their access to the critical
courses that will support their efforts in meeting the California university requirements and
propose meaningful recommendations to improve college going rates.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 48
Chapter 3
Research Design and Methodology
Many students leave California high schools lacking the skills or preparation necessary to
prepare them for college or to enter the work force. Only a third of the students who graduate
high school with a diploma have genuine college and career options. Research shows that “of
these graduates, less than a quarter complete the coursework necessary to apply for admission
into a four year public university in California” (Education Trust-West, 2011, p. 1). These
findings suggest that California high schools must increase the number of students that graduate
with diplomas, provide career and technical skills training, and ensure that students complete the
A-G coursework so that students have adequate preparation to enter a four year university.
This study examined the relationship between having adequate opportunities to complete
the A-G requirements and trends in college readiness rates in California high schools. This study
also focused on how the gap between low socio-economic (SES) schools has increased or
decreased and on how the gap between Whites and African American students has changed.
This study examined trends from the 1994 school year to 2012. In addition, I investigated the
data in seventeen Green Valley Union High Schools that are beating the odds with California
State University and University of California readiness rates near 100%.
Research Questions
This study explored the following research questions:
1. What are the 1994-2012 trends in college readiness rates in California high schools?
2. Has the college readiness gap between low and high SES schools and the African
American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or decreased?
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 49
3. Controlling for SES, to what extent do high schools in the Green Valley Union High
School District differ in terms of college readiness?
Justification for Research Questions and Data Analysis
Justification for research question 1: What are the 1994-2012 trends in college
readiness rates in California high schools? This study explored the fact that many of
California’s high school student’s that graduate from a comprehensive high school do so without
having taking the necessary course work to fulfill the requirements for California State
University or University of California admissions. As a result, I believe it is important to stratify
the data to see which students are mastering these requirements and excelling on to the university
and which students find themselves on a different pathway toward secondary education such as a
community college, if any. To explore this topic further and to answer this question, I explored
trends from 1994-2012 in college readiness rates in California’s high schools to see what
information can be gained by looking at patterns to improve readiness for future graduates.
Justification for Research Question 2: Has the college readiness gap between low and
high SES schools and the African American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or
decreased? Based on prior research that was presented in chapter 2 regarding reasons that
students do not complete the A-G requirements, I have found that in many instances students do
not have access to A-G course requirements because either they have not been placed on a
college preparatory track or they failed critical gateway courses that may serve as a barrier to
them moving on to fulfilling the A-G requirements. Historically the gate keeping courses have
been higher-level math courses such as Algebra I, Geometry, Algebra II, or in some instance
Calculus if offered by a school site. Studies show if students have a difficult time passing
Algebra I and have to retake this course this can significantly derail students’
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 50
chances/opportunities to fulfill the three year math requirement for admission into the university
system. Another gateway course is English. In my investigation, I uncovered that many students
do not complete the A-G requirements because they failed either an English or mathematics
course and were unable to get back on the college-preparatory track after that. This problem
may be more prevalent in low socio-economic areas. This analysis examined the overall patterns
with which students take courses and the relationship between taking these courses and meeting
the requirements upon finishing high school. I will note here that with this analysis I am
attempting to see if course completion and/or course order have any relevance to students not
completing the A-G requirements. Here, I examined schools that have a discrepancy in socio-
economic status as defined by characteristics used to identify schools as Title 1 by the California
Department of Education by looking at students that are receiving free and reduced lunch and by
comparing African American and White college-readiness ratio.
Justification for Research Question 3: Controlling for SES, to what extent do high
schools in the Green Valley Union High School District differ in terms of college readiness? As
previously mentioned, many schools with low SES have fewer A-G course offerings for
students. Higher level mathematics courses are a tremendous barrier to some students being able
to complete the A-G sequence. “Schools comprised almost entirely of African American and
Latino students provide enough advanced math courses to accommodate only one of every three
10th, 11th, & 12th graders” (Oakes, Rogers, & Silver, 2006, p. 22). In contrast, more affluent
schools offer these courses in abundance, which increases students’ chances of completing a full
four years of mathematics as outlined in the UC requirements for admissions. This is just one of
the reasons that I looked at schools in GVUHSD to see if there are schools with low SES that are
beating the odds and producing greater numbers of college ready students than others.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 51
Sample
The sample for this study includes information from a large urban school district in
California. For the purposes of this study I focused on 600 California schools. Four years were
sampled: 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2012. Only schools with 300 or more graduating seniors were
included in the sample. This study focused on college readiness from the years 1994-2012.
Schools that had significant numbers of special education students were flagged for testing
anomalies, continuation schools, or schools with less than 300 graduating seniors were not used
in the data for this study.
Green Valley Union High School District is a pseudonym for a large urban district in
California. Green Valley is the largest district in the state and services over 600,000 students
each year. Green Valley is comprised of a network of public and charter schools serving a wide
range of communities. Green Valley services students from the most affluent neighborhoods to
students living in very impoverished areas.
. . . 72.3% of its students were some form of Hispanic and 9.6% of its students were
African American. White American students comprise 10.1% of the student population,
while Asian American students comprise 4%; students of Filipino origin form 2.1% of
the student population. Native Americans and Pacific Islanders together are less than 1%.
(DataQuest, 2012 as cited in Wikipedia, 2012)
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study was focused on 600 California schools with graduating classes of 300 or
higher. The study spanned the 1994-2012 school years to investigate whether or not significant
improvements have been made in that time period to increase college readiness. Data were
downloaded from Dataquest (CDE DataQuest, 2010). In this study I defined a college ready
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 52
student as one who has taken a minimum of 15 A-G certified courses in which they earn a C or
better to be eligible to meet the college admission requirements. Students that do not complete
the minimum required number of A-G classes are ineligible for the California State University or
University of California colleges and are not identified as college ready. I compiled three
scenarios:
1. University of California readiness rates are the percent of students who have completed
A-G requirements
2. Poverty is the percent of students receiving free or reduced lunch.
3. Adjusted UC Rates are UC rates adjusted for poverty. CSU/UC Adjusted rates were
calculated using the following formula: Actual UC Rates minus the Unstandardized
Predicted Values.
Using a portion of Table 1, I will illustrate how UC college readiness was calculated.
Table 1 shows two of the top performing schools in GVUHSD. Table 1 will be discussed in
Chapter 4 in greater detail but here I would like to illustrate how I collected the data. Table 1
lists the following school characteristics: school name, poverty rating, school API score, UC
Rate, Unstandardized Predicted Value, and Unstandardized Residual. The UC Rates column
indicates that 100% of the schools population of graduating seniors were college ready as
defined by their completion of A-G required coursework for acceptance into a California State
University or University of California school. For the Los Angeles Leadership Academy, the
adjusted rate is 1.00 minus .304, or .695 as shown in Table 1.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 53
Table 1

Top Performing GVUHSD School Staff

School School Name Poverty UC_Rate2012
Unstandardized
Predicted Value
Unstandardized
Residual
1
Los Angeles
Leadership
Academy

99 1.00 .30479 .69521
2
Camino Nuevo
Charter High
98 1.00 .30745 .69255

Finally, SES performance tiers were calculated based on the number of students receiving
free and reduced lunch (see Table 2). Schools that fall within tier 1 have the lowest poverty rates
while schools that fall within the 5 tier have significantly higher poverty rates. When analyzing
the data, I found that of the 600 schools sampled 115 schools fell in the low poverty tier while
121 schools ranged in the high poverty tier. Schools within tier 1, the lowest poverty tier, had an
average mean of 11 while schools in the highest tier had a mean of 87. The discrepancy between
low poverty tier schools and high poverty tier schools is significant. The state poverty average is
49.41% of students receiving free and reduced lunch (tier 3) and here we see that schools in high
poverty areas have almost double that percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 54
Table 2

Poverty Tier Descriptive

Poverty N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
for Mean
Minimum Maximum
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
1.00 115 11.17 5.680 .530 10.12 12.21 1 19
2.00 118 28.67 5.897 .543 27.59 29.74 20 39
3.00 122 49.34 5.987 .542 48.26 50.41 40 59
4.00 124 67.95 5.121 .460 67.04 68.86 60 76
5.00 121 87.05 7.419 .674 85.71 88.39 77 100
Total 600 49.41 27.559 1.125 47.20 51.62 1 100

Summary
This study investigated 600 California schools with graduating classes of 300 or more
graduating seniors. I looked specifically at poverty rates to determine if the gap between high
SES schools and low SES schools has increased or decreased. I focused my study on the years
from 1994-2012 to look for different trends in college readiness. This study answered the
research questions to provide meaningful recommendations for future support of students with
regard to completing California’s A-G requirements to open up more post-secondary options to
them after graduation.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 55
Chapter 4
Results
The purpose of this study was to examine trends in college readiness rates in California
high schools. Whether or not the gap between low and high socio-economic (SES) schools has
increased or decreased from 1994-2012 was investigated. This study focused primarily on 600
large urban schools in California. In addition, for research question three I analyzed the data in
17 low SES Green Valley Union High Schools that are beating the odds with high California
State University and University of California readiness rates despite having poverty rates well
above the state average.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question One: What are the 1994-2012 trends in college readiness rates in
California high schools?
The data shows that in the 600 schools sampled with graduating classes higher than 300
college readiness has improved. As shown in Figure 1, the University of California and
California State University college readiness rates have increased from 1994 to 2012. The
number of students graduating from high school UC ready increased from .349 in 1994 to .377 in
2012 which represents an increase of .028. The data reflects that the highest increases in college
readiness happened between the years 1994-2000. During these years there was an increase of
.028. Overall the data illustrated that University of California and California State University
college readiness has increased from 1994-2000 by .051.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 56

Figure 1: College Readiness Rates

Results for Research Question 2
Research Question Two: Has the college readiness gap between low and high SES
schools and the African American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or decreased?
Table 3 shows the data that was used to investigate the schools sampled in GVUHSD.
The schools listed below were ranked and sorted into tiers according to socioeconomic status.
Schools placed in the chart with a poverty ranking of 1 reflect schools located with higher than
average SES areas. Schools with a poverty ranking of 5 reflect schools located in the lower than
average SES area. As previously mentioned for the purposes of this research, SES was
determined by the number of students receiving free and reduced lunch at a school site. The
California state average of students receiving free and reduced lunch is 49.41%. According to
the data there were 115 schools at the highest end of the spectrum. These schools have an
average of 11.17% of students receiving free and reduced lunch. Schools located in the lowest
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.4
0.41
1994 2000 2006 2012
University of California College Readiness
Rates
Series 1
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 57
SES areas have an average of 87.5% of students receiving free and reduced lunch. Of the 600
schools reviewed, 121 schools fell in this category. Using these findings, I attempted to answer
research question two to see if the gap between schools with high SES and schools with low SES
has increased or decreased with regard to college readiness.

Table 3

Mean Poverty Levels by Tier

Figure 2 is a graphic representation of the distribution of the schools that are shown in
Table 3. As shown, we see large clusters of schools on the outer edges of curve at both the high
and low ends. The distribution indicated that there is a large number of schools with high SES
and a high number of schools with low SES.

Poverty
N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
95% Confidence Interval
for Mean
Minimum Maximum
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
1.00 115 11.17 5.680 .530 10.12 12.21 1 19
2.00 118 28.67 5.897 .543 27.59 29.74 20 39
3.00 122 49.34 5.987 .542 48.26 50.41 40 59
4.00 124 67.95 5.121 .460 67.04 68.86 60 76
5.00 121 87.05 7.419 .674 85.71 88.39 77 100
Total 600 49.41 27.559 1.125 47.20 51.62 1 100
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 58

Figure 2: Histogram of SES Rankings in 600 GVUHSD Schools

The data in Figure 3 shows University of California and California State University
college readiness rates segregated by SES from the years 2000-2012. Figure 3 shows that there
has been growth in each SES groups for the years researched. In the year 2000, .525 students
were college ready in schools with a poverty ranking 1 and by the year 2012 .580 students in the
same ranking were college ready. This represents an increase of .055 in the highest SES schools.
At the other end of the spectrum, students in the lowest SES schools increased their college
readiness as well. Schools with a poverty ranking of 5 which indicates that schools with this
rank have lower than average SES also showed improved results. In the year 2000 .303 students
were college ready. By the year 2012 that number increased to .327 which represents an increase
of .024. Students in the middle range of the SES rankings also showed improvement. Students
in SES schools with a ranking of 3 improved their college readiness from .340 in the year 2000
to .373 in the year 2012. This represents the second largest statistical increase of .033. Overall
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 59
from 2002 to 2012 all schools regardless of SES increased from a statistical average of .377 to
.400.

Figure 3: University of California and California State University College Readiness by SES

Figure 4 shows the University of California and California State University college
readiness rates in 2012. The clustering shows skewed distribution of schools. The largest
number of schools are clustered between .20 and .40. There appears to be little clustering at the
high end. This suggests that while select schools may have high UC admission rates the vast
majority of schools are in the lower to middle range.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 60

Figure 4: University of California College Admissions Rate Histogram

To answer research question two, I also looked at the gap between African American and
Caucasian students. Table 4 provides data from the 1994 – 2012 school years. In this table N
represents the number of schools with 30 or more African American or Caucasian students. The
rate indicated the rate with which the gap between African American and Caucasian students has
either increased or decreased. In 1994, 636 schools listed both African American and Caucasian
as significant sub groups. By comparing the two it is evident that there is a college readiness
gap. By the year 2012 that gap had increased statistically from .06 to .16. Table 4 shows that the
highest increase in the gap occurred from the years 1994-2000. Here the gap increased from .06
to .14. Overall the data shows that the gap between African American and Caucasian students is
increasing.
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 61

Table 4
College Readiness – African American and Caucasian Students

Year

White
African
American

N Rate N Rate Gap
1994 636 .35 90 .29 .06
2000 664 .40 118 .26 .14
2006 674 .39 137 .26 .13
2012 659 .45 134 .29 .16

Results for Research Question 3
Research Question Three: Controlling for Socio-Economic Status (SES), to what extent
do high schools in the Green Valley Union High School District differ in terms of college
readiness?
As shown in Table 5 there are 17 schools in the Green Valley Union High School District
that show dramatic performance in terms of the known correlation between low SES and
UC/California State University college readiness. Table 5 shows the percentage of low SES
students in enrolled in the school as defined by the percentage of students receiving free and
reduced lunch. Of the 17 schools listed, eight of schools have between 90% and 99% of its total
student body defined as low SES. The state average of students that are receiving free and
reduced lunch is 49.41%.
All 17 of the schools listed are charter schools that reside within the Green Valley Union
High School District’s boundaries. These schools were created to aid students in low SES areas
produce more “college bound students” by providing students with rigorous curriculum that
meets the diverse needs of students in high poverty areas. These schools were created out of
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 62
community need to aide students in the neediest areas achieve college readiness and advance
four year universities after the completion of high school.
All of the schools listed in Table 5 have higher than average SES rates and in some
instances the SES rates of these schools is 50% greater than the state average of 49.41% and yet
they were still able to show far greater than average gains in college readiness. Controlling for
SES, the highest performing school in college readiness were the first five schools listed. These
schools’ data show above 90% of its students classified as low SES and each boast a college
readiness rate in the year 2012 of 100%. The data show that in some schools 100% of the
students are college ready when they leave high school and are eligible to meet the eligibility
requirements for a California State University of University of California school. The data also
show that at this rate these seventeen schools are out-performing similar schools in both
GVUHSD as well as other schools in the state.

Table 5

The Number of High Performing Schools in GVUHSD with the Highest Poverty Rates

ID No. School
Poverty
Percent UC Rate 2012
Unstandardized
Predicted Value
Unstandardized
Residual
1 Los Angeles
Leadership Academy

99

1.00

.30479

.69521
2 Camino Nuevo
Charter High

98

1.00

.30745

.69255
3 Alliance Heritage
College-Ready
Academy

97

1.00

.31011

.68989
4 Alliance Dr. Olga
Mohan High

97

1.00

.31011

.68989
5 Alliance Huntington
Park College-Ready
Academy

96

1.00

.31277

.68723
6 Alliance Huntington
Park High

95

1.00

.31542

.68458

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 63
Table 5 (Cont’d.)

ID No. School
Poverty
Percent UC Rate 2012
Unstandardized
Predicted Value
Unstandardized
Residual
7 Alliance William and
Carol Ouchi Academy

93

1.00

.32074

.67926
8 Discovery Charter
Preparatory No. 2

91

1.00

.32606

.67394
9 Alliance Marc & Eva
Stern Math and
Science

89

1.00

.33138

.66862
10 Alliance College-
Ready Academy High

83

1.00

.34733

.65267
11 Alliance College-
Ready Academy
High.

82

1.00

.34999

.65001
12 CA Academy for
Liberal Studies Early
College

81

1.00

.35265

.64735
13 Lou Dantzler
Preparatory Charter
High

77

1.00

.36328

.63672
14 Community Charter
Early College High

75

1.00

.36860

.63140
15 Frederick Douglass
Academy High

72

1.00

.37658

.62342
16 View Park
Preparatory
Accelerated High

62

1.00

.40316

.59684
17 New Millennium
Secondary

67

.98

.38987

.59161

Summary
The findings suggest that there have been gains in University of California and California
State University college readiness rates from 1994-2012. While the data reflects gains across the
board, in most areas the gains have been slight and indicate a need to improve college readiness
in the future for all graduating seniors in the state of California. The data also reflects that
socioeconomic status plays a large role in college readiness. Students in high SES areas are
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 64
more likely to meet the eligibility requirements to attend a University of California or California
State University school.
The data reflects that students of lower SES are improving college readiness but not at
the same rates as schools of higher SES. The findings indicate that the gap between high and
low SES schools has increased from 1994-2012. Along these same lines, the gap between White
and African American students also has increased. In addition, the data suggest that college
readiness was very high in 17 large urban high schools in the Green Valley Union High School
District despite the challenge of low SES.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 65
Chapter 5
Summary and Discussion
Research shows that “more than half a million students enrolled 9th graders in California
. . . in the fall of 2003 . . . In June 2007, fewer than 360,000 students graduated (Rogers et al.,
2009, pp. 2-3). And of the reported 360,000 graduates only a fraction of them will have
completed the required A-G coursework necessary for them to go on to a four year university.
“In fall 2007, roughly 70,000 California public high school graduates enrolled as first-year
students at a California State University or University of California Campus. This figure
represents about 14% of the original size of the Class of 2007” (Rogers et al., 2009, p. 3). For
the purposes of this study, I explored college readiness rates in the state to investigate whether or
not students are more college ready now than they were 18 years ago.
The purpose of this study was to explore trends in college readiness and to see if SES is a
contributing factor to meeting the eligibility requirements for admission into a California State
University or a University of California school. In this study the following research questions
were addressed:
1. What are the 1994-2012 trends in college readiness rates in California high schools?
2. Has the college readiness gap between low and high SES schools and the African
American and Caucasian student subgroups increased or decreased?
3. Controlling for SES, to what extent do high schools in the Green Valley Union High
School District differ in terms of college readiness?
Discussion
The results of this study show that while students are making advancements with regard
to college readiness there is still a need for improvement. My findings suggest that high schools
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 66
in California need to do a better job of preparing students for post-secondary education.
Research has shown that historically minority students lack the information and access to
resources that may help them navigate the waters of post-secondary education. The data also
suggests that minority students or students from low-income families are still more likely to need
additional assistance and counseling about college requirements because in many instances they
may be the first family member to go on to college. More emphasis needs to be placed on
helping students select courses that will meet the eligibility requirements for admission to four
year universities. Course requirements that meet the A-G track criteria include content specific
courses in history/social sciences, English, mathematics, laboratory science, language other than
English, visual and performing arts and college preparatory electives. The A-G requirements are
specific to students not only meeting the high school graduation requirements but ensure that
students are eligible to attend a four year college as well.
In order to do this, educators must do a better job of counseling students about college
readiness and admissions requirements so that students are better able to meet the rigorous
college entrance demands. In addition, schools must provide additional support to help students
meet the demands of advanced curriculum. Doing this will increase opportunity to take more of
the A-G required classes that are needed to meet the college entrance requirements.
Educators need to begin having conversations with students and families much earlier
than previously thought. Many schools do not start to open up dialogue about college and
college readiness until students enter their first year of high school. The research suggests that it
is very important that school guidance counselors and administrators provide families with the
tools and information necessary for students to be successful in high school and beyond. This
responsibility lies with all stakeholders. Parents need to take a more active role in asking
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 67
questions about college readiness and students need to research college admissions requirements
to ensure that they take the course work necessary. We need to start actively engaging in
conversations about college as early as elementary school. Schools need to create a college
going culture where it is the expectation that all students will leave high school with the classes
necessary to attend a university should they choose to.
Knowing that many students especially students in low SES areas need additional
guidance, I believe that it is imperative that schools outreach to students earlier than 9th grade.
Studies show that we need to begin counseling students about credits, course selection, and
college entrance requirements as early as 7th grade. Doing this will give students and families
more information about college readiness so that they are better prepared to meet the California
State University or University of California admissions requirements. It is never too early to
start talking about the future.
The data in this study are consistent with the research that show that many of the
California high school students are not ready or have not taken the course work required to be
eligible to attend a four year university upon completing high school. “In 2008, 33.9% of
California’s public high school graduates had completed the courses required for University of
California (UC) and/or California State University (CSU) entrance” (Lucile Packard Foundation,
2008, p. 1). This number decreases significantly when you disaggregate the data and look at the
demographics of students to see which students are eligible to attend California State
Universities or University of California campuses. The Lucile Packard Foundation asserted that
“Asian American high school graduates were most likely to be ready for college (59.2% in
2008), followed by Filipino graduates (44.8%). Latino/Hispanic and African American
graduates were least likely to be college ready (22.5% and 23.3%, respectively)” (Lucile Packard
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 68
Foundation, 2008, p. 1). In this study I focused primarily on the college readiness gap of African
American and Caucasian students. My findings show that African American students were still
less likely to be college ready at the completion of high school.
Research question two addressed the assertion that Caucasian students in California are
more college ready than African American students. The findings show that there is a gap in
college readiness between these two groups of students. The gap exists for a variety of reasons.
One of which suggests that schools in higher SES areas offer more A-G required courses.
Therefore, Caucasian students may have an advantage over African American students simply
because there schools offer more courses that meet the college admission requirements.
“Schools comprised almost entirely of African American and Latino students provide enough
advanced math courses to accommodate only one of every three 10th, 11th, & 12th graders”
(Oakes et al., 2006, p. 22). In contrast, more affluent schools offer these courses in abundance,
which increases students chances of completing a full four years of mathematics as outlined in
the UC requirements for admissions.
The data shows that while both groups were making small strides Caucasian students
were more college ready than their African American counterparts. “For every 100 of
California’s Latino, African American, and American Indian 9th graders in 2000, only 15
graduated in 2004 having passed the courses required for CSU and UC [admissions] (Oakes et
al., 2006, p. III). In order to assist students in bridging the college readiness gap, educators need
to provide students in low SES schools with additional course offerings as well as support for
students to meet the needs of all students.
These numbers reflect the need to discuss the importance of post-secondary education to
ensure more opportunities and the need to better prepare high school students for college
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 69
admission and college readiness to ensure success once they get there. Being college ready here
does not mean that all students will go on to attend college after graduation, it simply means that
students will have a greater number of opportunities available to them should they decide to
pursue post-secondary education. It is my belief that all students that graduate from California
high schools should have taken the required course work to meet the admissions requirements for
a four year university.
Research question three explored SES and how this variant effected college readiness.
The data showed that SES is a contributing factor to college readiness. Table 2 shows the
distribution of the 600 schools that were samples in relation to their poverty ranking. Schools
with a ranking of 1 or 2 had less than 49.34% (233 schools) of students receiving free and
reduced lunch whereas schools with a ranking of 4 or 5 had greater than 49.34% (245 schools) of
students receiving free and reduced lunch. These findings suggest that students in schools with
higher SES are outperforming students at lower SES schools in regards to college readiness. I
think that this shows that greater attention needs to be placed on schools in less affluent areas.
This data shows that students need a clearer pathway to college and that schools need to do more
to better prepare students in these areas. Table 5 lists the characteristics of the 17 schools in
GVUHSD that have high poverty with large numbers of graduates leaving high school college
ready. The one characteristic about these schools that stood out to me was that all of these
schools were charter high schools.
The newly-adopted Common Core Standards initiative . . . provide an opportunity for the
higher education and K-12 systems to collaboratively design a more thoughtful and
streamlined curriculum and assessment system that connects high school to
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 70
postsecondary learning and employment opportunities. (CDE, Higher Education and
Secondary Alignment, 2011, p. 2).
I think that this shows that more research is needed in this area to be able to take these findings
and put them into practical application in similar schools.
Implications for Practice
As previously mentioned, I think that schools need to devote more attention to ensuring
that all students graduate from California high schools with the tools necessary to be deemed
college ready. While the data reflects that more students are college ready today than they were
in 1994, schools did not make significant gains in increasing the number of graduating seniors
meeting the eligibility requirements for California State or University of California campuses.
For future practice, educators need to be more aware of the California University admissions
requirements and they need to do a better job of educating students and parents about the
coursework necessary to gain entrance into a four year university.
I believe that one of the reasons that students are not more prepared to meet the rigors of
college is due to the demands placed on schools by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
(NCLB, U.S. Department of Education, 2001). The promise of the NCLB legislation was to help
improve schools throughout the United States by developing a common set of standards and
equal assessment systems across that states to provide equal access to education for all students.
As an educator, I fully agree with the notion of ensuring that students regardless of SES would
receive a great education. In practice, this is a very lofty goal that has been difficult for schools
to meet. According to the NCLB Act of 2001, all students were to become proficient by the year
2014. I think that due to the rigorous student assessment mandates more schools have shifted
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 71
their focus away from college readiness to divert their resources to helping students pass the test
and boost their API.
When I began this project, I was hoping that the data indicated that schools in California
were doing a better job of preparing students for college but the results of my inquiry only served
to reinforce the need to better prepare students for post-secondary education. While some
advancements have been made, they have been very slight and that simply is not good enough
for our students. Having had the opportunity to be an administrator in a large high school in
California, I saw firsthand that as a school site we were not doing enough to prepare students for
college. Advanced placement course offerings were sparse and we were not offering students a
complete range of A-G required classes. In general, students only met with their counselor once
or twice per year to look at course offerings and to help them select courses for the next school
year.
Schools need to offer a full range of A-G courses to ensure that every student has access
to college preparatory courses. These courses should be widely available and all students should
have to take and pass these courses to graduate high school. I also think that advanced
placement courses should not be reserved just for students that are perceived to be on the college
going track. All students should attempt these courses to better prepare to meet the high school
graduation requirements but also so that they are exposed to the rigors and demands of college. I
believe that this is especially true in schools with large populations of minority students. I think
that more often than not these populations are overlooked and written off before they are given a
chance to prove that they can be successful. My research has shown that minority students are
less likely to attend a high school where a full sequence of A-G required classes are being
offered and this simply is not right. Educators in California need to focus more of their attention
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 72
on what we can do to ensure that these students are given access to the courses that they need to
be successful. One way to do this is to make sure that all students have access to the courses
necessary to meet the college admissions requirements regardless of socioeconomic status.
With the new common core standards, it is my hope that school districts will be able to
refocus their attention on college readiness and not singularly focus on testing scores. In order to
do this, I believe that greater emphasis needs to be placed on guidance counseling. When talking
to parents, the comment that they make most often is that no one told them what the college
entrance requirements were and therefore they were not able to better assist their children. My
research shows that as educators we need to begin the conversation about college readiness
earlier. These conversations need to happen in elementary school. Schools need to start actively
talking to parents about postsecondary options in my opinion as early as Kindergarten. The
focus needs to be on giving parents and students as much information as possible to ensure that
they have the tools necessary to be successful. In order to do this, I think that all California
schools in grades Kindergarten-12th grade should have an additional staff member available to
talk to students, parents, arrange workshops, and provide the necessary information on college
and career options.
Additionally, California needs to rethink the two-tiered graduation structure and revamp
the system so that all students that leave a California high school will graduate with the
requirements necessary to attend a four year university should they choose to. This means that
high schools in California must provide access to rigorous coursework for all students and make
the A-G requirements the norm for all students. I feel that doing this will raise the standards and
greatly improve California’s college readiness. I also, feel that this will take the guess work out
of course selections for students and parents. Upon completion of high school, each student
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 73
should have the confidence to step out into the future knowing that the school system where they
spent the majority of their adolescent lives has done the very best they could to prepare them for
the future.
Future Research
The results of this study suggest that the following topics be explored in greater detail to
improve college readiness:
 College readiness rates of students in all racial demographics
 Revision of California graduation requirements versus University entrance requirements
 The effects that SES has on college readiness
Research tells us that while there have been slight improvements in the college readiness
of all California students between the years 1994-2012 the gap between Caucasian students and
African American students is steadily increasing. I think that it will be interesting for researchers
to look at all racial groups in California to see if the gap between other ethnicities and Caucasian
students is increasing as well. This information will provide further insight into why one racial
group is making advancements in college readiness while others are improving at a much slower
rate.
I also believe that more research needs to be conducted on California high school
graduation requirements. Research shows that in California students can graduate from high
school without being able to meet the admissions requirements for college. This poses the
question of, “Why are we not preparing every student for postsecondary education?” I think that
research shows that the students that are most affected by this are minority students because they
are most likely to attend schools that do not offer a full sequence of A-G required classes. In
order to make every student college ready, I believe that it is important for future researchers to
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 74
really look at the current high school graduation requirements and California State University
and/or the California University requirements and try to finds ways to make the requirements
more aligned.
Finally, I believe that further research needs to be conducted on the effects of
socioeconomic status and college readiness. My research shows that while schools at the higher
end of poverty need more support than other schools, students can still be successful and
graduate college ready. Of the 600 schools that I looked at for this investigation, there were 17
schools out performing schools with the lowest poverty. All of these schools were charter
schools with higher than average poverty that were graduating between 70% and 99% of its
students ready to meet the eligibility requirements of a four year college. I think that it is
important to conduct future studies on these schools to see what elements or ideas are currently
being used that can help to support schools that have not been as successful with regard to
college readiness.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I think that the results of this study are encouraging. Overall, the data
shows that progress has been made in college readiness among California students. Educators
definitely need to do a better job of disseminating information to students and parents so that
they understand the criteria for being eligible to attend a University of California or California
State University school. I think that more research needs to be conducted to ensure that
graduates leave high school with the skills necessary to compete at the highest level. In order to
do that, students need to be college ready to meet the challenges that they will face after
graduating from high school.

COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 75
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COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 80
Appendix A

Green Valley Union High School District Graduation Requirements

Subject Area
Green Valley
Union High School
Requirements

UC
Requirements

CSU Requirements
English

4 Years
English 9
English 10
English 11
English 12
4 Years
English 9
English 10
English 11
English 12

4 Years
English 9
English 10
English 11
English 12
Mathematics

2 Years
Algebra I
Geometry
(or higher)
3 Years
Algebra I
Geometry
Algebra II
(or higher)
4 years recommended

3 Years
Algebra I
Geometry
Algebra II
(or higher)

Social Science

3 Years
US History
World History
US Government
Economics
2 Years
World History
US History
2 Years
US History
Science

2 Years
Biological Science
Physical Science
2 Years (with lab)
Biology or
Chemistry or
Physics
3 years recommended

2 Years (with lab)
Biological Science
Physical Science
World Language

2 Years
1 year-long course
from two of three
areas.
2 Years (same language)
3 years recommended

2 Years (same
language)

Visual and
Performing Arts
1 Year (same art)
Dance or
Drama/Theater or
Music or
Visual Art

1 Year (same art)
Dance or
Drama/Theater or
Music or
Visual Art
Practical Arts
COLLEGE READINESS IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS 81

Subject Area
Green Valley
Union High School
Requirements
UC
Requirements
CSU Requirements
Electives
(Number will vary
based on student
schedule)
1 Year (college prep)
Additional Mathematics,
Science, English, Art,
Social Studies, or World
Language

1 Year (college prep)
Additional
Mathematics, Science,
English, Art, Social
Studies, or World
Language
Physical
Education
2 Years (unless
waived)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation explores California’s current A-G requirements and investigates whether or not students are more college ready now than they were in previous years. This study also investigates whether or not students have adequate opportunities to access the rigorous coursework in an urban high school largely populated by minority students. The purpose of this study was to explore if students are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions that may lead to fulfillment of the requirements and for eligibility into either the California State University or University of California college system. This study focused on student college readiness from 1994-2012 to see if California was graduating students from high school that were college ready through exploring course taking patterns, reviewing student characteristic data, and looking at college readiness as defined by the number of students eligible to attend a California State University or University of California school. Findings from this study indicate that while there have been improvements in the overall college readiness of students the gains are slight. The findings also show that African American students are falling behind Caucasian students with regard to college readiness.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Smoot, Shanda L. (author)

Core Title College readiness in California high schools: access, opportunities, guidance, and barriers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/29/2013

Defense Date 06/24/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,Barriers,California,college readiness,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest,opportunities

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hentschke, Guilbert C. (committee chair), Dexter, Kamala (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member)

Creator Email slsmoot@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-303547

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Identifier etd-SmootShand-1867.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-303547 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SmootShand-1867-0.pdf

Dmrecord 303547

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Smoot, Shanda L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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